ATTITNDINAL CHANGE OF STUDENTS AS A FUNCTION , . A 0F EXPERIENCES IN A PRE SERVICE . "i EDUCATION PROGRAM ’ * " ‘ Thesis for the Degree of Phs jD. MICHIGANSIAIE UNIVERSITY" KENNETH RALPH WASHINGTON 1970 LIBRARY Michigan SW53 . University IQIIIIIUINIWIIWIHI III III IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIILII 93 10185 O This is to certify that the thesis entitled ATTITUDINAL CHANGE OF STUDENTS AS A FUNCTION OF EXPERIENCES IN A PRE-SERVICE EDUCATION PROGRAM presented by KENNETH RALPH WASHING TON has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D . degree inldflflfltinn )lgjor professor Date April 20. 1970 I 0-169 It ATTITUDINAL CHANGE OF STUDENTS AS A FUNCTION OF EXPERIENCES IN A PRE-SERVICE EDUCATION PROGRAM BY Kenneth Ralph Washington A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1970 ABSTRACT ATTITUDINAL CHANGE OF STUDENTS As A FUNCTION. OF EXPERIENCES IN A PRE-SERVICE EDUCATION PROGRAM BY Kenneth Ralph Washington The goal of this investigation was to assess changes in the attitudes of white prospective teachers as a function of their eXperiences in a pre-service education course. In addition, the study was intended to investigate whether prospective teachers held attitudes toward suburban schools that were more positive than their attitudes toward inner- city schools. The data for this investigation was collected from a sample of 250 prospective teachers, 125 in the control group and 125 in the eXperimental group. The population from which the sample was drawn totaled 1,200 prospective teachers enrolled in Education 200, a pre-service education course. The treatment which included lectures, micro-labs and group discussion, provided the prOSpective teachers with an Oppor- tunity to examine their attitudes toward inner-city schools. The instrument employed in the assessment of attitude changes was the Osgood Semantic Differential of 50 descrip— tive scales. For purposes of this study 20 bipolar adjecti- val scales with high evaluative weighting were selected. Kenneth Ralph Washington The following criterion was used to select the scales: 1. Factorial composition-—refers to the selection of scales maximally weighted on one factor and mini- mally weighted on others. 2. Relevance--refers to how well the scale relates to the concept being judged. 3. Semantic stability—-refers to constancy of meaning of the scales across the concepts used. The following hypotheses were tested to determine the effect of these pre-service educational eXperiences on the attitudes held by prospective teachers toward inner-city schools: .Hypothesis I A positive change in the attitudes of prOSpective teachers toward inner-city schools will occur as a result of exposure to educational experiences relevant to inner-city schools. Hypothesis II The attitudes of prospective teachers toward suburban schools will be more positive than their attitudes toward inner-city schools. Hypothesis III The attitudes toward inner—city schools of those prOSpective teachers who have attended inner-city schools Kenneth Ralph Washington will be more positive than the attitudes of those who did not attend inner-city schools. Hypothesis IV The attitudes toward inner-city schools of the female prOSpective teachers will be more positive than the attitudes of the male prOSpective teachers. Hypothesis V The attitudes toward inner-city schools of those prospective teachers whose parents have a college education will be more positive than the attitudes of those whose parents do not have a college education. Hypothesis VI The attitudes toward inner-city schools of those prospective teachers interested in teaching elementary school will be more positive than those interested in teaching secondary school. With respect to the first hypothesis, it was found that for the concept "inner-city schools" no significant .difference existed between the attitude mean scores of pro- Spective teachers who were eXposed to the inner-city educa- tional eXperiences and the attitude mean scores of prospec- tive teachers who were not exposed. The difference that did exist was in the direction which was hypothesized. This suggests that perhaps a,strengthening of the treatment will yield a more significant attitude change. Kenneth Ralph Washington A major finding which was not hypothesized was the effect the treatment had on the attitudes held by prospective teachers toward the concept "suburban schools." The differ- ences that were found were significant at the .05 level. As a result of the treatment attitudes toward suburban schools became more negative. It was reasoned that this change in perception might have been caused by material presented which focused on institutionalized racism and the suburban school. Hypothesis I, then, can be supported when extended to suburban schools. The results of the analysis for Hypothesis II yielded the second major finding. The findings revealed that the attitudes held by prOSpective teachers toward the concept "suburban school" were extremely more positive than their attitudes toward the concept "inner-city schools." The dif— ference was statistically significant at the .05 level. This finding corroborates the findings of many noted researchers which suggested that negative attitudes toward the inner-city schools have a harmful effect on the learning process. With respect to Hypothesis III, no significant differ- ence was found when the attitude mean scores of pIOSpective teachers who attended inner—city schools were compared to the attitude mean scores of those who did not attend inner- city schools. Apparently, the attitudes of prOSpective teacher toward inner-city schools are unaffected by their prior school attendance. Kenneth Ralph Washington With respect to Hypothesis IV it was found that no significant difference existed between the attitudes held by male prospective teachers toward inner—city schools and those held by female prOSpective teachers. However, a difference that was significant at the .05 level was found when the attitude mean scores of males were compared with the attitude mean scores of females on the concept "suburban schools." The male prospective teachers perceptions of suburban schools were more negative than the perceptions of the female prOSpective teachers. Perhaps the male prospec- tive teachers were much more likely to grasp the reality of the situation. With reSpect to Hypothesis V and VI, no evidence was presented which would substantiate the contentions that relationships existed between parents' educational level, teaching interest and the Ettitudes held by the prospective teachers toward inner—city schools. For teaching interest the difference that did exist was in the Opposite direction to that which was hypothesized. There was also some ten- dency for prospective teachers whose teaching preference was elementary schools to view suburban schools in a more positive light than those whose teaching preference was secondary school. DEDICATION To Annie, Moto and Mamie Whose sacrifices made this feat possible. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer would like to express his sincere appreciation to Dr. Louis Romano, Chairman of the Guidance Committee, for his assistance and encouragement throughout the study; to Dr. Donald Nickerson, Dr. Richard Featherstone and Dr. Robert Green for their helpful suggestions and criticism. The writer would also like to thank Dr. Lawrence Lezotte whose valuable assistance in the design facilitated the study. A special note of appreciation to Dr. Judith Henderson and those teaching assistants whose c00peration made this study possible. *‘k'k‘k'k iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ge neral Statement of the Problem . . . . Specific Statement of the Problem . . . Significance of the Problem . . . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . Plan and Content of This Thesis . . . . II. A REVI Te Pr EW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . acher Attitudes and Their Effect on Inner-City Students . . . . . . . . e-Service Education For Inner-City Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Specific Pre-Service Education Programs Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . The Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . De De Re Tr finition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . scription of the Research Instrument . search Design . . . . . . . . . . . . eatment of Data . . . . . . . . . . . Summary ... . . . .I.. . . . . . . . . IV. ANALYS Pe ISOFTHEDATA............ rceptions Held by Prospective Teachers Toward the Concepts "Inner-City School" "Suburban School" . . . . . . Effect of Treatment on Attitud Scores . Influence of Inner-City and Non-Inner— City Attendance on Attitude Scores . . Influence of Sex on Attitude Scores . . Influence of Parents' Education on Attitude Scores . . . . . . . . . . . iv Page iii vi H Hrd Nrdanmrd 14 23 26 32 35 37 39 4O 44 45 48 49 50 51 53 55 57 Chapter Relationship Between Teaching Interest and Attitude Scores . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Discussion of Findings . . . . . . . . Implications of the Study . . . . . . Recommendations for Further Studies . Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . B IBLIOGRAPHY . 0 O O O O O O O O O O O o 0 O O O 0 APPENDIX A. PERSONAL DATA FORM . . . . . . . . . . . . B O INSTRUMENT O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O C. CORRELATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 60 63 67 7O 73 77 78 80 83 85 88 10. ll. 12. 13. LIST OF TABLES Composition of control and experimental groups C O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O Validity and reliability coefficients for semantic differential attitude scores (5) and Thurstone scale scores (t) . . . . . . . Inner-city and suburban scale means, standard deviations and t value . . . . . . . . . . . Means and standard deviations for control and eXperimental groups . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of variance for the control and experimental groups on the concept "inner- city schools" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of variance for the control and eXperimental groups on the concept "suburban schools" . . . . . . . . . . . . . Means and standard deviations for inner- city, non-inner-city attendance attitude Scores 0 O O C O O I O O O O O O O 0 O O 0 0 Analysis of variance for inner-city, non- inner-city attendance on the concept "inner city schools" . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of variance for inner—city, non- inner-city attendance on the concept "suburban schools" . . . . . . . . . . . . . Means and standard deviations for male and female attitude scores . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of variance for male, female on the concept "inner-city schools" . . . . . . Analysis of variance for male, female on the concept "suburban schools" . . . . . v . Means and standard deviations for fathers' educational level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 38 44 51 52 52 52 54 54 54 56 56 56 58 Table 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. Analysis of variance for fathers' education level on the concept "inner-city schools" . Analysis of variance for fathers' education level on the concept "suburban schools" . . Means and standard deviations for mothers' education level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of variance for mothers' education level on the concept "inner-city schools" . Analysis of variance for mothers' education level on the concept "suburban schools" . . Means and standard deviations for teaching interest 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Analysis of variance for elementary, secondary teaching preference on the concept "inner-city schools" . . . . . . . Analysis of variance for elementary, secondary teaching preference on the concept "suburban schools" . . . . . . . . Comparison of difference between control group and experimental group . . . . . . . Correlations matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Page 59 59 61 62 62 64 64 64 75 88 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION General Statement of the Problem The recruitment of the "right teachers" for inner- city schools is fast becoming the concern of many school administrators and directors of teacher training institu- tions. This concern is in part due to the current prolif- eration of educational literature which suggest that inner- city schools are providing grossly inferior, inadequate, and unsuitable education for a great number of children, the majority of whom are black. Traditionally, in education the student has been held accountable; it is he who is perceived to have failed and not the system. However, the inability of large segments of the population to make it in school suggests that it is the schools that are dysfunctional. Green, Hofmann, and Morgan presented evidence that supports the above point of view.1 They stated that fre- quently inner—city students eXperience a decline in 1.0. levels between the third and sixth grades. A number of 1R. L. Green, L. J. Hofmann, R. F. Morgan, "Some Effects of Deprivation on Intelligence, Achievement, and Cognitive Growth," Journal of Negro Education, Winter, 1967, p. 3. studies on intelligence testing of inner-city children were presented. These studies pointed out that when intelligence was tested at different ages the I.Q.'s of inner-city chil- dren tended to decrease with age. The biggest drOp in 1.0. was found to be between the ages of four and five, suggest- ing either a critical period, a traumatic effect from introduction into the inner-city school situation, or both. This apparent negative effect of the educational process over time on the intellectual development of inner-city children is contrary to what is normally eXpected. It comes as no surprise then that preschoolers who have responded in a positive way to Head Start classes, tend to regress when they reach the inner—city classroom. Further evidence of the failure of inner-city schools comes from the research of Kenneth Clark.2 Clark found that the achievement of Harlem students in the third grade was one year behind the average achievement level of New York City students as a whole; by the sixth grade, nearly two years behinds and by eighth grade, the students were about two and one-half years behind the average level for New YOrk City and three years behind students in the nation as a whole. Coleman, in his report, found that the verbal achievement of black students at the third grade level in Northeastern United States was about one year behind the average white student in the same 2K. Clark, Dark Ghetto (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), pp. 133-138. region and that this pattern existed in other metrOpolitan areas across the country.3 This disparity was found to be typically greater in higher grades. Social class was considered to be the greatest cause for these achievement differences. Efforts to remedy the educational and psychological damage caused by the school system has been miniscule at best. Some schools have implemented compensatory educational programs, while others have approached the problem by employ- ing educational specialists or purchasing supplementary educational materials.4 Many school systems invest large sums of money on instruments designed to measure student potential and performance, while investing almost nothing on measurements of teacher performance. No increase in expendi- tures can be eXpected to improve the education of inner-city children without some examination of the factors that effect teacher's performance. Nothing in education can be consid- ered sacrosanct if effective programs to meet the educational needs of inner-city children are to be deveIOped. It follows, then, that the role of the teacher in the learning process is one aSpect of education that must be 3Coleman et_a1,, Eguality and Educational Opportu— nity, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966). 4Ermon O. Hogan, "The Influence of an In-Service WorkshOp Experience on Teachers' Ability to Positively Modify the Self-Concepts of Educationally and Economically Disadvantaged Students" (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968). carefully examined. Strom writes that the critical point in the educational process is the point of direct contact with the children, namely, the classroom teacher.5 The educa- tional progress of the child is in a large part determined by the teacher, for it is the teacher who controls the learning process through his interaction with the child. The key variables are the attitude and sensitivity of the teacher. The teacher's success in relating to and helping the child will depend upon his acceptance of the child for what he is and what he brings to the learning situation. Carl Rogers also supports the notion that the class- room teacher is the most important component in the educative process.6 He stressed the importance of the teacher's atti— tude and behavior in the classroom. According to Rogers the attitudinal quality of the interpersonal relationship between facilitator and learner is highly important. He maintains that a genuine belief that the student can learn is the most important asset a teacher can have. This genuineness is eXpressed in terms of the teachers' ability to prize, accept and trust their students in addition to the development of an emphatic understanding for them. Further support for this point of view comes from another noted educator, Arthur 5Robert D. Strom, The Inner-City Classroom Teachers' Behaviors (Ohio: Merrill Books, Inc., 1966), pp. 1, 21-24. 6Carl R. Rogers, "Humanizing Education: The Person in the Process," ASCD News Exchange, IV (April, May, 1967), 2. Combs.7 Combs suggests that the most important changes in the classroom occur only as teachers change. For in the final analysis all educational institutions are composed of teachers, who in the broader sense determine the effective— ness of these institutions. Academic qualifications have heretofore been the only criteria used in the selection of teachers for the inner-city. The research cited above lends support to the notion that an equally critical variable is the attitude of the teacher toward the inner-city school. The recruitment of the "right peOple" for inner-city schools must involve some examination of the attitudes of prospective teachers toward inner-city schools. It is at the source of supply in our teacher education programs that this assessment of atti- tude becomes imperative. The coordinating staff of the teacher education program at Michigan State University recognized the impor- tance of the teachers attitude on the performance of the child. They had observed that many practices followed in the classrooms were actually contributing to school- educational problems experienced by many inner-city children. In order to illustrate to prospective teachers the educa- tional harm produced by low eXpectations, and the psycholog- ical harm produced by overt as well as covert negative 7Arthur Combs, The Professional Deve10pment of Teachers (New York: Allyn and Bacon, 1965), p. v. attitudes and rejection, experiences germane to the inner— city were incorporated into the teacher training program. This study assesses the impact of those experiences on the attitudes of prospective teachers toward inner-city schools. Evaluation of this aspect of teacher education will hOpe- fully provide school administrators and those responsible for teacher education programs with some meaningful insights into teacher recruitment. Specific Statement of the Problem The specific purpose of this investigation is to determine if there will be a directional movement or shift in the attitudes of prospective teachers toward inner-city schools, as a function of inner-city educational experiences received in a teacher education program. The inner-city educational eXperiences consisted of lectures on teacher attitudes, a micro—lab where the prospective teacher examined his attitudes toward black children, and group discussion. In order to determine whether these educational eXperiences would have a positive effect on attitudes the following major hypothesis was tested: Hypothesis I A positive change in the attitudes of prospective teachers toward inner-city schools will occur as a result of exposure to educational eXperiences relevant to inner-city schools. In addition, the following related hypotheses were also tested: Hypothesis II The attitudes of prospective teachers toward subur- ban schools will be more positive than their attitudes toward inner-city schools. Hypothesis III The attitudes toward inner-city schools of those prospective teachers who have attended inner-city schools will be more positive than the attitudes of those who did not attend inner-city schools. Hypothesis IV The attitudes toward inner-city schools of the female prospective teachers will be more positive than the attitudes of the male prospective teachers. Hypothesis V The attitudes toward inner-city schools of those prospective teachers whose parents have a college education will be more positive than the attitudes of those whose parents do not have a college education. Hypothesis‘V; The attitudes toward inner-city schools of those prospective teachers interested in teaching elementary school will be more positive than those interested in teach- ing secondary school. Significance of the Problem We are now facing a major crisis in urban education: the failure of the schools to provide quality education for the inner-city child. Even though environment contributes greatly to the inner-city child's underachievement, the schools themselves appear to be doing a less than adequate job. The parents of inner-city children are demanding that the teachers and principals of inner—city schools be held accountable for their performance. Those who are responsible for teacher education programs have been slow in meeting the challenge of making inner-city education more relevant. Green states that even where some awareness of the problem exists, one tends to find fragmented approaches such as an elective course in "urban sociology" or a course in "teaching disadvantaged youth," located perhaps within the Special education depart- ment.8 Another major weakness in inner—city education pro- grams is the lack of evaluation focused on attitudinal change as measured by standardized instruments. The results of this study, therefore, should contribute to the body of research relevant to the education of the inner-city child. The importance of the classroom teacher as the critical factor in the teaching-learning environment cannot aRobert L. Green, "Crisis in American Education: A Racial Dilemma," National Conference on Equal Educational Opportunity in America's Cities, 1967, p. 13. be over emphasized. We need only to take a look at the impact of the teacher in the primary grades. Bloom has hypothesized that 80 percent of mature intelligence is determined by the age of eight.9 As a result of this rapid rate of intellectual development, the child's early years in school are the most crucial. Gottlieb also offers the observation that for the inner-city child the crucial early grades may mean much more subjectively than they do for the middle class child.10 The attitudes and expectations of the teacher will play a major role in determining whether the child experiences frustration or success in school. The selection of personnel for inner-city teaching must therefore be given tOp priority by school administra- tors and the administrative staffs in colleges of education. Programs must be developed that address themselves to the cultural, and eXperiential differences that exist between the teacher and the inner—city child. Twenty years ago Marie Hughes reflected on these cultural differences when she pointed out that the middle class teacher is not only unfamiliar with the culture of poor peOple, but strongly 11 disapproves of it also. Gottlieb further notes that: 98. S. Bloom, Stability and Change in Human Charac- teristics (New York: Wiley, 1964). 10D. Gottlieb, "Teaching and Students:, The Views of Negroes and White Teachers" (unpublished paper, Michigan State University, August, 1964), pp. 345-353. 1lMarie M. Hughes, "When the Middle Meets the End," Childhood Education, XXIV (January, 1948), 227. 10 the individual whose own experiences included being a part of a middle class culture . . . would no doubt eXperience the greater feeling of cultural shock when placed in the setting of the inner—city school. When the individual's expecta- tions based on personal experiences, are not off- set or modified by what is taught to potential teachers in schools of education, there is little reason to believe that the individual will be realistic in his eXpectations. 2 Teachers that are recruited for the inner-city must be those who possess positive attitudes toward social class and racial differences as well as being academically competent teachers. The positions taken by these educators lends support to the importance of attitude assessment as a requirement for teaching in inner-city schools. It is particularly important that prOSpective teacher attitude in regard to inner-city schools be examined since a substantial body of data indi- cates that many of these teachers possess negative attitudes toward black students and other poor students who at present are eXperiencing significant failure in our schools. If the results of this study demonstrate that pro- spective teachers who are exPosed to the inner-city educa- tional eXperiences incorporate positive attitudinal changes toward inner-city school, then other teacher training institutions and school systems may wish to include these educational eXperiences into their curriculum. 12D. Gottlieb, "Teaching and Students: The Views of Negroes and White Teachers" (unpublished paper, Michigan State University, August, 1964), pp. 345-353. 11 Limitations of the Study This study is limited for the following reasons: This investigation was limited to the extent that the Semantic Differential Test was able to measure the connotative meaning which a stimulus word had for a person and its relationship to that person's attitudes. Participation was limited to those prospective teachers who enrolled for this particular teacher education course and no attempt was made to general- ize the results of the study to any other group. The main weakness of the research design was its failure to control for history. History refers to the Specific events occurring between the first and second measurement in addition to the experimental variable. This study was conducted in a large midwestern industrial city. The characteristics of the prOSpeC- tive teachers in this study may differ significantly from those of prOSpective teachers in other metro- politan areas. Another lumitation was the respondent's understanding of the questions and directions along with their attitude or sincerity of response. An effort was made to alleviate conditions which would cause error related to the factors mentioned above through the 12 establishment of rapport, good testing conditions, and clear instructions. 6. Finally, the results were limited by the degree to which the population and instruments met the statis- tical limitations imposed by the analysis of variance. Plan and Content of This Thesis This chapter has presented both a general and specific statement of the problem to be investigated. One major hypothesis and five related hypotheses have been stated. The significance of this study and its major limi- tations have also been delineated. Chapter II contains a review of literature related to the investigation of the problem. The methodological procedures are outlined in Chapter III. This chapter also includes a detailed descrip- tion of the samples used in the study, the Operational defi- nition of terms, a description of the treatment and the research instrument, and a description of the statistics used to test the hypotheses. In Chapter IV an analysis of the data is presented. Overall comparisons of the groups are made. Chapter V concludes the study. The research find- ings and implications for further study are presented. CHAPTER II A REVIEW‘OF THE LITERATURE The technological and material advances that followed World War II combined to produce for this country the highest standard of living in the world. As productivity and profits soared, the gap widened between the material abundance of the middle and upper classes and the absence of even the basic elements of existence for the nation's poor. The often espoused ideal of equal educational Opportunity for all children in reality came to mean equaled-educational Oppor- tunity for the children of the affluent. The causal factor was identified as lack Of educational preparation. Thus the inner-city school became the focal point of concern. It has been suggested by some educators that our attention must focus on the attitudes of the inner-city teacher. Gertrude Noar points out that: the teacher candidate needs to understand not only what makes the child tick but also what motivates himself. Somewhere, sometime, during his years in college, he should experience a self-confrontation. . . . There is no longer any doubt that the very nature of our culturally pluralistic society imposes on the college the necessity of so preparing teachers that they are free of irrational prejudices and can see their responsibility for helping children to become 13 l4 pe0ple free of racial, religious, and social class bias. The following review of literature and research supports the notion that (1) teachers do have dysfunctional attitudes toward inner-city students: (2) teachers' attitudes have an effect on student attitudes and behavior: and (3) pre-service education is an effective means of modifying teacher atti- tudes. Teacher Attitudes and Their Effect on Inner-City §tudents There are a number Of studies that supported the position that teachers hold negative attitudes toward inner- city students. Cited below are some of the most significant studies: Gottlieb conducted a study in which he assessed the views of black and white teachers toward students in a northern urban community.14 He found differential percep- tions of students by their teachers. Adjectives such as "talkative, lazy, high-strung, rebellious, and fun-loving" were typical of selections made by white teachers to describe black students. Black teachers viewed these same students as "happy, COOperative, energetic, ambitious, and fun-loving." The absence of adjectives such as "cultured, poised, or 13Gertrude Noar, Teaching and Learning the Democratic Way (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963)): pp. 119-121. 14Gottlieb, 9p, cit. 15 sophisticated," reflected the agreement by a majority of the teachers that the students did not possess qualities usually associated with middle class children. Groff, in a survey Of 294 teachers in sixteen inner- city schools found that 40 percent of those interviewed stated that the personalities of inner-city children were responsible for the dissatisfaction that lead to high turn- over rates.15 Administrative deficiencies were listed by 37 percent of the respondents, while 22 percent mentioned the weakness of the teachers themselves. A basic sympathy for the poor child and acceptance of his cultural "peculiar- ities" were reasons the teachers believed that the high turnover rate could be overcome. Using the interview as a research tool, Becker corroborated Groff's findings.16 Becker conducted his study in the Chicago public school system where sixty teachers were interviewed. The inner-city child was described by the teacher as difficult to teach, uncontrollable, violent, and morally unacceptable on all criteria. These teachers were dissatisfied and desired to transfer to schools where condi- tions were more harmonious. 15Patrick J. Groff, "Dissatisfaction in Teaching the CD Child," Phi Delta Kappan, XLV (November, 1963), 76. 16Howard S. Becker, "Career Patterns of Public School Teachers," Journal of Sociology, LVII (March, 1962), 470-477. 16 An exploratory study of the attitudes of undergrad- uate education students toward children was conducted by Grambs.17 Grambs found that undergraduate students in edu- cation expressed "good," tolerant attitudes toward children of all groups in our society. However, the degree of acceptance dropped sharply when the personal lives Of the future teachers were involved. Black children were rated the lowest in all ranking of groups on a Bogardus—type social distance scale when the students attitudes towardp children were assessed. Silberman has noted that negative teacher attitudes toward inner-city children revolved around class prejudice as well as color prejudice. He commented that "many teachers who have just moved up into the middle- class may feel threatened by contact with lower-class chil- dren: the youngsters remind them too much of their own origins." More direct and objective studies Of teacher atti- tudes toward inner-city children have been provided by the First Michigan Public School Racial Census19 and the Detroit High School Study Commission.20 Findings of the.First l7Jean Grambs, "Are We Training Prejudiced Teachers?" School and Society, LXXI (1950), 196-198. 18Charles E. Silberman, Crisis in Black and White (New York: Random House, 1964), pp. 3-16. 19First Michigan Public School Racial Census, a report of the Michigan Department of Education, 1967. 2OiReport of the Detroit High Schooli§tudy Commission, Edward Cushman and Keith Damon, Detroit, Michigan, JUne, 1968. 17 Michigan Public School Racial Census conducted by the University of Michigan Survey Research Center showed that teachers' attitudes toward minority groups are negative. Specifically, the findings showed (1) teacher held negative attitudes toward their pupils in classes with a larger pro- portion of black pupils and (2) that the higher the number of black pupils in a class, the lower the teacher's rating of their pupils' academic ability and motivation. The Report of the Detroit High School Study Commission pointed out that attitudes among most teachers that reflect frustra- tion, despair, and low expectation of students and of them- selves was one of the major problems facing the Detroit school system. Most black students were perceived as a lost cause by these teachers. Epperson found that to be excluded by the teacher is strongly reflected in the individual student's feeling Of isolation.21 Further, high isolation and high powerlessness were both found to be related to low actualization of a stu- dent's academic potential. Ryans conducted a six-year study that involved 100 separate research projects and over 6,000 teachers. Ryans concluded that three Of the key characteristics that 21D. C. Epperson, "Some Interpersonal and Performance Correlates of Classroom Alienation,” School Review, LXXI (Autumn, 1963), 360-376. 22D. G. Ryans, "Some Relationships Between Pupil Behavior and Certain Teacher Characteristics," Journal of Educational Psychology, LII (1961), 82-91. 18 differentiated between good and poor teachers were, (1) good teachers had attitudes favorable to students; (2) good teach- ers enjoyed student relationships; (3) and good teachers were generous in their appraisal of the behavior and motives of other peOple. Ryans found high positive relationships in elementary school classrooms between Observers' assessments of "produc- tive student behavior" (e.g., assessments presumed to reflect student alertness, participation, confidence, responsibility, self-control, initiating behavior, etc.) and Observers' assessments of previously identified patterns of teacher behavior which refer to understanding, friendly classroom behavior, organized business-like classroom behavior, and stimulating, original classroom behavior. Datta, Schaefer, and Davis report that there was considerable evidence that students who are described unfavor- ably by their teachers tend (l) to describe themselves unfa- vorably; (2) to be aware of the teachers' poor Opinion of them; and (3) to receive lower grades than students whom the teacher describes favorably.23 Flanders measured the effect of teacher influence on student attitude.24 He found that 23Lois E. Datta, Earl Schaefer, and Malcolm Davis, "Sex and Scholastic Aptitude as Variables in Teacher's Rat- ings of the Adjustment and Classroom Behavior of Negro and Other Seventh-Grade Students," Journal of Educational Psy- chology, LIX (1968), No. 2, 94-101. 24Ned Flanders, Teacher Influence on Pupil Attitudes and Achievement, Final Report, COOperative Research Project No. 397 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, 1960). 19 students are able to perceive teacher attitudes and that they can affect student attitudes. Katz in examining racial differences in intellectual achievement concludes that teacher attitudes toward black children will be directly related to the classroom behavior of these children.25 The results of an investigation by Smith revealed that significant relationships existed between teachers' eXpectations and students' perception of teachers' expecta- tions for years of school attendance and grades. This study showed that teachers have different eXpectations for differ- ent students and that these eXpectations are accurately per— ceived by most students.26 Further, that highly significant relationships existed between the socio-economic status Of students and the closeness of the teacher-student expressed relationship. Smith also found a highly significant rela- tionship between teacher's eXpectations and the Observed teacher-student relationship. The higher the eXpectations of the teacher the more positive and encouraging they were toward student conversely the lower the expectations the more negative and discouraging they tended to be. The manner in which the teacher's personality and behavior are reflected in children's behavior was studied - 25I.Katz, "Some Motivational Determinants of Racial Differences in Intellectual Achievement," International Journal of Psychology, II, 1-12. 26 Mildred B. Smith, "Interpersonal Relationship in the Classroom Based on the Expected Socio-Economic Status Of Sixth Grade Boys," The Teacher College Journal, XXXVI (January, 1962), 200-206. 20 by the researchers Kounin and Gump.27 These researchers selected three pairs of punitive versus non—punitive first grade teachers from three elementary schools. Each Of the 174 children in the six teachers' classrooms was interviewed individually about what was thought to be the "worst thing to do in school." The children were also asked why they thought these misconducts were bad. The researchers found that the children of the punitive teachers tended to (l) manifest more aggression in their misconduct; (2) be more unsettled and conflicted about misconduct in school; (3) be less concerned with learning and school-unique values; and (4) show some, but not consistent indication of a reduction in rationality pertaining to school misconduct. Brookover found that the self-concept of academic ability correlated significantly with school achievement.28 His study revealed that self-concept of ability is a thresh- old variable and that almost none Of the students with low self-concepts of ability achieved at a high level. Brook- over suggested that strategies be developed for enhancing the self-concept of ability for a larger proportion of 27J. S. Kounin and P. V. Gump, "The Comparative Influences of Punitive and Nonpunitive Teachers Upon Children's Concepts," Journal of Educational Psyghology, LII (February, 1961), 44-49. 28Wilbur B. Brookover, Ann Paterons, and Thomas Shailer. Self Concept of Ability and School Achievement, U.S. Office of Education, Cooperative Research Project NO. 845 (East Lansing: Office of Research and Publication, Michigan State University, 1962). 21 students. He views parents and teachers as being highly important in this process. An experiment by Rosenthal and Jacobson provides the main support for the position that teacher expectancy is a crucial educational variable.29 The investigators pretested all of the children at Oak School in San Francisco, Califor— nia, using a standard nonverbal test of intelligence. This test was represented to the teachers as one that would pre- dict intellectual "blooming" or "spurting." At the begin- ning of the school year following the pretesting, each of the teachers of grades one through six was given the names of about 20 percent of her students who, in the academic year ahead, would show dramatic intellectual growth (actual- ly the names of children were chosen by using a table of random numbers). Post tests were given to all the children after one semester, after a full academic year, and after two full academic years. The investigators found a signif- icant expectancy advantage after the first year. This expectancy advantage was especially great amOng children of the first and second grades. The two year follow-up re- vealed that the young children had lost their expectancy advantage while the children in the upper grades showed an increased expectancy advantage. Most important was the 29Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson, gygmalion in the Classroom (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968). 22 teachers rating of the children who had been expected to bloom intellectually. These children were rated by their teachers as being more intellectually curious, as happier, and, eSpecially in the lower grades, as less in need of social approval. In discussing their findings, the investi- gators stated: . . . it is the teacher to whom we should direct more of our research attention. If we could learn how she is able to effect dramatic improve- ment in her pupils' competence without formal changes in her teaching methods, then we could teach other teachers to do the same. If further research shows that it is possible to select teachers whose untrained interacting style does for many of her pupils what our teachers did for the special children, it may be possible to com- bine SOphisticated teacher selection and place- ment with teacher training to Optimize the learning Of all pupils.30 Gottlieb conducted an exploratory study designed to assess important factors in teacher-student relationships.31 He found that the higher the social-class background the greater the belief that the teacher is aware of and under- stands the goals of the student. Further, that the black student is aware of the polarity between his goals and the goals he believes are held by the teacher. The teacher is seldom perceived by students in the low socio—economic strata as one desirous of facilitating their goals attainment. 3OIbid. 31D. Gottlieb, "Teaching and Students: The Views of Negroes and White Teachers" (unpublished paper, Michigan State University, August, 1964), pp. 345-353. 23 Black students see black rather than white teachers as understanding their goals and helping them to attain them. Gottlieb also found that the curriculum followed by northern black inner-city students was less academic-oriented than that of black students in southern segregated schools. This he believed was a function of the faculty's judgment of the student body as a non-college bound group. Pre-Service Education For Inner-CitypTeachers The one continuous theme that pervades programs designed to improve the education of inner-city children is the importance of the teacher. Along with the recognition of the great need for teachers with the knowledge, eXperi- ence, and attitudes required for working with inner-city children is an increasing awareness that such teachers are not available, in any great numbers, and that very little is being done to help prospective teachers acquire the needed competencies. Most pre-service education programs for inner- city teachers are still largely piece meal attempts to pro- vide some information concerning the life styles and growth patterns Of inner-city children. The American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education conducted a survey of the ten major producers of certified public school teachers in the United States.32 ‘ 32American Association of Colleges for Teacher Educa- tion, Teacher Productivity--l966 (Washington, D.C.: AACTE, 1967). 24 This survey revealed that less than 3 percent of the 15,000 teachers produced by these colleges and universities had been enrolled in or exposed to programs designed to provide well-trained, competent, teachers for students in inner-city communities. Green points out that when this situation is contrasted with burgeoning urban pOpulation, it appears that inner-city schools will continue to be staffed with teachers 33 untrained and often uncommitted to educate poor students. A recent survey by Grade Teachers Magazine found that only 23 percent of graduates entering teaching considered profes- sional challenge as the most important factor in accepting an assignment. These graduates were found to be more con- cerned with salary than academic challenge. Only 13 percent indicated that they planned to teach in inner-city schools.34 The conspicuous absence of the life style and cul- tural patterns of inner-city children from the curriculum of most teacher training institutions provide the strongest evidence for program revision. This revision is necessary if teacher training institutions are to realistically face the problem of providing quality teachers for inner-city youth. The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Devel- opment reports that modification of existing teacher training 33Robert L. Green, "Crisis in American Education: A Racial Dilemma," National Conference on Egual Educational Opportunity in America's Cities, 1967, p. 13. 34Peter Janssen, "The School Crisis," Newsweek, September, 1967. 25 programs to incorporate eXperiences relevant to inner-city children has generally taken the form of changes in course offerings, direct experiences and in organization and structure.35 KlOpf and Bowman conducted Project Aware, a nation- wide research project designed tO assess the preparation of school personnel for working with urban children.36 They found that 60 percent of the 122 colleges and universities had incorporated inner-city education courses into their curriculum. In some cases courses such as urban sociology, educa- tional sociology, anthrOpology, and community psychology were added to the curriculum. The intent of these courses were to give the student some background information. Some schools rather than add courses modified existing courses which resulted in course titles such as--methods of teaching in urban schools, teaching reading to the disadvantaged and curriculum and organization in poor areas. Other colleges placed their emphasis on diagnostic and remedial procedures, methods and materials for individualizing instruction, strategies of classroom control, and personal and material resources. KlOpf and Bowman found that the Specialized 5Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop— ment, Educating the Children of the Poor (Washington, D.C.: NBA, 1968). 36Gordon J. KlOpf and Garda W. Bowman, Teacher Educa- tion in a Social Context (New YOrk: Mental Health Material Center, 1966). 26 method courses were almost exclusively taught by former elementary school teachers or supervisors from the local school and as a result were oriented to a series of pre- scriptive admonitions concerning how to survive and conform to regulations in a particular school system. Specific Pre-Service Education Programs Milner stated that the Urban Education Program at Syracuse University makes extensive use of direct experiences intended to provide first hand contact for prospective inner- city teachers.37 These experiences are expected to develOp Skill in performing the tasks involved and to develOp a positive attitude. This program is a fifth year program supported by a grant from the Ford Foundation. Students are placed into the classroom situation during an orientation summer session. The demonstration school which is organized and Operated by the program is housed in Croton Elementary School, a neighborhood school that is located in a predomi- nantly poor black area. The students spend each morning during the summer orientation session in their assigned classroom under the guidance of selected, experienced teach- ers who compose the demonstration school faculty. This provides the students with the Opportunity to observe and 37Ernest J. Milner, "Preparing Teachers for Urban Schools: The Syracuse Program," Clearinghouse on Urban Teacher Education Report, II, NO. 1 (Spring, 1966). 27 eXperience directly the kinds of pupils and instructional problems they will encounter as interns in their classrooms during the regular school year that follows. Project True, develOped at Hunter College, combines theory, observation, laboratory eXperience, and practice teaching, followed by two years of full-time teaching in New York City Schools.38 The developers of this program Operated on the assumption that prospective teachers Should be prepared in the schools where they will teach. The pro- spective teachers receive instruction on the income level, educational background, and the cultural-language differ- ences of the children. Rivlin instituted a program at Fordham University that relied primarily on direct eXperience.39 The students work one semester as a volunteer community service aide and one semester as a paid school aide during their junior year. In the senior year, the students are assigned to a specially selected classroom teacher as an assistant teacher for three hours a day for a full year. The responsibilities of the student include clerical tasks, teaching individual pupils, small groups, and the whole class. Students receive 25 per— cent of the annual salary of a beginning teacher for their 38Milton J. Gold, "Programs for the Disadvantaged at Hunter College," Phi Delta Kappan, March, 1967. 391Harry N. Rivlin, Teachers for Our Big City Schools (New York: Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith, 1964-65). 28 service. During the fifth year, the teacher education student is appointed an internship and assigned full time to a school. The prospective teacher is responsible for only half the work load of a regular teacher and for this receives 50 percent of the regular teacher's salary. Pro— grams Of this type make an attempt to bring preparation nearer to reality, while providing the beginning teacher the Opportunity to achieve professional stature. Project Y-OO3 conducted at Coppin State College in Baltimore, Maryland was develOped to determine if cultural misunderstanding in inner-city schools could be eliminated by seeking out prospective teachers from among the ethnic and cultural groups served.40 The students selected for this one year experimental program were those perceived to have the academic and personal characteristics necessary for quality teachers. These students were given courses in "The Sociology of the City," "Minority PeOpleS," "The History of the Negro in America," and "Education of the Culturally Different." Field experiences were also provided. This program featured a curriculum designed to increase under- standing of the values of American subcultures. Lectures by members of minority groups were given at the seminars held for the prospective teachers. Inner-city parents and leaders were invited to the lectures. The supervising 40L. D. Reddick, Better Teachers for Inner-City Schools, Y-003 Final (Baltimore, Maryland: COppin State College, 1967). 29 teachers who participated in the program were enrolled in a summer institute which addressed itself to their attitudes and behavior toward inner-city youth. Students who completed their training during the academic year were assigned to inner-city schools and appeared to be working successfully. Programs both at the graduate and undergraduate levels designed to prepare teachers for inner-city teaching positions have been develOped at Western Michigan University, the nation's fourth largest producer of initially certified teachers. Both programs provide coursework and field expe- riences that bridge the gap between theory and practice. The undergraduate program places students in urban schools on a half time basis. This program also prepares teachers to work with migrant children in addition to focusing on the learning problems of inner-City youth.41 Michigan State University collaborated with the Mott Institute for Community Development in structuring a program for elementary education majors, with emphasis on teaching in inner-city schools. For two terms the prospective teach- ers worked in inner—city schools located in Detroit and Flint, Michigan. The first term methods instruction is provided by university personnel and inner-city master teachers. The schools serve as laboratories allowing the students to observe and assist in the classroom where they 41Robert L. Green, "Crisis in American Education: A Racial Dilemma," National Conference on Egual Educational Opportunity in America's Cities, 1967, p. 13. 30 will do their student teaching. Students teach full-time the second term under the watchful eye of the master teacher.42 Ursuline College offers a pre-service education pro- gram develOped COOperatively by the education and sociology departments.43 The inter-disciplinary approach was chosen because sociology can enhance the student understanding of educational deficiencies that are a function of both the home and school setting. In addition to course work, stu- dents also participate in the following field experiences: (1) supervised informal contacts with inner-city children for one semester, (2) observation of classes in inner-city schools, (3) guest lectures by teachers and administrators from those schools, (4) an internship for juniors, which requires them to Spend one morning a week for ten weeks in an inner-city school prior to doing their student teaching, and (5) follow-up workshOps that focus on the problem of graduates who are teaching. During the past few years there have been several additional program innovations which have particular rele- vance for the preparation of inner-city teachers. Seminars are being used to bring together the practical and theoret- ical components of teacher education programs, to promote 42Ibid. 43Ursuline College for Women, NDEA Summer Institute for Teachers and Supervisors of Programs for Disadvantaged Youth in Cleveland's Inner-City Junior High Schools (Cleveland, Ohio: The College, 1967). . 31 analysis of teaching, to plan programs, and to develOp rationale for teaching procedure.44 NDEA Institutes are serving an important function by providing in-service education for inner-city teachers. KlOpf and Bowman reported that understanding the life condi— tions of urban children and the development of instructional Skills, techniques, and materials, were considered to be key objectives of NDEA Institutes by the directors of the sixty- One institutes evaluated by Project Aware.45 Perhaps the newest develOpment in teacher education is training programs for auxiliary personnel (para-profes- sionals or teacher-aides). KlOpf and Bowman stated that during the summer of 1966, eleven demonstration training programs were in Operation.46 These programs provided Opportunities for professionals and non-professionals to study and work together to increase the effectiveness Of auxiliary personnel in various school situations. The importance of the para-professional in inner-city schools cannot be overestimated. A tremendous potential exists for improving instructions and other services, particularly when the para-professionals are selected from their own community. 4American Association of Colleges for Teacher Educa— tion, Teacher Productivity-~1966 (Washington, D.C.: AACTE, 1967. 45Gordon J. KlOpf and Garda W. Bowman, Teacher Education in a Social Context (New York: Mental Health Materials Center, 1966). 46Ibid. 32 One basic weakness common to all the pre-service education programs reviewed is the absence of systematic long range evaluation. Particularly evaluation focusing on attitudinal change as measured by standardized instruments. Evaluation is necessary if accurate determinations of teach- er effectiveness are to be made. We need to know whether prospective inner-city teachers who have received special training are more effective than those who have not received such training. DO they Show empathy for their students? Do their students improve academically? And, do they function well in the community? These are very pressing questions that only systematic long—range evaluation can answer. Summary The literature reviewed in this chapter has been divided into three sections. These sections represent the develOpment of the theoretical framework of this study. Research conducted by Gottlieb, Groff, Becker, and the Michigan Department of Education, revealed that teachers have negative perceptions of inner-city children and per- ceive their role to be custodial rather than instructional. A study conducted by Grambs and supported by the writing of Silberman demonstrates that the attitudes of prospective teachers toward inner-city children do not vary substan- tially from those held by eXperienced teachers. Further, that these attitudes revolve around class prejudice as well as color prejudice. 33 Research that focused on the relationship between teacher attitudes and students attitudes and behavior was also presented. Epperson, Ryan, and Datta, Schaefer, and Davis, found that students described as unfavorably by their teachers and excluded by them tended to describe themselves unfavorably. Smith and Rosenthal and Jacobson found signif— icant relationships between teacher expectations and observed student-teacher relationship. The teachers who had high eXpectations for their students were found to be more posi- tive and encouraging. Brookover found that the self concept of academic ability correlates significantly with school achievement. He viewed teacher and parents as being highly important in this process. Pre-service education with emphasis on urban schools is the medium most frequently employed to prepare prospective teachers for inner-city assignments. Section two of the research supported the belief that pre—service education activities are important and can result in teachers improving their attitudes toward urban schools. AACTE, Green, and Janssen reported that very few teacher training institutions Offer urban pre-service education. And, as a result, inner- city schools are being staffed with teachers untrained and uncommitted to educating poor students. KlOpf and Bowman found that those schools that do Offer urban pre-service training accomplished this goal through courses and some field eXperience. 34 The final section of research reviewed some of the specific pre-service education programs. Milner, Gold, and Rivlin described several existing programs. The eXplicit purpose of these programs was to develop skills for inner- city teaching and to develOp a positive attitude. Most of these programs incorporated coursework and varying amounts of direct field eXperience. Conspicuously absent from all these programs was some form of measured evaluation. How- ever, the reports of those associated with these programs have in all cases been quite positive. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether a shift in the attitudes of prospective teachers m. toward inner-city schools occurred as a function of their exposure to pre-service educational experiences germane to the inner-city school. In addition, the study was intended to investigate whether prospective teachers held attributes toward suburban schools that were more positive than their attitudes toward inner-city schools. During the fall of 1969, members of the coordinating staff of the teacher training program at Michigan State University recognized that pre-service educational eXperi- ences geared to inner-city Schools were necessary to combat the negative attitudes many prOSpective teachers hold toward inner—city schools. They added educational eXperiences designed to provide prOSpective teachers With an Opportunity to examine their attitudes toward inner-city schools. Col- laborating with the coordinating staff in the planning, develOpment and implementation Of this program was the White Racism branch of the Center for Urban Affairs. The pre—service program develOped included lectures, micro-labs and group discussion. In the introductory lecture 35 36 the students were given information explaining how racism manifests itself in education. The tendency of large num- bers of teachers to view students in inner-city schools as culturally disadvantaged, unable to learn, and as Slow learners, was a major concern of this lecture. Following this lecture the students participated in a micro-lab. A trained leader directed these micro-labs where in groups ranging in size from 15 to 20 the students participated in experiences designed to force them to look introspectively at their attitudes toward black peOple. The next day in their small groups the micro—lab eXperiences were discussed by the students. The second lecture was an address by rep- resentatives from PeOple Against Racism. This address focused on the historical prOSpective of racism and how it is manifested in American Society. The final lecture was given by representatives of the Center for Urban Affairs. The main point stressed in this lecture was the importance of the teacher projecting a positive attitude toward the ability of inner-city children to learn. In the last dis- cussion group students evaluated the eXperienceS they had been exposed to and its effect on their attitudes. The purpose of this investigation was to determine if a direc- tional movement of shift in the attitudes of prospective teachers toward inner-city Schools occurred, as a function of the pre-service inner-city educational experiences. 37 The Sample The sample for this study was comprised Of white students enrolled in the pre-service education course. This group was exposed to all the inner-city educational expe- riences. Preliminary information on the students and their respective section assignments was gathered from the records of the coordinating staff. Demographic data was collected during the administration of the instrument. Ten sections were randomly selected from the thirty- four small group discussion sections. Five representing the control group and five representing the experimental group. The pre-test and the post-test were administered by the small group instructors responsible for the Sections. Training in the administration of the test was provided for the section instructors. All students in their sections were asked to respond to the test during the first 15 min- utes of class. The population from which the sample was drawn totaled 1,200 students. There were 250 students in the sample, 125 in the control group and 125 in the exper- imental group. Idiosyncratic data for the students partic- ipating in this study is presented in Table 1. in 38 Table 1. Composition of control and eXperimental groups Control EXperimental Categories Group Group Sex Male 46 38 Female 79 87 Secondary School Inner-city 18 14 Non-inner-city 107 111 Teaching Interest Elementary 47 48 Secondary 78 77 Educational Level Father Less than high school 23 11 High school graduate 31 40 Some college 35 29 Bachelor's degree or higher 36 45 Educational Level Mother Less than high school 14 15 High school graduate 57 47 Some college 27 39 Bachelor's degree or higher 27 24 39 Definition of Terms Inner-city school refers to schools serving children from lower socio—economic areas. The schools designated inner-city for this study are those Michigan high schools with a minimum black enrollment of 10 percent. The Michigan Department of Education 1969 high School racial census fig- ures were used. Suburban schools refers to schools serving children from middle-class areas. All of these schools are situated in census tracts of high property value. They tend to be located away from the core area of the city. Children in these schools are at or above the national norm in average academic achievement as indicated by the Stanford Achieve- ment Test. Urban schools refers to the same schools in this study previously identified as inner-city schools. Par- ticularly those with a high percentage of black students. Inner-city student refers to students from low income families attending inner-city schools. Prospective teacher refers to students enrolled in a teacher training program at an institution of higher learn- ing, who are certified upon completion Of the program. Pre—service education refers to training provided by institutions of higher learning for prOSpective teachers. 4O Attitudes as Operationally defined in this study refer to the affective reaction peOple make to symbols (stimulus concepts) and events. Description of the Research Instrument The instrument employed in the assessment of atti- tude changes was the Osgood Semantic Differential of 50 in“ descriptive scales. For purposes of this study 20 bipolar r _ adjectival scales with high evaluative weighting were selected. Osgood writes that when using his scales to index attitudes the researcher should use only those scales which have high loadings on the evaluative factor across concepts generally and negligible loadings on other factors, as determined from his various factor analytic studies.47 Osgood recommended that the following criterion be used in the selection of scales: 1. Factorial composition--refers to the selection of scales maximally weighted on one factor and mini- mally weighted on others. 2. Relevance—-refers to how well the Scale relates to the concept being judged. 3. Semantic stability--refers to constancy of meaning of the scales across the concepts rated. 47C. E. Osgood, G. J. Suci, and P. H. Tannenbaum, 'The Measurement of Meaning (Urbana, Illinois: University Of Illinois Press, 1957), pp. 34-37, 82—84. 41 These scales were paired with two major concepts-- INNER CITY SCHOOLS and SUBURBAN SCHOOLS. The 20 bipolar adjective scales selected were randomly ordered to prevent a set response pattern from occurring. Concepts were alter- nated thus insuring that some students would complete the inner-city scale first, while Others completed the suburban scale. The pre-test semantic differential was administered to the control group one week before the inner-city educa- tional eXperiences were given. The post-test instrument was r—M-wg administered to the experimental group one week after eXpo- sure to these eXperiences. The test format and administra- tive directions were develOped to coincide with Osgoods' Form II. Pre-test and post-test forms of the instrument were identical (Appendix B for instrument format and admin- istrative directions). The instrument was given a trial run one term prior to the collection of data. Students who par- ticipated in the trial run were similar to those in the actual sample. This procedure improved and facilitated administration of the instrument. A basic assumption underlying the develOpment of the semantic differential is that the experiential background of the subject determines his affective reaction to the stimulus concept. The direction of attitude, positive or negative, is determined by the selection of polar terms by the subject; if the score falls more toward the-positive poles, then the attitude is taken to be positive, and vice versa. A score 42 that falls at the origin, defined by "4" on the scales, is taken as an index of neutrality of attitude. Tannenbaum obtained test-retest reliability data for the semantic differential.48 Tannenbaum asked 135 subjects on two occasions separated by five weeks to judge each Of six concepts (Labor Leaders, The Chicago Tribune, Senator Robert Taft, Legalized Gambling, Abstract Art, and Acceler- ated College Programs) against Six evaluative scales (good- bad, fair-unfair, valuableéworthless, tasty-distasteful, clean-dirty, and pleasant-unpleasant). Attitude scores were computed by summing over the Six scales, after realignment according to a constant evaluative direction. The test- retest coefficients ranged from .87 to .93, with a mean r (computed by z-transformation) of .91. Additional test-retest reliability data was found by Osgood when he compared the semantic differential with the Thurstone scale.49 Each of three concepts (The Negro, The Church, and Capital Punishment) was rated against a series of scales, including five purely evaluative ones (fair- unfair, valuableaworthless, pleasant-unpleasant, clean- dirty, and good-bad). In addition, subjects were also asked 48P. H. Tannenbaum, "Attitudes Toward Source and Concept as Factors in Attitude Change Through Communication" (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, 1953). 49C. E. Osgood, G. J. Suci, and P. H. Tannenbaum, The Measurement of Meaning (Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1957), pp. 34-37, 82-84. Fr" 43 to indicate their attitudes on Thurstone scales Specifically designed to scale these attitude objects (standard scale for‘ the Church, Form B of the Negro scale, and Form A of the Capital Punishment scale). For testing purposes the sub— jects were divided into two groups. One group was given the semantic differential form first, followed approximately one hour later by the Thurstone tests, and the other group had the reverse order. Two weeks later the subjects again took r" both tests, except that this time their respective orders -1 ...: s. were reversed. The latter session was run to Obtain reliability information on both types of attitude measuring instruments. Columns (1) and (2) of Table 2 present the product-moment correlation between the semantic differential (S) and Thurstone (t) scale Scores for each of the three objects of judgment, on the initial test session (rs, t) and on the second test session (rSz t2); column (3) and (4) present the test-retest reliability coefficients for the Thurstone scales (r ) and for the evaluative score on the semantic differ- t, t2 ential (r51, 52), 50 judged. The reliabilities of the two instruments were again for each of the three concepts found to be both high and equivalent. The correlation between the semantic differential scores and the correspond- ing Thurstone scores was significantly greater than chance SOIbid. 44 Table 2. Validity and reliability coefficients for semantic differential attitude scores (5) and Thurstone scale scores (t) (l) (2) (3) (4) Attitude Object rsl tl* r82 t2 rtl t2 r81 82 The Church .74 .76 .81 .83 Capital Punishment .81 .77 .78 .91 The Negro .82 .81 .87 .87 .... IPSHM- 'n .‘J u, *The subscripts l and 2 refer to the first and second testing, respectively. (p <.01) in each case and in no case is the across—techniques correlation Significantly lower than the reliability coeffi- cient for the Thurstone test. It is apparent then that what- ever the Thurstone scale measures, the evaluative dimension of the semantic differential measures just about as well. Research Design The research design for this study is Quasi-EXperimen- tal. This design was recommended by Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley in their book Experimental and Quasi- Experimental Designs for Research.51 They state that for large populations, such as cities, factories, schools and 51Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, EXperimen— tal and uasi-Experimental Designs for Research (Chicago: IRand.McNally and Company, 1966), pp. 53-54. 45 military units, it often happens that one may encounter difficulty in randomly segregating subgroups for differen- tial experimental treatments. When faced with this situa- tion Campbell and Stanley suggest the separate—sample, pre— test, post-test design be used: Pre-Test Treatment Post—Test R 01 (X) Y7 R x 02 i The use of this design allows one to exercise some- thing like full eXperimental control over the 322p and to gppm_of the sample, by employing random assignment proce- dures. In the above diagram, R represents randomly equiv— alent subgroups, the parenthetical X standing for a presen- tation of X irrelevant to the argument. One sample is measured prior to the X, an equivalent one subsequent to X. Treatment of Data The use of the semantic differential bipolar scales permits an assessment of prOSpective teacher attitude move- ment toward the positive pole Of the scale or toward the negative pole——for example, movement toward "pleasant" or "unpleasant" with respect to the concept Inner—City School. Attitude assessment was based on the directional movement toward either the positive or the negative pole over all the scales. The scales were numbered one through seven with seven representing the extreme positive end and one the 46 extreme negative end. The total score for each individual on both concepts was computed. Significant difference in the group means were tested by t—test and analysis of variance. The level of rejection for the hypotheses was established at alpha==.05. The Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient was also used. The major research hypothesis tested is as follows: 9“ 1. Attitude mean scores of prospective teachers who participated in the inner-city educational eXperi- m'. . .. J ences will be higher than the attitude mean scores Of prospective teachers who did not participate. Symbolically: HO: Ml > M2 Legend: M1 = prospective teachers who participated in the inner-city educational eXperi- ences. M2 = prospective teachers who did not participate in the inner-city educational experiences. In addition to the above major hypothesis, the fol- lowing related hypotheses were tested. 1. Attitude mean scores of prospective teachers toward the concept "suburban schools" will be higher than their attitude mean scores toward the concept "inner— city schools." Symbolically: HO: Ml > M2 Legend: M1 = Attitude toward suburban schools. M 2 Attitude toward inner-city schools. 47 Attitude mean scores of prospective teachers who have attended inner-city schools will be higher than the attitude mean scores of those who have not. Symbolically: HO: M1 > M2 Legend: M1 = Prospective teachers who attended inner-city schools. M2 = Prospective teachers who did not attend inner-city Schools. Attitude mean scores of female prospective teachers m‘dfl'fl-'L_.l Y'. toward inner—city schools will be higher than the attitude mean scoresof male prospective teachers toward inner-city schools. Symbolically: HO: Ml > M2 Legend: Ml Female prOSpective teachers. M 2 Male prOSpective teachers. Attitude mean scores of prOSpective teachers whose parents have a college education will be higher than the attitude mean scores of those whose parents do not have a college education. Symbolically: HO: Ml > M2 Legend: Ml Prospective teachers whose parents have a college education. M 2 Prospective teachers whose parents don't have a college education.~ 48 5. Attitude mean scores of prospective teachers inter- ested in teaching elementary school will be higher than those interested in teaching secondary school. Symbolically: HO: Ml > M:2 Prospective teachers interested in teaching elementary school. Legend: Ml M 2 Prospective teachers interested in teaching secondary school. Summary In this chapter the methods and procedures used in conducting this investigation were discussed. The pOpula- tion included 1,200 prOSpective teachers who enrolled in the pre-service education course and were eXposed to the inner- city educational experiences. The sample consisted of 250 prospective teachers enrolled in Education 200, a pre-service education course. The treatment for the eXperimental group ‘was the lectures, micro-labs, and group discussion. The research instrument used in data collection was described and available reliability and validity data on this instrument were reported. Operational definitions of terms used in the investigation were presented. Also the research designed was discussed. In the last section the major research hypothesis was stated along with the related hypotheses. Symbolic represen- tations of these hypotheses were illustrated. The major statistical technique employed in analyzing data was the analysis of variance. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA The two major purposes of this study as described in Chapter I were: (1) to investigate whether prospective m teachers held attitudes toward suburban schools that were f... :umm..r.v.¢ .3 more positive than their attitudes toward inner-city schools, and (2) to determine whether a shift in the attitudes of prOSpective teachers toward inner-city schools occurred as a function of their exposure to pre-service educational eXperiences germane to the inner-city school. These hypotheses are now examined in light of the findings Of the study. The data presented in this chapter was collected by using a sample of 250 white prospective teachers enrolled in a pre-service education course. There were 125 students in the control group and 125 in the experimental group. Statistical procedures employed were t-test, analy- sis of variance, and Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficient. The level of significance for all hypotheses to be accepted was the .05 level of statistical Significance. 49 50 Perceptions Held by Prospective Teachers Toward the Concepts "Inner-Cipy School," "Suburban School" The perceptions held by prOSpective teachers toward the concepts "inner-city school", "suburban school" were determined by analysis of the following hypothesis: Ho: Attitude mean scores of prOSpective teachers toward the concept "suburban schools" will be higher than their mean scores toward the concept "inner—city schools." The findings presented in Table 3 Show the mean scores for the inner—city and suburban scale. A t—test was conducted on the mean Scores to determine the significance of the difference between the two scales. The value of t was 30.34 with 498 degrees of freedom. Significance at the .05 level was 1.66. The hypothesis was strongly substanti- ated and therefore accepted. The correlation coefficient for the two scales was -.06 (see Appendix C). This indi- cated that the responses on.the inner-city scale were inde- pendent of the responses on the suburban scale. The prospec- tive teachers have clearly made a distinction between inner- city and suburban schools. Directionally their perception of inner—city schools lies in the scales negative region while their perception of suburban schools lies in the scales positive region. I“. . *1 i 2;:- _ 51 Table 3. Inner—city and suburban scale means, standard deviations and t value Inner-City School Suburban School n = 250 n = 250 Mean S. D. Mean S.D. d.f. t 56.25 14.52 97.51 15.88 498 30.34 Effect of Treatment on Attitude Scores The impact of the treatment on the attitudes of the experimental group was determined by analysis of the follow- ing hypothesis: HO: Attitude mean scores of prospective teachers who participated in the inner-city educational eXperi- ences will be higher than the attitude mean scores of prospective teachers who did not participate. An examination of Table 4 reveals that the experimen- tal group mean score for prospective teachers on the concept "inner-city school" increased while their mean scores on the concept "suburban schools" decreased. In Table 5 and Table 6 analysis of variance was conducted on the mean scores of the control and eXperimental groups. For the concept "inner—city school" the f value of .1430 with 249 degrees of freedom was not significant at the .05 level. However, the table reveals 52 Table 4. Means and standard deviations for control and experimental groups Control Group Experimental Group n = 125 n = 125 Concepts Mean S. D. Mean S.D. “Inner-city school" 55.90 13.26 56.60 15.74 "Suburban school" 101.18 14.27 93.85 16.60 Table 5. Analysis of variance for the control and eXperimen- tal groups on the concept "inner-city schools" Sources of Variation d.f. Estimated Variance F Between classes 1 30.2760 .1430 Within Classes 248 211.6970 Total 249 241.9730 Table 6. Analysis of variance for the control and experimen- tal groups on the concept "suburban schools" Sources of Variation d.f. Estimated Variance F Between classes 1 3363.5560 14.0373 Within classes 248 239.6166 Total ‘ 249 3603.1726 53 that such differences as exist were in the direction which was expected. The hypothesis was not accepted. For the concept "suburban schools" the f value of 14.0373 with 249 degrees of freedom was significant at the .05 level. In positing the above hypothesis it was reasoned that scores on the suburban scale would remain approximately the same for both experimental and control group. However, a shift in the negative direction by the experimental group on the concept "suburban schools" occurred. The experimen- tal group perception of suburban schools was adversely affected by the treatment. Influence of Inner-City and Non-Inner-City Attendance on Attitude Scores Table 7, Table 8, and Table 9 present means, stan- dard deviations, and analysis of variance results which test the following hypothesis: Ho: Attitude mean scores of prOSpective teachers who attended inner—city schools will be higher than the attitude mean scores of those who have not. Table 7 shows that mean scores of prospective teach- ers who attended inner-city schools are not Significantly different from the mean scores of prospective teachers who did not attend inner-city Schools. This relationShip holds for both concepts. The table reveals that the non-inner- city attendance Scores are slightly higher than the inner- city attendance scores. 54 Table 7. Means and standard deviations for inner-city, non- inner-city attendance attitude scores Inner-City Non—Inner-City n = 32 n = 218 Concepts Mean S. D. Mean S. D. "Inner—city school" 55.72 14.77 56.33 14.52 "Suburban school" 96.59 15.76 97.65 15.93 Table 8. Analysis of variance for inner-city, non-inner—city attendance on the concept "inner-city schools" Sources of Variation d.f. Estimated Variance F Between classes 1 10.4351 .0493 Within classes 248 211.7770 Total 249 222.2121 Table 9. Analysis of variance for inner-city, non—inner-city attendance on the concept "suburban schools" Sources of Variation d.f. Estimated Variance F Between classes 1 31.2127 .1233 Within classes 248 253.0533 Total 249 284.2660 55 Tables 8 and 9 Show the f values to be .0493 for the concept "inner-city school" and .1233 for the concept "subur- ban schools." These f values are not significant at the .05 level. The hypothesis was not accepted. Apparently inner— city school attendance had no effect on the attitudes of these prOSpective teachers toward inner-city schools. Influence of Sex on Attitude Scores Table 10, Table 11, and Table 12 present means, standard deviations, and analysis of variance results which test the following hypothesis: Ho: Attitude mean scores of female prospective teacher toward inner-city schools will be higher than the attitude mean scores of male prospective teachers toward inner-city schools. The findings presented in Table 10 Show the group mean for males to be higher than the group mean for females on the concept "inner-city school." Table 11 presents an analysis of variance f value of .9698 which shows that this difference was not statistically significant at the .05 level. AS a result the hypothesis was not accepted. However, a significant difference was found between the group mean for the males and the group mean for the females on the concept "suburban schools." Table 12 reveals that the f value of this group is 5.0102. The dif- ference was significant at the .05 level of confidence. 56 Table 10. Means and standard deviations for male and female attitude scores Male Female n = 84 n = 166 Concepts Mean S. D. Mean S. D. "Inner—city school" 57.52 13.42 55.61 15.05 "Suburban school" 94.38 15.63 99.10 15.82 Table 11. Analysis of variance for male, female on the concept "inner-city schools“ Sources of Variation d.f. Estimated Variance F Between classes 1 204.6234 _ .9698 Within classes 248 210.9940 Total 249 415.6174 Table 12. Analysis of variance for male, female on the concept "suburban schools" Sources of Variation d.f. Estimated Variance F Between classes 1 1,243.3674 5.0102 Within classes 248 248.1656 Total 249 1,491.5330 57 The male Scores tended to be more negative than the female scores on the concept "suburban schools." Influence of Parents' Education on Attitude Scores The influence of parent education on the attitude scores of prospective teachers was determined by analysis of the following hypothesis: HO: Attitude mean scores of prospective teachers whose parents have a college education will be higher than the attitude mean Scores of those whose parents do not have a college education. Table 13 presents the means and standard deviations for fathers' education level on the concepts "inner-city schools" and "suburban schools." It can be seen by examin- ing this table that the means and standard deviations on the four dimensions tested are about the same. Analysis of variance data presented in Table 14 and Table 15 indicates that there is no significant difference in the samples on the four dimensions tested. This holds true for both con- cepts, the respective f values are "inner-city schools" 1.3304 and "suburban schools" 1.3414. On the basis of the evidence generated by the analysis of variance test, the hypothesis is not substantiated. 58 om.va om.mm mm.ha mn.ma mm.mm om.ma vv.mm =aoonom amnephsm. eaoonom muHOIuoscH: vm.ma av.nm mo.ma .Q .m cmwz .Q .m Hm N s so u nonmam Ho omoaaou meow moumoa m.uoHo£omm .Q .m Cmmz Hoonom poem SM n a Hooaom seam cmnu owed mummocou Ho>oa coHumoopo .muonumw How mcoHuma>op pumpcmum pom mcmoz .ma OHQmB 59 Table 14. Analysis of variance for fathers' education level on the concept "inner-city schools" Sources of Variation d.f. Estimated Variance F Between classes 3 279.5500 1.3304 Within classes 246 210.1320 Total 249 489.6820 Table 15. Analysis of variance for fathers' education level on the concept "suburban schools" Sources of Variation d.f. Estimated Variance F Between classes 3 336.8689 1.3414 Within classes 246 251.1294 Total 249 587.9983 60 Table 16 presents the means and standard deviations for mothers' education level on the concepts "inner-city schools" and "suburban schools." This table shows the means and standard deviations to be very similar on the four dimen- sions tested. Table 17 and Table 18 present f values of .0943 and .5708 for the concepts "inner-city schools" and "suburban schOols," respectively. These f values are not statistically Significant at the .05 level. It would appear from the analysis that no relationship exists between the students' response to the attitude scales and the educational level of their parents. Relationship Between Teaching Interest and Attitude Scores In this section means, standard deviation, and anal- ysis of variance values are presented which compare the prospective teacher preference for teaching in either ele- mentary or secondary school with their attitude scores on the concepts "inner-city schools" and "suburban Schools." This relationship was determined by analysis of the follow- ing hypothesis: HO: Attitude mean scores of prospective teachers inter- ested in teaching elementary school will be higher than the attitude mean scores of those interested in teaching secondary school. 61 mm.ma mn.mm O0.0H mn.om nv.ma mm.mm mm.>a ha.nm :mHoonom cmnusnsm: mm.ma mm.mm mo.ma Oh.pm Ho.ma om.om Oh.¢a mm.pm waoonom muHOIumacH: .Q .m one: .0 .m amp: .0 .m amp: .9 .m cmoz mumoocoo Hm N a mm H c voa N c mm N c nonmam Ho mmumoo m.Hoao£omm omoaaoo meow Hoonum seam Hoonom seam cmnu mmoq Ho>oa coHumOSOO .muonuoe Mom mcoHuma>op pumpsmum can name: .oa magma 62 Table 17. Analysis of variance for mothers' education level on the concept "inner-city schools" Sources of Variation d.f. Estimated'Variance F Between classes 3 20.1182 .0943 Within classes 246 213.2958 Total 249 233.4140 Table 18. Analysis of variance for mothers' education level on the concept "suburban schools" Sources of Variation d.f. Estimated Variance F Between classes 3 144.6866 .5708 Within classes 246 253.4731 Total 249 398.1597 63 Table 19 presents means and standard deviations for the respective teaching interests. From Table 19 it may be seen that the group mean for elementary school is smaller than the group mean for secondary school on the concept "inner-city schools." While the group mean for elementary school on the concept "suburban schools" is higher than the group mean for secondary school. It may be seen in Table 20 and Table 21 that there are no statistically significant differences between the means on the dimensions tested. The f values are 1.9141 for "inner-city schools" and .3012 for "suburban schools." There may be some tendency, though not statistically signif- icant, for prospective teachers interested in teaching at the elementary level to perceive inner-city schools as being more negative than those interested in teaching at the secon- dary level. This effect is Opposite to the one hypothesized. On the basis of the evidence generated by the analysis of variance test, the hypothesis is not substantiated. Summary The perceptions held by prOSpective teachers toward the concepts "inner-city schools," "suburban schools" was studied by the first related hypothesis. The t—test con- ducted to determine the Significance of the difference between the group means yielded a t value of 30.34 with 498 degrees of freedom. This finding was Significant at the .05 level of confidence. Therefore the hypothesis was accepted. 64 Table 19. Means and standard deviations for teaching interest Elementary Secondary n = 95 n = 155 Concepts Mean S. D. Mean S. D. "Inner-city schools" 54.63 14.73 57.25 14.35 "Suburban schools" 98.22 17.30 97.08 14.98 Table 20. Analysis of variance for elementary, secondary teaching preference on the concept "inner-city schools" Sources of Variation d.f. Estimated Variance F Between classes 1 402.3349 1.9141 Within classes 248 210.1967 Total 249 612.5316 Table 21. Analysis of variance for elementary, secondary teaching preference on the concept"suburban Schools" Sources of Variation d.f. Estimated Variance F Between Classes 1 76.1684 .3012 Within classes 248 252.8720 Total 249 329.0404 65 The major hypothesis examined the effect of the pre- service treatment (eXperience germane to the inner-city school) on the attitude scores of the eXperimental group. NO significant difference was found on the concept "inner- city schools." The value Of f was .1430. However, the treatment did have an effect on the attitude scores of the experimental group on the concept "suburban schools." This difference was statistically significant at the .05 level Of confidence. The f value was 14.0373. The hypothesis could not be retained since this occurrence was not originally hypothesized. The second related hypothesis studied the difference between the group means of prospective teachers who attended inner-city school and those who did not. No significant difference was found. The f values were .0493 (inner-city schools) and .1233 (suburban schools) with 249 degrees of freedom. The hypothesis could not be accepted since these values were not significant at the .05 level. The third related hypothesis studied the difference between attitude scores for male prospective teachers and those for female prospective teachers. No significant difference was found on the concept "inner-city schools." Analysis of variance yielded an f value of .9698. A significant difference did occur for males on the concept "suburban schools." This difference was significant at the .05 confidence level. The f value was 5.0102. Since this 66 difference was not originally hypothesized the hypothesis - could not be substantiated. The fourth related hypothesis examined the relation- ship between parent education and prospective teacher atti— tude scores. The f scores revealed by analysis of variance tests for fathers' education level were 1.3304 (inner-city school) and 1.3414 (suburban level). For mothers' education level the f values were .0943 (inner-city school) and .5708 (suburban school). None of these values were significant at the .05 confidence level. The final related hypothesis tested the significance of the mean score for elementary and secondary teaching interest. The f values were 1.9141 for the concept "inner- city schools" and .3012 for the concept "suburban schools." While a difference existed, this difference was not statis- tically significant at .05 level of confidence. I III I'll Ill 1 IJ‘IIIIIIIJI [13111 II III CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS The goal of this investigation was to assess changes in the attitudes of white prospective teachers as a function of their eXperienceS in a pre-service education course. These experiences which focused on inner-city education were planned and developed by the coordinating staff of the teacher training program and representatives from the urban affairs center. The pre-service program included lectures, micro-labs and group discussion. A review of literature relevant to inner-city teach- ing supported the assumption that the attitude Of the teacher toward the inner-city school is a critical factor in deter- mining the success or failure of the inner-city child. There was general agreement that many teachers now teaching in the inner-city school hold attitudes that are negative and dysfunctional. Previous research supported the belief c that pre-Service education activities are important and can result in teachers improving their attitudes toward inner- city schools. In order to determine whether these educational experiences would have a positive effect on attitudes the following hypotheses were tested: 67 68 Hypothesis I A positive change in the attitudes of prospective teachers toward inner-city schools will occur as a result of exposure to educational experiences relevant to inner-city schools. Hypothesis II The attitudes of prospective teachers toward subur— ban schools will be more positive than their attitudes toward inner-city schools. Hypothesis III The attitudes toward inner-city schools of those prospective teachers who have attended inner-city schools will be more positive than the attitudes of those who did not attend inner-city schools. Hypothesis IV The attitudes toward inner-city schools of the female prOSpective teachers will be more positive than the attitudes of the male prospective teachers. Hypothesis V The attitudes toward inner-city schools of those prospective teachers whose parents have a college education will be more positive than the attitudes of those whose parents do not have a college education. 69 Hypothesis VI The attitudes toward inner—city schools of those prospective teachers interested in teaching elementary school will be more positive than those interested in teaching secondary school. The data for this investigation was collected from a Sample of 250 white students enrolled in the pre-service education course. Ten sections were randomly selected from the thirty-four small group discussion sections. Five represented the control and five represented the experimen- tal group. There were 125 students in each group. The treatment for the experimental group was inner-city educa- tional eXperiences. The instrument employed to assess these hypotheses was the Osgood Semantic Differential of 50 descriptive scales. For purposes of this study 20 bipolar adjectival scales with high evaluative weighting were selected. These scales were paired with two major concepts--"inner-city schools," and "suburban schools." Identical pre- and post- test forms were administered one week before the pre-service experiences and immediately following the week of experiences. The scales were numbered one through seven with seven representing the extreme positive end and one the extreme negative end. The total score for each individual across all scales on both concepts was computed. Scores range from an extremely negative score of 20 to an extremely positive 70 score of 140. Significant difference in the group means was tested by analysis of variance. Discussion of Findings With reSpect to the first hypothesis, it was found that for the concept "inner-city schools" no significant difference existed between the attitude mean scores of prOSpective teachers who participated in the inner-city educational experience and the attitude mean Scores of prospective teachers who did not participate. However, the difference that was found was in the direction which was hypothesized. Hypothesis I cannot be supported when limited to inner-city schools. While the treatment did not seem to have a major impact on the attitudes held by prospective teachers toward inner-city schools it did have a significant effect on their attitudes toward suburban schools. When the attitude mean scores of prospective teacher in the control group were compared to the attitude mean scores of prospective teachers in the eXperimental group, a difference which was significant at the .05 level was found. This finding was not expected. The researcher reasoned that attitude scores on the concept "suburban schools" would not be affected by the treatment. Additional research will provide a more definitive explana- tion for this unexPected occurrence. As a result of the treatment suburban schools were seen in a more negative light. This change in perception 71 might have been caused by material presented which focused on institutionalized racism and the suburban school. The students were made more aware of how attitude, values, and beliefs are transmitted through the school. Hypothesis I, then, can be supported when extended to suburban schools. With reSpect to Hypothesis II, the findings revealed that these prospective teachers held attitudes toward the suburban schools that were extremely more positive than their attitudes toward inner-city schools. This difference was statistically significant at the .05 confidence level. Hypothesis II is strongly substantiated and therefore accepted. This finding is important because it shows that we still have a large number of teachers entering teacher education programs with negative perceptions toward inner- city schools. Further, that unless something is done the problems of providing quality education in the inner-city will continue to grow. No significant difference was found when those prospective teachers who attended inner-city schools were compared with those who did not attend inner-city schools. This relationship held for both major concepts. Apparently, the attitudes of prospective teachers toward inner-city schools are unaffected by their prior school attendance. Hypothesis III cannot be supported. With respect to the fourth hypothesis, it was found that the attitudes of males toward inner-city schools were more positive than the attitudes of females. This difference 72 was not significant at the .05 level. Even if the differ- ence had been significant the hypothesis could not have been accepted since the difference was not in the direction which was hypothesized. A significant difference was found when the attitude mean scores of males were compared with the attitude mean scores of females on the concept "suburban schools." This difference was significant at the .05 confidence level. The male prOSpective teachers perception of the suburban school was more in the negative direction than that of the female prospective teacher. It would appear that male prOSpective teachers are much more likely to grasp the reality of the situation than are the female prOSpective teachers. With respect to Hypothesis V, it was found that in this research study no evidence was presented which supports the position posited; that those prospective teachers whose parents have a college education will have attitudes toward the inner-city School that are more positive. No signif- icant difference was found on the educational level tested. This holds both for fathers' and mothers' education level. It appeared from the analysis that no relationship existed between the students' response to the attitude scales and the educational levels of their parents. Hypothesis VI was tested to determine if the teach- ing interest of the prospective teacher affected their response to the concepts "inner—city schools" and "suburban schools." With respect to inner-city schools the difference . '1‘ III. I J\ i If I 1 1‘1 1 \I Ill 1"! l I . III I .. 11.11! 1.. 73 was in the Opposite direction to that which was hypothesized; that is, the perceptions of prospective teachers interested in teaching elementary school were more negative than those interested in teaching secondary school. This difference was not statistically significant at the .05 level. Pro- spective teachers whose teaching preference was elementary school tended to view suburban schools in a more positive light than those whose teaching preference was secondary school. Implications of the Study This investigation has major implications for pre— service teacher education programs. In their efforts to recruit the "right teachers" for inner-city schools, school administrators and teacher training institutions have uti- lized many different types of programs. All of these pro- grams were at one time thought to be the panacea. However, undermining the effectiveness of these programs are the attitudes and expectations of the prOSpective teachers. A major finding of this study was that the percep- tions held by a beginning group of prospective white teach— ers toward inner-city schools were extremely negative (see Table 22 for mean comparisons). The research of Gramb, Clark, and Gottlieb demonstrated that white teachers have the propensity to perceive inner-city children negatively. It appears that perhaps a relationship exists between their research and the findings of this study. 74 This finding raises some serious questions, the most important being how can quality education become a reality in the inner-city school when so many prospective teachers, some of whom will staff inner-city schools have such nega- tive attitudes toward the inner-city school? Rosenthal and Jacobson have posited the position that teacher expectancy 52 The next obvious ques- is a crucial education variable. tion is, do prospective teachers who perceive the inner-city school negatively hold high eXpectations for the inner-city child? Answers to these questions can only be provided by further research. It would seem that while the search for programs that will modify or change the attitudes of prOSpec- tive teachers toward inner-city schools must be continued, priority should be Shifted to the recruitment of black teach- ers for the inner-city school. As pointed out by Gottlieb, black students see black teachers rather than white teachers as understanding them.53 Another important finding of this study that has implications for pre-service teacher education programs was the significant effect the inner-city educational experiences had on the prOSpective teachers attitudes toward suburban schools. While the treatment had little or no effect on attitudes toward inner-city school it had an appreciable effect on attitudes toward suburban schools (see Table 22). 52Rosenthal and Jacobson, pp, cit. 53Gottlieb, pp. cit., pp. 345-353. 75 The experimental group perceptions of suburban school was significantly more negative than the control group percep- tions. It was reasoned that perhaps these students realized that the negative attitudes they held toward inner—city schools were in part shaped in suburban schools. Further, that as a result their perceptions of social reality were in many ways distorted. This finding is Significant because it suggests that while it is important to develOp programs designed to bring about changes in the inner-city schools, it is perhaps equally important that pre-service and in- service programs focus on changing the suburban school. Examination of Table 22 reveals the effectiveness of the treatment in bringing about attitudinal change. Table 22. Comparison of difference between control group and eXperimental group . Control Group Experimental Group Concepts Mean Mean "Suburban schools" 101.19 93.85 ”Inner—city schools" 55.91 56.60 Difference 45.28 37.25 76 The study also provides some framework for the design of future pre—service education programs. A one week program designed to bring about changes in the affective domain is perhaps inadequate. Many of the students wanted the program to be extended. They felt the eXperiences could have been expanded, and spread over a longer period of time. It is therefore recommended that future pre-service programs contain the following additional components: 1. The period of time be extended to at least five weeks to allow for a more in—depth eXperience. 2. More time be spent in micro-labs and less in large group lectures. 3. Weekly follow-up sessions that would permit prospec- tive teachers to engage in dialogue. 4. Observation of the prospective teacher in the class- room to see if a change of attitude is manifested behaviorally. 5. COOperation between the teacher training institution and the school system in develOping follow—up seminars. 6. Involvement of administrative personnel in such seminars in order to assist them in a re-examination of their attitudes. 7. A greater emphasis Should be placed on small group interaction thus giving the participants more Opportunity for dialogue. 8. 77 A greater attempt be made to represent the real world through films, Slides, and tapes. This study has assessed the impact of pre-service educational eXperiences germane to the inner—city school on the attitudes of prOSpective teachers. It is hOped that the findings will provide school administrators and those responsible for teacher education programs with some mean- ingful insights into the development of pre-service and in- service programs. It is also hoped that the findings will aid in the recruitment of the "right teachers" for inner- city schools. Recommendations for Further Studies This study should be replicated on a sample of prospective black teachers. That a longitudinal study be conducted to determine the long range effects of these eXperiences on attitudes. This study should be replicated on prOSpective teachers during their last academic term. This study Should be repeated in a large urban area where the attitudes of black and white inner-city teachers can be compared. This study be repeated comparing the attitudes of black prOSpective teachers with the attitudes of black teachers on the job. 78 Reflections The eXperience of conducting this study has in— creased my perceptions Of the myriad of problems now facing urban education. It is apparent to me that the time for action is now. Yet the "rhetoric of change" is still being espoused in halls of academia, local school boards, city councils, and chambers of Congress. The failure of the schools to provide quality education for black children can no longer be tolerated. The parents of black children and the black community in general, have issued cease and desist orders, and are demanding that the teachers and principals of black schools be held accountable for their performance. The findings of this study have raised seriOuS doubts in my mind. I find it difficult to see prospective teachers who hold negative attitudes toward the inner-city school, bringing to the inner-city school the kind of posi- tive attitude and sensitivity so desperately needed by the black child. It seems to me that what the black child needs most are strong emulatory models who can both teach and empathize with him. He needs teachers who can accept him for what he is and what he brings to the learning Situation. The attitudes and expectations of the teacher will play a major role in determining whether the child eXperiences frustration or success in school. The tendency for the experimental group to perceive the suburban school more negatively than the control group 79 is a finding worth some reflection. This finding is partic- ularly encouraging because it suggests that the treatment had an impact on attitudes toward suburban schools. Perhaps these prOSpective teachers saw a relationship between insti— tutionalized racism and the suburban school. On the basis of this eXperience I would Opt for incorporating programs of this type in the suburban school. Hopefully, these programs would act as catalyses, facilitating attitudes and curricula changes. Finally, I would like to say that writing this study was both rewarding and enjoyable. B IBLIOGRA PHY BIBLIOGRAPHY American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. Teacher Productivity 1966. Washington, D.C.: AACTE, 1967. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Deve10pment. Educating the Children of the Poor. Washington, D.C.: NBA, 1968. Becker, Howard S. "Career Patterns of Public School Teach- ing," Journal of Sociology, LVII (March, 1962), 470-477. Bloom, B. S. Stability and Change in Human Characteristics. New York: Wiley, 1964. Brookover, Wilber B., Paterson, Ann, and Thomas, Shailer. Self Concept of Ability and School Achievement. U.S. Office of Education, COOperative Research Project No. 845. East Lansing: Office of Research and Publication, Michigan State University, 1962. Campbell, Donald T., and Stanley, Julian C. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1966, pp. 53-54. Clark, K. Dark Ghetto. New YOrk: Harper and Row, 1965, ‘ pp. 133-138. Coleman, James S. Equality of Educational Opportunity. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and welfare. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966. Combs, Arthur. The Professional Development of Teachers. New York: Allyn and Bacon, 1965, p. v. Datta, Lois E., Schaefer, Earl, and Davis, Malcolm. "Sex and Scholastic Aptitude as Variables in Teachers' Ratings of the Adjustment and Classroom Behavior of Negro and other Seventh Grade Students,“ Journal of Educptional Psychology, LIV (1968), 94-101. Epperson, D. C. ‘"Some Interpersonal and Performance Corre- 1ates of Classroom Alienation," School Review, Autumn, 1963, pp. 360-376. 80 81 First Michigan Public School Racial Census. A report of the Michigan Department of Education, 1967. Flanders, Ned. Teacher Influence on Pupil Attitudes and Achievements. Final Report, Cooperative Research Project NO. 397. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education, 1960. Gold, Milton J. "Programs for the Disadvantaged at Hunter College," Phi Delta Kappan, March, 1967. Cottlieb, D. "Teaching and Students: The Views of Negroes and White Teachers." Unpublished paper, Michigan State University, August, 1964, pp. 345-353. Grambs, Jean. "Are We Training Prejudiced Teachers?" School and Society, LXXI (1950), 196-198. Green, R. L., Hofmann, L. J., Morgan, R. F. "Some Effects of Deprivation on Intelligence, Achievement, and Cognitive Growth," Journal of Negpo Education, Winter, 1967, p. 3. Green, R. L. "Crisis In American Education: A Racial Dilemma." National Conference on Equal Educational Opportunity in American Cities, 1967, p. 13. Groff, Patrick J. "Dissatisfaction in Teaching the C.D. Child," Phi Delta Kappan, XLV (November, 1963), 76. Hogan, Ermon O. "The Influence of an In-Service WOrkshOp Experience on Teachers' Ability to Positively Modify the Self-Concept of Educationally and Economically Disadvan- taged Students." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968, p. 2. Hughes, Marie M. "When the Middle Meets the End." Child- hood Education, XXIV (January, 1948), 227. Janssen, Peter. "The School Crisis," Newsweek, September, 1967. Katz, I. "Some Motivational Determinants of Racial Differ- ences in Intellectual Achievements," International Jour— nal of Psychology, II, 1-12. KlOpf, Gordon J., and Bowman, Gorda W. Teacher Education in a Social Context. New York: Mental Health Material Center, 1966. Kounin, J. S., and Gump, P. V. "The Comparative Influence of Punitive and Nonpunitive Teachers Upon Children's Con- cepts." Journal of Educational Psychology, LII (February, 1961), 44-49. Ill 3'] i I 82 Milner, Ernest J. "Preparing Teachers for Urban Schools: The Syracuse Program," ClearinggHouse on Urban Teacher Education Report, II, No. 1 (Spring, 1966). Noar, Gertrude. Teaching and Learning the Democratic Way. New Jersey: Prentice—Hall, 1963, pp. 119-121. Osgood, C. D., Suci, G. J., and Tannenbaum, P. H. The Measurements of Meaning. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1957, pp. 34—37, 82-84. Reddick, L. D. Better Teachers for Inner-City Schools. Y—OO3, Final Report. Baltimore, Maryland: Coppin State College, 1967. Report of the Detroit High School Commission. Edited by Edward Cushman and Keith Damon, Detroit, Michigan, June, 1968. Rivlin, Harry N. Teachers for Our Big City Schools. New York: Anti-Defamation League of B'nai Brith, 1964-65. Rogers, Carl B. ”Humanizing Education: The Person in the Process," ASCD News Exchange, IV (April4nay, 1967), 2. Rosenthal, Robert, and Jacobson, Lenore. Pygmalion 19 the Classroom. New YOrk: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968. Ryans, D. G. "Some Relationships Between Pupil Behavior and Certain Teacher Characteristics," Journal of Educational Psyohology, LII (1961), 82-91. Silberman, Charles E. Crisis in Black and White. New York: Random House, 1964, pp. 3-16. Smith, Mildred B. "Interpersonal Relationships in the Classroom Based on the Expected Socio-Economic Status of Sixth Grade Boys," The Teacher College Journal, XXXVI (January, 1962), 200-206. Strom, Robert D. The Inner-City Classroom Teachers' Behav- ior. Ohio: Merrill Books, Inc., 1966, pp. 1, 21-24. Tannenbaum, P. H. "Attitudes Toward Sources and Concepts as Factors in Attitude Change Through Communication." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, 1953. Ursuline College for Women. "NDEA Summer Institute for Teachers and Supervisors of the Program for Disadvan- taged Youth in Cleveland's Inner-City Junior High Schools," The College, Cleveland, Ohio, 1967. APPENDIX A PERSONAL DATA FORM APPENDIX A PERSONAL DATA FORM 1. Age 2. Sex . 3. Name the high school you graduated from and the city 4. Teaching interest: Elementary ; Junior High Senior High . 5. Highest level of education attained by your father. a. Less than high school b. High school graduate c. Some college d. Bachelor's degree or higher 6. Highest level of education attained by your mother. a. Less than high school b. High school graduate c. Some college d. Bachelor's degree or higher 83 APPENDIX B INSTRUMENT APPENDIX B INSTRUMENT INSTRUCTIONS The purpose of this study is to measure the meaning of certain things to various peOple by having them judge them against a series of descriptive scales. In taking this test, please make your judgments on the basis of what these things mean to ypp, On each page of this booklet you will find a different concept to be judged and beneath it a Set of scales. You are to rate the concept on each of these scales in order. Here is how you are to use these scales: If you feel that the concept at the tOp of the page is very closelyyrelated to one end of the Scale, you should place your check-mark as follows: fair X : : : unfair fair : : : -: : : X : unfair If you feel that the concept is quite glosely related to one or the other end of the scale (but not extremely), you should place your check-mark as follows: strong : X : : weak strong : : : : : }( : : weak If the concept seems only slightly related to one side as Opposed to the other Side (but is not really neutral), then you should check as follows: active : X : . passive active : : : : X : : : passive The direction toward which you check, of course, depends upon which of the two ends of the Scale seems most characteristic of the concept you're judging. If you consider the concept to be neutral on the scale, both Sides of the Scale equally associated with the concept, 84 85 or if the scale is completely irrelevant, unrelated to the concept, then you should place your checkmark in the middle space: safe : : : X : : : : dangerous IMPORTANT: (1) Place your check-marks in the middle of the Spaces, not on the boundaries: : : X : :X ° This Not This (2) Be sure you check both scales for every concept-~DO NOT OMIT ANY. (3) Never put more than one check-mark on a single scale. Sometimes you may feel as though you've had the same item before on the test. This will not be the case, so do not look back and fopth through the items. Do not try to ' remember how you checked similar items earlier on the test. Make each item a separate and indgpendent judge ment. Work at a fairly highgppeed through this test. DO not worry or puzzle over individual items. It is your first impressions, the immediate "feelings" about the items, that we want. On the other hand, please do not be care- less, because we want your true impressions. NOTE: There are no "right" or "wrong“ answers--we pant your first impressions. Nice Calm Sick Worthless Ugly Good Stale Dirty Fair Poor Sad Peaceful Tasty Kind Sweet Unpleasant Honest Foul Sweet Profane INNER-CITY SCHOOLS 86 O O O O . O O O O O O O O O O O O O C I O C C O O O O O O O C C C O O O O O O C O C O O O C O C _ O O C O O O O C C C O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O I O O O O O C O O O _ O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O I O O C O C O O O O O O C O C I O O O O C _ O O O O O C O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C I O O O O O O O O O O . . O O O O O O O O O O C O O C O O O O C O C . C O O O O O O O O O I O O O C O O O O O O O O O I C O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O . Awful Agitated Healthy Valuable Beautiful Bad Fresh Clean Unfair Rich HaPPY Ferocious Distasteful Cruel Sour Pleasant Dishonest Fragrant Bitter Sacred 87 SUBURBAN SCHOOLS Calm : : : : : : : Agitated Sweet : : : : : : : Sour Unpleasant : : : : : : : Pleasant Sad : : Happy Nice : : : Awful Profane : : : : : : Sacred Honest : : : : : : Dishonest Sweet : : : : : : Bitter Fair : : : : : : Unfair Sick : : : : : : : Healthy Good : : : : : : : Bad Kind Cruel Worthless : : : : : : : Valuable Tasty : : : : : : : Distasteful Dirty : : : : : : : Clean Ugly : : : : : : : Beautiful Foul : : : : : : : Fresh Peaceful : : : : : : : Ferocious Poor : : : : : : : Rich APPENDIX C CORRELATIONS 88 oooo.a mmmo.l Nooo.l NNNO.I memo.l mmmo. boga. mamm.l maoonum Connsnom oooo.a eoao.u omoo. memo. _ Heao. e~oo.u oemo. maoonom soaouuocce oooo.a memm. mmaH.I moeo.n mooo. 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