--‘ ‘- ~§ ~n.

ABSTRACT

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR A HUMANISTIC
PHYSICAL EDUCATION CURRICULUM
IN HIGHER EDUCATION

By Jean Carol McIntyre

It was the purpose of this study to develOp a con—
ceptual structure for a humanistic physical education
curriculum in higher education and to translate that struc-
ture into program designs for Michigan State University.

An examination of the foundations for curriculum develop-
ment (the purposes of higher education, the needs and
develOpmental tasks of the students, and an historical per-
spective and present view of physical education in higher
education) led to the conclusion that the organization of
the content of physical education around the values inherent
in purposeful physical activity in relation to human be-
havior and around the developmental tasks of the college
student was an effective basis from which to design the
program. A theoretical conception of purposeful physical
activity led to the conceptual structure for designing a
humanistic physical education curriculum in higher education.

Three program designs were projected for the instruc-
tional program in physical education at Michigan State Uni-
versity. The designs were derived from the conceptual
structure, descriptive information of the instructional

environment at Michigan State University, the current status

Jean Carol McIntyre

of the physical education program at Michigan State Uni-
versity, and of the university's students.

Within the context of the thesis developed in this
study, the following conclusions are made:

1. A conceptual structure is derived from the theo-
retical position one holds concerning the role of purposeful
physical activity for the development of man in contemporary
society.

2. The content of physical education concerns physi-
cal activity and human movement in its variety of forms and
its effect on the individual in his environmental setting.

3. Organizing the physical education into a compre-
hensible humanistic structure is postulated to be an effec—
tive way to present the content of physical education to
the students who need to acquire concepts and generaliza-
tions of the purpose and function of physical activity in
relation to human behavior and who need to develop skills
and values to c0pe with the environment and successfully
meet the problems and accomplish the tasks of attaining
reSponsible adulthood.

4. There are many ways to structure the knowledge of
physical activity and human movement for curriculum devel-
opment in higher education. The conceptual framework
develOped here is intended as an initial step in describing
the humanistic foundations for a physical education program

in higher education.

Jean Carol McIntyre

5. A program design for a particular university
setting can be derived from the conceptual structure.
However, each university must establish its own design for
programming curricular experiences based on the specific
needs of the institution, its organization and resources,
and its students.

6. Scientific evidence supporting this conceptual
structure is sketchy and more often non-existent in rela-
tion to justifying and/or explaining subjective and affec-
tive learning. Such is true in any subject matter area.

A humanistic concept for curriculum develOped on the basis
of one investigator's personal philosophy and conviction
is undoubtedly on shaky and trembling ground.

7. A design for planning a curriculum that allows
personal feeling, worth and value to be the focus
in learning, is of great necessity in this scien-
tifically and technologically oriented world. This con-
viction has become even more entrenched through the
development of this study.

8. From this humanistic perSpective, physical edu-
cators who concern themselves primarily with the totally
human form of behavior-~purposeful human movement which is
both unique to each person and yet common to all mankind—-
are faced with the task of develOping, implementing, and
evaluating such programs. This is the challenge to the pro-

fession if the values inherent in purposeful physical

Jean Carol McIntyre

activity are to have meaning and significance to man and
if they are to enrich man's existence.

The conceptual structure for designing a humanistic
physical education curriculum in higher education and the
proposed program designs which have been created are not
intended as a final statement of authority, nor are they
intended as the only pattern for designing a curriculum.
Certain considerations, choices of values, and philOSOphies
of the person or persons making curriculum decisions will
make some deveIOpments and elements seem of greater worth
than others. It is well recognized that data derived from
all the sources must be sifted through value criteria
established by those shaping the curriculum.

It is recommended that the procedures outlined for
the implementation and evaluation of the selected curriculum
design for Michigan State University be employed. It is sug-
gested that the implementation and evaluation be done by:

l. creating an awareness of a need for curriculum

change.

2. developing'dm program on an experimental basis.

3. instigating the new curriculum accompanied by

a design for total program evaluation.
4. using the results of the evaluation to increase

the effectiveness of the program.

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR A HUMANISTIC
PHYSICAL EDUCATION CURRICULUM

IN HIGHER EDUCATION

By

Jean Carol McIntyre

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation
1966

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express sincere appreciation
and gratitude to all the members of the doctoral committee.
To Dr. Janet A. Wessel, chairman of the committee, I wish
to extend sincere thanks for her continued assistance, en-
couragement, and invaluable guidance throughout the devel-
opment of this study. To Dr. Wayne Van Huss, I wish to
extend gratitude for his generous attention and valuable
contribution in the preparation of this thesis. To
Dr. Charles F. Schuller and Dr. Colby Lewis, I wish to ex-
press my indebtedness for their continued interest, assist-

ance, and cooperation.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
LIST OF TABLES.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION.

The Challenge of Curriculum Change

Physical Education's Response to New
Curriculum Development . . .

Statement of the Problem.

Scope of the Study.

PART I. A CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE FOR A
HUMANISTIC PHYSICAL EDUCATION
CURRICULUM IN HIGHER
EDUCATION

II. FOUNDATIONS FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT .

Higher Education in American Society.
The College Student in American Society.
Physical Education in Higher Education

III. THE CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE AND CONTENT OF
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. . . . .

A Theoretical Concept of Purposeful
Human Movement

The Structure for Designing a Humanistic
Physical Education Curriculum .

PART II. DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUCTIONAL
PROGRAM DESIGNS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

IV. PROGRAM FOUNDATIONS

Introduction.
Description of the Instructional
Environment at Michigan State University

iii

Page
ii

vi

10
ll

15

15
17

53

53
71

76
76
77

Chapter
Current Status of the Physical Educa-
tion Instructional Program . .
Description of the Michigan State
University Student. . . .
V. PROJECTED PROGRAM DESIGNS

Suggested Procedure for Implementation

and Evaluation of a Projected Design.

Projected Design I. .
Projected Design II . . .
Projected Design III . . .
Analysis of Projected Designs
A Look to the Future .

VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary . . . . .
Conclusions

Recommendations.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

iv

Page

83
85
97

97
98
99
100
101
106

110

110
111
llA

116

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. An Over-all Structure for Designing a
Humanistic Physical Education Cur-

riculum in Higher Education . . . . 7A

Figure
l.

2.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

A Design for Planning a Curriculum .

A Design for Planning a Specific Program .

Vi

Page

77

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

The Challenge of Curriculum Change

 

Current Curriculum Reform

 

In recent years the tempo of curriculum change has
increased and is continuing to accelerate. Educators are
faced with challenge from a great resurgence in curriculum
development and from need for proper use of emerging re-
sources. New developments in the behavioral sciences have
produced a multitude of new facts and changes. New ideas
and theories about intelligence, perception, thinking,
creativity and learning are spelling out new potentiality
for human intelligence and for assessment of ability.
Writings encompassing concepts of culture, socialization,
and social learning, are suggesting new ways of thinking
about schools in our culture, about learning, about more
effective ways of learning in groups, and of planning for
conditions of learning. All of these deveIOpments suggest
new ways of looking at and thinking about the curriculum.

The strongest pressure for re-examination of the cur-
riculum comes from drastic changes in technology and culture.

Changes have brought the demands of expanding industry for

intelligent manpower and the need for highly specialized
talent. The knowledge explosion has required that the
individual be equipped to keep pace with the changing nature
and ever-increasing amount of knowledge. The application

of technology in education has resulted in the development
of new instructional resources and media. The increasing
rapidity and consistency of change itself in contemporary
society has an impact on the nature of American society-~
its character and values.

It is readily apparent that in the last decade curric-
ula have undergone change and such change will continue to
occur at an ever-increasing rate in the future in all areas
of education. Though the numerous projects on curriculum
are diverse and vary in scope and depth, they reveal dis-

cernible characteristics of the newly evolving curricula.

Predominate Characteristics of the New Curricula

 

Emphasis of the Disciplines.--Curriculum materials

 

emerging from mathematics and the sciences have emphasized
the selection and organizationcfi‘the content of the various
disciplines.
Understanding of the method and function of the disci-
pline is stressed rather than learning only its cur-
rent body of facts. The concept of a "discipline" is

broadened to include the rules which are followed by
a person who works with the knowledge of the field

(56, p- 3)-
In this way, the emphasis is placed on behavior appropriate

for continued work in the particular discipline as well as

the knowledge per se. ”The task of teaching a subject to
a child at any particular age is one of representing the
structure of that subject matter in terms of the child's
way of viewing things” (21, p. 33).

Exploding knowledge suggests need for breadth and
depth to deal significantly with any aspect of knowledge.
With regard to theory of knowledge, the curricular studies
are grounded in a view that rejects the notion of Specific
ideas or information to be learned and further, rejects
the View urn extension of knowledge occurs through a simple
process of accretion. From this perSpective, the selection
of curriculum content becomes, not so much a matter of
identifying the aSpects of knowledge deemed most worthwhile,
as in identifying the concepts most fruitful in advancing
understandinganmipursuing new knowledge. The separate
disciplines are involved in the search for most fundamental
principles and concepts to which factual knowledge can

continuously be added.

Emphasis on Methods of Inquiry.--Educators have be—

 

come fully cognizant of the need for developing the kind

of intellectual capacities that will adapt and continue to
grow with change in the future. An emphasis is being placed
on the method of inquiry. Attempts are being made to get
the learner to ”participate in the process that makes pos-
sible the establishment of knowledge” (22, p. 72). The

current curricular studies insist on investigative

procedures, on active inquiries leading to discoveries,

on experimentation, not only to replicate or demonstrate
what is known, but to step toward the unknown. This in-
sistence on inquiry is based on a belief in the capacity
of students to learn using problematic situations and to
find zest in such learning. Methods of inquiry and dis-
covery suggest that man has a powerful impulse to under-
stand and control, to test his powers, to confront himself
with new challenges, and that he gains satisfaction in a

growing ability to c0pe with change.

Attention to Instructional Methodology.--As new

 

knowledge and insight are gained concerning the teaching-
learning process, new curricular innovations are reflecting
a change in methodology. In some instances the change is
made in organization of learners into various groupings to
make most profitable use of instructional methods and
materials. In some cases, instructional methods are being
adapted as new instructional technology is employed, tele—
vision, programed instruction, audio laboratories, telephone
lectures, and numerous other devices. It is true that often
the application of new instructional media has no relation-
ship to curricular change. However, there is recognition
within the new curricula of the fact that different kinds

of learning and the different learning styles of individuals
require different methodology and learning resources.

Recent curriculum projects are being undertaken that tie

the substantive and syntactical elements of the subject
matter to the cognitive processes and the learning styles
of the learner.

Extent of Participation of Higher Education in
Current CurricuIar Change

 

 

The greatest amount of investigation and study re-
sulting in curriculum change has been at the elementary
and secondary school level. College educators have been
involved primarily in the reorganization and restructuring
of the disciplines for classroom instruction. Institutions
of higher education have initiated innovations primarily
within the existing framework of the curriculum.

Some colleges seem to have made a conscious decision
to stand firm on the grounds that they have always offered
worthwhile programs and have only needed more qualified
students from which to choose. This belief has resulted
in the raising of admission standards. Other colleges
have responded to the demand for change by introducing a
variety of innovations. These innovations include:

1. Honors and Advanced Placement Programs: The

aim of such programs is to allow the more
highly talented and intellectually capable
student both to accelerate and enrich his ed-
ucational experience either prior to matricu—
lation or after initial college enrollment.

2. Area Studies: New courses are being offered that
are concerned with highly Specialized subject
areas. Also, courses of an inter-disciplinary
nature dealing with current and vital issues and
problems are being included in the curriculum.

This practice often leads to proliferation of
course offerings.

O\

3. Independent Study Programs: The independent
study programs aim to allow the student to
assume more of the responsibility for planning,
acquiring, and evaluating his education.

A. Use of Instructional Media: The use of new in-
structional media has often been an attempt to
solve the instructional problems caused by the
influx of great numbers of students to the
colleges and universities. The experimentation
and use of such media has incorporated existing
curricular offerings and has little to do with
curricular innovations. Experimentation with a
variety of instructional media has met with some
success and the need for continuing such experi-
mentation is great.

5. Special College Programs: Certain colleges have
responded with experimental programs that are
designed "to free students from the constricting
prison of course credits and grades and to involve
faculty members more directly in their progress"
(128, p. xxi).

Change is accelerating in both the schools and colleges.

The proper balance of the undergraduate curriculum between
general and highly Specialized education remains a vital
concern. With the expansion and change in knowledge, the
rapid adaptation of computer technology to educational uses,
the mounting demand for higher educational Opportunities
along with the impetus from the vast curricular reforms of
prior levels of education, there is a need for curriculum
redeveIOpment and proper use of emerging instructional
resources in higher education. If higher education is to
remain appropriate for the youth of contemporary American
society, it must meet the central challenge "to find out
what is most worth teaching and how to teach it" (128,

p. xxx).

Physical Education's ReSponse to
New Curriculum Development

The concern of this thesis is the physical education
curriculum which is designed for the general student pOpu-
lation. The physical education curriculum is the composite
uf learning experiences, their total combination and se-
quence, which is offered to the students in the instruc-
tional program in higher education.

Current Curriculum Developments in
Physical Education

 

There has been little evidence of curriculum study
resulting in much observable change in instructional physi-
cal education programs in higher education. A 1963 summary
of curricular trends in physical education indicated these:

1. emphasis onthe area of physical fitness,

2. development of "physical training" manuals,

3. a pioneering attempt to relate the experiences

in physical education to the totality of the
learner's educational experiences for the inte-
grated development of the child (106, p. A6).

In 1963, only four curriculum projects of any
measurable scope were known to have been undertaken (106).
Of the four, only one extended concern for physical educa-
tion programs at the college level. This project, sponsored
by the American Association for Health, Physical Education,
and Recreation,was prOposed "to establish percentile scoring
tables for Specific sports skills tests by administering

the tests at the college level downward through the grades

until they are no longer functionally useful'l (106, p. A7).

The standards that would result from this project were to
be used in curriculum planning in determining the level at
which specific sports skills should be included.

Within the last decade, Specific curricular develOp-
ments and trends in higher education may be summarized as
follows:

1. Colleges and universities have emphasized pro-
grams for the development of and the education for "physical
fitness." This emphasis has been recorded in the deveIOp-
ment of college programs and the establishment of evaluative
measures used to assess levels of fitness (27, 30).

2. There has been a generally wideSpread attempt to
incorporate an instructional approach that presents the
basic concepts involving physical activity and daily living
founded on the scientific evidence supporting the relation-
ship of exercise to total health. These concepts are pre-
sented through laboratory experiments and selected physical
activities (14A, 72).

3. There has been investigation and ensuing contro-
versy over the status of physical education as a total
university requirement. Since Sputnik and the resulting
implications from new curricular studies in the sciences,
physical education has come under close scrutiny in many
colleges and universities. This pressure has forced depart-
ments to defend required instructional programs. The out-
come of this debate in particular institutions may or may

not have forced curriculum change; i.e., withdrawal of the

requirement, decrease in total requirement, change to elec-
tive status, change in credit and grade procedures (125,
A), Much time and energy havelmmxmspent by the faculty in
defense of the requirement rather than in re-examination

of the curriculum in light of emerging resources, the needs
of college students, and the functions of physical activity

in meeting man's needs in contemporary society.

The Task Facinnghysical Education

 

The immediate task for physical educators iS to face
the challenge of curriculum change. The physical education
curriculum must be examined in view of the needs of the
college students in contemporary American society and with
a rational scientific basis for selecting content and or-
ganizing learning experiences that help the student to
meet his needs effectively. Strategy for curriculum change
needs to be planned and integrated with the whole educa-
tional enterprise. New concepts and new ways of thinking
about curriculum need to be suggested. Programs designed
need to be initiated, tested, and evaluated. The task
calls for the development of criteria that serve as rational
bases for making decisions and choices and for curriculum
develOpment which includes diagnosis of needs, formulation
of objectives, selection and organization of curriculum con-
tent and learning experiences, determination of what to
evaluate and ways of doing that evaluation. The challenge

of curriculum change demands a platform--a framework for

designing a curriculum.

10

These designs need to be developed

so as to serve as Operational models of what happens when

differing data and differing sets of values are used in

making choices and decisions.

It is the intent of this study to develOp a conceptual

Statement of the Problem

framework for a humanistic physical education curriculum

in higher education by:

1.

examining the foundations for physical education
curriculum development in higher education. The
foundations considered are: (a) the purpose and
goals of higher education, (b) the needs and
tasks of the college student in contemporary
American society, and (c) the purposes of physi-
cal education in higher education viewed from an
historical perSpective and present personal
philosophy.

developing a humanistic concept of purposeful
human movement or physical activity as an under-

lying base for curriculum structure in physical

education. The descriptive theoretical constructs

are developed from personal beliefs and convic-
tions and include: (a) defining purposeful
human movement or physical activity, (b) identi-
fying the unique functions of purposeful human

movement in relation to human behavior, and

11

(c) seeing the implications of these theoretical
concepts for physical education curriculum
development in higher education.

3. determining the structure of a humanistic physi-

cal education curriculum in higher education.

The three important elements involved in the
structure are: (a) the developmental tasks--
needs and interestS--of the college students in
American society, (b) the general areas of knowl-
edge in a humanistic physical education curricu-
lum, and (c) the unique functions of these areas
of knowledge in human behavior.

It is also the intent of this study to translate the
conceptual structure of a humanistic physical education
curriculum into instructional program designs for Michigan
State University. The program foundations are derived
from: (1) the total university setting: its goals and
purposes, resources, and organization; (2) the biographical,
demographical, and health characteristics of the learner;
and (3) the present status and organization of physical

education.

Scope of the Study

 

This study is an initial step by one investigator to
develop a conceptual structure for a humanistic physical
education curriculum in higher education and to project

program designs for Michigan State University based on the

12

theoretical concepts of purposeful human movement or
physical activity in meeting man's needs. It is recog-
nized that the most effective strategy for curriculum
development and change demands the efforts of all personnel
involved in the total teaching-learning situation.

1. The curriculum structure is deve10ped on the
basis of the educational beliefs and convictions of the
investigator. Definitive criteria based on the retrieval
of research evidence needs to be established upon which to
accept or reject the conceptual structure as the underlying
base for building a physical educational curriculum. Test-
able hypotheses need to be formulated, applied, modified
and/or accepted when based on such evidence in order to
evaluate their worth.

2. The projected program designs are developed from
descriptive information and from the major theoretical con-
cepts conceived by the investigator. The behavioral ob—
jectives need to be established, the content selected and
organized, and the methods for implementing the learning
experiences need to be develOped into Specific teaching-
1earning or instructional units. Definitive criteria need
to be established for making curriculum decisions and
choices relating to objectives, the selection of learning
experiences, organization of content, and determining what
to evaluate and methods for such evaluation.

3. The study is not directed toward the interrela-

tionship of physical education with other fields of study

13

in the university setting. It is recognized that such
integration may be an eventual step and would involve a
group of university scholars who would be representative
of the general education curriculum and physical education.
A. The hallmark of a theory can only be determined
by merging the theory into practice. This study does not
undertake to evaluate the theoretical structure of the
humanistic physical education curriculum at Michigan
State University nor does it diagnose the needs of the

students in this university setting.

PART I

A CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE FOR A HUMANISTIC PHYSICAL

EDUCATION CURRICULUM IN HIGHER EDUCATION

CHAPTER II

FOUNDATIONS FOR CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Higher Education in American Society:
Its Nature and Purpose

 

 

Higher education in America today iS a system of
complex social institutions of highly diverse natures which
can be attributed to many factors. Traditionally and
historically, the American system of higher education has
been derived from many sources.

The idea of an undergraduate college which offers a
general or liberal education and attends carefully to
the development of student character was imported

from England. . . . The notion that a college should
serve its community is, for the most part, an American
concept which was given form in the land-grant college
movement in the late nineteenth century and has been
reinterpreted in the form of community colleges in the
twentieth century. The idea that a university Should
concentrate its energies on research, scholarship, and
the training of graduate students is a German concep-
tion. . . . The belief that a liberal education was
valuable to any vocation or calling is a Renaissance
idea for the prOper preparation of a gentleman. The
idea that a college Should prepare for the learned
professions stems directly from the Reformation. The
belief that college should prepare people for less
exalted vocations is an American expression of its
democratic ideal. The role of higher education as an
instrument of national policy is a result of the
scientific revolution and the post World War Two
climate of constant political crisis (20, pp. 2-3).

Because of the freedom allowed in establishing in-
stitutions of higher education in this country, it was

inevitable that each college or university would take on

15

16

”the distinctive characteristics of their clientele and
locale" (39, p. 17).

Essentially and fundamentally however, all of higher
education as a part of the American educational system,
"finds its guiding principles and ultimate goals in the
aims and philosophy of the social order in which it func-
tions" (109, p. 5). It has fitted its programs into the
changing American environment and has reflected the needs
of every age (63). Perhaps the very diverse character of
higher education is in itself a reflection of the society
which it serves.

Whatever form the institutions of higher education
have taken, the underlying purposes have been essentially
the same. The purposes have been I‘generally recognized as
at least threefold: to preserve the cultural heritage; to
pass on the cultural heritage; and to augment, organize,
and utilize that heritage” (39, p. 20). Every institution
accepts these purposes though they may be given differing
emphasis from one college or university to another. The
predominant purpose traditionally has been recognized to
be the instructional purpose. In line with the stated
purposes, the functions then of higher education include
"those provisions, methods, or procedures whereby the
purposes are to be achieved” (39, p. 20).

A statement of the nature of higher learning would
represent a qualitative viewpoint of the higher education

enterprise. Such a statement could reflect a philosophical

17

position ranging from the "traditional"--"intellectual"

to the more "fundamental" or "instrumental" view of the
nature of learning appropriate for higher education (130,
pp. 26-35). The views look at higher learning to be pri-
marily and fundamentally the deve10pment of the intellect
on the one hand, to the development of the total individual
within a total environment, on the other. These philo-
sophical positions represent a wide range of views, any

one of which also reflects a view of the fundamental nature
of man and the nature of learning. The range of views have
been presented in debating such questions as professional
and liberal education, the nature of knowledge and learning,
and what is most valuable for students in higher education
to learn. From any given position will come differing
emphases applied to the program of higher education. No
matter which vieWpoint is held, it is generally agreed that
higher learning Should ultimately bring about a change in
the learner. This change will involve knowledges, skills,
and values which prepare the individual to live a more
satisfying, reSponSible, and worthwhile life for himself
and his community. Higher learning is not repetitious of

preceding educational experiences.

The College Student in American Society

 

Description of the College Student
Though the age of the college population varies, the

term college-age is used to refer to young men and women

18

from the age of 18 through 21. This segment of the popu-
lation generally, for use in this context, is most
meaningfully described by a discussion focused on their
characteristics and develOpmental tasks. The definition
of the develOpmental task concept is given by Havighurst
as follows:

The tasks the individual must learn--the deve10p-
mental tasks of life-~are those things that constitute
healthy and satisfactory growth in our society. They
are the things a person must learn if he is to be
judged and to judge himself to be a reasonably happy
and successful person. A develOpmental task is a task
which arises at or about a certain period in the life
of the individual, successful achievement of which
leads to his happiness and to success with later tasks,
while failure leads to unhappiness in the individual,
disapproval by the society, and difficulty with later

tasks (55, p. 2).
Havighurst analyzed the deveIOpmental tasks at all
ages. For the college—age group his analysis lists the
following major tasks (55, pp. 111—158):

1. Achieving new and more mature relations with
agemates of both sexes.

2. Achieving a masculine or feminine role.

3. Accepting one's physique and using the body
effectively.

4. Achieving emotional independence of parents
and other adults.

Achieving assurance of economic independence.

O\Ul

Selecting and preparing for an occupation.

Preparing for marriage and family life.

-\1

8. Developing intellectual skills and concepts
necessary for competence.

l9
9. Desiring and achieving socially responsible
behavior.

10. Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system
as a guide to behavior.

Fisher and Noble discuss and adOpt Havighurst's
analysis of the major develOpmental tasks of college stu-

dents in their work entitled College Education as Personal

 

Development (AA). According to these authors, these tasks

 

are all subsumed under one major task. The characteristic
need and problem of the college years is for the individual
to achieve personal identity. It would seem that the analy—
sis of the internal strife and open rebellion that has
occurred in recent years on college and university campuses
all over the country bears witness to the common struggle

of college students for "identity."

Though growth and develOpmental states are never dis-
crete periods of time either for an individual or a given
age group, the college student might generally fit the fol—
lowing description. The college-age student has attained
most of his adult stature and has undergone most of the
physiological changes that occur from birth to adulthood.
He is primarily in need of establishing himself as an adult
personality. There is need of identification of self in
relation to social environment, vocational choice, and
in general, the need to establish the self and a personal
life style. The college student is in need of continued
acquisition of knowledges and Skills important for the

evolving identity in relation to the more immediate

20

environment and the society at large and in relation to his
present and future life.

In further description of the college-age men and
women, the following characteristics were listed by a con-
ference group of college physical educators. The list
compiled by this group in 1958, includes general features
more specific to the concerns of physical education.

College-age men and women:

1. are closely approaching the attainment of full
stature;

2. have, for the most part, completed sexual matura-
tion;

3. are usually physically coordinated and integrated
(as compared with adolescents);

A. Show evidence of variation in height and weight
greater among the men than the women;

Show evidence of wide range in body types;

(DU-I

possess wide variation in Skill levels;

«3

frequently are lacking in general muscular
strength particularly in the arms, shoulder
girdle, and abdominal regions;

8. Show some evidence of variation in tolerance for
activity because of disabilities and other devia-
tions from normal;

9. often feel the need of improved social competence;

10. have less need for assurance, yet need to under-
stand themselves realistically;

11. are continuing in their heterosexual adjustment;

12. have a great interest in leisure-time activities.
(This interest reaches an all-time high during
this period, particularly in terms of wanting
increased Opportunities for companionship with
the Opposite sex);

21
13. frequently develOp a philosophy of life
during college years;

1A. are apprehensive of their status with their
peers . . .;

15. desire to emulate someone whom they admire and
reSpect;

16. are still striving to find acceptable emotional
outlets;

17. have gained almost complete independence from
parents (28, pp. 5-6).
Changing Life Styles in Contemporary Society

Full consideration of all the societal forces at
large today that exert an influence on the individual and
the group in American society would be a formidable task.
However, the society, its nature and demands, must be con-
sidered if the education that the colleges and universities
offer to the students is to be timely and meaningful. It
has previously been stated that the college student is in
need of establishing a personal life style. Attention
needs to be focused on those societal forces that in all
probability exert the most influence on life styles in
contemporary society.

The theme for any discussion of the forces at work
in contemporary society that affect every phase of life,
is change. The one underlying surety in the modern world
is the very rapidity and consistency of change itself. It
is safe to predict that, barring massive destruction, the
youth Of today will live most of their adult lives in a

world much different from the present. The exact form the

22

society will eventually assume is open for Speculation.
It is reasonable to assume that the factors discussed in
the succeeding sections will result in changing life styles

Of the individuals.

Pertinent Societal Forces

Automation.--Automation, the result of advanced tech-

 

nology, has profoundly transformed our lives in the past
fifty years. Automation has been applied in industry, the
home, and education. It has extended man's capabilities
and has allowed the accomplishment of tasks that, in some
cases, would have been impossible for man to do alone.
Automation has conserved much human time and energy while
extending productivity. The assembly line process, the com-
puter, the numerous household appliances have become part
of everyday life. Along with making life easier, more con-
venient, and more productive, automation has also brought
some new and absorbing problems for society. For a number
of the labor force, Shorter working hours, the changed
nature of work and work satisfactions, and even technologi-
cal unemployment are a very real fact.

Automation and its relationship to the "ease of
existence" has a direct reference to an area of concern
for each individual. The automated devices with which and
by which daily living is carried on, save much time and
energy for modern man. To an extent, this is the same

process by which leisure time is increased. Man no longer

23

needs to extend himself in a physical work sense to sustain
life. His needs are met by a push of the button, a flip

of the switch, or a turn of the ignition key. However, man
as a biological creature, has not, through automation, dis-
covered a way for the human body to grow and function at
full capacity without at least a minimum amount of physical
activity. Where once the need for physical activity was
met through primarily agrarian occupation and the needs of
daily living, this is no longer true for a large portion

of the pOpulation. The application of science and technology
in this sense is at the same time need-satisfying and need-
producing. Since man must be active to function at tOp-

level capacity, the implication for an active life is clear.

Technical Orientation of Society.--An inextricable

fig.—

 

factor related to automation and the advances of science
and technology is the technical orientation of modern
society. Though this factor may seem too obvious for dis-
cussion, it bears attention on one account because of the
increasing demands it places on the kind and extent of
education and training. Careers and occupations are and
will continue to be susceptible to the new technological
develOpments. Due to the continuous change and advancement
of scientific technologies and an emphasis on research,
highly trained scientists, engineers, and technicians are
needed. The extent and kind of education demanded for a

specific field change as new knowledge and advancement are

2A

gained. The trend is toward longer and more Specialized
initial education and then continued Specialized occupational
training throughout a life time. At present the demand for
sufficiently educated and trained personnel in many techni-

cal fields far outnumbers the supply.

Knowledge Explosion.--Advancement in science and tech-

 

nology has been both a cause and effect of the explosion of
knowledge. More is known of our environment and of the
nature of man through scientific inquiry. Technology has
made it possible to store and retrieve this rapidly accumu-
lating knowledge. It is a cyclical and continually renewing
process.

The amount of knowledge now available in any area
and the rapidity with which further knowledge is being added,
make it an impossible task for any one person to learn all
the "facts” about any discipline or body of knowledge.
Facts once learned soon become obsolete. This factor alone
has forced educators to restructure the learning of any body
of knowledge. The body of knowledge itself must be re-
structured and reorganized at Specific intervals to incor-
porate new findings. New ways of organizing what is known
and new ways of transmitting the knowledge for thorough
understanding are essential. Modern man must be equipped
to keep pace with the changing nature and amount of knowl-

edge.

25

It is obvious that each of the forces discussed belong
to a complex of such forces. It is difficult, if not im-
possible, to point out a cause and effect relationship. It
also becomes difficult to discuss one such factor without
becoming involved in the discussion of many simultaneously.
Most assuredly, the foregoing forces do not fully cover
the subject. These however, are most pertinent in relation-
ship tO the selected phases of contemporary life, discussed
in the following section, that affect modern man's patterns

of living.

Changing Patterns of Living

Family Life.--Perhaps one of the greatest influences

 

for the changing patterns of family life is being exerted by
the Sheer increase in numbers of peOple and the shifting
locale Of the home from rural to urban areas. Around 1900,
two in five American families lived on a farm, while today
less than one family in ten lives on a farm (110). One of
five individual Americans now lives in the large metrOpolitan
areas of New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, Los Angeles, or
Detroit (103). The growth of the "megalopolis" is at pres—
ent a fact. The extent to which these large and extensive
urban areas will change the life patterns Of the American
peOple is at this point conjecture. These large urban

areas will influence the life styles of their residents

26

and adults will need to be prepared to live in these complex
and crowded environments.

The changing roles of men and women and their relation-
ship within the family pattern is another factor facing
modern American families. In recent years, concern has been
directed toward the definition of the woman's role in so—
ciety. Time and effort has been expended in the collection
of data concerning women and in designing and executing re—
search that will yield information ultimately useful in
helping women become better able to meet the demands of
their lives. The discussion of the status of women outlines
an aspect that has a most profound effect on the changing

patterns of family life.

Factors in the Changing Life Patterns of Today's

 

Women.--The following facts concern all women and indicate
the scope of change in women's lives.

1:. A girl born in 1900 could expect to live A8
years. The life expectancy of women today is
nearly 7A years (1A0).

2. Between 1890 and 1962, the median age of marriage
drOpped from 22.0 to 20.3 years for women. In
1900, two-thirds of the women in the pOpulation
were married at some time in their lives and in
the 1960‘s, this is true of four—fifths of the
women (110).

3. Approximately eight or nine of every ten women
today will be gainfully employed for some time
during their lives. Married women will work for
an estimate of 25 years and a Single woman will
work approximately A0 years (1A0, 110).

Other factors of contemporary society, i.e., increased

mobility of citizens, concentration Of population in large

27

urban areas, increased ease of living through modern tech-
nology, do effect a change in women's lives. Change

caused by these factors, however, is no more drastic for
women than for men. The above changes are most directly
related to the lives of women. The most obvious emerging
fact concerning the life style of modern women specifically
—-and the college educated women particularly--is that She
will fill several roles in her lifetime and in all proba-

bility, these will be played simultaneously.

The Woman as an Individual.—-This is perhaps the most

 

important role any person has to fulfill in a lifetime.
The emphasis it has been given, where women are concerned,
stems from the demands placed on her by her diverse roles.
Being an individual assumes the fullest develOpment of self,
of the personality, of individual integrity, and a "strong
conviction of her own identity" (39, p. 11). The woman
must develop her unique capacities for self-realization
and personal fulfillment. Higher education should foster
individual development and a clear recognition of the
necessity and importance of continued learning, growth and
self-development (29, p. lA).- Personal fulfillment and
complete sense of self-realization are by no means objects
that are obtainable once during college years to remain

forever unchanged. Women must appreciate the importance

28

of this continuing lifetime process and become aware of the

individual resources that allow continued growth.

The Woman as a Wife and Mother.--College women have

 

begun to accept and expect a life pattern including diverse
roles but, marriage, children, and family life are still
their first choice (115, 38). Mueller (99, p. 50) lists
the pressures for marriage and home life as one of three
affecting the college woman to the extent that it restricts
all realistic future planning. The college woman is
”marriage-oriented" and "marriage-conscious."

The fact that more women marry today and marry younger
attests to the fact that this is a primary role for women.
Associated with the earlier marriages is the fact that, on
the average, women are in their early thirties when their
youngest child has entered school and married couples have
an average of fifteen years to Share together after their
youngest child is grown up and gone from home (110, 38).
The emphasis of this role of wife and mother is a changing
one in the life pattern of the woman.

The demands of the home-making role for the woman
have changed drastically in recent years. Her activities
no longer center around the production of food and clothing
for herself and her family. The ease of modern living is
nowhere more evident than in the labor and time-Saving
devices of the modern home. The role of the homemaker is

now more nearly one of management.” "NO one denies the

29

importance of the role, yet it appears to lack both under-
standing and status in the eyes of the majority of both men
and women" (29, p. 9). The difficulty of defining the
exactness of this filmyrmking role and all it involves makes
planning for its preparation difficult in Spite of its im-
portance. The implications of the successful fulfillment
of the role of wife and mother‘are,however, of undeniable

importance to society presently and in the future.

The Woman as a Person Participating in a Career Out-

 

side the Home.-—The United States Department of Labor re-

 

ports (1A0) that one out Of every three workers in the
United States is a woman and of these women, three out of
five are married. Also, "there is a direct relationship
between the educational attainment of women and their labor-
force participation. The more education a woman has re-
ceived, the greater the likelihood that she will be engaged
in paid employment" (1A2, p. 1). This fact holds true for
all age levels.

The career patterns for the woman Show different
characteristics from those for the man. The most obvious
difference is found in its discontinuity. The woman inter-
rupts her education and her career for home and family and
then returns to it. The implications this has for the
vocational choices of women, for the problem of up-dating
her education, and the necessity to allow for entry-

withdrawal—re-entry to the labor-force are becoming apparent.

30

The roles of the woman in the home and in a career
are often Simultaneous. The demands Of such a dual career
are great. The chances of a woman carrying a full or part-
time job in addition to her responsibilities in the home are
greater today than ever before. The woman needs to have
ability, motivation, good health, and COOperation from her
family to fulfill successfully both roles. Whether or not
she does both jobs at once, it is almost a surety that the

woman will assume a career role in her lifetime.

The;Woman as a Citizen of the Community.--"Although

 

all members Of the American family appear currently to be
more involved in group efforts outside the home than was
true in an earlier period, the most marked increase in com-
munity activities probably is to be found among women" (29,
p. 13). The college woman seems to be inclined to concern
herself with "aesthetic, social, and religious aspects of
life," be more interested in the arts and music, and be more
concerned for the welfare of others as a life goal (98,

p. 3A). With these essential inclinations and more time
available to the woman, particularly if she is not employed
outside the home, She is in a position to make a very real
contribution to the community in which she lives. Prepara-

tion for civic reSponSibility is essential.

31

Relationship of Roles Within the Family.--The preceding

 

Sketch of the changing and diverse role of women in contem-
porary society gives a glimpse of the changing patterns
emerging in family living. The role of men within the
family structure and the relationship of the men's and
women's roles, as defined and demanded by the changing society,
are not SO clear. None the less, some trends are prevalent.
Beyond the biologically determined sex role in mar-
riage and parenthood, the traditionally appointed roles
of the man and the woman within the family are no longer
clear—cut. The typically male role of "bread-winner" can
no longer be identified, as more women work outside the
home and the family financial base is founded on two sal—
aries. By the same token, the woman no longer bases her
role within the home as traditionally she was the one who
was primarily responsible for the personal care and rearing
of children and for keeping a home. The woman's time,
energy, and interests are more often divided between home
and a job outside the home. The demands this makes on
the woman are evident. At the same time, the demands it
has made on the man have led him into a role of equal re-
sponsibility in child-rearing and often into Sharing tasks
of housekeeping. "The care of very young infants by their
fathers is something that no former civilization has en-
couraged among their educated and reSponSible men" (92,

p. xviii). It is obvious that a wider range of roles are

32

being both demanded and accepted by society for both men
and women within the family structure.

Besides being prepared for the changing reSponSibil-
ities within the family for both men and women, perhaps more
important is the necessity for youth to be aware of the
transition and change that is being affected in the realm
of family life. Michael, in speaking of the prOSpects
ahead for the next two decades, summarizes this state of
transition:

The reapportionment for family members of time to-
gether and the changes in activities of wives and
adolescents outside the home will probably profoundly
affect how each member of the family defines his or
her dependence on and autonomy from the others. The
traditional role each plays with respect to the others
in the family contest will thereby be changed even
more. The family, which traditionally has been

society's fundamental institution, will accelerate its
transformation into yet unclear forms and functions

(96, p- 81)-

Work-Leisure Patterns.——Much attention has been given

 

recently to the changing work and leisure patterns of the
members of contemporary society. Volumes have been written

that attempt to clarify the concept of leisure, its prOper re-
lationship to work, the cause Of increasing amounts of leisure,
and to suggest ways in which the prOper education for leisure ‘
might be accomplished. Never before in the history of any
society have the economic and societal forces worked together to
provide the nearly universal Opportunity for leisure. As

in all prior times, leisure will be available in varying

33

amounts for different segments of the total population.

But unlike other periods in history, the more highly edu-
cated and highly Skilled group will have less leisure from
their occupations and reSponSibilities. It will likely be
this group having leSS leisure who will be in greatest need
of the re-creative potential that leisure can provide. The
use each individual makes of this leisure for the better-
ment of self and society can have far-reaching implications
for the advancement of civilization.

AS leisure becomes more available and the growing
affluence of society continues, individuals will have the
essential "time and money" factors that may have been pro-
hibitive of active participation in many activities during
a former era. The place of many physical activities--
sports, games, dance-~as leisure activity in contemporary
society is undeniable. Many forms of activities allow for
both participation or observation. The implication of
increased leisure is for the individual to develop sufficient
Skill and appreciation that allows one to be either parti—
cipant or Spectator in self-selected activities. Perhaps as
important is the need for develOping a sense of the real
value and Significance in the re-creative process that will
direct the individual to make Optimum use of leisure. In
essence, this is assuming the need for the development of
a personal philOSOphy or value system which directs the
possessor in a varied use of leisure that contributes to

the greater fulfillment of the individual.

3A

Health and Longevity.--The advancement in the field of
medicine and health-related areas is quite evident. Ameri—
cans share the advantages Of lengthened life Span and extended
good health and vigor. The advances in medicine, sanitation,
and nutrition have made it possible for most peOple to sur-
vive the once perilous communicable diseases and live a life
reasonably free of sickness. Americans now live long
enough and "well" enough to eventually be concerned about
the health problems generally associated with the aging
process. Individuals in twentieth-century America can
plan on living a full productive life to and beyond the
age of retirement.

Accompanying these advances, the effects of contem-
porary living are now being stressed as causative factors
related to increase of some prevalent diseases such as
heart disorders, reapiratory ailments, psycho—somatic dis—
orders, etc. Living in an "automated" society seems to
yield ambivalent results. The amount of activity individ—
uals get decreases and leisure is often Spent not in stimu-
lating and enhancing one's existence but in still less
activity. Research in medicine, physiology, nutrition,
physical education, and other related areas has provided
evidence of the necessity for physical activity in relation
to prOper body growth, development, and functioning for
optimum health. The implication Of this evidence is clear.

The concepts related to physical activity and man's

35

healthful living and his necessary adaptation to contem—

porary living become a matter for all levels of education.

The Individual Within the Societal Complex.veThe social
phenomena termed the "large bureaucratic organization" (103,
pp. AA-A8) is related to a complex of forces. With the
continued develOpment of industry, the terms such as ”manage-
ment and labor," the "concentration Of economic power," or
more recently, "big government" have enjoyed common usage.
The usage Of these terms has implied the tendency of the
society to generate ”large and complex organizations of tre-
mendous power" (A0, p. 12). A most profound effect of such
big bureaucratic organization is felt by the individual.

How does one maintain personal identity within such a power
structure? Drucker (A0) suggests that the institution which
has grown the most in this century-~grown to become complex
in structure and powerful in influence--has been the univer-
sity. The search for personal Significance and worth in

the face of seemingly over—powering structures of gigantic
proportions is gathering ever-increasing momentum. The
problems and the effect on the individual within such a
social structure have still to be clearly identified.

The individual has been and is affected, not only by
the Size and complexity of the institutions of society, but
more basically by the mechanisms of science and technology

and their consequences. Of these consequences,

36

none deserves more attention than the disorganizing effects
on man's values and beliefs. The

confusion and uncertainty generated by the dissolution
of old beliefs and values has reached the point where

the individual fails to find meaning for his existence
for lack of a "common frame of acceptanCe.‘ .

While America is blessed with industrial power in the

form of natural and human resources and technical Skill,
the individual, instead Of becoming more secure and
more important, is becoming increasingly more fear-
ful and less Significant in his social role and in

his own eyes (129, p. 37).

Fromm describes this plight of modern man by describing a
person

who has lost himself as a center of his experience.

He does not experience himself as the active
bearer of his own powers and richness, but as an
impoverished "thing" dependent on powers outside of
himself unto whom he has projected his living sub-
stance. . . . He has constructed a complicated social
machine to administer the technical machine he has
built. Yet this whole creation of his stands over
and above him. . . . The more powerful and gigantic
the forces are which he unleashes, the more powerless
he feels himself as a human being (A5, pp. llA- 115).

The nature of the changes in man's value orientation toward

himself and society has deep implications for education.

Implications for the College Student
and Higher Education

 

 

1. Given that the paramount develOpmental task of
the college-age student is to achieve personal identity
individual worth, and independence; given the impact of
automation, the consequences of science and technology on
the individual, and the large and complex social organi-
zation within which the individual lives, and the rapid

change in all aspects of human existence as deterrents to

37

autonomous growth and behavior; what is the extent of the
reSponSibility of higher education to foster individual
development and how can this best be done?

2. Given the developmental tasks of achieving an
appropriate masculine or feminine role, establishing mature
social relations with peers, achieving socially responsible
behavior in an adult world, and prOperly preparing for
marriage and family life; given the diverse and changing
roles of both men and women within the family unit, the
increased availability and the changing concept of work
and leisure patterns, and the trends in place and style of
living for the futlre as these factors comprise as yet an
indefinite and uncertain social environment; how can higher
education best help the individual learn to understand, to
accept, and to fulfill these personally meaningful individ-
ual and social reSponSibilities?

3. Given the task of selecting and preparing for
a satisfying occupation that assures economic independence;
given the demands for highly educated and Skilled personnel
and the knowledge explosion which together have great impact
on the amount, nature, and timing Of education both for
initial preparation for professional reSponSibilities and
for continued competent performance and with awareness of
the need for integration as well as specialization in
education; what kind and what emphasis should be given to
the education beyond the high school and for what length

of time?

38

A. Given the tasks of accepting one's body and
learning to use it effectively and of developing intel-
lectual skills and concepts necessary for competence; given
the rich environment in which youth of today can grow and
mature and the years of human existence available to them
which are inherent advantages for today's youth; how can
higher education help the individual accept himself and
realistically plan to fulfill the potential that is his for
a long, full, and productive life for himself and the bene-

fit of his fellow man?

PhySical Education in Higher Education
An overview of the aims and purposes of physical edu-
cation in higher education is presented. By examining the
stated aims, a perSpective to the physical education cur-

riculum can be gained.

An Overview

 

The first department of physical education in any
institution of higher education in America was established
in 1861 at Amherst College (1A3, 62, 26). Dr. Edward
Hitchcock conducted Classes for all students of the college.
The primary purpose for this program was to maintain health
and to provide relief from the strain of academic work.

Prior to this time, both formal and informal programs
of activities had been introduced in other colleges and
universities. None of the programs, however, had been

awarded the status of a departmental curriculum until the

39

Amherst program. As early as 18A7 calisthenic classes were
held for women at Oberlin and in the same year, Lake Erie
College, a women's college, constructed a building which
contained a gymnasium (97). These early beginnings of
physical education were prompted by the supposed need for
students to engage in physical activity to deter the ill
effects of study and to promote their good health.

The latter half of the nineteenth century was the
formative period for the pattern of physical education in
higher education. The program introduced at Amherst set
the pattern for many of the early programs. The predominant
objective Of the program was to develop and sustain physical
health and vigor. Many of the early programs in the
colleges and universities were established under the leader-
ship of persons who had received medical degrees. Dr. Dudley
A. Sargent was one such pioneer physical educator. Coming
to Harvard in 1879, he eXpressed the aims of physical
training as:

l. Hygienic: the consideration of the normal

proportions of the individual, the anatomy
and the physiological functions Of various
organs, and a study of the ordinary agents

of health such as exercise, diet, Sleep, air,
bathing, and clothing.

2. Educative: the cultivation of Special powers

of mind and body used in the acquisition of
some skillful trade or physical accomplish—
ment, such as golf, swimming or skating.

3. Recreative: the renovation of vital energies

to enable the individual to return to his

daily work with vigor and accomplish his tasks
with ease.

A0
A. Remedial: the restoration of disturbed functions
and the correction of physical defects and de-
formities (1A3, p. 389).
Ainsworth, in an historical account of the development
of physical education in women's colleges stated:
The develOpment of physical education in colleges
for women reflects the influences that were felt in
the more general field of physical education for
girls and women in the United States. The raison

d'etre of physical education in colleges for women
was the fear that ill health would result from study

(1, p. 13).

By the turn of the century and during the first two
or three decades of the 1900's, physical education programs
in colleges and universities began to broaden their aims and
objectives. Where the stated aims had once included only
a health and fitness objective, they began to include ob-
jectives for character, psycho-motor, and intellectual
development. These broadened aims were reflective of the
expansion of the educational aims of higher education in
general and of the trend for the "new physical education”
specifically (143, pp. 428—429; 61, pp. 160—161).

An aim of physical education for women at Oberlin
College in 1919 stated:

The general course aims not only to remedy defects
and promote vigorous health, but also to make the
body responsive to the mind and a more delicate in-
strument of expression; to develop self-content,
loyalty, COOperation, and physical judgment; and to
establish an interest in physical fitness which will
continue beyond college day" (97, p. 13).

For a time during and immediately following World

War One, the aim of health, fitness, and physical vigor

A1

necessary to the citizens of the country to meet the
stresses of peace or war was once again emphasized (90,
127).

In 1920, a committee of the Society of Directors of
Physical Education in Colleges reported four aims of phy-
sical education which reflected a growing emphasis on the
develOpment of good citizenship and social competence:

1. If the perfection of the individual in his social
relations is of greater importance than purely
personal values, then the first aim is the devel-
Opment of habits of obafience, subordination,
self-sacrifice, co—Operation, friendliness, and
other qualities desirable in a group.

2. Other traits of indirect significance to the
community are self-confidence and self—control,
mental and moral poise, good Spirits, alertness,
resourcefulness, courage, aggressiveness, and
initiative

3. There is the underlying purpose of promoting
normal growth and organic development, con-
serving health, and providing strength and en-
durance, good posture, and neuro—muscular control.

A. It is important to engender intelligent and
healthful interest leading to life-long prac—
tice of active exercise for physical efficiency,
mental sanity, and stimulating social contacts
(1A3, p. A30; 85, pp. 286—287).

During the 1930's a new aim of physical education was
added. This aim directed toward the preparation for leisure
time. With the addition of this recreative aim, the broad
scope of purposes stated in the prior decade remained essen—
tially in balance until once again a national crisis revived
thecxnmern for physical fitness and health. During the
years of the Second World War and immediately afterward,

particular emphasis was given to the development of physical

A2

education programs in colleges and universities that aimed
for health, strength, and fitness for the college men and
women.

Two events since the middle l9AO'S have been influen-
tial in promoting a re-emphasis of the health and fitness
aim of physical education. One event, exerting some force,
was directly related to the Korean War. A war-time crisis
has always drawn attention to the level of physical fitness
and health of Umayoung men of this country due to the wide-
spread application Of the military acceptance standards.

In addition, as a result of studies carried out by military
medical personnel on Korean casualities, evidence was found
that indicated coronary disease, in varying degrees, to be
prevalent in young men (A2). Though no causative factors
were Specifically identified, the implications of the
findings related to health and fitness factors of Americans.
Diet and physical activity were two such factors. Prior to
this time, coronary disease had been commonly thought to

be a disease of the more aged.

Another event having a more direct bearing on the
health and fitness Objectives of the physical education
programs was the execution of the KrauS-Weber tests. The
reporting of the results of these tests (82, 81, 18) started
a chain of events that led eventually to the establishment
of the President's Council on Fitness (1956). Though the

tests were conducted on elementary and secondary school

A3

youth, the college and university programs also felt the
repercussions of the findings.

In 1957, the College Physical Education Association
appointed a committee to which they gave the reSponSibility
of outlining the essential means by which fitness could
be acquired by the college man. The committee report

was published in 1959 under the title Fit for Collegg (27).

 

"The emphasis in the report is, naturally, the contribution
which is made to the active life by the appropriate use of
physical education." The text of the report deals with a
broad definition of fitness and states the following as

the aim of college physical education:

Physical education aims to provide opportunities for
active participation now as well as for a continuous
participation throughout life. It seeks to give the
participant an understanding of the social and ethical
aSpectS of Sport which is so significant to an under—
standing of the social culture in which we live. It
seeks to contribute to the general education of students
by enhancing their understanding of themselves, by
helping them to develOp a measure of satisfying Skill,
and by contributing to their wise use of leisure.

The personal outcomes of a college physical education
experience are to be measured not only in terms of
strength, organic efficiency, and skill, but also in
terms of its contribution to the complete personality.
The experience becomes totally develOpmental (27,p. 7).

The American Medical Association provided further
emphasis to the health and fitness aim of physical education
in the passing of a resolution at their annual meeting in
1960. This resolution follows.

Whereas, The medical profession has helped to pioneer
physical education in our schools and colleges and

thereafter has encouraged and supported sound pro-
grams in this field;

AA

Whereas, There is increasing evidence that prOper
exercise is a Significant factor in the maintenance
of health and the prevention of degenerative disease;
and

Whereas, Advancing automation has reduced the amount
of physical activity in daily living, although the
need for exercise to foster prOper develOpment of our
young people remains constant; and

Whereas, There is a growing need for the develOpment
of physical Skills that can be applied throughout
life in the constructive and wholesome use of leisure
time; and

Whereas, In an age of mounting tensions, enjoyable
physical activity can be helpful in the relief of
stress and strain, and consequently in preserving
mental health; therefore be it

Resolved, That the American Medical Association through
its constituent and component medical societies do
everything feasible to encourage effective instruc-
tion 1n physical education for all students in our
schools and colleges (6).

One other single event of the 1950 decade exerted pro-
found influence on all phases of education, physical edu-
cation included. When the Soviet scientists put the first
man-made satellite into orbit around the earth on October A,
1957, they also caused the "Sputnik" crisis that affected
all of American education. The success of the Russian
scientists seemed to be a direct reflection of some inade-
quacy of American education to produce highly educated
scientists. Whether warranted or not, American educators
found themselves answering extrinsically and self-imposed
questions concerning the content, quality, and quantity of
the entire educational enterprise. This crisis, coupled
with the growing demands for expanded programs for more
and more students, brought investigation of all phases of
education. Physical educators, at the college and univer-

sity level particularly, were called upon to Specify,

A5

justify, and in some cases, defend the purposes and objec-
tives of the physical education program as a part of the
students' curriculum. College physical education personnel
investigated their collective and individual programs,
re-stated, and interpreted their intended purposes.

In a report (published in 1959) summarizing the pro-
ceedings from two national conferences (195A and 1958) on
physical education for college men and women, the following
were stated as the specific contributions of physical edu—
cation to the education program in higher education:

1. College men and women benefit from physical
education in

the develOpment of activity Skills
more efficient physiological function
more effective movement, and

improved human relations.

Q0693

2. Activity Skills provide opportunities for
enjoying leisure time for living and for
release from tension.

3. Efficient physiological functioning enables the
individual to participate more effectively and
safely in the normal pursuits of everyday living.

A. Physical education provides opportunities for

a. joy and satisfaction in movement,

b. individuals to develOp an appreciation of
the performance of others in all types of
physical activity,

c. the individual to evaluate continuously and
re-direct his efforts toward the realization
of his maximum potentialities,

d. the continued development and improvement of
democratic behavior,

e. the individual to develOp an acceptable
ethical code,

f. individuals to appreciate, understand, and
accept individual and cultural differences,
and

A6

g. an individual to develop an awareness of
the value of physical recreation in enrich-
ment of personal and community life (28,

p- 5)-

A study of the status of the instructional physical
education programs in four—year colleges and universities
was undertaken in 1958. The investigation was executed by
Cordts and Shaw and surveyed the existing physical
education programs as of June 1958. A random sample of
four—year institutions was surveyed and the changes in the
programs that had occurred Since 195A were summarized.

Though the discussion here is primarily concerned with
the stated aims and objectives of the programs, it is inter-
esting to note that of the 18A institutions answering the
survey, (61-1/3% of 300) only 8.6% of these had no physical
education program.

The philosophy and objectives of the existing programs
were questioned. A summary of the findings states:

Departmental philosophies have been formulated in

writing and correlated with the general college philos-
Ophy. Statements Of objectives have been clarified

with resulting increased emphasis being placed on cer-
tain areas such as fitness, body mechanics, health
principles, and carry-over Sports. Changes have not
been uniformly in the same direction. For example,
while some schools mentioned moving toward more emphasis
on physical fitness, others mentioned moving away from
it to a balanced program. There was some mention of
greater emphasis being placed on an intellectual approach
to the principles of movement (30, p. All).

A similar nationwide study of the status of the instruc-
tional physical education programs in the colleges and

universities was conducted in October and November of 1960

by Oxendine (107). The data collected was compared to that

A7

of the 1958 Cordts and Shaw survey. However, the compari—
sons were made on more organizational and functional ele—
ments of the programs, such as: methods of obtaining and
assigning grades, class time and scheduling practices,
credit and requirement status, etc. No comparisons were
made on the statements of aims and objectives. These two
studies give some indication of the scope of the concern
for physical education programs in higher education.

In 1961, a national conference was held for the pur-
pose of interpreting physical education. Though the con-
ference was not intended to interpret only the college
programs, a great many of the participants were college and
university personnel. The conference intended to give an
interpretation of physical education that would be appli-
cahkato all levels of education. The conferees published
seventeen statements of the values and outcomes of prOper
physical education programs. Included in the stated out-
comes were those of total health and physical development;
the learning of movement patterns and motor Skills; the use
of physical activity for expression, communication and
aesthetic satisfaction; the contribution of physical activ-
ity to self—awareness and personal develOpment; the devel—
opment Of skills for leisure participation; and, the knowl-
edge and use of physical activity for establishment of
social group practices and values (113).

A recent (1965) publication by the American Associa-

tion for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation presents

A8

a consensus of the contemporary views on the purposes of
physical education at every level of education. This pub-
lication reflects the growing intent to give meaning to
physical activity in contemporary society.

Its (physical education) new content is a sequence
of experiences in which children learn to move as
they move to learn more about themselves and their
world. The experiences are designed to serve five
major educational purposes:

To Help children learn to move skillfully and effec—
tively not only in exercises, games, Sports, and dance
but also in all active life situations.

To DevelOp understandings of voluntary movement and
the ways in which individuals may organize their own
movements to accomplish the significant purposes of
their lives.

To Enrich understanding of Space, time, mass—energy
relationships, and related concepts.

To Extend understanding of socially approved pat-
terns of personal behavior, with particular reference
to the interpersonal interactions of games and Sport.

To Condition the heart, lungs, muscles, and other
organic systems to reSpond to increased demands by
imposing progressively greater demands upon them.

This then, is physical education--the modern school
subject in which children and young adults study the
properties of their own idea-directed movements. The
curriculum is described and discussed . . . in terms
now used to describe man's understanding of his own
life in the age Of Space (5, p. 3).

In recapitulating the major emphases of the aims and
purposes of physical education from its earliest beginnings
to the present, Hughes, French, and Lehsten state:

Physical education has passed through periods of em-
phasis upon physical culture, physical welfare, Skills
through drills, fitness to fight, physical survival,
Sports for recreation . . . everybody participate,
social growth through Sports, gymnasium psychiatry
for those with problems of adjustment, carry-over ac-
tivities for leisure, and fitness (66, p. l 5).

The aims and Objectives of physical education have

been modified and extended over the years, reflecting social

A9

and educational influences in society. The form of the
physical education programs has changed from primarily

calisthenics and formal gymnastics to a wide variety of
Sports, games, dance, and exercise.

In summarization, the stated purposes for physical
education in higher education have been organized into
broad and somewhat arbitrary categories. The rationale
for physical education as a curriculum offering in higher
education is based on these general premises:

Physical education activities:

1. contribute to the develOpment of total physical
and mental health—-the continuance of the growth and
development process and the sustenance of vigorous physical
well-being in the adult years.

2. contribute to the develOpment of neuro-muscular
Skill and coordination to be used in learning of specific
Skills for work and leisure; skill that contributes to com-
munication and expression of the individual.

3. contribute to the develOpment of the individual
socially—-those behavioral patterns acceptable for suc-
cessful group participation; socially acceptable traits
of character; characteristics relating to democratic citizen-
Ship.

A. contribute to the develOpment of the individual's
Imantal and emotional weD:being—-learning to use activity

as a release of tension; participating in various forms of

SO

activity for personal joy and satisfaction; development of

better understanding of oneself.

A Perspective

 

There is need to develOp a structure for a humanistic
physical education curriculum in higher education that will
emphasize the unique functions Of purposeful physical ac-
tivity or human movement for the individual in a changing
society. Such an approach sets as its goal the develOpment
of each individual through fostering programs centered on
man, his interests, and his values which can be developed,
maintained, and extended through the unique functions and
contributions Of the subject matter. The need for such a
structure arises from a view of the following complex of
factors:

1. The college-age youth is most generally in need
of develOping the self; an identity as a Significant being
in an adult world. The individual is concerned not only
with develOping knowledge and skills for occupational com-
petence that assures entrance to a successful career, but
also is concerned with develOping personal and social skills
and acceptable values that assure successful living. Indi-
vidual development of this nature is a fundamental goal of
higher education generally. It is of fundamental importance
in that the successful acquisition of other goals of higher
education depend, to some extent, "on qualities found only

in highly developed individuals' (116, p. 288). Though this

51

is a readily ascribed-to goal by both college students and
college educators, few disciplines, in practice, address
themselves to this fundamental task.

2. The college student of today lives in a society
clearly marked by change. His adult life will be Spent in
a continuously changing society. This change undoubtedly
will effect both mode and style of living. The uncertainty,
rapidity, and unprecedented nature of these changes would
seem to demand strong, self-assured, well-integrated, and
yet adaptable and adjustable personalities. The young
adults of today's world have inherited “more" from the
past--more knowledge, more scientific advancement in all
areas, more years of life, a more affluent society, and even
more people. Along with these increases has come what seems
to be a decrease in man himself. In the midst of more
things, the individual struggles harder for real human
worth. A society which would seem to need well develOped
individuals seems, at the same time, to be an influence for
alienation and dis—orientation from the integrated self.

3. Traditionally, physical education in higher edu—
cation has stated its aims.wmiobjectives toward the devel—
Opment of the individual--physcially, mentally, socially,
emotionally, and morally--with a strong emphasis on physi—
cal development or fitness. Though lip service has been
paid to the philosophical position of the wholeness of man,
in statements of purposes, the recipient appears to have

been divided into parts. In execution of the curriculum

52

directed by the objective statements, man has not been
returned to his position of unity. The unique function

of physical education has traditionally been almost solely
the emphasis on the physical development of the student.

A fundamental question arises. In view of the common
develOpmental tasks of the college-age youth in today's
society, how can physical education, a subject area com-
mitted to human interests and values, make the full and
unique contributions to the individual of which it is
capable?

A new approach to structuring the physical education
curriculum in higher education is needed. A humanistic
curriculum structure is needed that focuses on the college
student in American society, his distinctively human

needs, interests, and values.

CHAPTER III

THE CONCEPTUAL STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION

In develOping the basis for structuring a humanistic
physical education curriculum, a theoretical concept con-
cerning purposeful human movement or physical activity and
the identification of its unique functions for man is
presented.

A Theoretical Concept Of Purposeful Human
Movement in Meeting Man's Needs

 

 

Definition - A Position

 

Purposeful human movement or physical activity is
the subject matter with which physical education is con-
cerned. There is need to clarify the term "movement" as
it is herein used. The term here refers to those volun-
tary, purposeful, and self-directed movements of the human
being as Opposed to the reflexive and involuntary move-
ments which man is also capable of performing. Also in-
herent in this use of the term, is the assumption that
movement is a total response of the human being. Movement
demands the functioning and interacting Of all of the
somatic and psychic systems of the person within the en-

vironmental setting. Movement is ”a fundamental

53

5A

characteristic of human existence. Essentially, the phrase
'to be alive' means 'to be able to move'; and all human
beings use this ability in some way during every moment of
their lives" (9A, p. v).

The terms ”physical activity" and "movement" are often
used interchangeably and in some instances are used Simul-
taneously. There appears to be little that differentiates
these terms when used to discuss human movement. Perhaps
to say "physical activity" places, with less chance of mis-
understanding, the discussion in the realm of human move-
ment as Opposed to movement having different origins. Move-
ment and physical activity are here used synonymously.

Fundamental to the theoretical concept of movement
is the basic theoretical position that accepts the unity
of man.

Man is an interacting, interdependent, integrating
organism. He functions as a whole . . . and cannot
be divided into disparate entities of mind, body,
and soul. The individual approaches the solution to
the problems of life and living as a total, unified
personality (119, p. l).
"A central emphasis in education Should be upon the unity
or oneness of personality and upon the delicate interdepen-
dence of all aspects of self" (112, p. 15). "The basic
fact is that a person is all of a piece (117, p. A0).

The fundamental nature of movement, an essential, in-

tegrated human capacity, is the basis for the theoretical

concept of movement in meeting man's needs to fulfill his

potential for human existence.

55

The concept itself is derived from consideration of
human movement in all its forms and uses. "Why does man
learn to do the infinite number and variety of movement
patterns he performs in the process of his living?" ”What
meaning does the doing Of his movements have for him?"

Movement has two distinctive functions for man. Move-
ment, on the one hand, is "enabling"-—"utilitarian"--a means
by which other extrinsic goals are achieved. Movement is
a medium through which something else is acquired. The em—
phasis is placed not necessarily on the process of movement
solely; the desired end is Ofam least equal importance to
the performer and the performance. On the other hand, move-
ment is "enhancing"—-"ennobling"--is valuable in its own
right and is both the process and product of its having been
done. Movement is subjective for the performer. It is both
means and end.

Arriving at the concept that movement has an enabling
function for man is relatively obvious. Man is after all,

a moving being and his life processes are sustained and
maintained by his movements; and more fundamentally, by the
results of his movements. This enabling feature of man's
movement, however, does not, to the writer at least, explain
why man has developed his movement capacities to be used

in play. It is agreed that the enabling concept_pguld be
stretched to cover this human phenomenon--man moves and
learns to move to enable him to p1ay--however, this leads

to attempting to define play and then to considering the

56

significance of play for the player. Further, this thought
process leads to consideration of the infinite varieties

and forms of play devised by man, all of which do not in—
volve highly active or complex movements in a bio-mechanical
sense of the term. When one considers all forms of move-
ment that are generally considered to be in the realm of
play or recreation, and applies the question as to why does
man perform these movements, the answer is most Often that
they are performed because they are enjoyed. One can con-
tinue by stating that the performance is enjoyed for or
because of any number of reasons, all of which are subjec-
tive and personally significant. Enjoyment is by definition
a personal experience of pleasure and satisfaction. It
seems therefore that since so many movements and movement
forms are executed for personal enjoyment, this says some-
thing about the essence Of the performance itself for the
performer. Hence, the concept is derived that human move—
ment has an enhancing function for man. This theoretical
concept may or may not be,in reality, a fact. Nevertheless,
it provides a way of selecting and organizing content in

physical education.

Human Movement is "Enabling"

 

To say that movement and the learning of movement is
enabling is to suggest that having develOped one's capacity
for movement allows the individual to attain some external

goa1--a goal outside of the movement process itself. In

57

effect, the individual is better able to achieve in some
other realm through the develOpment of his own movement
abilities. This does not mean to infer that the development
of movement potential and the movement process is any less
important than the extrinsic goal. Quite the contrary, it
implies that the individual will be better able to attain
the desired goals if the movements through which he performs
are the highest caliber allowed by his inherent capacity.
Allport makes a somewhat Similar distinction between the
nature of abilities and knowledges the person must acquire
in the development Of total personality. He classifies
all those learnings that allow the individual to carry out
the tasks of his daily life without undue concern and con—
centration as "Opportunistic" (3, pp. 39-AO). Movement,
according to its enabling characteristics, would fall into
this classification

Considering movement in this way, as a means, is per—
haps the most common consideration of the function of
movement in man's life. Everyone waits patiently, encour-
ages, and aids an infant in his learning how to walk. The
act of walking enables the child then to do other things:
get his own toys, come when he is called, and so on. As
the child grows older, adults are still waiting patiently
for him to learn movements that will enable the child to
become more self-sufficient, independent, and more adult-
1ike. The movements and movement patterns that are learned,

in ever increasing numbers and variety, are all thought of

58

as useful for some purpose. It is true that as the young
child grows, the kinds of fundamental movement patterns he
has to learn for daily existence tasks get fewer and are
more easily learned; but other goals are assumed that must
be achieved through movement and movement of a somewhat
more complex or intricate nature. Subsumed in this use of
movement, is the fact Of its necessity for sustaining funda-
mental 1ife processes and functions. In essence, the
enabling function of movement to man never ceases through-
out a lifetime. He must always use movement as a means
through which he COpes with his environment and carries on

his human existence.

Human Movement is "Enhancing"

 

The enhancing, ennobling, intrinsic function of move-
ment in man's life, is a concept somewhat less obvious but
of equal importance. In this sense, movement functions for
the performer as an integrative, personally meaningful, and
satisfying experience. The experience of movement is the
outcome; therefore it is both means and end and exists for
its own sake.

Movement has this kind of a function because of the
unity that is man. His human capacities allow a total
response to his environment and movement demands the reSponse
of that totality.

Several factors must accompany the movement experience

of this nature if it is to have this function for the

59

performer. First of all, it matters little what form the
movement takes but the form must be selected or agreed
upon by the performer. The individual is self-directed
even though rules and regulations may be imposed by the
chosen form. This self-direction suggests control of self,
mastery of the movement that is purposeful for the self.
The movement experience challenges, sharpens awareness and
perceptiveness, demands the recognition of self in a dynamic
and changing environment and calls forth expression and com-
munication of self in response to the immediate environment.
Such an experience in movement enhances the performer as
he is aware of himself as a separate identity and aware of
his personal reSponSibility for his total involvement in
the performance.

Perhaps the reluctance to describe the nature of this
function of movement in man's living, and the difficulty
in doing so, stems partially from the fact that experiences
of this kind are subjective in nature and are extremely
rich in personal feeling and emotion. Verbal communication
is often a poor means by which one must describe a purely
personal, non-verbal experience. It is the very personal
nature of this kind of experience, however, that gives it
the greatest value for the human being. At the same time,
it is only man of all living creatures who can so experience

his movement.

60

Identification of the Primary Patterns and
Forms of Movement, Their Significance and
Unique Functions

 

 

 

Reference to patterns of movement here denotes the
various fundamental movements of which the human body is
capable by design and function which in turn are variously
sequenced and used by man in his daily living tasks or in
developing and executing forms of movement.

When reference is made to the forms of movement, it
here signifies any physical activity that can be identified
by its organization around a set of rules or regulations,
by a generally accepted combination of movement patterns
by which it is executed, by the particular environment in
which it is performed, and/or by some particular piece of
equipment essential to the performance. The forms of move-
ment are recognized to be man-made, accepted and for the
most part, perpetuated by society. In this sense, forms
of movement can be traditional and are socially oriented.
The term is used as a general reference that includes Sports,
games, dance activities, etc.

A discrete classification of any Single movement
pattern or form as serving an enabling or enhancing func-
tion is not possible. Specific movements may be either
'enabling or enhancing to the individual according to age,
develOpmental level, or innate capacity and the immediate

situation in which it is performed.

61

The enabling and enhancing functions of movement can
be further identified in relation to the Special Signifi-
cance that movements of each nature would have for the in-
dividual.

If a movement pattern or form is enabling, it is pri-
marily of biological significance to the individual. These
are the movementsaflfl physical activities needed in and for
daily living for Optimum functional efficiency and success-
ful accomplishment of living tasks.

If a movement pattern or form is enhancing, its Sig-
nificance to the individual is found in a realm related to
social and cultural environment and in a subjective realm
related to self and personality development. Movement pat-
terns and forms take on social significance as they serve
to enhance the person in a social Situation. The individual
acquires a sense of belonging to the group, a Spirit of
cooperative effort, becomes a responsible agent in upholding
standards of conduct, and so on. Movement patterns and
forms assume cultural significance through enhancing the
individual by mastery of the culturally oriented movement
forms and by performance within accepted and approved roles
of masculine or feminine behavior. Movement is enhancing
and significant in terms of the subjective realm as the
individual performer experiences joy, satisfaction, and

challenge in personal performance and achievement.

62

Implications of the Theoretical Concepts
for Curriculum Developmen§;in Higher

 

 

Education

 

What implications does this concept have for study
in physical education at the college level? How does
this concept lead to a humanistic physical education cur-

riculum in higher education?

Selection of Content.—-TO translate the theoretical

 

concept to the study Of physical education, a basic assump-
tion is that the study of human movement, its uses and forms,
is the subject matter of physical education. Physical edu-
cation is the study of basic movements, movement patterns,
and diverse forms:

1. from simple basic movements and patterns to
complex movement forms in human existence;

2. and the factors determining and modifying the
role in personal develOpment of the forms of
movement created by man for a given society
and a particular cultural environment;

3. and the significance and meaning of achieve-
ment of their mastery by each individual in
human existence.

Traditionally, physical education in higher education
has subscribed to the develOpment of the individual through
the medium of physical activity or human movement. The con-
tent Of the instructional physical education programs has
been, for the most part, a variety of forms of movement.
The learning experiences have involved the particular move-

ments, individual and group strategies, rules, Specific

movement sequences and patterns, relationships of the

63

execution of the patterns to the environment in which it is
done, and other facets related to successful performance of
the specific form. All of these experiences have been de—
signed to enable the student to: develop better neuro-
muscular coordination, develop recreational skills and in-
terests, gain better social and emotional adjustment, de—
velOp his physical capacities and potential for healthful
living——just to reiterate a few of the stated purposes. In
essence, physical education traditionally has been concerned
with and has emphasized almost exclusively the enabling-
utilitarian functions of movement as the instructional pro-
grams have been developed. This is of fundamental importance
to man and does fit higher education's commitment to the
development Of the individual's total capacities and poten-
tial. However, the study of physical education that em-
phasizes the enhancing—ennobling function of movement for
the individual Should help make that study much richer by
capitalizing on the subjective nature and personal signifi-
cance that that study has for the individual. It seems
logical and appropriate that the study of physical education
at the college level should be carried on through a program
of curricular experiences that focus on the enhancing-
ennobling functions of movement to the individual. This

is not to say that learning for enablement is not also
included at this level. The emphasis however, dictates

that the college student be approached as much through the

realm of his personal responsibilities to his family and

6A

community as through his reSponSibilitieS to himself. In
total, this conception of the study of physical education
places it in the domain of a humanistic curriculum. Human-
istic curriculum, as it is herein used, is described by
Thelen, as one of four different domains of knowledge.

These domains are, by recent tradition, physical
science, biological science, social science, and
humanistic studies. These four domains can be
arranged along a continuum. Physical science is
concerned with events and phenomena far out from
the self--the stars, for example. Biological science
comes in a little closer, and social science still
more. In fact, we find social knowledge always partly
from the point of View of a participant in the phe-
nomena we are studying. Humanistic study is subjective
and "inside”; it has to do with the unique thoughts
and expressions of individuals. It is the record not
of the world "out there" but of the experience that
an individual has with the world (13A, p. 36).

The body is the physical manifestation of the per—
son, his mind, his emotions, his thoughts, his feelings.
It is the SELF he presents to the world. Through its
movements, he expresses and externalizes the thinking
and feeling which make him a unique person (95, p. 27).
Human movement, being a life process and a process of life

for each individual, is appropriately a humanistic study.

Organization of Content.-—A humanistic physical edu—

 

cation curriculum in higher education emphasizes the indi-
vidual; his needs as a human being in a society of other
human beings. The unique functions or values of physical
activity and movement for the learner are presented in the
following section. This presentation lists the general
functions in relation to the developmental tasks of today's
college student, the more Specific ways in which the

'fearning experiaxfis can help meet these tasks, and where

65

available, some evidence that indicates this to be a

desirable and/or feasible outcome.

Individual Development

 

Developmental TaskS.-—Paramount task of achieving

 

personal identity, individual significance, and a feeling
of personal worth and value; more specific tasks of ac—

cepting one's physique and using the body effectively, and
developing intellectual Skills and concepts necessary for

competence.

Specific Ways in Which Learning Experiences Can Con-

 

tribute.-—

l. by the continued development Of body mastery.
Body mastery involves the self—directed response of the
individual in a given Situation. The student continues to
learn new and/or improve formerly-learned skills according
to his own capacity and his own choosing in a variety of
situations.

2. by the heightening of the "bodily sense.”
This is that aSpect of personality that defines the ”bodily
me.” According to Allport, this sense resides at a more
or less sub—conscious level at most times, but becomes ”well
configurated in consciousness in the exhilaration that
accompanies physical exercise. . . .[This] bodily sense

remains a life long anchor for our self-awareness” (3,

pp. AO—A2).

66

3. by the maintenance of a sense of integration of
the self. Jacob relates the sense of integration to "body
image” and an ”inner—man feeling” on which successful indi-
vidual behavior depends (68, p. 27). In essence, this is
very much like the "bodily sense" with the addition of
feeling beyond just an awareness of self. Personal inte-
gration is the core of self-identity and self concept, both
of which are essential to individual autonomy. "A continuous
program of physical activity is very important in maintaining
a sense of integration, . . . on which successful behavior
depends" (68, p. 27).
A. by continued self—evaluation and appraisal by
the individual. The individual's level of physical develOp-
ment, innate potential, and capacity for adaptation and
change can be evaluated in relation to the present, with
direct reference to the past, and with the continued aware-
ness of the future. A person's movement characteristics
are determined and
altered by many factors, each operating in interaction
with others. Some factors are more potent than others
in different individuals. Such factors include age,
sex, body build, personality, racial and social groups,
perceptual ability, attitudes toward body and movement,
nutrition, rest, sleep, emotional status, and physical
activity (1A5, p. 5).

The point of reference is that all of these factors are in—

dividual in nature and can be evaluated both subjectively

and to some extent objectively.

5. by personal evaluation of motivations, meanings,

and significance of the individual behavior. It is here

67

suggested that the overt nature of movement and the im-
mediacy of the experience can allow introspection by the

individual as to why he "acted,"

for what purpose, what
directed his choices, and what were the consequences of
that behavior. Movement experiences can offer a total pat-
tern of ”stimulus-action-consequence" taking place within

a temporal setting that allows review of this basic mode
and cycle of human behavior.

6. by Sharpening the sensitivity to surrounding
environment. Movement demands total involvement of the in-
dividual. This supposes a quickening of the senses and
a heightened awareness and perception of what one is about.
Ulich discusses total involvement as the essence of "a
tuning of the whole person" and further describes it as
being a fundamental condition for creative reSponse. Though
discussing the characteristics of creativity, Ulich borrows
the phrase from Friedrich Schiller: "Man is truly and
wholly man only when he plays." The point here is that to
be able to play one must "lift himself about the strain and
toils of daily effort," learn how to "touch, to see, to hear,”
develOp a ”talent for repose" which leads one "to interchange
work and leisure, seriousness and levity, intenseness and
relaxation, and wakefulness with the sweetness of Sleep,”
and be "awake to the sensuous part of life" (137, p. 85).
Movement experiences are a universally available medium

for total involvement. Though movement may or may not

ultimately find expression in a creative art form, it can

68

and does possess the "essence“ of the fundamental condition

for creative response.

Individual's Understanding of Man and His
Cultural Heritage

 

 

Developmental TaskS.—-Acquiring a set of values and

 

an ethical system as a guide to behavior; desiring and
achieving socially responsible behavior; identifying self

in relation to the larger social environment.

Specific Ways in Which Learning Experiences Can Con-
tribute.--

l. by investigation and study of the cultural setting
of the forms of movement. To study these forms, Sports,
games, dance, etc., is to study something of the ethnic
origins and social acceptance of these forms of movement
and to study the meaning and significance these forms held
for man in the past and to evaluate their place and value
in contemporary society. Employing a broad interpretation
of "play” that includes all forms of movement, Huizinga
provides an indication of the value of this study:

As a regularly recurring relaxation, it [play] becomes
the accompaniment, the complement, in fact an integral
part of life in general. It adorns life, amplifies it,
and is to that extent, a necessity both for the individ-
ual-—as a life function--and for society by reason of

the mearning it contains, its significance, its ex-
pressive value, its Spiritual and social associations,

in Short, as a cultural function. . . . The expression
of play in a culture comes to satisfy all kinds of
communal ideals. . . . It is through playing that so-

ciety expresses its interpretation of life and the
world (67, p. 9).

69

Play is one of the universal accompaniments of human
existence. An institutionalized form of play, such

as a major Sport, forms the core of a larger cultural
complex which functions as a dramatic medium for acting
out or depicting in symbolic form, the basic premises
and value orientations of the culture (25, p. 9).

2. by the study Of the use of movement as a means of
communication and expression. To study man's use of move-
ment for expression and communication is to broaden the
prospective of the "language of the living organism" (19,
p. 71). Brown and Caxfidy indicate the sc0pe of this study
in their summarization of the expressive and communicative
qualities of movement:

Autistic

Gesture

Uncontrolled self expression

Tracings of mimetic musculature

Unique expressive behavior

Purposeful movement to solve developmental problems

Purposeful movement to solve COping-with-the-

environment problems

Purposeful movement to solve cummunication problems

Purposeful movement to express feelings

Expressive form (19, p. 73)

3. by the study of movement as a "creator of beauty.”
Educators have long ascribed to the value of recognizing,
understanding, and appreciating man's creative and artistic
achievements of the past and of the present. For full com-
prehension of the extent of man's creative works, the in-
herent beauty and aesthetic nature of movements Should be
studied.

In the action and rhythm which testify to mastery of
space and time, Sport becomes akin to the arts which
create beauty. No athlete can accomplish a genuine
feat without such perfect physical control, in time

and Space, that his movements and the rhythm of their
timing are not to be differentiated from the finest

7O

ballet, the most splendid passages of prose or verse,

the most glorious lines in architecture or sculpture

or the loveliest harmonies of light and colour (87,

p. 1A). ‘

A. by studying the highest achievements involving

the extension of man's movement capacities. This study sug-
gests that a greater appreciation may be acquired for purely
human capacities. Who has never thrilled to the accomplish-
ment or the perfect execution of a feat requiring the utmost
in performance that man can achieve? Who of us doesn't gain
from such a performance a little more respect for the truly
marvelous instrument the human body is? Who of us doesn't
stand a little taller in the family of man in the face of
his highest achievements?

Individual's Development of a Sense
of Responsibility for Others

 

 

DevelOpmental TaSkS.--Desiring and achieving socially

 

reSponSibile behavior, acquiring a set of values and an
ethical system as a guide to behavior, preparing for per-
sonal and community living in relation to present and

future life.

Specific Ways in Which Learning EXperiences Can Con—

 

tribute.--

1. by acquisition of the knowledge of the contribu-
tions of the movement process-—its learning and doing--as
it relates to the growth and development of children. AS

the college student prepares to assume the responsible role

71

of a parent, the study of the role of movement and physical
activity in the growth and development and health status of
a child is essential for complete fulfillment of parental
responsibility.

2. by the acquisition of the knowledge of the con—
tributions of movement to man in relation to the total
functioning capacity of the human being at all ages. This
study includes the investigation of the effects of exercise
and physical activity on the body, its physical vigor and
efficiency. The scientific evidence of the role of phy-
sical activity in daily living is the basis for such study.
This necessity for physical activity is made applicable to
all age levels and its study is focused on the individual's
reSponSibility to help provide the Opportunities for initial
learning and continued participamon in movement experiences
for the members of the family and community.

The Structure for Designing a Humanistic
Physical Education Curriculum

 

 

The Concept of Curriculum Design

 

Curriculum design is a statement of the pattern of
relationships which exist among the elements of curriculum
as they are used to make a consistent set of decisions about
the nature of the curricular experiences for the learner.
The role of curriculum design can best be seen in relation
to its following functions: (1) as a definer of the ele-

ments and their pattern of relationships in curriculum

72

develOpment, and (2) as a statement of the means used for
selecting and organizing the learning experiences. The
design does not, in and of itself, define its elements but
a design merely presents and makes evident the need for
such definition.

The investigator developing this design conceived of
curriculum develOpment as representing a triangle (Figure 1).
The apex Of the triangle represents the outcomes sought
for students. The base represents the philOSOphy of life
and physical education of the investigator. One side
represents the needs arm ifmerestscfi‘the student in Ameri-
can society and the other Side, the selection and organiza-
tion of content to meet the aims and produce the desired

outcomes.

Aims and Outcomes

   
 

Selection and
Organization of
Content

Developmental
Tasks of Today's
College Student

 

Philosophical Concepts

Figure 1.--A design for planning a curriculum.

73

A PrOposed Design for a Humanistic
Physical Education Curriculum

 

 

The prOposed design immediately defines what are con-
sidered to be the important elements in curriculum devel-
opment. In addition, the design points out how they are
to be combined to produce desired outcomes. It suggests
further a series of priorities: (1) that a curriculum is
develOped on the base of the educational beliefs and con-
victions of the person or persons reSponSible for its
development, (2) that the purposes of physical education
provide the means for selecting the needs of students, and
(3) that the individual needs of students cannot be con-
sidered in isolation but must be recognized in relation
to the needs of society and the capacity of the resources
of purposeful physical activity to meet them.

The underlying base for curriculum structure is a
personal philOSOphy of life and physical education. This
philOSOphy covers such activities as are involved in iden-
tifying values, in seeing the consistent relationships
which exist between values in purposeful physical activity
to human behavior, and in using values to make judgments
about the means to achieve ends. Philosophy in this sense
is the over-all dynamic process involved in planning the
design and putting it to work in instructional programs
through Specific teaching-learning units.

The design presented in Table 1 is the conceptual

structure for planning a humanistic physical education cur-

riculum in higher education.

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PART II

DEVELOPMENT OF INSTRUCTIONAL PROGRAM DESIGNS IN

PHYSICAL EDUCATION AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER IV
PROGRAM FOUNDATIONS
Introduction

The conceptual structure for designing a humanistic
physical education curriculum Should be viewed as a resource
that can be drawn upon for programming learning activities
for students in a particular university setting. The struc-
ture, by itself, is insufficient for designing the physical
education instructional program. Its function is to serve
as the underlying philosophical base for the develOpment
of program designs. The initial task is to know the facts
of the university setting: its goals and philosophy, organ-
ization and resources as they effect the Specific instruc—
tional program. The next task is to know the particular
students: their strengths and deficiencies, variations in
background, and learning problems. As these facts are iden-
tified and synthesized, the task then becomes one of for-
mulating behavioral Objectives, selecting content and
learning experiences, organizing the learning experiences
and determining what to evaluate and the ways and means Of
(“ring it. The relationship of these five elements con-
sideered important in develOping a program design is shown

schematically in Figure 2.

76

77

Resources in Higher Education

 

A Selection of Content

////////// Scope & Concepts

BehaVioral————-Organization of Content Themes

Objectives Evaluation

 

Selection of Learning Experiences
Method Of Implementation J

Feedback

Figure 2.—-A design for planning a specific program.

This program design provides a pattern for developing
specific program designs in relation to the resources and
goals of a particular university setting.

Description of the Instructional Environment
at Michigan State University

 

Brief Description of Michigan State University

 

Michigan State University, originally Michigan Agri—
cultural College, was founded in 1855 according to state
law as a tax supported four—year institution of higher edu—
cation (15). Its original purposes emphasized the education
of those who were interested in the state's largest
industry--agriculture, With the passing of the Morrill Act
by the federal government in 1862, Michigan Agricultural
College became a pattern for the kind of institutions in-

dicated by that act. In turn, Michigan Agricultural College

78

was given the financial support awarded to the state of
Michigan as provided by the Morrill Act. The legislative
act granted to each state thirty-thousand acres of land
for each Senator and Representative in Congress to which
the SUflBS were reSpectively entitled by the census of 1860,
for the purpose of endowing

at least one college where the leading object Shall

be, without excluding other scientific and classical

studies, and including military tactics, to teach

such branches of learning as are related to agricul-

ture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the

Legislatures of the States may reSpectively prescribe,

in order to promote the liberal and practical edu-

cation of the industrial classes in the several

pursuits and professions of life (1A, p. 9).
Thus, from its beginnings as a public supported, "land-
grant" institution, Michigan State University has been com—
mitted to education for the professions and vocations as
well as to the general or liberal education of its students.
Michigan State University, being a land—grant institution,
is committed to the function Of public service to the com-
munity and state for which it was established. Over the
111 years of its existence, the university has not altered
its original purposes and commitments but has added other
responsibilities and purposes for its continually growing
program. Michigan State University has grown to be one of
the largest institutions Of higher education in America
today and has extended its commitments to include research,
service to state, national, and international projects, and

teaching at both undergraduate and graduate level. In

Spite of the size of the university in relation to numbers

79

of students, and the multiplicity of its projects and com-
mitments, the university has clung tenaciously to its
commitment to the individual student. The ultimate outcome,
for which the university's instructional program aims, is
best expressed in the statements of President John A. Hannah:

In the final analysis, we believe that an educated
man in a democracy is one who is trained and condi—
tioned to be an effective citizen. He need not
necessarily be a man who has attained great wealth,
or professional distinction, or high public Office.
He may not be known far beyond the borders of his own
community.

But he will have been educated to contribute to
society economically to the limits of his creative
and productive skills.

He will have been educated to contribute socially
by his understanding of the world around him and
his tolerance for the rights and Opinions Of others.

He will have been educated to contribute morally
by his acceptance and Observance of the fundamental
values.

And he will have been educated to contribute polit-
ically by his reasoned, thinking approach to political
issues, his rejection of demagogic appeals, and his
willingness and ability to lead or to follow with
equal intelligence.

With such definitions of education in mint we do
not think so much of graduating engineers or chemists
or teachers or home economists or agriculturists or
business men, as we do of graduating educated men and
women, trained to be effective citizens Of our
democracy--men and women ready and willing to assume
the duties of leadership in a nation crying for in-
telligent direction and guidance in a world full of
confusion and insecurity and doubt.

By SO doing, we strive to contribute to the preser-
vation and further advancement Of our country, for
men and women so educated will have confidence in
America, her principles and her destiny, and faith in
America's ability to lead the world into an era of
peace and understanding (53, p. ix).

 

 

Trends in Instructional Program DevelOpment

 

The university has been actively concerned about the

future of its instructional program in recent years because

80

of the impending problems it faces with expanding enroll-
ments, explosion of knowledge, and limited resources. A
first Obvious step was taken in 1959 with the designation
of the Committee on the Future of the University that was
given the reSponSibility of a complete evaluation of Michi-
gan State University. The report of this committee, dis-
tributed in the summer of 1959, gave analysis of both the
strength and weaknesses of the then existing instructional
program. Some of the recommendations made by this com-
mittee have Since been adopted (A1).

A second emphasis for change with directive for the
future, came in the Seven-Point Program presented to the
faculty originally in 1961 and reviewed again in 1963.

The Seven-Point Program was designed as a tentative blue-
print "giving a means by which to gauge progress in con-
verting this University into an institution capable of
meeting the new demands being laid upon it" (52). The
Seven-Point Program enumerated principles concerned with
evaluation and design of curricula and with instructional
program planning.

A third directive for change and future planning
came with the introduction of the Educational Development
Program in 1963 and the distribution Of thirty-one tentative
guidelines for curricular develOpment. It is significant
to note that, while the educational development program's
curricular guidelines created mixed reSponses among the

faculty and were not widely, inclusively, or extensively

81

discussed, three of the proposals were subsequently adOpted
by the university faculty and the guidelines served to
instigate curricular revision and study on a wide scale
throughout the university.

In View of these recent attempts by the university to
meet the demands of the future, some Speculation on the
future direction of the university seems pertinent.

Michigan State University will continue to increase
in enrollment. Providing proper instruction for these
students will demand the greatest concentrated effort. The
efforts for change in the immediate past have been aimed
primarily at the instructional program and process. Emphasis
has been given to the development of ways to improve the
quality and effectiveness of instruction and to increase
the efficiency of the university's learning resources.

It is more than just idle Speculation to say that the
_emphasis on improvement Of the total university instruc-
tional program will continue into the immediate future.

The trend has been established to seek new, efficient, and
more effective means to assure the success of the teaching-

" means will come through

lealrflng process. The "new
ressearch and evaluation of both the teaching and learning
Process. Research data, as it is gathered, will be utilized
Within the program. The use of a variety of educational
media will be tried and adopted, if found successful. Ef-

fiCiency will be measured in terms of the results based on

the stated objectives. No discipline or area of knowledge

82

will be left unscrutinized. Each discipline will re-
establish its goals; restate its objectives; and revitalize
its curriculum in the light of new knowledge and in line
with the best that is known about the quality of learning
necessary in our rapidly changing society. NO discipline
will be accepted, without intrOSpection, on the basis of
tradition alone. The efficiency formula, by which any
program will be judged, will necessarily include the factors
of human resources, time, money, and successful accomplish-
ment Of stated objectives. These factors will become
accountable. As the writer views it, one danger may lie

in the fact that the quantitative factors in the teaching-
learning situation may unbalance the qualitative factors

by sheer observability. The qualitative factors are likely
to remain less easily and precisely evaluated.

The instructional program of the university will
change. Some areas, particularly those dealing with large
numbers of undergraduate students, will change drastically
by comparison to more traditional concepts of instruc-
tional procedure. Increasing enrollments, exploding knowl-
edge, and limited resources are all factors forcing change
in instructional procedures. This change can be viewed as

both a need and a challenge.

Instructional Resources of the University

 

One of the facets of the total university's instruc-

tional program development is concerned with the

83

establishment, efficient utilization, and evaluation of
instructional resources of the university. Constant en-
couragement is given for the develOpment and use of new
instructional methods and media. The learning resources
of the university are extensive and varied. For the most
part, the facilities, equipment, and professional services
located within the university environment are available for
use by any instructional area. Because of the extent Of
these resources and the emphasis placed on efficiency and
effectiveness of the instructional program, no real limi-
tation is imposed on any phase of the university's program
in relation to curricular innovation or change.

Current Status of the Physical Education
*InstructIOnal Program

 

 

The physical education program is designed for all
freshman men and women students as a three-credit, one-year
requirement for graduation. Exemption from the present
physical education instructional requirement is granted
to those students enrolled in the university's Justin
Morrill College, to military veterans, to those over 2A
years Of age, and to those who are physically disabled.

The program requires each student to enroll in three, one-
hour credit courses during three successive terms. According
to the university policy, each of these one—hour courses

is scheduled as a laboratory course approximating three

hours of class time per week. Within the three term-three

course requirement, one course is Specified. This course,

8A

entitled Foundations of Physical Education, is offered
separately to the men and women. The remaining two courses
are chosen by the student from a variety of courses organ-
ized around the content concerning a Specific sport, game,
or dance activity. Some of these courses are restricted

to men or women and others are co—educational.

The existing purposes of the over-all instructional
physical education program are:

To provide for the individual:

1. The knowledge of the importance of activity

in daily living in modern society
2. The skill necessary to the individual for
efficient use of the body in work and play and
Specific skill for active leisure time pursuits

3. The motivational force to establish activity
patterns for the individual that are adaptable to
all lifetime situations (A3).

Two innovations concerning the instructional program
have occurred within the last decade. The first was the
initiation of the Foundations of Physical Education course,
with the subsequent establishment of the course as a require-
ment. The course content involves the concepts, Skills,
and inherent values concerning physical activity and move—
ment in daily living——its necessity and contribution to
fitnessankihealth. The content and learning experiences
are designed to approach the college student through a
process of self-evaluation of physical status and then a
self-prescription of activity needs on an individual basis.
The prescription is undertaken following the presentation

of what, why, and how of physical activity. The Foundations

of Physical Education course and approach have enjoyed

85

success with both students and faculty and have
served as a pattern for similar programs at numerous other
colleges and universities.

The second of the innovations also involved the Foun-
dations of Physical Education course but concerned the
methodology employed in its presentation. This entailed
the adOption of the use of the television medium to aid
in presenting some of the course content and materials.

The use of television was favorably received by students
and faculty at the time of its initiation (1A6) and con-
tinues to be employed as an instructional means for this
course. Subsequent to the use of television for the Foun-
dations of Physical Education course, the television medium
has been successfully employed in presenting one other of
the elective courses within the instructional program.

Description Of the Michigan State
University Student

 

 

General Biographical and Demographical

 

Characteristics

 

The data describing the students at Michigan State
University herein reported, was collected in the fall of
1965, from 7,150 (3,589 men and 3,561 women) of the entering
freshman class. The findings were summarized and compared
to the entering freshman class in 1958. From the report
entitled, "The 1958 and 1965 Entering Freshman Class: A
Contrast in Profile" by Dr. Irvin J. Lehmann (8A), the

following information on the 1965 class only is taken. The

86

information refers only to the freshman class and cannot
be generalized to the entire student population. However,
use of this information relates it to the instructional
physical education program which basically involves only
the freshmen students at Michigan State University.

The findings are summarized as follows:

1. 95% of the entering freshmeneue 18 years of
age or younger.

2. Over 98% of both men and women are single.

3. Over 10% of the freshmen have one or both
parents foreign born.

A. Slightly more than one—half of the freshman
class come from cities with a pOpulation
over 25,000.

5. 60% of the men and 63% of the women are
Protestant according to religious preference.

6. A5% of the men and A6% of the women come from
homes in which the father's occupation can be
classified in the upper levels of the social
stratum; i.e., occupations of executive,
managerial, and professional nature.

7. Over 70% of the entering students come from
homes where either or both parents have had at
least a high school education. In addition,
31% of the men come from homes in which the
father is at least a college graduate.

8. Over 85% Of both men and women attended a public
high school. 63% of the men and 67% of the women
graduated from high school with a graduating
class of 200 or more. For both the men and women,
the largest prOportion of this group graduated
with a class having between AOO-999 members.

This data is consistent with the report of the
size of community.

9. 7A% Of the women and 66% of the men stated that
they ranked in the top quarter of their high
school graduating class.

87

10. Considering an inherent problem of inter-
pretation, a greater percentage of the women
(A6%) as compared to the men (36%) reported
that they were "very active” as participants
in high school activities. One comparative
relationship is pertinent concerning this item.
Both the men and women reported a lesser degree
of involvement in high school activities than
did their 1958 counterparts.

11. Of the men, 62%, and Of the women, 33%, indicated
they aSpired to continue their education beyond
the four year undergraduate program in either
graduate or professional education.

12. The freshman class as a whole diSplayed a higher
level of general academic aptitude than pre-
vious freshman classes.

A profile based upon the reSponses to the questions
asked (recognizing the variations and differences both
between and among the groups) might describe the 1965
freshman in terms of modal characteristics as follows:

He is 18 years of age, single, and a Protestant.
Prior to enrolling at Michigan State University, he
lived most of his life in an urban community with a
pOpulation of under 100,000. He attended a public
high school which had a graduating class of more than
200 students. He was moderately active in his high
school's activities, and ranked in the tOp-fourth of
his class. Both his parents are native-born Americans
and have had at least a high school education. His
father's occupation might be classified in the middle
socio—economic stratum and his mother is a housewife.
While going through college, he will be primarily
dependent upon his parents for financial support. He
would like and expects to attend college for a minimum
of four years (8A, p. 9).

General Characteristics of Students Related
to Phypical Education -

 

 

Since 1957, four studies have been done within the
Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation,
the results of which give an indication of some of the
characteristics of the Michigan State University students
related to physical education (35, 11A, A8, 83). Three of

the four studies were designed to investigate certain

88

factors concerning the students and relate their findings
to selected aspects of the Foundations Of Physical Educa—
tion course. Because the Foundations of Physical Education
course is a requirement of all freshmen at Michigan State
University and since either the entire population was
sampled or random sampling techniques were employed for the
acquisition of the subjects, it is logical to assume that
the findings would be indicative of the general population
Of the freshmen students at Michigan State University. The
remaining study was conducted on a random sample of 200
women students of either freshman or SOphomore standing.
Only the items that give some indication or reflection of
the students' general abilities, knowledges, interest, or
opinions related to physical education are included in

this discussion. The subjects for the studies were limited
for each investigation to either men or women. This desig-
nation is regarded as the findings are here reported.
Within the limitations of the various studies and with com-
plete awareness of the possibility that changes may have
occurred since the studies were completed, (1960) the
following is a summary of some of the general characteristics
Of Michigan State University students related to physical

education.

89

Women Students.--Rohrs found that:

 

l.* Over one-half of the subjects were without

regular physical education classes during
the two years previous to this investigation.
Fifty—seven per cent had two or less years

of high school physical education.

The majority reacted favorably to their high
school physical education classes.

Less than one-half of the subjects (Al%) par-
ticipated in a Sports club during any part

of their high school years while 69.8% par—
ticipated in an intramural program.

One-half of the subjects would like to have
had a recreational sport included in their
high school physical education curriculum

(11A, p. 63).

Gerland investigated five selected background factors

and related them to an evaluation the students had done on

the Foundations of Physical Education course. Due to the

comprehensive nature of the Foundations course, the findings

are at least relative in a general sense to physical edu-

cation as an area of study. Gerland found "no significant

relationship between over-all evaluation of the Foundations

course and the following background factors:

1.

2.

Michigan residence and non residence
Size of high school

The required physical education program
in the high school

Actual numbers of years the student par—
ticipated in the physical education program
in high school.

Type of locality of home town.

 

*Numbering of items is not accurate. Changes have
been made to facilitate this reporting.

90

In reference to these findings, Gerland stated that "it

was surprising indeed to find that background factors, from
which so much was expected, revealed no significant relation-
ships" (A8, p. A5).

In the Gerland study, the following conclusions were
reported from the data gathered from the students' own eval-
uation of their abilities and extent and interest in parti-
cipation in physical activities. The conclusions also reflect
a general attitude reSponse in one item.

1. A greater percentage of students rated their

general Skill level, concept of physical self,
and specific skill level in Sports, swimming,
and dance above average than below average.

2. A greater percentage of students rated their

general attitude toward physical education as
an activity class and attitude toward partici-
pation in physical recreation favorable or
above (A8, pp. 90-92).

Gerland also reported the reasons given by the students
for participating in physical recreational activities. The
largest prOportion responding (28.5%) stated that they par—
ticipated because they ”enjoy sports"; 19% took part for
a "better figure"; 15% for "better health"; and 1A.5% took
part in such activities because their "friends did" (A8,

p. 78).
This study also asked the students to give reasons

why their parents participated in physical recreatioral

activities if they did so. The results of this question

91

Showed that 73% Of the fathers and 63% of the mothers did
engage in such activities. The reasons given for partici-
pation by both parents, according to the students, included
participation for ”relaxation" and "enjoyment.” If the
parents were reported as non—participants, the reasons of
”lack of time” and ”lack of interest" were given (A8, p. 81).

Gerland also inquired about interest in physical
activity from the standpoint of a spectator. Only 3% Of
the students reSponded that they were little interested or
not at all interested in watching sport events. Seventeen
per cent indicated a dislike or disinterest in watching
dance events (A8, p. 81).

Rohrs investigated the Skill level of the students
in a variety of activities according to the students' own
judgment of their abilities. The findings indicated that
the skill level was highest in team sports particularly in
the sports of volleyball, basketball, and softball. It
was found that during the year prior to the study, the sub-
jects had participated most often in leisure time activities
which were social in nature and required little activity.
The students reported the physical recreational activities
in which they most often participated to be "swimming,
dancing, boating and/or canoeing, water Skiing and hiking
during the warm months and dancing, ice Skating and bowling

during the cool months” (11A, p. 63).

The study by Dillin was conducted to establish stand-

ards of physical fitness, motor ability, attitude, and

92

anthrOpometric measures for women at Michigan State Univer-
sity. T—scales and/or percentile scales were calculated
from the data. The information included concerning these
factors could be used to help describe the Michigan State
University students if there were a means of comparing the
data to some other group. However, no basis for comparison
exists. Dillin did made one Observation that is reflective
of an area of student interest.

The excellent cooperation given by the subjects,

and the many inquiries concerning the results would

seem to indicate a tremendous interest on the part

of college women in (1) their physical status,

(2) their physical potential, and (3) Objective
measures and evaluation (35, pp. 37-38).

Men Students.—-The information reported here for the

 

men students is taken from the study by LaBaw. Of the four
studies, this is the only one concerning men. LaBaw con—
ducted the study in relation to the men's Foundations Of
Physical Education course and used the entire group of fresh-
men men enrolled in the course during the fall term of 1959.
The purpose of the study was to determine if there were
relationships between selected background factors and ac-
ceptance or rejection of various phases of the Foundations
course. Again, only those factors which are suggestive or
reflective of abilities, interests, or attitudes of the
students concerning physical education as a general subject
matter area are reported.

LaBaw investigated fourteen background factors which

he related to acceptance or rejection of the Foundations

93

course. He found that no relationship existed except for
one factor. He further stated that this one significant
relationship could be expected by chance. The background
factors investigated, for which there was no significant
relationship, included:

1. Michigan residence and non-residence.

2. Size of home town.
High school scholastic average.
Mode of travel to and from high school.

Varsity letter winners in high school Sports.

Chm—13w

The required program of physical education in
high school.

\J

The number of years the student participated
in high school physical education.

8. Caliber Of high school physical education
instruction.

9. Various exemptions fr.m the required high
school physical education program.

10. Students' reaction toward high school physical
education classes.

11. Participation in high School intramural Sports.

12. Attendance at Michigan State University on a
scholarship.

13. Type of scholarship which the student held at
Michigan State University.

The one significant factor reported was that of the
size of high school from which the student came. Those
students coming from Class AA high schools (1500 and over)
tended to reject the Foundations course more than students

from smaller high schools.

9A

LaBaw found it surprising that no significant rela-
tionships were found concerning the background factors,
with the one exception.

LaBaw also inquired of the men students their reasons
for participating in Sports. Seventy-one per cent reported
their first reason as being because ”they enjoy it.” Nine
per cent state their primary reason for participation was
to become "physically fit." Fifty per cent listed their
second reason for participation was to become ”physically
fit” and eleven per cent reported they participated to
"secure relief from boredom." The third reason for par-
ticipation that was indicated by 16 per cent was "relief
from boredom" and 1A per cent listed they hOped ”to get
recognition.’i The students were asked to give their reasons
for not participating in sports. The majority (87%) stated
that they were participants so had no response. Four per
cent did state "insufficient time" as the reason for not

participating in sports (83, pp. 17-18, 27).

Summary of Pertinent Findings Reported.--Though it is

 

felt that further investigations of both men and women
students need to be done in direct relation to their knowl-
edges, interest, Skills, and attitudes related to physical
education as a field of study at Michigan State University,
some tentative observations are offered.

Most students seem to display a generally active

interest in physical activities as both participants and

95

Spectators regardless of their background. It would be
interesting to know if, in the minds Of the students,
physical activity and physical education were synonymous,
and exactly their frame of reference for these terms.

The greatest number of students seem to participate
in physical recreational activities--sports and dance--
because they receive some personal enjoyment or satisfaction
from the participation. One indication was given that this
was also true of the parents of the students. There also
seems to be an interest in continued learning of activities
that can be "enjoyed."

Apparently, the range of skill and interest of the_
students in Specific physical activities is an extremely
wide one. It would be interesting to know where and how

this is acquired by the individual.

Health Status Of Students

 

One further factor regarding the Michigan State Uni-
versity students that is related to the physical education
program deals with their general health status. The uni-
versity specifies only that the student be ambulatory and
physically self—sufficient. The present policy Specifies
that any student needing exemption from physical education
due to some physical limitation will provide, from a reliable
source, evidence of the necessity of that exemption. In
all other cases, the university and the Department of

Health, Physical Education, and Recreation assumes the

96

student to be of good health and capable of active parti-
cipation. At this time, no records are kept by the uni-
versity concerning the numbers of exemptions or by the
university's health service that reflect general health

status of the students at Michigan State University.

CHAPTER V
PROJECTED PROGRAM DESIGNS

The three program designs created are Offered in reSpect
to the Specific instructional environment at Michigan State
University. The elements in the projected designs have been
identified and presented in descriptive form to provide over-
all insight and direction into the nature of their construction.
The four elements identified and deScribed include possible:

(1) general behavioral objectives, (2) content-scOpe and organ-
izing concepts, (3) learning experiences and methods of imple-
mentation, and (A) centers or themes for over-all organization
of the learning experiences.
Suggested Procedure for Implementation and
EValuation Of a ProjectedDesigh

Respecting the inherent advantages and limitations of the
projected designs, the writer selects Projected Design 1 - ”Con-
cept Centered”: Three—Course Design to outline the procedures
for implementation at Michigan State University within the ex-
isting framework of the three credit-three course requirement.
The content has been identified within this design as most
worthwhile for the college students in reSpect to their devel-
opmental tasks, needs, and interests. The three broad content

areas identified would serve as the framework for each course

97

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101

Analysis of Projected Designs

(Each design offers some advantages that recommend it and similarly, offers some very real limilatlons.)

 

Projected Design I
"Concept Centered":
Three-Course Design

1. The tOpics and ideas for 1h-

Projected Design II
"Unified-Value Centered";
One-Course Design

Advantages

1. This design would enable an

clusion seem to be more easily iden- integrated. comprehensive prescn.

tified and defined around the major
concept.

2. With the shifting emphasis on
behavioral objectives, it seems
feasible that as a total outcome,
advances would be made in all
three domains of learning.

3. Considering the availability
and reliability of evaluative
measures for the three kinds of
intended behavioral change, in all
probability, this design would
make the greatest use of evalua-
tive instruments now available.

A. In respect to the present
physical education instructional
program at Michigan State Univer-
sity, this design would fit most
easily into a three term, three
course requirement.

tation of physical education.

2. Designing a one-course pro-
gram and retaining the present
university scheduling and require-
ment policy, the presentation
could be blocked in a relatively
large segment of time while
carrying into a smaLl group lab-
oratory pertinent experiences.

3. Respecting the present total
three credit requirement in phys-
ical education, the freshman

class would be divided into thirds
to fulfill their requirement;
cutting substantially the numbers
of students per term which would
make feasible the small labora-
tory c-asses.

Projected Design 111
"ReSponsibility Centered":
Two-Course Design

1. This design, apprOpriately
carried out, should center the
study around the student and his
immediate needs and developmental
tasks to a somewhat greater
extent than the other designs.

2. This design releases a little
more or the planning for and the
acquisition of the objectives

to the responsibility of the
student.

 

1. This design is likely to pro-
duce more separation and less
integration of the total curricu-
lune

2.
more fragmentation of material is
likely to occur.

3. Though the three term-three
separate course design, and the
present three credit requirement
might advantageously fit together,
it would also mean a heavier load
of students throughout the year
which might defeat the design by
enlarging the small laboratory
classes just to facilitate the
numbers of students.

_L_

Due to smaller segments of time,

Limitations

1. Emphasis is placed on a change
in affective behavior which at best
is difficult to evaluate and for
which immediate results, on the
basis -f ultimate goals, cannot
easily be obtained.”

2. The selection of learning ex-
periences for both lecture and
laboratory classes and their se-
quencing will be more difficult

to organize for a comprehensive,
integrated presentation since the
content for physical education has
traditionally be subject-oriented.

3. The team-teaching approach en-
tails the cooperative efforts of

every member of the faculty. This
inlers that the numbers involved
in such an approach, not the per-

sonalities, make this a limit tion.

1. This design suggests some-
what more Complicated resolution
of time, credit, scheduling
factors for its imp;ementation.

2. EvaluatiOn problems are in-
herent in the design.

*Bloom reports that on "the self-report instruments used to appraise changes in interests, attitudes,
. the logitudinal evidence does suggest that more change takes

and personality characteristics, .

place in the first two years of college than in the remaining college years.
appears to take place in these two years than in the next 13 to 20 years" (16, p. 178).

Furthermore, more change
This gives some

indication that a change can occur and that the freshman year in college is an advantageous time to

attempt such a change.

102

as well as the sequential arrangement of the areas to be cov-
ered. It is assumed that this content, which will be struc-
tured primarily for meeting the immediate needs and interests
of the college student and will be structured with the student
personally involved in the planning of the teaching-learning
instructional unit, will lead the student to be self-directed
in the selection, execution, and evaluation of his educational
program involving specific activities. It is assumed that if
these three courses replace the present offerings, the fol-
lowing changes will be needed:

1. The intramural program will be enlarged to meet the
demands for opportunities for participation in activities for
which students already possess sufficient skill; i.e., dormi-
tory clubs, college groups, special interest groups, athletic
clubs, etc.

2. Departmental program offerings for developing skill
in selected activities will be based on the students' Specific
needs and interests as they execute their own program designs.
Such courses will be elective with the level of skill and time

of offering being determined by the student programs.

_lmplementation Procedure

1. A preliminary step in implementing the curriculum
design is to create a need for such change that is recognized
‘by the faculty members involved in the instructional program.

Esuch a need might be fostered by the following means:

103

a. A presentation could be made to the faculty con-
cerning the needs and tasks of the college student
with Specific reference to Michigan State Univer-
sity students followed by investigation and dis-
cussion of physical education's reSponSibility to
students in reference to this area of personal
develOpment and an investigation of the present
program with respect to this reSponSibility.

b. Discussions and conferences could be held between
groups of students and faculty personnel that allow
students to present their needs, views, interests,
and desires in relation to physical education.

c. A diagnosis could be made of students' attitudes,
habits, interests, and needs regarding physical
education that would allow comparison to the ex-
isting program purposes.

Each way used to help create the awareness of the need
for curriculum change must allow inspection, investigation,
and evaluation of the existing program. Following such inves-
tigation, a presentation of the design for a humanistic phys-
ical education curriculum, the selected design,should be
presented to the instructional faculty.

2. With a volunteer group of the instructional faculty,
planning should begin on develOpment of an experimental
program. Their tasks are as follows:

a. The first task is to define the over-all program

objectives and establish the criteria for making
choices and decisions concerning specific content.

b. The course objectives need to be stated in behav-
ioral terms for each of the three courses.

c. The major topics and concepts for inclusion in
each course should be selected and stated.

3. With the faculty group working in smaller units,
Geach of the three courses in the design should be developed

as follows:

4.

104

The tOpics and concepts selected for inclusion
need to be translated into Specific teaching-
learning units within each course with Specific
objectives for these units.

The Specific teaching-learning units need to be
sequenced and organized for most effective pres-
entation within the course.

The faculty groups working on each course, at this
point, Should arrange to consult with the available
resource peOple within the university who can make
recommendations as to the content most related to
their area in terms of its relationship to the
stated objectives and its pertinence to the student.
The resource peOple for each course could involve
the following areas:

"Personal DevelOpment of Movement Capacities” -
Counseling Center, Department of Counseling and
Personnel Service, and Psychology Department

”Cultural Heritage of Sport, Games, and Dance--
Past and Present - Sociology Department, Humanities
Department, and Anthropology Department

"Scientific Foundations for Physical Activity in
Daily Living” - Physiology Department, Medicine,
Home Management and Child DevelOpment Department

The methods of presentation for each of the teaching-
learning units Should be determined in View of all
available instructional resources.

Means of evaluation of the specific learning ex-
periences Should be planned in relation to the
stated behavioral objectives. Specific evaluative
instruments should be selected or designed.

Ways of incorporating change within the course after
its initiation and evaluation Should be outlined.

With the courses developed in this stage, the next

step in the suggested procedure is to initiate the courses on

an elective basis. Depending on the reSponse, each course

might well be instigated at a separate time. The courses would

be taught on an experimental basis which would allow adjust-

ment of their design where needed, in-service training and

105

preparation for faculty, development of resource materials,
and would provide an initial evaluation of their effectiveness.
Following such a trial and initial experimental program, plans
Should be made to instigate the new program entirely and to

evaluate it.

Evaluation

 

At the time of implementation of the new program, the
following procedure is suggested for the needed evaluation.

1. Three groups of two hundred students each, randomly
selected from the university pOpulation, Should be organized
for this experimentation and evaluation.

2. Each of the groups is assigned as follows: one
group is scheduled to receive the existing program; one group
is scheduled to receive the new program; the remaining group
is scheduled to receive neither program but is scheduled for
testing purposes.

3. Each group should be tested upon entrance to the uni—
versity, at the end of each term throughout the first year, at
the end of each succeeding year in school, and at two five-
year intervals following graduation from the university. The
testing to be done following graduation would allow long range
objectives to be investigated and provide needed feedback to
the program.

4. The types of data that Should be gathered include:

a. General background information

b. Physical education background

g.
h.

106

Personality and adjustment
Health status and practices
Individual participation in university activities

Knowledge, Skill, and attitude tests in relation
to Sports, games, and dance

Physical performance and characteristics

Academic records

5. Results of these evaluations would indicate:

3.

Individual and group progress in relation to
stated course and program objectives.

A basis for comparison of the effectiveness of
the different programs.

A basis for comparison of progress of students
taking either program and those taking no
instructional program.

A basis for judging feasibility, teachability,
and administration of the program within the
given instructional environment.

A basis for selection of most appropriate methods
of evaluation and measurement of effectiveness
of the programs.

The feasibility of long range objectives.
A source of information needed to make necessary

adjustments within the program.

A Look to the Future

 

The projected curricular designs have been tailored for

Michigan State University within the limits and specifications

of the present instructional requirement. What of the future?

The physical education curriculum must be considered in

view of the total university curriculum of which it is a part

and in view of the trends in curricular change in higher

107

education that may ultimately affect the university. It seems
logical and realistic to Speculate on possible change now in-
dicated by current trends, the significance and meaning this
would have for physical education, and the possible response
physical education could make to this change.

Much of the curricular change in higher education indi-
cates a trend toward the develOpment of curricula that allow
the individual student more freedom, independence, and reSpon-
sibility in planning and evaluating his own educational program.
This assumes the need to free the student from traditional
methods and patterns of scheduling, requirements, credits,
courses, grading, and the like. Such curricula would acknowl-
edge prior learning and level of mastery of a subject matter
area upon entrance to the university. Much more freedom would
be afforded the student to pursue his own needs and interests
at his own rate and he would be given much more responsibility
for evaluation of progress. Such curricula aim to avoid repe-
tition and duplication of time and resources of both the stu-
dents and the university and aim to help individualize higher
education in the face of increasing numbers of students and
the growing complexity of the institutions.

Curricular change in this direction, on a university
wide basis, could well alter the status of the present phys-
ical education requirement. What would be physical education's
reSponse to a non-requirement status? What would be the
function of the physical education curriculum within the uni-

versity program in this situation?

108

Assuming the suggested change occurred in the total uni-
versity curriculum and program, assuming, as a result, physical
education were not a requirement of all students, and assuming
the physical education curriculum design to be a humanistic
one, the following are offered as possible suggestions for
implementation of the physical education program.

1. AS educational programs are established within iden-
tified curricular areas; i.e., the several colleges, profes-
sional fields, or Specialized areas within general professional
fields, the physical education curriculum can be tailored to
serve its unique functions as its subject area is focused on
the needs and interests of the particular group. This would
lead to designing the instructional program and learning ex-
periences as an integral part of each curricular area.

2. Physical education could be integrated with other
related subject areas and therefore presented within an inter-
disciplinary structure. Working out such programs would em-
phasize the fundamental nature of physical activity and human
movement as a universal form of human behavior. With an inter—
disciplinary approach to designing the curricular offerings,
physical education could be integrated with the social sciences,
natural sciences and/or the humanities and arts.

3. If the individual student is to be allowed to plan
and evaluate his own educational experiences, physical educa-
tion could plan for a means of guidance for and with the indi-
vidual in relation to this subject area. The individual, his

interests, needs, and develOpment can be emphasized within

109

this humanistic curriculum. It seems feasible that physical
education could design educational eXperiences involving the
students in the process of initially planning and evaluating
the experiences and the individual's progress therein. Phys-
ical education is seemingly in an advantageous position to
break from the traditional concepts of course structure,
scheduling, grading, and so on.

A. If the individual is to be given more Opportunity
to select and direct his own learning experiences, physical ed-
ucation could advantageously develop and employ a variety of
instructional media for the presentation of selected areas of
the instructional program. This suggests the development of
a learning resources laboratory for physical education. Both
skills and knowledges related to Specific tOpics could be
programmed using combinations of many audio and visual media
and devices. Such a laboratory could be designed for individ-
ual or group use and Should include ways of evaluating progress

as well as means of initial self-instruction and learning.

CHAPTER VI
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

It was the purpose of this study to develop a con-
ceptual structure for a humanistic physical education
curriculum in higher education and to translate that
structure into program designs for Michigan State Univer-
sity. An examination of the foundations for curriculum
development (the purposes of higher education, the needs
and developmental tasks of the students, and an historical
perspective and present view of physical education in
higher education) led to the conclusion that the organi-
zation of the content of phySical education around the
values inherent in purposeful physical activity in rela-
tion to human behavior and around the develOpmental tasks
of the college student was an effective basis from which to
design the program. A theoretical conception of purposeful
physical activity led to the conceptual structure for
designing a humanistic physical education curriculum in
higher education.

Three program designs were projected for the instruc-
tional program in physical education at Michigan State

University. The designs were derived from the conceptual

llO

 

lll

structure, descriptive information of the instructional
environment at Michigan State University, the current status
of the physical education program at Michigan State Univer-

sity, and of the university's students.

Conclusions

 

Within the context of the thesis develOped in this

 

study, the following conclusions are made:
1. A conceptual structure is derived from the theo-
retical position one holds concerning the role of purpose-

ful physical activity for the development of man in con-

 

temporary society.

2. The content of physical education concerns phys-
ical activity and human movement in its variety of forms
and its effect on the individual in his environmental
setting.

3. Organizing the physical education curriculum into
a comprehensible humanistic structure is postulated to be
an effective way to present the content of physical educa-
tion to the students who need to acquire concepts and gen-
eralizations of the purpose and function of physical
activity in relation to human behavior and who need to de—
velOp skills and values to c0pe with the environment and
successfully meet the problems and accomplish the tasks of
attaining responsible adulthood.

A. There are many ways tosxructure the knowledge of

physical activity and human movement for curriculum

112

development in higher education. The conceptual frame-
work developed here is intended as an initial step in
describing the humanistic foundations for a physical edu-
cation program in higher education. A

5. A program design for a particular university
setting can be derived from the conceptual structure. How-
ever, each university must establish its own design for pro-
gramming curricular eXperiences based on the specific needs
of the institution, its organization and resources, and its
students.

6. Scientific evidence supporting this conceptual
structure is sketchy and more often non—existent in relation
to justifying and/or explaining subjective and affective
learning. Such is true in any subject matter area. A
humanistic concept for curriculum develOped on the basis
of one investigator's personal philosophy and conviction
is undoubtedly on shaky and trembling ground.

7. A design for planning a curriculum that allows
personal feeling, worth and value to be the focus in
learning, is of great necessity in this scientifically
and technologically oriented world. This conviction has
become even more entrenched through the development of
this study and was particularly encouraged through the
writings of the following:

From Earl C. Kelley, "The Place of Affective Learning":

It has now become abundantly clear . . . that how a

erson feels is more important than what he knows.
is seems true Because how one feels controls

113

behavior, while what one knows does not. What one
knows is used in behavior, to be sure, but the way

it is used depends upon positive or negative feelings.

. We cannot say that, although planning curriculum

with affective learning in mind is a clear necessity,
we do not know how to do it, and so we will continue
to ignore it. Since such planning is a requirement,
we will have to learn how to do it, just as any other
workman must do when his past methods have become ob—

solete (78, pp. u55_u56).
From David E. Templeton, "The Arts: Sources for
Affective Learning"

In short, affective objectives involve learning about
and utilizing qualities which are internal to man.

The contributions of the area are: . . . To
perceive in one's own experience universals which
enable him better to understand all experience; to
"free” one of verbal straitjackets so that he can ex-
press his impulses and feelings through a vairety of
media; to help one become “open to the evocative
stimulation of artistic expressions; to sensitize one
to the existence of a variety of human aSpirations; to
develOp aesthetic sensitivities leading to discovery,
pursuit, and enjoyment of beauty; to free one's Spirit
to soar thru all the expanse of imaginable time and
space. . . . If these contributions sound subjective,
intangible and elusive (and undoubtedly to a few,
downright irksome), it is because these are objectives
which involve emotion and feeling. Man alone can
carry out these objectives, whereas tangible, quanti-
tative facts cannot. Only until he brings these unique,
inner variables to bear upon the bits and pieces of
knowledge about his surroundings and discovers their
regularities and relationships will they become Signi—
ficant. In the final analysis, what makes discoveries
significant is man's reactions to them (131, pp. U65,

A68).
From Arthur T. Jersild, ”The Search for Meaning"

The crucial test in the search for meaning in education
is the personal implication of what we learn and teach.
In some educational circles this will sound strange,

for it often seems to be assumed that a body of infor-
mation is in itself meaningful. . . . If we as educators
are to face the problem of meaninglessness, we must make
an effort to conduct education in depth--to move toward
something that is personally significant beyond the
facade of facts, subject matter, logic, and reaons
behind which human motives and a person's real struggles

 

 

114

and strivings are often concealed. This does not mean
the rejection of subject matter--far from it--but it
does mean helping the learner to relate himself to what
he is learning and to fit what he learns into the

fabric of his life in a meaningful way. . . . Such an
endeavor means an effort to overcome the prevailing
tendency in education to encourage the learner to under-
stand everything except himself (71, pp. SHO-SHI).

From Ardelle Llewellyn and David Cahoon, "Teaching

for Affective Learning":

 

In the face of such dehumanizing influences as automa-
tion, expanding bureaucracies, mass production, and
other efficiency oriented Operations, we must ask the
schools more insistently than ever for help in redis—
covering and maintaining the dignity of the individual.
For if modern man, and hence the modern learner, is 2
subjected to external and internal pressures which ob- t j
scure his identity and threaten his integrity, then

the implications for teaching are clear. Our educa—
tional efforts must focus primary emphasis on the human
denominator of learning. We cannot afford, in our
approaches to education, to equate men with machines.
Schools must be humanizing centers for learning, and

all planned activities must reflect an intrinsic valuing
of the learner as a person (86, p. 469).

 

t

8. From this humanistic perSpective, physical edu-
cators who concern themselves primarily with the totally
human form of behavior--purposeful human movement which is
both unique to each person and yet common to all mankind--
are faced with the task of developing, implementing, and
evaluating such programs. This is the challenge to the pro-
fession if the values inherent in purposeful physical
activity are to have meaning and Significance to man and

if they are to enrich man's existence.

Recommendations

 

The conceptual structure for designing a humanistic

physical education curriculum in higher education and the

115

proposed program designs which have been created are not
intended as a final statement of authority, nor are they
intended as the only pattern. for designing a curriculum.
Certain considerations, choices of values, and philOSOphieS
of the person or persons making curriculum decisions will
make some develOpments and elements seem of greater worth
than others. It is well recognized that data derived from
all the sources must be sifted through value criteria es-
tablished by those shaping the curriculum.

It is recommended that the procedures outlined for the
implementation and evaluation of the selected curriculum
design for Michigan State University be employed. It is sug-
gested that the implementation and evaluation be done by:

1. creating an awareness of a need for curriculum

change.

2. developing the program on an experimental basis.

3. instigating the new curriculum accompanied by a

design for total program evaluation.

A. using the results of the evaluation to increase

the effectiveness of the program.

10.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Alberty, Harold B. and Alberty, Elsie J. Reorganizing
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Allport, Gordon W. Becoming. New Haven and London:
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American Association for Health, Physical Education,
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. "This is Physical Education," A Statement
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American Medical Association. "Resolutions on School
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Anderson, Vernon E. Principles and Procedures of Cur-
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Association for Supervision and Curriculum DevelOpment.
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