Date :} 0-7639 This is to certify that the thesis entitled EXPECTATIONS ABOUT LEARNING EXPERIENCES IN NONFORMAL EDUCATION: GIRL SCOUT LEADERS IN HAWAII presented by Kathleen Karah Wilson has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D (1 e 'n Secondary Education and egrel - Curriculum Major professor WEMYCI (Cl-(8 \ W L agar-mg “F'V' -'- —-— —Q-— - _ .-__.....‘._..o...~ an“: Oas- “ ‘ ' ’ .—-_._A_ —. __ _ A___ EXPECTATIONS ABOUT LEARNING EXPERIENCES IN NONFORMAL EDUCATION: GIRL SCOUT LEADERS IN HAWAII By Kathleen Karah Wilson A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Curriculum and Instruction College of Education 1978 ABSTRACT EXPECTATIONS ABOUT LEARNING EXPERIENCES IN NONFORMAL EDUCATION: GIRL SCOUT LEADERS IN HAWAII By Kathleen Karah Wilson The literature suggests that a leader has culturally and psychologically based expectations of what makes a valid learning experience for others. Pedagogical expectations are psychologically and culturally influenced perceptions of valid teacher-learner behaviors, subjects, activities and environments. The purpose of this research was to probe what a specific set of leaders believed were important learning experiences for others and why. Specifically, the study examined four areas: (1) what levels of formality of a learning experience were perceived valid, (2) what kinds of learning experiences were perceived valid, (3) what logical and/or experiential bases leaders used to judge valid levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences, (4) what relationships existed between leaders' judgments about levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences,and the leaders' degree' of self-acceptance and amount of schooling. During March, 1978 fifty-one Girl Scout leaders on Oahu, Hawaii were interviewed in their homes. The subjects responded to an audio-visual instrument in which three kinds of learning experiences (input, self-awareness, and sharing) and three levels of formality (low, medium, and high) were shown. Subjects were asked the same question for each learning situation shown, “Do you think these Kathleen Karah Wilson people are learning something important?" The question was answered on a five-point Likert-type response scale, ranging from "Yes" to "No." Specific interview questions probed the bases of the leaders' judgments made on the audio-visual instrument. Each subject also completed Berger's "Expressed Acceptance of Self" scale so that the degree of self-acceptance could be related to the choices on each of the factors under investigation. Additional demographic data, including the leaders' amount of schooling, were collected for the purpose of correlational analysis. The results of the study showed that subjects considered low formality settings the most valid, followed by medium and high formality situations. The subjects judged input learning experiences as providing the most important learning, followed by sharing and self-awareness experiences. Leaders preferred medium levels of formality with sharing experiences. Least preferred were low formality/sharing experiences. With input experiences, leaders preferred low formality settings. The least preferred was high formality/input experiences. With self-awareness experiences, leaders preferred low formality settings. Least preferred were high formality/self-awareness settings. When amount of schooling was correlated with leaders' judgments for levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences, it was found that medium levels of formality, sharing experiences, input/low formality, self-awareness/low and medium formality learning situations were judged as more valid by leaders with less schooling than by leaders with more schooling. When degree of self-acceptance was correlated with leaders'judgments, Kathleen Karah Wilson it was found that medium levels of formality were judged as more valid by leaders with above mean degrees of self-acceptance than by leaders with below mean degrees of self-acceptance. Sharing/high formality and input/low and medium formality situations were judged as more valid by leaders with below mean degrees of self-acceptance than by leaders with above mean degrees of self-acceptance. In addition, age of the leader, the kind of schooling (public, private, both), the age of the girls the leader worked with, the leaders' attitude toward past schooling, andtfimaleaders' income level were all found to be significantly related to judgments made on one or more levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences. Recommendations were made on how to use the findings to improve leadership training endeavors, and to develop training and program materials for leaders to use with girls. Suggestions for further research were outlined. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people have encouraged and supported me throughout my doctoral studies. I would like to acknowledge their generosity. To my guidance committee: Drs. William Kimball, Keith Anderson, Cas Heilman, and John Useem. Each of them have made me feel like they care about me as a person, as well as about my scholarly pursuits. Their guidance and friendship has been a rich experience. To Dr. Ted Ward, my academic advisor and friend. My life is richer because of his faith in my abilities and his patient, loving correction of weaknesses. I am very grateful for this time under his direction. To the Girl Scout Council of the Pacific for allowing me to interview their leaders. Norvin Smith, Executive Director; Frances McConoughey, Director of Camping and Training Services; and Emily Fugii, Director of Field Services spent many hours with me. They have been most cordial and helpful. To Geneva and Joe Speas, Helen Carr, Dorothy Tweddell, Bob and Ruth Watson, Rod and Carolyn McKean, Bob and Joy Drovdahl, Jim and Lois McCue, Steve and Eloise Hoke and Wilma Garrett. These people have undergirded me in prayer and have given of themselves and their possessions to see me through. To Dr. Joe Levine for all the help he gave in this thesis activity and in the projects we worked on together while I was at Michigan State University. ii To my family: Greg, Beverly, John, Dave and Sonya Trifonovitch; Cliff, Joann, and Ken Shimabukuro; Steve, Janice, Brion and Kimberly Graf; and Lillian Wilson. Each helped me through my program and thesis activity in their own special, sacrificial way. I am rich, indeed, to belong to such a family. And finally, to my husband, John, who, for the first year of our marriage, patiently and lovingly supported me through my comprehensives, thesis activity and two months separation. I love you! iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x CHAPTER 1. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Purpose 2 Problem . . . . . . . 2 Research Questions and Hypotheses . . . . . . 3 Situational Background . . . 6 Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2o Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Definition of Important Terms . . . . . . . . 22 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 The Expectancy Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Schooling and Expectations . . . . . . 32 Leaders' Self-acceptance and Pedagogical Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 The McKean Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 The Denmark Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Description of Methodology . . . . . . . . . . 44 Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Variables Under Investigation . . . . . . . . 46 Indeptent Variables . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Dependent Variables . . . . . . . . . . 47 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Instrumentation . . . . . . . 50 Expectation of Learning Instrument . . . 51 iv CHAPTER 4. 5. APPENDICES Discrimination Instrument Berger Expressed Acceptance of Self Scale . . . . . Research Procedures and Data Collection Prior to Interview . . . During the Interview . Data Analysis . . . . . . . Methodological Assumptions . Limitations . . . . . Summary FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . Overview . . . . . . . . . . . Sample Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Analysis Method Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question . Research Question 10 Research Question 11 Research Question 12 . . Hypotheses Generation . . . . . \OmNO‘U‘J-‘UNH SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary of Findings . Discussion and Recommendations Regarding Levels of Formality and Kinds of Learning Experiences Regarding Degree of Self- Acceptance and Learning Situations Regarding Bases of Judgments Regarding Assessment of Current Efforts Recommendations for Further Research . Summary Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Page 54 55 57 57 57 58 S9 60 61 62 62 63 65 66 72 76 84 86 88 90 95 96 99 99 103 112 116 116 123 123 127 128 128 129 130 132 138 140 APPENDICES Page Appendix D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143 BIBLIOGRAPHY........................ 147 vi TABLE 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 LIST OF TABLES Page POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS OF LEVELS OF FORMALITY BY KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF ETHNIC BACKGROUND OF LEADERS WITH ETHNIC BACKGROUND OF GIRLS . . . . . 64 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF LEVELS OF FORMALITY BY JUDGMENTS OF IMPORTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 KENDALL CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR LEVELS OF FORMALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF LINEAR DEPENDENCE AMONG LEVELS OF FORMALITY . . . . . . . . 71 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES BY JUDGMENT OF IMPORTANCE . . . . . . . . 73 KENDALL CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF LINEAR DEPENDENCE AMONG KINDS OF LEARNING EDERIENCES O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O O 75 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF INPUT LEARNING EXPERIENCES BY LEVELS OF FORMALITY BY JUDGMENT OF IMPORTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF SELF-AWARENESS LEARNING EXPERIENCES BY LEVELS OF FORMALITY BY JUDGMENT OF IMPORTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF SHARING LEARNING EXPERIENCES BY LEVELS OF FORMALITY BY JUDGMENTOFIMPORTANCE............... 81 KENDALL CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR INTER-ITEM RELATIONSHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 vii TABLE KENDALL CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR LEVELS OF FORMALITY BY KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES . . . . . . . . . . LEADERS' DEGREE OF SELF-ACCEPTANCE KENDALL CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR DEGREE OF SELF-ACCEPTANCE WITH LEVELS OF FORMALITY CHI-SQUARE FOR DEGREE OF SELF-ACCEPTANCE WITH LEVELS OF FORMALITY . . . . . . KENDALL CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR DEGREE OF SELF-ACCEPTANCE WITH KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES CHI-SQUARE FOR DEGREE OF SELF-ACCEPTANCE WITH KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES KENDALL CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR DEGREE OF SELF-ACCEPTANCE WITH COMBINATIONS OF LEVELS OF FORMALITY AND KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES CHI-SQUARE FOR DEGREE OF SELF-ACCEPTANCE WITH COMBINATIONS OF LEVELS OF FORMALITY AND KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES CHI-SQUARE FOR DEGREE OF SELF-ACCEPTANCE BY POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS . . . . DISTRIBUTION OF LEADERS BY AMOUNT OF SCHOOLING KENDALL CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR AMOUNT OF SCHOOLING WITH KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES CHIrSQUARE ANALYSIS OF AMOUNT OF SCHOOLING BY LEVELS OF FORMALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . CHI-SQUARE FOR AMOUNT OF SCHOOLING BY KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES . . . . . . . . . . KENDALL CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR AMOUNT OF SCHOOLING WITH KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES KENDALL CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR AMOUNT OF SCHOOLING WITH THE COMBINATIONS OF LEVELS OF FORMALITY BY KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES viii Page 83 85 87 88 89 89 91 93 94 95 97 97 98 98 101 TABLE 4.27 4.28 4.29 4.30 CHI-SQUARE FOR AMOUNT OF SCHOOLING WITH COMBINATIONS OF LEVELS OF FORMALITY BY KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES . FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE BY BASES OF POSITIVE JUDGMENTS FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONSE BY BASES OF NEGATIVE JUDGMENTS CHI-SQUARE FOR VARIABLES RELATED TO JUDGMENTS ON LEVELS OF FORMALITY, KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCES AND COMBINATIONS . . . . . SUMMARY OF FINDINGS FOR INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES . . . . . ix Page 102 105 106 113 117 FIGURE LIST OF FIGURES FINN'S NETWORK OF EXPECTATIONS . Page 34 Chapter 1 THE PROBLEM What we believe to be the reality of things shapes our actions. What we believe another person is like will affect how we act toward that person. Furthermore, people, in turn, more often than not, do what is expected of them. Through the processes of socialization, acculturation and cognitive/affective development, man forms a complex set of beliefs about how his world operates and who he is. He forms perceptions of what values, attitudes and beliefs are right and wrong. He forms perceptions of what actions produce what outcomes. In short, he develops a complex set of expectations which affects and, to some unknown degree, guides his actions toward himself and others. Significant others influence how man perceives himself and his world; whether he feels he is a person of worth or worthless. Shaw perhaps sums up best how significant others influence a person's view of himself and his subsequent actions. You see, really and truly, apart from the things anyone can pick up (the dress and the proper way of speaking, and so on), the differ- ence between a lady and a flower girl is not how she behaves, but how she's treated. I shall always be a flower girl to Professor Higgins, because he always treats me as a flower girl, and always will; but I know I can be a lady to you, because you always treated me as a lady, and always will. (Shaw, 1939, p. 80) 2 Expectations a person has now are, in part, influenced by past experience. What happens in experience that forms present expectations? And, as it relates to educational experiences, what expectations do people form regarding what is appropriate teaching behavior and appropriate learning experiences for themselves and for others? Why are these expectations held? What within a person's development has stimulated such beliefs? When a person assumes a new leadership role, he brings with him the norms of his culture and the perceptions of what behaviors are appropriate for this role. These perceptions of valid and appropriate leadership behaviors, to some extent, are based on past experiences; to some extent, are an assimilation of cultural norms. Before leader- ship trainers can effectively modify inappropriate leader-participant role expectations and expectations about what kinds of learning experi- ences are considered important and valid, we must know how expectations form and the role they play in leaders' choices of learning experiences for themselves and others. Purpose The central purpose of this study was to inquire into the relationship among an adult nonformal educator's amount of schooling and degree of self-acceptance, and the adult's pedagogical expectations regarding the levels of formality of an instructional activity and the kinds of learning experiences considered valid and why. The study examined five related areas: 1. What adult leaders perceived to be valid levels of formality of a learning experience, when "levels of formality" referred to how structured, authority-oriented, and leader-controlled a learning activity was. 3 What adult leaders perceived to be valid kind 2: learning experiences when "kinds of learning experiences" referred to a particular parsimonious speciation of learning activities people were to engage in (input, self-awareness, sharing). What logical and/or experiential bgsgs adult leaders ugg§_tg.mgkg their choices regarding kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality they believed provided important learning for others. What relationship existed between the adult leaders' perceptions regarding kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality viewed as valid, and their own degree 2E self-acceptance. What relationship existed between the adult leaders' perceptions regarding kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality viewed as valid and their amount of schooling. Research Questions and Hypotheses A. The following research questions guided the study's inquiry: Pedagogical expectations of the entire sample toward levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences were identified: B. 1. Do leaders judge any one level of formality as providing more important learning than other levels of formality? 2. Do leaders judge any one kind of learning experience as providing more important learning than other kinds of learning experiences? The kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality were examined together to identify what level of formality was perceived to be more valid with what kind of learning experience. 1. What is the leaders' preference when each kind of learning experience is combined with each level of formality? 4 C. The leaders' degree of self-acceptance was identified. Then, attempts were made to identify whether or not the leaders' degree of self- acceptance related to their judgments regarding levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences. 1. What is the leaders' mean degree of self-acceptance and how does that mean compare to Berger's findings? What is the relationship between the leaders' degree of self- acceptance and their expectations related to levels of formality judged as providing important learning? What is the relationship between the leaders' degree of self- acceptance and expectations related to kinds of learning experi- ences judged as providing important learning? What is the relationship among leaders' degree of self-acceptance andexpectations related to kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality? D. The leaders' amount of schooling was identified. Then, the relation- ship between amount of schooling and leaders' preferences regarding kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality were identified. 1. 2. What amounts of schooling have these leaders had? What is the relationship between the leaders' amount of schooling and their expectations regarding levels of formality? What is the relationship between leaders' amount of schooling and their preferences for kinds of learning experiences? What is the relationship between leaders' amount of schooling and their preferences for the combinations of levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences? E. Finally, an attemptwas made to identify the bases of judgment a leader used 5 to decide which levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences did or did not provide important learning for others. 1. Upon what logICal and/or experiential bases do leaders make tion: their choices regarding kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality they believe provide important learning for others? The following research hypotheses were made prior to the investiga- Subjects will judge higher levels of formality as providing more important learning than do lower levels of formality. Subjects will rate input experiences as providing more important learning for their girls than do sharing and self-awareness experiences. Subjects will prefer medium levels of formality with sharing experiences. Subjects will prefer low levels of formality with input experiences. Subjects will prefer low levels of formality with self-awareness experiences. Subjects will have a higher mean degree of self-acceptance than the mean found by Berger. There is a significant relationship present between the leaders' degree of self-acceptance and their expectations related to levels of formality judged as providing important learning. Subjects with above mean degrees of self-acceptance will prefer different levels of formality than do subjects with below mean degrees of self-acceptance. 10 ll 12 13 .14 15 l6 l7 6 There is a significant relationship between the leaders' degree of self-acceptance and their expectations related to kinds of learning experiences judged as providing important learning. Subjects with above mean degrees of self-acceptance will prefer different kinds of learning experiences than do subjects with below mean degrees of self-acceptance. There is a significant relationship between leaders' amount of schooling and their expectations regarding levels of formality. Subjects with more schooling prefer different levels of formality than do subjects with less schooling. There is a significant relationship between leaders' amount of schooling and their preferences for kinds of learning experiences. Subjects with more schooling will prefer different kinds of learning experiences than do subjects with less schooling. There is a significant relationship between leaders' amount of schooling and their preferences for the Combinations of levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences. Subjects with more schooling will prefer different combinations than do subjects with less schooling. There is a logical and/or experiential bases for the subjects' judgments about kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality and these bases can be documented. Situational Backggound Organized voluntary efforts have contributed to a wide range of national and personal interests and concerns: ~cultural, educational, recreational, political, social. Voluntary associations provide a service or further a cause for community and personal betterment and, 7 at the same time, provide opportunity for their members to share in accomplishing this purpose by helping directly or indirectly with the program. To volunteer time and talent is part of a way of life in America. One out of every four Americans over the age of 13 does some form of volunteer work, according to a 1974 Census Bureau Survey commissioned by ACTION. The volunteer position is unique and differs from a career position. The volunteer contributes time and talent without money, doing so out of one's own free will and for as long as one is willing to do so. The volunteer's accountability to the organization operates differently from what is found in an employer-employee relationship. The leadership position and skills are many times learned during the course of involvement as a volunteer, and through extensive leadership training programs, which are often provided by volunteer organizations. A growing need around the world is to provide the kind of opportunities for people which would assist them in learning skills necessary to better their life situation. To provide formal schooling for all is not within the means of developing countries. It is now believed that the volunteer movement can play a crucial role in assisting a nation to raise its standard of living. For this reason, new attention is being given to how to effectively recruit and train volunteers. 0n volunteer organization which has made an important contribution to national and personal development is Girl Scouts. The Girl Scout movement is the largest voluntary organization for the development of girls and women in the world. It has played an historic role in contributing to adult education for significant numbers of volunteer and employed personnel throughout the world. It has been considered by 8 many as an effective nonformal education program, teaching girls and women skills and knowledge in literally all phases of life's activity. (Knowles, 1960, pp. 583-584) Recognizing that to know about something is not an adequate indicator of leadership performance, Girl Scouts believes leadership training must strive to maximize the adult members capabilities by providing an experiential approach to learning. Sharing responsibility among trainers and learners in individual and group interaction, and modeling appropriate leader behavior are two of the primary tenets of the adult Girl Scout training program. (Girl Scouts of the U.S.A., 1978, p. v-l) Girl Scouts believes that the expectations they have for what they consider to be appropriate leader-girl relationships and learning experiences should be shared with the volunteer leader. Sharing these expectations is the heart of the training program. Girl Scouts is seeking for effective ways to translate their teaching-learning expectations into reality--a leader who is able to appropriately work with girls and plan for girls' total development; one who can plan and conduct a Girl Scout program with purpose,not for the mere sake of activity. Importance Knowles states that the kind of training a volunteer leader wants is quite different from that found in the formal school training programs. Lay leaders for the most part require specific, specialized, brief, and clear-cut training to give them the immediate skills they need to carry out their responsibilities. They learn to lead a series of discussions, to demonstrate a technique, to plan a program, to discharge an elective or appointive office, or to conduct a 9 campaign. Their concern is with the task at hand and how to perform it well. (Knowles, l960,p. 120) Most volunteer leaders begin their job with little or no training. What they know and do is based on what they read in the leadership and program aids given to them. They primarily base their leadership behavior on what they have observed and what they think are the right things to do. Based on their own past educational experiences and on their own personality characteristics, leaders have formed a network of expectations related to what kinds of learning activities are valid ways to learn. (Finn, 1972, p. 392) They have formed impressions of what comprises the role of leader-teacher and the role of participant-learner. These expectations regarding valid teaching and learning roles and Situations come with the leader when one initially volunteers. The leadership materials and program aids produced by the volunteer organization also portray an image of what a valid learning situation is in their movement. These materials usually also communicate the role the leader is to play. The leaders' teaching-learning expectations and those expressed by the organization, to varying degrees, are dissonant with each other. The degree of dissonance between what the leader considers valid learning and teaching roles and situations, and those roles and situations promoted by the organization will determine the leader's satisfaction with one's efforts. The degree of dissonance also acts as a powerful lens through which training messages are altered by the volunteer to fit one's present understandings. (Abelson et al, 1968) Getzel and Cuba list three types of role conflict which are possible. These role conflicts also relate to the expectations a group member has' regarding the role they are to play within an organization. 10 Disagreement that arises among members of the same group in defining a given role. Disagreement among several referent groups, each having a legitimate right to define expectations in significantly different ways. Contradictions in the expectations of two or more roles which the occupant of a given position is occupying at the same time. (Getzel and Cuba, 1957, p. 425) Secord and Backman add that role conflict can be analyzed at three levels: (1) the social system level, (2) the personality dynamics of the individual and (3) the cultural system level. Conflicts may arise from any of these three levels, as they are based on criteria of merit or on special preferences. Role conflict at the social system level may occur under any of the following seven conditions: 1. When expectations are unclear and consensus on them is low, or when they compete with each other. When expectations that make up a role are incompatible, or when they compete with each other. When there are discontinuities in position successively occupied by an actor. When two or more positions containing in- compatible or competing expectations are simultaneously occupied. When the rights associated with a position may not be sufficiently rewarding to motivate actors to carry out the obligations of that position. When roles are related in such a way that conformity to the expectations of one role interfers with goal achievement by the role partner. When the social system permits interpersonal maneuvering that blocks the goal achievement of one or more members of the system. (Secord and Backman, 1964, p. 225) 11 On the level of individual personality, the characteristics that lead to role conflict are of three types: 1. The actors may lack certain abilities and attributes necessary for successful enactment of the roles involved. 2. The actors may have a self-concept contrary to the role expectations they are supposed to enact. 3. The actors may have certain attitudes and needs that interfer with enactment of a particular role. (Secord and Backman, 1964, p. 225) On the cultural level, conflict in role may result when ideology runs counter to role expectations. One may conclude, therefore, that inconsistent and/or conflicting expectations held between the leader and the volunteer organization can impede the leader's performance and the degree of effectiveness of training programs. To design more effective training programs and learning materials we must know more about what leaders perceive to be valid learning experiences for themselves and for others. We must know more about how these expectations are formed and how they can be altered or enlarged. In addition, obtaining a clearer understanding of leaders' present expectations would assist in fine tuning the kinds of images of "teacher/leader/facilitator" that should be modeled to alter current inappropriate expectations. Knowing the leader's present expectations would help trainers know what kinds of learning experiences the leaders will perceive as important and thus be more attractive. It would provide a referent place to begin the training and to begin talking about such things as program planning. Ward identified the influence of cultural differences on the learner's acceptance and expectations of instructional procedures in 12 the following way: The most concerted evidence of the imposition of culture on the learning potentialities of people is their expectations of what constitutes a valid learning experience. What is accepted as a valid learning experience in one culture may be rejected in another. The wisdom of the elders, transmitted as legends and proverbs, may be profoundly respected as a learning experience or totally rejected as having no place in an educational system. A person may be culturally conditioned to accept the pedantic ways of the lecturing teacher in a formal class- room as a valid learning experience, tending to make him suspicious of discussion groups or ' instructional motion pictures. (Ward, 1973a, pp. 2-3) Berger (1968) and Ward (1973a) both suggest that for effective learning to occur, leaders/teacher should utilize instructional procedures that are recognizable to the learner and leader-in-training as valid learning experiences. Based on Berger's and others work, Ward has termed these expectations a person holds regarding the kinds of learning experiences considered valid as "pedagogical expectations." This present investigation was conducted in Hawaii. The Hawaiian people are an exceptional array of East, West, and Pacific cultures and ethnic groups. Each has its own traditions and thought patterns. "Over the years these various groups have adapted to and become a part of the American idea, yet at the same time they have managed to retain much of their original culture and with it make unusual and modifying contri- butions to the total society." (Tseng, McDermott and Marelzki, p. vi) The major ethnic groups in Hawaii are Caucasian (39,2%), Chinese (6.8%), Filipino (12.4%), Hawaiian (9.3%), Japanese (28.3%), Korean (1.3%), Blacks (1%), Indian (.2%) and other groups, including Portugese, Samoan, Micronesians (1.6%). (Department of Planning, 1975, p. 23) From the interactions among these peOple a new and unusual community 13 has evolved. There is perhaps none other so rich and varied; none in which the various groups are quite so interacting with such continuing effects upon one another. Another interesting dimension of the Hawaiian culture is its large population of National Armed Forces people. This population comprises approximately 140,000 persons, including military personnel, dependents and families. The largest portion (approximately 138,000) is located on Oahu. Some consider Hawaii home; some consider it the "rock", a place that they find quite different from the mainland U.S. The language, dress, and life style of the military population form a sub-culture within Hawaii. Against Hawaii's cultural backdrop the necessity is heightened to understand how cultural viewpoints and background influence the kinds of educational experiences learners and leaders perceive as important. We must know more about these perceptions before we can talk about teaching techniques for accommodating cultural difference between learners, or between learners and leaders. Berger suggests that teachers must be taught to be sensitive to the sociocultural differences which exist among the varying ethnic groups with which the teacher is to work. Zintz (1963, p. 77), for example, found that while teachers recognized obvious differences in language, customs, and experience background, they failed to recognize significant differences in value perspectives among learners from differing ethnic groups. Teachers with pedagogical expectations, for example, of an Anglo origin creating instructional programs for learners of another ethnic origin, without any bicultural sensitivity, tend to use inappropriate teacher-learner relationship styles, instructional materials, channels 14 of communication and concepts to express what they are trying to communi- cate to the learners. When teaching techniques and learning experiences are used which are incongruous with learner expectations, learners tend to return, in a fairly short time, to the previous attitudes and behaviors which are part of their dominant cultural pattern (Homme, 1966). Several kinds of incongruities seem possible between expectations and instructional activities. It might be assumed that what must be sought is complete congruency between expectations a leader has for important learning and those the learner will value as important. McKean comments on this point from the perspective of the learner's expectations in the following way. With pedagogical expectations, the degree of congruency is a more important consideration than absolute congruence between expectations and instructional activities. It would probably be impossible to have absolute congruence between every element of an instructional activity and all the learner's expectations. The important point is that the higher the degree of congruency, the more mean- ingful the learning experience is likely to be for the learner. It also has been suggested that often mean- ingful learning occurs when there is some dissonance present. Both Dewey and Piaget suggest that meaningful learning occurs when there is dis- equilibrium, or when 'something is the matter.‘ Thus, it may not be harmful, in fact it may be helpful, to have some dissonance caused by a mis-match between instructional activities and learner pedagogical expectations. However, the; type of disequilibrium Dewey and Piaget talk about concerns the content, or the subject matter of a learning experience and not necessarily the medium of that experience. Thus, it would not necessarily mean that there ought to be a mis- match between instructional activities and pedagogical expectations. (McKean, 1977, pp. 9-10) As was mentioned earlier, not only do socio-cultural variables help shape pedagogical expectations, but the individual's personality 15 system does as well. Who a person perceives he is, how he values himself and others, his unique ways of perceiving form his self- concept. The view one has of oneself will influence what one expects to be valid learning experiences. The degree of formality, the kind of authority structure felt necessary, the perceived need for control and freedom in learning situations, the degree of vulnerability one can tolerate all influence the choice and design of learning experiences for self and others. (Purkey, 1970, Brophy and Good, 1974) This study investigated the relationship between expressed self-acceptance and the leader's pedagogical expectations. Three specific kinds of learning experiences were explored in this investigation. Ward suggests that these three kinds form a model for effective learning. They are as follows: 12225.1earning experiences involve learners in receiving or coming into contact with some new information. Self-awareness learning experiences involve the learner in reflecting upon his/her current s1tuation. Sharing learning experiences involve learners in putting into his/her own words or acting upon some new information, ideas, insights. (McKean, 1977, p. 34) Educators have generated many conflicting conceptions of what sorts of events comprise a good learning experience. Most agree that learning occurs when a person perceives new ways of looking at his surroundings through some sort of outward stimulus (e.g. new information, ideas, insights.into other's feelings, new skills), internally assimilates or accommodates the input; and transfers those perceptions into new or modified ways of judging, feeling and/or behaving so that he becomes someone different from whom he was before the learning experience. Yet, 16 there are great differences of opinion on what sorts of learning events bring about most consistently this sort of total transformation of a person's perception and behavior. (Eisner and Vallance, 1974) 12235. For some, maximum learning occurs through the transfer of certain defined bodies/sets of information. The thesis is that the central stiumlus from without should be the new which confronts the learners already existing perceptual configuration. While teaching techniques employed to impart the new may be varied in terms of the kinds of media utilized and the levels of formality of teacher-learner interaction, the central focus of the total learning experience is on input; the imparting or coming into contact with new facts, other's feelings, skills. The focus is on the external stimulating internal development and how to communicate the best of the external world to the learner. (e.g. Lamm, 1972) Self-awareness. Others have come to believe that, while imparting new information is necessary, a person's perceptual trigger actually.is pulled more effectively when the central focus of the instructional experience is helping learners put into words or some other communicative form, such as music or pictures, the beliefs they already have about themselves, their world and how it works. The events comprising the learning experiences are focussed on providing a context in which people can be helped to articulate the perception of reality they already have. (Freire, 1970) Not only is there emphasis on the articulation of beliefs, but on confrontation with self, involving a self-assessment of one's own will to accommodate or assimilate the new perception of reality. The learning experience works not only at articulating and l7 clarifying the present state, but in confronting the will so that the person must choose to change or to stay the same. Self-awareness is considered the central kind of event that comprises a good instructional experience which provides maximum learning. The focus is on the inner being's own efforts to change and how best to stimulate and facilitate this natural deve10pment process. (e.g. Chase, 1970, pp. 98—104, Combs, 1962) Sharing. The third kind of instructional event that has been emphasized focuses on the need people have to do something in order to cement the union between knowing about something and being able to do it. (Freire, 1970, Illich, 1970, Dewey, 1949, Huebner, 1963) Some strongly feel that learning is best achieved in a context comprised of numerous events with a central focus on doing. By direct manipulation of objects, direct inquiry into subjects, by direct involvement in the enterprise under investigation; in short, by doing a person more easily grasps the new; corrects previous perceptions about a particular concept or function; and wills to either behave and/or believe in certain ways or to reject some behavior and/or belief. To use, experience, enjoy the new and the known in joint adventure and in common with others, in a constant giving and receiving relationship characterizes the sharing instructional event. The focus is on combining the inner development of perception with outward communication in a transactional environment. (e.g. McLuhan, 1963) Noted men and women have conceived the instructional experience as comprising one or another of the above events. Dewey, on the other hand, chose to view the problem of what comprises a good instructional experience in terms other than either one or the other of the above 18 events. Instead, he redefined the problem as how best to integrate all three essential events (input, self-awareness and sharing) into one instructional experience. (Dewey, 1938) Other contemporary authors also follow this line of thinking; integration rather than either-or. (e.g. Pinar, 1973, Miel, 1963, Combs, 1962) To date, the models we have of what an effective input event looks like are by far more numerous and common than the other two kinds. The formal schooling structure tends to use input events as the primary , teaching-learning mode. A person's pedagogical expectations of what kind of learning activities provide more important learning are to some degree culturally shaped and socialized. Input is indeed valued by some pe0p1e as a legitimate and important way to learn. In out-of-school instructional settings, volunteer instructors tend to create instructiohal experiences which primarily are input orienteduine.input instructional model is well known to them. Input instructional events are used the most frequently because people have been educated by their culture to accept the input instructional pattern as the teaching-learning norm. Within the past ten to fifteen years,the self-awareness learning experience has become more widely used and modeled for others to see. T-groups, church commitment groups, sensitivity training, values clarification experiences are some of the types of instructional programs utlizing self-awareness as the primary teachingrlearning mode. Many formal and out-of-school instructional settings have changed to the self-awareness instructional design or have incorporated blocks of events that are input-oriented and others that are self- awareness-oriented. Slowly, the social expectation of what is 19 considered an important and valid learning experience is changing to include self-awareness events. The third kind of learning experience (sharing) is perhaps at present the least understood and utilized. The current emphasis on behavioral objectives, management by objectives and goal setting by a select few who are "teachers" or "managers" cause conflict in trying to establish the kind of instructional environment in which sharing instructional events can operate. Most adventures into learning are not joint adventures at present. They are more characterized by one determining direction and content for another, apart from significant contribution by the learner. Most instructional experiences are not characterized by a constant giving and recieving relationship, but rather by one in which persons with ascribed status lord it over others. (Pinar, 1975) Status is achieved in sharing instructional experiences. The learning efforts are constantly unfolding under their own time table. Learning is not tested in the sense of measurement of previously ,/ prescribed goals, but rather, learning is tested through the crucible of experience. Testing is done by the learner and with significant others whom the learner has come to trust, respect, and love. In such a context people step out in faith into the unknown, because of support they feel from others. The steps in learning might be suall, but the quantity and quality of learning is individually-measured, group accepted, and individually and group supported. In addition, the emphasis in the United States on individualism helps socialize people to become, among other things, self-sufficient, self-reliant, suspicious of others, competitive. These social norms 20 work against learners perceiving sharing instructional designs as providing efficient and effective learning. The American's sense of urgency works at odds with the time needed for appropriate sharing experiences. In summary, perceptions of what a person believes to be a good learning experience is partially shaped by what the person has con- tinuously experienced and come to know as a teaching-learning situation. People's pedagogical expectations are also partially shaped by social norms and dominant sub-cultural lifestyles, as well as the individual's unique peronality characteristics. If it becomes clear that effective instructional experiences should comprise all three kinds of events (input, self-awareness, sharing), then one of the first tasks of effective instructional design involves assessment of the current expectations various people hold regarding what are considered valid learning experiences. Next, instructional designs must include events aimed at increasing aware- ness of the effects and the value of the kinds of learning experiences that are not highly prized. In theory and research, we are truly at stage one--assessment of differences in pedagogical expectations so that we can more clearly attune instructional experiences to the present values a person holds with regard to what a viable learning experience is. Assumptions Five primary assumptions guided this investigation. First, the researcher assumed that it was important to identify and understand leaders' preferences regarding levels of formality and kinds of learn- ing experiences so that training program designs and methodologies 21 can be made more effective. Within this assumption is another: that discrepancies between expectations held by an organization and the volunteer leader can limit the effectiveness of training programs, leader growth, and leader-girl interaction. Another assumption guiding this study was that the three kinds of learning experiences (input, selféawareness, and sharing) are necessary components to meaningful learning environments. The third assumption was that a person's pedagogical expectations are strong influences on the choice of learning experiences the leader finds valid and valuable for oneself and for others. Fourth, it was assumed that the degree to which a leader accepts oneself is related to the kinds of learning experiences one will perceive as valid learning experiences for oneself and for others. Fifth, it was assumed that a person's past formal schooling experiences are significantly related to the kinds of learning experiences one considers important. Delimitations Several of the delimitations of the study affect the study's generalizability. First, the sample of subjects represented a specific population of adults--adult women who, for various reasons, volunteered to work as Girl Scout leaders on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. Second, the random sample was measured on amount of schooling and degree of self-acceptance. While significant interations were found between these two variables and their choices of learning experiences and levels of formality, differences found may be attributable in actuality, to other psychological and/or sociological characteristics. 22 Third, one of the weaknesses of correlational studies is choosing variables which may show relationships but do little to explicate the complexity involved in a person's perceptual preferences for levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences considered valid ways to learn. In addition, correlational studies cannot establish cause-and- effect between variables correlated. Therefore, this study was exploratory, pointing to the relationships which seemed to exist between certain leader characteristics and leaders' perception of valid levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences. Cause-and-effect studies must follow to further identify and explain the relationships found. The study was intentionally limited to two descriptive constructs: levels of formality and kinds of learning experience.. The researcher's intent was to probe the subjects regarding their initial response on these two constructs. The probe interview questions uncovered other elements of an instructional experience the leader felt must be present in order to make a learning experience provide important learning. This study's findings provide an exploratory base for additional research. Definition of Important Terms Ethnopedagogy is a term coined by Berger (1968) and refers to the need of a teacher/trainer to be able to effectively adapt teaching- learning activities to the cultural viewpoints and experiences of learners. Expectations refer to those conscious and unconscious evaluations which a person forms of another, or of oneself, which leads one to treat others in such a manner as though the assessment were correct. 23 Expectations are estimations of reality and imply the anticipation of the behavior most likely to actually occur, if certain circumstances are created and put into action. (Finn, 1972, p. 390) Pedagogical expectations are what "a learner and leader/teacher expects to be the sociology (roles of teacher and learner), content, and procedures of an educational activity." (McKean, 1977, p. 19) Pedagogical expectations are considered a cultural and psychological phenomenon by Ward, Berger, Finn and others. Eiflé§.2£ learning gxperiences refer to the distinctly different nature of experiences in which a learner can participate. Based on the Ward model, three kinds of learning experiences were represented in the instrumentation: input, self-awareness, and sharing. All three kinds are considered necessary for effective learning. 13225 experiences involve learners in receiving or coming into contact with some new information. Self-awareness learning experiences involve the learner in reflecting upon one's current situation. Sharing learning experi- ences involve learners in putting into ones' own words or acting upon some new information, ideas, insights. Levels 9f formality refer to how structured, authority-oriented, controlled a leader feels the learning activity must be to have important learning occur in others. Three levels were used: low, medium and high. The levels of formality were handled photographically by showing various leader-girl grouping patterns. Amount 2f schooling refers to the number of years each subject completed in public or private schools. Degree 3; self-acceptance refers to the extent to which one accepts who one perceives oneself to be. Self-acceptance is empirically and 24 conceptually related to self-esteem (liking and respecting oneself). In this study the "Expressed Acceptance of Self" scale, created by Berger (1952), was used because it is one of the few scales which taps self-acceptance as it relates to social contexts,and has been in existance long enough to accumulate validation and reliability data. (Robinson and Saver, 1970, pp. 51, 107) In addition, the Berger scale has been used by others in adult education and nonformal education research studies. Overview In Chapter 2 the literature related to the pedagogical expectations phenomenon is reviewed. In Chapter 3 the methods used to investigate the relationship between adult leaders' pedagogical expectations, amount of schooling and the degree of self-acceptance are discussed. The research design, research questions and hypotheses are outlined. The instrumentation and procedures used in data collection and analysis are identified. In Chapter 4 the findings are presented. The research hypotheses tested are restated and accompanied by the findings to each. Chapter 5 contains a brief summary of the discussion of Chapter 1 through 4. The findings are discussed, conclusions reached,and implications and recommendations suggested. In summary, this study examined the pedagogical expectations Girl Scout leaders have about what are important learning experiences and why. It sought to determine whether or not there was a significant relation- ship between these expectations and certain leader characteristics. One of these characteristics was psychologically based--her degree of self-acceptance. The other characteristic was sociologically and culturally based--her amount of schooling. For the purpose of 25 hypotheses generation, additional demographic information was collected to help determine the logical and/or experiential bases for leaders' selection of learning experiences. Chapter 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The most publicized Studies, examining the expectancy phenomenon, schooling's role in a person's formation of expectations regarding kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality, and the relationship between self-acceptance and pedagogical expectations are discussed in Chapter 2. Overview The literature suggests that the expectancy phenonmenon is present in learning situations. A person gains expectations about what is considered valid learning experiences from numerous sources. A leader's pedagogical expectations are harmful when he/she lacks the ability to accurately and flexibly take into account new evidence. In addition, how positively the leader feels about and accepts oneself influences whether present expectations are rigid or flexible. A person's degree of self acceptance also influences the kind of learning experi- ences utilized. In addition, significant others--peers, parents, teachers--help create a person's view of what experiences constitute significant learning and teaching/leading. Most of the research to date on the teacher expectancy phenomenon has been conducted in the formal school context, although the expectancy 26 27 phenomenon,as a general construct,is well publicized in sociological, business, child development and perception literature. The teacher-learner role model most predominant is the formal schooling model. Since pedagogical expectations are a cultural phenomenon, it is suggested in Chapter 2 that the teacher-learner interaction patterns and the kinds of learning experiences the leader prefers and utilizes are, to some degree, patterned after the predominant teacher-learner role models found in the formal schooling context to which the leader was exposed. The Expectancy Effect The expectancy phenomenon as a determinant of educational outcome has received wide publicity in both the popular and the research com- munity within the past decade. The basic concept has been applied to such areas as teaching and learning, perception, management and researcher bias. Within the teaching-learning area the basic thesis is as follows: A teacher creates a reality commensurate with his own perceptions. Furthermore, the learner, while creating his own reality, shadows substantially the reality forming in the teacher's mind. (Braun, 1976, p. 185) Braun's thesis was popularized in 1968 by Rosenthal and Jacobson. Pygmglion ig_the Classroom (Rosenthal and Jacobson, 1968) created con- siderable public interest and heated professional controversy. The notion that a teacher's expectations regarding a child's ability in- fluences the child's classroom learning and performance, as well as his concept of self, seemed both reasonable and, backed by Rosenthal's and Jacobson's study, seemed to provide the thunder needed by those concerned about equal educational opportunity. 28 Findings of researcher bias while conducting laboratory animal studies (Rosenthal and Fode, 1963 and Rosenthal and Lawson, 1964) led Rosenthal and Jacobson to experiment with school children to determine whether creating expectations in the minds of teachers regarding the children's potential achievement would affect achievement. Their famous experiment, called the "Oak School" experiment, was conducted in an elementary school serving primarily a lower social class neighborhood. In May,a11 children in kindergarten through fifth grades were given an IQ test, Flanagan's Test of General Ability (TOGA), dis- guised as a test to predict "academic blooming." The TOGA.was given again the following September, in the middle of the year, and at the end of the year. To form experimental groups, Rosentahal and Jacobson randomly selected approximately 20% of the children from each of the 18 classes under investigation. The names of the students in the experimental groups were given to the teachers along with the interpretation of test scores,which indicated that these students' test scores predicted they would show large gains in intellectual ability during the school year. At the end of the year the experimental group showed approximately four IQ points advantage. However, among those children in the first and second grades the experimental group showed as much as 15 IQ points more than the children in the control group. In terms of school performr ance, the children in the experimental group showed a significantly better gain than the control group for reading only. Rosenthal and Jacobson concluded that if teachers expected intellectual blooming in specific children, such gains would indeed result. Ancillary findings they reported were that intellectual gains were not uniform across grades and that gains at the end of the first 29 year were most dramatic for first and second grade children. Gains at the end of the experiment were most pronounced for sixth-grade children. Teachers described experimental children as being happier, more curious, more interesting and as having a better chance of being successful in later life than control subjects. Considerable controversy has arisen over the Rosenthal'flacobson study (Thorndike 1968, Snow 1969, Gephart and Antonopolos 1969, Elashoff and Snow 1971, Jones 1977). The major points of controversy, as listed by Kester and Letchworth (1972, p. 51) include the following: 1. Questions about the validity of the IQ measurement instrument used (Thorndike 1968). 2. Questions about the statistical analysis of the data (Snow 1969). 3. Some difficulty in replicating the research findings (i.e. Claiborn 1969). 4. A question of the pervasiveness of the teacher expectation effect (Brophy and Good 1974). Rosenthal (1969, 1970) answers Thorndike's criticisms about instrument validity and Snow's criticisms about unprofessional statisti- cal analysis of data to the satisfaction of many researchers. There have been mixed reports by those who have tried to replicate or partically replicate Rosenthal and Jacobson's findings. Among them, published studies by José and Cody (1971), Fleming and Anttonen (1971), Clairborn (1969), Rubovits and Maehr (1971), Flowers (1966), Anderson and Rosenthal (1968), Conn, Edwards, Rosenthal and Crowne (1968), Evans and Rosenthal (1969), to name just a few, have at best found mixed re- sults or no significant relationship between teacher expectations and 30 pupil ability and achievement. However, Adams and Cohen (1976, p. 216) indicate that, as of 1976, about half the studies support the original Rosenthal and Jacobson research, while the remaining half does not. Other related studies have indicated that the behavior of a leader or teacher influences the behavior of the children (Anderson, 1937, 1939; Lewin, Lippitt and White, 1939; Flanders, 1951) and that expectancy may be a contributing factor in the changes that are effected (Overall and Aronson, 1963; Rosenthal, 1966; Rosenthal and Fode, 1963; Rosenthal and Lawson, 1964). Rist's (1970) well publicized observational study of one class of ghetto childrenncovering their kindergarten through second grade schooling experiences,shows dramatically that the way in which the teacher behaved toward different students became an important influence on the children's achievement. He showed that, indeed, the teacher does make a difference. He summarized his findings as follows: ...the development of expectations by the kinder- garten teacher as to the differential academic potential and capability of any student was signi- ficantly determined by a series of subjectively interpreted attributes and characteristics of that student. The argument may be succinctly stated in five propositions. First, the kindergarten teacher possessed a roughly constructed 'ideal type' as to what characteristics were necessary for any given student to achieve 'success' both in the public school and in the larger society. These character- istics appeared to be, in significant part, related to social class criteria. Secondly, upon first meeting her students at the beginning of the school year, subjective evaluations were made of the students as to possession or absence of the desired traits necessary for anticipated 'success'. On the basis of the evaluation, the class was divided into groups expected to succeed (termed by the teacher 'fast learner') and those anticipated to lag (termed by the teacher 'slow learners'). Third, differential treatment was accorded to the two groups in the 31 classroom, with the group designated as 'fast learners' receiving the majority of the teaching time, reward- direct behavior, and attention from teacher. Those designated as 'slow learners' were taught infrequently, subjected to more frequent control-oriented behavior, and received little if any supportive behavior from the teacher. Fourth, the interactional patterns between the teacher and the various groups in her class became rigidified, taking on caste like characteristics, during the course of the school year, with the gap in completion of academic material between the two groups widening as the school year progressed. Fifth, a similar process occurred in later years of schooling, but the teachers no longer relied on subjectively interpreted data as the basis for ascertaining differences in students. Rather, they were able to utilize a variety of informational sources related to past performance as the basis for classroom grouping. (Rist, 1970, pp. 413-414) Brophy and Good (1974) give the most complete review of expectancy research as it relates to the teaching-learning process since Rosenthal and Jacobson's review (1968, Chapter 2). They define expectations as inferences based upon and following observations of another person and are neither good or bad in themselves. They believe the crucial factor in how expectations influence teacher behavior, is how accurate and flexible the teacher is to take into account new evidence. Where teachers' expectations are inaccurate and inflexible, Rosenthal's "self- fulfilling prophecy" effect is more apt to take place. Such teachers tend to persistently treat students in inappropriate ways,causing students to conform to the teacher's expectations. Conformity manifests itself in process and product research measures; that is, in the degree to which teacher-student interaction patterns, student achievement, student enjoyment, teacher and learner self—concept and self—esteem and so on, are appropriate. Brophy and Good also point out that research shows several things affect teacher expectations. In addition to the factors of "student 32 individual differences . . .teacher expectations can also be shaped by the curriculum materials used and the grade-level expectations associated with them and, within these, by the nature of the steering group (Lundgren, 1972) toward which the teacher aims his/her level of instruction." (p. 119) It is within these last few areas that research studies are just now becoming available. In summary, there is a vast body of literature which indicates strong support for the existence of a pedagogical expectancy effect across several kinds of educational settings. New expectancy models are being developed ( e.g. Brophy and Good, 1974, Braun, 1976) to further the conceptual framework needed to systematically research the expectancy effect as a determinant to educational outcome. Various people are studying the sources of expectations (Finn, 1972) and the variables related to expectations (e.g. Adams and Cohen, 1976, 1974, Cooper, Baron and Lowe, 1975, Brophy and Good, 1970, Braun, 1976, Dunkin and Biddle, 1974). While most of the studies have been done in the schooling context, measuring people who are credentialled as "teachers", there is recognition of the need to carry on research on the expectancy effect in out-of-school adult education settings. (Kidd, 1977, p. 28) To date, however, little has been done. What expectations lay leaders hold regarding learner differences and how they affect learner behavior and attitudes are largely unknown. The expectations leaders have about what learning experiences are valid for others and why have not been thoroughly researched in out-of-school settings. Schooligg and Expectations To what extent a leader's past schooling forms her present perceptions 33 of what is important learning is central to the present investigation. Bruner's social theory of perception indicates that perception does not arise from a neutral ground, but is the result of an antecedent(s). The pattern and role of these antecedents are such as to permit them to be called hypotheses. The stronger the hypothesis the more likely its activation is in a given situation. In such cases, less input material will be needed for its activation. (Bruner, 1951, pp. 121-147) It is reasonable to postulate that the stronger the influence and the more positive the schooling experience' was for a leader, the more likely past schooling teaching-learning models are significantly related to a leaders present expectations for what is important learning and appropriate teaching strategy. The effects of schooling on a person's development have largely been studied from the viewpoint of the child and what happens to the child because of differential treatment by teachers, the school setting, resources, etc. Finn suggest that there is a network of expectations held by several people who are in contact with the learner and that these expectations influence the learner's behavior. Together with the teacher, the physical setting,and the curricular materials and activities, a network of expectations is established, to which the child is continuously exposed. The network constitutes a significant part of the child's educational environment, i.e. the totality of all aspects of the milieu which sets expectations for an individual's educational attainment, whether cognitive or otherwise. (Finn, 1972, p. 392) In addition to in-school variables, individuals out of school hold expectations for the youngster's academic behavior. Peers, parents, teachers create a network of consistent and conflicting expectations. Finn diagrams the entire network of expectations as is displayed in Figure l. (Finn, 1972, p. 395) 34 cultural traditions and demands perceived characteristics of individual (age, race, sex, abilities, prior achievement) 1 l expectations expectations expectations of of of peers parents teachers expectations of others self- expectation ‘1 self— direct concept influence [— outcome J behavior (achievement) Figure 1 FINN'S NETWORK OF EXPECTATIONS 35 Numerous studies have been made on the differential treatment received by peOple in school because of income level, sex, race, and ability characteristics (e.g. see reviews in Rohwer, 1971, Shea, 1976). Indeed, expectations and subsequent treatment by peers, parents, teachers and significant others in a person's life greatly shape the person's view of himself and how he relates to others later in life. It is reason- able to suggest that leaders' present pedgagoical expectations for others are to some extent patterned on past educational experiences they have had, either as a reaction to past displeasure or as an extension to past satisfaction. From a socio-cultural viewpoint, all societies conventionalize behavior. An elaborate set of rules, differing across cultures, govern expression. These rules govern behavior of persons having specific statuses in society (husband or wife, teacher or learner, host or guest). These rules help define how the person of a certain status position ought to behave.(Sarbin, 1954, 1964, Merton, 1957, Goffman, 1959, Sargent, 1951, Newcomb, 1951) The reasons for role expectations are complex. Lifelong socializa- tion processes help people attain self-identity, gain the ability to predict and control the social environment,and obtain approval and disapproval from others. If leaders' present behavior is based on pedagogical expectations assimilated from past schooling experience, and these pedagogical expectations are inappropriate for the present situation, leaders are in role conflict. Allen says that in order to change role behavior a change in role or in one of the variables affecting the role must occur. (Allen, 1968, pp. 201-202) To leave the role unchanged seems to produce changes in the self-system so that 36 it becomes congruent with role expectations. (Merton, 1940, Waller, 1932) The teacher-learner role most common to all is found in schools. The schooling teacher-learner role has several unique interaction patterns. The role relationship found in schools is not like the teacher-learner relationship values by many nonformal educational programs (e.g. club programs, church programs). The trainers of non- formal education leaders must find ways to expand and, in some cases, alter role expectations which are inappropriate to reach the inter- personal interaction patterns promoted by their program. Otherwise, leaders will use teacher-learner role patterns which are familiar to them, and, for most, the teacher-learner role that is familiar is that modeled within school settings. Freire describes the formal schooling teacher-learner role relationship as follows: ’1. the teacher teaches and the students are taught 2. the teacher knows everything and the students know nothing 3. the teacher thinks and the students are thought about 4. the teacher talks and the students listen--meekly 5. the teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined 6. the teacher chooses and enforces his choice, and the students comply 7. the teacher acts and the students have the illusion of acting through the actions of the teacher. 8. the teacher chooses the program content, and the students (who were not consulted) adapt to it. 9. the teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his own professional authority, which he sets in opposition to the freedom of the students 37 10. the teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects. (Freire, 1970, p. 59) McKean (1977, pp. 6-8) in critiquing the schooling system reminds the reader that the philOSOphical roots and structure of schooling around the world are built upon the Greek model of epistemology and schooling. The role of education for the Greeks was to "promote and maintain a class and hierarchical authority system." The pedagogy within schools is built on the premise that, if a person can be given facts, the person can then do something. To know is to do. Ward lists the following sources of weakness in the schooling approach to education. These sources of weakness also help reveal the teacher-learner role patterns promoted by the schooling system. 1. All learners are assumed to be similar in terms of needs, interests and abilities. 2. Conforming behavior is preferred over divergent and nonconforming behavior. 3. Learners are increasingly made more competitive at the price of cooperation. 4. Learners are expected to be receptors of learning rather than communicators. 5. The learner's part in decision-making is minimal and tends to be steadily reduced. 6. The responsibility for attitudes and feelings about content and about learning itself is attributed to the student. 7. The content to be learned is justified in terms of future needs of the learner. 8. Schooling's major justification is preparation (mostly expressed in terms of eligibility for more schooling). 9. Evaluation is concerned almost exclusively with cognitive learning (knowledge of information and processes) and skills. 38 10. Learning experiences are designed or selected on the basis of values of the adult and established world. 11. Abstractions of experience (in the form of language and symbols) are substituted for realities. l2. Rewards are symbolic more than real. Even the satisfactionsof seeing oneself develop are subordinated to imposed systems of rewards. 13. Punishment is assumed to increase learning. 14. Punishment is a virtually sovereign right of the teacher. 15. The teacher is ascribed authority, thus creating a hierarchy based on unearned status. 16. The social distance that separates teachers from learners is increased by according different sets of rights and expectations to each. 17. Learning experiences are designed (and limited) to fit time blocks. 18. Learning experiences are designed (and limited) to fit standard locations and space. 19. Testing is the criterion of success. 20. Success is the surpassing value. (Ward, 1973b, pp. 4-5) In summary, while growing up, peeple are exposed to a network of pedagogical expectations. The expectations are what a person considers appropriate, valid teacher-learner relationships and activities. To some individual-specific degree, these expectations are based on past teacher-learner transactions a person has experienced. Teacher-learner roles in the schooling system are not the same roles suggested by many nonformal educational programs. Thus, the amount of dissonance an individual experiences as a leader in a nonformal educational setting is related to how congruent the leader's pedagogical expectations 39 are with the organization's pedagogical expectations. The expectations include beliefs about appropriate teacher-learner role relationships, valid choices and presentations of content and instructional procedures. Leaders' Self-acceptance and Pedagggical Expectations Staines suggests that the "self" is a learned structure, growing mainly from comments made by other people and from inferences drawn by the person out of his/her experience in home, school, and other social groups. (Staines, 1958, p. 97) Self is a mixture of affect and cognition, actions and reflection. (Gordon, 1969, p. 1227) Self is the sum total of all the person can call one's own. 7“\\\ / One of the central tenets of self concept is that a person's behavior is a function of ones self concept at a given point in time. Therefore, a teacher's behavior is a function of his/her own self- perception. (Aronson and Carlsmith, 1962, p. 1978, Combs, 1962) Studies of self-concept have largely investigated the learner's view of self and its relationship to performance (see Purkey, 1970, for a comprehensive review). However, studies have been done on teachers' self concept to support the tenet described above. Combs (1962, 1965) states that a positive view of self is one of the characteristics of an effective teacher. "Good teachers feel basically adequate rather than inadequate." Furthermore, Combs indicates that the teacher's attitude toward himself and others is an important as, if not more so, than his techniques, practices, or materials in determining teaching effectiveness. Purkey, reporting on the research about what teachers believe, says the following about self concept. 40 There seems to be general agreement that the teacher needs to have positive and realistic attitudes about himself and his abilities before he is able to reach out to like and respect others. Numerous studies (Berger, 1953, Fey, 1954, Luft, 1966) have reported that there is a marked relation between the way an individual sees himself and the way he sees others. Those who accept themselves tend to be more accepting of others (Trent, 1957) and perceive others as more accepting (Omwake, 1954). Further, according to Omwake, those who reject themselves hold a correspondingly low opinion of others and perceive others as being self-rejecting. From these studies it seems clear that the teacher needs to see him- self in essentially positive ways. (Purkey, 1970, p. 46) Combs and his associates (1962, 1963) found in their research on the perceptual organization of effective helpers that effective teachers, counselors, and priests could be distinguished from in- effective helpers on the basis of their attitudes about themselves and others. Jersild (1965) adds that the ability to understand oneself is a necessary factor in coping with feelings and in becoming a more effective teacher in the classroom. The literature, therefore, indicates that a central variable 1 / l/ significantly related to appropriate teacher-learner performance is the construct called "self." Within the generalized,unifying construct called "self" is the concept of cognitive styles. Cognitive styles are considered learned } patterns of preference for how situations and concepts are organized and presented. Gordon (1969, p. 1226) discusses three classes of cognitive styles: (1) the functions of ego defense,which include the dimensions of leveling and sharpening, field articulation, scanning control, and tolerance of unrealistic experiences, (2) Witkin and 41 and others' analytical versus a global-field approach, which describes differences in the ways peeple approach tasks, and (3) Kagan's analytic-descriptive, inferential-categorical and relational styles, deal with ways in which people perceive, categorize and describe visual stimuli. This body of research suggests that adults and children's cognitive styles influence their preference for the kinds of learning experiences and the levels of formality they feel are meaningful and valid. The McKean Study McKean's (1977) study is a companion study to this inquiry. McKean studied what adult learners expect to be important learning experiences. Utilizing a photo instrument similar in design to the one used in this study, 225 adults from various adult education programs in southern, lower Michigan considered low and medium formality settings more valid than high formality settings. He also found that the subjects considered sharing and self-awareness experiences more valid than input learning experiences. In addition, when correlating amount of formal schooling with levels of formality the adults considered valid, he found an apparent trend away from high formality settings for those who had more schooling. McKean also found that the types of learning experiences were considered approximately equally valid. In medium formality settings, sharing experiences were considered most valid. In high formality settings, input was considered least valid (pp. 51-69). The photos used by McKean showed adult teachers interacting with adult learners. McKean did not explore whether the subjects were making their judgments about each photo from the viewpoint of the learner or 42 the teacher. Therefore, whether the expectations McKean found are what the adult perceived as important learning for themselves or for others, or both is not clear. The Denmark Study Denmark (1971) conducted a study to obtain and analyze data concerning volunteer 4-H adult leaders in Texas to develop recommenda- tions for effectively identifying, recruiting, and training 4-H adult leaders. Pertinent to the present study is Denmark's findings about leader effectiveness and degree of self-acceptance. A questionnaire was used to identify selected biographical characteristics, recruiting preferences and training needs of volunteer 4-H adult leaders. Extension Agents in 25 counties, selected at random, placed each of the 4-H leaders into three categories of effectiveness (most effective, somewhat effective, least effective). Effectiveness groups were used as the dependent variable and were correlated with the independent variables, one of which was degree of self-acceptance. Denmark found that those rated as most effective leaders by the Extension Agents had higher degrees of self-acceptance than did the average Texas 4-H leader. Also, he found those rated as more effective leaders had the highest mean years of formal education (p. 44). Interestingly, the group rated least effective and that had the lowest scores on Berger's Expressed Acceptance of Self scale rated "Understanding Youth" as the highest area of training they felt they needed (p. 68). Summar The literature from which this study comes has its roots in 43 expectancy theory and what is termed "expectancy effect" research. Some of the most well known studies were reviewed in this chapter. The majority of studies done to date examine how teacher expectations are related to learner academic performance. Subjects are largely from the formal school educational context. The literature suggests that teacher expectations significantly relate to how teachers behave toward children. Teachers' expectations influence how they treat various learners. Teaching-learning expectations, to varying degrees, also influence what kinds of learning experiences are planned by the teacher. The literature investigating the influence of past school experiences on the expectations a person has regarding What is considered valid learning experiences was discussed. Literature on how the concept of self is related to the formation of pedagogical expectations was reviewed. Lastly, two specific studies were examined which directly relate to the present investigation. McKean's (1977) study utilized a similar audio-visual instrument to measure pedagogical expectations. It is from his initial work that the present study was conceptualized. Denmark's study (1971) was also reviewed because of his efforts to show the relationship between leader effectiveness and expressed acceptance of self, using the Berger scale with similar subjects from another nonformal educational program (4-H). Chapter 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY In Chapter 3 the methods used to investigate the relationship between adult leaders' pedagogical expectations, amount of schooling, and degree of self-acceptance are discussed. The research design, research questions and hypotheses are outlined. The instrumentation and procedures used in data collection and analysis are identified. Description of Methodology_ Through a correlational study an attempt was made to discover relationships which exist among the perceptions leaders had of valid levels of formality and valid kinds of learning experiences, and leaders' expressed acceptance of self and amount of schooling. The statistical analyses used correlation measurements. Borg and Call (1971) indicate that correlational studies are used when individual differences are expected to be present which will manifest themselves as variations in scores. The researcher was primarily interested in what factors were related to these variations in scores. 44 45 Research Desigg The study was a "one-shot case study" (Isaac and Michael, 1971, p. 36) done through an interview with each of fifty-one subjects, randomly selected from a discrete population. Two instruments were administered to each subject, with a third instrument administered to two subjects who did not discriminate on the first instrument. One instrument measured the leaders' perceptions about levels of formality of an instructional activity and the kinds of learning experiences considered to be valid learning activities. When a subject's judgments varied less than two points and less than four times on the response scale, a Learning Expectation Descrimination instrument was also administered to further clarify preferences in pedagogical expectations. Another instrument measured the leaders' degree of self acceptance. All instruments were administered during a hour interview in the leaders' home. Through the use of probe questions, descriptive data was obtained, indicating why leaders selected certain kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality as those which provide important learning. For the purpose of hypotheses generation, additional demographic information was collected during the interview. McKean (1977) indicated that other things besides amount of schooling may influence a person's preferences for certain levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences. He recommended that the quality of schooling be looked at as well. To follow up on this suggestion, information on the subjects' attitude toward their schooling experience (positive, negative, mixed) and the nature of past schooling (public, private, both) was collected. 46 Since pedagogical expectations are considered a cultural phenomenon by Ward (1973a) and Berger (1968), the ethnic background of the leaders and the girls with whom the leaders worked was examined to determine if relationships were present between ethnic background and their preferences for kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality. The researcher explored what educational contexts (formal, nonformal, both) leaders associated their judgments with when choosing those levels and kinds that provided important learning. Variables Under Investiggtion The classifying or explanatory variables in this study were the amount of schooling and the degree of self-acceptance,and were therefore the independent variables. The variables explained in light of the independent variables were the degree and kind of expectation of learning. The degree and kind of expectation of learning were, therefore, the dependent variables. The assumption was that the degree and kind of expectation of learning were, among other variables, dependent on the amount of schooling and the degree of self-acceptance the leader had. Independent Variables. The degree of self-acceptance was obtained, using Berger's "Expressed Acceptance of Self" scale. (Berger, 1952) The Berger scale contains thirty-six statements regarding feelings a person has about himself. The subject was asked to choose which of five answers best applied to them for each of the thirty-six items. The answers ranged from each of the thirty-six statements being completely true of them to completely untrue. A mean score for each subject was obtained which represented the degree of self-acceptance. The other independent variable was amount of schooling. The subjects 47 were asked how many years of school they had completed. Dependent Variables. The degree of expectation of learning was the subjects' score on the audio-visual instrument which measured the degree to which the leaders expect learning to occur in each of the learning situations under investigation. Levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences were factors of the dependent variable-- degree of expectation of learning. Level of formality of an instructional activity referred to how structured, authority-oriented, controlled a leader felt the learning activity must be to have important learning occur in others. Formality was measured in three levels: very formal, very informal and in between these two extremes. Levels of formality were labeled as high (very formal, medium (in between), and low (very informal. Kind of learning experience provided by an instructional activity referred to the nature of experience the leader perceived as providing important learning in others. Ward (1966) and McKean (1977) discussed three basic kinds of learning experiences. lEPEE‘ the learner is involved in receiving or coming into contact with some new information Self-awareness: the learner is involved in reflecting upon his or her current situation, including abilities, interests, feelings, knowledge, and limitations Sharing: the learner is involved in putting into his/her own words or acting upon some new information, ideas, insights. (McKean, 1977, p. 34) The kind of expectation of learning referred to the logical and/or experiential bases of the leaders' choices regarding the kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality they believed provided 48 important learning for others. The following hypotheses identify the relationships which were tested for among the independent and dependent variables: H1 Subjects will judge higher levels of formality as providing more important learning than do lower levels of formality. H Subjects will rate input experiences as providing more important learning for their girls than do sharing and self-awareness experiences. H Subjects will prefer medium levels of formality with sharing experiences. H Subjects will prefer low levels of formality with input experiences. H Subjects will prefer low levels of formality with self-awareness experiences. H Subjects will have a higher mean degree of self-acceptance than the mean found by Berger. H There is a significant relationship present between the leaders' degree of self-acceptance and their expectations related to levels of formality judged as providing important learning. H8 Subjects with above mean degrees of self-acceptance will prefer different levels of formality than do subjects with below mean degrees of self-acceptance. H9 There is a significant relationship between the leaders' degree of self-acceptance and their expectations related to kinds of learning experiences judged as providing important learning. H10 Subjects with above mean degrees of self-acceptance will prefer different kinds of learning experiences than do subjects with below mean degrees of self-acceptance. 49 H11 There is a significant relationship between leaders' amount of schooling and their expectations regarding levels of formality. H12 Subjects with more schooling prefer different levels of formality than do subjects with less schooling. H13 There is a significant relationship between leaders' amount of schooling and their preferences for kinds of learning experiences. H14 Subjects with more schooling will prefer different kinds of learning experiences than do subjects with less schooling. H15 There is a significant relationship between leaders' amount of schooling and their preferences for the combinations of levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences. H16 Subjects with more schooling will prefer different combinations than do subjects with less schooling. H17 There is a logical and/or experiential bases for the subjects' judgments about kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality and these bases can be documented. Sample The sample was randomly selected from the Girl Scout Council of the Pacific registered leaders file. Specifically, the selection consisted of a random drawing of 60 tr00ps of the 313 on Oahu. The first leader listed on each of the 60 troop cards was selected for interviewing. As of February, 1978 there were a total of 1,757 leaders registered with tr00ps. 0n the island of Oahu, there were 1,437 registered leaders with troops. The original sample consisted of 60 people (1 man and 59 women). Eight women refused to participate, leaving a total of 52 people 50 interviewed. Those who refused to participate were all military residents. Two reasons were given for why they did not want to participate: "too busy" and "not interested in participating." In four cases, the researcher felt that the subjects were highly threatened, even though the interview purpose and content were explained thoroughly to them over the phone, and an assurance given that what was said during the interview would be confidential. Because it was unanticipated that one subject selected would be a man, it was decided, for the purpose of data analysis, not to include his responses in the discussion of findings in Chapter 4. While no noticeable differences could be noted in his responses, it was decided to keep the study free of the gender variable. Some questions were asked during the interview to develop a demographic profile for this particular sample. While some information was available from the registration forms, which would describe the kind of leaders the Girl Scout Council serves, the information was not tabulated, so little was known statistically about the leaders prior to the interview. For example, the ratio of military residents to local residents was not known. The ethnic background of leaders and girls was not known. The subjects' characteristic profile is reported in Chapter 4. Instrumentation The study used three instruments, two of which were designed specifically for the study. The "Expectation of Learning" instrument consisted of a set of eighteen photos, eighteen tape—recorded picture captions (one for each photo) and a response scale answer sheet. (Appendix A) 51 The "Expectation of Learning" instrument was designed to measure the subjects' perceptions of what levels of formality and kinds of learning experience would facilitate important learning. The photos and captions were selected to represent adult women and girls engaged in various kinds of learning experiences (input, self-awareness, and sharing) and in various levels of formality (low, medium, and high). The photos portrayed a leader-and-girl relationship and the physical set-up of the instructional experience. To assist the subject in knowing what it was the leader and girls were doing in each particular photo, an audio caption was played for each photo shown. The tape-recorded simulated leader instruction was used to overcome the subjects' possible reading inabilities. The tape recorded captions were separated by a lS-second silence to give subjects time to respond to each photo. The subjects recorded their responses on a response scale answer sheet which accompanied the photos. The response scale consisted of a Likert-type scale ranging from yes, probably are; some are, some aren't; probably not, no. (Appendix B) The question the subjects responded to for each photo was the same: "Do you think these people are learning something important?" This question was chosen for several reasons. McKean (1977, p. 39) utilizing a similiar instrument, found through trial uses that this question was the clearest. Second, it focuses on participants' personal viewpoints. Third, the question has been used in other ethnopedagogy studies to determine if people consider an activity a valid learning activity. Fourth, the word "important" tries to focus on intentional goals and objectives of the activity and away from 52 ancillary or negative learning. Each of the eighteen photos portrayed one of three levels of formality (low, medium, or high) and one of the three kinds of learning experiences (input, self-awareness, or sharing). Therefore, there were nine combinations possible. These combinations are shown in Table 3.1. TABLE 3.1 POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS 0F LEVELS OF FORMALITY BY KINDS OF LEARNING EXPERIENCE High formality High formality High formality Input Self-awareness Sharing Medium formality Medium formality Medium formality Input Self-awareness Sharing Low formality Low formality Low formality Input Self-awareness Sharing Two photos represented each of the nine possible learning situations under investigation. Therefore, eighteen photos and audio-captions comprised the "Expectation of Learning" instrument. Validity Test. To insure content validity of the "Expectation of Learning" instrument (i.e., that photos represent what the researcher thinks they represent) a panel of four people (two women who worked in their home and two who worked outside their home) were asked to do two things. First, a check was made on whether the level of formality the researcher assigned to each of the eighteen photos was the same as that assigned by the panel. The number of photos was split in half so that 53 there was one photo representing each of the nine possible combinations of levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences. The panel was asked to rank each of the three sets of three kinds of learning experiences from formal to least formal. This procedure was repeated for the second set of nine photos. There was 1002 agreement between what the researcher believed to be high, medium, and low formality settings and what the panel perceived as representing high, medium and low formality settings. Second, each member of the panel was given the instrument as it was to be administered to the subjects and asked which of the three kinds of learning experiences was represented by each photo. The panel agreed 94% with the researcher's intentions for each photo. Thus, the content portrayed was considered valid. Reliability Test. The "Expectation of Learning" instrument asked the same question about eighteen different photos and was basically looking for different responses to the same stimulus from different subjects. To insure that the stimulus was the same on all but the characteristics under investigation (level of formality and kind of learning experience), attempts were made to get photos in which there were no significant differences among the factors of clothing, age of leader, age of learners, ethnic composition of learners. All photos were taken in an inside setting,utilizing the same girls and leaders. To insure that the instrument elicited the same response over time (stability validity) and was not vulnerable to changes in the subject's mood, situation, or environment, the instrument was administered to six people at one time and then re-administered to the same people after two to three hours. There was an item by item 54 correlation of .89. Thus, the instrument was considered stable over time. To insure that the instrument was internally consistent, the items were divided into two equivalent halves and each half administered at a separate time to the same people. A split-half correlation was done using Kendall's Tau. The correlation between halves was significant at the .01 level. When a subject did not differentiate between responses more than two points (yes or probably are) at least four or more times, a "Discrimination" instrument was administered to further identify expectations of learning. (Appendix A) The "Discrimination" instrument consisted of eighteen photos and eighteen audio captions. Each photo represented one of the nine possible combinations of levels of formality (low, medium, high) and kinds of learning experiences (input, self-awareness, sharing). The eighteen photos and audio captions were the same as the photos and audio captions utilized in the "Expectation of Learning" instrument described above. The first nine photos tested for differentiation in kinds of learning experiences and the second set of nine photos tested for differentiation in levels of formality. In the first set the level of formality was held constant, and the kinds of learning experiences varied (e.g. high-input, high-self-awareness, high-sharing). In the second set kinds of learning experiences were held constant, and the level of formality varied (e.g. input-high, inputdmedium, input-low). Three photos were shown at one time and were accompanied by audio captions. After the audio captions for all three were played, the subject was asked the following questions: (1) Which of these photos 55 represents the situation in which the most important learning is hap- pening? (2) Which of these photos represents the situation in which the least important learning is happening? On a separate answer sheet the subject recorded her choice regarding which photos represented the most and least important learning situation. Since the photos and captions used in the "Discrimination" instrument were the same as those used in the "Expectation of Learning" instrument reliability and validity procedures were the same. The third instrument used in the study was Berger's "Expressed Acceptance o£_Self" scale. This instrument measured, on a five point answer scale, the leader's view of acceptance of self, particularily in social contexts. The Berger scale was chosen because it had been used in studies of nonformal education groups (i.e. see Denmark's study in Chapter 2) and was considered more reliable and valid because of repeated use than a new scale created for this study would have been. The instrument consists of thirty-six items dealing with self- acceptance. The items are written in such a way that they ask for a response about self in relation to various social contexts. Each item was answered on a five-point scale: not at all true; slightly true of myself; about halfway true of myself; mostly true of myself; to true of myself. (Appendix D) Reliability Check. Spearman-Brown estimates of reliability equaled or exceeded .75 for several samples using the Berger scale, according to Robinson and Saver (1970, p. 107). Eagly, as reported by Robinson and Saver (1970), obtained a correlation of .91 between 56 16 items administered before and 16 items after an experiment. The scale has been utilized in formal and nonformal education settings and has proven reliable in both. Validity Check. When checking for convergent validity, Omwake (1954) found that the Berger and Phillips (1951) scales correlated .73. The prediction on which the Berger scale was constructed has also been confirmed. Omwake (1954) found correlations of .37 between the Berger self and other scales. Berger (1952) obtained group differences in self-acceptance which could support the scale's validity. (Robinson and Saver, 1970, p. 107) The interview schedule which followed administration of the "Expectation of Learning" and the "Discrimination" instruments consisted of a series of Open-ended probe questions. The questions' intent was to probe the bases on which subjects chose levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences they felt provided important learning. The interview schedule consisted of three parts (Part A, B, and C). Part A probed their reasons for indicating that people were learning something important. Part B probed their reasons for indicating that people were not learning something important. Part C consisted of questions which would collect the demographic data necessary to further clarify the logical and/or experiential bases for their pedagogical expectations. Since two people were involved in interviewing the subjects, both practiced interviewing two people. The practice sessions were discussed to insure both interviewers were recording information accurately, were asking the questions as stated on the interview sheet and were not priming the subjects to elicit desired responses. Gordon's Interviewing: 57 Strategy, Techniques and Tactics (1975) was used as a preparation guide for the interviews. Research Procedures and Data Collection The research data were gathered in an interview of approximately one hour with each subject. The field work was done during March, 1978. Prior to Interview. In February, 1978, the random sample was selected from the registered Girl Scout leaders, and a letter of introduction was sent to each of the sixty leaders selected. The letter was signed by the Birector of Camping and Training Services for the Girl Scout Council of the Pacific and indicated the purpose of the interview. The letter also informed them that the researcher would be calling to arrange a time for an interview. Shortly after the letters were mailed, each subject was called and a time scheduled for the interview. The interviews were conducted by two researchers, the principal researcher and one assistant. The assistant was given instruction in how to conduct the interview, with emphasis on avoiding biasing subject's responses. She was instructed in how to record answers. Both inter- viewers practiced giving two interviews each. The results were discussed and problems and questions clarified. During_the Interview. A carefully structured interview procedure was established. The three research instruments described above were used, accompanied by probe questions on the "Expectation of Learning" or, in some cases, the "Discrimination" instrument. Specifically, the step-by-step procedure used during the interview was as follows: 58 1. Introduction and statement of purpose of interview 2. Administration of "Expectation of Learning" instrument 3. If subject differientiated less than 2 points, 3 or less times, "Discrimination" instrument administered 4. Asked probe questions on photos which were judged as "Yes" or "Probably Are" learning something important. (For those going through the "Discrimination" instrument, probe questions related to those photos for which subject responded the most important learning was happening) 5. Asked probe questions on photos which were judged as"No" or peeple are "Probably Not" learning something important. (For those subjects who went through the "Discrimination" instrument, probe questions relate to those photos for which subjects responded that the least important learning was occuring.) 6. Gathered personal description data 7. Administered Berger's "Expressed Acceptance of Self" scale 8. Interview concluded. Both the "Expectation of Learning" and "Discrimination" instruments, designed to measure the subject's degree of expectation of learning, were organized so that each subject recorded their own answers on an answer sheet. In addition, the subjects recorded their answers to the thirty- six items on the Berger scale on an answer sheet. Data Analysis The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the data. The data was measured primarily using nonparametric correlational measurements. Kendall's Tau was accepted as significant at the a=.05 level. Contingency tables with Chi-square measures of 59 association were used in some cases. Significance was accepted for the Chi-square measurement at a=.05 level. The descriptive statistics for both the demographic data and the data resulting from the probe interview questions also were tabulated. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences was utilized to run Chi-squares to discover significant relationships which might exist. The dependent and independent variables are listed below, showing the combinations of correlations done to test for main effects and associations among variables. Tests for Main Effects Levels of Formality' Kinds of Learning Experiences View of Self-acceptance. Amount of Schooling Bases of Judgment U1¢I>WNH Tests of Associations 1. Levels of Formality by Kinds of Learning Experiences 2. Amount of Schooling by Levels of Formality 3. Amount of Schooling by Kinds of Learning Experiences 4. Amount of Schooling by Kinds of Learning Experiences by Levels of Formality 5. Self-acceptance by Kinds of Learning Experiences 6. Self-acceptance by Levels of Formality 7. Self-acceptance by Kinds of Learning Experiences by Levels of Formality Methodological Assumptions There were several assumptions which underlie this study's design and procedures. Perhaps the most obvious was that the researcher assumed the subjects' responses to the question in the "Expectation of Learning" instrument (Are these peOple learning something important?) indicated the degree of learning which the subjects considered was occurring in each learning situation portrayed. 60 It was assumed that the three levels of formality and the three kinds of learning experiences under investigation could be represented through pictures, especially when accompanied by an audio stimulus suggesting what was being done and the nature of the leader's response to learners. The Berger "Expressed Acceptance of Self" scale was assumed to be a valid and reliable indicator of self-acceptance for the subjects involved in this study. It was assumed that one can determine how a leader judges the photos used in the "Expectation of Learning" instrument by asking a series of probe questions during the course of an interview. The assumption was made that the response scale, ranging from "Yes" to "No" is a nonparametric scale. No assumptions about normal distribution of scores or of equal metric units between the five units on the scale were made for the majority of the statistical tests utilized to analyze the data. Limitations This study was an exploratory study, designed to test how the leaders' amount of schooling and degree of self-acceptance related to their expectations on two constructs involved in a learning experience: Kinds of learning experiences and Levels of formality. The literature indicated that a person's pedagogical expecations are influenced by numerous variables. This study explored the relation- ship among four. While significant relationships were found, this study does not entirely explain the pedagogical expectation phenomenon. Additional variables (dependent and independent) need to be identified and researched. 61 The subjects belonged to a discrete population of adult leaders. Generalizability is confined to Girls Scout leaders on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. Because of the uniqueness of the Hawaiian people and culture, generalizability to all Girl Scout leaders in the United States is inadvisable. The study was limited to what leaders verbalized as preferences regarding kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality considered to provide important, valid learning. The reader cannot assume that because leaders say they think certain levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences provide more important learning that, in practice, they use these kinds and levels. The links between what one believes, says, and does are complex ones, and often seemingly contradictory. Many additional studies need to be conducted to better understand the differences, correlations, and cause-effect relationships among believing, saying, and behaving. Third, this was a correlational study, indicating significant and nonsignificant relationships among amount of schooling, degree of self-acceptance, degree and kind of expectation of learning. Correlational studies do not establish cause-effect relationships between variables correlated. This study pointed to relationships that seem to exist. Cause and effect studies must follow. Summary Chapter 3 described the methods used to investigate the relation- ships among the degree and kind of expectation of learning (dependent variables), and the amount of schooling and degree of self-acceptance (independent variables) held by a random sample of fifty-one Girl Scout leaders on the island of Oahu, Hawaii. (I “fl|llx‘>lill‘ 1i Chapter 4 FINDINGS The findings are presented in this chapter. Each of the research questions and hypotheses are restated and accompanied by the statistical findings. The chapter concludes with a summary of the major findings. Overview The primary focus of this study examined leaders' judgments regarding (a) the kinds of learning experiences and levels of formality they thought provided important learning for others, and (b) what factors might relate to why they chose one or more kinds and levels over another. Amount of schooling and degree of self-acceptance were the specific independent variables under investigation. Levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences comprised the dependent variable, called degree of expectation for learning. The kind of expectation for learning was the second factor of the dependent variable. The kind of expectation for learning was the verbal rationale given for why 62 63 certain photos represented situations in which important learning was and was not occurring. Little was known about the sample prior to the interviews because of the lack of available demographic data. A demographic profile of the sample follows, based on information collected during the interviews. Sample Profile The sample consisted of 41% locale residents and 59% military residents. The mean age of the leader was 31.98 years. 71% of the subjects were caucasian, while 29% were from other ethnic backgrounds (Japanese, Chinese, Portuguese, Hawaiian or Korean). These leaders worked with girls ranging in age from 8 to 18. 53% of the leaders worked with Brownies. 31% worked with Juniors. 8% worked with Cadets. 2% worked with Senior girls. Another 6% of the leaders had more than one age group troop program. There were four types of troop groupings with respect to ethnic background. Table 4.1 shows the combinations which existed when the ethnic background of the leader was cross-tabulated with the girls' ethnic backgrounds. 29.5% of the troops represented in this sample were caucasian leaders working with causcasian girls. This cell was reflective of the military resident working with military dependents. 6% of the caucasian leaders surveyed worked with a caucasian/black ethnic mix. Again, these were military residents working with military dependents. The third combination represented in Table 4.1 was the caucasian leader working with a multi-ethnic troop (35%). The majority of these leaders were local residents. However, there were a few military 64 TABLE 4.1 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF ETHNIC BACKGROUND OF LEADERS WITH ETHNIC BACKGROUND OF GIRLS Ethnic Background Ethnic Background of Girls in Troop of Leader - . . 44 . Caucasian CaucaSian/Black ' Multi-ethnic Caucasian 15 (29.5%) 3 (6%) 18 (35%) Multi-ethnic -o- ’ -o- 15 (29.5%) N=51 residents in this cell who had a multi-ethnic troop. In every case, when a military resident had a multi-ethnic troop, she also lived off the military base. The fourth cell in Table 4.1 represents the leaders who came from various Asian, Hawaiian or Portuguese backgrounds and who worked with girls who were also from numerous ethnic backgrounds (29.5%). The leaders five primary ethnic backgrounds were Japanese, Chinese, Hawaiian, Korean and Portuguese. The typical multi-ethnic troop represented in this sample was comprised of girls from Japanese, Chinese, Hawaiian, Korean, Filipino, Caucasian, Black, and Portuguese backgrounds, with each tr00p having a varying array of other backgrounds present as well. The mean years a leader had been involved in the Girl Scout program was 3.1. One leader interviewed had been a leader for 27 years. Two others had been involved in some sort of leadership capacity for 15 years. 65 The mean income of the leaders surveyed was $18,212. 49% owned their homes, while 47% rented. 4% of the leaders both owned a home and rented as well. (These were military residents who were renting while in Hawaii, but owned a home elsewhere on the mainland.) The majority of leaders (69%) had been in Girl Scout in their youth. The mean years of involvement as a girl was 5.44 years. 47% of the leaders worked,while 53% do not. Of those who worked, 17% worked fourth-time, 38% worked half-time, 12% worked three-fourths time, and 33% worked full-time. When asked what other leadership involvements they currently had besides Girl Scouts, 35% said they held other leadership positions, while 64% indicated no other involvements other than Girl Scouts. The mean number of other involvements was 1.6, with 4 women carrying three other leadership involvements besides Girl Scouts. 55% of the leaders spoke one language (English). 33% spoke two languages and 12% spoke three or more. When asked to evaluate what kind of job they felt they were doing as a leader, 18% responded that they were doing a very good job, 49% a good job, 31% an average job and 2% a poor job. Data Analysis Methods The data analysis primarily used nonparametric methods. In most cases, no assumptions were made about the distribution of scores within the sample compared to its parent distribution. Two measures of association were used: Kendall's Tau and a transformation of Chi-square. These measures were intended to describe the degree of relationship between two variables and were defined to be +1 (or -1) for a perfect predictive relationship to 0.0 for no relation- ship. 66 Kendall's Tau measures the degree of monotonic relationship between two variables. Variations of Tau were used: Kendall's Taua, Taub, and Tauc. Kendall's Tau assumes the variables are continuous or rank-ordered. The Chi-square treats the scores on the answer scale as categorical variables. Thus, the assumption of equal metric units between each of the five categories on the scale is dropped. Since there was considerable debate among statisticians as to whether or not the answer scale used in this study could be treated as a continuous scale or should be analyzed as a categorical scale, it was decided to present data utilizing both. The Chi-square measurement used in this study was a transformation of X2 which tested for independence between two variables. Data Analysis The analysis section of Chapter 4 is organized around the study's research questions. A. Pedagogical expectations of the entire sample toward levels of formality and kinds of learning experiences were identified: Research Question: Do adult leaders judge any one level of formality as providing more important learning than other levels of formality? Research Hypothesis: Subjects will judge higher levels of formality as providing more important learning than do lower levels of formality. Statistical Hypothesis: Subjects will not judge higher levels of formality as those providing more important learning than lower levels of formality. Levels of Formality. Table 4.2 presents the frequency distribution for subjects' judgments by the levels of formality. A total of six photos represented each level of formality. 67 ~.m~ _ N.Hm _ m.om _ muamamaan _ _ _ m>wumwoz . . . no N HmuOH _ . _ w.Ho _ m.ma _ h.mo _ muaoameaa . . _ m>fiuamom ” u ” mo N Hmuoe H can “ com ” com mmmaoammm sauce m.~ ” a o.m " a m.H ” a oz m.m U as m.m U NH ~.m ” SH uoz sanmnoum H.om _ no m.a~ . ea m.m~ _ ma u.=mu< meow _ _ . mu< meow _ . . a.om H mm ~.mm ” mos m.k~ ” aw aha sanmpoum s.am “ so o.am ” SCH ~.~a ” ANA mmw . . momdoammm _ mom:0dmmm _ noncommmm a . Hmuos N . HmuOH N _ Hmuoa ouamuuomEH . . _ mo unmamwSH huaamauom swam huaamahom asavmz zuaamahom 304 muzma so onaamHmamHa wozmacmmm N.¢ mqm<9 68 Therefore, the frequency distribution given represents the grand total of responses for all six photos separated into the five response categories (yes to no). The percentage of the total responses possible are represented at the bottom of each frequency count, along with a total percentage for both positive and negative judgments. The "yes" and "probably are" rows were considered positive judgments, while the remaining three ("some are, some aren't", "probably not", and "no") were considered judgments which were uncertain to completely negative. Table 4.2 indicates that 69.7% of the subjects' responses favored the low level of formality situations as ones in which girls were learning something important. 30.3% of the subjects' responses did not or were at least suspicious of how much learning was occurring. 68.3% of the subjects' responses indicated the medium level of formality situations were ones in which girls were learning something important, while 31.7% did not or were uncertain of how much learning was occurring. 61.8% of the subjects' responses indicated the high level of formality situations provided important learning, while 38.2% did not or were uncertain of how much learning was occurring. Therefore, when ranked according to preferences among levels of formality, low to medium levels of formality were considered situations in which important learning was occurring, more so than high levels of formality situations. In addition, the frequency distribution totals indicate that, for every level, leaders did differ in their judgments as to whether or not a level of formality provided a context in which important learning could occur. However, the majority of responses . indicated that all three levels of formality were positively viewed. 69 Kendall's Tau analysis of leaders' judgments, displayed in Table 4.3, shows there was a significant monotonic relationship among the leaders' choices on levels of formality. This relationship indicated that the leaders' judgments can be predicted to follow a linear pattern. Since the Tau statistic is symmetrical, all possible relationships are summarized in the four correlation coefficients given in Table 4.3. The frequency distribution in Table 4.2 shows what the average leader's judgment pattern was. Table 4.4 explores this pattern further. TABLE 4.3 KENDALL CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS FOR LEVELS OF FORMALITY Correlation Combination T Significance low formality with medium formality .2482 .011* low formality with high formality .3021 .002* medium formality with high formality .2517 .010* *Significant at .05 level To analyze the relationship between the three levels of formality a multiple regression analysis was performed. Multiple regression is a descriptive and inferential tool through which one can analyze/the relationship between a criterion variable and a set of predictor variables. The linear relationship of one variable on others is 70 summarized as well as the relationships in the population evaluated from the examination of the sample data (Nie, 1975, p. 321). Therefore, the test helps one determine if knowing the judgments on two of the three levels of formality allows us to accurately predict the judgment which will be made on the third level of formality. In using this measurement, the assumption is made that the response scale is a continuous scale and that a normal distribution exists. Table 4.4 demonstrates that a positive linear relationship did exist for each possible combination within the regression analysis. That is, when low formality was treated as a dependent variable and medium and high formality are treated as independent variables, a positive linear relationship existed. F = 6.63375 and was significant at the .003 level. If we know the judgments of a subject on medium and high formality, we can predict with 22% confidence what the\average leader's judgments will be with regards to low formality learning situations. As Table 4.4 shows, when low level of formality was the dependent variable, F = 6.63375, significant at .003 level. Medium formality as the dependent variable had an F.= 4.37756, significant at .018 level. High formality as the dependent variable had an F = 5.24680, significant at .009 level. Therefore, based on the frequency distribution data, Kendall's Tau and the multiple regression data, the null hypothesis was not rejected. The leaders did significantly differ in their judgments about which levels of formality provide important learning. The relationship between the factors (low, medium and high levels of formality) was a positive linear and monotonic relationship. 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