A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF TWO TYPES OF GROUP COUNSELING ON THE COUNSELING PERFORMANCE OF COUNSELOR CANDIDATES Thesis {or II“ Degas of DH. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Robert Leo Bet: 1963 IIII III IIII III III III IIIII I III III II IIII 3 1293 10182 2884 ‘ This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF TWO TYPES OF GROUP COUNSELING ON THE COUNSELING PERFORMANCE OF COUNSELOR CANDIDATES presented by Robert Leo Betz has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PhoD. degree in Education Major professor 0-169 ""L LIBRARY ' Michigan State University ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF TWO TYPES OF GROUP COUNSELING ON THE COUNSELING PERFORMANCE OF COUNSELOR CANDIDATES By Robert Leo Betz The study was designed to yield evidence which would help evaluate the use of group counseling procedures in the education of school counsel- ors. Proceeding from.the rationale that increased self-awareness causes a counselor to function differently in the counseling relation- ship, two group counseling approaches (methods of increasing self- awareness) were programmed as an adjunct experience of the counseling practicum for 30 National Defense Education Act Institute members at Michigan State University. One approach, designated affective group counseling, focused primarily on the expression of feeling by treatment group members (N=15), and encouraged examination of inter-personal group relation- ships. The second approach, designated cognitive groupicounseligg, focused primarily on content rather than feelings expressed or implied by treatment group members (N=15), and encouraged the examination of experiences on an intellectual level. Fourteen hours of group counseling in groups of five were pro- grammed for each treatment group. The two basic questions under con? sideratibn were (1) which type of group counseling has the greatest effect on the counseling behavior of counselor candidates, and (2) can a relatively short period of group counseling (either affective or cognitive) modify the counseling behavior of counselor candidates? For the purposes of the study counselor performance was defined using three dimensions of the counseling relationship: (1) response of counselor to affect and cognition, (2) degree of counselor lead, and (3) variability of counselor techniques. Performance was rated by two Judges of different philosophical orientations using sampled typescripts of first-contact interviews with high school students. One set of typescripts (Tl) came from tapes recorded prior to group counseling and the second set (T2) came from tapes recorded after group counseling. A pre-treatment comparison (”'t"-test) of experimental groups was made on scholastic‘aptitude, knowledge of counseling and guidance, age, and years teaching experience. No significant differences be- tween groups were found. The ratings of the pre—treatment typescripts were also compared (Mann-Whitney U Test) and no significant perform- ance differences were found. It was concluded that neither experi- mental group had pre-treatment advantages which would tend to contam- inate the experimental design. An analysis of judges' ratings over time and treatment indi- cated that the group which received affective group counseling significantly modified counseling behavior. After group counseling they significantly increased affective responses as compared to predominantly non-affective pre-treatment responses. The group receiving cognitive group counseling did not demonstrate this sig- nificant difference. Judges' ratings did not support hypothesized change in either the effectively-counseled or the cognitively-counseled groups in: (1) degree of counselor lead or (2) variability of counselor techniques. Analysis of Judges' ratings between experimental groups after treatment indicated tkat the affectively-counseled group was signifi- cantly different frcm the cognitively-counseled group in its response to affect. Other hypothesized differences in degree of lead and variability of techniques were not supported. Group counselors' ability to establish and maintain desired treatments was verified by three independent judges rating protocols of group counseling sessions. In conclusion, if teaching counselor candidates to respond to affect is a desired outcome of counselor education programs, the use of affective group counseling is a significant educational method which can aid in achieving this goal. A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF TWO TYPES OF GROUP COUNSELING ON THE COUNSELING PERFORMANCE OF COUNSELOR CANDIDATES By Robert Leo Betz A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1963 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to the following individuals who gave generously of their time and experience during the many stages of the study. To Dr. Nerman Kagan, co-chairman, whose constant inspiration provided the continuous support needed in an undertaking so methodo- logically complex. Dr. Kagan also served as a group counselor for the experiment. To Dr. William Earquhar, co-chairman, for his aid in experimental design, his critical reading of the manuscript, and his friendship throughout my doctorate program. To Dre. Bill Kell and Charles Blackman for their interest in the project, and for their willingness to serve as members of my guidance committee. ' To Darrell Hart whose time and talents as group counselor were freely given during the project. To Dr. Buford Stefflre for stimulation discussions and ideas offered during many crucial phases of the total project. To Dre. Donald Davis and Richard Bonier who served as judges of the individual protocols, and Drs. Paul King, Harry Grater and Lee Erlanson who judged the group counseling protocols. To the 30 members of the fullfiyear N.D.E.A. Guidance Institute (1962-1963) at Michigan State University who served as subjects for the research. ii DEDICATION To my wife, Diane. "....When Autumn leaves Start to fall.a iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter P389 Abstract Acknowledgments ii Dedication iii Table of Contents iv List of Tables vi List of Appendices vii I. The Problem........................................l Statement of the Problem...........................2 NOOd for the StudYeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoeeeeeeeeeeB Delineation Of th. Stuckeeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeh Theoretical Framework..............................5 Definition Of Temaeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee WpOthOBOB and Assumptionseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee.8 Organization or the Study.........................10 II. Review of the Literature..........................ll Group Counseling, Guidance and Instruction “in the Education of Counselors.................ll Role Playing as a Group Technique in the Education of Counselors.................1A Other Approaches using Groups in Teaching comselingOOOOOO0.000.000.00000000015 WWOOOOOOOOOOOOO00.0.00...O...0.0.0.000000000017 III. Design and Methodology of the Study...............l9 Experimental Design...............................19 Selection and Description of Subjects..........20 Assignments of Subjects to Treatment...........21 butlent................0.O.O.................22 Th0 MCthOd or Content Analyaeaeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee00.026 Stage 1: mu Gathering.......................27 Stage 2: Tape Recording Processing............27 $880 3: Judging RODOCOISeeeeeeeeeeeeeee0.00028 AnalyBia Of tha mmeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeBo Testing Significance Between and Within Experimental Groups"...............o30 TCBting Judge Ralnbiutyeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeec.0031 Summary...........................................32 iv IV. Analysis of Experimental Results..................33 Differences Between Groups Prior to Group Counseling...............................33 Differences Within Groups, Before and After Group Counseling..............3A The Affective Group............................36 The Cognitive Group............................36 Differences Between Groups After Group Counseling.........................37 SlimwOOOOOO0.00IOOOOOOOOOOOOOOI.00.000000000000039 V. Summary, Conclusions and Implications for Further Research..............h0 summary...........................................hO Conclusions.......................................h2 Implications for Counselor Education Programs..........................42 Discussion of Results, J‘ldge RelmbilityOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0000000IOOOOOOhé Implications for Future Research..................h3 Bibliography 50 Appendices 5h Table 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.h A.1 h.2 h.3 h.h LIST OF TABLES Schematic Representation of EXperimental Design Comparison of Mean Differences Between Groups on Selected variables Prior to Treatment Success in Establishing Treatment Effects for the Ekperimental Variables Inter-Judge Reliability (Rhos) and "t's" for Selected Dimensions of Counselor Pbrformance Kenn-Whitney U's Between Groups A and C on Selected Dimensions of Counselor Performance Prior to Treatment Mann-Whitney U's for Group A.on Selected Dimensions of Counselor Perfcrmance Before and After Treatment Mann-Whitney U's for Group C on Selected Dimensions of Counselor Performance Before and After Treatment Mann-Whitney U's Between Groups A and C on Selected Dimensions of Counselor Performance After Group Counseling vi Page 19 21 26 32 3h 35 36 38 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A. B. C. Instructions to Judges for Judging Group Counselors' Responses Judges' Scoring Sheet for Judging Group Counselors' Responses Sample Typescript for Judging Group Counseling Sessions Smnple Typescript for Judging Counseling Performance Instructions to Judges: Judging Individual Counseling Performance Opinions Regarding the Counseling Relationship (Dr. Richard Bonier) A Definition of Counseling (Dr. Donald Davis) Page 53 5h 55 59 6A 65 67 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM The emergence of school counseling as a specialty role in the public schools since world War II, the large numbers of school counselors on the educational scene today, and the pressures fbr’increased numbers of trained school counselors has caused those responsible for counselor education to more critically examine existing educational practices. As an outgrowth of this critical examination, a body of literature now ex- ists concerning the role of the counselor in the schools, the selection of the counselor candidate, and the length, type and quality of the professional program. Recently, a specific phase of the professional program, the supervised practicum, has received increased attention from counselor educators and professional publications. Although the literature indicates consistent and unanimous agree- ment among counselor educators as to the importance of supervised practice, the nature of the total learning experience has not been delineated. Roeber (1962) notes that he can find no statement which deprecates the importance and need for supervised practicum, yet he indicates, too, that neither can he determine agreement as to its basic method, content and structure. Eran though is need for supervised experience as part of the training experience was first advanced by Freud (Jones, 1959), only recently have counselor education programs offered, staffed and built facilities to adequately service supervised practica. I 2 Beause of the recency of supervised practica in any abundanCe, and the lack of agreement of scope and purpose, tl’m literature concern- ing the practicum experience of school counselors is largely descriptive. At the present time there is little experimental evidence concerning this important phase of the counselor education program. Another aspect of counselor education programs which has gained wide acceptance among marv ccunselor educators is the desirability, of personal counseling or psychotherapy for counselor candidates. The assumption supporting this practice stems from the belief that counselors who have personally experienced counseling will have a better understand- ing and acceptance of themselves and others, and will, in turn, have a deeper understanding of the counseling process. Increased knowledge of self, i.e. prejudices, defenses and feelings, can result in increased ability to relate in counseling sessions and can effectively reduce ”blind spots" of subconscious behavior detrimental to effective counsel- ing relationships. It is desirable at the present time to discover and evaluate methods which can increase counselor self understanding, and to deter- mine ways to implement these activities within the context of counselor education yrograms. One of these methods is small group counseling. It is logical, too, trat the need for self understanding and appraisal is most critical during the candidates' supervised practicum experience. The Statenert of the Prablem The purpose of the stch is to determine the effects of two differ- ent group counseling experiences on subsequent counseling behavior of counselor candidates in practicum contact with counselees. Specifically, two major (pestions will constitute the focus of the study: (1) is the counseling behavior of counselor candidates changed.as a result of group counseling experience, and (2) is an affective (emotional emphasis) group experience more effective than a cognitive (intellectual emphasis) group experience in changing counseling behavior?! I Need for the Study Although counselor educators have agreed that counselor self- awareness can be increased through the training experience, little systematic effort has been made to program for this function. Arbuckle (1961) indicates his appreciation of the need for self-awareness as part of counselor education on the basis of its philosophic soundness; however, he does not see individual counseling as a feasible part of counselor education programs in the future. His concern is primarily with the time and expense involved in individual counseling. Tyler (1961) supports the principle of self-awareness as an inte- gral part of the total counselor education program, but very strongly favors allowing counselors to volunteer for counseling rather than it being required as part of the program. While it may not be economically or physically feasible to provide individual counseling or psychotherapy for prOSpective counselors, and while there are ethical considerations involved in a mandatory requirement,tbe present study is not'bound by the economical consideration and does not accept Tyler's concern about a mandatory requirement. On the other hand, other literature has suggested possibilities for providing a counseling experience for counselor candidates which would at least meet the requirements of time and cost. Among these possibilities is some form.of group experience which would provide the opportunity to explore personal relationships, feelings, attitudes and needs. It is proposed that this exprience be defined as group I. counseling, be included in the counselor training program in a systematic fashion, art! be offered to all counselor candidates. Fundamental to the definition of group counseling is a permissive atmosphere and the right or prerogative of counselees to determine content and direction of their discussion. Germans, too, is the problem of structure of the group and the role definitition of the group leader. There has been some suggestion tl'at either cognitive or con; ent oriented group counseling is just as effective as affective group counseling in altering behavior. Telschow's (1950) stuchr indicates that restatenmt of content seems to be more effective as a technique tlmn acceptance ani clarification of feeling or affect. The implication of this evidence for counselor education cannot be" underestimated. Specifically, must snall group experience concentrate on the more affective elaents of the group transactions or shwld more cog: itive elments be the focus of attention? The affective approach suggests a degree of sophistica- tion in group counseling which many counselor educators may not have. The cognitive approach does not demand sensitivity by the leader to stbtle expressions of affect, ard, therefore, could be more readily implemented into themajority of training programs. It is thus appaer that there is a need to evaluate counselor edication methods used to increase self-awareness and to attanpt to determine the most effective approaches. Delineation of the Study Generalizations drawn from the results of the study must be restricted on the basis of the nature of the sample which constitutes the experimental group. Particularly is the above true when the sample is potentially as atypical as the one used in the study. It is limited, too, by the nature and duration of the group counseling experience, the setting in which the study was conducted, the involvsnent of the subjects in the group experience and the training and experience of the group leaders. In subsequent sections the above facets are more fully explained. Of course, their implications for limiting the gener- alizations are discussed in the closing chapter. Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework of the study is based on a synthesis of concepts fran both self psychology and functionalism in learning theory. Three basic assumptions generating from the above point of reference undergird the procedures followed in the experimental method: 1. Lear—gigg the nature of the counseling r2 lationship is not something one does vicariously or didactically. As Dewey has indicated, "....(1earning)....It is an active person- ally conducted affair.“ (1916, p.390). To experience the nature of a relationship, to be involved as a person and to be emersed in the process of understanding is‘the major objective of Dewey's theory. The theory becomes functional, then, when learning about the counseling process by being actively involved in it takes. place. As Srwgg and Combs state, “....differentiation of the field (learning) is something which can only be done by the individual himself. It cannot be done for him“ (191.9, p.83). Being involved as a counselee and experiencing the same feelings and undergoing the same transformations as counselees do may cause differentiation of the perceptual field. 2. Learning the nature of the counseling_relationship demands reorganization of self perceptions. The beginning practimmn student is often quite threatened by the role he is being asked to assume. His self concept has largely been formed to fulfill some other role-in the case of the present sample, that of teacher. To modify this self perception, ‘or to provide opportunities by which it can be modified, becomes an objective of the total practicum.experience. An experience in which the self can become the focus of discussion is the group counseling session. The conditions under which change in self perception is more likely to occur are stated by Rogers and form the basis fer the operational plan of the group counseling experience. “we cannot teach another person directly; we can only facilitate his learning. A person learns significantly only those things which he perceives as being involved in the.maintenance of, or enhancement of the structure of self. Experience which, if assimilated, would involve a change in the organization of self tends to be resisted through denial or distortion of symbolization. The structure and organization of self appears to becone more rigid under threat; to relax its boundries when completely free from threat. The educational situation which most effectively promotes significant learning is one which (1) threat to the self of the learner is reduced to a minimum, and (2) differentiated perception of the field of ex- perience is facilitated" (1951, pp. 3892391). Rogers' theoretical constructs are accepted as the basic educational philosophic orientation for the group counsel- ing experience. These constructs have found acceptance among other learning theorists (Cantor, 1946; Kelley, 19A7). Therefore, when the learning experience is not didactic, cannot be memorized by rote, and is not directed by another, 3. as in group counseling, a Rogerian philosophy of learn- ing becomes the rationale for explanation of behavior change. @ehavior is usually consistent with perceived view of_§gl£, and change in the self concept can occur. If’the group counseling environment is free from threat to the individual, it becomes possible for counselees to experiment with new modes of behavior and to experiment in altering self percept- ions. Acceptance of the individual by the group is of primary importance for this condition to exist. A new self structure can emerge from the interaction of members with the group counselor and with other members. Typically, the initial discussion by group:menbers centers about their feelings and anxieties concerning the counseling relationship when the group experience parallels students' first contacts with "live" counselees. It is postulated that as indivi- duals feel more and more accepted in the group, and as feelings of "weaness" develop, defensive behavior will no longer be necessary. As fears, attitudes and thoughts about the counseling relationship are symbolized in the group, a new counselor self structure can be experimented with and tested. As a result, a new counselor self concept becomes incorporated as part of the total behavior configur- ation. It may well be, of course, that in the process of examining counselor self concept, the student's over-all self concept may be altered. Definition of Terms In order to focus more clearly the boundrie s of the study, the following definitions were med. 1. 3. 14. The were 3 Group counselg' g :1 Two or more participants (designated counselees) plus a trained group leader (designated counselor) involved in a pocess which can modify or change behavior and attitudes. Content analysis: A method of stuwing the structure of communication in an objective, systunatic and quantitative way (Berelson, 1952). Pr cticm or cticum ence: Refers to supervised contact between a counselor candidate and a high school student (counselee) in a room containing a one-way vision window. Qounselor Erformanc :2 That part of the communication be- tween counselor and counsel» which can be reduced to quanti- fiable terms . Ibmotheses and Assmpti ons hypotheses3 tested for three dimensions of counselor performance There is a difference in rated response to affect/cognition for the affective group between the pro-treatment measurement and the post- treatment measurement. 1,2 section of 'A more detailed description is included in the procedure chapter three. 3'Reformulation of the twpotheses to testable null form is done in chapter four. H There is a difference in rated response to affect/cognition for the cognitive group between the pre-treatment measurement and the post-treatment measurement. 33 There is a difference in rated degree of lead for the affective group between the pro-treatment measurement and the post-treat- ment measurement. H There is a difference in rated degree of lead for the coggitive group between the pro-treatment measurement and the post-treat- ment measurement. H5 There is a difference in rated variability of techniques for the affective group between the pro-treatment measurement and the post-treatment measurement. H6 There is a difference in rated variability of techniques for the cognitive group between the pro-treatment measure- ment and the post-treatment measurement. Hypotheses related to differences between groups after treatment H1 The affective treatment group responds to affect to a greater extent than the cognitive treatment group after group counsel- .ing. H2 The affective treatment group is less leading than the cog- . nitive treatment group after group counseling. H3 The affective treatment group is more variable in techniques than the cognitive group after group counseling. Basic assumptions The basic assumptions which underlie the research are: 1. Behavior can be measured and behavior changes determined. 3. 1.. 5. 10 Counselor perfonmance can be validly judged from.type— scripts of random samples of behavior taken from the total interview. I FOurteen hours of group counseling can alter counselor be- havior in initial interview sessions. The assumption is that there will be transfer from.group counseling to indi- vidual counseling. The random selection of three five-minute segments fro-(the total interview constitutes a representative sampling of the quality, tone and productivity of the total.interview. Other elements of the total practicum experience, i.e. sex and problem presented by client, quality of supervision hours, motivation for learning the counseling relationship, will tend to distribute their effects randomly throughout the treatment groups. Organization of the study The general format of the study is as follows: In chapter two, a review of the literature is nade which indicates efforts to apply group procedures to counselor education. The third chapter contains the methods used in data collection and organization, and states statistical tech- niques used in analyzation. The results of the analysis are reported in chapter four, and the summary, conclusions and implications for future research are reported in the last chapter. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Although counselor educators have urged the use of group pro- cedures in the training of counselors, little research is reported in the literature. It is difficult, too, to determine whether the specific group procedure employed is counseling, guidance instruction, group guidance or some combination of two or more of the methods. The re- view, therefore, includes those studies using some form of group ex- perience in the training of counselors. Group Counseling, Guidance and Instruction Three studies were found which directly relate to the present study. Heist (1956) compared a therapy and a control group of counselors in training after the therapy group had 12 sessions. various evaluating 1 instruments were used in a pre and post-therapy design including the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the Heston, the Thematic Appreception Test andespecially designed socicmetric instruments. Same changes were recorded in Thematic Appreception Test stories and written autobiographies, and there were some differences between the control and experimental groups. The other standardized tests and sociometric devices did not change, and the experiment was considered only minimally successful. Gazda and Ohlsen (l96l)used two control groups and an experimental group of counselor trainees. Measurements were taken before and after 11 l2 seven weeks of group counseling, and a follow-up study was done for all groups six months later. The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, the Picture Story Test, the Self Rating Instrument and Behavior Rating Scale were used as the evaluating instruments. The scores from these instruments were combined and their results used to define the concept of mental health. There were few significant differences reported; hows ever, from those which were significant the counseled members appeared less well adjusted at the end of counseling. Simeonths later, the counseled group was rated better adjusted than the controls. A major weakness of the study was the lack of explanation why counseled members appeared less well adjusted at the end of counseling than they had at the beginning but appeared better adjusted six months later. It could be concluded that group counseling tended to disturb the mental health of the group and time helped to heal and improve it. Seni-structured interaction groups were used in conjunction with practicum.at the University of Kentucky (Seegars and McDonald, 1963) to train counselors. Proceeding from1ihe rationale that affective experi- ences leading to emotional growth cannot be provided inlan,academic practicum, the authors established an interaction group of nine subjects. The goal of the group was to increase self-knowledge and develop greater perceptual skills in counselor candidates. The Interpersonal Check List and.a prepared incomplete sentences test constituted the criterion in— struments used in a pre and post experimental design. Conclusions reached by the authors were: (1) members could consciously describe the behavior of other members, (2) there was a reduction between the "real" and "ideal" self after group experience, and (3) one out of nine subjects "dramatically" increased his self-awareness.‘ It is difficult to reach many significant conclusions from the 13 research directly related to the present study. There was no testing instrument which was used in all studies to provide a basis for compari- sons of results or the lack of significant differences. Generally speak- ing, no consistent patterns emerged from the reported results. The in- struments used in the studies possibly were not sensitive to the kind of change which did take place in groups, or changes simply did not occur. Instrumentation used in the reported studies did not evaluate the critical variable which group counseling may effect. The basic question which must be put to studies of this nature is: can group counseling affect the behavior of counselors as they interact in counseling interviews? The many tests described in the research may measure some dimension of personality or self-insight; however, they do not evaluate the dimension of counselor performance. I Except for the study by Seegars and McDonald, the process of group interaction was not adequately explained. Lack of explicit and detailed discussions of the role of the group leader makes replication difficult, and does not permit exact classification of treatment. The literature concerning the use of different methods of group counseling or treatment, especially content versus affective oriented treatment, has been recently reviewed intensively by Hart (1963). He concludes that no study exists which evaluates the effectiveness of dif- ferent methods of group counseling where interaction of group members and leaders has been the treatment variable. The majority of the studies which.make comparisons between specific treatment effects have been in the general area of classroom instruction. Hart then compared affective group counseling and cognitive group guidance instruction as treatment variables using a population of underachieving college freshmen. During the treatment period all 1A groups (including controls) improved their grade point averages. Both treatment groups improved more than.the control group; however, the difference between the two treatment groups was not significant. Role Pflaying as a Group Technique The use of role playing as a modification of group techniques in the education of counselors has been urged by many counselor educa- tors. Hoppock (1957), “Tenn (1962), Rogers (1951) and others list role playing as an important technique in teaching interviewing procedures and skills, and in helping to develop attitudes and feelings for the counseling relationship. Barron (1947) used extensive role playing in training counselors for social work interviewing. Although no experimental evidence was reported, clinical Judgment by the author evaluated the technique as effective in sensitizing students to the interviewing situation in.a realistic practice session. A similar report (Kay and Schick, 1945) indicated that role play- ing gave interviewers-instraining a common frame of reference for dis- cussion and.made transition to a real-life situation smooth and easy. It was stated that the students developed a degree of skill and insight that would otherwise have been gained only through considerable trial and error. Again, no experimental evidence was presented to support the theoretical constructs, and the hypothesis that role playing does make a difference in subsequent performance is not submitted to critical analysis. In 1955 Lippitt and Hubbell extensively reviewed the literature of role playing in the training of personnel and guidance workers. Their conclusion was that the technique has gained widespread use and in theory 15 shows much promise; however, little direct experimental evidence is available to substantiate basic claims of its usefulness. Schewebel (1953), in a meaningful synthesis of theoretical dis- cussions, lists five significant benefits which can occur if role play- ing is integrated as a systematic training device throughout the counselor education program. The overall conclusion reached is that role playing in a permissive atmosphere is an effective tool in learning the counseling relationship. The five-point synthesis could be an effective point from which testable hypotheses could be generated. In one of the few studies which reports experimental.results, Musselman (1961) evaluated the use of intensive role playing as an in-service training technique for secondary school counselors. Using a rating scale which evaluated the procedure, he found.that only three per cent of the subjects did not feel they benefited from role playing experience. Although the reactions of the students and the results of the analysis are both vulnerable to "halo effect", self-reported evalu- ation of role playing is positive. In fact, most of the studies reported in this review use some form of formal or informal self-evaluation of role playing. Generally speaking, students enjoy the activity and feel as if they derive considerable benefit from it; however, limitations of the self-reporting method, and the casualness of experimental design in testing the effects of role playing leave many unanswered questions at this time. Other Approaches Using Groups in Teaching Counseling Discussion groups were used to evaluate a counselor training pro- gram at City College of New York (Noble and Mathewson, 1956). The subu jects were graduates of the program of graduate training in guidance l6 and school counseling. No experimental data was gathered and presented in the study; however, tentative conclusions were put forth for future testing. h‘om their experience the authors conclude that small instruct- ional groups can provide educators and graduates with a more open, valuable and stimulating evaluation than a structured scheme. The conclusions are open to serious question without a comparison of the two methods: group interaction and a professionally constructed standardized instrument. EXperimental evidence needs to be advanced to support the generalizations. Thweatt (1963) used "group counseling“ 'among other self-insight gaining techniques to evaluate the effectiveness of a self-selection method for counselor trainees. ' The major problem in relation to the) review for this study is: what kind and how long was the group counseling experience? Inasmuch as it was conducted as part of a university class, the experience probably was guidance instruction rather than group counseling. Workentin (1955) and Hadden (1949) in separate articles dis- cuss the value of teaching psychotherapy by use of group therapy. Hadden reports no experimental evidence but makes conclusions from clinical observations. He indicates that group sessions with ade- quate supervision can be used to teach psychotherapy Just as satisfact- orily as clinical medicine is taught. This insight would redi ce the teaching of a complex and difficult skill to a relatively rote method of instruction. The conclusion cannot be accepted at this time without adequate substantiating research evidence. Another conclusion reached in the article was that the period of training can be shortened and made more effective using gmup therapy as a teaching technique. l7 workentin's article is less theoretical than Hadden's and in- cludes a clinical report of gmlp psychotherapy with (1) grade school teachers and (2) medical school students. The basic objective of the program which extended over two years was to free the personality of the individual so that he/she would be more therapeutic with students or patients. Informal self-reports of participants were positive in response to the programs, and, again, the general reported feeling was that the experience was a valuable one. An evaluation of in-service training was done by Kirk (1957) using a small group (N=10). Whether or not group counseling or guidance procedures were used is not clear from the written report. Her find- ings indicate that didactic learning did not seem to be greatly affected; however, attitudes of understanding and acceptance seem to have been. The use of a small sample and the reliance on measurements based on normal population distributions were serious defects in the study. Stern (1963), too, reports a project of in-service education with second-year counselors in Baltimore, Maryland. Group meetings (guidance instruction) plus individual sessions with supervisors were used in the yearhlong program. The group meetings involved playing of tape recordings, discussion of individual cases and lectures by resource persons. ENen‘though the group meetings were felt to be highly beneficial, a conclusion reached by the author indicated that supervision was the core of the training program. Summary As evidenced by the review of the preceding studies, counseling and guidance literature is almost void of experimental studies of group counseling in counselor education. The situation exists despite l8 considerable theoretical and philosophical support from many leading counselor educators. The few which are experimental have severe limitations; chief among these is the lack of consistency in instru- mentation, and failure to delineate clearly treatment effects. Researchers who have attenpted to evaluate the effects of group counseling have generally used indirect measures of counselor person- ality or behavior. No studies were found which focused directly on counselor performance as a dependent variable. As was previously noted, no study was discovered which compared the effects of two methods of group counseling on performance measurements or on other evaluative criteria. This study is designed, then, to seek answers to the two basic questions raised in chapter one which are not answered by the available published literature. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY After formulation of theoretical constructs and the reduction of these to testable hypotheses, certain methodological considerations were then undertaken. These considerations constitute the application of the constructs within the confines of experimental research, andpare reported in this chapter. EXperimental Design The study is designed to compare the differences within experi- mental groups over time and treatment, and between experimental groups after treatment. Two types of group counseling experience constituted the independent variable, and the subject's performance (T1, T2) in first contact interviews, the dependent variable. Table 3.1 Schematic Representation of Experimental Design GROUPS (N=15) Treatments (14 sessions) ‘1 Group A Tl Affective Group Counseling T2 IT Analysis Between Treatments 2____l 1 Analysis over time and treatment 3 Group B T1 Cognitive Group Counseling T l9 2O Selection and Description of Subjects Thirty counselor candidates enrolled in a full year National Defense Education Act Institute (N.D.E.A.) at Michigan State University (M.S.U.) were selected as subjects. Because selection procedures for Institutes are quite similar at M.S.U., it is assumed that the group was representative of the total population of all previous fullfiyear Institute members. Unlike typical Masters degree candidatesalt Michigan State University, the Institute students received a stipeld, stayed to- gether fiar class instruction and carried a full-course load. Further- more, because the N.D.E.A. outlines certain selection requirements, the group may be representative of the total population of Institute members throughout the nation. Two groups of 15 were formed using stratified random sampling procedures based on the results of the Miller Analogies Test scores. Because the distribution of scores on the Miller was bi-modal, random selection procedures were applied to a ranked order of the scares. The two groups were then compared on other variables which could have effects on the outcomes of the training experience. These variables were: (1) teaching experience in years, (2) prior knowledge of the area of counsel- ing and guidance based on test scores on the N.D.E.A. Comprehensive Examination, and (3) age of the subjects in years. These vartbles were considered.important in determining if one group had "natural" advantages over the other which would introduce pre—treatment bias into the experiment. To determine if the mean differences between the two groups on the four criterion were significant, ”t" tests were calculated and tested at the .05 level of confidence by means of the method outlined in Edwards (1961). 21 Table 3.2 Comparison of Mean Differences Between Groups on Selected Variables Prior to Treatment Variable Mean Mean "t" Alpha-. 05 . Group A Group C (IP15) (IF-715) Miller Analogies Test 1.3.2 L6.7 .l.96 Accept N.D.E.A Comprehensive 162.9 160.1 .263 Accept Examination Age in years 31+.6 3A.6 .OOO Accept Years Teaching 6.6 7.7 .173 Accept Experience As evidenced in Table 3.2, no significant differences were found between groups on the four variables tested. It was concluded, there- fcre, that neither group had a Ire-experimental advantage in aptitude, achievement, age or years teaching experience. meat of Subjects to Treatment Further division of the experimental groups of 15 into counsel- ing groups was accomplished by random assignment. Three groups of five subjects, were designated "affective treatment" (experimental group A) and the) remaining three groups flcognitive treatment" (experimental gran}: 0). Three experienced group counselors were each assigned an affective treatment group and a cognitive group. The assignmelt to specific groups was made by drawing labeled slips from a box. The decision to assign both types of treatment to the participating ccunselors was made to reduce effects of the ability level of the counselor or his preference for a specific type of coumeling. It is recognized, however, that this 22 method may not entirely reduce the effect since group make-up will de- termine partially the action of the leader, and very few people are equally versed in handling both treatments (Lifton, 1961). Treatment Essential to a study which uses two experimental operational definitions of group counseling, is a verification that the methods were actually enacted. It is especially critical in a study which uses the same counselor to establish both treatment effects. There is considerable difficulty in keeping treatments "pure" and in.maintain- ing consistency during the entire eXperiment. The group leaders who participated in the study participated in two planning sessions to clarify role expectations of "affective" and "cognitive" group counseling. Kagan's seven point discussion of the modal expectations of the group leader was established as the oper- ational plan for the functioning of the group leaders. It outlines the leader role as follows: "2. Leader Role - a. Typically concerns himself more with feel- ings and elicitation of repressed or uncon- scious material than with cognitive discuss~ ion. b. Maintains very broad limits; structures only minimally. c. Does not establish himself as an authority figure; tries to reduce this role expectation. d. Avoids personal value judgments of member be- havior. e. Assumes any of a wide range of roles and use of techniques to facilitate establishment and enhancement of the counseling process. f. Assumes responsibility for prevention of physical or psychological destruction of group members. g. Accepts and deals with group criticism of him- self and the group process. h. Establishes an empathic climate for the counsel- ing group" (Kagan, 1962). 23 In defining modal leader characteristics, item a., "....(the group counselor) concerns himself more with feelings and elicitation of repressed and unconscious mterial than with cognitive discussion," became the single critical manipulated variable in the experimalt. The affect group (A) leader attempted to enhance expression of feeling by responding to and encouraging such statements in group interaction. He encouraged the expression of affect by accepting, reflecting and interpreting feeling in the group counseling session. The cognitive group leader (C) focused on content rather than feelings expressed or implied by the group members. Affect was not ignored or discouraged; it was accepted, if stated, but not Irobed, reflected or interpreted by the group leader. Concentration was placed on the reflection of content, its interpretation and its implication for the counseling process. Inaddition, the group leaders met periodically during the seven weeks in which group counseling took place, dis cussed diffi- culties encountered, and reviewed the implementation of the research variables. To further illustrate the differences in affective group leader responses and coglitive group leader responses, the following exerpts have been selected from tape recordings of the group counseling sessions. Ekerpts one, two and three are from affective group counseling sessions. 1. Q: I think I was too lenient there....I'm project- ing this situation on to a azhool situation. I cmldn't possibly afford to....just sit and talk for two mre hours. 92: Well, this seems to be coming up....that that you're saying this morning in many ways is, uh.... I'm not sure if it's feeling—it miglt be a feeling that, uh, something about being able to handle your own interviews now, or saying something about....I wish I could handle this the way I want to, many 2. 3. 24 things are going bad, I've got this feeling I'm.being evaluated, that Uhe kids are picked funny....the practicum is kind of an artificial situation, I Wish I could really do something on my own. This is the feeling I get as you talk this morning. Q1: ....my own hope, I feel myself expressing things like little “uh huhs" along the way, to indicate that I was listening-which I meant them to do--but I wonder how much Ilm reinforcing this-to just keep going at this level and never get down into any feel- ings. How do you handle that? ‘92: All of you seem to be expressing that-at least part of the time seems to be one of--of how do we get below this surface kind of thing, how do we get below so we get into affect, to the meat of the.... what's underneath (inaudible) you're kind of concerned, it seems to me, how do we get down there, but some- how I'm not yet....I don't quite know how to get down there. Is this the kind of feeling you get? Q1: ....I'm hoping that I'm beginning to talk the same language. Cg: You're saying also that it's--it's been great at times, it's been kind of a mixed blessing. It's had its disadvantages at times-it's been rough. Exerpts four, five and six are taken from cognitive group counseling sessions. A. 5. 91: He's occupied with things that he hasn't been occupied with before and sometimes an understanding of this in the counseling is most effective.... probably would be with parent and other adults and teachers, etc., who have had to deal with youngsters so that they'll understand this part of it, if they don't. Q2: What is strange, um, at one age is not strange at another age, what's way out for one kid is not way out for another kid. ‘91: ....and was comfortable sitting there....I could go with this, I think, if they looked com- fortable....but to see the poor kid being tortured when you.sto;>for a few seconds hoping that you're going to say something--. 99: Yes, what kinds of things can you do to over- come, say a kid who is being tortured and silent.... what can you do to help this kid? 25 6. 9;; ....so I feel this kind of....so that's why I can't see your question. I don't feel that. Q3; It seems that we're talking about the same thing ....oh,.one is saying it is ego support that you're doing in a non-directive client centered kind of way ....you seem to express curiosity, am I really ego supportive or am I telling them.things which make them feel happy, adequate and good. I don't know if this has to be done to be ego supportive, maybe Just attention, reflection and an unconditional positive regard a la Rogers. Although many precautions were used to insure that two different kinds of group counseling was occurring, a further experimental check was devised. Tape recordings had been.made of four sessions (I, 5, 9 and 13) throughout the seven weeks and from each session for each counselor four comments were randomly selected. The individual unit selected for analysis was a group member's comment which was followed by a counselor's response. The sampling procedures produced 48 client-counselor response units from.affective sessions and an equal number from cognitive sessions. Because samples were taken from representative sessions throughout the experiment, consistency of counselor performance in maintaining treatment effects was checked as well as differences in treatment. The 96 client-counselor response units were converted to type- scripts and randomly assigned a location number from one through 96. The typescripts were submitted to three judges (all Ph.D's at the Counseling Center, Michigan State University) with instructions1 to Judge the counselor response as being "predominantly designed to elicit affect" or "predominantly designed to elicit Content." lSee appendix g_for the protocol, judges' instructions and scoring sheet. 26 Typescripts taken from the cognitive and affective groups were contrasted with judges' ratings of these same categories. A signifi- cant chi-square was interpreted as evidence of finding a relationship. The chi-square test wima two-way contingency table (Edwards, 1961) was used to analyze the data obtained from the judges' ratings. Table 3.3 Chi-Squares for Judged Success in Establishing Treatment Effects For the Experimental Variables (N==96) Judge Chi-Square Alpha-. 05 I 35 .41 Reject II 9.38 Reject III 18.71 Reject As evidenced in table 3.3, all chi-squares were significant and the null hypothesis of independence was rejected. It was concluded ‘ ' from these data that treatment effects were established and maintained for the duration of the group cmnseling experience. The Method of Content Analysis No effective instrument was dis covered to test cmnselor perform- ance in an indirect manner; therefore, the method of content analysis was chosen as the basic research technique to stucbr the essential ele- mmts of counselor perfcrmance. Application of the technique to the re- search was accanplished in a three-stage sequence over a period of six month s. 27 Stage I: Data Gathering Data was gathered by tape recording the initial interview of the subject's first practicum counselee (T1), and the initial inter- view of the subject's fifth (and last) counselee (T2)., Didactic in- struction had preceded the practicum.expcrience, but no counseling contacts had been programmed into the first phase of the Institute. Because all interviews of the practicum experience were tape recorded, recording for the study was not a new or "artificial" element in the practicum. The subjects were not aware which of their tapes were to be used as a basis for research. Counselors and counselees were both briefed that the recordings would be used only in a professional con— text. Approximately two months elapsed between T1 and T2. Stage II: Tape RecordinggProcessing limitations are noted at this point in the technique of trans- lating live recordings to typescripts (Berdie, 1958), but in studies involving extensive judgments, economy of judges' time is an over- riding factor. Typescripts can be read in a much shorter time than would be required to listen to comparable length material. Processing began by timing the length of the initial inter- view in minutes because there was considerable variance in length. The total time was divided into thirds so that a representative sampling of initial, middle and final counseling activity was insured. The length of the tapes in.minutes and the thirds were keyed to the footage recorder attached to the Revere Tape Recorder. From each third the amount of tape footage equivalent to five minutes was selected using a table of random numbers. Thus, three five-minute segments or fif- teen minutes of the total interview were selected for submission 28 to the judges. The material was reduced to typescripthorm.following standard procedures for preparing verbatim protocols (Berelson, 1952). Stage III: Judging Protocols In the method of content analysis the protocol, or typescript, becomes the instrument of the study. It is used in this manner when no standardized method is available to adequately measure the variables under consideration. In the study it was deemed advisable to measure the specific and crucial issue being researched. The concern of the study was counselor behavior (how subjects counseled) in initial individual interviews. To measure adequately any change it was necessary to study directly the performance of counselors interacting with counselees. Therefore, an indirect measure of’performance, i.e. a paper and pencil test, was discarded in favor of the direct approach of analyzing the interview itself. To effectively analyze flhe interview, three dimensions of counselor performance, affect/cgnition, degree of lead and variabil- ity of techniques, were used. The dimensions transcend theoretical and philosophical discussions concerning the nature of the counsel- ing relationshmp, and have an adequate base of research evidence (Strupp, 1955; Fielder, 1958; Reid and Snyder, 19b7; Danskin and Robinson, l95h; Weeks, 1957). Each dimension was assumed to be unidimensional and to exist along a continuum. Fbr example, degree of lead was defined from anchor points of "predominantly counselor led" to "predominantly 1See appendix 5 for a sample typescript. 29 counselee led". The other points, “mostly counselor/some counselee" and "mostly counselee/some counselor", were established between the anchor points to permit greater diversification.l Judges were forced to classify the data using one of the four points along the continuum being rated. The completed typescripts were randomly assigned a number for identification purposes and submitted to the judges in groups of 30. A table of random numbers was used to assign order in which judges were to read and rate the typescripts. An instruction sheet was pre- pared explaining the task of the rater and an hour-long interview was scheduled with each judge to discuss the rating scale and train the judge as to its use. Neither judge was aware that the eXperiment was a "before and after" design, and independence of ratings was assured because judges were separated by 70 miles. To increase face validity and interperson reliability of the rating scale expert judges were selected. Both judges held the Doctor of Philosophy Degree in clinical or counseling psychology, and were actively engaged in counseling at the time judgments were made. Judge one was director of the Counseling Bureau at western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan, and judge two was on the staff of the Greater Iansing Area Child Guidance Clinic, Lansing, Michigan. In their stated philosophical orientation to the counseling proce332,judge one is basically Rogerian in training and practice while judge two is Freudian 1See appendix §_for a sample rating scale. 2See appendix A for judges' personal statement of philosophy concerning the counseling process. 30 in his approach. Thus, to avoid the possibility of contamination of the data by philosophic position, known judges of different orientation were selected. The judges reported that it took approximately six clock hours to rate the 60 typescripts on the three dimensions. Analysis of the Data The quantification of material presented to the judges re- sulted in an ordinal scale with a possible four category forced—choice selection. Because the usual assumptions demanded by the "t" test (Edwards, 1960) could not be met, non-parametric techniques were used. Siegel (1956) states that the Mann-whitney U test is the most powerful non-parametric equivalent of the "t". It can be used when (l) at least ordinal measurement has been achieved or (2) when the ”t” test's assumptions are not met. Both of these conditions were present for the data gathered for the study. Testing Significance Between and @gthin Experimental Groups Fbr sample size between nine and and 20, Siegel (1956) has published special tables for significance levels of .001, .05, .025 and .05. A two-tailed test at the .05 level was used to test the differences Eithgg groups between the preaand post-measurements. The differences between groups were tested using a onedtailed test of significance at the .05 level. Because the latter hypotheses are directional, prediction of the alternate outcome was stated a priori. In using the Mann-Whitney U test, the null hypothesis , H0, is that the two populations have the same distribution. The alternative hypothesis, H1, is that population A is stochastically larger than population B. If the probability exceeds one-half that a score from A is larger than a score B, H1 is accepted. That is if 'a' is one 31 observation from population A, and 'b' is one observation from popu- lation B, then H1 is that p (a greater than b)=%. If the evidence supports the directionalized H1, the implication is made that the responses attributable to one population are greater than thanother. The size of the statistic U is a function of n and varies with sample size; the sample size for the study is two equiValent groups of 15. Scigel (1956) indicates that with nl and n2 equal to 15, a U of 72 or less for a two-tailed test, aid a U of 64 or less for a one-tiiled test, are sufficient to reject the null hypothesis at the .05 level. All U's were calculated for judge one and compared by inspection with the U's of judge two. If the data obtained from the ratings made by judge one were sufficient to reject the null hypothesis, and if the dita obtained from the ratings of judge two agreed, support for the alternative hypothesis was accepted. f:stinggjudge Reliability To test for agreement (reliability) between judges' ratings, the Spearnan Rank Correlation (rho) was used. Rho is a measure of associition between variables, A and Y for example, which requires ordinal Leasurcmcnt of both variables so that the objects of study may be ranked in two ordered series. Scigcl notes it was one of the earliest statistics based on ranks to be developed and is perhaps the best known todaj. iho's wore calculated by the method outlined in Scigcl (1936). The significance of rho was determined by the method detailed in hendall (1948) for n's larger than 10. A two-tailed test with the significance level set at .05 was used. 32 Table 3.1. Inter-Judge Reliability (Rho) and "T's't for Selected Dimensions of Counselor Performance (hi—‘30) Dimension Spearman Rho ”t” Alphs=. 05 l. Affective/cognitive Pre .59 3.81.5 Reject POSt 073 50475 ROJeCt 2. Degree of lead Pre .h6 2.711. Reject Post .53 3.286 Reject 3. Variability of Pro .22 1.18& Accept technicpes Post . 59 3 .8h5' Reject As evidenced in table 3.1., correlations for the affective/ cognitive and degree of lead dimensions were significant at the .05 level. The pre-treatmmt judge reliability in the variability of techniques dimension was not significant; however, the post-treatment rho was significant. 31W? Two experimental groups of counselor trainees were selected and assigned two treatments: (1) Affective group counseling, and (2) cognitive group counseling. A design based on content analysis of pre an! post-treatment recordings within groups and post-treatmnt recordings between groups was anployed to study three dimensions of counselor performance: affective/cognitive, degree of lead and varia- bility of techniques. The groups were equated prior to treatment on scholastic aptitude, prior knowledge of counseling and guidance, age and years teaching experience. Judged group cwnseling protocols yielded data which supported the hypothesis that treatments planned by the group counselors were initiated and maintained. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA In chapter four an analysis of the data is presented based on the methodological approach and statisticalt;reatment detailed in chapter three. Results are reported for each of the three dimensions of counselor performance (affect/cognition, degree of lead and variability of techniques) in the following sequence: (1) findings are reported comparing groups prior to group counseling, (2) findings are reported for group A (affective) and group C (oogniive) comparing their performance prior to and immediately after group counseling (in this analysis, pre-treat- ment group A scores are compared to post-treatment group A scores first, and, then, pre-treatment group C scores are compared with post- treatment group C scores) and (3) post-treatment scores of group A are compared with post-treatment scores of group C to determine effects of specific treatments. Differences Between Groups Prior to Group Counseling The null hypotheses tested for three dimensions of counselor performance were: Ho There is no difference in rated response to affect/ cognition between the experimental groups prior to treatment. H There is no difference in rated degree of lead be- tween the experimental groups prior to treatment. H 3 There is no difference in rated variability of techniques between the experimental groups prior to treatment. 33 3A In addition to the selected variables used to determine differences between groups prior to treatment (see chi pter 3) the pre-treatment tape was analyzed to determine if co-variance needed to be considered in the experimental design. Following procedures stated in chapter three, the Mann-Whitney U was used to test differences between groups. Table he]. Mann-Whitney U's Comparing Group A (P15) and C (IV-15) 0n Selected Dimensions of Counselor Performance Prior to Treatment Dimensi on Judge U Alpha". 05 l. Affect/Cogniti ve I 112. 5 Accept II 10h. 0 Ace ept 2. Degree of Lead I 130.5 Accept II 93 . 0 Accept 3 . Variabi lity of Technique s I 98. 0 Ace ept II 101.5 Accept As evidenced in table 4.1, there were no significant differ- ences in coumelor performance as defined by the three dimensions used in the study. As can also be noted by table 4.1, there is complete Juige agreement on all three dimensions. It is therefore concluded that the experimental groups did not differ in response to affect/ cognition, degree of lead or variability of techniques prior to appli- cation of the independent variablengroup counseling. Differences Within Groups, Before and After Group Counseling The null hypotheses tested for three dimensions of counselor 35 performance were: H 1 There is no difference in rated response to affect/ 02 H03 04 05 06 cognition for the affective group between the pre- treatment measurement and the post-treatment measure- ment. There is no difference in rated response to affect/ cognition for the cognitive group between the pre- treatment measurement and the post treatment measure- ment. There is no difference in rated degree of lead for the affective group between the pre-treatment measurementand the post-treatment measurement. There is no difference in rated degree of lead for the cogngtive group between the pre-treatment measurement and the post—treatment measurement. There is no difference in rated variability of tech- niques for the affective group between the pre-treat- ment measurement and the post-treatment measurement. There is no difference in rated variability of tech- niques for the cognitive group between the pre-treat- ment measurement and the post-treatment measurement. Table h.2 Mann-Whitney U's for Groun A on Selected Dimensions of Counselor Performance Before and After Treatment Dimension Judge U Alpha=.05 1. Affective/Cognitive 2. Degree 3. Variability of techniques 65 Reject 41 Reject EH of lead 90 Accept 110.5 Accept HH H 109 Accept I . 93 Accept hiki 36 Table A.3 Mann-Whitney U's for Groun C on Selected Dimensions of Counselor Performance Before and After Treatment (N=15) Dimension Judge U Alpha=. 0 5 1. Affective/cognitive I 99.5 Accept II 111.5 Accept 2. Degree of lead I 91 Accept II 99.5 Accept 3. Variability of techniques I 60 Reject II 103.5 Accept Thefinffective group As evidenced in table A.2, U's of 65 and Al were significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis of no difference was rejected for the affective cognitive dimension, and the ratings of both Judges were in agreement for the dimension. Inspection of table h.2 further indicated that the remaining U's were not sufficient to reject the null hypothesis for the degree of lead dimension or the variability of techniques dimension. Judges' ratings on both dimensions were in complete agreement. It is concluded that the affective group chnged in its re— sponse to affective between the pre and post-measurements, but did not change in degree of lead or variability of techniques. The cognitive inoup As evidenced in table 4.3, the U of 60 reported for judge one was small enough to reject the null hypothesis of no difference. A 37 U of 103.5 indicated for judge two was not sufficient to reject the null hypothesis; therefore, judge disagreement on the dimemion dqés not permit a conclusion to be drawn. Inspection of table l..3 further indicated that the remaining 01's are not sufficient to reject the null hypothesis fcr the degree of lead dimension or the affective/cognitive dimsion. Judges' ratings on both dimensions were in agreement. It is concluded that the cognitive group did not change in its response to affect or in degree of lead between the pre am post-measure- ments. Judge disagreement in the variability of techniques dimension did not permit a conclusion to be drawn. Differences Between Groups After Group Counseling The null and alternate hypotheses tested for three dimensions of counselor performance were: H01 The affective treatment group responds to affect to a lesser extent than the cognitive group after group counseling. H The affective treatment group responds to affect to a greater extent than the cognitive treatment group after group counseling. H The affective treatment group is more leading than the cognitive group after group counseling. H2 The affective treatne nt group is less leading than the cognitive group after group counseling. H The affective treatment group is less variable in 03 techniques used than the cognitive group after group counseling. H The affective treatment group is more variable in technicpes used than the cognitive group after group counseling. 38 Table 4.4 Mann-Whitney U's Between Groups A (N=15) and C (N—15) 0n Selected Dimensions of Counselor Performance Aft er Group Counseling Dimension Judge U Alpha-.05 l. Affective/cognitive I 64 Reject II 43.5 Reject 2. Degree of lead I 85 Accept II 111.5 Accept 3. variability of techniques I 58 Reject II 74 Accept As evidenced in table 4.4, U's of 64 and 43.5 were sufficient to reject the null hypothesis at the .05 level in the affective/cogni- tive dimension. ()1 the basis of judges' ratings, the affective treatmmt group responded to client affect to a greater extent than the cognitive group. Judges' ratings were in agreement on this dimension. Further inspection of table 4.4 revealed that U's of 85 and 111.5 did not permit rejection of the null hypothesis for the degree of lead dimension. The alternative hypothesis of eq1a1 or greater; difference in degree of lead between the two treatment groups was tenable. Judges' ratings were in agreanaxt for the dimension. 0n the variability of techniques dimmsion, a U of 58 reported in‘table, 4.4 for judge one, rejects the null hypothesis at the .05 level. A U of 74 was not sufficient to reject the null hypothesis; therefore, there was disagreemalt between judges in rating the dimen- sion and no conclusions can be drawn with any certainty. 39 Smnmary Prior to group counseling the experimental groups did not significantly differ in (1) response to affect/cognition, (2) degree of lead, and (3) variability of techniques. No pre-treatment advantages for either group was held in the three dimensions used to measure counselor performance. The affective group significantly changed from.pre to post- treatment in response to affect. No change was recorded in degree of lead or variability of techniques. The cognitive group did not significantly change from pre to post—treatment in response to affect/cognition, or degree of lead. In the variability of techniques dimension, judges did not agree and the results must be considered inconclusive. After group»counseling the affective group held a significant advantage over the cognitive group in response to affect. There were no significant differences in degree of lead. Judges did not agree on the variability of techniques dimension and the results must again be considered inconclusive. CHAPTER. V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Summary The purpose of the study was to determine the effects/\of was different group counseling experiences on subsequent counseling be- havior in practicum contact with counselees.?! All Judgments were nude on protocols extracted from first recorded contacts between student counselors and counselees. The fundamental problem generating the research was the need for evaluation of certain training procedures which are being used in counselor education programs. Wile the literature offers much theo- retical opinion about philosophy and methods, :litt 1e experimental evidmce on group counseling and especially its effect on performance exists in the area of cmnselor education. The study defined counselor performance on the basis of three dimensions (response to affect/cognition, degree of counselor lead am variability of techniqles), and measured these dimensions by Judges' ratings in a before-and-after-treatment experimental design. A stratified random selection sampling procedure was used to divide 30 counselors undergoing a practicum experience into two ex-_ perimertal groups of 15. Each of the two experimental groups were di- vided into counseling groups of five members each. One of the experimental groups experienced affective group counseling (counselor responded to 40 Al and elicited feelings), while the other received cognitive group counselirg (counselor responied to and elicited content). The inde- penient variable (group counseling) was applied for two one-hour periods weekly for ate/van weeks--a total of fourteen hours. The depend- ent variable (counselor performance) was defined in the study on the basis of three dimensions: (1) counselor response to client affect or cognition, (2) counselor degree of lead, and (3) counselor variabil- ity in techniques. These dimensions were quantified by using contalt analysis of tape recordings of first and last interviews conducted during the subjects' practicum experience. The tape recordings were taken about two months apart; in the interval between the two tapes the independent variable was agalied. In addition, an analysis of the group ccunselor's response patterns was made to determine if treatment effects were established and maintained. The analysis of the data revealed flat in the as three dimen- sions there was no significant difference in counselor performance between experimental groups prior to group counseling. The sampling procedures used for composing experimental groups resulted in equated initial ability. Neither treatment group had a pre-experimental bias in performance which would tend to contaminate the results obtained after group counseling. The affective group (A) showed significant positive gain in, response to client affect (dimension one) over ttm two-month period; however, there was no change in degree of lead (dimension two) or in variability of techniques (dimension three) before and after treatment. The cognitive group (C) did not exhibit change in either the affective/cognitive or degree of lead dimensions over a tub-month period. 42 In the variability of techniques dimension Judges did not agree. Ac- cording to one thlge the cognitive group becane sigxificantly less variable while the second Judge rated no siglificant change. After determining if any changes occurred between the initial and final stages of the study for each experimental group, a compari- son was made between the two groups. In essence, the latter procedure constitutes the crucial test of the experimental change. Group A responded to affect significantly more than group C after treatment; however, tl'ere were no significant differences on the degree of lead dimension. The affective group demonstrated greater variability in techniques used in initial interviews than the cognitive group according to one Judge. Judge two did not concur with these data an the results must be considered inconclusive. To validate that tie treatment variables were actually enacted three independent Judges were used to rate group counseling protocols. The three Judges agreed that both treatment effects were enacted and maintained for the seven-weeks group counseling experience. Conclusions The following conclusions fave been reached within the delimita- tions noted in chapter one. Qplications for counselor education programs Most theoreticians in counseling and psychotherapy agree that counselor response to affect is an essential ingredient of the coumel- ing relationship. Although there is disagreement as to the extent affect should be enphasized, there is agreement that it is basic to the counseling process. Counselor educators agree, too, ttat teach- ing response to affect shmld receive strong emphasis in counselor #3 education programs; however, little research has been reported abmt the effects of different educational experiences on the counseling belnvior of student s. If recognition and response to affect are important components in the counseling relationship, and if it is desirable to teach this skill,.the study indicates that requiring students to prticipate in an affective group counseling relationship concurrent with practicum is a method likely to achieve this goal. In the affective group counseling experience the 38 ted the opportunity to explore feelings about self and others in a therapeutic climate.5 They discovered that feelings need not be repressed nor embarrassment felt when feelings were stated. They may have learned how to handle the expression of affect by dealing with it in a life situation, insomuch as group counseling represents a miniature social situation where behavior can be examined and modified. In many cases the 83 became counselors for each other arri learned to interact with each other in an open and honest manner. By being involved in an affective experience the group menbers became more open, too, to the feelings; expressed by their counselees, and were better able and less fearful of responding to and working with these feelings. Experiencing and learning how to respond to affect seemed to be transferred from the group experience to individual interviews. The affective group 53 had a role model in the person of the group counselor. "What the cmnselor sees himself to be as a person will be reflected in his relationship with his client" (Yates and Schmidt, 1959, p. 151). The developnent of a counseling personality through the efforts of a training program is in most cases an individual's 41.. response to the training. In the pnocess of training the concept of self is modified or changed in some way. The beginning counselor is ready to accept someone to show him "how to do it.“ If the role model is perceived as a “good" counselor and he responds to affect in the group, 33 my tend to emulate the model as they begin to test new ways of behaving in their counseling interviews. In affective group>counseling situations the 33 had an opportunity to experiment with new and alternate forms of thinking and behaving. One of the alternate fonns was examining self in terms of attitudes, feelings and basic needs. The group coinselor may well have been a catalytic agent in helping Ss experiment; the group was a place where the members could dare to be thenselves. The experimentation done in th‘ group counseling experience then appeared to have transferred to the individual sessions the 83 were having in practicmm; The implica- tion is that those who had affective experience "learned" to respond in‘an affective manner and began doing so with their counselees. The 38 who received a cognitive group counseling experience did not examine feelings, attitudes and basic needs in the group sessions. If affect was dealt with, it was done in.a cognitive manner. Much of the discussion centered about ways and methods of handling counseling situations and specific counselees. A rational cognitive approach was maintained for group C. Again, if the role model is perceived to be a "good" counselor'and.also responds to content in the group, 83 may tend to emulate the model as they begin to test new ways of behaving in their counseling interviews. The cogni- tive group leader, by definition of his role, had a limited range of responses because affective responses were not open to him. The effect 45 of cognitive group treatment was to limit the range of cmnselor re- sponses as they interacted with their clients. In responding to clients it is, therefore, not surprising that group C Ss would respond in a cognitive manner in much the same way their group counselor did with them. In counselor education programs it is desirable to teach be- ginning counselors to use the initial interview as an exploratory session. Beginning counselors, particularly those who have had a teaching background, tend to be quite leading in their approach to clients in initial interviews. They have a strong tendency to manipu- late arri control the direction and content of the interview. Part of the need would stan from anxieties centering in the practicum experience. If this is based, at least in part, on anxiety in the counselor, then it we: ld follow that procedures which would allay the anxiety would help a counselor behave in greater congruence with a theoretical position in counseling. As a dimension of counselor performance degree of lead was not affected bygreip counseling generally, or, spe cifi-F cally by either of the two forms of group counseling treatment. If the teaching of appropriate degree of lead in initial interviews is desired in the counselor education program, it cannot be concluded that group counseling as a teaching method is effective in changing edunselor performance. Either the theoretical constructs underlying the dimension have little relationship to behavior change in initial interviews, or the length, intensity or amount of treatment was in- sufficient. There is inconclusive evidence to support the assumption that counselor variability of techniques is affected by group counseling, 1+6 in either of the experimmtal forms. The low reliability between Judges in the pre-treatment measurenent casts suspicion on any sig- nificant statistical results obtained. On the variability of tech- niques dimension Judge disagreement on ctange over time’and treatment, and disagreement on post treatment results was very evident. Any sig- nificant differences obtained must be interpreted with caution and must be considered only tenable. Keeping these considerations in mind, it is interesting to note that evidence is presented that the affective group became more variable in technicpes used in initial interviews and the cognitive group less variable. The evidence partially confirms the theoretical constructs pesented in ctapter I. The affective group's role model responded to both a ffective and cognitive material in the group counseling sessions. The cognitive greip's role model was limited and restricted to cognitive responses, and, thus, displayed a less variable range of reaponse patterns. Techniques which would cause Judges to rate a counselor as being variable were not used in group C. Possibly, then, Ss in group C did not "learn" or experience this range of techniqres. Discussion of results, Judge reliability In content analysis studies the question of Judge reliability becomes an important is sue. Berelson (1952) has stated that in general thermore specific, clear-cut and simple the task assigned the raters, the greater the reliability. Generally, too, the less ambiguous the rature of the rating the higher the inter-Judge reliability. An example of high reliability (Spearman Rank-Order Correlation of .999) was reported by Moore (1962) for two Judges scoring clause—units to describe hostility among a six-point scale. #7 “In a more ambiguous Judgment situation reported by Ellsworth (1962) Judge inter-reliability (three Juiges) was only "acceptable.” One of the correlations was below the magnitude of .50; however, it should be noted that reliability is a difficult construct to interpret. High agreement is expected between Judges am their ability to agree on words and clauses which have hostile meanings. When the agreement is between therapists and how they rate feeling tone the demand for such precision, although desired, is not made or expected (Smder, 1945). Judge reliability for the affective/cognitive dimension ranged from .73 (T2) to .59 (T1). Both correlations could have occurred by chance only one time out of 100. The nagnitude of the correlations is consisted. with other reported Judgments of the feeling/content dimension in content. analysis research (Reid and Smder, 191.7; Snyder, . 1945; Robinson, 1950; Bergman, 1951; Ellsworth, 1962). The dimension was considered to be adequately Judged by the raters and is the best Judged of the three dimensions. It is interehting to note that despite the difference in orientation of the Judges, agreement on tl’e variable reached this magnitude. Dimension two correlations (degree of lead) of .53 (T2) and .L6 (T1) are mrginal in acceptability. Although a rho of .53 is significart. beyond the .01 level of confidence, a rho of .1.6 reaches only the .02 level. The inconsistency of the Juiges in this dimension is noteworthy and it would lead to the conclusion that the task was not well defimd or rater bias was present more in the degree of lead dimension than in affect/cognitive dimension. Judge reliability for the variability of technicpe dimension 48 ranged from .59 (T2) to .22 (T1). The pre-treatment Judgment of .22 is non-significant and must be considered no better than a chance correlation; the post-treatment rho of .59 is significant beyond the .01 level of confidence and, as a consequence, a reliable Judgment of variability of techniques must be seriously questioned. The ratings on the dimension.must be interpreted with caution for reliability scores of this magnitude and of this inconsistency. Both Judges re- ported after they had made their ratings that they had difficulties with the techniques aspect of the scale. A more specific breakdown of tech- niques, a better description of the dimension and different quantifi- cation methods may have improved the reliability of the scores. It is entirely possible, too, that Judge bias was present to a greater extent in the Judgment of variability of technicpes. I Implications fcr Future Research Throughout this methodologically complex study, implications for future research became more evident. l. Replication of the research is desirable to discover if different group counselors using the basic treatment for- mat get the same results. Replication could demonstrate that results were due to treatment effects and not the group counselor's skill and persorality, or other con- comitant variables. 2. A control could be added to the basic experimental de- sign which would receive no grmp counseling, only superf- vised practicum. Effects could be compared for three groups which might tend to focus the independent variable more clearly. 3. 1+. 5. 49 A follow-up study could be undertaken to determine perma- nence of change in individuals and groups after the 83 leave the practicum environment. A T3 of an initial inter- view during phase III (internship experience) could be programmed quite simply or a follow-up could be made one year later during actual Job experience. The same basic approach--group courseling plus practicum could be applied to a different sample of counselors-in- training. In order to Justify inclusion of the format into the regular counselor education program, the sample should be regular masters degree candidates. Interviews other tran initial interviews, i.e. middle and ending sessions, could be used in the research as a basis for measuring change in counselor performance. Comparisons of behavior eta nge could be nade between initial and later interviews to evaluate consistency of cmnselor performance. Other dimensions besides the three used to define counselor performance in the study could be operationalized and sub- Jected to statistical analysis. The rating scale used in the study, or any rating scale subsequently used, should be subJected to statistical techniques which can aid in refinemert . Refinements could increase sensitivity of Judges' responses and reflect more accurately change over time and treatment and between treatments. B IBLIOGRAPHY Arbuckle, D., Counseli : An Introduction, Boston: Allyn and Bacon,196l. Auld, P. and Murray, E., ”Content-Analysis Studies of Psychotherapy," P_sychological Bulletin, 1955, 5, pp. 328-395. Barron, M., "Role Playing in Interview Training,“ Society, 191.7, 1 pp. 192-208. Berdie, R., "A Program of Counseling Interview Research," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1958, 18, pp. 255-271.. Berelson, B., Content-Analysis in Communications Research, Glencoe,m Illinois: The Free Press, 1952. Bergman, D., "Counseling Method and Client Responses," Journal Consulting chhology, 1951, 15, pp. 216-221.. Cantor, N., The Teaching-Learning Process, Third Edition, New York: " The Dryden Press, 1953. Danskin, D. and Robinson, F., "Differences in Degree of Lead Among Experienced Counselors,” Journal Counseling chholog, 1951., 1 PP. 78-83. Dewey, J., Democracy and Education. New York: The MacMillan Company, 1916. Edwards, A., EXperimental Design in Psychological Research, (revised) New York: Rinehart and Company, 1960. Edwards, A., Statistical Methods for the Behavioral lSciences, (revised) New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961. Ellsworth, S., "The Consistency of Counselor Feeling-~Verbalization In and Outside of the Counselor-Client Relationship," Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1962. Fiedler, F., "The Concept of an Ideal Therapeutic Relationship,” Journal Consulting lgychology, 1950, 11., pp. 239-21.5. Galer, J., "Concerning the Size of Therapy Groups," International Journal Group Psychotherapy, 1951, 1, pp. 1-12. Gazda, 0. ani Ohlsen, M., "The Effects of Short-term Group Counseling on Pr03pective Counselors," Personnel and Guidance Journal. 39 pp. 634—638. Madden, S., "The Utilization of Therapy Groups in Teaching Psycho- therapy," American Journal Psychiatry, 191.9, 103, pp. 61.1.-61.8. 50 .15]... Hart, D., “A Study of the Effects of Two Types of Group Experiences on the Academic Achievement of College Underachievers,‘ Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1963. Heist, P., "An Experiment Utilizing Group Psychotherapy in a Self- Analytic Process for Counselors in Training," Dissertation Abstracts, 1956, 16, p. 2383. Hoppock, R. , Occupationalr Information, (revised) New York: McGraw Hill, 1963. Jones, E., Biography of Sigmund Freud, Vol. II, New York: Basic Books, 1959. Kagan, N., "Member Modal Characteristics and leader Role Expectations in Group Counseling, Group Guidance, Task or Work Groups and Guidance Instruction,“ East Lansing, MichRgan: Michigan State University, 1962, (Unpublished paper) Kay, L. and Schick, J., ”Role Practice in Training for Depth Interviews," Sociometry, 1945, 8, pp. 82-85 Kelley, E., Education for WhatfiIs Real, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1947. Kirk, B., "Evaluation of In-Service Counselor Training,” Educational and Psychological Measurement 3, 191.7, 16, pp. 527-535. Lippitt, R. and Hubbell, A. , “Role Playing for Personnel and Guidance Workers: A Review of the Literature with Suggestions for Appli- cations," Group Psychotherapy, 1955, 9, pp. 89-95. ' Moore, W. , ''The Effects of Post-hypnotic Stimulation of Hostility Upon Male High and Low Motivators,fl Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, ‘ Michigan State University, 1962. Moreno, J. , “Scientific Foundations of Group Psythotherapy," In: Group Psychotheram, New York: Becon House, 191.5. Musselman, D., ”Role Playing As an In-Service Training Technique for Secondary School Counselors,” Counselor Education and Supervision, 1961, 1, pp. 17-19. Muthard, J ., “The Relative Effectiveness of Larger Units Used in Interview Armlysis,” Journal Consulting Psycholog, 1953, 17, pp. 184-188e Noble, J. and Mathewson, R., "Evaluating a Program of Counselor Training Through Group Conferences," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1956, 31., pp. 285-289. Reid, D. and Srwder, M., "Experiment in 'Recognition of Feeling' in Non-Directive Psychotherapy," Journal Clinical chhology, 191.7 3, PP. 128-135e 52 Robinson, P., Principles and Procedures in Student Counseliig, New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950. Roeber, E., ”Position Paper—Practicum and Internship," in: American Personnel am Guidance Association, Counselor Ablation: A Proggess Report on Standards, Washington: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1962. Rogers, 0., Client Centered Therapy, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1951. Schwebel, M., ”Role Playing in Counselor Training," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1953, 32, pp. 196-201. Seegars, J. and McDonald, R., ”The Role of Interaction Groups in . Counselor Education," Journal Counseling Psychology, 1963, 10, PP. 156-162. " Siegel, S., Nonparametric Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, New York: McGraw Hill Company, 1956. " Snugg, D. and Cowles, A., Individual Behavjior: A New Frame 9}; Reference for Psychology, New York: Harper and Brothers, 191.9. Srwder, W., An Investigation of the Nature of Non-Directive Psycho- therapy," Journal General Psychology, 191.5, 33, pp. 193-223. Stern, H., "A Counseling Approach to Counselor Supervision,“ Counselor Education and Supervision, l9fi3, 2, pp. 69-71 Strupp, H., uAn ObJective Comparison of Rogerian and Psychoanalytic Technique 3," Journal Consulting Psychology, 1955, 19, pp. 1—7. Telschow, E., "The Role of the Group Leader in Non-Directive Group Psychotherapy," Unpublished Ed.D. PraJect, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1950. Thweatt, R. , "Development of Counselor Trainee Self-Insight: Evalu- ation in Effectiveness of Self-Selection," Counselor Education and Supervision, 1963, 2, pp. 78-81. Tyler, L., The Work of the Counselor, (Second edition) New York: Apple- ton Century Crofts, 1961. Weeks, J., "Level of Affect in the Counseling Responses of High School Senior Boys,” Journal Counseling Psycholog, 1957, 1+, PP- 297-303. Workentin, J ., ”An Experience in Teaching Psychotherapy by Means of Group Therapy,” Progressive Education, 1955, May, pp. 79-82. " Wrenn, C., The Counselor in a Changing World, Washington : American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1962. Yates, J. and Schmidt, L., .'The Counselor's Self Concept ," In: Peters (et a1), Counseling: Selected Readings, Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1962. APPENDIX A Instructions to Judges Here are 96 counselor responses from.group counseling sessions to be Judged. Each client or group statement (01.) is followed by the counselor response (00.) made to the statement. If the counselor's response: Focused on interpersonal or group feelings, Reflects the expression of affect (feeling), Elecits affective material from individuals or the group, or Causes examination of feelings, Then: Check in column PA the number corresponding to the client- counselor statement being considered. If the counselor response: Focuses on content produced by an individual or the group, Reflects the expression of cognitive material (content), Elicits cognitive responses, or Causes examimtion of content, Then: Check in Column PC the nunber corresponding to the client- counselor statement being considered. 53 APPENDIX B Judges' Scoring Sheet 131 .110. EA .110. 13$ EC. .29. £9. 26. PE 1-22._ _ 21-12._ _ 11-12._ _ 61-12._ _ 81-21._ __ 2-11._ _ 22-32._ _ 1.2.32._ _ 62-11,_ _ 82-32.__ _ 3-22._ __ 23-12._ _ 13-31._ __- 63-32_ _ 83-22._ __ h-21.__ __ 21-31.___ _ 11-21._ __ 61-12.__ __ sa-11.___ __ 5-32._ _ 25-21.__ _ 1.5-21._ _ 65-11._ _ 85-22._ __ 6-31._ _ 26-32._ _ 1.6-11._ _ 66-1L_ _ 86-22.__ _ 7-21.__ _ 27-31.__ __ 1.7-21._ _ 67-21.__ _ 87-31._ __ s-21._ _ 28-1l._ _ 1.8-11._ _ 68-32._ _ ss-32._ __ 9-12._ _ 29-22._ _ 1.9-21.__ __ 69-22.__ _ 89-31._ _ 10-11._ _ 30-32._ _ 50-12.___ _ 70-11,_ _ 90-22.__ _ 11-32.__ _ 31-11._ _ 51.22._ _ 71-12._ _ 91-11._ _ 12.22,; __ 32.32,_ _ 52-21.__ __ 72-31._ __ 92-32... _ 13-21._ _ 33-12._ _ 53-32._ _ 73-21._ __ 93-12-_ _ 14-21._ _ 3a-12.___ _ 51-21._ _ 71-22.__ _ 91-22.__ _ 15-22._ _ 35-32._ _ 55-22.._, _,_ 75-22.__ ,_ 95-12._ _ 16-31._ _ 36-11._ _ 56-21.__ __ 76-32._ __ 96-3l.__ _ 17-32._ __ 37-12.__ _ 57-12._ _ 77-11_ __ 18-31._ __ 38-31._ _ 58-31._ _ 78-31._ _ l9-12.___ _ 39-11.___ _ 59-12.___ __ 79-22__ _ 20-11e__ __ 40-31e_ __ 60-31._ __ 80-3L__ _ 51. 1.22 . 3.22 e L-Zl. 5-320 6-31. 7'21e Co: C0: C1: C1: Co: C1: APPENDIX C Judges' Typescript If a kid having a feeling.about pushing this father bit too far, she's very attached to her father who Just passed and every so often her eyes would get sorta misty. And you kinda backed off. If you want something, you could go‘ahead and pay for it. You know there's only one part of all this-this whole idea of taking a chance is another part-(inaudible) knowing everybody in your home town, being comfortable there, what does the next place bring. No, they had both decided what they wanted to do-the first one was money problems, finances-how she was going to get it done and the second one she hadn't decided, but I don't think this is what she wanted to talk about. She wanted to talk about personal problms. ’ Yeah, uh huh, yeah-was this the girl who cried? And without knving these problans solved it's difficult to get to (educational-vocational) things. ....and if I should, if I should really accept him or not and if I didn't, if I didn't do it, I'd.might feel I should have done it. This would make a difference if he would accept you or not. ....Nhat exactly was the reason behind this-you had such a block for this. Uh, why, I think you're asking a real sensible question, you're saying he might and he might not go into the area that he wouldn't go into the area he--you're saying, Dick, that, shux, maybe there's something to work with.right here and I didnflt notice. ....J1m.hoping by the end of the sessions that I have got somewhere near the learning that's necessary. Ydu feel kind of inferior. And yet we have some feelings about it.... 55 8-21 0 10-11. 11-32. 12-22. 13-21. Cl: Co: Co: Cl: Co: C1: Co: Cl: Cl: Co: 56 What about Barb's problem? Well, what happens to you when this occurs-when.you get a person who doesn't seem to communicate.. I guess what I'm saying, Barb, is that I can't give you any pet answers, but what happens to‘you when this occurs? Nhen a person doe en 't communicate. ....And, I thought at first it might be hearing, I turned my head away from him, you know, this way, that time he mdght answer me but the next time I'd turnrand look at him he'd be inaudible. What did he do to you when he did this? what. kind of feel- ings did you haveeeee I He's occupied with things that he hasn't been occupied with before and sometimes an understanding of this in the counsel- ing is most effective-probably would be with parent and other adults and teachers, etc., who have to deal with ‘ youngsters so that they'll understand this part of it, if they don't. What strange, uh, at one age is not strange at another age, what's way out for one kid is not way out for another kid. Are we going to be able to pick up the pieces in the time we have allotted, or are we going to end up with the young- sters more confused than when we started out. Uh huh, shattering a child, damaging someone's life. ....and I'm wondering if I shouldn't be more ego-supportive. I've been thinking that you're actually saying that he is ego-supportive, aren't you, Dave? I get the impression that his father is a self-made man and he feels that he wants to do much the same thing....and his father has embedded him with the fact that you pay your own way as you go along-his paralts seem very warm-he has an enormous respect for his father. He wants to pretty much model himself like his father. ....and I don't have any set plans when I go in there if that's what you mean, but I don't-not now-at first it worried me. It seems that one thing you've gotten over is the fact that you are uncomfortable with the person in the room. M-21 e 15 -22. 16-31 . 17.32. - 18‘31 0 19-12. Cl: Co: Cl: Co: Cl: Co: Cl: Co: Cl: 57 ....I think I was too lenient there because....I'm pro- Jecting this situation on to a school situatioh. I couldn't possibly afford to....Just sit and talk for two more hours. well, this seems he be coming up that what you're saying this morning in many ways is, uh....I'm.not sure if it's a feeling-it might be, a feeling that, uh something about being able to handle your own interviews now, or saying something about....I wiSh I could handle this the way I want to, many things are going bad, I've got the feeling I'm being evaluated, that the kids are picked funny....the practicum is kind of an artificial situation, I wish I could really do something on my own-this is the feeling I get as you talk this morning. ....it's not an either or and but deal, it's a, I felt I would like to try it with more than one counselor. ' Joe, would you have felt comfortable enough to talk to Grace and tell her how you felt at that particular moment- what was going on as kind of an example of what these girls could do if they wanted to. In everything I do I'm.kinda compulsive, you know. His father wanted to play bridge‘and I found some people to play bridge wifih, played in Master's Bridge Tournament and gambled, well, that's the fastest way to learn to play bridge, playing with people who are better than you and you are losing money. You Just learn to beat hell then or lose a lot of money. I just lose too much. Nhat were you really thinking about? He didn't think so. But he was willing;to listen. If you saw this kid for three or four times and you got the same stuff time and again, are you going to keep ‘ listening? I never minded that kind of thinh--until I ran into this situation (practicum) where you don't have the control. Hhen you feel in control then you can move--you can produce, but this isn't quite like producing grades or any kind of material. ....then this would more nearly come to a solution and would be much more satisfactony for him what he was asking me to do-I told him politely and nicely I wasn't going to try and draw him out. 58 Co: So it's becoming better and your general feeling is that you've an understanding with this guy-that you uphold him. 20-11. Cl: ....If you're coming back let me know about it tomorrow. Co: So you kind of intimated that he had some doubts that you may not have. (Total protocol contains 96 client-counselor units) Co: APPENDIX D Sample Typescript for Judging Counseling Performance It's uh nice to have you here this morning am I hope we can uh perhaps work on any problems that you have. It's uh answers to things that may be uh cpestions that you'd like to work on. Mr. tells me that you are in the 10th grade. Yes. Yes. I'm a sophomore. It doesn't seem possible. Doesn't seem possible that you can be that far. Uh'huh. I like it very much. I see. I really don't got any problems. Don't really have any. No. (pause) You know, I didn't-I don't know. I don't really- Just kinda like to talk about uh (name of university) and- Yes. The type of vocation I'd like to go into after I graduate from high school. You have thought about then the vocation that you are interested in. The type of vocation I'd like to go into after I graduate from high school. Uh huh. I'm kinda interested in maybe nursing, maybe social work or I'm interested in the medical field other than nurs- ing, although I don't really know. I'd like to work with people (inaudible) I don't know if I'd like to work in a laboratory or not. I don't know. You think the laboratory would not put you into contact with people. Uh, that's why. This you'd like. That's right. 1w mother said that uh, well, she kinda thinks, she leans toward medical technology. She thinks that's a good field for a woman to go into and uh while she's not pushing me, she thinks it's interesting--I've looked into it and I don't know. You work with people, but not as finch. 59 Co: Cl: Co: Cl: Co: Cl: Co: Co: Cl: Co: Cl: Co: Cl: 60 So you'd really like a lot of contact with people. I think so. we had (inaudible) preference tests and I think one of my highest was, being a social worker was my highest preference was, and I know besides that I know I.am interested in social worker or something like that or nursing.‘ I don't think a doctor though. And uh you mother is pretty much leaving this up to you, although she does tend to want you to concentrate inna medical technology field. well, she thinks it's a good field for a woman but she hasn't really, I mean she hasn't pushed or anything. She, she's a , registered prdbtical nurse herself. So, of course, I've wrote ' term papers--I've written term papers on things like uh, uh, I wrote one on nursing once, I've written one on psychologists and psychiatrists-things like that, you know. I've been looking ever since, uh the first of last year when he had occupations and careers and studied different vocations-careers. So the term paper that you wrote on psychiatry is also a field where you'd be working with people. Uh huh. Uh that possibility I don't know yet or maybe even social work. I, I looked up some material on that once, too--that would be quite interesting. Nhen you think of social.work, what do you feel this would involve? End 5 Minutes. Does this kinda scare you? I think so. I think becoming a doctor would scare me tremendously. I don't know, I don't think I would-~it's a tremendous responsi- bility, I think-doctors and nurses, too, but not as much as doc- tors, though. They have a tremendous responsibility. The idea of becoming an-a nurse perhaps in the Davy or something appeals to me, uh traveling for a while-get to see other things, new experi- ences-that kinda fascinates me. Like lots of variety. Uh huh. Yes. I mean just for a while, maybe. One part of me says that, graduate mybe from college maybe, then settle down and then the other {art of me says to travel for quite a while, see the world somehow, kinda going in two different directions. Of course depends on how I meet (laughs) in the future (inaudible) yet, I don't know. Co: Cl: Co: Cl: Co: Cl: Co: Cl: Co: Cl: 61 No. It's hard to say, you don't know'what's going to happen. I gather from what you say that you have quite a desire to travel. I think so. I don't know--well, kinda a little bit. Ngt to all over but see something I'd like to. I'm taking a French course now and I'd kinda like to go to France. At one time, I wanted to go to Egypt but then I wanted to see the Pyramids. (laughs) I think that's kinda gone now. I'd like to travel to Japan. I'd like to see China but I don't know if that's possible now or not. I'd like to see Russia--IndLa-I'd like to go to different places, spend time-maybe work there for a while, then go-I wouldn't want to go as a tourist, thought. I think you Just see what's kinda on top and I'd like to get to know some of the people. You feel that the best way to really know the people is to gojas a worker among them. I think so. Uh huh, an aid to really get to mix with people-~not just on the surface. I think so. I think (inaudible) somehow you get to know'them better. I've been reading some books by Pearl Buck right now, things like that, and reading, of course-she lived in China for a long while and uh she got to know the people. Her parents were missionaries. I read her autobiography and she got to know the people because her parents were missionaries and they didn't -other while-children--she said-didn't play with the Chinese. They kept them separate through their own schools whereas she went to school, well she had a Chinese teacher and she got to know Chinese ideas and life and things like that and she got to know other Chinese children. She learned the language and she learned what kind of people there are and now she's writing books about them which is very good because she knows the people and I think if-if you--if you knew the people then you get to know them.and if you were kept away from them, then you can't get to know them. So that's what I'd like to do--get to khow all.their people. This missionary you're readingkabout is one who, who really gets to know people, mixes with them, doing services for them. Is this a medical.missionary? No, uh, she's not a missionary-~her parents were missionaries. They were uh-her father was a minister and her mother went with him. They helped the people and her father, I think he ran.this church (inaudible) it seems that way. He was a minister and he just stayed over there 'til he died--helped.the people. And she uh of course, now she has a broad view because she has traveled between the United States and China and she has visited many C0: C1: Co: Cl: Co: Co: 62 places-~she has a broad view of all these things. She (inaudible) I wouldn't like to be near a (inaudible) I wouldn't like to--just travel for a while--of course it depends on what my career is. It depends on what I do. It may end up altogether different when I graduate from high school and go to college. I don't know. So you really feel that you may make some changeskactually between now and when you finish high school--or at least when you finish college. End 5 Minutes. Well, one project I di 'in the 7th grade, the best ever project I ever did but it was a mess (laughs). I got a dinasaur kit and I put a dinasaur together (laughs) and put him in a natural back- ground that-I got--that's about the only one--I've--I, I don't know whether I have to do a project now or not this year, but I think it, lindght do something--if I do have to do a project this year--I might-take an organ, like the ear or something and show- but I don't know. (laughs) There again, it's biology, isn't it. Uh huh. And uh you uh mentioned quite frequently things that are mechanical and how it works. ‘ How it works. I guess that is mechanical-~gluing together that dinasaur. Then again, the background you made for it. I guess that is mechanical. I don't know-maybe I--see--I don't know. I didnflt have--well.maybe-a couple different kinds of me cha nical things. Yes. Things mechanical.aren't always pullees, wheels and auto- mobiles. That's what I don't like. The pullees and wheels-things like that-but also like (inaudible) would work like-or’your--I like a lot--I don't know- Because this organ fits in with something you enjoy doing, like your music. (pause) We have explored.a little bit the fields that you show an interest in and the aptitudes that you have. You.mentioned first, too, about uh college--that you are interested in coming to (name of university). Could you at the moment narrow what school you'd be interested into going to here? Uh you mean--I don't know much about the different schools they have-uh I don't know really what they have. Anyway I don't Co: Cl: Co: C1: C0: Cl: Co: Cl: 63 think--I mean uh, I know-~I have pamphlets fran a lot of differ- ent colleges at home, too. I don't really know, I don't think I've read up too much about that. What are some of the schools they have? Nell, since you show an interest in science, there would be natural sciences here, the biology, zoolog and botamr of course. Uh, we have schools of social science- Uh huh. I think that would be interesting. You kinda think maybe you'd like a school of social science. I think kinda combination--some of the actual science courses and some of the social science—can you do tint? Yes, you can. You think of a job which would involve both natural science and social science. I-I-of course, you always think of a teacher. I don't think I'd like to be a teacher. I would mind (inaudible) one. That would combine them both. I know--I like to work with little children, but I- --prefer small ones to larger ones. Nell, I think goodness, I like (laughs) it's hard to say. Last - year they had a student teacher there. One of the students would take over the class and I had a class. I had our scimce class and I didn't do a very good job, I don't think. I had an out- line that I was supposed to give but didn't think it did too good of a job. Maybe after more experience, although it made me quite nervous-to think--I think it's a tough job. Teaching. It would be a tough job--rather difficult. I don't know if I would enjoy it. I kinda think I like more informal-—like I used to have a Sunday School Class, I think that's-not for very long-~I think that's interesting--you don't have them for a long time. A small group seems to put you more at ease than a larger group. I think so, yet I have to teach (inaudible) children. I enjoy music very much. I play the piano some and enjoy all kinds of music. I don't particularly--I like some classicals, not real long hair. Just some. End 5 Minutes. APPENDIX E Instructions for Judges The typescripts enclosed in this packet constitute thirty seg- ments from hour long initial interviews with high school students. Each segment is stabled together and contains three fiveeminute samples. A five-minute sample is taken fran the first third, the middle third and the last third of the interview. Judges are to read the entire segment and after reading, rate the counselor's performance on three variables: (1) affective-cog- nitive, (2)degree of lead.and (3) variability of technique. Please use the dittoed rating sheet for your judgments; circle the letter on the scale which best describes your judgment. A detailed description of the ratihg scale follows: °(l) Affective-cognitive. Does the counselor's response pattern follow affective (feelings expressed or implied) matenial produced by the client, or does the response ;_ pattern follow cognitive (content) leads? Considering' the entire fifteen minutes how would you characterize counselor's verbal responses? M N O P Predominantly Mostly feeling Mostly content Predominantly feeling some content some feeling content responses responses (2) Degree of lead. Does the counselor assume direction for the interview by suggesting and offering areas for explor- ation, and by responding to specific material, or does the counselor permit the client to determine direction and content? Consideration of the entire fifteen minutes should be done before rating counselor's degree of lead. M N O P Predominantly Mostly counselor Mostly counselee Predominantly counselor sometimes sometimes counselee determined counselee counselor determined (3) variability of techniques. Does the counselor respond to client leads with a variety of techniques, or does the counselor rely on only one technique? Considering the entire fifteen minutes, how would you characterize counselor's use of technique. M N O P Predominantly Little variability Some Much variability one technique Variability Uses many techniques. 6h APPENDIX F Opinions Regarding the Counseling Relationship By Dr. Richard Bonier I feel the relationship is non-directive in that the counselor does not impose direction upon the client, i.e. he does not “choose“ areas of interest or concern and direct the client to these areas. The counselor does, however, select from the client's variety of statements those which he considers important to the client, and by indicating his own interest in these areas, promotes elaboration and focus in these selected areas. To me, the counselor is not non- directive in terms of allowing the client to pursue whatever line of thinking he seems to be following; rather, the counselor listens for the appearance of loaded words and statements, suggestion of anxieties and concerns, covertly expressed pleas for the counselor to help focus upon a given theme, etc., and with the help of his ”third ear“ reinforces discussion in such areas of special importance by asking for the aforementioned elaborations, explanations, and by volunteering the interpretations of varying specificity. In this sense the counselor is paying more attention to the consistency of under- currents of concern in the client ard helping to bring these more to the fore of awareness and control; these themes may at times parallel quite closely the client's manifest intent, regarding direction of discussion, especially in the cases of anxiety states, or, when defenses are more highly mobilized, may diverge considerably from what the client seems manifestly desirous of pursuing. Thus the counselor is 'blient centered” in facilitating expression of anxiety- associated themes which may not be readily apparent to the lay person in the spontaneous verbalizations of the client. The counselor is, however, following the inclinations, or needs, of "part“ of the ‘ client's personality. In the above sense, the counselor d_9__es presuppose a therapeutic motivation and drive toward “self-cure" but does not take the naive view that the counselor's role should be as a passive sounding board for the client. It is my feeling that such a therapeutic stance would, if anything, merely provide for the reinforcment of defenses and delusions. Rather, the counselor is acti___v_e in pursuing his intent of reaching greater comprehension of the client's dynamics and of help- ing the client to reach this same comprehension. In my mind the counselor is‘highly directive in terms of the aforementioned selectivity of focus, and as such makes repeated judgments regarding the importance, relevance, ani centrality of various issues discussed. The counselor's decisions at these times may be entirely in error, yet I feel that this danger must be accepted as part of the liability inherent in counseling if anything of a therapeutic nature is to occur, possibilities of 65 66 iatrogenic effects notwithstanding. Counseling in large prt is a self-corrective process, the counselor being constantly exposed to communications and reactions of the client which cast light upon the validity or incorrectness of interpretations. Finally, it is my feeling that the client-counselor relationship is a relationship between someone seeking help and someone qualified to give help, that in this sense it is not a pseudo-democratic relation- ship between "equals"; the equality lies in tin facilitation of freedcn in the client to express his own views and attitudes, albeit highly divergent from those of the counselor. Inthis ani other respects, the relationship factors provide the richest single area for therapeutic discussion. Assuming the operation of transference-phenomena during counseling, the feelings of the client regarding the counselor (and vice versa) may be seen as highly fruitful in reaching insight into the client's own dynamics; insofar as they represent transferences of feelings and attitudes experienced (present or past) toward signi- ficant figures, they offer a readimade lab situation for their own , exploration. Perhaps mostly importantly, client-counselor relation- ship aspects are, because of their immediacy, the most intense and meaninng feelings the client can experience in the counseling situation, thus their personal relevance is greatest. After examina- tion of such relationship-factors, their meaning can then be extended for the client regarding their similarity to feelings experienced toward other siglificant figures. . , It goes without saying that the counselor must be able to _ accept the client, despite what my be the perpetration of actions' persornlly distasteful to the counselor. I do not feel tin counselor should attempt to disguise from the client his distaste for such actions, should he feel that his attitudes are so strong as to threaten revelation. Rather, the counselor must convey to tie client his wish to tolerate the client as a separate individual, to help the client actmlize his potentials are his liking and respect for the client irrespective of their being aspects of the client's behavior which he (the counselor) might not be able to accept as part of himself. APPENDIX G A Definition of Counseling By Dr. Donald A. Davis In its most meaningful sense, nw definition of counseling is a change brought about in an individual's behavior as a result of certain relationships established with others. The ciange is predictable but not controlled. It seems to be a cinnge toward individualization, self- identify and autonomy. There seem to be more effective patterns, more organization of the environment, and more independence. The student be- comes more self-directing, more self-responsible, and has a marked in- crease in feelings of dignity and worth. He is encalraged to become more than he is, to become more aware, more open to his experience, more accepting of self and others, and more self-mlfilling. The relationship which brings about this kind of change, I believe is one having the following ciaracteristics: urderstanding, acceptance, and communication. These characteristics are necessary ' and sufficient to the change brouglt about by the relationship. Urflerstanding shmld be derived directly from the individual himself in counseling interviews or other forms of self-reports. It is not a search for truth but simply an attanpt to step into the perCeptual world of the counselee. A sincere attenpt is made to gain knowledge by one individual of another, of his internal world, of his fears and loves, of his anxieties and worries, his insecurities, his plans am experiences, his feelings and ideas about himself and his environment. The quality of this kind of understanding is intense, personal, meaningful and helpful to both the counselee and the counselor. The second characteristic of the relationship which the pro- fessional person provides is that of acceptance. Our danocratic philosophy has it that each of us is entitled to a feeling of dignity and worth, that each of us has certain rights, alch as self-determina- tion, self-direction, independence and freedom. These are inalienable so long as the use of them does not encroach upon the rights of others. To afford another person a feeling of worth is most effective when it is done as completely as possible. To have reservations about the student's worth is to minimize the effectiveness of the counseling. At best, the feeling of worth that the student perceives from you must be absolute or complete. There must be no conditions attached to it. No "if“ clauses, no such things as,"if you ngdy,“ 'if you work, " 'if you behave," "if you do your homework, " “if you apologize," then I will consider you to be a worthwhile person. The third characteristic and one which is most important for the student is that of communication. It does not seem to matter 67 68 how much I understand, how much information I have about a student nor how completely I accept him if the student does not perceive that understanding am complete acceptance. This is a most diffieillt task. Many times I am not able to achieve it until after some time, perhaps three or four interviews, or a semester or so of acquaintanceship but I do definitely look at it as my responsibility as a counselor to establish and maintain a relationship with each student with whom I come into contact which will convey to him in all ways possible this understanding and acceptance. ROOM USE Chili MW 9?? soda hit 615%! ‘llilillliiii‘3