PARENTAL ATTITUDE TOWARD , THE SCHOOL STUDENT CONFIDENCE . , ; LEVEL OF ACADEMIC ABILITY.~ . -_ , 1 5, SELECTED INDIDES 0F” 1 STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT: - ‘ , A , , i- A COMPARATIVE STUDY 0F ; -‘.:: 1...; RELATIONSHIPS _-_ ‘ ~ ,. Thesis for the Degree oijh‘... D. ‘ MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY ' JOHN WALTER MEHVL 1 97 2 J W A WM ‘31293 10185,” ll 7583 7 .fé This is to certify that the v ’x “ I thesis entitled nfidence Level Of Academic Ability, d Indices 0f Student Achievement: ‘ A mparative Study of Relationships presented by John Wdlter Mehl has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for _Eh..11.__ degree in Administrat ion and Higher Education <:_‘ '\ MAW/V, M ‘ 1‘ Samuel, Xfi’fié‘éfii’ II ‘ Date 2/18/73 67639 . '4 . <9 1 .L)»klan\ MiCI1;:.:2 St 3C6 University LIBRARY numeral!“ fin out" *7 / fi I” @1293} I‘ YWfi/fi 199: §::.:se of the *— Tlm 5:13.; :iLEiec‘ by Lt; izeiemic abili. “Ming Stan Remy of diSc 3:5 academic s Tze following 1- How (1 I‘m! Student 1 10”“ facili 2- What int}? of th I. Iii-‘— .-—wu—— a..- -— ABSTRACT PARENTAL ATTITUDE TOWARD THE SCHOOL, STUDENT CONFIDENCE LEVEL OF ACADEMIC ABILITY, SELECTED INDICES OF STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF RELATIONSHIPS BY John Walter Mehl Purpose of the Study This study was undertaken in order to determine the rela- tionship between parental attitude toward the school (as modified by income level, race, the years of schooling of the head of the household and of the mother, and parental percep- tions of power or powerlessness), student cOnfidence level of academic ability, and selected indices of student achievement including standardized test scores, rate of absenteeism, fre- quency of disciplinary action taken by the child's teacher, and academic standing in relation to chronological age norms. The following questions were posed: 1. How do the parents feel about the school, its curricu- lum, student management, services, school-parent communica- tions, facilities and administration? 2. What is the prevailing level of confidence of academic ability of the students in the school? ' 'I‘V“ :" :LMQIIU .31. .. aunvflv ‘ . gzeiictc tarts. 2133', the y»: -.:i of the m: .‘z :5 :cwer to pr 2;;Line and at £2115 in rela: 5. IS the 1'5 Students cr Eliset of the ‘ -L :5 (\"a ‘ ‘ buy Klvqbe“o ;: 3“.- 1131‘. t0 Ck Yo 1“ V tn .T .U .fle Bullc John Walter Mehl 3. Is there a significant correlation between parental attitude toward the school and student level of confidence of academic ability? 4. Is there a significant correlation between the scores of parents on the Bullock School-Community Attitude Analysis for Educational Administrators and all or any subset of the predictor variables of student confidence level of academic ability, the years of schooling of the heads of the households and of the mothers, race, income level, parental perceptions of power to promote needed change in the school, student dis- cipline and absence rate, and the academic standing of stu- dents in relation to chronological age norms? 5. Is there a significant correlation between the scores of students on the Stanford Achievement Test and all, or any subset of the predictor variables of student confidence level of academic ability, the years of schooling of the heads of the households and of the mothers, race, income level, parental perceptions of power to promote needed change in the school, student discipline and absence rate, academic standing in rela— tion to chronological age norms, or the responses of parents to the Bullock School-Community Attitude Analysis for Educa- tional Administrators. Procedures In order to answer the questions of this study, two in- struments were used. The Bullock School-Community Attitude . _..,.‘u.: “A ‘ a .vv0‘.‘ . '_.‘IV"A "'A' ::v-v5v'\va h ‘ c . n-II‘ ' i t ,.:.$~ \r' a . ILW." ‘ g "I. :ooo‘v) boriti * “ T1 L;:e:atu:e of - 3:0:vwn l“- iezts used in see estimated Various c .. \“J‘“" H " twink-VJ Lg - an n , pa - " 5‘. hated by he air. each of ('9 The pee-11‘ § -:-;.Q and the :h‘nh ,‘1 "new, Grad, W Kinder: Err ~ -Of the 5' John Walter Mehl Analysis for Educational Administrators (SCAAEA) was used to determine the attitudes of parents toward the school. Factor analysis revealed seven separate factors of such parental attitude. Analysis of the Bullock SCAAEA by mean of the Hoyt Reciprocal Averages Program revealed a reliability coeffi- cient (r) at .74. The Student Confidence Level of Academic Ability form was deve10ped by the author after study of the literature of Brookover and others. This test was adminis- tered to students in an interview setting with the aim of determining the confidence level of academic ability of stu- dents used in this study. Reliability (r) of this instrument was estimated at .70. Various demographic data were ascertained by means of a personal data form sent, with the Bullock SCAAEA, to all responding parents. All student achievement indices were gathered by means of school records and through consultation with each of the teaching teams in the school. The population for this study was composed of the oldest child and the parents of each family in a single elementary school. Grades one through six were included in this popula- tion. Kindergarten and special education students were not a part of the study. Of the 273 responding units contacted, 202, or 74 per cent returned their materials. Deletion of 48 responding units due to incomplete data, reduced the usable data bank to 154 responding units, or 58 per cent of the original population. \I‘ "L" I .sta i” E I e..-L"~ tea." I i... ‘SLFG we... .' . y .. 1"“ .2 365.6355“ fiiflessne S m 2. The 6* :a320therSI az‘nevement i7 absence rate. grt‘alem 3. The a‘ "i“? ..... Cthersc ‘ . [:hc‘i of acac‘. 4. Stude :edlate age 5 . . . it:- - G "vdi evement l John Walter Mehl Data generated from the two instruments, student records, teaching team responses, and personal data forms were ana- lysed using chi square contingency table analysis, Pearson Product Moment Correlation and the least square delete form of regression analysis. Major Findings 1. Parental attitude toward the school, student confidence level of academic ability and parental perceptions of power and powerlessness were measurable constructs for this pOpulation. 2. The attitudes toward the school of parents, as signifi- cant others, were significantly related to indices of student achievement including math and reading percentile scores, absence rate, and frequence and kind of student discipline problems. 3. The attitudes toward the school of parents, as signifi- cant others, were significantly related to student confidence level of academic ability. 4. Student confidence level of academic ability of inter- mediate age students was significantly related to indices of achievement including math percentile scores and the teachers' perceptions of child standing in relation to chronological age norms. 5. Parental perceptions of power and powerlessness were significantly related to the attitudes of parents toward the school. 6. ""0 atz: Ln- :erreptzons c. 2:2 level cf eght of 905;: | 7. Differs fl a" ' Y‘“ pa.- .:e: Segui-l»a‘l ears of 5:300 - O siting of t; 3-1C3t10r‘s f- h--§.—-. . | 1' Andi}? 12ers the sc'r. ”a: ‘ "iiemic abil; Hire in the 33571336”) . . .40U‘ “Oh “Shed t0 O 335 h John Walter Mehl 6. The attitudes of parents toward the school, parental perceptions of power and powerlessness, and student confi- dence level of academic ability tended to diminish in relative weight of positivism as student tenure in the school increased. 7. Differences in parental attitude toward the school were significantly related to the demographic variables of years of schooling of the head of the household, years of schooling of the mother, income and race. Implications for Further Study 1. Analysis of the data revealed that parental attitude toward the school, parental perceptions of power to promote needed change in the school, and student confidence level of academic ability diminished in relative positivism as student tenure in the school increased. Empirical examination of this phenomenon would seem to be a logical follow-up to this study. 2. Parental attitude toward certain segments of the school's operating procedures was negatively associated with student achievement indices. It was suggested that where attitudes toward such aspects of the school program were nega- tive among parents of high achieving students, some form of compensatory steps were being taken by parents which were designed to override the effects of perceived weaknesses in the program. Research directed toward the isolation of the nature of such compensation would seem of value. Moreover, it is suggested that the effects upon student achievement of a :eeie‘ ~'~ H than I0 (D m iinational 19 fearental at :elatlonship t: attitude tom! Eitaimaent, s are designee. are“t5 while attituties teI Ziildren are E‘AchhOOl Eire“ advls ‘D describe knife of I :15 0F. Par mild Seem John Walter Mehl program designed to alter such negative attitudes among parents be studied. 3. Extended research into the relationship between par- ental perceptions of power to promote needed change in the school, and parental attitudes toward the school, is sug- gested. Such a study might best be undertaken in a controlled experimental setting where the effects upon parental atti— tudes toward the school and student achievement of a program designed to enhance parental perceptions of power to promote needed changes could be studied. 4. The data revealed a negative relationship between educational level of attainment of parents and certain factors of parental attitude toward the school. The apparent positive relationship between student achievement and both parental attitude toward the school and parental level of educational attainment, suggests the need for research into programs which are designed to provide continued education experience for parents while, at the same time, maintaining positive parental attitudes toward the school or school system of which their children are a part. 5. The data were supportive of the need for effective home-school communication and inferred the value of active parent advisory councils. While research has been undertaken to describe the functions of such a council, this writer is unaware of any study which treats the effect of advisory coun- cils on parental attitude toward the school. Such research would seem worthwhile. C,“ N... L an “my a.“ "It Cu _. . s in: PARENTAL ATTITUDE TOWARD THE SCHOOL, STUDENT CONFIDENCE LEVEL OF ACADEMIC ABILITY, SELECTED INDICES OF STUDENT ACHIEVEMENT: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF RELATIONSHIPS BY John Walter Mehl A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1972 The Dongle sifcrts of mar; Eteczfically, 215. Mott F0: 1:“: leprovemer. q'I 33533318 512213; I an, and 311.3, encoura; 3:. Samuel A. Special t 33:: the many h "13- reajard to 2 his Study, In addlt: 2" Clyde M. I t,” “'V‘est and I llama in will 5:071 I £991 Izie Mama, I: is to 3.0x 61% ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this study is representative of the efforts of many people to whom I wish to extend my gratitude. Specifically, I wish to express my deep appreciation to the C. S. Mott Foundation, and to the Mott Institute for Commun- ity Improvement for providing the opportunity to pursue graduate study in a most cordial and productive atmosphere. I am, and shall remain, most appreciative of the friend- ship, encouragement and scholarly guidance provided by Dr. Samuel A. Moore, II, who served as Director of this study. Special thanks is extended to Dr. Lawrence W. Lezotte for the many hours spent and the invaluable guidance given me with regard to the design of and statistical procedures used in this study. In addition, I wish to thank Dr. Daniel H. Kruger and Dr. Clyde M. Campbell for serving on my committee. Their interest and encouragement was of prime importance during the period in which this study was conducted. WOrds are insufficient to express the depth of appreci- ation I feel for the love, patience and encouragement of my wife Marcia, and my two daughters, Michelle and Heather. It is to you, my beloved family, that this study and degree are dedicated. ii CHAPTER II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . LIST OF CHARTS . . . . . . . THE PROBLEM. . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem. Research Hypothesis . . . Need for the Study. . . . Significance of the Study Definition of Terms . . . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . DESIGN OF THE STUDY. . . . . Location of the Study . . Demographic Data. . . . . Staffing Pattern of the School Selection of the Sample . Procedures Used in Data Gathering Instrumentation and Data Treatment Analysis of the Data. . . The Level of Significance Summary . . . . . . . . . IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA . . . . Tests of the Hypotheses . Discussion of Data Analysis for Sis I. O O O O O O O 0 Supplementary Data. . . . Parental Attitude Toward the School Student Confidence Level of Academic Ability. O I O O O O 0 iii Hypothe- ——-———n‘u -l‘_"" Page viii H \DU‘INNH 12 38 38 4O 4O 40 41 44 49 50 51 52 52 55 60 60 64 "rt it text: - ad“. ._‘--aq . h -_ . ‘ "d .- Cor: (I) (9 Q”..- Um»... I' .. -. , \nll: h, _ yeah“: . Par; Rev; 'I'J TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued CHAPTER V. Page Correlational Relationship Between Paren- tal Attitude Toward the School and Student Level of Confidence of Academ- ic Ability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS . . . . 69 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Review of the Literature . . . . . . . . . 70 Self-Concept as a Psychological Construct. 70 Self-Concept and Achievement . . . . . . . 71 Self-Concept of Academic Ability . . . . . 71 Significant Others and Self-Concept of Academic Ability. . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Design of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Findings of the Study. . . . . . . . . 76 Parental Attitude Toward the School . . 76 Student Confidence Level of Academic Ability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Relationship Between Parental Attitude Toward the School and Student Confi- dence Level of Academic Ability . . . . 77 Relationships of Parental Attitude Toward the School, Demographic Variables and the Several Indices of Student Achieve- ment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Relationships Among Reading and Math Per- centile Scores, Other Indices of Achievement, and the Attitudes of Par— ents Toward the School. . . . . . . . . 82 Additional Relationships of Importance to this Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 The Relationship Between Parental Attitude Toward the School as a Construct, Modi- fied by Demographic Data and Parental Perceptions of Power or Powerlessness, Student Confidence Level of Academic Ability and Indices of Student Achieve— ment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 iv "n -P‘::(‘ I_v I..- u... .I 1 -.~“ 1‘ .-. \_~ .y,_\ ¢~‘\ *u fl) '1 m TIA/“n \ “WM NV ~JUI‘CES HY fi——w- _ “as“; W K TABLE OF CONTENTS-~Continued CHAPTER BIBLIOG APPENDI Parental Attitudes Toward the School and its Relationship to Student Confidence Level of Academic Ability and Indices of Student Achievement. . . . . . . . . Building Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . Building Adequacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . School Community Relations and Communi- cations O I O O O O O O O O O O O I O D Social Skills Training . . . . . . . . . . Academic Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . School Board-Community Relations and Communications. . . . . . . . . . . . . Student Management . . . . . . . . . Years of Schooling of the Head of the HousehOld O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Years of Schooling of the Mother . . . . . Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Level Variability of Parental Attitude Toward the School . . . . . . . . . . . Parental Perceptions of Power or Power- lessness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of the Implications. . . . . . . . Implications for Further Study . . . . . . RAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CES CORRELATIONAL TABLES AND MEAN GRAPHS. . . . . DEMOGRAPHIC AND FACTOR ANALYSIS DATA TABLES . PERSONAL DATA FORM, STUDENT LEVEL OF CONFI- DENCE OF ACADEMIC ABILITY FORM; AND BULLOCK SCHOOL-COMMUNITY ATTITUDE ANALYSIS FOR EDUCA- TIONAL ADMINISTRATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 89 89 90 91 92 94 95 96 98 100 102 103 103 104 105 108 112 117 140 149 ;~ u ”l Bulldln» in i. ‘ Racia- ed U Bullock L', L7 Years C (Seven I -,u' ,- ..d-~ Social 5 an.“- ‘5 School CEIIOHE Student ~17 !‘ TABLE LIST OF TABLES Racial Breakdown of Student Body of the School Used in This Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Years of School of the Mother. . . . . . . . . Race 0 O I O O O O O I O O O O O C O O O O O 0 Years of Schooling of the Head of the House- hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Income 0 O O O O O O O O I I O O O O O O O O C Rotated Factor Loadings for Each Bullock Item (Seven Factor Solution). . . . . . . . . . . . Bullock School-Community Attitude Analysis for Educational Administrators (Factor Analysis) . Building Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . Building Adequacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . School-Community Relations and Communications. Social Skills Training . . . . . . . . . . . . Academic Skills Training . . . . . . . . . . . School Board-Community Relations and Communi- cations . O O I O 6 O O O O O O O 9 O O I O O 0 Student Management . . . o . . . . . . . . . . Reading Percentile Scores. . . . . . . . . . . Math Percentile Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . Group Means and Standard Deviations on Bullock School-Community Attitude Analysis . . . . . . vi Page 39 141 141 142 142 143 145 118 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 423 Years c I '. O .0- b" Years c .old .J‘ l ,' T "‘ . J inCO..xG ‘ 6‘- —. Wmavar‘. LIST OF TABLES--Continued TABLE Page 4.11 Relative Importance of Bullock SCAAEA. . . . . 128 4.12 Mean Scores of Students on SCLAA Form. . . . . 64 4.13 Years of Schooling of the Mother . . . . . . . 129 4.14 Years of Schooling of the Head of the House- hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 4.15 Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 vii Means f municat Means f: Means f and Rele Means f: Means f: Means f: Means f: VIII) CHART .‘ *"_,C"' “‘3' 7 ‘. LIST OF CHARTS Page Means for Total Bullock SCAAEA. . . . . . . . . 132 Means for School-Community Relations and Com- munications (Factor I). . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Means for Building Adequacy (Factor II) . . . . 134 Means for School Board-Community Communications and Relations (Factor III). . . . . . . . . . . 135 Means for Student Management (Factor IV). . . . 136 Means for School Maintenance (Factor V) . . . . 137 Means for Social Skills Training (Factor VI). . 138 Means for Academic Skills Training (Factor VIII) 0 O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 139 viii C c"at-;=:~e.".t c- This st g -o& ~ 5n~ 3.-.-..9 tOWE :5 school of insane, and P' :5 related t: 11F and selec :‘ V “C Problems 1- How CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Statement of the Problem This study was undertaken to determine how parental attitude toward the school (as modified by race, the years of school of the head of the household and of the mother, income, and perceived power or powerlessness of the parents) is related to student level of confidence of academic abil- ity and selected indices of student achievement. The speci- fic problems are as follows: 1. How do parents feel about the school; its curriculum, student management, services, school-parent communi- cation, facilities and administration? 2. What is the prevailing level of confidence of academic ability of the students in the school? 3. Is there a significant correlation between parental attitude toward the school and student level of confidence of academic ability? 4. In what way do the variables of race, income, years _of schooling of the head of the household, and of the mother, and parental perceptions of power or powerlessness function as modifiers of parental atti- tudes toward the school and student level of confi- dence of academic ability? 5. How are selected indices of student achievement (scores on standardized tests, absenteeism, frequency of disciplinary action taken by the child's teacher, and academic standing in relation to chronological age norms) related to student level of confidence of academic ability and parental attitude toward the school? parental 3:39 lea-'81, :xseholdv E :-~' adv/‘atii -«d 5"“; .. .ab‘f. ‘ (V --.an.lv ‘ Research Hypothesis Parental attitude toward the school, as modified by in— come level, race, years of schooling of the head of the household, perceived power or powerlessness of the parents, and educational level of attainment of the mother, is sig- nificantly (p i .10) related to student level of confidence of academic ability and selected indices of student achieve- ment including standardized test scores, absenteeism, fre- quency of disciplinary action taken by the child's teacher, and academic standing in relation to chronological age norms. Need for the Study American education was born of concern; the concern of a nation determined to build a great democracy and to educate its people sufficiently for the task of maintaining a new political order. Commager writes: From the very beginning of our national existence, edu- cation has had very special tasks to perform in America. Democracy could not work without an enlightened elector- ate. The states and sections could not achieve unity without a sentiment of nationalism. The nation could not absorb tens of millions of immigrants from all parts of the globe without rapid and effective Americanization. Economic and social distinctions and privileges, severe enough to corrode democracy itself, had to be overcome. To schools went the momentous responsibility of doing these tasks of inculcating democracy, nationalism and equalitarianism.1 1Henry Commager, cited in Peter Schrag, Voices in the (Zlassroom: Public Schools and Public_Attitudes (Boston, Ddass.: Beacon Press, 1965), p. 2. The eb‘. azally met- ;‘ezmds. T sensuive s :c‘ wishes 1:3 in pan :creased t 1: support staff, and ; :15: the wel sfucating it :15 interde; between the Film is ca imufltabili itntracung «1:, On the apathy and 94511:. InaV . ‘. .r‘ifi...: , The educational demands of a fledgling nation were not easily met. Nor has time and technology reduced these demands. Today, as before, effective education requires a sensitive system which operates in concert with the needs and wishes of the national public generally and the commun- ity in particular. The effectiveness of the school is increased to the extent to which its immediate public stands in support of its policies, teaching and administrative staff, and its operating procedures.2 Thus, it would seem that the welfare of the nation and the success of the schools educating its populace are interdependent. Concomitant with this interdependence however, is the dichotomy of concern between the public and its schools. On the one hand, the public is calling for higher levels of achievement and greater accountability from the schools as evidenced by performance contracting and state-wide achievement testing programs. ‘And, on the other hand, the schools are deploring the apparent apathy and lack of concerned participation on the part of the public. In a very real sense, the nation is dependent upon the effective functioning of its schools. Nor could one suggest 'that the schools are not likewise dependent upon the public. As Cass suggests, The public schools are more directly dependent than most democratic institutions upon the continuing support 2Harold G. Hand, What People Think About Their Schools (New York: world Book Co., 1948), p. 20. .. D “ .1. . «rztfi 3.....- 3-5»-v‘r" .. n of t; u '1 B m 2.) ‘he att cation a;ne th itt‘.""‘e o‘ b ‘vuku L 53:;cular , 15 _ 4- « ~:.._ __" ‘ 7m TE“ 7“ ‘__. 'i-‘jd‘, “NI. V ' '1 fimfiit“ I“. ". ”Tm?" ‘ of the American People. Yet, the way the public views its schools has rarely been the subject of more than limited and sporadic inquiry. For education, the matter of greatest importance is the school's interrelatedness with the public. For the school administrator, as he views the school and its relationship to the parents of the children it serves, Jameson, in his dis- cussion of the factors which lead to student success in the elementary school, suggests that: The attitudes which parents hold and display toward the school, the principal, the teacher, the school pro- gram and toward education itself, will in turn influence the attitudes of their children. How parents view edu- cation and the regard they have for it may well deter- mine the attitude a child will hold and the success he will enjoy in his educational endeavors.“ Research has been undertaken which suggests that the attitude of significant others in general, and parents in particular, is a strong determining factor of student confi- dence levels of academic ability and, further, that student confidence levels have a direct relationship to actual achieve- ment. Brookover found that students indicated parents and other relatives as significant others more frequently than any others with whom they were associated when asked to specify who was most interested in their successes and failures in 3James Cass, "The Public School's Public," Saturday Review, LII (Oct. 18, 1967), 73. I'Marshall C. Jameson, Helping Your Child Succeed in_ Elementary School (Toronto: Longmans Canada Limited, 1962), p. 53. \ 3,3010 a Si.‘ In a ve: success :.~::er.t;al , t. ' . no H .. ,- rents 0‘ ...... 5:3: their sc. tic-er things , Stand inStru . ‘. O ...... «v D“ r‘DPCnded 4.."2'" “A w, __ W‘m. ' 4s;"_ ‘. .‘t school.S Similarly, Sexton has indicated that: In a very real sense parents are responsible for the success or failure of their children in school. The child is a product of his family and class background just as his parents are of theirs. Very often the child is simply a reflection of parental attitudes, values, skills and levels of understanding.6 If educators are to be successful in their efforts to achieve effective education through the maximizing of student potential, they must give serious concern to the attitudes of parents of the children they serve. Significance of the Study In a public survey aimed at learning what parents want from their schools, Gallup and his associates found, among other things, that the highest response percentages centered around instructional concerns, with particular emphasis being placed in the concern for more time spent on basic education. A finding of the survey which was considered highly significant to the writers was the large percentage of parents ‘who responded with "no answer" to items of major importance, thus, causing the writers to conclude that "the large 5W. B. Brookover, E. L. Erickson, and L. N. Joiner, Self-Concept of Ability and School Achievement III: Relation- ship_of Self-Concept to Achievement in High School, U. S. (foice of Education, Cooperative Research Project No. 2831 (East Lansing: Office of Research and Publications, Michigan State University, Feb., 1967). 6Patrica Cayo Sexton, Education and Income (New York: Kliking Press, Inc., 1964), p. 106. .— «uMHfi-n- .5-l‘"l....0.. Q-.. tersentage o- O 935:, Often 3930§nized a 33:35:35 and research and 5555, 1957, 5 3:55:39, 1962 33:37 the sc.' 2:: than was Indeed, motivati- parents I friends ’ The f ami; itine- throng? "racial attit 223“ with t ' Ll: percentage of 'no answer' might indicate a need for [sic] many school systems for a parent information campaign."7 The attitudes of parents toward their schools have, in the past, often been viewed as merely something which had to be recognized and carefully managed if financial support for programs and staffing were to be maintained. Today, however, research and literature (e.g., Schrag, 1965; Hand, 1948; Cass, 1967; Sexton, 1964; Jameson, 1962; Bullock, 1959; and Bledsoe, 1962) seem to suggest that the attitudes of parents toward the school hold far greater significance for educa- tion than was previously believed. Indeed, what young people become is determined by many motivations, many inspirations, many suggestions from parents, from siblings, from relatives and from close friends, to mention a few.8 The family's influence on the child is one that remains active throughout his life, shaping both personality and 9 Moreover, the child's self-evaluation and inter- behavior. personal attitudes are a direct outgrowth of his long associ- ation with his parents.1° 7"Parents Are Ready" (editorial), The Instructor, LII (Oct., 1966), 149. aClyde M. Campbell, Community Education and Its Adminis- tration, X (Nov., 1971), Number 3. 9E. J. Shoben, Jr., "Toward a Concept of the Normal Personality," American Psychologist, XII (1957), 183. 10J. C. Bledsoe, and K. C. Garrison, The Self-Concepts of Elementary School Children, Cooperative Research Project No. 1008 TUniversity of Georgia, 1962). . - ”If (”COW-on. at mqmm‘o . 53¢. «a “9-1.0 L t I \ a V ‘x. l \ .\ '3 k In stuc I315: it was 31:91“ 519311: :59 animals - :eir Subje: graze per 5 3 :2 run to the tatilers beli tudies 12d Erickson ::;n and hurt, salief that t 'significant Results of th :2: of the s Itzcern have .iLEled ll H WHFWIW': 717.1 .. In studies conducted by Rosenthal and others, using rats, it was found that the expectations held by the experi- menter significantly determined the performance outcomes of the animals. The rats of those trainers who were told that their subjects were superior in their abilities to operate in a maze performed significantly better (p i .01) in learning to run to the dark section of the maze than did those whose handlers believed their subject to be dull.ll Studies by Craig (1965), Morse (1963), Joiner (1966), and Erickson (1965) have been conducted using both infra- human and human subjects in order to more fully validate the belief that the attitudes and expectations of the subjects' "significant others" are a determining factor in performance. Results of these studies have placed a new focus on the ques- tion of the success of students in school. Of particular concern have been those students who have been variously labeled "disadvantaged" and "underprivileged." If the attitudes and expectations of significant others do play an important part in the achievement of students, then the questions arise: who are these significant others; and in what way do their attitudes and expectations affect students? In answer to the first question, Brookover in a three part study of Self-Concept of Ability and Student Achievement found that among the students they tested; 11R. Rosenthal and K. L. Fode, Behavioral Science, VIII (1963), 133-9. usually How do v’q- .. .p 7 - fl n. y“; - ul- m 5;;nificant « nth their 55 evaluations 3. 33339131: When "car; 5 ,.... '5‘... . 4L .- \‘nn .....e;t and t. Pirticularly 3: St‘ldEnt aC 1:339 StudEHt' :34?!" toward 1“. -‘.‘.S whEn h e 1.1"“.- «J »I tha t k‘ A . . . . .w—.. 4— . .w—V’r qr. --. V»... y-» ' "1 9’ Parents were named by nearly all students as both "important in their lives" and "concerned about how well they do in school." School personnel, other relatives, and peers were named by many in response to each question but by smaller proportions and usually after parents were named.12 How do the attitudes of these significant others affect children? Brookover et al., found that the evaluations of significant others as perceived by children were associated with their self-concepts and that a change in these perceived evaluations was accompanied by a similar change in self- concept when viewed over longer periods of time (three 3 The importance of this relationship between self- years).1 concept and the evaluations and attitudes of others becomes particularly significant when viewed in relation to its effect on student achievement. Caplin's (1966) study revealed that those students professing positive self-concepts had a tend- ency toward higher achievement in school.1“Brookover supports this when he suggests that there is some question, indeed doubt, that human ability is the most potent factor in deter- ndning academic success. Rather, achievement in school tends to be limited by the student's attitudes about himself.15 12W. B. Brookover et al., Self-Concept of Ability and School Achievement II, U. S. Office of Education, Cooperative JResearch Project No. 1636 (East Lansing: Office of Research and Publications, Michigan State University, 1965), p. 75. 13W. B. Brookover et al., II, op. cit., p. 201. 1"M. D. Caplin, "The Relationships Between Self-Concept aand Academic Achievement and Between Level of Aspiration and .Academic Achievement." Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, 15W. B. Brookover et al., III, op. cit., p. 3. 5: , - .Inc‘ and L. at H“ .m. m * w m m e . . n m .. a, m. i ‘, f! can AA k ‘ 9“” Hui V‘ a r. Q_._ 'al for t U“ iy‘bob‘ .. A .o ant-R v- . 0:5‘ cued. ’ 2" _"~".‘V":“"‘ ‘_"T Thus, the attitudes of parents as significant others and their effect upon the determination of the self-concept and ultimately, achievement, deserve the fullest considera- tion of educators. How parents feel about education in general and the school in particular may determine to a sig- nificant degree the success their child's experiences in the school. Definition of Terms The following terms, and their definitions, are impor- tant for this study: Parental Attitude Toward the School includes both positive and negative reactions of the parents with regard to school-community relations and communications, plant adequacy, school-board-community relations and communi— cations, school maintenance, academic training, social skills training, and student management, and will be ascertained as a score on the "Your Schools" section of the Bullock School-Community Attitude Analysis for Edu- cational Administratorsf6 Such attitudes are intended only as subjective positions or feelings and do not necessarily imply predisposition to act. School-Community Communications and Relations includes parent- teacher and parent-administrator communiCation regarding problems of the school as perceived by the parents. Plant Adequacy includes items relating to building adequacy as perceived by the parents, including space, its uti- lization and general building condition. School Board-Community Relations.anduCommunications includes school board-community and school board-parent communi- cation regarding problems of the school as perceived by the parents. 16Robert P. Bullock, School-Community Attitude Analysis for Educational Administrators (Columbus, Ohio: College of Education, Ohio State University, 1959). . as C. .1 .. e _ 1?. tea. >~ 3—1 t .. .. a.” r; .3“ A.“ e . .‘ G v. i S b a: . nus YA a P» s V. .r: a c a v a e .t ... v. fly. 1“ .z‘ x A: 1. ‘. flue —.. C.Q. .C an“ r... L.” 2. D . 9 . L 1.1.. E ... .. . h. 2 n a . v. ... uh. arxnw \» flu. Mu I“: w: c. g: 1. e .u Iw. at n .3 I “D. . ya» I“ m; r a .a 51- ¢ v v: \J .I, .. r O l .4 .. an e L I a... .C» Maw. L» L e t I a a a“ S M. t C a; S C \. ._.:. runwahiuwnl 0.1.4qu .1 1 01o \ -e ' a O ‘ b 6 a . t \- S f . c Q. .1 O ‘1 ‘Q h I e .D. a. «b agekd v‘ a~ ax V NMvA‘I I \n‘ \‘v..‘\ :u. 9 C L» .Q fib “A 2. u; e a \Q Q ‘L O a. S C .a‘ a» ‘1 10 School Maintenance includes items regarding the present repair status of the plant as it is perceived by the parents. .Academic Training is considered to be those official and quasi-official offerings in the school program which are perceived by the parents to be intended to serve the needs of the children for the mastery of basic skills, general curriculum, personal help and guidance, work habits, and individual attention. Social Skills Training refers to the responses of parents regarding their perceptions of the training given the students in social skills and human relations. Student Management includes items dealing with the parents' perceptions of student discipline, and respect for the structure of authority maintained by the school. Income Level is defined as that amount of money earned.by the principal bread-winner in the home and will consti- tute a measure of socio-economic status. Sexton found that income correlates significantly at the .94 level with the socio-economic classifications of "house condi- tions, public assistance, behavior, initial data, as well as occupation and education" and "... is therefore a good index to social class."17 Levels to be used will be (1) $15,000 and over, (2) 10,000 to 14,999, (3) 7,000 to 9,999, (4) 5,000 to 6,999, (5) 3,000 to 4,999, (6) under 3,000. Race is categorized as White and Non-white. Years of Schooling of the Head of the.Household.refers to the principal bread-winning parent of the family and shall be divided into the categories of (1) less than 12th grade, (2) high school, (3) some college (e.g., trade school, community college, etc.), (4) college graduate or beyond. Student Level of Confidence of Academic Ability was ascer- tainedfiin an interview setting at which time the respon- ses to questions included in the Student Level of Confidence of Academic Ability form were recorded. Standardized Test Scores-includes measures of general ability and/or specific achievement as ascertained either by a teacher or school psychologist on the Stanford 17Sexton, op. cit., p. 13. q me c (1.11 U“? o, n' "f 11 Achievement Test. Tests of emotional set were not considered as a part of the record of standardized test scores for this study whether or not they indicate I.Q. or any other measure of achievement. Absenteeism includes those times of absence from the school for reasons of illness or other except in the case of a long term illness of one week duration or longer as confirmed by either parental or professional notifica- tion. Frequency of Disc1p1inary Action was determined by the child's teacher(s) and was differentiated both by fre- quency and kind. Frequency is daily, weekly, bimonthly, monthly. Kind is no infraction, infration of a minor rule, disruptive or disrespectful of others, a threat to the safety of self or others, malicious. Academic Standing in Relation tggChronological Age Norms was determined by the teacher on the basis of his or her experience at that age level and by standardized test scores yielding an age factor of achievement. Years of Schooling of the Mother is divided into the cate- gories of*(l) less than 12th grade, (2) high school, (3) some college (e.g., trade school, community college, etc.), (4) college graduate or beyond. Perceived Power or Powerlessness of the Parents was deter- mined by items 41 and 42 of the questionnaire which are not a part of the Bullock Attitude scale but which have been added so as to avoid unnecessary respondent con- fusion. Perceived power or powerlessness is a measure of the parents' perceived ability to be heard and to cause meaningful change within the school structure. .5 3. “A. S 1 2 e I l I a“ ‘1 t .3 .3 C .3 av. v" .i r S .1. a . . : ... . C 3 .2 .2 ' Q .« v . 2.. ~‘ in ...e - n - CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Man's early views of self were, in large part, state— ments of the personal experiences of the theorists who were formulating them. A clear example of this may be found in the arguments of Rene Descartes (1644) when he confirmed his own existence as a result of the personal experience of think- ing: "Cogito ergo sum." The earliest Greek thinkers, while not using the term "self" were nonetheless aware of and desirous of more fully knowing that entity which they called variously "soul," "psyche," and "spirit."1 It was not until the beginning of the present century that the thinking about self began to move away from the introspective approach toward a more definitive concept. With the writings of C. S. Pierce and others, the question became one of the existence of "the self," as an entity which could be studied empirically and as distinguished from the previously more personal concept of self. 1James C. Diggory, Self Evaluation: Concepts and Studies (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1966). 12 ""ne WI 7. Strong move: ( O (3 0-. ‘- irate for *- iefined and c' p elation to r? Jun9's c V ... gl‘H those of 1:: H ‘- ._ _ \a.’ . ‘3‘. eaSl L}, .,_!’“h ‘.»».LDClOL“S “3‘3: ienc e s . rm“ s C .le L lr -I a» ~‘Stem b“ ”“181: an :5 “a. Neylr 0%,? 13 The writings of Sigmund Freud were responsible for the strong movement toward somatically based drives as a means of explaining behavior motivation. Thus, he spoke extensive- ly of libidinal and aggressive energies as supplying the driving force or motivation for human action. The term "ego," as it had previously been used by James, Hoffding, Mach and Wundt, was given a position of great importance. In his em- phasis upon instinct as a stimulus to behavior, and in his development of a system of need gratification and societal mandate for postponement of such gratification, Freud further defined and developed the concept of ego in terms of its relation to the "id" and "super ego." Jung's concepts of ego and self coincided in many ways with those of Freud particularly in relation to his belief that behavior is a function of unconscious forces. He dis- tinguished between the collective unconscious, which can be most easily explained as species learning, and the personal unconscious which is a kind of recording of all past, personal experiences.2 The first quarter of the twentieth century was a period of system building in which the Gestalt, Structuralist, Func- tionalist and Behaviorist psychologists adhered to the tenets of their own systems. It was during this period that Prescott Lecky was beginning to formulate his somewhat professionally 2James C. Diggory, op. cit., p. 34. :cnsistency g :s a whole. :3; ther to and organize fcre;gn to t :Lu-ied if or. :e criterio :555 and it 0P, pun-Sis tenC}f TN t”resc t; ed. ‘0'. 1b 14 isolated theory of self-consistency. Within Lecky's self- consistency model, the mind was conceived of as operating as a whole. As such, all of the components which went together to make up "mind" had, of necessity, to be integrated and organized. An idea, perception or cognition which was foreign to the organizational set of the mind had to be ex- cluded if one were to remain stable.3 Individual need was the criterion for acceptance or rejection of any particular idea and it was necessary that the individual maintain a consistency between his interpretation of events and his past experiences. Lecky suggests that standards are responsible for poor academic performance. Thus, he states: Many peOple find it hard to believe that a person will defend and strive to maintain an idea which is not to his advantage. But the evidence allows of no other conclusion. For example, if we examine the letters or themes written by a poor speller, we find that he seems to have a standard of how many words should be mis- spelled per page. Often a word will be spelled both correctly and incorrectly in the same theme, but the average number of mistakes per page remains approxi- mately the same.“ Such a theory of self-concept and behavior motivation is markedly different from the visceral-glandular explanation of motivation and self-concept determination espoused by Freud 4._. 3Prescott Lecky, Self-Consistency: A Theory of Personal- it , ed. by Frederick C. Thorn INew York: The Shoe String ress, Inc.), p. 246. ”Ibid., p. 251. :2‘ Others. 525 behavio‘. 55:: : whi :sjzaz'io r . Like L1 5‘ - irives a: .“‘n ::D.J' " A... Uc. . 5.51““ -: cw, . f‘ Canny” {3‘ ‘Eet, 4 gs? 433 15 and others. It suggests that the development of self-concept and behavior motivation goes beyond the realm of mere drives and reduction of need into the areas of integration and con- sistency of present practice with past, personal experience. The term self-concept itself tends to be used not so much as a separate entity existent within the individual but as a factor which determines modes of behavior or motivation for behavior. Thus it has become a part of a larger group of terms which when taken together are useful in explaining indi— vidual behavioral response to existential conditions. Like Lecky, Robert W. White has questioned the overuse of drives as an explanation of motivation. Rather, he sug- gests, "competence" is the major factor to which we should turn our attention. It is through the development of compe- tence that the organism is able to achieve integration and what Freud and others would term an adequate concept of self. Competence is defined by White as ". . . an organism's capacity to interact effectively with its environment."5 For White, organismic activity is purposeful in the sense that it is directed toward effective environmental interac- tion; a concept which, among man and other higher animal orders, suggests the process of learning. Thus, he states: 5Robert W. White, "Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of Competence," Psychological Review, Vol. 66 (1959), 297-333. 5‘A0- 0‘ 1"" ‘ awn—16' 3‘45: A 5::ces in a A. ‘1‘ h .::r.a-L ‘U :2 ..YP§ ’7 Y" .51-;“533 :- .‘)_H . c..-3:1 EXT; ,4 :encencies s iiieristics :n} ‘“" C015un~ - ..:1 : .gul. ‘Or lei of the N: v. ,_ . has. Ll‘: - vat ‘ .E . . hathv- 16 "Something is left out when we make drives the operating 6 Due to the prolonged forces in animal and human behavior." learning period in man, drives are not enough to explain the learning process. We need a different kind of motivational idea to account fully for the fact that man and the higher animals develop a competence in dealing with the environment which they certainly do not have at birth and certainly do not arrive at simply through maturation.7 It is White's thesis that learning (that purposeful activity which allows the organism to become integrated with and operate successfully in the environment thereby providing a sense of "self") takes place as a result of motivation which extends beyond mere primary drive motivation. While tendencies such as exploration do not share the classic char- acteristics of drives such as tissue deficit, hormonal factors and consummatory responses, they do carry with them the poten- tial for learning and, therefore, stand as'a partial refuta- tion of the theory that learning motivation is a sole result of organismic response to such drives.8 Further de-emphasis of the concept of primary drives as the motivating force behind learning as directed toward (orientation of the self in the environment, has been given hw'Dashill (1925) and Nissen (1930). In their studies it was 6Ibid., p. 48. 7Ibid., p. 49. 8White, pp. cit., p. 58. red t ..~‘y\. ' " “.1 .7 :3? 5-2.1.111 a :1; the sub} :2‘. only wouj 2:: for the -...'C . .-.-.er the d; :rc'er to do 5 The des: =5 self and c -7, ‘ 1. :‘Vcn e surrguh L: the abSem 3‘; ~ ‘é D. x '- \ ‘— _ “- 1 was CC! g. CCurse I “‘3’ do no , —., n . e .7 a" , .. a“, U.” '1... ‘r— 1' » b .4: #Lii n,_>:__l, lags—L...“ J, 1.7!: A _:.‘._i_" .' _ _ . .. O. -- ‘ '2- 17 discovered that the motivation to explore the environment was not simply a function of primary drives such as sex, hunger or thirst. The researchers began by completely satiating these basic visceral motivators of action, thereafter plac- ing the subjects in an unfamiliar setting. It was found that not only would the subjects seek to explore their new environ— ment for the sake of self orientation, but that they would suffer the discomfort of traversing an electrified grid in order to do so. The desire of higher order animals to maintain a concept of self and orientation in relation to their surroundings was demonstrated by Butler (1953), Harlow (1957), and Meyers and Miller (1954). In each of these studies the desire to ex- plore surroundings and gain a more adequate self-orientation in the absence of visceral needs was strong enough to motivate the animals to solve discrimination problems. By thus solving these problems, the animals were rendered able to observe what was occurring outside of their cages. From the literature generally and from studies such as those mentioned above, one can see, in the ideas of self- concept determination, a trend away from strict adherence to primary drives as the determining factors. Such drives are, of course, of significant importance and cannot be ignored. They do not, however, seem inclusive enough to explain the multi-faceted nature of self-concept as it is known to exist. .J Tris be cc IT. .1: 4 eveme -53; ”In“ ‘““ 9 V :" RF! -n“ ».a n 1 'A" a?" tut-2:»: V :32}; an c. Knowl 35155.1 of 18 This becomes increasingly clear as one views self-concept and achievement in both its physical and intellectual forms. Man has long been aware of the fact that self-concept and achievement are inextricably interwoven. The ancient Greeks were a people strongly committed to excellence in both physical and mental pursuits. In this regard it is perhaps instructive to recall that the Temple at Delphi, to which many ancients of high Greek station retreated for advice as to proper action, held to be central the axiom "Know Thyself." Thus, it would appear that centuries ago, man was keenly aware of the need for a full understanding of himself and his relation to the environment in which he found himself if he were to function successfully. Knowing oneself connotes having gained a realistic ap- praisal of one's strengths and weaknesses in areas of endeavor which are important to one. And it is the relationship of such self knowledge and performance which holds particular interest in the field of education. As William W. Purkey, in his book Self Concept and School Achievement, points out, much of the earlier research (that which occurred prior to 1960) centered around the relationship between self report and achievement as opposed to self-concept and achievement.9 Arthur W. Combs points up the difference between self- report and self-concept by suggesting that the former 9Purkey, 9p. cit., p. 15. I V . E n S . . E n. c C E c. a: 1,5 A . .A . o .. . 4 t A.» i c . W a a.“ i w .J E i . 1 n A P t e .e e . . . u .. . . . . . a n I. H. u. I u. a: e W. A: .3 AL 2‘ . 2 *5 ~‘ ‘5‘ .Vo . t . : . A. 2. 3.. ”a wt. 5 S a E .0 I T. E .T a l I I. s: k .. . .3 ”1.. an" .. N 3. . . 9 t .2 . . i E . i t .1 3 . lo .a. . .: N.5. .t ... «flu .. 2. a. :. ya L... .4 «C .. . Us .3 .5 . :. E a. .e c. . a .5 :. .t . \.. I .. .: ... 2. .. .. .1 _. my. .. . u u . . A .— m9-“ ”Aolot'f-.-Ictc~ovao 19 ". . . is what the subject is ready, willing, able or can be tricked to say he is . . ." while the latter refers to ". . . what an individual believes he is . . ."10 Whether or not one agrees with Combs' assessment of the difference between these two methods of determining an indi— vidual's perceptions of himself is not of major importance. What is significant is the empirically demonstrable relation— ship which exists between self—concept and achievement. - This relationship was well demonstrated in a study by Shaw, Bell and Edson (1960). The study was designed to determine how the underachiever views himself as compared with the self perceptions of the achiever. A sample of juniors and seniors in high school whose IQ scores on the Primary Mental Abilities Test did not fall below 113 was used with a grade point average of 2.00 or above being considered as indi— cative of achievement. The males and females were treated separately. T tests were performed to verify significant dif- ferences between the mean scores of achievers and under- achievers on the PMA. Data gathered after the administration of the Sarbin Adjective Checklist led the researchers to con- clude.that ". . . the achievers feel relatively more positive about themselves than do the male underachievers."ll 1°Arthur W. Combs and D. Snygg, Individual Behavior: .A Perceptual Approach to Behavior (New York: Harper and Roe, 1949), p. 52. 11M. C. Shaw, K. Edson, and H. M. Bell, "The Self-Concept of Bright Underachieving High School Students as Perceived by the Adjective Check List," Personnel and Guidance Journal, ‘No. 39 (Nov., 1960), 195. to. e S .5 v . ~ ~ “no“ a- P-.Vv..v¢ I g .5 S f 20 A somewhat less clear—cut relationship was seen between the female achievers and underachievers causing the researchers to conclude that ". . . female underachievers feel somewhat ambivalent about themselves."12 This relationship between self-concept and achievement was studied in depth by Combs and Snygg in 1949. They ad- dressed themselves to the dynamics of what they termed the "phenomenal self" which includes ". . . those aspects of the perceptual field to which we all refer when we say 'I' or lme.ln13 It . . . helps us to focus attention upon those aspects of the perceptual field of particular importance in understanding behavior, and at the same time makes it impossible to exclude many aSpects of minor importance. . . . Man seeks not only merely the maintenance of a self but the development of an adequate self. . . .1 They continue by suggesting that: "Man seeks both to main- tain and enhance his perceived self."ls Since behavior must be appropriate to the phenomenal self, changes in the phenomenal self are invariably followed by changes in behavior.lb These statements of Combs and Snygg are reinforced in a variety of studies involving students of all ages. Gowan 12Ibid. 13Combs and Snygg, op. cit., p. 43. ll‘Combs and Snygg, op- cit., p. 45. 15Ibid. 15Ibid., p. 375. 21 (1960), studying both high school and college students found that achievers show greater self-confidence, self—acceptance, and a more positive self-concept in general than do under- achievers.17 A rather exhaustive study of self-concept was conducted by Fink (1965). Using subjects selected from the freshman class of a rural high school in California, matched pairs (GPA) of boys and girls were divided into groups of over and under-achievers. The self-concept of each student was deter- mined by use of a variety of instruments including the Cali- fornia Psycyhological Inventory, the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test, the Draw-A-Person Test, the Gouge Adjective Check-list, a personal data sheet and, finally, a brief essay describing "What will I be in twenty years?" Using a chi— square test of independence, it was found that a significant difference did exist between over and under—achieving stu- dents in self-concept adequacy.18 In a treatment of the multiple components of self—concept, Brunkan and Sheni (1965) studied 321 college students. The sample was broken into three categories; (1) efficient 17J. C. Gowan, "Factors of Achievement in High School and College," Journal of Counseling and Psychology, VII (1960), 91-95. 18Martin B. Fink, "Self-Concept as it Relates to Academic Underachievement," California Journal of Educational Research, Vol. XIII, No. 2 (1962), 57-62. were *3" ”0" M d th: :H H.‘ ‘ a Much c h. \ v e’ q EC CI] SCI .- - '1am W. 1 ..§ n11 22 readers, (2) effective readers, and (3) ineffective readers. They were given a battery of tests including; (1) the Reading Versatility Test (RVT); (2) the Stanford Achievement Test; (3) and the Adjective Check—list which is scored on a range of 39 scales indicating psychological set. In their discus- sion of the analysis of data, the researchers found that high-rate efficient readers were significantly higher on self-confidence (p = .01), Dominance (p = .01), and SAT Verbal (p = .01), and Significantly lower (p = .01 to .05) on vari— ables of Succorance, Abasement and Deference when compared to other subgroups in the study.19 Much of the literature surrounding self-concept has been based on studies of self—perception and cognitive consistency. William W. Purkey has stated: Individuals are generally unwilling to accept evidence that is contrary to the ways they perceive themselves; they resolve conflict between evidence and personal judgement in favor of personal judgment.20 His statement is well documented by a number of studies (Festinger, 1957; Festinger and Aronson, 1960) which have been designed to test the theory that there is a psychological need for cognitive conSistency. That is, there is a need to reduce the discomfort which arises when a person holds two 19R. J. Brunkan, and F. Sheni, "Personality Character- istics of Ineffective, Effective and Efficient Readers," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 44 (1966), 837-44. 2°Purkey, op. cit., p. 11. ‘n E ‘7‘ 1'1 ‘3 L | , . . v n . y . v . v . .W t . I r _ .2 e S S l .h~ r .. .i e . .l .h... u. o H.“ nu S .n .. S .C a e e ‘h: AV Au 8 ii t r r . . W C e t 3 r Lu 11 d r . E n: 3 C n . l C .a t O G e A.» u? . a-.. n h. c . 2+ 5 r ‘0 n l v» .8 .oL s 6.. in.“ nu . .W ”x... a. ‘ . V i p . 4a n.“ .11. a I a e .b u T. r #L w. i m. . . I. c. e A . .1 v» .hu r. Y; + .. Ru 0. AU e Pu k: c a. c. 3 C 5. Au 2. C. 3 c . C a. n . . . .3 I L. J .3 - C S 3. a: ... I . .3. . .. 3.. a !. nut" vuP'. um» «I.» .IL .A.“ in.“ .\~- nan“ can up“ In. ‘ s u . :a s 1R‘. 23 ideas which are cognitively or psychologically different or dissonant. This dissonance is most commonly noted in indi- viduals who hold a particular view of themselves but who, for various reasons, find themselves behaving in a manner which does not support this pre-conceived View of self. In the 1962 study conducted by Aronson and Carlsmith, several assumptions were made; (1) that our society values and rewards good performance and punishes poor behavior; (2) that a person who expected not to do well should feel good if he performed well on a task. This second assumption, based solely on common sense, is one that is not necessarily supported by the studies done by Festinger and Aronson (1960) and other researchers. The hypothesis to be tested asked the question: Will those who expect to perform poorly, upon finding that they performed well, experience psychological discomfort and seek to change their responses so as to bring their performance more in line with their expectations? In the laboratory experiment, subjects were given a task to perform and were then given false scores which either agreed or disagreed with the expectations they had been led to build up about their own abilities on the task. Those who had been led to believe that they would do poorly, but whose scores indicated good performance, experienced greater dis- comfort (changed more responses) than did those who were told 7" . | £82311 1 AA” 5V0 I . . . I: . . .\ . C Q . «hy Wu. .: E &. nu m“ v» .n“ C. k... a. at . c L-“ .t l .l T r. S n C C 3 . at. g S ..C .. i S a C a... C. C d SJ T. k... E .3 3. .c u C u .5 “.1. .l q #1 TL .ot ”2. S s i . i 5 h 3 ha and .h.“ an a. .«L .3 a v v . c. an 9.. I!“ Au. 2‘ .us n u I. . :u 9 A V o P-b 0 u r o .b» - “'I‘" t‘V' .4. ~ e V r; r. 1‘ A» .6 .b C s “Us “A. r§ up.“ (L F l 1“ o|¢ e -u l A» .u E “.... vi . . a 3 .‘ “IE “A a» whw an» \,~. .2: IQ .3. 24 they would do poorly and did perform poorly (p < .001).21 P. M. Roth, in his 1959 study of the "Role of Self— concept in Achievement," referred to Rogerian Self theory and suggested that an individual: . . . would consider it more important to maintain a conception of self than to integrate experiences which might necessitate changing the concept. 2 In his study of college freshmen who had volunteered for a reading improvement program, conditions were set up so that each individual would be pressured to change his reading pat- terns. The experimenter felt that, . . . with all other factors equal, those who did some- thing constructive from the experience would demonstrate less defensiveness in their concept of self as a reader than those who did not do as well.25 The hypothesis that ". . . there would be significant differ- ences among the self perceptions of the Improver, the Non— "2" Improver, and the attrition groups was supported, leading the author to state that, Apparently there was a direct relationship between de- fensiveness in the self-concept as a reader and relative : u : ' I a performance in the reading improvement Situation.2‘ 21Elliot Aronson and J. Merrill Carlsmith, "Performance Expectance as a Determinant of Actual Performance," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 65 (1962), 178-82. 22P. M. Roth, "The Role of Self-Concept in Achievement," Journal of Experimental Education, XXVII (June, 1959), 279. 23Ibid., p. 279. 2”Ibid., p. 280. 251bid., p. 280. 5.3:; rsmt: -‘ “ kr- mrlc 5:... . I axle-econ- ranging be: 4:!” n‘ ‘ “.....y has - on S‘ CCesS ' J. . ~€ugan 1n : L19 .05 1e... me {A b Bnltl' i: 25 :5.- S- .- tSunfis’ti‘trr {:939) I, .. 25 The maintenance of consistency between self perceptions and performance has its corollary in the relationship between self-esteem and achievement. In a 1959 study conducted by Coopersmith, 102 fifth and sixth grade students attending public school in a small eastern city were sampled. The socio-economic status of the locale selected was defined as ranging between middle-middle class and upper-middle class. The researchers found a significant correlation (r = .36, p < .01) between self-esteem as measured by the Self-Esteem Behavior Rating Form and scores on the Iowa Achievement Test. In a chi square analysis of the data, a significant ten- dency was found for students above and below the class medians in success experiences to be likewise above or below the median in measured self-esteem (X2 = 5.1, significant beyond the .05 level).26 From the review of the above studies as well as others (Benjamins, 1950; Bieri and Frieschman, 1956) it would ap- pear evident that a significant relationship exists between self-concept and achievement for students at all levels of academic pursuit. Further, such studies are highly sugges- tive of the desirability of educators to be aware of the need for cognitive consistency among students' self-perceptions, self-esteem and the many factors which combine to constitute 268. A. Coopersmith, "A Method for Determining Types of Self-Esteem," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 59 (1959), 87-95. 23115 notion :51, COnSi Cit 26 academic achievement. As Combs and Snygg have maintained: If we are to deal effectively with behavior we must consider what our students think of themselves. Indeed, we must, if our assumptions are correct, frankly assume the responsibility for helping our students to perceive themselves in ways that will be more satisfactory to them and, through their resulting behavior, to others. The development of an adequate self by each student would seem to be a primary responsibility for us all.27 The recognition that achievement in school is inextric- ably interwoven with the student's feelings about himself has led a number of researchers to attempt to isolate further those aspects of self—concept which seem to be most closely associated with school achievement. Most all students, regardless of their age have heard others, if not indeed themselves, say that the concepts of certain subjects are wholly beyond their ability to master. Although the writer knows of no data which would support this notion, it seems nonetheless true that women, more than men, consider the field of mathematics to be outside their ken. Stereotypical statements such as, "I never was very good at mathematics," or, "Math just isn't my subject," can seemingly be quite indicative of those who either cannot or do not do well in the discipline. This point, while appear- ing to be self evident, is significant in its implications for educational psychology. And it is the relationship be- tween this subject oriented self—concept and achievement which has led a number of researchers to delve into the area 27Combs and Snygg, op. cit., p. 377. : .. AM.) :0 35a“ oiklc $113.". is a- the: be mea me how ea Inal 'J" an A" A... WnuuC' :3: 19 C8 in SLiered the 5:3, scores ‘1. ‘fle COI- «”3“ s .yunSEl\’e 27 of student academic confidence and its effect upon perform- ance. Frequently, researchers conducting studies in the area of academic confidence make use of a self-prediction scale which is aimed at determining the students' self-concept of ability. The numerical value derived from such a scale can then be measured against other variables in order to deter- mine how each functions as a predictor of academic confidence. In a 1966 study of Self-Prediction of Academic Achieve- ment conducted by Keefer, the entire student body of Bryan College in Dayton, Tennessee was used. The researcher con- sidered the variables of high school total grade point aver- age, scores on the American College Test, self-prediction of grades to be earned, and the actual grades achieved. In the treatment of these data it was found that the variable of self-prediction was as reliable a predictor of future achievement as were high school records and American College Test scores. Furthermore, when self-prediction was taken along with high school records and test scores in a multiple correlational treatment, these factors, which tended by themselves to lose significance as the student progressed from the freshman year, remained significant. Thus, we see self-prediction, as it is used to determine academic confi- dence, as an effective predictor of curricular performance.28 28K. E. Keefer, "Self-Prediction of Academic Achievement by College Students," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1965. the exam: 350 seven: Y ' A .3 a chi : 833.0311C s 28 Johnson (1968), likewise, directed his studies toward the examination of self-concept of academic ability and actual school performance. He made use of a population of 350 seventh-grade males in a mid-west public school system. In a chi square analysis where academic ability, socio- economic status, race, and grade point average were partialled out, the non-promoted male showed a significantly lower self- concept of academic ability than did his promoted pair-mate. The non-promoted student's perceptions of his parents' evalu- ation of his academic ability tended to be lower than that of his promoted pair-mate but was not statistically signifi- cant at the .05 level.29 While caution should be taken not to infer a causal re- lationship here, these data do suggest a positive relation- ship between self—concept of academic ability and actual success as measured by promotion. It could be argued that self-concept of academic ability is not sufficiently distinct from general self-concept to be treated statistically as a separate predictor of academic success. Relative to this question, Farls (1967), in his study of high and low achievment of average intermediate grade students as it related to self-concept and social 29A. A. Johnson, "A Study of the Relationships between Non-promotion and the Male Student's Self-Concept of Academic .Ability and His Perceived Parental, Friends', and Teachers' Evaluations of His Academic Ability," Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1968. a:::0‘lalp there was i sub;ects' Further as; gates} the : finance ar searcher h; ilgence was seven the Stuaents ax: AS a I- 5523' it. Wé. SElf‘C: Classrg Qantas; were .2 Negroes “one i 35911 self-c ‘~\‘~“~“ is L,.‘ R. J 29 approval, found, in comparing high and low achievers, that there was a signigicant (p = .05) difference between the subjects' self concepts and their self-concepts as students.30 Further amplifying this relationship, Morse (1963) investi- gated the relationship that exists between classroom per- formance and self-concept of ability among Negro and Caucasian students in a mid-western urban setting. Using a sample of 114 Negro and 1482 Caucasian eighth-grade students, the re- searcher hypothesized, among other things, that when intel- ligence was controlled, a significant relationship would exist between the self-concepts of ability of Negro and Caucasian students and their achievement. As a result of a multiple correlational analysis of the data, it was found that: Self-concept of ability was a better predictor of classroom achievement than I.Q. for both Negro and Caucasian students. The obtained beta weights . . . were .416 for self-concept and .032 for I.Q. among the Negroes, and .442 for self-concept and .362 for I.Q. among the Caucasians.31 Brookover's comprehensive study of the relationship be- tween self—concept of ability and academic success is by far 30R. J. Farls, "High and Low Achievement of Intellec- tually Average Intermediate Grade Students Related to the Self-Concept and Social Approval," Unpublished Doctoral Dis- sertation, University of Pittsburg, 1967. 31Richard C. Morse, "Self-Concept of Ability, Significant Others and School Achievement of Eighth-Grade Students: A Comparative Investigation of Negro and Caucasian Students," Unpublished M. A. Thesis, Michigan State University, 1963. grcpositic That from the: functl after ‘ ' ‘ :Erii'ec; l i‘ffierlmen T. E". :9 Still-EV, .' ,V sg‘ u. ‘ ‘“e Sax: 30 the most inclusive one reviewed by this writer. In this longitudinal study the researchers took as their major proposition: That students' self-concept of academic ability results from their perceptions of the evaluations significant others hold of their ability . . . (and) . . . in turn functions to limit the level of academic achievement attempted.32 The population for this study was comprised of seventh- grade students (1960-1961) in a midwestern city of approxi- mately 110,000. The total student population measured nearly 2,000. From these students, three separate populations were derived; longitudinal subjects; cross-sectional subjects; and experimental subjects. Because of the size and duration of the study, a full analysis of the populations and treatments used would be beyond the scope of this review. It is there- fore suggested that the reader refer to the complete study for the sake of greater detail. What appears in this report will be a review of the researchers' hypotheses and findings which relate directly to the relationship between self-concept of academic ability and school achievement. The following hypotheses are tOpically relevant at this juncture: H03: Self-concept of academic ability is associated with academic achievement at each grade level. H04: Changes in self-concept of academic ability are associated with parallel changes in academic achievement. 32Brookover, Erickson, and Joiner, Part III, op. cit., p. 45. Ho5 ' ‘: :..‘L _h ' m".fi’-hh . ". 31 Hos: Self-concept of academic ability is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the occurrence of high academic achievement.33 The researchers reported the use of a variety of data analysis procedures ranging from simple correlation to chi square analysis of achievement scores. It was found that, The correlation between self-concept of ability and grade point average ranges from .48 to .63. . . . It falls below .50 only among the boys in the 12th grade. . . . The analysis of the achievement of stu- dents with high and low self-concepts of ability . . . revealed that although a significant proportion of students with high self-concepts of ability achieved at a relatively low level, practically none of the students with lower self—concepts of ability achieved at a high level.3“ It was further stated that, Finally, in regard to Ho Change in self-concept of ability over two year periods is significantly related to parallel change in grade point average.3 5, data suggested that, the higher correlation between perceived evaluations and self-concepts tends to support the theory that perceived evaluations are a necessary and sufficient condition for self-concept of ability but self-concept of ability is only a necessary but not sufficient con- dition for achievement?6 _—— 33W. B. Brookover, E. L. Erickson, and L. N. Joiner, Self-Concept of Ability and School Achievement III: Relation- ship of Self-Concept to Achievement in High School, U. S. Office of Education, CooperatiVe Research Project No. 2831 (East Lansing: Office of Research and Publications, Michigan State University, Feb. 1967), p. 48. 3“Ibid., p. 143. 35Ibid., p. 143. 36Brookover, Erickson, and Joiner, op. cit., p. 142. range in accioioc . 3" 5e: miner: R.‘ :..itudes . "gas observ»: The v; the r»:- wiie a 5:29?"- y'u» on O 32 Recognizing that self-concept of ability is signifi- cantly related to achievement, and that a change in that . facet of personal evaluation brings about a concomitant change in school performance, researchers in education, sociology and psychology have turned their attention to the determinants of self-concept of ability. The forerunners of this kind of research were studies dealing with the relationship of the self-concept and the attitudes and opinions of significant others. As Videbeck has observed: The View that one's self-conception is learned from the reactions of other individuals to him has achieved wide acceptance in social psychology today.37 Much of the reason for this acceptance is the relative age of the notion of this relationship. As early as 1902, Cooley's theory about the "looking-glass self"38 was drawing the attention of people in the field and was responsible, in part, for the initiation of research in this area. Videbeck (1960) conducted a study, the purpose of which was to investigate, in a more classically oriented research setting, the theories of Cooley and others about self-concept and the attitudes of significant others. It was Videbeck's thesis that, 37Richard Videbeck, "SelfaConception and the Reactions of Others," Sociometry, Vol. 23 (1960), 351-359. 38Charles H. Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1902). Ifa well, EEO 1'8 NH _‘| Uuu‘d 4 he we rating co: = anarber c it Hit: _‘ 33 If a person is told that he is doing something very well, he will be more likely to rate himself as being more capable of doing that something or possessing the qualities related to doing it, than if he had been told he was doing it poorly.39 He felt that the extent to which an individual's self— rating could be effected by another person was dependent upon a number of factors, four of which he considered in his study, to wit: (1) the frequency with which another is in a position to judge. (2) how qualified the other is considered to be by the individual. (3) the strength of motivation of the individual with reference to the facet of his behavior which is being evaluated. (4) the intensity of the other's expression of ap— proval or disapproval. Assuming that these four conditions were held constant, two hypotheses could then be formulated for testing: (1) If another person reacts approvingly toward the individual with reference to some Specified attri- bute, then the subject will change his actual self- rating, re that attribute, to a point closer to his ideal-self rating; but if the other reacts disap- provingly, then the subject will change his actual-self rating to a point further away from his ideal—self rating. (2) If disapproving reactions do not substantially differ from approving reactions except for the element of negation, then there will be no difference in abso- lute amounts of change in self-ratings between subjects reacted to approvingly and disapprovingly, with refer- ence to a given attribute.“o 39Videbeck, op, cit., p. 352. “°Videbeck, op. cit., p. 352. “MWYW (“fl-'5 *J“ H— " .~ H ,.: :iCAEE v- '\ 0.;- :.:E ti-.i [a m 0 ,+ U) ( ‘::“nrqy.: “...»... t u t. 3""-w I 40-... a- The of were direct ”wept of :3 the 96m tse theorl 34 Thirty subjects, who had been rated by their instructors of Introductory Speech as being superior, were selected for the study. Each was told that he would be evaluated on his reading of six poems, and each was randomly assigned to re- ceive either approving or disapproving reactions from the expert regardless of his performance. Analysis of these data showed that 13 of 15 approval subjects changed in the predicted directions as did 14 of 15 disapproval subjects. Furthermore, it was found that the amount of change in self-conception was greater for the dis- approval group than for those who received the approval of the expert. The researcher concluded that, The findings of this study tend to support the general View that self-conceptions are learned, and that the evaluative reactions of others play a significant part in the learning process."1 The oft-cited studies of Brookover and associates, which were directed, in part, toward the relationship between self- concept of ability and significant others, have added greatly to the general understanding of this relationship. One of the theories upon which their research was based was that, . . . Human behavior is a function of the expectations and evaluations of others who are significant to the actor as perceived by him and as internalized in a self- conception of what-is-appropriate and proper for him to do and what he is able to do.“2 ”lIbid., p. 359. “zBrookover, Erickson, and Joiner, op. cit., p. 139. I“. I 3;... 1-411%?“ ' " ' ‘" stuce work Of c Smfieen, has been “558ml: est has attitude any. Cf the 35 In an effort to find out who were the significant others for students, the researchers gathered data which extended over a period of six years. Their findings showed that, despite the prevalent notion that peers were the most sig- nificant others for students (Coleman, 1961),"3 . . . Evidence indicated that parents and other family members are more likely than any other category to be "significant others" for adolescents during junior and senior high school. . . . The evaluations which students perceive parents, friends, and teachers hold for them are consistently correlated with self-concept of aca- demic ability. The correlations range from .50 to .77 over the period of this study. Although all three per- ceived evaluations are significantly correlated with self-concept of ability, partial correlation analysis reveals that perceived parents' evaluation is more likely to affect self-concept than the evaluations of the peers or teachers.”“ As a result of Brookover's longitudinal study, and the work of others in the same and related areas (Harding, 1966; Sandeen, 1965; Erickson, 1965; Joiner, 1966) much interest has been generated about the attitudes of parents and the academic performance of their children. Most of this inter- est has manifested itself in research directed toward parental attitudes about their childrens' ability to perform academic- ally. Many, however, have recognized the need for the study of the attitudes parents hold toward their child's school and the performance level which is obtained by that child (Cass, “3James Coleman, The Adolescent Society (Glencoe, I11.: The Free Press, 1961). HBrookover, Erickson, and Joiner, op. cit., p. 142. tcward it For educa learning * relations Jo .vn has n lrkiti‘ I: 36 1967; Hand, 1948; Jamieson, 1962; Sexton, 1964; Petersen, 1971). It is toward the clarification of this relationship that this research is directed. In summary, then, the early recognition of the con- struct "self" and the many subsequent years of study aimed toward its clearer identification has led in many directions. For educators, whose chief concern is student success in the learning task, such studies have been directed toward the relationship between self-concept and achievement. As a result of the recognition of self-concept of ability and its function as a variable which intervenes between the evaluations of significant others and actual student achieve- ment, the attention of many researchers has been turned toward the identification of these "others" and modification of their attitudes. Such modification, as has been shown by Brookover and others, has demonstrable effects on both self- concept of ability and student achievement. At the same time as such research has been on-going, educators, administrators and teachers alike, have been hard at the task of developing and maintaining positive attitudes on the part of the parents whose children they serve, with the tacit assumption that such maintenance has implications for the academic success of the students whom they instruct. While the need for research to validate such an assump- tion has been echoed by many educators, little if any difinitive work has been done in the area. It is for this reason that the present study was undertaken. "‘ . .. .,- ‘v ,.-...v. , (4 .- . an J... .. ‘~" .44. ,x~~a¥"$_.~--..~r { _~ .- ."~ -._,‘ ~ 37 It was the author's purpose in Chapter III to describe the procedures used in both the gathering and analyzing of the data used in this study. WM N91n¢g».-... ¢. ‘.. ’ " ?i n 43.3.“. -y. ———_‘ 31:51:16 S S E L. . ._ .‘v nae/um“ Ile. ‘4‘ “v and ELVIS "’i . :l‘ddzclpal 4 1.9+ 5“ ‘ p923]. ‘Q‘n ‘J';‘19-,- ’4 Y‘y CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Location of the Study Data used in this study were gathered at an elementary school located in a large metrOpolitan area of central Michigan. The community in which the school is located is residential in nature and is supported, in only one instance by heavy manufacturing--a cement plant. While many small businesses are operating in the area adjacent to the school's boundaries, none exists within the actual attendance area. The housing pattern in the attendance area is composed mainly of single family dwellings. A new apartment complex was under construction at the time of this writing with some of the units now completed. The existence of this new de- velopment has not, at present, had a significant effect upon the school's enrollment. As of the spring of 1972, 154 units of low-income, fed- eral housing had been completed. It is estimated by the principal of the school that an approximate growth in stu- dent population of one (1) per cent at the beginning of the 1971-1972 school year could be attributed to this construc- tion and subsequent occupancy, and that by the end of the 38 factors. A‘O‘ha 3 .. Vuséy ‘a‘ ECtIOn t: 1: attem ‘du 1371-1972 39 same school year the same housing accounted for approximately 10 per cent of the student population. It is interesting to note that the mobility rate at the school approximately doubled during the 1971-1972 school year, going from about 15 per cent to nearly 30 per cent. It was felt by the administrator that this was due to several factors. The federal housing may be a causative factor. Other factors which may have been Operative are parental re- action to a new busing program and/or reactions to a change in attendance boundaries; both of which occurred during the 1971-1972 school year. At the time that these data were gathered, the school housed 432 students not including those enrolled in kinder- garten or the special education program. A breakdown of the racial makup of the student body may be found in Table 3.1. TABLE 3 . l Racial Breakdown of Student Body of the School Used in This Study Total Number Per cent of Race Enrolled Total Students White 343 79% Non-white 89 21% Totals 432 100% coordina t1 further 5 A Communi the SChoo F0:- :0 sample E2“9331510: Eilcatiol reasons ‘. liar-met ' \ - 1A1 site: I“ 5:.» ‘9th I; 4O Demographic Data The various demographic data of the parent population used in this study were analyzed by use of the ACT Program1 on the CDC 3600 Computer at Michigan State University. The characteristics of the population are summarized in Tables 3.2 through 3.5 (see Appendix B). Staffing Pattern of the School The school is presently in its third year of Operation in a differentiated staffing mode with the staff composed of coordinators, instructors and aides. This regular staff is further supplemented by both student teachers and tutors. A Community School Coordinator has begun full-time work at the school as of September of 1972. Selection of the Sample For the purposes of this study it was deemed advisable to sample across all grade levels within the school, with the exception of those students who were enrolled in a special educational program and those who were in kindergarten. The reasons for these two exceptions were, in the case of the former, their exclusion from the regular, full-time instruc- tional program and, in the case of both the former and the 1Alan M. Lesgold, Analysis ofiContipgency Tables, Com- puter Institute for Social Sciénce Research, Technical Report No. 14, Michigan State University (Revised, 1-12-68). The util; :ptiriza: the stude .‘treover, acre near. in the s: ence the IC-Ceiure, \ K o . Subsl 933C€dhre; PrinCipal Q 5 Packs Lie fWilli '. \ n .‘ (I) to be ..t to ea ifs-93.5 subs .C‘zt 41 latter, the lack of comparably testable achievement data. The oldest child of each family was selected for study. The utilization of such a selection procedure allowed for optimization of data gathering since a higher percentage of the students tended to have a longer tenure in the school. Moreover, it was felt that such a procedure would generate more meaningful responses on the part of the parents involved in the study relative to their attitudes toward the school since they would have had a longer association with it. Procedures Used in Data Gathering Subsequent to the selection of the family names by the procedures outlined above, a letter was prepared by the principal of the school and this writer which was sent to each family. The letter contained a brief explanation of the study which was to be conducted and alerted the parents to the coming questionnaire and personal data form. Packets containing these forms were then sent to each of the families via the oldest child of each family. Since it was to be anticipated that some of these packets would not reach their destination, a follow-up letter was prepared and sent to each of the families involved in the study. Two weeks subsequent to the follow-up letter, each family was contacted by phone with the objectives of reminding them about the questionnaire and determining their reactions to its contents. While no accurate records were kept of the 3! COTS: int a n tethese 0f .‘tchigan that 3315 units. fibunted ”Ritual J. 42 general reactions of the parent respondents to the contents of the questionnaire and personal data sheet, it is estimated that less than four per cent had any unfavorable reactions or comments. Upon a second telephone contact, it was found that a number of the respondents had misplaced their packets. To these, a second packet was sent by first-class mail. Of the 273 packets sent, 202, or 74 percent, were re- turned. The method of return was by first-class mail using stamped return envelopes addressed to the Mott Institute at Michigan State University. Upon inspection, it was found that missing data required the deletion of 38 responding units. The total responses used in the analysis of the data amounted to 154 or 58 per cent of the total number of packets originally sent. A variety of data were gathered for the oldest child of each responding unit including Student Level of Confidence of Academic Ability, scores on the 1972 Stanford Achievement Test, the teacher-perceived academic standing of each child in relation to chronological age norms, the frequency and kind of incidents requiring teacher disciplining, and the record of attendance. It was considered advisable to avoid the use of teachers in administering the Student Level of Confidence of Academic Ability Form (SLCAA) since some of the items reflected the students' perceptions of their teachers' evaluation of their work. Therefore, student tutors who were enrolled in Education o' ' 3.15 WIl' Q . areflofl p. Vbu ~4 evaluati: students viiually. tested i: cut the t :hild dat Each 3511' per: 539(3th C ‘- I‘Lq have n O I terms of h 43 482 (The Urban Tutorial Program) at Michigan State University, as well as volunteers from the Lansing Volunteer Bureau and this writer, conducted the student survey. A training session preceded the administration of the SLCAA form and several meetings were held during the testing period in which informal evaluations of the testing procedure were made. Each of the students in the first through fourth grades was tested indi- vidually. At the fifth and sixth grade level, students were tested in groups of four. Code numbers were utilized through- out the testing procedure in order to insure that each parent- child data unit was prOperly matched. Each child was rated by his teaching team in terms of .their perceptions of his academic standing in relation to expected chronological age norms. Thus, each received an "above" or "below" grade level rating which was valued in terms of half-years. Each teaching team was also asked to judge each child participant in terms of frequency and kind of incidents requiring teacher disciplining. The frequency scale included daily, weekly, bi-weekly, and monthly occur- rences and the kind scale was composed of 5 degrees of sever- ity including, (1) no infraction, (2) infraction of a minor rule, (3) disruptive or disrespectful of others, (4) threat to the safety of self or others, and (5) malicious. Each such determination was made on the consensus of the total teaching team for each child. ' W D,w'3"':’m'x‘.’iiw? 7'". ,g' ' 7, In censulte \ were la 'r'ere util setteries . fi . v I:- . \tr 44 In addition, the attendance records of each child were consulted for frequency of absence. Certain restrictions were placed upon the determination of absence rate in order to differentiate between what might be considered absence due, in part, to school related factors and those which would be termed legitimate absence due to diagnosed illness. These restrictions are more precisely defined in the section dealing with definition of terms. Finally, the scores for each child on the 1972 Stanford Achievement Test were obtained through the data processing department of the school district. Four batteries of the SAT were utilized to test across grades one through six. These batteries were Primary I, Primary II, Intermediate I, and Intermediate II. In all instances, form X was used. Instrumentation and Data Treatment The "Your Schools" section of the Bullock School-Community Attitude Analysis for Educational Administrators was used in order to ascertain the attitudes of the parent respondents toward the school. It is the Opinion of the scale's author _that, School patrons and community members do . . . become aware of, and render judgements about, certain specific aspects of the school: its personnel, its policies, and its programs.2 2Robert P. Bullock, School-Community Attitude Analysis for Educational Administrators (Columbus, Ohio: College of Education, Ohio State University, 1959). rudene— 119 26335 Us {Eliabl‘ l‘ frient cc if c5568 1‘ is: late“ 'I‘i-El’eby Ea “itsricn. Siales CO.“ 51.1133 e Sectl0n tc 32163,, the 3:: inclus 121., . “isls R ::r k 45 Forty statements of Opinions relating to eight areas Of interest were developed with approximately half of the items worded to show approval and the other half, dissatisfac- tion. Scoring of each item is on a five-point Likert scale. The chosen test community was located in Ohio. It had a population of approximately 13,000 and school district boundaries included five separate townships. Students were the means of circulation of the questionnaire after newspaper coverage was given to alert the community of the study. Of the 1300 questionnaires sent home, 729 were returned and suitable for inclusion in the data bank. A split-half coefficient of correlation for the General School Approval-Rejection section ("Your Schools") showed a reliability (r) at .48 with the estimated reliability coef- ficient corrected for attenuation (Rest) at .64. The number of cases was 100. The preliminary instrument was analyzed for internal consistency using an item analysis procedure whereby each item was tested in relation to the total score criterion. Each item was then tested against the six sub- scales contained within the "Your Schools" section. Subsequent to the administration of the "Your Schools" section to the parent reSpondents in the sample for this study, the responses were coded and punched on data cards for inclusion in a factor analysis. The purpose of this analysis was to determine which factor solution would account for the largest amount of variance of the parent responses I I I HI... 1 e Gr.“ a “L E o a 1 r . . . . 4 7 . e d i t :1 t . MW -m 14 r . 0 it Mm nu MW C ha I M. Mm MW 3 5 C: r n S .1 a r. a 6 ml .1 e an,“ rC O 9 U Au C v . S g e a r . and PM; M». e .hd at L t .l .2,‘ «we. n3 v (a .3 p. . “Q n v . .3 Arm ~u . r . v.“ A: .51. m1 9 s u... e: .= A.» n . 1. p. . t Lulu “a“; +0» Val... M.“ 9.. .. . . a mi .1 J911W. SenSe . ‘t‘lad 46 while maintaining the basic format suggested by the author of the scale. The results of this analysis indicated that a seven factor solution, which accounted for 57 per cent of the variance, best fit the above criteria. A complete listing of each of these seven factors may be found in Appendix B. Table 3.6 shows the various loadings of each item in its appropriate factor as well as the highest loading for each factor. The reader will note that, in several cases, items were not included in the factors in which they received the highest loadings. Rather, through inspection, some items were included in the factors in which they fit better con— textually. In these cases, care was taken to insure that the drop in loading was not dramatic, thereby maintaining the efficacy of each of the seven sub-scales of parental attitude toward the school. The reader will note the inclusion of two additional items, designed by this writer, which were aimed at determin- ing general feelings of power or powerlessness. These items were included in the factor analysis and were treated both as a part of the total instrument and separately as indicators of sense of control. Due to the central importance for this study of the atti- tudes of parents toward the school, it was essential that the reliability of the instrument used to test this attitude be determined. To this end, the Hoyt Test of Reliability, which areful e; .4h.e thC, i.‘C'f‘irth ”:3: 15 SC. V “ridge b: ‘46 ca: 36 :Er'sl-‘ig' 2': bridVanc. Ili‘érsltv 47 utilizes the Reciprocal Averages Program (RAVE)3 was used. The responses of each parent to the items of the scale were analyzed by means of the split-half method wherein, each item is correlated with the total of all items. Analysis of the data by the above procedure revealed a reliability (r) at .74 for this population. The Student Level of Confidence of Academic Ability was determined by the previously outlined procedures. The scale used for this determination was developed by the writer after careful examination of the literature of Brookover and others. While the items used in this scale are modeled after the pat- tern established by the Self Concept of Ability Scale,“ it was deemed advisable to re-structure scale items due to the intended use at a lower grade level. An interview technique was utilized in order to accom- modate those students who were too young to read the items and, further, to insure reliability of administration. Each item is scaled on a five point Likert type continuum with 3David J. Wright, Fortap: A Fortran Test Analysis Package by F. B. Baker and T. J. Marthin, Revised for Use on the CDC 3600 and CDC 6500 at Michigan State University (East Lansing, Michigan: Office of Research Consultation, School for Advanced Studies, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1970). (Mimeographed). ”W. B. Brookover, Ann Paterson, and Shailer Thomas, Self- Concept of Ability and School Achievement, U. S. Office of Education, Cooperative Research Project No. 845 (East Lansing; Office of Research and Publications, Michigan State Univer- sity, Dec. 1962). letter ( pOIHCSI Hugh 1 of the s tents b; of the c LnStrLL'TE bility ( The relation élscipli‘ ?-'Epared on the d analysis Stu 3‘1 the s 33053 a “111m 33ers 33:;5rab {C151 re in th e d Zle end 48 letter (a) given a value of five (5) points, (b) four (4) points, and so on. A high score on the SLCAA form indicated a high level of confidence. Due to the broad range of ages of the students to whom the test was administered, some judg- ments by the interviewers as to the meaning of the responses of the children were necessary. The reliability of this instrument was measured by the Hoyt test and showed a relia- bility (r) of .70. The various student data involving relative standing in relation to chronological age norms, frequency and kind of discipline, and absenteeism rate were tabulated on a sheet prepared by the writer. The data were then coded and included on the data control cards for treatment in the total data analysis. Student achievement data were obtained by use of scores on the Stanford Achievement Test. Since the sample ranged across all grade levels in the school, it was impossible to utilize all sub-scales from each battery; this because the numbers of items and the character of the sub-scales were not comparable across all batteries. For this reason, only the total reading and total arithmetic percentiles were included in the data for analysis. Such percentiles were based on the end of the year norms which is in keeping with the testing period of the students in the school being studied. The decision to use percentile scores was based upon the desire to maintain comparability across all grade levels. “"’~‘""00 ‘i'tr‘. uuQnooo so» .. . —¢. Ecwcrer r selves r c: the re- :urve dis scares c il'OLd the [la ..“l‘1' i+ a~ib kicul 49 However, due to the fact that percentiles distribute them- selves rectangularly across any given population or sample, it was necessary to make transformations of each such rank- ing. To that end, all percentiles were converted to stand— ard (z) scores by use of a cumulative normal probabilities table. The net result of this transformation was the fitting of the rectangularly distributed percentiles to a normal curve distribution thereby allowing their use in the least squares deletion form of a regression analysis. In order to avoid the occurrence of negative numbers, a constant of 5 was added to each of the transformed scores. Analysis of the Data In addition to the use of the factor analysis, the pur- pose of which has been described above, simple correlation and the least squares deletion form of regression analysis were utilized. Because of the comparative nature of this study, it was felt that the least squares delete form of ana- lysis would be the most indicative and informative of sig— nificant relationships. Two approaches are possible using this analytic form. In the first instance, the hypothesis may be stated that the squared multiple correlation coeffi- cients (R2) will be equal to zero. The data may then be analyzed to determine the extent to which the inclusion of independent variables causes the squared multiple correlation coefficients to vary from that point; the level of significance fitfiuch 3383588 Garret c? Th be a vary in c Gian dete bles tell in d 50 of such variance being determined by the researcher on the basis of the nature of the particular study. A second method can be used which determines the extent to which the squared multiple correlation coefficient de- creases as a result of the stepwise deletion of the indepen— dent variables. Again, the test to be applied is whether or not such deletion leads to a significant decrease in (R2). Garret characterizes the operation of this analysis thus: The regression coefficients . . . give the weights to be attached to the scores in each of the independent variables when x, is to be estimated from all of these in combination. Furthermore, these regression coeffi- cients give the weights which each variable exerts in determining X, when the influence of the other varia- bles is excluded. From the regression equation we can tell just what role each of the several variables plays in determining the score in X1, the criterion.5 The Level of Significance The hypotheses of this study were tested at the .10 level of confidence. It is recognized by the writer that this level of confidence carries with it a somewhat increased chance of committing a Type I error. It is noted, however, that this simultaneously decreases the chances of committing a Type II error. It is felt that the purpose of this study would not be well served if an overly rigorous level of significance caused the researcher to disregard variables that are sig- nificantly accurate predictors of the criterion. 5Henry E. Garret, and R. S. Woodworth, Statistics in Ps chologyyandfiEducation (New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 19 8 , p. 412. the relie for the 1 testing . lEVel Of The ill-poems Che 5°! this Lhe test 51 Summary It has been the purpose of this chapter to describe the procedures used in both gathering and analyzing the data used in this study. A description of the location of the study and its general housing and business characteristics was followed by a detailed analysis of various demographic data. Procedures for the selection of the sample and the gathering of the data were outlined. Each of the instru- ments used in the data gathering procedure was described and the reliability of each was reported. A rationale was given for the selection of both the kind of analysis to be used in testing the data for significance and the selection of the level of significance to be used. The final section of this chapter was devoted to the hypotheses to be tested. Chapter IV contains the analysis of the data collected for this study and their interpretation as they relate to the testable hypotheses. The fire methe s: . , f ”Jar: ‘ :3: 3L. \ E ifiere necl 3f the fi: 3?Othese; Tes ‘ % The ; far the p teat was ; 1- t tiQn 2. tj thei; CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA This chapter is divided into three major sections. The first section deals with the tests of the two major hypotheses. Following the test of each hypothesis, a dis- cussion of the results of the test is given. Finally, a summary of the findings of each test is supplied. The second section deals with the ancillary questions raised in Chapter I. In the case of each such question, supple- mental data are presented and analyzed which serve to answer these questions. Summaries of these findings are presented where necessary. Finally, the third section is an overview of the findings of the study encompassing both the major hypotheses and the ancillary questions. Tests of the Hypotheses The hypotheses used in this study were tested separately for the primary and intermediate groups. The decision to so test was based on several assumptions: 1. the ages of the parents will tend to vary in rela- 'tion to their children's ages and grade level. 2. the income of the parents may vary in relation to their age and subsequent tenure in the job market. 52 special on the B tional A III, the Parts (f factors t1'Eating 53 3. the years of schooling of the heads of the house- holds, and of the mothers may vary in relation to their ages. 4. overall parental attitude toward the school may tend to vary in relation to the number of years the parents have been associated with the school. 5. factors of parental attitude may vary as predictors of the various criteria as a result of length of associ- ation with the school. In addition to the above two way analysis of the data, special test treatment was given to the scores of parents on the Bullock School-Community Attitude Analysis for Educa- tional Administrators (SCAAEA). Since, as noted in Chapter III, the total SCAAEA scale was broken down into its component parts (factors), it was deemed advisable to use each of these factors separately both as predictors and as criteria. By so treating the parent attitude scores, it was felt that a more meaningful analysis of relationships could be accomplished. In testing the first hypothesis, an attempt was made to deal with each of the seven factors individually while at the same time relieving the reader of the burden of an overly lengthy analysis. To this end, it was decided that a brief statement of the test of the hypothesis would be supplemented by several tables which summarize the relationships between the predictor variables and the various factor criteria. These tables may be found in Appendix A. The following sum- mary of the contents of these tables will characterize the meaning and importance of the table entries and may serve to facilitate an understanding of the relationships. 54 1. (R2): signifies the multiple coefficient of.corre— lation and represents the per cent of the variance of the criterion accounted for by those predictor varia- bles not deleted from the regression equation. 2. Partial (r): is the partial coefficient of corre- lation for each of the predictor variables which were not deleted from the regression equation and which are accurate predictors of the criterion at the .10 level of significance. 3. Alpha Level: is an indicator of the probability of committing a Type I error (unjustified rejection of the null hypothesis). 4. Pearson (r): is the coefficient of Pearson Product Moment Correlation for each of the relationships wherein such coefficients were significant and where said rela- tionships were not contained in multiple regression equations. Null Hypothesis I: Neither student scores on the Student Level of Confidence of Academic Ability form, the scores of students on standardized tests of achievement, child standing in re- lation to chronological age norms, absence rate, fre- quency or kind of disciplinary problems, the years of schooling of the head of the household and of the mother, the income level, race, parental perceptions of power or powerlessness, nor any subset of these variables, when taken simultaneously in a multiple regression equation, will correlate with the scores of parents on the Bullock School-Community Attitude Analysis for Educational Admin- istrators. Alternate Hypothesis I: Student scores on the Student Level of Confidence of Academic Ability form, the scores of students on stand- ardized tests of achievement, child standing in relation to chronological age norms, absence rate, frequency or kind of disciplinary problems, the years of schooling of the head of the household and of the mother, the income level, race, parental perceptions of power or powerless- ness, or any subset of these variables, when taken simultaneously in a multiple regression equation, will correlate with the scores of parents on the Bullock School-Community Attitude-Analysis for Educational Admin- istrators. .tt. Cx Ir. 5... ..J C «l C. E ... E .u. I. f i- ”.... -. I. -- . . : . .1 f- .. E a 1. .L S .1. l v. S h S k I I S . T S R. O t 1 .F. t ,1 a). I . a... I T. S e t 3 I 3. Lu 9 S m. t. .3 S l a .Q t . a W C a W . S. 2 E C. S a e . 9 n O we 5 S .. u a. d n t. I .w V a-“ W .1 S t C n u n e 5 e . . C [3 . . r .3 .e u .3 . . e i t r e «L. 1. . . 3 m N .. . .1 in“ .2 M“ e... a.“ ..... a... .... 55 In an analysis of fourteen separate regression equa- tions and Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficients, it was found that each factor of the Bullock SCAAEA was ac- curately and significantly (p i .10) predicted by some subset of the predictor variables against which it was tested. The null hypothesis was, therefore, rejected for all such factors and the alternate hypothesis accepted. Tables 4.1 through 4.7 (see Appendix A) illustrate the strength of rela- tionship of each of the predictor variables in relation to the seven factor criteria. Discussion of Data Analysis for Hypothesis I The results of the data analysis indicated that various subsets of the predictor variables were significantly corre- lated with the seven factor criteria of the Bullock CSAAEA. For purposes of clarification, each of these factors and their relationships to the various predictor variables are discussed in turn: 1. Positive attitudes toward maintenance of buildings among parents of both primary and intermediate age stu- dents were accurately and significantly predicted by the scores of students on the SCLAA scale (p = .015 and .009). Similarly, in both groups, positive parental attitudes toward building maintenance were correlated with parental perceptions of power t9 promote needed changes in the school (p = .005 and .019). Positive attitudes toward building maintenance were associated ‘with white parents of intermediate age students (p = .007). No such relationship existed for parents of primary age children. 2. Positive attitudes toward building adequacy of par- ents of primary age students were significantly predicted by income (p = .081), and the years of -._~___. _ ... . ‘.... Qsétfiu Ax LL 3 onre4ua.d8hu 4 x 1 I a e J v. ,- t r.\ hr . .C rL w. «I. Ce w H. 2*\n.~e vi e la ~ma r WIN a y e 1 .. I . C ,1 O .. C e .3 C 0d c. O 0 e . r. e C 3;. n. ti 6 e. I .e I + 0 . I .I I e 9 3. C C C l at ”mmuw.mp «5C7u Rtk+tr+tsm .MwOD.C.C 4thaS.lOC.St.h etaf Sitogd uh .xh..55d.nu 56 schooling of the mother (p = .023). Positive attitudes toward building adequacy were associated with white parents of intermediate age students (p = .005). Again, no such relationship was found for the parents of primary age students. 3. The attitudes toward school-community relations and communications among parents of both primary and inter- mediate age students were found to be accurately and sig- nifitantly predicted by the parental perceptions of power to promote needed change in the school (p = .005). Among parents of primary students, positive attitudes toward school-community relations and communications were related to lessened years of schooling of the head of the household (p = .014) and high reading percentile scores for their children (p = .020). High reading per- centile scores (p = .068), Math percentile scores (p = .007), teacher perceptions of child standing in relation to chronological age norms (p = .068) and low incidences of discipline problems (p = .068) were associated with positive attitudes toward school-community relations and communications among parents of intermediate age stu- dents. 4. Positive parental attitudes toward social skills training were significantly associated with parental per- ceptions of power to promote needed changes in the school for parents of both primary (p = .001) and intermediate age students (p = .005). Among parents of primary age students, positive attitudes toward social skills train- ing were associated with less numerous years of schooling of the head of the household (p = .010) and high reading percentile scores (p = .072). Among intermediate age students, where parental attitudes toward social skills training were positive, incidences of discipline problems were low (p = .039). Positive attitudes toward such training were associated with white parents of intermedi- ate age students (p = .022). No such relationship was found for parents of primary age students. 5. Positive parental attitudes toward academic skills training were again associated with parental perceptions of power to promote needed change in the school for both groups of parents (p = .0005). Among primary age stu- dents, where parental attitudes toward academic training were positive, reading percentile scores were high (p = .041), and the years of schooling of the head of the household were low. Positive parental attitudes toward .academic training were associated with high levels of (academic confidence (p .010) and low incidences of (iiscipline problems (p .070) for intermediate age stu- dents . 2‘3 ') F’ H F S S ' 51 r) In :1 Iv. s (1 n) (J In Q ( ) (D II _ 1 . H < H 57 6. Positive parental attitudes toward school board- community relations and communications were found to be significantly predicted by parental perceptions of power to promote needed changes in the school for par- ents of both primary (p = .005) and intermediate age students (p = .001). Such positive parental attitudes were associated with less numerous years of schooling for both the heads of households (p = .045) and the mothers (p = .070) of primary age students. For this same group, where parental attitude toward school board- community relations and communications were positive, math percentile scores of students were low (p = .07). Positive parental attitudes toward this facet of com— munication were found to be associated with black parents of intermediate age students (p = .018) and with higher levels of income (p = .064). 7. Positive parental attitudes toward student management were associated with parental perceptions of power to promote needed change in the school for both primary (p = .017) and intermediate age students (p = .005). For parents of primary students, such positive attitudes were associated with lessened years of schooling for the heads of households (p = .09), and the mothers (p = .05). Reading percentile scores (p = .052) and teachers' per- ceptions of child standing in relation to chronological age norms (p = .03) were found to be low for primary age students whose parents held positive attitudes toward student management. Incidences of discipline problems tended to be high (p = .05). For intermediate age stu- dents, where parental attitudes toward student management were positive, math percentile scores (p = .029) and absence rate (p = .011) were both low. Black parents of intermediate students evidenced positive attitudes toward student management (p = .002). No such relationship was found for parents of primary age students. Null Hypothesis II: Neither the scores of parents on the Bullock School- Community Attitude Analysis for Educational Administra- tors, the student scores on the Student Level of Confi- dence of Academic Ability form, child standing in .relation to chronological age norms, absence rate, fre- r1txary to the prevalent notion that peers were the most 5 i gnificant others: . Evidence indicated that parents and other family members are more likely than any other category to be "significant others for adolescents."1 Conclusion As a result of the studies of Brookover and others in tile: same and related areas (Harding, 1966; Sandeen, 1965; Erfiicflmq Auv Hm>mq Auv sowumfluommo mammaum> mamam somummm madam Hmwunmm mZOHefioHZDZSOU Q24 mZOHfidqmm NBHZDZZOUIAOOEUm m.v mnmfifi 121 TABLE 4.5 ACADEMIC SKILLS TRAINING Partial Alpha Variable Description (r) Level Primary (R2) = .2657 1. Years of schooling of the head of the household -.29 .037 2. Reading percentile scores .28 .041 3. Parental perceptions of power or powerlessness .70 .0005 Intermediate (R2) = .1785 1. SCLAA .26 .010 2. Discipline -.19 .070 3. Parental perceptions of power or powerlessness .56 .0005 “of?“ H00. vm. mmmcmmmaum3om Ho Hmzom mo msOADQmoumm Hmucmumm .m -...t- ‘- . ‘. 3“"‘E ."l 122 mac. «N. momm .m ewe. mH.I mEoosH .H mvma. n “va mutatwfiuwucH one. om.| umnuos may mo msflaoonom mo mummw .v one. om.| mmuoom maflucmoumm sums .m mooo. mm. mmmcmmmaumzom Ho umzom mo macaummonmm Hmucmnmm mvo. nm.| paonmmson may mo tam: mnu mo msHHoonom mo mummw .H mmom. n Aamv NHmEHHm Hm>mq . Any Hm>mq , AHVA. soaumwuomwo manmwum> mamad somummm mamad HMHuHmm mZOHB¢UHZDEEOU 02¢ mZOHfiddmm NBHZDEEOUIQm¢Om AOOEUW w.v mqmdfi n—r 'k»;-r:v~ - . 123 mooo. ow. mmmsmmmaum3om no Hmzom mo mGOHummoumm Hmucmnmm .m mmo. mm.l mmuoom maflucmonmm sum: .w boo. ma. mmuoom maflusmoumm mcfltmmm .m HHo. m~.| wosmmn< .m moo. mm. comm .H mvmm. u Aamv mumwpwEnmusH mo. mm.| “deuce may we msHHoonom mo mummw .o mo. mH.I waonmmDOA mnu mo two: can we mcflaoosom mo mummy .m mo. mm.| mason mom Havamofi locouto ou sofipmHmH CH msflpsmum pHflno .v mo. mm. mcaamflomaa .m nae. mm. mmmcmmmaum3om Ho umzom mo macaummoumm Hmucmumm .m mmo. nm.| mmuoom maflpsmonmm msflpmwm .H nmna. n Awmv Numaflum Hm>mq AHV Hm>mq Any coaumfluommo manmwnm> madam GOmAmmm mamam amauumm Bzm2m0mq Any Hm>mn AHV souumauommo wasmaum> msmas sOmHmmm msmad Hmfluumm . . mmmoom quezmummm m.¢ mqmde ozHadmm 125 Hooo. mm. mEHos mmm Hmoumoaosonso ou souumamu aw msfimsmum mawsu .m poo. m~.- mcuamflomwa .m Hoo. Hm. umsuoE msu mo msHHoosom mo mummy .o mo. om. maosmmsos msu mo mmmsmsu mo mswuoosom mo mums» .o woo. mm. msowumousssaoo mam mGOHumen muwssEEOOIHoosom .m Hoo. mm. mmmsmmmauw30m Ho umzom mo msoHummonm Hmusmumm .v Hmo. mm.| _ usmEmmmsmE usmcdum .m mooo. om. mmuoom mauusmonmm msfitmmm .N mmo. Hm.| mocmmss .H moov. n A~mv mumummfiumusH Hoo. Hm. mayo: mmm Hmoumoaosouso ou sowumamu CH msflcsmum UHfisU .m mo. m~.- mcuflauomuo .5 mo. Hm. umsuOE msu mo msflaoosom mo mummy .m no. om.| usmEmmmsmE usmpsum .m mmo. om. mosmsmusHmE msHUHHDm .v moo. mm.| mcouumoussafioo tam mc0flumumu muHsSEEooIUHmos Hoosom .m mmo. Hm.u momsommm mrumausm .m mooo. on. mmuoom mauusmoumm mswmmmm .H «wow. u Aamv NHmEflnm Hm>mq Any Hm>ms Auv 1‘ souumunommo masmwum> msde somummm, msmHfla Hmwuumm mmmoom HAHBZmummm was: m.v mqm<9 ow 0.4.“...an0. .0.— uo V.’ 9.".- .7.— _ 126 UmdsHusoo ~o.m om.mH om HH mumHumfiumusH om.v hm.vH on H mumHowEHmusH mo.m mm.mH om HH humEHHm hm.v «H.5H on H humEHHm mm.v Ho.mH om AHHH Houommv mGOHumHmm mam mGOHumOHsSEEou muHGSEEOUIUHmom Hoosom Hmuoe .v H¢.m mm.mH om HH mumHmmEHmusH mm.m oo.mH om H mumHmmEHmusH mm.m mo.MH om HH mumEHHm om.m mm.mH om H mumEHHm Hv.m mm.MH om AHH Houommv momswmps msHprsm Hmuoa .m No.m mH.vm ow HH mumHUwEHmusH om.m em.vm ov H mumHmmEHmucH mm.m om.m~ ov HH mumEHHm mo.m mm.mm ow H humEHHm AH Houommo mm.w mo.vm ow mQOHumOHQDEEoo psm mcoHumem huHssEEoolHoosom Hmuoa .m nm.mH mN.HNH on HH wumwnmfinmusH om.om vm.HmH oHN H mumHmmEHmusH mm.om Hm.o~H on HH humEHHm no.5H mH.oMH oHN H mnmfiHum HH.om mm.mmH on mHmom mmsuHuus ucmumm Hmuoa .H mm smm: muoom EmuH munummom Hmuoa, mHmNH¢Z¢ MQDBHBB¢ MBHZDZEOUlqoomum MUOAADm ZO mZOHB¢H>mQ QM Houommv msHsHmHB mHHHMm OHEmUmo< HmuOB .m vv.m mv.vH mm HH mumewEHmusH mm.m hm.MH mm H mumHUmEHmusH oH.m mH.VH mm HH mHmEHHm mm.m mb.wH mm H humEHHm ov.m mm.vH mm AH> uouommv msHGHmHB mHHme HmHoom Hmuoe .o mm.H ov.n oH HH mumHUmEkusH Ho.H mm.o oH H mumemEHmusH ov.H vo.o oH HH mumEHum «N.H mo.m OH H mHmEHHm Hv.H mm.n OH A> uouommv mocmcmucumz Hooaom Hmuoe .m mH.m NH.m om HH mumHUmEHmusH vm.m om.m om H mumHomEHmusH om.m H~.m om HH mHmEHHm wH.m om.oH on H mHmEHHm mm.m mm.m om A>H Houommv usmEmmmsm: usmpsum Hmuoe .m Om GMOE OHOUW EOHH mHnHmmom Hmuoa mascuuroouuoH.v magma "-1' u-_‘ a. 128 mH.H mm.km m.mm mrHchue mHHHrm OHEmmmom .a OH.H ON.OH m.NH mrHerne mHHHrm HmHoom .O 50.H mm.k m mocmcmuchz mchHHsm .m OO. O0.0 OH ucmsmmmamz ucmmsum .v mo.H ov.mH mH mGOHumoHssafiou psm msoHumHmm muHCSEEOUIUHmom Hoosom .m Om.H NO.mH OH morsamma merHHsm .N NN . H mv . vN ON mCOHUMOHCDEEOU Ucm mCOHHMme huHCDEEOUIHOOSOm . H mumHomEHmusH AH.H OO.Om m.mm mrHerua mHHHrm oHsmmmom .a OH.H mm.HH m.~H mcHerue mHHHrm HmHoom .O em.H OO.~ m mocmcmuchz merHHsm .m OO. Om.m OH unmammmcmz ucmmsum .v mo.H om.mH mH msoHumOHCSEEOU Usm mCOHumHmm wuHssEEOUIUHmom Hoosom .m Hm.H OH.mH OH somsommm merHHsm .N hm.H mm.mm om mCOHumoHsDEEou bum msowumHmm muHQSEEOOIHoosom .H am usmez smm: smm: GOHumHHommo mHsmHHm> m>HumHmm Um>ummso Umuommxm l‘wi dmfidum MUOHADm m0 WUZ4BMOHZH m>HB¢Amm HH.v mqmflfi 129 TABLE 4.13 YEARS OF SCHOOLING OF THE MOTHER Pearson Alpha Variable Description (r) Level Primary 1. Child standing in relation to chronological age norms .22 .05 2. Race -.27 .02 Intermediate 1. SCLAA .23 .01 2. Absence .13 .10 3. Child standing in relation to chronological age norms .13 .001 130 TABLE 4.14 YEARS OF SCHOOLING OF THE HEAD OF THE HOUSEHOLD Pearson Alpha Variable Description (r) Level Primary 1. Absence -.18 .09 2. Discipline -.19 .08 3. Income -.55 .0001 4. Years of schooling of the mother .55 .0001 Intermediate 1. SCLAA .16 .06 2. Child standing in relation to chronological age norms .26 .005 3. Income -.44 .0001 4. Years of schooling of the mother .58 .0001 131 TABLE 4 . 15 INCOME Pearson Alpha Variable Description (r) Level Primary 1. Absence -.21 .06 2. Years of schooling of the mother -.42 .001 Intermediate 1. Absence —.20 .02 2. Child standing in relation to chronological age norms -.25 .007 3. Years of schooling of the mother -.27 .004 210 200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 7O 60 132 CHART 4-A MEANS FOR TOTAL BULLOCK SGAAEA i = 122.66 Primary I Primary II Intermediate I Intermediate II 40 38 36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 133 CHART 4-B MEANS FOR SCHOOL-COMMUNITY RELATIONS AND COMMUNICATIONS (Factor I) Primary I Primary II Intermediate I Intermediate II 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 134 CHART 4-C MEANS FOR BUILDING ADEQUACY (Factor II) E = 13.32 Primary I Primary II Intermediate I Intermediate II 30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 ll 10 135 CHART 4-D MEANS FOR SCHOOL BOARD-COMMUNITY COMMUNICATIONS AND RELATIONS (Factor III) E = 15.71 Primary I Primary II Intermediate I Intermediate II 20 18 16 14 12 10 MEANS FOR STUDENT MANAGEMENT (Factor IV) i = 9.23 Primary I Primary II Inrermediate I Intermediate II 10 mmqmm Nth l-‘N 137 CHART 4-F MEANS FOR SCHOOL MAINTENANCE (Factor V) 2? = 7.52 Primary I Primary II Intermediate I Intermediate II 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 138 CHART 4-G MEANS FOR SOCIAL SKILLS TRAINING - (Factor VI) E: 14.52 Primary I Primary II Intermediate I Intermediate II 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 CHART 4-H MEANS FOR ACADEMIC SKILLS TRAINING (Factor VII) :Primary I Primary II Intermediate I Intermediate II ~ _ s“~.—, .‘w wry" ‘- . 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