0"-‘I‘t-IRTfL" SImT- IIWfi‘W“ Ififi'ZIIII @Wm £51m ”IIIIIII MI I I. IIIIIIIIIII III‘III .
I “I'I‘III 1 IIIIIIIW’I' WWW” ”- I I IiIHIIII I'I’. 'IIIIIIIII “I'I'I'IILI . .

.. I . ,. I .IIIIIIII ...III I. ~
, . . I' . . “II'IIII’III "III II.

I1...I “I III: IIIWII I; I
In I%%I,IJIIIIII1 (I? “III“? 'IIII‘I'II If."
‘ IW IIIIIII
I’ .II’II'IIIII
I'II

 
 
  
   

   
 
   

II‘II

   
   

I'IIW

 
   

(

III: III. '1'
“.I'III'III‘III

‘1'”. I I H

II
III

.Iw-III

l
WI 'I'II'II Ml

.. m I.
II I... WWI“ IIUWII‘III'$
I III

IIIH

, I II.’ I},

 
  
     
   

     
    

    

    

    
       
  
 
   

    
       
  

    
     

  
  

  

fl“... IIIIII I.II.II III III. III.
:III I... If ‘ I... f::.".." 'IIIIII' III. .JI'I III‘I‘II I
III.’ III] PIIIINI'I "II IIIIIII IIII. I!“ I"}I:II’III :IHI'h‘ "
(WI “WWI. I IIIIWI I IIII II‘II'III IIIIIIIIIJII' II IIIJIIl III III‘II‘I II-I‘EI‘iIII‘ II III" ‘I r {41%
II“? "'W‘II' “I“ IIIIWII ”II I’IIII'I‘ LII? ' i I
{I'1IIII'I" ,I IIIMII'II I‘II L I {HI I!“ III'f-
'IIII‘I' I‘. III'HIII III '11” .II 1;};
I‘II'UFI

 
     

I| . h
I'M I‘l‘ . I‘ I. > “|\IU II
N \
IIQI

I II'IIII I‘II‘I: '
"L I“. .. '4I “1"”
+II‘J'I‘.‘.:U I ' . III I“ .' .
I .l. .. '-_., ,.
I

 

’ " I" I1 . . 2.:III,,1. I‘I'I’ifirI' . :II it! my :i~- - i‘ I"" .~ I.” "III"

.II I.‘ "I. I I I-:. . 'C ' .‘l' I'D I H. ‘I II ‘0.

I I | I I " I!“ I (I I'l‘

I I F' II ’ I ‘II'I ’3.” ~ 'I' \ ‘1‘.» .-

I II . Au 1‘ I II I\ . I, I,|..I ,' I“ “2": T’NIII 1":\ WI 'I‘II‘I

I . ' ‘ I. I H ‘ . I ~ . '3‘ '. II. I l .

I’I‘ I D [I I “l I. f .I [IV '.",.jII I” " 7'1iflx.>rj:éI'vII L". II'IIII. L l?k(‘

. I] ll: . ‘ I I,“ ., I IL -. .. j_ I ' ' . ,I IHI' I" 31‘ . I .I'II M. I

. . ; .. Ir .III ' I' ’- t. : .»..... I x WWI? III. III ~'_'«.'I

' ,IIII I'IILII I II“. I I 'I I IIIIIIIIIIIIJ‘ IIIIIIIIIII “1M. :IIIIiIIIII-III “III“ I'PII‘. 'IIIII‘II' ' I. “5.1.

. I I' . ' I .I‘ I . (I II .. ,. "JIM ' I
I . . | . I I I ‘III I I ‘pr. I¢EI . I" ..| ' I I.

. I: I‘I I I " (JIII, I . . I II‘I III I I} IW: I I'... 'rI'...lIIIIIII1I|III'II III N

Cull: .I'II II. II‘I‘“ I I ‘ I .‘I II ." ..I(II II.II‘ .I’ 'I’.tII:II"

' I

I III I"! I IIIIIHIII-
m .. IIII.I. «3.....II"‘I .III'I WW

"I II' III IIIII" .Il’II-IIII II ‘I.II Iua’IIIJ' ‘I’IYIL. N IIII ‘m. t'II‘I' IIII..I"‘".II:I§I.I ..‘..'.III

“IN

18

mm lflllluljflwmlmifl WM

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP
OF IMAGERY CONTROL AND PERSONALITY
CHARACTERISTICS IN A SHORT-TERM
PSYCHOTHERAPY EXPERIENCE

presented by

Melissa Crider Andrea

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph-D- degree in_(_3_9_1,1.1_1_§_Qling and
Educational Psychology

D—o—u 8. WWW

Major professor

Date April 2, 1980

0-7639

 

p... g

"ant-sang fuéyfimflz
~, ‘ . "avg
‘“ LIBRA Is. *2! 5
NIlC“:Q1P (\ ."T
Umwa: s

 
 
  

OVERDUE FINES:
25¢ per dayper item

'1\

n \ ‘
(fififi‘fi‘ f RETURNING LIBRARY MATERIALS:
_ ,. ‘ §._.________
"»‘§." Place in book return to remove
l. 1‘37,”- 4

charge from circulation records

 

 

 

 

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP
OF IMAGERY CONTROL AND PERSONALITY
CHARACTERISTICS IN A SHORT-TERM

PSYCHOTHERAPY EXPERIENCE

BY

Melissa Crider Andrea

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling and
Educational Psychology

1980

ABSTRACT

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE RELATIONSHIP
OF IMAGERY CONTROL AND PERSONALITY
CHARACTERISTICS IN A SHORT-TERM
PSYCHOTHERAPY EXPERIENCE

BY

Melissa Crider Andrea

The major objective of this study was to determine
the degree to which the ability to control visual imagery
is related to habitual patterns of behavior as identified
by C. G. Jung's theory of psychological types. An addi-
tional purpose was to study the degree to which the
imagery control factor can be related to psychotherapy
outcome or improvement as measured by attitude and value
changes.

The sample for this study consisted of 25 under-
graduate and graduate clients who had requested help with
personal concerns from the staff of the Michigan State
University Counseling Center during the 1979/1980 academic
year. The participating therapists were eight counseling
psychology interns and one staff therapist, all of whom
regularly saw clients at the Center.

The data gathered for the analyses consisted of

scores on the following three instruments: (1) the

Melissa Crider Andrea

Richardson revision of the Gordon Test of Visual Imagery
Control (Gordon Test), (2) the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
(MBTI), and (3) the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI).
The Gordon Test, the MBTI, and the POI were all admin-
istered to the Counseling Center sample as part of a pre-
test battery. After ten weeks of therapy, posttests,
consisting of the Gordon Test and the POI, were admin-
istered.

Three statistical measures were employed: (1) two
univariate analyses of variance where the independent
variables were client MBTI type with two levels (Extra-
version and Introversion) for one analysis and client
MBTI type with two levels (Sensing and Intuition) for the
second analysis of variance; (2) a two-way analysis of
covariance where the independent variable was the client
score on the Gordon Test with two levels (autonomous
imagers and controlled imagers); and (3) a t-test on the
adjusted POI scores (using the POI pretest as the
covariate) where the independent variables were client
score on the Gordon Test with two levels (autonomous
imagers and controlled imagers) and therapist score on
the Gordon Test with two levels (autonomous imagers and
controlled imagers).

Four hypotheses were tested with an experimental
level set at the .05 level. Four major conclusions were

drawn. First, no relationship was found to exist between

Melissa Crider Andrea

the ability to control visual imagery and the tendency to
exhibit Extraversion or Introversion as a direction of
interest. Second, individuals who had a tendency to
exhibit Intuition as a mode of perception were more
likely to exhibit controlled visual imagery than indi—
viduals who had a tendency to exhibit Sensing as a mode
of perception. Third, no relationship was found to exist
between client adjusted scores on the POI and the tend-
ency to exhibit either controlled or autonomous visual
imagery. Finally, no relationship was found to exist
between adjusted scores on the POI and the pairing of

clients with therapists of similar imagery type.

DEDICATION

To my parents

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Dr. Don Hamachek, chairperson of my committee, has
been a source of support throughout my graduate career.
To him goes my appreciation for his encouragement,
challenges, and caring. My growth as a person and as a
professional has been greatly enriched by his presence.

The members of my committee have each made unique
and substantial contributions. Dr. Douglas Miller has
consistently been available for consultation, and has
shown me that striving for excellence can be congruently
blended with good humor. Dr. Ralph Kron has helped me
see that abstract concepts can indeed be researched, and
has encouraged me to direct my own curiosity into produc-
tive channels. Dr. Al Aniskiewicz, whose warm profes-
sionalism is a model for me, has been a steady source of
support. Dr. Norman Kagan has provided me with insights
and a sense of pride in Counseling Psychology as a pro-
fession.

Dr. Howard Teitelbaum contributed invaluably to the
completion of this dissertation through his incisive and
tireless assistance during the data analysis period. His
warmth and humanness was a bright light in an otherwise
confusing and alien process.

iii

A number of individuals associated with the Michigan
State University Counseling Center have been instrumental
in the implementation of this project. I am grateful to
Dr. Gordon Williams for his helpfulness in the initial
stages; to Dr. Gwen Norrell, and two of her staff members,
Marcia de Sill and Linda Trevarthen, for providing me
with assistance and reassurance during the data gathering
process; to the staff therapists who aided me in contact—
ing subjects; and to the individuals who generously gave
their time to complete the various instruments.

Special thanks go to two close friends. Susan
Howard, who has been with me from the beginning, has
consistently given both enthusiastic encouragement and
deep insights. Judy Ellickson, who has shared with me
the depths of writing blocks and the heights of chapter
completions, has provided unwavering support and has made
this entire task immeasurably lighter.

My parents, who have always valued my learning and
have encouraged me in my educational endeavors, have been

a source of continual caring, interest, and support.

iv

LIST OF

LIST OF

Chapter

I.

II.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O
FIGURES O O O O O O O O O 0
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . .
The Problem . . . . . . . . .
Need for the Study . . . . . . .
Purpose I O O O O O O O O O 0
Theory . . . . . . . .

Imagery as an Area of Study . . .

Imagery and Psychological Type . .

Jungian Differences in Direction of
Interest and Perceptive Styles .

Direction of Interest, Perceptive Style

and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Research Hypotheses . . . . . . .

Definition of Terms . . . . . . .
Assumptions . . . . . . . . .
Overview . . . . . . . . . .
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . .

Imagery as a General Area of
Consideration . . . . . . . .
The Element of Control as an Important
Variable of Imagery . . . .
Individual Differences and Their Effect
on Imagery . . . . . . . .
Imagery Use in Psychotherapy . . . .
Control of Imagery and the Richardson
Revision of the Gordon Test of Visual
Imagery Control . . . . . . .
Jungian Modes of Direction of Interest,
Perception, and the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator . . . . .
Psychotherapeutic Outcome and the
Personal Orientation Inventory . .

V

Page
viii

ix

|._|

hwwwI—‘H

12
18
23
28

33

36
41

Chapter

III.

IV.

Summary . . . . . . . . . . .

DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . .

Sample . . . . . . . . . . .
Clients . . . . . . . . . .
Therapists . . . . . . . . .

Threats to Generalization . . . . .
Measures Used in the Study . . . . .
The Richardson Revision of the Gordon
Test of Visual Imagery Control . .
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator . .
The Personal Orientation Inventory .
Null Hypotheses . .
Research Design and Analysis of the Data

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . . . . . . .

Results of the Hypothesis Testing .
Summary of the Hypothesis Testing .

DISCUSSION OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS AND
THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH .

Summary . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions and Discussion . . . . .
Visual Imagery Control and Direction

of Interest . . . . . . .
Visual Imagery Control and Perceptual
Mode . . . . . . . .

Visual Imagery Control and Therapeutic
Outcome . . . . . . . . . .
Limitations . . . . . . . . .
Suggestions for Further Research . . .

APPENDICES O I O O O O O O I O O O

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

LETTER ACCOMPANYING PRETEST FORMS . .
CONSENT FORM . . . . . . . . .
RICHARDSON REVISION OF THE GORDON TEST .
LETTER ACCOMPANYING POSTTEST FORMS . .

FIRST PROCEDURAL MEMO TO THERAPISTS . .

vi.

Page
45
49
49
52
53
54
54
56
57
59
60
65
66
81
83

83
86

87
88
89
92
95
98
99
101
103
105
107

Appendix Page
F. SECOND PROCEDURAL MEMO TO THERAPISTS . . 109

G. MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR TYPE TABLE FOR
25 CLIENTS PARTICIPATING IN THE STUDY . . 111

H. MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR TYPE TABLE FOR
9 THERAPISTS PARTICIPATING IN THE STUDY . 113

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

vii

Table

4.7

4.8

4.9

LIST OF TABLES

Comparison of the Treatment and Control

Groups According to Sex, Mean Age, and Mean

Class Standing . . . . . . . . .
Description of Independent Variables . .

Data Analytic Procedures for the Null
Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . .

Pretest Gordon Scores Selected for Analysis
of the Extraversion-Introversion Dimension

Results of the Two-Way ANOVA on the Gordon

Test Scores . . . . . . . . . .

Correlation Matrix of the POI Pretest and
POI Posttest Scores . . . . . . .

POI Posttest and Adjusted Means . . .

Results of the ANCOVA on the Adjusted
POI Scores . . . . . . . . . .

Results of the t-test on the Adjusted POI
Scores . . . . . . . . . . . .

Results of the F-test on the Adjusted POI
Scores . . . . . . . . . . . .

Results of the t-test for Differences in
the POI Pretest and the POI Posttest . .

Results of the F-test for Differences in
the POI Pretest and the POI Posttest . .

Correlation Matrix of the Gordon Pretest
and the Gordon Posttest Scores . . . .

viii

Page

51

61

62

67

69

71

74

75

77

78

79

80

81

Figure

4.1

LIST OF FIGURES

Gordon Pretest Means, Standard Deviations,
and Frequencies . . . . . . . . .

POI Pretest Means, Standard Deviations,
and Frequencies . . . . . . . . .

POI Posttest Means, Standard Deviations,
and Frequencies . . . . . . . . .

ix

Page

68

72

73

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

The Problem

 

Imagery and the way image formation is controlled
may be affected by the way one directs attention to both
external and internal realities, and by the way one per-
ceives the world in general. Nearly all therapeutic
procedures depend in greater or smaller measure on the
presence of imagery; most of them depend on the capacity
to recall and recreate persons and situations which are a
part of an inner world, though they are not concretely
present in the therapy session. Specific information
about the variables involved in controlling and directing

imagery is therefore important.

Need for the Study

 

Differences in the ways individuals control their
imagery include cognitive styles that range from flexible
to rigid. Other factors contributing to those differences
include certain personality characteristics, a tendency
toward divergent or convergent thinking, or variations in
the way images are formed. It is necessary to examine
each factor in the imagery process in order to more fully

1

comprehend how the process functions. It therefore seems
important to study the relationships between individual
types and imagery processes.

Although there has been a resurgence of interest in
the empirical study of imagery, there has been little
research done to explore possible relationships between
personality types and control of imagery. Once we know
more about these relationships, therapists may be better
able to predict the sort of imagery particular clients
will use as a way of facilitating therapeutic progress.
Hence, there is a need for a study of this nature in
order to more fully understand how imagery and personality
type are related.

In addition, a greater theoretical understanding of
the variable of control in the imagery process, especially
as this may be related to personality variables, is
warranted. For example, examination of the way in which
individuals with certain personality types direct their
interest (Extraversion or Introversion) or tend to prefer
a particular mode of perception (Sensing or Intuition)
might give clues to the nature of differences in effective-
ness in controlling imagery. This information might be
eSpecially pertinent for therapists trying to help their

clients toward greater insight into their problems.

Certain individuals, depending on their personality
styles, may be able to use imagery spontaneously in
therapy while others may require training in imagery
techniques. Regardless of the particular habitual pattern
of imagery control, it is possible to provide an oppor-
tunity to develop new ways of imagery usage. Imagery
training techniques could subsequently be utilized in

achieving a fuller, richer, more creative potential.

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to determine the degree
to which the ability to control imagery is related to the
habitual patterns of behavior as identified by the Jungian
model of psychological types. An additional purpose is to
study the degree to which the control factor can be
related to psychotherapy outcome or improvement as

measured by attitude and value changes.

Theory

The need for the current study has a basis of

theoretical support, which is now discussed.

Imagery as an Area of Study

 

The ability to generate and control mental imagery
is of central importance to most therapeutic approaches.
The closeness of images to perception evokes emotional

responses and cognitive processes associated with real

experience. The recall of a particular affect that was
associated with earlier life experiences therefore becomes
possible in the therapeutic setting. This gives the
imagery transformation system special advantages in
therapy, which depends greatly upon lifelike reproductions
of situations that are disturbing and threatening to the
individual in outside life.

Reviews of the literature on imagery such as that of
Horowitz (1978) and Richardson (1969) have recommended
efforts directed toward identifying special components of
the imagery process rather than treating it as a single
phenomenon. In this regard, Gordon's scale (1949) to
measure the variable of control within the imagery process
has been finding increasing application in imagery
research. Her work has served to define the polarity of
controlled versus autonomous imagery, and gives us addi-

tional information about the subroles of imagery responses.

Imagery and Psychological Type

 

The use of imagery alone in the therapeutic setting
is by no means a sufficient cause for a positive outcome.
Imagery needs to be formulated, controlled, and communi-
cated. Efforts to measure imagery have been facilitated
by the operational focus on controllability of imagery by

using self-reports. What still needs to be done, however,

is research concerning what goes into the internal process
of formulating and controlling imaginal thoughts.

In explaining individual differences in imagery,
several researchers (Gordon, 1959; Hudson, 1966) have
suggested that there is a relationship between flexible
and rigid image types on one hand and the tendency toward
divergent and convergent thinking on the other. Others
have found that imagery is more likely to manifest itself
in the person who has the most creative potential and that
artistic and creative self-concept is related to a
syndrome that includes imagery (Holt et al., 1959;
Freedman & Marks, 1965).

There remains, then, the problem of examining the
reasons for variations in imagery ability and the way
that certain variables are related to the imagery
process.

Jungian Differences in

Direction of Interest
and Perceptive Styles

 

 

The theories of Carl Jung (1923) include a discussion
of personality type differences dealing with direction of
interest (Extraversion vs. Introversion) and modes of
perception (Sensing vs. Intuition). Jung repeatedly
emphasized the dichotomous nature of the human character
and his personality typology presents bipolar alternatives

on three dimensions: Extraversion or Introversion are

primarily inborn general attitudes toward the world and
the self; Sensing or Intuition are perceiving functions;
and Thinking or Feeling are judging functions. According
to Jung's theory, each individual has an habitual prefer-
ence for one alternative over the other on each dimension.
However, Jung thought that the validity and the positive
contribution of the opposite of one's preferred type in
various life situations should be recognized.

Direction of Interest, Perceptive

Style, and the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator

 

 

 

Since 1962, Jung's personality type distinctions have
been measured through the use of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) in a variety of settings. Much of the
data resulting from research with the MBTI have demon-
strated that type differences account for variations in
imaginal ability, occupational choice, and creativity
(Myers, 1971; McCaulley, 1975). The MBTI therefore seems
to have promise as a device for identification of person-
ality differences as they relate to imagery use.

Upon taking the MBTI, an individual receives a score
on four dimensions: Extraversion-Introversion (E-I),
Sensing-Intuition (S-N), Thinking-Feeling (T-F), and
Judging-Perceiving (J—P). Judging-Perceiving was not
specifically discussed by Jung as a separate dimension

but has been included in the MBTI to add meaning to scores

in the other areas. The J-P scale identifies the pre-
ferred mode of one's outward behavior with others. Con-
versely, the Opposite of one's J-P preference identifies
the preferred mode of inward reflection.

Imagery has been identified as an inner-directed
activity utilizing concrete sensory referents. The two
dimensions of direction of interest (E-I) and perception
(S-N) therefore seem of particular interest in this study.

The Extraversive alternative (E) is described as a
preference for orienting primarily to the outer world of
actions, objects, and persons. There is a tendency to get
caught up in whatever is happening externally. Action-
oriented activity and changes in the environment are
valued in Extraversion. The Introversive alternative (I)
is described as a preference for orienting primarily to
the inner world of concepts and ideas. There is a ten-
dency to detach from the external world. Reflection and
working alone are valued in Introversion.

The Sensing alternative (S) is described as a prefer-
ence for receiving information from the environment pri-
marily through the five senses, focusing on precise
details and tangible data. Particularities are observed
more clearly than patterns and large relationships. Pre-
cision and practicality are valued in Sensing. The
Intuitive alternative (N) is described as a preference

for registering information from the environment

unconsciously in patterns and wholes rather than in
specific detail. Stimuli are observed for complex rela-
tionships and abstract deeper meanings rather than
peculiarities and details. Imagination, hunches, and
potentialities are valued in Intuition.

If the ability to introspect and perceive in a visual
way are the first steps in imagery, the alternative modes
of direction of interest and perception as outlined by
Jung and measured by the Myers—Briggs Type Indicator might
therefore explain differences in ability to control one's

imagery.

Research Hypotheses

 

The following general hypotheses are derived pri-
marily from theoretical notions of Extraversion-
Introversion, Sensing-Intuition, and the nature of
imagery control. Specific research hypotheses are

Stated in Chapters III and IV.

I. Individuals who have a tendency to exhibit
Introversion as a direction of interest
are more likely to exhibit controlled
visual imagery than individuals who have
a tendency to exhibit Extraversion as a
direction of interest.

II. Individuals who have a tendency to exhibit
Intuition as a mode of perception are more
likely to exhibit controlled visual imagery
than individuals who have a tendency to
exhibit Sensing as a mode of perception.

III. There will be a difference in scores on a
measure related to therapy outcome between
individuals who exhibit controlled visual
imagery and individuals who exhibit
autonomous visual imagery.

IV. There will be a difference in the scores on
a measure related to therapy outcome between
individuals who exhibit controlled visual
imagery and who are also working with a
therapist with controlled visual imagery
and individuals with autonomous visual
imagery and who are also working with a
therapist with autonomous visual imagery.

Definition of Terms

 

The following terms have been employed frequently

throughout the study and used as defined below.

Perception refers to the means of taking in or

 

registering information from the environment. As defined
by Jung (1923), perception may involve either of two
alternative ways of taking in or registering information:

Sensing or Intuition.

Sensing (S) as a mode of perception involves a pre-
ference for receiving information from the environment
primarily through the five senses, focusing on precise

details and tangible data.

Intuition (N) as a mode of perception involves a

 

preference for registering information from the environ-
ment in patterns and wholes rather than in specific

detail, focusing on imagination and inspiration.

10

Direction of Interest refers to the preferred

 

orientation of attention. Jung felt that there are two
opposite ways of directing attention and interest:

Extraversion or Introversion.

Extraversion (E) as a direction of interest involves

 

a preference for orienting primarily to the outer world
of actions, objects, and persons, having a tendency to

get caught up in whatever is happening externally.

Introversion (I) as a direction of interest involves

 

a preference for orienting primarily to the inner world

of concepts and ideas.

Imagery is a concrete re-representation of visual
material of which one is self-consciously aware and which

exists in the absence of actual sensory stimuli.

Controlled Imagery involves the ability to manipulate

 

visual images with ease.

Autonomous Imagery, or uncontrolled imagery, involves

 

the inability to manipulate visual images at will.

Assumptions

 

The following assumptions were made in the present

study:

ll

1. That all participants answered questionnaires
and inventories honestly and without bias.

2. That ability to control imagery can be validly
and reliably measured by a self-report question-
naire.

3. That attitudes, preferences, movement, and
growth can be validly and reliably measured by
self-report questionnaires and inventories.

4. That movement and growth can occur in short-

term therapy within a range of 7 to 10 sessions.

Overview

The need has been stated for a study focusing on the
relationship betWeen an individual's personality type and
control of imagery. The theory underlying the need has
also been examined. The remainder of the study focuses
on the investigation of the problem itself. In Chapter
II, the pertinent literature is reviewed. In Chapter III,
the design and methodology employed in carrying out the
study are presented. In Chapter IV, the specific
research hypotheses are stated, along with the results
of the data analysis. And in Chapter V, there is a dis-
cussion of the results of the study as well as implica-

tions for further research.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The focus of the present study is on the effect of
the personality variables of Extraversion, Introversion,
Sensing, and Intuition on the ability to control imagery
within a therapeutic setting. In line with this emphasis,
the review of pertinent literature includes imagery as a
general area of consideration; the element of control as
an important variable of imagery; personality character-
istics and their effect on imagery; imagery use in psycho-
therapy; control of imagery and the Richardson revision
of the Gordon Test of Visual Imagery Control; Jungian
modes of direction of interest, perception, and the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator; and psychotherapeutic outcomes and
the Personal Orientation Inventory. A discussion and
summary of the review of the literature conclude the
chapter.

Imagery as a General Area
of Consideration

 

 

The first systematic research on imagery was con-
ducted in the late nineteenth century by Francis Galton
(1907). Galton formulated a questionnaire that had the

12

13

ability to arouse particular sensory images. He was
especially interested in the study of individual differ-
ences, with particular attention directed toward a person's
capacity to evoke various kinds of sensory images. Thus,
subjects were requested to recollect their breakfast table
and note the clarity of the resulting images. This inter-
est in types of imagery is manifest currently in the work
of Richardson (1969, 1972).

While Watson's behavioralism had virtually eliminated
interest in imagery research in the United States, the
Swiss psychiatrist Jung was continuing to write about
imagery. He believed that any particular image can only
be indirectly related to the perception of the external
object, because it depends on unconscious fantasy activity.
Jung also thought that every image is compounded of the
"most varied material coming from the most varied
sources" (Jung, 1923, p. 554). He defined an image as a
"representation" and postulated that psychic processes
can become consciously apprehended contents only if they
can be represented in the form of an image. Gordon (1972)
took issue with Jung and wrote that such a definition was
so all-embracing that it blurred the distinction between
the image and the percept.

Representative of general contemporary agreement
with Gordon's criticism, recent research has utilized

fairly precise descriptions of clinical behavior related

14

to internal events. These descriptions have been geared
to specific operations in a clinical or experimental
situation. Imagery has been increasingly studied in a
form susceptible to replication and control. The studies
by Segal (1971) on the Perky effect (1910), the extensive
research by Paivio (1971) on the learning implications of
concrete and abstract words which differ in their capacity
to generate imagery, and the analysis of children's learn-
ing by Reese (1970) and Rohwer (1970) were examples of
careful and replicable experiments on events previously
classified as entirely subjective.

Also in the experimental realm were the continuing
research projects on the psychology of daydreaming and
imaginative play (Singer, 1966, 1973), the resurgence of
interest in hypnosis as an experimental field (Barber,
1970; Hilgard, 1965), and various works attempting to
organize the psychological and experimental knowledge on
imagery and fantasy (Horowitz, 1970; Klinger, 1970).

Many researchers have written about the relationship
of imagery and perception. Segal (1972) has found that
the measurement of imagery is actually quite close to the
measurement of perception. "In both instances, there is
a phenomenological experience based on patterns of
response within the optic tract and the brain, in both
instances the observer reports on the phenomenological

experience and the neural substrate is obscured" (p. 204).

15

Segal wrote that the main difference seems to be that per-
ception is characterized by the presence of a clearly
defined physical stimulus against which verbal reports

or other behavior measures can be measured; however, no
such clearly relevant external stimulus characterizes the
image.

Both Gordon (1972) and Horowitz (1978) conceived of
imagery as involving the senses not only of sight, but
of hearing, smell, taste, touch, and movement. Gordon
stated that "an image is a perception in the absence of
an external stimulus, irrespective of the sensory mode in
which this perception occurs" (p. 63). Sensory referents
appeared as a common characteristic of many of the thir-
teen types of mental imagery listed by Holt (1964), pre-
sumably because an image's sources are largely dependent
on sensation and perception. However, the characteristic
emphasis has historically focused on the visual mode and
its various attributes (high or low imagery, controlled
or autonomous imagery, concrete or abstract reference)
and, to a lesser degree, audition.

Related lines of research on imagery have delineated
both differences and similarities between images and per—
cepts. Richardson (1969) thought that the similarities
are overriding. He cited Perky's research (1910) as "the
definitive study which made it apparent to most psycholo-

gists that no quantitative or qualitative attributes

16

could serve as absolute markers for consistent differen-
tiation of images and percepts" (p. 6). Perky's study
has recently been replicated by Segal and Nathan (1964).

Perky's basic procedure was to ask a subject to pro-
duce an image of some specified object, such as a lemon,
and project that image on a ground glass screen. The
subject was unaware that the screen separated the labora-
tory from another room that contained a slide projector.
The instructions were to form the image around a dot in
the center of the screen; at the same time, a slide of the
same object was projected at slightly below visual thresh-
old. The intensity of the slide could then be raised to
well above threshold without the subject becoming aware
that the image had any sensory basis. Richardson (1969)
refered to these confusions between the inner world of
images and outer world of percepts as present in indi-
viduals who are neither psychotic nor neurotic, but well
within the range of healthy psychological functioning.

On the other side of the argument, Segal (1971) and
other researchers maintained that the unique qualities of
the sensory receptors are rarely duplicated by imagery.
Various studies showed that images usually appear less
vivid, smaller, and less clearly defined than percepts
(Brooks, 1967; Galton, 1883; Kfilpe, 1902; Sheehan, 1966).
Experimental results have also shown that a percept will

often have especially dark and clear edges with contour

17

lines strongly marked; the probability is mediated by the
specific action of excitatory and inhibatory effects in
the cells of the optic tract (Granit, 1955; Hubel & Weisel,
1962; Ratliff, 1965). Also, Segal (1971) Claimed that a
percept usually shows considerable stability, because the
physical event remains stable or shows predictable changes
even as the observer changes position in relation to it.
Another major stream of research that has contributed
significantly to the understanding of imagery and fantasy
processes has come from research on sensory deprivation.
These studies were originally set up to tap significant
aspects of the nature of brain function in the absence of
sensory input (Hebb, 1960). However, as Holt (1972)
wrote, they soon began to produce "very striking evidence
of the degree to which ongoing imagery processes are a
central feature of human experiences, particularly when
reduced demands are made on the perceptual apparatus to
process the complex stimulation ordinarily available in
the physical environment of the individual" (p. 110).
Gordon (1972) described imagery as serving several
important biological and psychological functions. She
thought that imagery helps arrange complex sensory
stimuli into meaningful patterns, and that imagery enables
one to classify and abstract, to relate present percep-
tions to past experiences and to tolerate present frustra-

tions for the sake of future satisfactions. Both Gordon

18

and Arieti (1976) saw imagery as the raw material of the
human being's capacity to imagine and symbolize. Arieti
stated that "images soon constitute the foundation for
the inner reality, which in human psychology is as
important (and sometimes moreso) as external reality.
Imagery not only helps the individual to understand the
world better, it also helps him to create a surrogate
for the world" (p. 45).

The Element of Control as an Important
Variable of Imagery

 

 

Various researchers have written about the importance
of the variable of imagery control (Gordon, 1949;
Horowitz, 1978; Richardson, 1972; Singer, 1974). Horowitz
maintained that individuals cannot be reliably separated
into discrete image types according to a given sense
mode because most people do not exclusively or even
habitually think in one mode. He did consider it pos-
sible, however, to distribute people along a continuum
from high to low capacity for forming and controlling
voluntary images in general.

The notion of control is an important one, since
there is evidence as Strupp (1970) has pointed out, that
a major component of affective psychotherapy is the
client's experience of increased control of both emotions
and overt behavior. Singer (1974) stated that "heightened

awareness of imagery also increases to some degree the

l9

extent of control over such process so that they seem
less strange and also can be called into service in con-
nection with a particular difficulty or need of the indi-
vidual" (p. 220). Horowitz (1978) declared that "through
image formation, as through any form of thinking, the
individual acquires the capacity to gain control over

his internal motives and, by action, over external
reality" (p. 311).

From at least the time of Galton (1883), the dimen-
sion of controllability has had a place in the discussion
of mental imagery. The empirical investigation of con-
trol, however, was begun by Gordon (1949) in a study
concerned with the relationship between imagery control
and the simplicity-complexity dimension in ethnic stereo-
types. The instrument she used was a set of eleven
questions, each requiring a "yes" or "no" answer. The
sample was composed of 54 male and 10 female college
students and 27 male and 27 female workers. To be placed
in the "controlled" category, the subjects had to answer
yes to every question as well as say that they could con-
trol visual imagery in a separate interview. All others
were placed in the autonomous category.

The possession of an autonomous memory imagery in
Gordon's study was associated with conventional (simple)
stereotyped imagery to ethnic stimulus words (Englishman,

Chinese, Jew, German). These stereotypes were formed

20

early in life based on characters seen in films, books,
etc. The less conventionalized stereotypes of controlled
students had their origin in the more recent past and were
affected by personal contact with actual representatives
of the groups involved. The theory that evolved from

this study was that the presence of conventional stereo-
types was reflective of the same cognitive rigidity seen
in the inability to maintain a voluntary control of the
image.

The relationship between control over the behavior
of a percept and control over the behavior of an image
has been supported by data published by Gordon (1950) and
by Costello (1956, 1957). Costello's 1957 study, which
will be detailed more completely in the review of the
literature section on individual characteristics, showed
that psychiatrically diagnosed groups of dysthymics and
hysterics both had relatively uncontrolled imagery when
compared with a control group of normals.

Hudson (1966) found a certain correlation between
flexible (controlled) and rigid (autonomous) image types
on one hand and the tendency toward divergent and con-
vergent thinking on the other. He postulated that extreme
flexibility as well as extreme rigidity were defenses
against experiencing anxiety, but which themselves

created even more anxiety by conjuring up a world which

21

appeared too permanent, or else so effervescent that
nothing in it seemed solid and reliable.

In a recent work, Gordon (1972) elaborated on the
correlation between rigid imagery and the difficulty in
controlling imagery and between flexible imagery and the
capacity to control it easily.

This in itself must affect the world a person

thinks he inhabits, and above all his idea of

himself as a free and autonomous being. The
dimension of activity-passivity, which clearly
colours and is coloured by both rigid-flexible

and autonomous-controlled imagery types, is most

likely further affected by whether a person's

imagery is predominately reconstructive or else

constructive and inventive. (p. 66)

Richardson (1969) in his comprehensive work on
imagery, included a slightly altered form of the Gordon
Test of Visual Imagery Control. In a later chapter
(1972), he cited examples for further tests on imagery
control utilizing varied sensory modalities. His
examples included questions in the visual, auditory,
tactile, kinesthetic, olfactory, and gustatory modes.
To date, however, sensory modes other than visual have
not been included in research on imagery control.

Horowitz (1978) wrote that in the imagery process,
sets of information derived from perception, memory,
schematization, and fantasy were combined, compared, and
recombined in what he called "thought by trial percep-

tion." He postulated that the element of control in

imagery formation allows the review of information for

22

new meanings, the contemplation of objects in their
absence, and the search for new similarities and differ-
ences. This last factor has been widely recognized as

a central element in the creative process (Arieti, 1976;
Aylwin, 1977; Ghiselin, 1959).

The importance of imagery control in the creative
process was referred to by Arieti (1976). He asserted
that imagery plays a crucial role in creativity, but that
people differ in their ability to produce and control
images. He maintained that control in the imagery
process can liberate the imager from a "punctilious
reproduction of reality and introduce something new:
the first elements of creativity" (p. 51).

Horowitz (1978) developed a schemata outlining the
five most frequent inhibitions of entry of information
into the visual imagery system. Of these five, three are
linked with the inability to control imagery. The first
is the avoidance of images associated to contents
eXpressed in words; Horowitz believed that fear of not
being able to control the image is connected to a feared
loss of control of resulting feelings. The second is the
prevention of primary process or spontaneous flow types
of image formation; in this process the fear is that
bizarre images would take over. The third is the non-

translation of enactive (kinesthetic) representation into

23

imagery, for fear that there would be little or no control
over the resulting self image.

It is worth noting the similarity between what has
been described as an autonomous image by Gordon and the
characteristics of certain kinds of imagination images.
McKeller (1957) pointed out that autonomy is a fundamental
and central aspect of hypnagogic imaging. This spon-
taneous and uncontrolled quality seems to be common among
some other less drastic forms of imagination imagery, such
as perceptual isolation imagery (Vernon, 1963), sleep
deprivation imagery (Bliss & Clark, 1962), and meditation
imagery (Pinard, 1957).

Individual Differences and Their
Effect on Imagery

 

 

There may be certain personality characteristics
that lend themselves to special types of imagery and
cognitive labeling processes. One possible basis for
the trait of introversion may be that an individual, in
general, functions as what Broadbent (1958) termed as a
"long processor." Broadbent found that this individual
compares any new set of inputs with a large number of
previously evaluated material before finally assigning
the new material either for storage or for some kind of
overt response. Broadbent saw the "short processor" or
the extrovert as merely matching new material against the

most recently occurring previous material, therefore

24

processing more material but storing it less effectively.
He felt that the particular set of the individual toward
how to code the material probably operates fairly con-
sistently and generates unique patterns.

Singer (1974) asserted that the distinction often
made clinically between the hysterical personality who is
generally viewed as more extraverted, and the obsessional
personality (more introverted) could be understood from
this viewpoint. He felt that the obsessional is tor-
mented by almost too many associations and complex inter-
actions when presented with particular questions or when
thinking about a particular issue. The coding strategy
is simply too complex from the start. The hysteric, con-
versely, is unlikely to recall many significant events
unless placed directly in a setting conducive to the
recall since there is probably not much rehearsal in the
interim. Singer felt that this explains why the induced
imagery of hypnosis is effective with hysterics (Singer,
1974). In effect, a context is set up that is similar
to the one in which the hysteric originally acquired the
information so he or she can then reproduce it more
effectively.

The principle finding in an investigation by
Costello (1957) was that autonomous (uncontrolled)
imagery was more common in a sample of diagnosed

neurotics than in a sample of normals. But what was

25

of particular interest was the additional discovery of a
qualitative difference between two sub-samples of neuro-
tics. Using Eysenck's (1957) definition of the dysthymic
as an introverted neurotic and an hysteric as an extra-
verted neurotic, Costello found that dysthymics had vivid
autonomous imagery and hysterics had weak autonomous
imagery. The imagery of the normals could be either vivid
or weak but was almost always controlled. Among the tenta-
tive conclusions: "The type of imagery indicates more the
type of disorder to which the individual may be prone
rather than indicating mental disorder itself" (p. 848).

Richardson (1962, 1966) conducted two studies on the
same topic, one using a sample of students from the
University of Western Australia and the other a sample
from the University of Kansas. The results of both
studies supported the prediction derived from the princi-
pal finding in Costello's 1957 study. Significantly more
of those who scored above the media on the neuroticism
scale were able to control their imagery. However, the
expected difference in imagery characteristics between
the introverted and extraverted "neurotics" was not
reliable, though in the predicted direction.

Sullivan (1956) pointed out that the more introverted
person's fantasies are over-elaborated and differentiated,
becoming increasingly complex, so that the product seen

in therapy may have changed greatly from the early

26

childhood fantasy. By contrast, the more hysterical per-
sonality, who is less geared toward producing imagery and
also more inclined toward separating from distressing
material, tends to have a fairly circumscribed recurrent
daydream that remains largely unchanged. Sullivan wrote
that many of the images and fantasies :of hysterics are
adopted wholesale from books and other sources.

Recent researchers (Bakan, 1978; Meskin & Singer,
1974; Seamon, 1973) have explored correlations between
individual differences, imagery, and hemispheric function-
ing. Meskin and Singer (1974) found that subjects who
were described as inner-attentive were more likely to
shift their eyes to the left (right hemisphere dominance)
while thinking of answers to complex questions or trying
to recall early childhood material; on the other hand
persons low on measures of day-dreaming and inner sensi-
tivity (not inner-attentive) were more likely to shift
their eyes to the right (left hemisphere dominance) in
such a situation.

In regard to hemispheric lateralization, numerous
recent studies (Dimond & Beaumont, 1974; Kinsbourne &
Smith, 1974; Nebes, 1974) showed that people who were
right-brain dominant tended to be intuitive, imaginistic,
concrete, holistic, and oriented toward primary process.

Individuals who were left-brain dominant, on the other

27

hand, tended to be rational, logical, analytic, and
oriented toward secondary process.

Gur and Gur (1975) reported differences between
inner-attentive and other-attentive subjects in the kinds
of defense mechanisms used. Inner-attentive subjects
(right hemisphere dominance) were more likely to use
denial, repression, and reaction formation and were more
likely to report psychosomatic symptomatology. The pre-
ferred defense mechanisms of other-attentive subjects
(left hemisphere dominance) were projection and outward
turning of aggression.

Seamon (1973) reported that subjects who used inter-
active imagery in learning paired words were likely to
respond more rapidly to material depending on the arousal
of the right hemisphere of the brain, thus suggesting that
the right hemisphere was indeed more involved in imaginal
processes. Meskin and Singer (1974) also reported that
inner-attentive subjects were likely to give more
extensive responses to questions involving visual recall
Of complex material from the past or imaginal material of
some kind.

The resemblance between personality characteristics
of the more frequent imagers in a study by Holt and Gold-
berger (1959) and those found by Foulkes, Spear, and
Symonds (1966) in their study of imagery are worth

noting here. Taken together, these two studies provided

28

some support for the notion that imagery is more likely

to manifest itself in the person who has the most creative
potential (Barron, 1963). In general, Freedman and Marks
(1965) obtained results which were consistent. They con-
cluded that "an artistic, sensitive and creative self-
concept is related to a syndrome that includes imagery"

(p. 111).

Imagery Use in Psychotherapy

 

One important factor in psychotherapeutic practice,
the reliance upon the client's imagery, can be examined
across various schools and shown to relate to some basic
principles of human information processing and emotion
that are susceptible to scientific research and scrutiny.
Singer (1974) wrote that Jung's method of active imagina-
tion, a kind of extended phenomenological approach, formed
a basis for the mental imagery movement in psychotherapy.
There was very little written of a technical nature on
this method by Jungian analysts, however, and the tech-
nique was not widely disseminated nor researched.

More recently, Reyher (1963) explored the properties
of "emergent uncovering," a method for producing profound
involvement on the part of the client in the analytic
session. Reyher believed that considerable insight would
be gained by the client from the ongoing production of

imagery and that active interpretation was not essential

29

for this procedure because of the dramatic impact of the
flow of imagery itself.

In a more formal psychoanalytic interpretation,
Knapp (1969) distinguished sets of mental images or pre-
dispositions to certain image contents at each of three
levels: conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. The
easiest to distinguish is the conscious or fully emergent
layer which consists of overt images of self and other.
Behind this is a preconscious layer in which daydreams
can enter consciousness periodically. The unconscious
hidden images express primitive urges and fears and have
to be inferred by unraveling the disguises of reported
images. Knapp believed that all three levels must be
addressed in the course of psychotherapy.

While various therapeutic methods emphasize control
of imagery, Singer (1974) particularly stated that an
effective psychoanalysis is indeed very much of a kind of
training in imagery control. As Strupp (1970) has con-
vincingly argued, one of the chief purposes of therapy
is the promotion of self-control. By teaching the use of
careful attention to ongoing dreams and fantasies, psycho-
analysis provides an opportunity for careful training of
the patient in self—control and autonomy with respect to
imagery capabilities.

With reference to the general field of psychotherapy,

however, imagery has been rediscovered as an important

30

psychological phenomenon largely through the influence,
not of psychoanalysts, but of the behavior therapists.
Singer (1974) stated that the greatest influence has been
the use of imagery in behavior modification and learning
theory approaches to psychological treatment. Introduced
chiefly through the efforts of Wolpe (1958), behavior
modification techniques have touched almost every phase
of psychotherapy and approaches to social change. A
critical feature of many behavior modification techniques
has been the reliance upon imagery generated by the client.
Gordon (1972) argued that nearly all current thera-
peutic procedures depend on the presence of imagery and
that different types of therapy can be distinguished from
one another in terms of how extensively and comprehen-
sively they mobilize the client's imaginal world. Horo-
witz (1978) supported this proposition, asserting that
"when a therapist of any persuasion suggests, encourages,
or inquires about an image he is, in effect, asking the
patient to think" (p. 356). Horowitz advocated that the
focus be on problem areas: the facets of clients' lives
and behavior patterns that they presently experience
having trouble thinking about or wish to avoid thinking
about because of associated feelings. Horowitz further

stated that:

31

Whatever other factors may be involved, this

encouragement of thinking facilitates conceptual

and emotional change. Image formation as a

particular form of thinking may be a route to

expression of emotional conflict and to expression
of distortions or instability of self and object

representations. (p. 356)

A number of therapists and researchers (Gordon, 1972;
Horowitz, 1978; Singer, 1974) asserted that the closeness
of images to sensory perception can evoke emotional
responses and cognitive processes associated with real
experience. Thus it may be possible for a client to
relive and complete events and fantasies that were too
overwhelming in the past. Because of the defenses
against the expression of their grief or fear in therapy,
however, many clients repeatedly describe important past
experiences, but always with a numbness of feeling.
Horowitz (1978) thought that a visualization of such an
experience might release emotions and permit grieving to
take place. Sometimes, as Hammer (1975) stated, image
formation.‘will circumvent a defense such as denial,
isolation, or repression.

Hovland and Janis (1959) cited the assumption that a
central element of attitude change is the anticipation of
rewards and punishments conveyed by the communicator.
They concluded that "persons with a rich fantasy life have
greater ability than others to imagine these outcomes and

are therefore more receptive to persuasive communication"

(p. 82). If therapists can be said to be persuasive, then

32

perhaps clients who utilize imagery may be more open to
therapeutic suggestions than clients who do not.

Gordon (1972), Hammer (1975), and Horowitz (1978)
all agreed that the imagery formation of the therpist is
also an important factor in the process of psychotherapy.
As the client describes the images of a dream of fantasy,
the therapist can allow images to form like the one
described. Horowitz believed that these images within
the therapist may serve to generate empathic understand—
ing. Also, these images provide the therapist with a set
of memories that can be reviewed later for additional
understanding. Ross and Knapp (1962) recommend that when
the image of the therapist is incongruent with the experi-
ences reported by the client, the therapist might question
whether the client is being clear, whether there is some
resistance within the client or difficulty in the rela-
tionship, or whether the therapist is experiencing a
countertransference reaction.

The approach of Tauber and Green (1959) utilized the
imagery of both the client and the therapist. They called
attention to many of the constructive and creative func-
tions of a variety of types of imagery which could be
employed in psychotherapy. While agreeing that some of
the replaying of frightening incidents or potentially
distressing events could have a magical drive-reducing

property, Tauber and Green also asserted that the use of

33

an imaginistic "correcting situation" implies that some-
thing different might have happened and strengthens the
possibility of it actually occurring in the future. They
noted that responding to a threatening situation (in the
form of a fantasy or daydream) does not only unleash
defensive referential processes but creative potential.
As previously noted, there seems to be a link between the
control of imagery and the creative process (Arieti,
1976).

Control of Imagery and the Richardson

Revision of the Gordon Test of
Visual Imagery Control

 

 

 

The test of visual imagery control devised by Gordon
(1949) was used initially to discriminate subjects who
had autonomous imagery (independent of volitional control)
from those who had controlled imagery (under volitional
control). The Richardson revision of the Gordon Test of
Visual Imagery Control (Richardson, 1969) is a twelve—
item test designed to assess more fully how well images
can be manipulated. Very little research has been con-
ducted on this test's reliability, although it has been
used extensively in imagery research as the favored
measure of imagery control.

In a study conducted by Juhasz (1972), reliability
of the Richardson revision of the Gordon Test of Visual

Imagery Control (Gordon Test) assessed by Cronbach's

34

(1970) o2 (an estimate of internal reliability) was
obtained from 67 undergraduates in two sections of intro-
ductory psychology, and twelve professors at Bucknell
University. The students were administered the test in

a group; the professors took the tests individually. The
test protocols were scored according to the standard pro-
cedures and the a2 coefficients calculated from contrast-
ing odd and even items on the test. This assured no
dfferential loading of sub-tests.

The estimate of odd-even reliability was .88 for
undergraduates, and .95 for professors. These results
suggest that, for these subjects, the measure had satis-
factory internal reliability; this includes not only the
often tested undergraduate but a group of professors as
well.

McKelvie and Gingras (1974) added to the data on the
reliability of the Gordon Test by obtaining test-retest,
split-half, and parallel-form estimates. The latter two
are generally thought to estimate the upper and lower
bounds of reliability, respectively. The subjects were
87 high school students, aged 16 or 17 years. All 87
subjects were administered the Gordon Test; three weeks
later, 33 students were retested with the original tests,
and 45 were given a parallel form (nine subjects did not
reappear for testing). The three reliability estimates

were obtained for each test using the Pearson correlation

35

method. The split-half reliability, computed from the
odd-even scores obtained by the original 87 subjects, was
adjusted according to the Spearman-Brown formula and com-
puted to be .76.

McKelvie and Gingras found that the Gordon Test had
a lower-bound parallel-form reliability of .73 and a test-
retest reliability of .84. However, their internal con-
sistency figures were surprisingly low (.76), especially
in the light of Juhasz's (1972) estimates (.88, .95). A
further test (McKelvie & Gingras, 1974) was made by
administering the Gordon Test to a group of 24 under-
graduates (who were similar to Juhasz's first group),
but the split-half reliability for their scores (.74)
was not markedly different from that of the high school
students. Thus, although the time-to-time and form-to-
form consistencies of the Gordon Test appear to be
acceptable, its internal consistency has not proven to
be particularly strong.

Test scores on the Gordon Test have been positively
related to stereotyped imagery (Gordon, 1949), reversal
rates of the Necker cube (Gordon, 1950), and mental dis-
order (Costello, 1957). More recently, test correlates
have included extrasensory perception (Price, 1973),
frequency of dream recall (Hiscock & Cohen, 1973),

success in mental rehearsal (Rawlings & Rawlings, 1974),

36

creative self-perceptions (Khatena, 1975), and personality
(Euse & Haney, 1975).
Jungian Modes of Direction of Interest,

Perception, and the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator

 

 

 

Carl Jung's theory of psychological type (1923) has
inspired several efforts to measure the categorical dimen—
sions of direction of interest (Extraversion-Introversion)
and perception (Sensing-Intuition). Myers' (1962)
research and development of the 166—item, self-report
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) has been especially
productive along these lines. A thorough review of the
literature and assessment of the MBTI has recently been
completed by Carlyn (1977).

A number of researchers have investigated the
reliability of the MBTI, some treating scores as continu-
ous data. Both internal consistency reliability and test-
retest reliability have been examined. Carlyn (1977)
reported that estimates of internal consistency of con-
tinuous MBTI scores seemed to be quite adequate for a
self-report instrument, ranging with few exceptions
between .70 and .90. Myers (1962), Stricker and Ross
(1963) and Webb (1964) used different statistical pro-
cedures to produce similar results on continuous score

reliability, with reported coefficients ranging from .76

37

to .82 (E-I), .75 to .87 (S-N), .69 to .86 (T-F), and
.80 to .84 (J-P).

Estimating the internal consistency of the type
categories has been more difficult because only high and
low estimates can be provided by existing statistical
categories. Hoffman (1974), Myers (1962), and Webb
(1964) have reported phi coefficients ranging from .55
to .65 (E-I), .64 to .73 (S-N), .43 to .75 (T-F), and
.76 to .84 (J-P).

Test-retest data for MBTI type-category scores were
reported for four samples. Studies by Levy, Murphy, and
Carlson (1972), Stalcup (1968), and Stricker and Ross
(1964a) involved college students, and a study by Wright
(1966) involved elementary school teachers. In every
case the proportion of agreement was significantly higher
than would be expected by chance. In the studies by Levy
et a1. (1972) and Stricker and Ross (1964a), test-retest
correlation coefficients were computed for continuous
MBTI scores. Pearson product-moment correlations were
all significant at the .01 level and Carlyn (1977) stated
that these appeared reasonable for a self-report inventory.
Mendelsohn (1970) noted that, in general, the reliability
data for the MBTI were similar to those for other self-
report personality instruments.

Evidence for content validity of the Myers-Briggs

Type Indicator was obtained by Bradway (1964) in a study

38

involving Jungian analysts. The analysts were asked to
classify themselves according to the Extraversion-
Introversion, Sensing-Intufljrnn and Thinking-Feeling type
categories; comparisons were then made between self-typing
and MBTI typing. There was 100% agreement on E-I classi-
fication, 68% agreement on S-N classification, 61% agree-
ment on T-F classification, and 43% agreement on all three
dimensions. The E-I index proved to be remarkably valid,
and the S-N index acceptably so for the sample.

Additional evidence for content validity has been
obtained by correlating subjects' scores on the MBTI with
their scores on the Gray-Wheelwright Questionnaire (Gray
& Wheelwright, 1946), another instrument designed to
identify Jungian types. The Gray-Wheelwright also uses
continuous scores to assign subjects to type categories,
but it has no J-P scale. Bradway (1964) and Stricker
and Ross (1964b) compared scores on the two instruments
and found correlations ranging from .75 to .96 (E-I),

.58 to .75 (S-N), and .60 to .72 (T-F). All correlations
were significant at the .01 level.

An advantage of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is
that it was derived from a well-known conceptual formula-
tion (Jung's typological theory) to which empirical find-
ings may be related. Numerous correlational studies have
been conducted comparing MBTI scores with scores on other

instruments. Several researchers have used factor analysis

39

to investigate these relationships. Saunders (1960) com-
pared the continuous MBTI scores of 1132 subjects with
their scores on the Allport—Vernon-Lindzey Study of
Values (AVL), an instrument based on Spranger's theory of
types. Factor analysis revealed that the four Jungian
type dimensions formed a good simple structure and both
instruments appeared to be measuring related constructs.
In studies by Madison, Wilder, and Suddiford (1963) and
by Ross (1966), factor analysis was used to relate a
variety of tests to the MBTI. In all of the studies, the
four MBTI scales tended to have substantial loadings of
different factors.

The scores of Extraverts on a number of tests indi-
cated that they tend to be talkative, gregarious, and
impulsive, with underlying needs for dominance, exhibition,
and affiliation (Myers, 1962; Ross, 1966; Stricker & Ross,
1962; Webb, 1964). Studies indicated that introverted
types prefer reflecting before acting and enjoy working
alone. They scored high on scales of self-sufficiency
and were rated by faculty as more solitary and less care-
free than Extraverts (Myers, 1962; Ross, 1961; Stricker &
Ross, 1962). On tests of aptitude, abstract reasoning,
reading ability, and aesthetic values, Introverts usually
scored significantly higher than average (Myers, 1962;

Saunders, 1960; Stricker & Ross, 1964b; Webb, 1964).

40

Research indicated that a preference for sensing
leads to an interest in what is solid and real (McCaulley
& Natter, 1974). As a group, Sensors usually scored
extremely high on the Economic scale of the AVL (Myers,
1962; Saunders, 1960). On other personality inventories,
they consistently placed a high value on work and
authority and were likely to be rated by faculty as
cooperative, pragmatic, and willing to take direction
(Ross, 1961).

Studies have shown that Intuitors like to use their
minds and have considerable tolerance for complexity
(Myers, 1962). Intuitive types generally expressed a
strong need for autonomy and had a positive attitude
toward change (Myers, 1962; Madison et al., 1963). They
were more likely than sensing types to be rated as
imaginative (Ross, 1961) which was consistent with
McKinnon's findings (1966) that over 90% of the creative
architects, research scientists, and mathematicians
studied at the Institute of Personality Assessment and
Research were intuitive types.

The findings summarized above appear to be quite con-
sistent with Jungian constructs, and, taken as a whole,
they give strong support to the validity of the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator. These findings indicate that MBTI

scores "relate meaningfully to a large number of variables

41

including personality, ability, interest, value, aptitude
and performance measures, academic choice, and behavior
ratings" (Mendelsohn, 1965, p. 322).

Psychotherapeutic Outcome and the
Personal Orientation Inventory

 

 

Recently, empirical research in the area of self-
actualization has been facilitated through the development
of an instrument for the delineation of personal self-
fulfillment measured through concepts of self-actualiza-
tion. Shostrom has indicated that several dimensions of
personal growth and self-actualization as counseling and
psychotherapy goals, were measured by the Personal Orienta-
tion Inventory (Shostrom, 1964). Shostrom's orientation
was derived largely from the humanistic psychological
theory of Maslow (1954, 1962), but the influence of con-
temporary humanistic theorists such as May (1958), Riesman,
Glazer, and Denny (1950) and Perls (1947; Perls, Heffer-
line & Goodman, 1951) in the conceptualization of the
Personal Orientation Inventory (P01) is clearly evident.

The POI, with content based on value judgment prob-
1ems identified by psychotherapists over a five year
period, is the only available inventory designed specifi-
cally to measure self-actualization. Tosi and Lindamood
(1975) felt that the POI offered much potential as a means

of assessing psychotherapeutic progress. The value of the

42

POI is indicated by studies which used the instrument as
a criterion measure of changes in self-actualization in
sensitivity groups (Culbert, Clark, & Bobele, 1968),
attitude and personality change during counselor training
(Mazer, 1969), and in focusing on positive mental health
in clients during counseling (Foulds, 1970).

The Personal Orientation Inventory consists of 150
pairs of two-choice items and is scored for two major
scales and ten sub-scales. Shostrom (1964) reported test-
retest reliability coefficients of the major scales, Time
Ratio and Support Ratio, as .91 and .93, respectively,
with no mention of the time lapse. Klavetter and Mogar
(1967) reported one week test-retest reliabilities of the
twelve scales ranging from .52 to .82, with a median of
.705. Ilardi and May (1968) reported test-retest
reliabilities of an approximately fifty week time lapse
ranging from .32 to .74; the median in this study was .58.

Evidence for construct validity has been presented
by a study that used the POI to differentiate three adult
groups who were clinically nominated as "self-actualized"
(n: 29), "normal" (n: 160), and "non-self—actualized"

(n: 34). The POI significantly differentiated the self-
actualized from the non-self—actualized on eleven of the
twelve scales; E2 was not significant (Shostrom, 1964).

Wall (1970) compared the POI with the Rotter Internal vs.

43

External Control Scale and concluded that self-
actualization, as measured by the POI, is relatively
independent of Rotter's concept of locus of control.
This gave support to the construct of the Support Ratio
I scale as measuring inner-directedness rather than
internal control.

Numerous studies reported on the concurrent validity
of the POI; of these, four were especially important.
McClain (1970) found that nine of the POI scales were
significantly correlated with staff evaluation of school
counselors based on Maslow's criteria of self-actualization
(significant correlations were not observed for gr, NE,
and gy). Shostrom (1964) reported significant changes
in inner-directedness for pre- and post-test mean scores
of individuals in sensitivity-training and school psycholo-
gist training programs.

Further support validation comes from numerous
studies that contrasted "non-healthy" individuals with
"normal" or self-actualized" individuals through the use
of the POI. Fox, Knapp, and Michal (1968), for example,
reported that all twelve scales of the POI significantly
differentiated the hospitalized psychotic group from both
the normal and self-actualized groups of Shostrom (1964).

Braun and Asta (1968) correlated the POI with the
Gordon Personal Inventory (GPI). More significant corre-

lations were found with the GPI Original Thinking scale

44

than with any other. This was consistent with Maslow's
emphasis of the creativeness of the self-actualizing
individual and with the finding of a significant positive
relationship between the POI and the Remote Associations
Test (Braun & Asta, 1969).

Three studies were representative of recent
research on the use of the Personal Orientation Inventory
in counseling and psychotherapy. Cooper (1971) reported
significant increases for pre- and post-test mean gain
scores for individuals undergoing two one-week T-group
training sessions for the I, Ex, 3;, S, and A scales of
the POI. Young and Jacobson (1970) reported on the
effects of a fifteen-hour marathon group experience which
emphasized verbal and non—verbal communication processes.
They found significant pre- and post-test mean differences
for the experimental group on the SA! scale of the POI and
higher (though not significant) mean gain scores for all
POI scales except S5, indicating change in a positive
direction toward "health." These studies indicate the
POI reflects growth and self-actualization within short-
term psychotherapy settings.

Shostrom and Knapp (1966) reported the relationships
between the POI scales and the MMPI for a beginning
therapy group and an advanced therapy group. The POI and
MMPI were administered to both groups. All twelve POI

scales significantly differentiated the two groups, while

45

the Hg, 2, fly, pg, 23, PE, and §E scales of the MMPI were
significant, with the advanced group scoring higher on
the POI and lower on the MMPI than the beginning group.
The investigators concluded that these observations give
credence to the POI as a measure of psychological health
and growth toward self-actualization. This, among
numerous other studies, shows the sensitivity of POI
measures to changes resulting from psychotherapeutic

treatments.

Summary

Literature was reviewed which addressed the area of
imagery in general and the variable of imagery control
in particular. Research on imaginal thought has become
more sophisticated since Galton's time but there remain
many questions about the nature and functioning of imagery.
The similarities and differences between an image and a
percept are presently being studied, with varying results
currently reported.

The importance of the control variable within
imaginal thought has been widely reported but little
empirical investigation has taken place. Gordon (1949,
1972) has been one of the few contributors to this area
of knowledge. In particular, the relationship of imagery
control and specific personality characteristics has been

relatively neglected as an area of research.

46

The review of literature indicated, however, that
this may be a fruitful area to pursue more fully. Some
studies have shown that inner-directedness or introversion
seems to be related to ability to image and ability to
control images, and that extraversion seems to be related
to an inability to control imagery. These studies, for
the most part, have been done with a predominately neuro-
tic or psychotic population.

Other studies have indicated that imagery may be
linked to predominantly right-hemisphere functioning,
which is spacial, intuitive, imaginistic, and concrete.
Imagery and the ability to control imagery also seem to
be evidenced frequently in those persons labeled
"creative."

The primary test of imagery control, the Richardson
revision of the Gordon Test of Visual Imagery Control,
was reviewed. Although internal consistency reliability
figures were not particularly strong, the time-to-time
and form-to-form consistencies were acceptable.

The literature on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
was reviewed with particular attention given to the
Extraversion-Introversion and Sensing-Intuition scales.
Both the internal consistency and test-retest reliability
figures were found to be above .70 for both E-I and S-N.

Various studies have reported satisfactory conclusions on

47

the validity of both scales as measures of Jung's original
constructs.

Hypotheses for the current study derive primarily
from theoretical notions of Extraversion-Introversion,
Sensing-Intuition, and the nature of imagery control. No
correlations have been reported in the literature on
imagery control with either of these personality scales:
However, numerous concurrent validity studies show Extra-
version correlating with gregariousness and a general
orientation to the external world, and Introversion cor-
relating with introspection and reflection. Imagery con-
trol has been found to correlate positively with thought
patterns involving complex interactions and inner sensi-
tivity and negatively with less complex thought patterns
that are externally oriented.

Concurrent validity studies on the MBTI also show
Sensing correlating with pragmatism and a preference for
what is solid and real, and Intuition with complexity,
autonomy, imagination, and creativity. Imagery control
has been found to correlate positively with creativity,
spatial orientation, flexibility, and autonomy of thought
processes, and negatively with rigidity of thought patterns
and a pragmatic conventional orientation.

The review of the literature has indicated that the

use of imagery is prevalent across many diverse schools

48

of psychotherapy, and that the control of imagery is an
important factor in the ability of a client to cognitively
and affectively access certain material. Therefore,
therapeutic outcome may depend in some measure upon the
variable of imagery control.

The literature on an instrument to measure thera-
peutic outcome, the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI),
was reviewed. The internal consistency and test-retest
reliability figures were found to be acceptable. Numerous
studies have reported satisfactory validity statistics on
the POI and have also shown the sensitivity of the POI
to changes resulting from psychotherapy.

The review of the literature indicated that theo-
retical support exists for examining the Extraversion-
Introversion and Sensing-Intuiting differences in imagery
control, and for examining these differences within a

therapy setting.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

Sample

Clients

Permission was first obtained from the Michigan
State University Committee on Research Involving Human
Subjects and from the Michigan State University Counseling
Center. The 25 participating clients were undergraduate
and graduate students at MSU who had requested counseling
at the Counseling Center during fall term of 1979.

In order to be asked to participate, a potential
research client had to: (l) have a presenting problem
that was primarily personal/social in nature, (2) not be
considered actively suicidal or in an extreme crisis
situation, (3) be willing to make a commitment to at
least seven counseling sessions, and (4) be considered
appropriate for traditional, dyadic counseling (e.g.,
clients who were most suitable for group counseling,
anxiety reduction, assertiveness training, etc., were
excluded).

Initial contacts with clients were made by the

research therapists, either in the intake session or in

49

50

the first sessions of therapy. Clients were asked if

they would be willing to participate in a research project
being conducted at the Counseling Center. Those who
agreed were then contacted by telephone and informed

about the nature of their potential participation. They
were asked to take a pretest, consisting of the Richardson
revision of the Gordon Test of Visual Imagery Control
(Gordon Test), the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI),

and the Personal Orientation Inventory (POI), and a post-
test, consisting of the Gordon Test and the POI.

It is important to note that the sample is not a
random one, but a volunteer sample. Approximately 14%
of the potential clients who were asked to participate
failed to come in for the pretest. Twenty-five of the
thirty clients who took the pretest completed the post-
test, although two clients took the posttest after six
and seven weeks of therapy, respectively. All other
clients took the posttest after ten therapy sessions.

A control group of nineteen individuals was composed
of volunteers who were on the waiting list at the Counsel-
ing Center for at least seven to ten weeks. The pretest-
ing and posttesting took place at the same times for both
the treatment (therapy) group and the control group. The
treatment group and control group were compared on the

following demographic variables: sex, age, and class

51

standing. A summary of these data is presented in Table
3.1. Two-tailed t-tests indicated that the differences
between the treatment and the control group on the vari-
ables of age (p = .19), and class standing (p = -0.l),

were not significant at the .05 level.

Table 3.1

Comparison of the Treatment and Control
Groups According to Sex, Mean Age,
and Mean Class Standing

 

 

Treatment Group Control Group
Sex 18 females 13 females
7 males 6 males
Mean age 22.6 21.5
Mean class standing 3.5a 3.1

 

aBased on class standing when Freshman = l;
Sophomore = 2; Junior = 3; Senior = 4; and Graduate = 5.

In addition to this comparative data, additional
information was gathered about both the control group and
the clients who were engaged in therapy during the period
of the study. The description of these individuals may
be useful to the reader or researcher wishing to general-
ize to target populations which are similar in regard to

demographic characteristics. Cornfield and Tukey (1956),

52

in detailing their bridge argument, have advanced the
practice of generalizing from the particular sample to
populations composed of similar characteristics. Thus,
the results of the current study might be generalized to
analogous populations of Counseling Center clients.

Of the 25 therapy clients, 18 were female and 7 male
ranging in age from 18 to 33 years, with a median age of
21 and a mean age of 22.6. Only one client was black.
Five clients had declared majors in Education; 3 in
Business; 3 with "No Preference" 2 in Social Work; 2 in
Criminal Justice; 2 in Pre-Medicine; and 8 "other." For
the 19 control group individuals, 13 were female, 6 male,
ranging in age from 18 to 30 years, with a median age of
21 and a mean age of 21.5 years. All were white. Three
individuals had declared majors in Education; 2 "No
Preference"; 2 in Business; 2 in Pre-Medicine; 2 in

Social Science; and 7 "other."

Therapists

 

Nine Michigan State University Counseling Center
therapists were used in this study. Each therapist worked
with from one to seven of the research clients. This was
not a random sample of all the therapists at the MSU
Counseling Center; each therapist volunteered to partici-
pate in the research project. Five of the therapists were

female; four were male. Eight therapists were interns,

53

all of whom were enrolled in a counseling psychology
doctoral program. One therapist was a full-time staff
member at the Center, a recent Ph.D. graduate from a
counseling psychology program. Each of the therapists
was trained in traditional styles of counseling and
therapy and each was eclectic in using a variety of

styles and techniques (e.g., intrapersonal, interpersonal,

emotional, cognitive).

Threats to Generalization
The following factors limit the generalization or,
as Campbell and Stanley (1963) term it, the external
validity of the study.

1. The subjects used in this study were under-
graduate and graduate students enrolled at
a Big-Ten university (Michigan State University,
East Lansing, Michigan). Their age ranged
from 18 to 33 years, with a mean age of
approximately 22.6 years.

2. The subjects were volunteers, and therefore,
the sample does not represent a random
selection from the university population of
students who seek help from the Counseling
Center.

3. The subjects' presenting problems were personal/
social in nature rather than educational,
vocational, or academic. They were not con-
sidered to be actively suicidal, severely
confused or disorganized, or in a crisis
situation.

4. The subjects were posttested after seven to
ten weeks of therapy. This represents either
short-term treatment or the beginning stages
of longer term therapy.

54

5. The therapists were volunteers and therefore
do not represent a random selection of the
Counseling Center population of available
therapists.

6. The use of a pretest could have influenced the
subjects' responsiveness to the experimental
variable and thus make results unrepresentative
of populations not pretested.

Measures Used in the Study

 

Three separate measures were used in this study:
(1) the Richardson revision of the Gordon Test of Visual
Imagery Control (Gordon Test, Richardson, 1969), (2) the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI, Myers, 1962), and the
Personal Orientation Inventory (POI, Shostrum, 1963).
The Richardson Revision of the

Gordon Test of Visual Imagery
Control (Gordon Test)

 

 

 

The Gordon Test is the best known and most widely
used test of imagery control. The original test (Gordon,
1949) has become synonymous with the notion of visual
imagery control, and involves oral instructions which
precede eleven questions that subjects answer either
"yes" or "no" depending on their ability to manipulate
evoked visual images. Richardson (1969) made several
changes in this format: he added a twelfth item, included
a tripartite scoring system ("yes," "no," and "unsure"),
and advocated the use of printed rather than oral instruc-

tions.

55

According to the most commonly used scoring method,
each "yes" is scored two points, each "unsure" one point,
and each "no" answer is scored zero points. Thus the
highest attainable score is 24 points and the lowest
possible score is zero. In Gordon's original test,
subjects were labeled "controlled" only if they scored
perfectly on each of her original eleven questions. If
only one question was marked "no,“ the subject was
labeled "autonomous" or uncontrolled.

Richardson, in his report of his four unpublished
studies (1972), did not specify his cut-off point for
controlled or autonomous imagers. Broadway (1971), using
Richardson's scoring fer a university sample, specified
the median of his sample as the cut-off point. It was
decided to use this latter method of scoring for the
sample of the present study. The median was found to be
20.5; all subjects who scored 21 and above were defined
as controlled imagers and all subjects who scored 20 and
below were defined as autonomous imagers.

Given the present state of available measures that
propose to assess visual imagery control, it seemed
appropriate to use the Richardson revision of the Gordon
Test of Visual Imagery Control in the present study. It
is a simple and straightforward self-report inventory

that has been fairly reliable and much of the normative

56

data reviewed in the literature have come from research

with university and college populations.

The Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI)

 

 

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is a l66-item self
administering questionnaire which was developed by Briggs
and Myers in 1962 to measure the variables in Carl Jung's
personality typology. It consists of four scales:
Extraversion-Introversion (E-I), Sensing-Intuition (S-N),
Thinking-Feeling (T-F), and Judging-Perceiving (J-P), of
which the first two (E-I and S-N) are of particular
interest in the present study. The current version of
the Indicator (Form F) was published in 1962, and has
been used in more than 400 studies.

The aim of the MBTI is to determine habitual choices
between opposites; thus, the questions are set up in a
forced choice form. Each scored item has one answer
weighted in favor of one of the eight preferences and the
other answer weighted in favor of the opposing preference.
Different weights have been assigned to certain answers
in an attempt to offset social desirability bias.

The MBTI gives two separate types of scores for each
person. It classifies respondents on four dichotomous
type categories and it also gives eight numerical scores

which can be transformed into four continuous scores.

57

MBTI scores may therefore be regarded as either dichoto-
mous or continuous data.

It was decided to use the dichotomous scores for the
sample of the present study. Jung's theory states that
the preferences underlying psychological type "are dichoto-
mies based on inner dispositions which cannot be thwarted
without damage to the individual's well-being and effec-
tiveness" (Myers, 1962). Although all persons have an
extraverted and an introverted side, use both sensing and
intuition, judge with both thinking and feeling, and can
adopt both the judging and perceptive attitude, the theory
states that those who prefer and develop one mode over the
other become qualitatively different types of people.

The Personal Orientation
Inventory (POI)

 

 

The Personal Orientation Inventory has been fre-
quently used in studies involving counseling and psycho-
therapy research, both with individual clients and with
groups. The Inventory is composed of 150 two-choice,
paired opposite statements that deal with values, atti-
tudes, and self-percepts. One statement that the subject
believes is most true of him or herself is selected from
each pair. Shostrum (1976) stated that the instrument
is not a forced-choice one but rather the item format is

better described as paired-Opposites. The scores are

58

normative rather than ipsative; an individual can have
all high scores or all low scores.

According to one method of scoring the POI, each
item in the inventory can be scored twice. The first
scoring is for each of the first two subscales (Inner
Directed and Time Competent) with no item overlap. The
second scoring is for the ten following subscales, each
measuring a separate aspect of self-actualization.

Since all of these subscales relate to conceptually dif-
ferent aspects of self-actualization, it was decided that
the sums of the two major subscales would be used as a
single, overall measure of self-actualization. This
alternative method of scoring is commonly and widely used
(Damm, 1972).

The first of the two major subscales is Time Compe-
tent (Tg with 23 items). This subscale measures the
degree to which a person can live primarily in the present
without regrets and resentments from the past and without
idealized expectations and goals for the future. The
second major subscale is Inner Directed (I with 127
items), measuring the extent to which one can be pri-
amrily independent and self-supportive, guided by inner
motivations rather than external influences.

It seemed appropriate to use the POI as an outcome
measure in the present study because as an instrument,

it places emphasis on mental health rather than clinical

59

pathology. The actualizing model, upon which the POI is
based, is really an educational model where responsibility
is gradually shifted from therapist to client in terms of
movement and growth. It is an appropriate model for this
particular university counseling center sample, which
represents a wide range of developmental concerns, but

not severe or pathological problems. The POI also tends
to reflect short-term changes in self-actualization
(Shostrum, 1976).

The Personal Orientation Inventory items are stated
and scale constructs interpreted in a non-threatening
language which stresses the positive effects of therapy
rather than focusing on the absence of illness or clinical
symptoms. The thirty minutes that it takes to complete
the test made it a feasible instrument to use along with
other instruments for pre- and posttesting. The norma-
tive data in the POI manual are geared to a college
student population with the standard score profile sheet

based on norms of 2,607 entering college freshmen.

Null Hypotheses

 

I. There will be no difference in ability to
control visual imagery between individuals
who have a tendency to exhibit Introversion
and individuals who have a tendency to
exhibit Extraversion as a direction of
interest.

60

II. There will be no difference in ability to
control visual imagery between individuals
who have a tendency to exhibit Intuition
and individuals who have a tendency to
exhibit Sensing as a mode of perception.

III. There will be no difference in scores on a
measure related to therapy outcome between
individuals who exhibit controlled visual
imagery and individuals who exhibit visual
autonomous imagery.

IV. There will be no difference in the scores
on a measure related to therapy outcome
between individuals who exhibit controlled
visual imagery and who are also working with
a therapist with controlled visual imagery
and individuals with autonomous visual
imagery and who are also working with a
therapist with autonomous visual imagery.

Research Design and Analysis
of the Data

 

 

The designs used in this study are factorial designs,
each with two factors. Basically, a factorial design is
defined as having two or more variables in the same
experiment which can be manipulated or not manipulated
by the experimenter (Glass & Stanley, 1970). Not only is
it possible to test the main effects of each of the vari-
ables but it is also possible to test the interaction
effects between the variables.

Each of the factors in this study is fixed, that is,
the levels of each variable are selected arbitrarily or

the entire population of levels of the variable is

61

included. Each of the factors in this study has two
levels of categories. The design variables are listed

in Table 3.2.

Table 3.2

Description of Independent Variables

 

 

Number of Description of
Variable Levels Levels
Client MBTI Type 2 Extraversion
Introversion
Client MBTI Type 2 Sensing
Intuition
Client Gordon Type 2 Controlled
Autonomous
Therapist Gordon Type 2 Controlled
Autonomous

 

The data analytic procedures for the null hypotheses

are listed in Table 3.3.

62

Table 3.3

Data Analytic Procedures for the
Null Hypotheses

 

 

Dependent Independent
Hypothesis Procedure Variable Variab1e(s)
I ANOVA Gordon Test Client MBTI type

on E-I dimension

II ANOVA Gordon Test Client MBTI type
on S-N dimension

III ANCOVA Adjusted POI Client Gordon
score (POI type
pretest used
as covariate)

IV t-test Adjusted POI Client Gordon
score (POI type
pretest used Therapist Gordon
as covariate) type

 

The first two hypotheses, which are concerned with
the relationship of individual differences to the control
of imagery, will be analyzed by a two-way analysis of
variance. The design for these hypotheses can be

diagrammed as follows:

63

 

 

Introverts Extraverts
Intuitors X11 X12
Sensors X21 X22

 

 

 

 

The dimensions of this design are the Introversion-
Extraversion classification and the Intuition-Sensing
categories. The symbol Yij represents the respective
group means on the Gordon Test. That is to say, ill
represents the mean score of individuals who were both
Intuitors and Introverts and fizz represents the mean
score of individuals who were Sensors and Extraverts.
Standard two-way ANOVA techniques were used.

The last two hypotheses are interrelated; the design

for both can be diagrammed as follows:

MAIN EFFECT B

 

 

 

Therapist
Controlled Autonomous
Imagers Imagers
— I _' I
“are? x 11 x12
MAIN 9'
EFFECT Client
A Autonomous i'Zl 3'22
Imagers

 

 

 

 

64

The dimensions of this design are the client cate-
gories of controlled imagers and autonomous imagers and
the therapist categories of controlled imagers and
autonomous imagers. The symboli?‘ij represents the average
adjusted POI score.

Hypothesis III was tested by a two-way analysis of
covariance. Because of differing degrees of seriousness
of presenting problem, it is not reasonable to assume that
groups were equal before therapy began. Hence, since
improvement or gain is the dependent variable, considera-
tion of these expected initial group differences were
taken into account. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) is
a statistical technique for handling this problem. This
study used the initial POI score to adjust the ending POI
score for the initial differences.

The test for the client dimension (controlled
imagery vs. autonomous imagery) addressed Hypothesis III.
Hypothesis IV was tested by comparing the adjusted POI
scores of those individuals who were matched according to

imagery type (i'll Vs. X'zz) by use of a two-tailed t-test.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

The purpose of this chapter is threefold: (1) to
present the data collected from the subjects, (2) to
present the results of the analyses of these data in
accordance with the designs outlined in Chapter III, and
(3) to interpret these data according to the hypotheses
stated in Chapter III.

The organization of this chapter will be to analyze
the first two hypotheses as a pair, and then to analyze
the third and the fourth hypotheses individually. Within
this framework, each research question will be presented
followed by an appropriate translation into statistical
notation. Tables and/or figures of the results of pro-
cessing the data by the appropriate statistical technique
will then be presented. The analyses use .05 as the
level of statistical significance for each hypothesis
test.

Abbreviations used throughout this chapter will be
consistent with those used in Chapter II and Chapter III:
Gordon or Gordon Test refers to the Richardson Revision

of the Gordon Test of Visual Imagery Control; POI refers

65

66

to the Personal Orientation Inventory; and MBTI refers to
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. The list of abbrevia-
tions used in stating the statistical hypotheses is pre-

sented below:

H = Null hypothesis

0

Ha = Alternative hypothesis

“I = Mean pretest Gordon score of Introverts
as typed by the MBTI

HE = Mean pretest Gordon score of Extraverts
as typed by the MBTI

“N = Mean pretest Gordon score of Intuitors

as typed by the MBTI

U = Mean pretest Gordon score of Sensors as
typed by the MBTI

U = Mean difference between POI pretest and
POI posttest of clients with controlled
visual imagery

U = Mean difference between POI pretest and
POI posttest of clients with autonomous
visual imagery

uC/C = Mean difference between POI pretest and
POI posttest of clients with controlled
visual imagery who are working with
therapists with controlled visual imagery.

uA/A = Mean difference between POI pretest and

POI posttest of clients with autonomous
visual imagery who are working with
therapists with autonomous visual imagery.

Results of the Hypothesis Testing

 

The first two hypotheses motivating this study have
been described in Chapter III. They are repeated here

for ease in reading.

67

Hypothesis I

 

Individuals who have a tendency to exhibit
Introversion as a direction of interest are
more likely to exhibit controlled visual
imagery than individuals who have a tendency
to exhibit Extraversion as a direction of
interest.

Hypothesis II

 

Individuals who have a tendency to exhibit
Intuition as a mode of perception are more
likely to exhibit controlled visual imagery
than individuals who have a tendency to
exhibit Sensing as a mode of perception.

Table 4.1 shows the means, standard deviations and

frequencies of the groups involved in the first two

hypotheses.

Table 4.1

Pretest Gordon Scores Selected for Analysis
of the Extraversion-Introversion Dimension

 

 

(n = 25)
Group N i SD
Extraverts 11 17.28 7.19
Introverts 14 18.71 4.88
Sensors 11 13.72 6.31
Intuitors 14 21.50 2.56

 

68

Figure 4.1 shows the design used for Hypothesis I
and Hypothesis II with the appropriate cell and marginal
means, standard deviations and frequencies. The analysis
technique used to test these hypotheses is a univariate
analysis of variance, the dependent variable being the
pretest Gordon score. The results of this analysis are

shown in Table 4.2.

 

 

 

 

 

Extraversion Introversion
(E) (I)
XE,S = 9.0 xI,S = 15.50 XS = 13.72
Sensing (S) SD = 9.54 SD = 4.2 SD = 6.31
n = 3 n = 8 n = 11
XE,N = 20.38 XI,N = 23.0 XN = 21.5
Intuition (N) SD = 2.77 SD = 1.26 SD = 2.57
n = 8 n = 6 n = 14
RE = 17.28 21 = 18.71 R = 18.08
SD = 7.20 SD = 4.88 SD = 5.97
n = 11 n = 14 n = 25

 

Figure 4.l.--Gordon Pretest Means, Standard Deviations,
and Frequencies.

69

Table 4.2

Results of the Two-Way ANOVA on the
Gordon Test Scores

 

 

Source fl 9: 5.9; E 2

Extraversion- 12.80 1 12.80 .73 .402
Introversion

Sensing-Intuition 455.14 1 455.14 25.98 .0001

E-I and S-N 20.02 1 20.02 1.14 .297
Interaction

Error 367.88 21 17.52

 

A note of explanation should precede the analysis of
Hypotheses I and II. Because the design of the study is
non-orthogonal, estimates of each source of variation are
not as straight-forward as might appear. To adjust for
the unequal cell frequencies, an adjustment to the
standard computational methods for the sums of squares
was adopted. The approach used is referred to as the
experimental design analysis method as mentioned by
Overall and Klett (1972).

The logic of the hypotheses testing will proceed from
the interaction to the main effects. Since there is no
statistically significant interaction (p = .297), atten-

tion will be turned to the two main effects. Subjects

70

who were classified as Extraverts or Introverts did not
differ significantly on their Gordon pretest scores

(p = .402). Subjects who were classified as Sensors or
Intuitors, however, did differ from each other Q>==.0001).
Since there are only two groups, inspection of the mar-
ginal means will indicate which group had the higher
score. Individuals in this study who exhibited Intuition
as a mode of perception scored significantly higher on
the Gordon Test (E = 21.50) than did individuals who
exhibited Sensing (i = 13.72).

In summary, the null hypothesis of no relationship
between imagery control and the tendency to exhibit either
Introversion or Extraversion is not rejected. However,
the second null hypothesis, that of no relationship
between ability to control imagery and a tendency to

exhibit either Sensing or Intuition, is rejected.

Hypothesis III

 

There will be no difference in scores on a
measure related to therapy outcome between
individuals who exhibit controlled visual
imagery and individuals who exhibit autonomous
visual imagery.

o 11C

Ha: uC # uA

71

Because Hypothesis III uses the increase between the
POI pretest and the POI posttest as an indicator of
therapy effectiveness, it is important to examine the
correlation between the two tests. Table 4.3 indicates
that there is a strong relationship between the POI pre-
test and the POI posttest scores. A relatively high
correlation exists and these results indicate that the

POI pretest is an acceptable covariate.

Table 4.3

Correlation Matrix of the P01 Pretest
and POI Posttest Scores

 

 

POI Pretest POI Posttest
POI Pretest 1.000
POI Posttest .697* 1.000

 

p < .05

Figures 4.2 and 4.3 show the cell and marginal means,
standard deviations, and frequencies for the POI pretest

scores and the POI posttest scores, respectively.

Main Effect A

 

Controlled
(C)

Client

Autonomous
(A)

72

Main Effect B

 

 

 

 

 

 

Therapist
Controlled Autonomous
(C) (A)

XC,C = 88.14 XA,C = 99.50 XC 92.27
SD = 14.59 SD = 14.53 SD 14.96
n = 7 n = 4 n 11
XC,A = 85.75 XA,A = 98.00 XA 91.00
SD = 12.46 SD = 17.01 SD 14.31
n = 8 n = 6 n 14

xC = 86.87 XA = 98.60 X 91.56
SD = 13.05 SD = 15.22 SD 14.86
n = 15 n = 10 n 25

Figure 4.2.--POI Pretest Means, Standard Deviations, and

Frequencies.

Controlled
(C)

Main Effect A
C11ent

 

Autonomous
(A)

Main Effect B

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Therapist
Controlled Autonomous
(C)

XC,C = 92.71 XA,C 98.75 XC = 94.91
SD = 15.45 SD 15.99 SD = 15.14

n = 7 n 4 n = 11
XC,A = 88.75 XA,A 90.00 XA = 89.29
SD = 8.23 SD 20.07 SD = 13.85
n = 8 n 6 n = 14
XC = 90.60 XA 93.50 X = 91.76
SD = 11.84 SD 18.15 SD = 14.40
n = 15 n 10 n = 25

Figure 4.3.--POI Posttest Means, Standard Deviations,

and Frequencies.

74

The test of Hypothesis III involves an analysis of
covariance, using the POI pretest as the covariate.
Table 4.4 shows the P01 posttest means, and the adjusted

means which will be used in the ANCOVA.

Table 4.4

POI Posttest and Adjusted Means

 

 

 

 

Mean Adjusted Mean
of_POI (using POI-Pre
Variable n Post as Covariate)
Subjects with:
Controlled Imagery 11 94.91 94.18
Autonomous Imagery 14 89.29 89.86
Therapists with:
Controlled Imagery 15 90.60 93.97
Autonomous Imagery 10 93.50 88.45

 

The results of the analysis of covariance are
presented in Table 4.5.

The method of analysis proceeds in a fashion similar
to the analysis of Hypotheses I and II. An inspection of
Table 4.5 indicates that there are no statistically sig-
nificant effects. This translates as neither the

therapist nor the client differ on the amount of gain as

75

 

 

Table 4.5
Results of the ANCOVA on the Adjusted
POI Scores
Source SS df MS F p
Client 113.81 1 113.81 1.02 .32
Therapist 153.12 1 153.12 1.38 .26
Client and 43.38 1 43.38 .39
Therapist
Interaction
Error 2226.97 20 2226.97

 

measured by the POI. It is noted that the scores on both
the pretest and the posttest are in the normal zone
relative to the standard interpretation of the POI.
Because of the lack of statistically significant effects,
the null hypothesis of no difference on the adjusted POI
score between clients with controlled imagery and clients

with autonomous imagery is not rejected.

76

Hypothesis IV

 

There will be no difference in the scores on a
measure related to therapy outcome between indi-
viduals who exhibit controlled visual imagery
and who are also working with a therapist with
controlled visual imagery and individuals with
autonomous visual imagery and who are also
working with a therapist with autonomous visual

imagery.

Ho‘ “C/c = uA/A

Ha‘ “C/c I “A/A

Hypothesis IV uses the mean difference between the
POI pretest and the POI posttest for two specific cells
of Figures 4.2 and 4.3 as the dependent measure. The
relevant cells are (1) clients with controlled imagery
working with therapists with controlled imagery, and
(2) clients with autonomous imagery working with thera-
pists with autonomous imagery. The results of a t-test
for differences between these cells are presented in
Table 4.6.

Table 4.6 shows that there is no significant differ-
ence between the groups of interest on the adjusted mean
scores. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no difference
on the adjusted POI score between controlled clients
working with controlled therapists and autonomous clients
working with autonomous therapists is not rejected.

However, Table 4.6 indicates that there is a notice-

able difference between the two standard deviations.

77

Table 4.6

Results of the t-test on the Adjusted
POI Scores

 

Variable n Y SD t p

 

POI Difference

Controlled client-
Controlled therapist 7 4.57 6.5
1.60 .137
Autonomous client-
Autonomous therapist 6 -9.00 19.6

 

Therefore, an F-test was computed to test the following

hypotheses;

. 2 2
H . o C/C # o

a A/A

The results of this F-test are reported in Table 4.7.
Since an F5,6 value of 5.99 is needed to reject at
the .05 level, it was found that the variances are sig-
nificantly different (F = 9.09). Therefore, the null
hypothesis of no difference on the variance of the
adjusted POI score between controlled clients working
with controlled therapists and autonomous clients working

with autonomous therapists is rejected. It appears that

the group composed of controlled clients and controlled

78

Table 4.7

Results of the F-test on the Adjusted
POI Scores

 

Variable n 82 F p

 

POI Difference

Controlled client-
Controlled therapist 7 42.24
9.09 <.05
Autonomous client-
Autonomous therapist 6 385.16

 

therapists is a tightly clustered group that has adjusted
POI scores in the desired direction, and that the group
composed of autonomous clients and autonomous therapists
has adjusted POI scores that are significantly more
varied and showing a negative direction. The significant
difference in variation may be a factor that contributes
to the lack of significance between the adjusted mean
scores.

Although not of major interest in this study, an
investigation was undertaken to compare the performance
on the POI of clients currently in therapy with the per-
formance of a control group, composed of individuals on
the Michigan State University Counseling Center waiting
list. Table 4.8 shows the results of this investigation.

The t value is not significant (p = .933) which suggests

79

that the experimental and control groups did not differ

in the amount of increase in POI scores.

Table 4.8

Results of the t-test for Differences in
the POI Pretest and the POI Posttest

 

Variable n f SD t p

 

POI Difference

Client group 25 .20 11.41
.09 .93
Control group 18 -.06 6.66

 

However, it is again observed that the standard
deviations of these two groups differ. An F-test was

computed to test the following hypotheses:

HO: 02 clients = 02 control

Ha: 02 clients # 02 control

The results are reported in Table 4.9.

Since an F24’17 value of 2.56 is needed to reject
at the .05 level, it was found that the variances are
significantly different (F = 2.93) at the .05 level.
Therefore, the null hypothesis of no difference on the
variance of the adjusted POI score between the client

group and the control group is rejected. The client

80

Table 4.9

Results of the F-test for Differences in the
POI Pretest and the POI Posttest

 

 

Variable n 82 F p
POI Difference
Client group 25 130.18
2.93 <.05
Control group 18 44.35

 

group has significantly more varied scores, possibly as
a result of the members of the group being in therapy.
It is possible that the significant difference in varia-
tion may contribute to the lack of significance in the
t-test on the adjusted mean scores.

A second finding of interest, although not directly
related to the hypotheses of this study, is the relation-
ship of the Gordon pretest scores and the Gordon posttest
scores of the client group. Table 4.10 indicates that
there is a strong relationship between the Gordon pretest
and posttest scores.

This data lends support to the findings of McKelvie
and Gingras (1974) that the test-retest reliability of
the Gordon Test is quite strong, and that ability to
control visual imagery seems to be consistent over time.

It is reasonable to assume that this measure appears valid.

81

Table 4.10

Correlation Matrix of the Gordon Pretest
and the Gordon Posttest Scores

 

 

Gordon Pretest Gordon Posttest
Gordon Pretest 1.000
Gordon Posttest .911* 1.000

 

Summary of the Hypothesis Testing
Four major hypotheses related to the empirical
investigation of imagery control as it relates to
Extraversion-Introversion, Sensing-Intuition, and
therapeutic outcome were tested. The results of the

hypothesis testing were as follows:

Hypotheses Results

Null Hypothesis I stated that no

difference in ability to control

visual imagery would exist between

individuals who have a tendency to

exhibit Introversion and individuals

who have a tendency to exhibit

Extraversion as a direction of

interest. Not Rejected

Null Hypothesis II stated that no

difference in ability to control

visual imagery would exist between

individuals who have a tendency to

exhibit Intuition and individuals

who have a tendency to exhibit

Sensing as a mode of perception. Rejected

82

Null Hypothesis III stated that no

difference in scores on a measure

related to therapy outcome would

exist between individuals who exhibit

controlled visual imagery and indi-

viduals who exhibit autonomous visual

imagery. Not Rejected

Null Hypothesis IV stated that no

difference in scores on a measure

related to therapy outcome would

exist between individuals who exhibit

controlled visual imagery and who are

also working with a therapist with

controlled imagery and individuals

with autonomous visual imagery and

who are also working with a therapist

with autonomous visual imagery. Not Rejected

In addition to the four major hypotheses, two minor
hypotheses were tested. The results of the hypothesis

testing of the minor hypotheses were as follows:

Hypotheses Results

 

Null Hypothesis V stated that no

difference on the variance of the

adjusted POI score would exist

between controlled clients working

with controlled therapists and

autonomous clients working with

autonomous therapists. Rejected

Null Hypothesis VI stated that no

difference on the variance of the

adjusted POI score would exist

between the client group and the

control group. Rejected

CHAPTER V

DISCUSSION OF THE RESEARCH RESULTS AND

THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

In this chapter, the study is summarized, and con-
clusions drawn from data analyses are explored. A
discussion of implications for future research in the

area of visual imagery control is also presented.

Summary

The purpose of this investigation was to determine
the degree to which the ability to control visual imagery
is related to habitual patterns of behavior as identified
by C. G. Jung's theory of psychological types. An addi-
tional objective was to study the degree to which the
imagery control factor can be related to psychotherapy
outcomecn:improvement as measured by attitude and value
changes.

Literature was reviewed which addressed the area of
imagery in general and the variable of imagery control in
particular. The importance of the control variable with-
in imaginal thought has been widely reported but little

empirical investigation has taken place. Gordon (1949,

83

84

1972) has been one of the few contributors to this area
of knowledge.

Although the relationship of visual imagery control
and specific personality characteristics has been
relatively neglected as an area of research, some studies
have shown that inner-directedness or introversion seems
to be related to the ability to image and control images,
and that extraversion seems to be related to an inability
to control imagery. Other studies have indicated that
imagery may be linked to predominantly right-hemisphere
functioning, which is spacial, intuitive, imaginistic,
and concrete. Imagery and the ability to control imagery
also seem to be evidenced frequently in those persons
labeled "creative."

The use of client imagery was examined across various
schools of psychotherapy and was shown to relate to basic
principles of human information processing and emotion.

A number of therapists and researchers (Gordon, 1972;
Horowitz, 1978; Singer, 1974) asserted that the close-
ness of images to sensory perception can evoke emotional
responses and cognitive processes associated with real
experience; thus enabling release of affect and circum-
venting defensive operations. Therefore, therapeutic
outcome may depend in some measure upon the variable of

imagery control.

85

The primary test of visual imagery control, the
Richardson revision of the Gordon Test of Visual Imagery
Control, was reviewed, as was the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator, and the Personal Orientation Inventory. The
MBTI and the POI were chosen for use in this study because
of their strong theoretical underpinnings and high degree
of reliability. The Gordon Test was selected because it
is the most widely used test of visual imagery control.
Nearly all of the published research on imagery control
has used the Gordon Test as the sole or primary instru-
ment to measure visual imagery control.

The sample for this study consisted of 25 under-
graduate and graduate clients who had requested help with
personal concerns from the staff of the Michigan State
University Counseling Center during the 1979/1980 academic
year. The participating therapists were eight counseling
psychology interns and one staff therapist, all of whom
regularly saw clients at the Center.

The data gathered for the analyses consisted of
scores on the following three instruments: (1) the
Richardson revision of the Gordon Test of Visual Imagery
Control, (2) the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, and (3) the
Personal Orientation Inventory. The Gordon Test, the
MBTI, and the POI were all administered to the Counseling

Center sample as part of a pretest battery. After ten

86

weeks of therapy, posttests, consisting of the Gordon
Test and the POI, were administered.

Three statistical measures were employed: (1) two
univariate analyses of variance where the independent
variables were client MBTI type with two levels (Extra-
version and Introversion) for one analysis and client
MBTI type with two levels (Sensing and Intuition) for the
second analysis of variance; (2) a two-way analysis of
covariance where the independent variable was the client
score on the Gordon Test with two levels (controlled
imagers and autonomous imagers); and (3) a t-test on the
adjusted POI scores (using the POI pretest as the co-
variate) where the independent variables were client
score on the Gordon Test with two levels (controlled
imagers and autonomous imagers) and therapist score on
the Gordon Test with two levels (controlled imagers and

autonomous imagers).

Conclusions and Discussion
Four major conclusions can be drawn on the basis of
the results of the hypotheses tests. First, no relation-
ship was found to exist between the ability to control
visual imagery and the tendency to exhibit Extraversion
or Introversion as a direction of interest. Second,
individuals who had a tendency to exhibit Intuition as

a mode of perception were more likely to exhibit

87

controlled visual imagery than individuals who had a
tendency to exhibit Sensing as a mode of perception.
Third, no relationship was found to exist between client
adjusted scores on the POI and tendency to exhibit either
controlled or autonomous visual imagery. Finally, no
relationship was found to exist between adjusted scores
on the POI and the pairing of clients with therapists of
similar imagery type.

The major findings of this study will be discussed
under the following sections: (1) Visual Imagery Control
and Direction of Interest, (2) Visual Imagery Control and
Perceptual Mode, and (3) Visual Imagery Control and
Therapeutic Outcome.

Visual Imagery Control and
Direction of Interest

 

In reviewing the literature on individual differ-
ences and their effect on imagery, it was noted that
individuals who were defined as introverts (Costello,
1957; Sullivan, 1956) seemed to be more able to visualize
images and control those images than were those indi-
viduals classified as extraverts. More recent research
(Bakan, 1978; Meskin & Singer, 1974) has found that
inner-attentive subjects were more likely to be right-
hemisphere dominant, and therefore more visually imagi-

nistic than other—attentive subjects.

88

The present study, however, found that no relation-
ship seems to exist between the ability to control visual
imagery and the dimension of Extraversion-Introversion as
defined by Jungian theory and the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator. This apparent contradiction, however, has a
possible explanation. The early studies of Costello
utilized a largely neurotic or psychotic population, so
that introversion was linked to obsessive-compulsive
tendencies and extraversion was linked to hysteria.

The Extraversion-Introversion dimension of Jung has
quite a different emphasis, however; both dimensions are
seen as basically healthy, and that while each individual
has the capability for using either polarity, most people
have a tendency to exhibit one or the other as a pre-
ferred mode. It may be that the MBTI measures a qualita-
tively different construct than either the previously
defined introversion-extraversion dimension of Costello
and Eysenck or the inner-attentive/other-attentive
paradigm used by hemispheric lateralization researchers.
Visual Imagery Control
and Perceptual Mode

A review of the pertinent literature (Dimond &
Beaumont, 1974; Kinsbourne & Smith, 1974) showed that
right-hemisphere dominant people are intuitive, imaginis-

tic, and oriented toward primary process. Individuals

89

who are left-hemisphere dominant, on the other hand, tend
to be rational, analytic, and oriented toward secondary
process. Other studies (Holt & Goldberger, 1959; Foulkes,
Spear & Symonds, 1966) show that imagery is likely to be
found in persons who have the most creative potential.

The research seemed to establish a tentative link between
an intuitive, creative approach and the ability to form
mental imagery.

In research conducted using the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator, Intuitors were more likely than Sensors to be
rated as imaginative (Ross, 1961), which was consistent
with McKinnon's findings (1966) that over 90% of the
creative arChitects, research scientists, and mathema-
ticians in one study were Intuitors.

The present study found that a relationship does
exist between the ability to control visual imagery and
the dimensions of Sensing and Intuition. It would appear
that this collaborative evidence strengthens the view
that intuitive types, as measured by the MBTI, form and
control visual imagery more readily than do sensing types.

Visual Imagery Control and
Therapeutic Outcome

 

Literature was reviewed that indicated that the use
of imagery is prevalent across many schools of psycho-
therapy and that the control of imagery is an important

factor in the ability of a client to cognitively and

90

affectively access certain material (Gordon, 1972;
Horowitz, 1978; Singer, 1974). Although much recent
research has centered on the imagery phenomenon (Singer,
1974), very few studies have looked at the possible
impact of imagery or imagery control within the ongoing
therapeutic process.

The length of the therapy process itself has been
the subject of much recent intensive study. In a review
of nearly 400 controlled evaluations of psychotherapy and
counseling, Smith and Glass (1977) found that the correla-
tion between the duration of therapy in hours and the
final outcome was nearly zero, -.02. In other words,
they stated that virtually no difference in effectiveness
was observed between various short-term modalities and
longer—term therapies.

The Personal Orientation Inventory, a measure of
self-actualization, was used in this study to determine
therapeutic outcome. Validity statistics, and the
internal consistency and test-retest reliability figures
of the POI had been found to be acceptable; and numerous
studies had shown the sensitivity of the POI to changes
resulting from psychotherapy (Cooper, 1971; Shostrom &
Knapp, 1966; Young & Jacobson, 1970).

This study found that no relationship existed between
client adjusted scores on the POI and the tendency to

exhibit either controlled or autonomous visual imagery.

91

In other words, clients with controlled visual imagery
showed no measurable evidence of greater growth in therapy
than did clients with autonomous imagery.

Several factors contribute to the discussion of this
finding. First, the POI was used as the sole measurement
of therapeutic outcome. It is entirely possible that
significant differences between the two imagery groups
were not detected by this instrument based on Maslow's
self-actualization model. Perhaps a variation between
sets of scores might have been picked up by a different
instrument or set of instruments.

Second, factors not controlled for in this study may
have reduced the possibility of finding any differences
between the two groups. For instance, because of the
relatively small size of the sample, the sex of subject
was not controlled for in the research design. Singer
(1974) suggested that women have more vivid imagery than
men; if we conjecture that women might also have more
controlled imagery, perhaps there would be a sex differ—
ence in the relationship of visual imagery control and
therapeutic outcome.

This study also found that no relationship exists
between adjusted scores on the POI and the pairing of
clients with therapists of similar imagery type. The
t-test for mean differences on the adjusted POI scores

revealed no significant difference; however, an F-test on

92

the variances of the two matched (controlled-controlled,
autonomous-autonomous) groups revealed that the variances
were significantly different. This difference in vari-
ance may, in part, account for the lack of significance
in the testing of the adjusted mean scores.

An examination of Table 4.6 shows that the con-
trolled clients working with controlled therapists tended
to have POI scores in the positive direction and that
this group as a whole had scores that were fairly tightly
packed. Autonomous clients working with autonomous
therapists, on the other hand, had scores in the negative
direction; the group as a whole showed a wide variance in
scores. This latter group may have demonstrated a trend
toward negative POI score direction because of the match-
ing factor on autonomous visual imagery. Perhaps if the
two matched groups had had similar variance scores, a
significant difference in the adjusted POI mean scores

might have resulted from the hypothesis testing.

Limitations

 

One of the most evident limitations of this study
is its reliance upon self-report instruments for gather-
ing information about the subjects. All three instru-
ments utilized this method, and the opportunity that
subjects had to manipulate their scores was sufficient
to require that interpretations of the results be made

with caution.

93

A related limitation is one which is practically
unavoidable when conducting research with human subjects.
That is the problem of ultimate reliance upon the willing-
ness of people to volunteer their participation. There
is no acturate method to determine whether those who were
contacted and who failed to come in for testing did so
because of any differences on the imagery control con-
tinuum or not. A conservative assumption is that the
pool of subjects who finally agreed to participate was
not a purely random sample of the Counseling Center popu-
lation from which they were drawn.

A third set of limitations lies within the nature of
the instruments used in this study. The Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator's ipsative scoring system makes it impos-
sible to discriminate between a person who has a limited
response repetoire and can only utilize one function
effectively (e.g., Sensing) and a person who has a full
range of options available but still has a strong pre-
ference for one function. In addition, the limited range
of dimensions on the MBTI renders most current statistical
tests relatively powerless to detect statistically sig-
nificant differences.

The Gordon Test, while the most widely used of the
imagery control assessment tests, has been quite sparsely
researched. However, if the assumption is made that self—

report information on imagery control is indeed related

94

to corresponding conceptual properties, close attention
must be paid to the problems of validity and reliability.
While some supportive evidence (Juhasz, 1972; MCKelvie &
Gingras, 1974) has been reviewed in this study, it is
necessary to question if reliability data might not
result from the operation of one or more response sets
and the validity data from the presence of some corre—
lated cognitive or temperament factors (Richardson,
1929). Even if it could be established that scores on
the Gordon are an accurate reflection of the imagery
experienced by a subject, it would still be an advantage
if equivalent methods of measuring imagery control,
objectively, could be found.

Although the extensive reliability and validity
data on the Personal Orientation Inventory are comparable
to the majority of available personality measures, the
separate constructs proposed to measure the more global
phenomenon of self-actualization are not yet correlated
with specific behaviors described by Maslow (1971) that
are characteristic of self-actualized people. As was the
case with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Gordon
Test, the POI as a self—report instrument is also sub-
ject to limitations due to possible response distortions
and inaccuracies that are both intentional and uninten-

tional, consciously and unconsciously motivated.

95

The complexity of studying the nature of imagery is
in itself a significant limitation. It is important to
note that factors such as response sets and cognitive
aspects of mental processing may contribute to the forma-
tion and control of various types of imagery. It is
possible that self-report measures, however reliable, may
not adequately tap the intrinsic function of imagery

formation.

Suggestions for Further Research

In general, this study shows that there may be a
positive relationship between the control of visual
imagery and the tendency to exhibit Intuition as a mode
of perception. It is hoped that this study will add to
and encourage more research in the area of imagery and
its relationship to individual differences. To enhance
and expand upon the findings from the present investiga-

tion, suggestions for future research will now be made.

1. Since the results of this study are generaliz-
able only to similar pepulations, it would be valuable
to conduct further research using differing socio-
economic and educational levels, ethnic groups, and age
groups.

2. All three of the instruments used in the study
were self-report instruments. The usefulness and verac-

ity of these measures were contingent upon the subjects'

96

abilities to respond honestly and accurately. The MBTI
and the POI have been widely researched measures; how-
ever, since relatively few studies have been conducted
on the Gordon, further research efforts should be
directed toward improving and developing reliable and
valid measures of visual imagery control. The study
should then be replicated using these improved and more
effective instruments.

3. The POI measures a range of values and attitudes
relating to self actualization, one indicator of thera-
peutic progress. It would be advantageous to use several
measures of therapeutic progress to ascertain client
change and growth.

4. This study investigated visual imagery control
within a ten-therapy-session time frame. Additional
studies should examine the relationship of individual
differences and the control of imagery over a longer
period of time. Such studies might help clarify how
imagery usage occurs in different stages of therapy.

5. It may be beneficial to conduct intensive
studies of single cases in which specific and varied
individual differences as well as additional measures
of both imagery control and therapeutic outcome can be

more fully examined.

97

6. Since some evidence points to the fact that
women may have more vivid imagery than men, it would be
advantageous to replicate this study using separate

samples of male clients and female clients.

In conclusion, our understanding of the effects of
individual differences on visual imagery control is in
its beginning stages. Equally nascent is our understand-
ing of the degree to which the control factor may be
related to psychotherapy outcome or improvement. While
this investigation does suggest that Intuitors have
greater control of their visual imagery than Sensors,
further research will be of significant value in clarify-
ing this relationship and exploring more fully the impact

of personality variables upon imagery control.

APPENDICES

98

APPENDIX A

LETTER ACCOMPANYING PRETEST FORMS

99

APPENDIX A

LETTER ACCOMPANYING PRETEST FORMS

October 15, 1979

Thank you for your participation in this research
project. The attached forms include a consent form and
an imagery control inventory. The two other inventories
which will be given to you are the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) and the Personal Orientation Inventory
(POI). After you have completed all three inventories
and signed the consent form, please return them to the
person at the testing office desk.

I will be contacting you in about 10 weeks for a
retake of the short imagery control inventory and the
POI. At that time, if you wish, I would be glad to
interpret your results on these inventories for you.
Your scores, of course, will be kept completely confi-
dential.

Thanks again for your cooperation!

Melissa Crider Andrea
Intern
Counseling Center

100

APPENDIX B

CONSENT FORM

101

APPENDIX B

CONSENT FORM

I have freely consented to take part in a scientific
study being conducted by Melissa Crider Andrea under
the supervision of Dr. Don E. Hamachek, Professor,
College of Education.

The study has been explained to me and I understand
the explanation that has been given and what my
participation will involve.

I understand that I am free to discontinue my
participation in the study at any time and that this
would not affect the status of my counseling at the
Counseling Center.

I understand that the results of the study will be
treated in strict confidence and that I will remain
anonymous. Within these restrictions, results of
the study will be made available to me at my request.

I understand that my participation in the study does
not guarantee any beneficial results to me.

I understand that, at my request, I can receive

additional explanation of the study after my
participation is completed.

Signed

 

Date

 

102

APPENDIX C

RICHARDSON REVISION OF THE GORDON TEST

OF VISUAL IMAGERY CONTROL

103

APPENDIX C

RICHARDSON REVISION OF THE GORDON TEST
OF VISUAL IMAGERY CONTROL

Read each question, then close your eyes while you try to
visualize the scene described. Record your answers by
underlining "Yes," No" or "Unsure," whichever is the most

appropriate. Remember that your accurate and honest

answer to these questions is most important for the
validity of this study. If you have any doubts at all
regarding the answer to a question, underline "Unsure."

Please be certain that you answer each of the twelve

questions.

1. Can you see a car standing in the Yes No Unsure
road in front of a house?
2. Can you see it in color? Yes No Unsure
3. Can you now see it in a different Yes No Unsure
color?
4. Can you see the same car lying Yes No Unsure
upside down?
5. Can you now see the same car back Yes No Unsure
on its four wheels again?
6. Can you see the car running along Yes No Unsure
the road?
7. Can you see it climb up a very Yes No Unsure
steep hill?
8. Can you see it climb over the top? Yes No Unsure
9. Can you see it get out of control Yes No Unsure
and crash through a house?
10. Can you now see the same car running Yes No Unsure
along the road with a handsome
couple inside?
11. Can you see the car cross a bridge Yes No Unsure
and fall over the side into the
stream below?
12. Can you see the car all old and Yes No Unsure

dismantled in a car-cemetery?

104

APPENDIX D

LETTER ACCOMPANYING POSTTEST FORMS

105

APPENDIX D

LETTER ACCOMPANYING POSTTEST FORMS

January, 1980

Thank you again for your participation in this
research project. It would be helpful to me if you would
fill out this data form, along with completing the Gordon
Test and the Personal Orientation Inventory.

1. Age

 

2. Sex

 

3. School standing

 

 

(freshman = 1)

(sophomore = 2)

(junior = 3)

(senior = 4)

(graduate = 5)

4. Major

Please check this box if you would like I—-w
feedback on your results. If you so indicate, __J

 

 

I'll be getting back to you in a few weeks to
set up a time.

Melissa Andrea

106

 

APPENDIX E

FIRST PROCEDURAL MEMO TO THERAPISTS

107

APPENDIX E

FIRST PROCEDURAL MEMO TO THERAPISTS

Thanks so much for helping me out on my dissertation.
I would appreciate it if you would now begin asking clients
if I might contact them about participating in the
resarch project. Feel free to explain as much or as little
as you wish about their role in the project itself. My
main concern is your obtaining their permission for me to
call them with more information. Their agreement to be
contacted will in no way obligate them to participate.

If your clients desire, and you are agreeable, I can
offer them an interpretation of their.Myers-Briggs Type
Inventory and Personal Orientation Inventory scores after
the data collection is complete.

I am including a packet of cards with my name on
them. Please give one to each client who is agreeable to
being contacted. This will help them remember who I am
and what I am contacting them about. At the risk of
insulting your memory, I've enclosed the cards in a packet
that will fit nicely--and visibly--on the table in your
office. If you're in two buildings during the week, I'll
enclose two sets of packets.

Please list the clients willing to participate on
the enclosed card and periodically let me know what the
names and phone numbers are (perhaps via my mailbox at
SSB). If it would be easier for you, you could call the
information to Maxine at Olin (355-4510, ext. 221). She
will keep a central list for me.

I'm hoping to complete data collection for the pre-
test period within the next two weeks; therefore, your
promptness in bringing this research project to the
attention of your clients and relaying their names to me
is essential. Again, thanks for your cooperation and
participation.

108

APPENDIX F

SECOND PROCEDURAL MEMO TO THERAPISTS

109

APPENDIX F

SECOND PROCEDURAL MEMO TO THERAPISTS

I completed the pretesting of all clients participat-
ing in my study before Thanksgiving and within the next
few weeks will be administering the posttests. I want
to thank you again for your help and cooperation in this
research effort. Of the clients whom you referred to
me, the individuals who agreed to participate are:

I have offered feedback to them on their test scores.
If both you and your client wish, I would be happy to give
you the scores to go over together. Otherwise, I'm plan-
ning to set up times (after the post-testing is completed)
in which I will give individual feedback to those clients
who request it. Please just let me know if you want to
use the first option of interpreting the results yourself
to your client(s).

110

 

APPENDIX G

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR TYPE TABLE
FOR 25 CLIENTS PARTICIPATING

IN THE STUDY

111

APPENDIX G

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR TYPE TABLE FOR
25 CLIENTS PARTICIPATING IN THE STUDY

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SENSORS INTUITERS
E = 11, 44%

T J I N F J T J I = 14' 56%
4 =3 1 gs=11,44%
l6 %=12 4 ;N =14, 56%
ET =12, 48%

TP INFP TpaF=13,52%
1 = 1 1 a: J = 19, 76%
4 % = 4 4 IJ = 10, 40%
IP = 4, 16%

EP = 2, 8%

T P E N F P T P EJ = 9’ 36%
1 =1 §3T= 8,32%
4 % = 4 'a SP = 3, 12%
§NF=10,40%

§NT=4,16%

TJ ENJF TJgSJ= 8,32%
2 = 5 ‘” SP = 3, 12%
_ NP = 3, 12%

% ' 2° 8 NJ = 11, 44%

TJ = 9, 36%

TP = 3, 12%

FP = 3, 12%

FJ = 10, 40%

(Form adapted from University of Florida, Typology
Laboratory)

112

APPENDIX H

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR TYPE TABLE
FOR 9 THERAPISTS PARTICIPATING

IN THE STUDY

113

APPENDIX H

MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR TYPE TABLE FOR
9 THERAPISTS PARTICIPATING IN THE STUDY

 

 

 

 

 

SENSORS INTUITORS
I S T J I S F F J N T
N: = l =
% = % = 11 =
I S T P I S F F P N T
= = 1 =
% = % = 11 =
E S T P E S F F P N T
= N= 2 = 3
% = % = 22 = 33
E S T J E S F F J N T
N = = 1 = 1
% = % = 11 = 11

 

 

 

 

 

SLHHAOHINI

SLHHAVHLXE

(Form adapted from University of Florida, Typology
Laboratory)

11

4

78%
22%

11%
89%

44%
56%

33%
67%

11%
11%
56%
22%

0%
12%
44%
44%

11%
11%
56%
22%

12%
33%
33%
22%

LIST OF REFERENCES

115

LIST OF REFERENCES

Arieti, A. Creativity: the magic synthesis. New York:
Basic Books, Inc., 1976.

Aylwin, S. The structure of visual and kinesthetic
imagery: a free association study. British Journal
of Psychology, 1977, 68, 353-360.

 

Bakan, P. Two streams of consciousness: a typological
approach. In K. S. Pepe & J. L. Singer (Eds.),
The Stream of Consciousness. New York: The Plenum
Press, 1978.

Barber, T. X. LSD, marihuana, yoga, and hypnosis.
Chicago: Aldine, 1970.

Barron, F. Creativity andypsychological health. Princeton:
Van Nostrand, 1963.

Bliss, E. L., & Clark, L. D. Visual hallucinations. In
L. J. West (Ed.), Hallucinations. New York: Grune
& Stratton, 1962.

Broadbent, D. E. Perception and communication. New York:
Pergamon, 1958.

Broadway, C. M. Personality correlates of imagery
ability. (Doctoral dissertation, Texas Tech.
University, 1971). University Microfilms No. 72-10,
339.

Bradway, K. Jung's psychological types: classification
by test versus classification by self. Journal of
Analytical Psychology, 1964, 2, 129-135.

 

Brooks, L. R. Suppression of visualization by reading.
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1967,
12, 289-299.

Campbell, D. T., 8 Stanley, J. C. Experimental and quasi-
experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand
McNally, 1963.

116

117

Carlyn, M. An assessment of the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator. Journal of Personality Assessment, 1977,
31 (5), 461-473.

 

Cohn, A. A. Attitude change and social influence. New
York: Basic Books, 1964.

 

Cornfield, J., & Tukey, J. W. Average values of mean
squares in factorials. Annals of Mathematical
Statistics, 1956, 21, 907-949.

 

 

Costello, C. G. The control of visual imagery in mental
disorder. Journal of Mental Science, 1957, 103,
840-849.

 

Cronbach, L. J. Essentials of psychological testing
(3rd Ed.). New York: Harper & Row, 1970.

 

Damm, V. J. Overall measures of self-actualization derived
from the Personal Orientation Inventory: A replica—
tion and refinement study. Educational and Psycho-
logical Measurement, 1972, 32, 485-489.

 

 

Euse, F. J., & Henry, J. N. Clarity, controllability, and
emotional intensity of image: correlations with
introversion, neuroticism, and subjective anxiety.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1975, 59, 443-447.

 

Eysenck, H. J. The dynamics of anxiety and hysteria.
London: RoutIédge & Kegan Paul, 1957.

Dimond, S. J., & Beaumont, J. G. (Eds.). Hemisphere func-
tion in the human brain. New York: Halstead Press,
1974.

 

Foulkes, D., Spear, P. S., & Symonds, J. D. Individual
differences in mental activity at sleep onset.
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1966, 11, 280-286.

Freedman, S. J., & Marks, P. A. Visual imagery produced
by rhythmic photic stimulation: personality corre-
lates and phenomenology. British Journal of
Psychology, 1965, 56, 95-112?

 

Galton, F. Inguiries into human_faculty and its deve10p-
ment. New York: Dutton & Co., 1907.

Ghiselin, B. (Ed.). The creative process. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1952.

118

Gordon, R. An investigation into some of the factors
that favour the formation of stereotyped images.
British Journal of Psychology: 1949, 39, 156-167.

 

Gordon, R. A. An experiment correlating the nature of
imagery with performance on a test of reversal of
perSpective. British Journal of Psychology, 1950,
31, 63-67.

 

Gordon, R. A very private world. In P. W. Sheehan (Ed.).
The function and nature of imagery. New York:
Academic Press, 1972.

 

Gordon, R. The creative process: self-expression and
self-transcendence. In S. Jennings (Ed.), Creative
Therapy. London: Pitman Publishing, 1975.

Granit, R. Receptors and sensory perception. New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1955:

 

Gray, H., & Wheelwright, J. B. Jung's psychological
types, their frequency of occurrence. Journal of
General Psychology, 1946, 33, 3-17.

 

 

Gur, R. E., & Gur, R. C. Defense mechanisms, psychoso-
matic symptomatology and conjugate lateral eye move-
ments. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,
1975, 1;, 416-420.

Hammer, E. F. Imagery: the artistic style in the thera-
pist's communications. Art Psychotherapy, 1975, 2,
225-231.

Hebb, D. O. The American revolution. American Psycholo-
gist, 1960, 15, 735-745.

Hilgard, E. R. Hypnotic susceptibility. New York:
Harcourt, Brace, 1965.

Hiscock, M., & Cohen, D. B. Visual imagery and dream
recall. Journal of Research in Personality, 1973,
1, 179-188.

Hoffman, J. L. Personality relationships between super-
vising teachers and student teachers as determined
by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Doctoral dis-
sertation, University of Florida, 1974). Disserta-
tion Abstracts International, 1975, 36, 830A-831A.
(University Microfilms No. 75-16, 3937.

119

Holt, R. R. Imagery: the return of the ostracized.
American Psychologist, 1964, 33, 254-264.

 

Holt, R. R. On the nature and generality of mental
imagery. In P. Sheehan (Ed.), The function and
nature of imagery. New York: Academic Press, 1972.

 

 

Holt, R. R., & Goldberger, L. Personological correlates
of reactions to perceptual iSolation. WADC Tech.
Rep. 59-753. Ohio: Wfight-Patterson A.F.B., 1959.

 

 

Horowitz, M. J. Image formation and cognition. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1978.

 

Hovland, C., & Janis, J. (Eds.). Personality and per-
suasibility. New Haven: Yale University Press,
1959.

 

 

Hubel, D. H., & Wiesel, T. N. Receptive fields, binocular
interaction, and functional architecture in the cat's
visual cortex. Journal of Physiology, 1962, 160,
196-154.

 

Hudson, L. Contrary imaginations. London: Penguin,
1966.

 

Juhasz, J. B. On the reliability of two measures of
imagery. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1972, 33, 874.

 

Jung, C. G. Psychological types. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul,—l923.

 

Khatena, J. Relationship of autonomous imagery and crea-
tive self-perceptions. Perceptual and Motor Skills,
1975, 33, 357-358.

Kinsbourne, M., & Smith, W. L. (Eds.). Hemispheric dis-
connection and cerebral function. Springfield, 111.:
Charles C. Thomas, 1974.

Klinger, E. Structure and function of fantasy. New York:
John Wiley and Sons, 1970.

Knapp, P. H. Image, symbol, and person. Archives of
General Psychiatry, 1969, 33, 392.

 

Knapp: R. R. Handbook for the Personal Orientation

Inventor . San Diego, Calif.: EDITS PEBIisHers,
1976.

120

Kfilpe, O. Uber die objectiverung und subjectivirung von
sinneseindrucken. Philosophioche Studien, 1902, 33,
508-556.

 

Levy, N., Murphy, C., Jr., & Carlson, R. Personality
types among Negro college students. Education and
Psychological Measurement, 1972, 33, 641-653.

 

 

MacKinnon, D. W. The nature and nuture of creative talent.
In D. Byrne & M. L. Hamilton (Eds.), Personality
research. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
1966.

Madison, P., Wilder, D. H., & Suddiford, W. B. The Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator in academic counseling
(Statistical Research Report No. 13). Princeton,
N.J.: Princeton University, Counseling Service,
July, 1963.

Maslow, A. H. The farther reaches of human nature. New
York: The Viking Press,‘I971.

McCaulley, M. H., & Natter, F. L. Psychological type dif-
ferences in education. In F. L. Natter, & S. A.
Rollin (Eds.), The Governog's task force on disrgp-
tivegyouth. Tallahassee, Fla.: Office of the
Governor, 1974.

 

McKeller, P. Imagination and thinkigg. New York: Basic
Books, 1957.

McKelvie, S. J., & Gingras, P. P. Reliability of two
measures of visual imagery. Perceptual and Motor
Skills, 1974, 32, 417-418.

Mendelsohn, G. A. Review of the Myers-Briggs Type Indi-
cator. In 0. K. Buros (Ed.), Sixth Mental Measure-
ments Yearbook (3rd Ed.). Highland Park, N.J.:
Gryphon Press, 1965.

 

Meskin, B., & Singer, J. L. Daydreaming, reflective
thought and laterality of eye-movements. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 1974, 32, 64-71.

Myers, I. B. The Myers-Briggs Type_3ndicator manual.
Princeton, N.J.: *Educational Testing Service, 1962.

Nebes, R. D. Hemispheric specialization in commissuroto-
mized man. Psychological Bulletin, 1974, 33, 1-14.

121

Overall, J. E., & Klett, C. J. Applied multivariate
analysis. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc., 1972}

 

Paivio, A. Imagery and language. In S. J. Segal (Ed.),
Imagery: Current Cognitive Approaches. New York:
Academic Press, 1971?

 

Perky, C. W. An experimental study of imagination.
American Journal of Psychology, 1910, 33, 422-452.

Pinard, W. J. Spontaneous imagery: its nature, thera-
peutic value, and effect on personality structure.
Boston University Graduate Journal, 1957, 3, 150-153.

Price, A. D. Subjects' control of imagery, "agents'"
mood, and position effects in a dual-target ESP
experiment. The Journal of Parapsychology, 1973,
33, 298-322.

Ratliff, F. Mach bands: qual3tative studies on neural
networks in the retina. San FranciSco: Holden Day,
1965.

 

Rawlings, E. E., & Rawlings, I. L. Rotary pursuit track-
ing following mental rehearsal as a function of
voluntary control of visual imagery. Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 1974, 33, 302.

 

Reese, H. W. Implications of mnemonic research for cogni-
tive theory. Paper read at Southeastern Conference
on Research in Child Development. Athens, Georgia,
1970.

Reyher, J. Free imagery: an uncovering procedure.
Journal of Clinical Psychology) 1963, 33, 454-459.

Richardson, A. Unpublished data, 1966.

Richardson, A. Mental imagegy. New York: Springer, 1969.

 

Richardson, A. Voluntary control of the memory image.
In P. Sheehan (Ed.), The function and nature of

imagery. New York: Academic Press, 1972.

Rohwer, W. D., Jr. Images and pictures in children's
learning. Psychological Bulletin, 1970, 33, 72-80.

Ross, J. Progress report of the co3lege student character-
istics study (ETS RM 61-11). Princeton, N.J.:
Educational Testing Service, 1961.

 

 

122

Ross, J. The relationship between a Jungian personality
inventory and tests of ability, personality, and
interest. Australian Journal of Psychology, 1966,
18, 1-17.

 

Ross, W. D., & Knapp, F. T. A technique for self analysis
of countertransference. Journal of the American
Psychoanalytic Association, 1962, 33, 643.

 

 

Saunders, D. R. Evidence bearigg on the existence of a
rational correspondence’between the personality
typologies of Spranger and Jung_TETS RB 60- -6).
Princeton, N. J.: Educational Testing Service, 1960.

 

 

 

Seamon, J. Coding and retrieval processes and the hemi-
spheres of the brain. In S. J. Dimond, & J. G.
Beaumont (Eds.), Hemisphere function in the human
brain. London: Paul Elek, 1973.

Segal, S. J. Imagery and perception. In S. J. Segal
(Ed.), Imagery: current cognitive gpproaches. New
York: Academic Press, 1971.

 

Segal, S. J. Assimilation of a stimulus in the construc-
tion of an image: the Perky effect revisited. In
P. W. Sheehan (Ed.), The function and nature of
imagery. New York: Academic Press, 1972.

Segal, S. J., & Nathan, S. The Perky effect: incorpora-
tion of an external stimulus into an imagery experi-
ence under placebo and control conditions. Percep-
tual and Motor Skills, 1964, 33, 385-395.

 

Sheehan, P. W. Accuracy and vividness of visual images.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 1966, 33, 391-398.

Shostrom, E. L. Personal Orientation Inventory. San
Diego: Educational and Industrial Testing Service,
1963.

Shostrom, E. L. A test for the measurement of self-
actualization. Educational and Psychological Measure-

Shostrom, E. L., Knapp, L. F., & Knapp: R. R. Actualizing
therapygr Foundation for a scientific ethic. San
Diego: Educational and Industrial Test1ng Service,
1976.

123

Singer, J. L. Daydreaming. New York: Random House,
1966.

 

Singer, J. L. The child's world of make-believe:
experimental studies of imaginative play. New York:
Academic Press, 1973.

 

 

Singer, J. L. Imagepy and daydream methods in_psycho-
therapy and behaVior modificatiOn. New York:
Academic Press, 1974.

 

 

Smith, M. L., & Glass, G. V. Meta-analysis of psycho-
therapy outcome studies. American Psychologist,
1977, 752-760.

 

Stalcup, D. L. An investigation of personality character-
istics of college students who do participate and
those who do not participate in campus activities
(Doctoral dissertation, Auburn University, 1967).
Dissertation Abstracts, 1968, 33, 4452A-4453A.
(University Microfilms No. 68-5897).

 

Stricker, L. J., & Ross, J. A description and evaluation
of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (ETS RB 62-6).
Princeton, N. J.: Educational Testing Service, 1962.

 

Stricker, L. J., & Ross, J. Intercorrelations and
reliability of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
scales. Psychological Reports, 1963, 33, 287-293.

 

Stricker, L. J., & Ross, J. An assessment of some
structural properties of the Jungian personality
typology. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,
1964, 33, 62-71. iTa)

Stricker, L. J., & Ross, J. Some correlates of a Jungian
personality inventory. Psychological Reports, 1964,
33, 623-643. (b)

Stricker, L. J., Schiffman, H., & Ross, J. Predictions
of college performance with the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator. Educational and Psychological Measure-
ment, 1965, 33, 1081-1095.

Strupp, H. H. Specific vs. non-specific factors in
psychology and the problem of control. Archives of
General Psychiatry, 1970, 33, 393-401.

 

Sullivan, H. S. Clinical studies in psychiatry. New
York: Norton, 1956.

124

Tauber, E. S., & Green, M. G. Prelogical experience.
New York: Basic Books, 1959.

Tosi, E. S., & Lindamood, C. A. The measurement of self-
actualization: a critical review of the Personal
Orientation Inventory. Journal of Personality
Assessment, 1975, 33, 215-224.

 

Vernon, J. A. Inside the black room. London: Clarkson
N. Potter, Inc., 1963.

 

Webb, S. C. An analysis of the scoring system of the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Educational and Psycho-
logical Measurement, 1964, 33, 765-781.

 

Wolpe, J. Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition.
Stanford, CalifTE Stanford UniVersity Press, 1958.

Wright, J. A. The relationship of rated administrator and
teacher effectiveness to personality as measured by
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Claremont Graduate School,
1966.

"ITfliii'flnllliflllflfllfllflfl'TS