ll Ll] mu; will l“ 1111 my Him [“1 In ll 6 .. A“; LIBRARY Michigan State University _ : This is to certify that the thesis entitled Wor ldmindedness in VOLUNTARY WORLD AFFAIRS Organizations With Implications for Adult Learning presented by Robert J. Rentschler has been accepted towards fulfillment ,of the requirements for Ph - D degree in Jducation lgwliéw Major professor Date May 3, 1979 0-7 639 OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. WORLDMINDEDNESS IN VOLUNTARY WORLD AFFAIRS ORGANIZATIONS WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR ADULT LEARNING By Robert J. Rentschler A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment for the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Administration and Higher Education 1979 ABSTRACT WORLDMINDEDNESS IN VOLUNTARY WORLD AFFAIRS ORGANIZATIONS WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR ADULT LEARNING By Robert J. Rentschler Purpose The purpose of this study was to develop information helpful to the world affairs adult educator in planning and conducting educa- tional programs with voluntary world affairs organizations. Assumption The study was based on the assumption that participants in voluntary world affairs organizations hold different world views and different behavior patterns about world issues that make a difference to the adult educator designing world affairs learning experiences for those participants. Study Design Research subjects completed two written research instruments eliciting personal background information, stated attitudes of world- mindedness, ways of responding to world affairs issues, and preferred designs for learning. The data was analyzed to determine differences and relationships. Egpulation and Sample Persons associated with two voluntary world affairs organi- zations in Michigan assumed to represent a broad spectrum of world views were asked to complete the research instruments. They were the Michigan Partners of the Americas and the American Friends Service Committee of Michigan. The 132 respondents were divided equally between the two sample groups. Seventy-eight respondents were men and 54 respondents were women. Instruments Two research instruments were used in the study. The Parti- cipant Background Questionnairecontained biographical items, items about behavior toward world issues, and items about preferred designs for learning. The International Attitudes Survey consisted of 46 Likert-type items made up of the 32-item Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale (l958) and the l4-item World Affairs Citizen Education Scale (l978). The 46 items in the International Attitudes Survey were distributed in 15 world affairs categories. Hypotheses The four research hypotheses projected differences in attitudes of worldmindedness, differences in behavior about world issues, a relationship between variables of personal backgrounds and attitudes of worldmindedness, and differences in preferred designs for learning about world affairs among participants in voluntary world affairs organizations. Limitations of the Study Factors that may have influenced the findings of this study to some extent include the Quaker-pacifist orientation of one of the research groups (the American Friends Service Committee), the relatively small sample size (T32 subjects), and the political and nationalistic nature of the definition of worldmindedness, itself, conceived in a time of cold war between the world's two super- powers (1958). Conclusions The basic assumption of differences in attitudes of world- mindedness was supported. It was found that women were more world- minded than men, and that age, occupation, religion, income, and political persuasion were related to the degree of worldmindedness at the .01 level of significance. Concerning behavior about world affairs issues, the more worldminded subjects tended to be more public and activist, that is, in speaking to the public, writing letters to the editor, meeting with national government officials, and taking part in public demon- strations. There appeared to be differences in preferred designs for learning. Higher mean scores were shown for the more worldminded subjects' preferences for workshops which are action-oriented and for reading issue and opinion oriented journals. Discussion Discussion of the research findings and conclusions include the effect of differences in stated attitudes of worldmindedness on the adult educator's task of designing learning experiences, rela- tionship of literature to the conclusions, designs for learning, the research process, further research, and a discussion of the possible limitations of the definition of worldmindedness used in the study with considerations for further elaboration and refinement. This dissertation is dedicated to Marilyn ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Chapter I. THE PROBLEM 1 Background 1 Need . . . . . . 6 Purpose . . . . . . . 7 Hypotheses 7 Hypothesis l . . 8 Hypothesis 2 . . 8 Hypothesis 3 . 8 Hypothesis 4 . . . . . . . . . . 8 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . 9 Worldmindedness . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Attitude . . . . . l0 Traditional World Affairs Organization . . . . ll Utopian World Affairs Organization . . . . . . ll World Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . l2 Ethnocentrism . . . . . . . . . . . . . l2 Designs for Learning . . . . 12 Limitations of the Concept of Worldmindedness . . . l3 Voluntary World Affairs Organizations . . . . . l4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l7 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . l8 Changes in Attitudes of Worldmindedness . . . . . 18 Robert Moran, l974 . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Lee Howard Smith, l973 . . . . . . . . . . 2l William Murphy, 1974 . . . . . . . . . . 2l William F. Duffey, l976 . . . . . . . . . 22 Thomas Patrick Gleason, T969 . . . . . . . . 25 Louis P. Aikman, T972 . . . . . . . . . . 26 Karl C. Garrison, l959 . . . . . . . . . . 26 Iraj Roudiani, l974 . . . . . . . . . . . 27 Joseph M. Correa, l970 . . . . . . . . . . 28 iv Eric Philip Kafka, 1968 Summary. . Profile of a Worldminded Person Washburne, 1954 . Anderson, 1968 Queener, 1949 . . . Lentz, 1950 . . . Reischauer, l973 . . . . Smith and Rosen, 1958 . . Alfred 0. Hero, 1959 Swmmy. . Studies of the Ethnocentric Personality. . . Donald T. Campbell and Robert A. Levine, 1951 Bernard Spilka and E. L. Struening, 1954 . Lawrence A. Dombrose and Daniel J. Levinson, 1950 : Bernard Fensterwald, Jr., 1958 . Jack Block and Jeanne Block, 1951 . . Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn W. Sherif, T953 Daniel J. Levinson, 1950 . . Summary. . Designs for Adult Learning What is Learning? The Adult Learner . . Andragogy (Knowles, 1971) . How Adults Learn . . Swmmy. . . III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY . Introduction . . Population and Sample . . American Friends Service Committee of Michigan . Michigan Partners of the Americas . Instruments . International Attitudes Survey . Sampson- -Smith Worldmindedness Scale World Affairs Citizen Education Scale . Participant Background Questionnaire Administration . . Processing Responses for Analysis Analysis . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 1 Hypothesis 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 4 . . . . Self-Perception of Worldmindedness Responses Omitted from the Research Analysis Limitations of the Study . . . . . . Religious Influence . . . Study Sample . . . . . . Protestants and Professionals . . . . .. . Definition of Worldmindedness IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . Personal Characteristics of the Research Subjects Group Association and Sex of Research Subjects . Age Ranges of Subjects . . . . . Highest Level of Schooling Completed Occupation of Subjects . . . . . Religious Preferences of Subjects . Approximate Annual Incomes of Subjects Political Persuasions of Subjects Number of Trips Abroad . . Numbers of Trips Abroad for Stays of Six or More Months . . . . . . Findings About Hypotheses . . Hypothesis 1 . . . Hypothesis 2 . . . . Hypothesis 3 . . . . Hypothesis 4 . Self-Perception and Stated Attitudes of Worldmind- edness . . Subject Comments on Survey Instruments and Reasons for Participating in World Affairs Organi- zations . . . . . . V. SUMMARY, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSION Summary . Purpose of the Study . . . Study Design and Administration . Review of Literature . . . . Population and Sample Instruments Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . Analysis and Discussion . Profile of Research Subjects According to Their Association with the Utopian or Traditional World Affairs Organizations . . . . . vi Page 151 153 153 153 154 154 154 155 155 156 156 NOTES APPENDICES . APPENDIX A: APPENDIX B: APPENDIX C: APPENDIX D: APPENDIX E: APPENDIX F: APPENDIX G: BIBLIOGRAPHY Hypothesis 1 Hypothesis 2 Hypothesis 3 Hypothesis 4 . Self— -Perception and Stated Attitudes of Worldmind- edness . . . . . . A Contrasting View of the Data . . . . Challenge for the Adult Educator . Relationship of the Literature to Conclusions Subject Profile of Worldmindedness . . Designs for Learning . . . . . Research Process . . . . . . . . . Further Research. . More on Worldmindedness Research Instruments and Data Collection Letters . Organizations to Which Research Subjects Belong Comments by Research Subjects on Participation in World Affairs . . Comments by Research Subjects on the Survey Instruments . . . . . Comments by Research Subjects on Items in the International Attitudes Survey Statistical Tables . Computer Codes for Statistical Analyses of Research Data vii Page 159 161 163 165 165 166 169 170 172 175 179 180 181 188 190 191 205 210 228 237 248 260 263 Table 4.1 4.2 LIST OF TABLES Number and Percentage of Subjects on the Basis of Group by Total Number and By Sex . . . . . . Number and Percentage of Subjects on the Basis of Sex by Total Number and by Group . . . . . Comparison of Groups by Age Ranges of All Research Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Sexes by Age Ranges of All Research Subjects . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Age Ranges of All Research Subjects by Group and Sex . . Comparison of Groups on the Basis of the Highest Level of Schooling Completed by All Research Subjects Comparison of Groups on the Basis of the Occupations of All Research Subjects Comparison of Groups on the Basis of Religious Preferences of All Research Subjects . . . . . . . Comparison of Groups on the Basis of Approximate Annual Income of All Research Subjects . . . Comparison of Groups on the Basis of the Political Persuasion of Subjects in the Total Sample . Comparison of Groups on the Basis of the Number of Trips Abroad by All Research Subjects . . . . Comparison of Groups on the Basis of Trips Abroad for Six Months or More by All Research Subjects . . Comparison of Groups on the Basis of the Frequency of Trips Abroad for Six Months or More by All Research Subjects . . . . viii Page 89 90 9O 91 93 95 96 98 100 101 103 103 105 Table Page 4.14 Total Worldmindedness Mean Scores on the Basis of Group and Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 4.15 Differences Between Groups, Sexes, and Interaction of Groups and Sexes on the Basis of Total Worldmindess Mean Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 4.16 Rank Order of 15 Categories of Worldmindedness Mean Scores for All Research Subjects . . . . . . . . . . 109 4.17 Differences Between Groups on the Basis of 15 Categories of Worldmindedness Mean Scores . . . . . . , , , 111 4.18 Differences Between Sexes on the Basis of 15 Categories of Worldmindedness Mean Scores . . . . . . . . . . 116 4.19 Difference Between Groups and Difference Between Sexes on the Basis of the Variance of 15 Categories of Worldmind- edness Mean Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 4.20 Differences Between Groups on the Basis of Persons With Whom Subjects Share Interest in and Information about World Affairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 4.21 Differences Between Groups on the Basis of Persons Whom Subjects Attempt to Influence About World Affairs . . 125 4.22 Differences Between Groups on the Basis of Ways in Which Subjects Attempt to Influence Others About World Affairs 129 4.23 Comparison of Groups on the Basis of Where Subjects Obtain Information About World Affairs . . . . . . . . 135 4.24 Difference Between Groups on the Basis of How Subjects First Became Interested in World Affairs . . . . . 138 4.25 Number, Percentage and Rank Order of Responses by Group on How Subjects First Became Interested in World Affairs . 139 4.26 Comparison of Groups on the Basis of Preferred Educational Formats for Effective World Affairs Learning . . . . 143 4.27 Total Worldmindedness Mean Scores for All Research Subjects by Participant Background Characteristics . . . . . 146 ix Table Page 4.28 Differences in Total Worldmindedness Scores for All Research Subjects on the Basis of Participant Background Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 4.29 Relationship of Mean Scores for Self— —Perception of World- mindedness and Stated Attitudes of Worldmindedness Among All Research Subjects . . . . . . . 150 4.30 Worldmindedness Mean Scores for All Research Subjects Based on Self-Perception of Worldmindedness and Stated Attitudes of Worldmindedness . . . . . . . . . 151 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Example of a Pro-Worldmindedness Item . . . . . . . 69 2. Example of an Anti-Worldmindedness Item . . . . . . 70 3. Pattern of Responses of Groups for All Response Options on How Subjects First Became Interested in World Affairs . 142 xi CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Background We live in an interdependent world. The reality of this fact has been with us for a very long time, but our awareness of it is a recent and dramatic phenomenon. We are still in the process of defining and describing it. Descrip- tions and prescriptions are searching for consensus. Some indicators of interdependence are noted here. Too numerous to mention are all the technological advances, life-science discoveries, and social revolutions which have effected such rapid and overwhelming changes in our lives and in our relation- ship to other lives and our natural world in the last one hundred years. A few benchmarks will serve to illustrate this observation. The rise of the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century created master-slave relationships between producer and supplier nations resulting in colonial empires the breakup of which, begun in the aftermath of World War I, is the basis of the turmoil and struggle between nations to this day. (Fifty-one nations founded the United Nations in 1945; today, there are over 51 nations nations in Africa, alone, and the United Nations has 153 member states.) Electronic communication via the transistor has brought every part of the world to everyone's doorstep and opened up new possibilities of living for all inhabitants of the planet. Rachael Carson in The Silent Spring reminded us that we are inextricably bound up with our environment; that we are in and of the natural order of things, not over and above them. Lester Brown in World Without Borders describes many inter-related human issues crucial to our well-being and our mutual survival that transcend the limited and ineffective powers of a single nation-state to resolve such as relative and absolute poverty, food shortfalls and maldistri- bution, population pressures, distributive justice, environmental pollution and desecration, endemic unemployment, and more. Whether cause or effect or benign fact to be noted, the geo- metric growth of the world's population since 1830 A.D. is factor receiving much attention as a global issue. From the beginning of human history to 1830 the world's population grew to one billion. The second billion people were added in the next one hundred years (1930); the third billion pe0p1e in 30 years (1960); and the fourth billion people were added in the next 15 years (1975). Projections call for the world population to reach five billion by 1990 and six billion people by the year 2000. Such rapid growth may not be simply a change in rate, but a radical change in kind, and call for new responses on a global level. The atomic or nuclear age entered our lives at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, on August 6, and August 9, 1945, and made unlimited war unthinkable--except that nations are spending more on preparations for unlimited war than ever before in history: $400 billion a year. Hiroshima and Nagasaki demonstrated that a nation-state will do anything deemed by its leaders to be in the national interest. There are no limits. The fact of global interdependence has acquired other bench- marks since 1945: nuclear fallout from the atmospheric testing of thermonuclear devices does not recognize national boundaries or alliances; the rise of unaccountable power in the form of the transnational corporation; the deployment of inter-continental ballistic missiles holding hostage unseen and powerless populations; the upstream pollution of waters that move inevitably downstream; the unilateral destruction of temperate timber and tropical rainforests diminishing the world's supply of oxygen in the name of progress; and overfarming the oceans declared by the United Nations to be the common heritage of all mankind. The demand for distributive justice is being voiced but is not yet heard in the ongoing and insistent dialogue between the nations of the north (the developed, rich, industrialized nations) and the nations of the south (the deve10ping, poor, non-industrialized nations). This north-south dialogue about a new international economic order is becoming louder. Its full impact is yet to be understood in all its seriousness, and its full impact is yet to be felt in all its revolutionary fervor. The facts of interdependence and our inability to comprehend them have been brought home to people (some people) in modern, industrial nations by the OPEC nations in 1973 (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries). Building industrial systems and affluent, over-consuming societies with cheap fossil fuels at the expense of the fuel-supplying nations is ending, but not without resistance and avoidance and scape-goating and rationalization by those societies. The OPEC nations are, perhaps, onlythe most dramatic example among many examples of the movement to create a new international order, as some people would describe it; or the most dramatic example among many examples of the movement toward the liberation of mankind in history, as other people would describe it. Interdependence may be described in terms other than those used above. The north-south dialogue and OPEC present ways of looking at interdependence in terms of those societies that have gained little, if anything, from the past and present world order; those for whom the prevailing notion of interdependence means oppression, and development means exploitation. True interdependence means liberation as noted by Gustavo Gutierrez: "The most important instance of. . .the presence and activity of man in history. . ., especially in under- developed and oppressed countries, is the struggle to construct a just and fraternal society, where pe0ple can live with dignity and be the agents of their own destiny. It is our opinion that development does not well express these profound aspirations. Liberation, on the other hand, seems to express them better.1 Gutierrez states that liberation is a single process, a unity of various dimensions and relationships of men and women. In other words, an interdependent act to overcome dependency. The nation-state is no longer able or constituted to secure the well being of its citizens without regard to other peoples of the world. It can only serve as a temporary shelter during transient, brief and gentle storms. The old image of the world as a billiard table on which billiard ball nations roll around, occasionally and momentarily colliding but doing no permanent damage and altering the internal integrity of each not at all no longer holds. Our world is more like a spaceship in which the fate of all passengers is shared in common in all meaningful and lasting ways. Perhaps the symbol of our age of interdependence is the photograph of Earth taken from Apollo 11 from 12,000 miles in space-- halfway to the Moon; a view seen by no previous generations of spaceship Earth, our beautiful Blue Marble. We are all passengers together floating in black space on a finely tuned planet in a thin and fragile envelope of life. But we do not act as through we understand or appreciate this new vision of our only one Earth. It may well be that any attempt to capture the spirit of worldmindedness that this understanding and appreciation requires in practical, specific, concrete terms is not possible. However, the intent of this study is to examine such a possibility. The premise of this study is that an interdependent world needs worldminded people. Need Education is faced with the task of preparing worldminded citizens in an increasingly interdependent world. Voluntary world affairs organizations carry much of this responsibility in adult and continuing education. Business, industry, labor, government, religion, colleges and universities contribute to world affairs adult education to some degree. In Michigan, the largest single world affairs group consists of voluntary world affairs organizations. The Michigan International Council has identified over 125 world affairs organizations in the state and 55 of them are classified as voluntary world affairs organizations. Educational programs vary among voluntary world affairs organizations. The programs may take the form of foreign policy discussions, international student exchanges, humanitarian aid and relief, world peace studies and action, fine and cultural arts exhibits, economic and social development assistance, hosting foreign visitors, adult study tours abroad, ethnic studies and festivals, foreign trade and investment, partner and sister cities relationships, and global issues forums and lectures. The world affairs adult educator working with voluntary world affairs organizations conducting diverse educational programs and accepting the responsibility of cultivating positive attitudes of worldmindedness needs to know if there are differences or relationships between the learners' personal backgrounds, attitudes of worldmind- edness, accepted modes of behavior about world affairs, and preferred designs for learning in order to develop the most effective learning environment for them. This information is the basis for establishing individual and group goals and objectives, formulating curriculum content, selecting mentors, and determining the learning process. Purpose The purpose of this study was to develop information helpful to the world affairs adult educator in planning and conducting educational programs with voluntary world affairs organizations by finding out if participants in two different voluntary world affairs organizations held similar views of the world, if they responded to world issues in the same ways, if they preferred to learn about world affairs in like ways, and if there were any relationships between their personal backgrounds and their world views. Hypotheses Four hypotheses were proposed to find out if there are differences in the personal backgrounds, stated attitudes of worldmindedness, modes of behavior about world affairs, and preferred designs for learning among participants in voluntary world affairs organizations, and to examine relationships between the personal backgrounds and stated attitudes of worldnindedness of participants in voluntary world affairs organizations. The hypotheses were based on the assumption that participants in voluntary world affairs organizations have differing attitudes of worldmindedness and differing modes of behavior about world affairs that make a difference to the world affairs adult educator planning educational programs with the organizations. Hypothesis 1 There are differences in stated attitudes of worldmindedness among participants in voluntary world affairs organizations. Hypothesis 2 There are differences in preferred behavior about world affairs among participants in voluntary world affairs organizations. Hypothesis 3 There are differences in preferred designs for learning among participants in voluntary world affairs organizations. Hypothesis 4 There is a relationship between personal backgrounds and stated attitudes of worldmindedness among participants in voluntary world affairs organizations. Definition of Terms Terms defined are those that have special meaning for this study. Worldmindedness A frame of reference or value orientation favoring a worldview of the problems of humanity with mankind rather than nationals of a particular country as the primary reference group (Sampson and Smith, 1957). This definition of worldmindedness is the standard used by researchers since Sampson and Smith used it as the basis for the construction of the Worldmindedness Scale in 1958. The Sampson- Smith Worldmindedness Scale is included in the research instruments in this study. A worldminded person has the "generalized ability to perceive the world as a whole. . .and to see his own position in time and space from the perspective of the world system as a whole" (Anderson, 1968). A distinction is made between the concept of worldmindedness and international-mindedness. International-mindedness refers to interest in or knowledge about world affairs. And, as Sampson and Smith note, "At the same time, common observation of international political relations reveals that a person can be internationally- minded without being worldminded" (Sampson and Smith, 1958). Other ways of considering worldmindedness have been proposed since Sampson-Smith's definition in 1958 reflecting changes in the 10 world since that time. Gustavo Gutierrez (1973) proposed that the world be viewed from the perspective of human liberation from various forms of oppression of one group by another. Robert Hanvey (1977) sees the world as a complex system of integrated parts and suggests the need to understand these relationships through a set of global perspectives. However, the Sampson-Smith definition of worldmind- edness is the basis of this research study. The operational definition of worldmindedness for this study is the score obtained on the International Attitudes Survey, one of the research instruments used with the study. Attitude A relatively enduring system of affective, evaluative reactions based upon and reflecting the evaluative concepts or beliefs which have been learned about the character- istics of a social object or class of social objects (Duffey, 1976). This is the definition used by Duffey in his study of American students abroad. It has been found to be most useful for the purpose of attitude measurement by various scaling devices (Shaw and Wright, 1967). For this study, a "stated attitude" is a subject's response to an item in one of the research instruments. It is difficult to ascertain true attitudes with any measurement instrument: All that we can do with an attitude scale is to measure the attitude actually expressed with the full realization 11 that the subject may be consciously hiding his true attitude or that the social pressure of the situation has made him really believe what he expresses (Thurstone, 1970). Traditional World Affairs Organization An organization interested in international affairs based on realpolitik. Realpolitik is politics based on practical and material factors, on political realities, or on the realities of national interest and power, especially as distinguished from theoretical, ethical, or moralistic objectives.2 Traditional organizations are more likely to represent an established way of thinking, feeling, doing. Traditional is opposed to modern, liberal, radical.3 Utopian World Affairs Orgapjzation An organization interested in international affairs based on idealism. Idealism is the cherishing or pursuit of high or noble principles, purposes, or goals. Utopia is a place that is imaginary and indefinitely remote; a place, state, or condition of ideal perfection; an impractical and usually impossibly ideal scheme, especially for social improvement. A utopian organization, then, "proposes or advocates visionary and usually impractically ideal schemes, especially for the perfection of social and political conditions."4 12 World Affairs The whole range of issues, activities, and relations which a reasonablyinfbrmed citizen is likely to view as transcending national boundaries in importance (Hattery, 1978 . Ethnocentrism The view of things in which one's own group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to it (Sumner, 1906). Ethnocentrism is based on a pervasive and rigid ingroup-outgroup distinction. It involves stereotyped negative imagery and hostile attitudes regarding outgroups, stereotyped positive imagery and submissive attitudes regarding ingroups, and a hierarchical, author- itarian view of group interaction in which ingroups are rightly dominant, outgroups subordinate (Block, 1951). An ethnocentric person is one who generally rejects and vilifies outgroups and, at the same time, overlyaccepts and glorifies the ingroup. Designs for Learning_ A combination of learning units or formats that accomplishes the objectives of an educational program most effectively, arranged in a pattern according to the principles of form, theme,and technique (Knowles, 970 . Knowles uses the terms "design" and "form, theme, and technique" to indicate the artistic and architectural qualities of the formulation and construction of an educational enterprise. "Form 13 is delineated further to include line, tone, space, color, and texture. Designs for learning may be individual or group, primary or supplemental, and describe a way of organizing participants. The three functional design agents are educator, learner, and analyst. They may be known by a variety of names, and may appear in one or more person or combination of persons (Houle, 1972). The design of an educational activity is usually in a constant state of reformulation. It can best be understood as a complex of interacting elements and begins with a learner-problem situation. The learner is central to the process of designing adult learning (Houle, 1972). Limitations of the Concept of Worldmindedness The Sampson-Smith concept of worldmindedness was proposed in a world dominated by two super-powers, the USA and the USSR. The world was seen as a bi-polar competition for the loyalities and alliances of all other nations to one or the other of these two powers. The was no middle ground of neutrality or unalignment. The Sampson-Smith concept of worldmindedness and the research instruments reflect the political and nationalistic temper of the times of 1958 and also may not take into account the recently recog- nized complexities of the world system or the view of the world from the perspective of the new nations emerging from the dismantled 14 colonial empires. These factors may influence the findings of this study to some extent. Voluntary World Affairs Organizations World affairs citizen education has been a part of the adult and continuing education movement since World War I. Recognizing the waste and futility of modern warfare on a global scale, many voluntary organizations were established to work for world peace through adult education and action programs. For example, the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom was founded in 1915 to promote psychological, social, economic, and political change through education and peaceful persuasion. In 1918, the Foreign Policy Association, a national, non—partisan, educational organization, was formed to help United States citizens gain an understanding of significant issues in foreign policy and to stimulate constructive citizen participation in world affairs. The aim of the Fellowship of Reconciliation, founded in 1915, was to substitute non-violence and reconciliation for violence in interna- tional, intercultural, and interracial relations through education and action programs. Although not as a direct consequence of World War I, the League of Women Voters was formed in 1920 to promote political responsibility through informed and active participation of citizens in various aspects of government, including international relations. 15 Since World War II the number and variety of voluntary world affairs organizations have grown rapidly along with an increased recognition of the need for global education in an interdependent world. Multi-purpose world affairs councils were formed as associations of voluntary world affairs organizations or as independent entities on a community-wide basis. Chicago and Cleveland were the sites of the first two metropolitan world affairs councils established after World War I. They were founded on the premise that democracies become involved in war because of some failure of public opinion and, therefore, an informed public is the best guarantee against war. The greatest growth in world affairs councils came after World War II. Statewide world affairs councils are in the early stages of development even though the University of Minnesota has had its World Affairs Center serving the state for a number of years. A model for statewide councils now being considered in several states is the Michigan International Council established in 1976. The Michigan International Council serves as a state center for international voluntary action and has identified over 125 organizations and agencies in Michigan that have world affairs on their agenda or are devoted completely to world affairs interests and programs. The objectives of the Michigan International Council are to coordinate world affairs activities, provide a communication link among world affairs organizations, to support and strengthen world l6 affairs organizations, to promote public awareness of the stake each citizen has in world affairs and the role of the state of Michigan in world affairs, and to mobilize learning resources in adult education for world affairs. The field of adult education in world affairs provides learning resources for voluntary world affairs organizations. Colleges and universities have extension specialists in world affairs education, outreach faculty in academic departments, and visiting professors available for off-campus assignments. For example, Michigan State University has an Office of International Extension in the Continuing Education Service offering organization and program planning assistance to voluntary world affairs organizations. There are outreach service units organized in the interdisciplinary Comparative and Area Studies Centers, International Studies and Programs. The Cooperative Extension Service offers world affairs education options to people throughout the state through its 83 county offices. The College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, the College of Business, and the College of Education maintain international institutes. James Madison College and Justin Morrill College place students in international work-study situations with voluntary world affairs organizations, among others. Foreign students participate in world affairs programs conducted by voluntary world affairs organi- zations in the state. 17 Voluntary world affairs organizations, metropolitan and statewide world affairs centers or councils, and adult education agencies provide a matrix for adult education in world affairs and the basis for this study. Summary In this chapter, the need for a research study to describe stated attitudes of worldmindedness, behavior about world affairs, preferred designs for learning, and the relationship of personal backgrounds to stated attitudes of worldmindedness was discussed. Also, the purpose, hypotheses, definitions of terms, and a brief background of world affairs organizations were presented. Further, limitations of the concept of worldmindedness were introduced. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Chapter II contains research studies on worldmindedness, ethnocentrism, and designs for learning. In the first section ten research studies investigating changes in attitudes of worldmindedness among United States and foreign students in various U. S. and overseas settings are presented. Six studies are included in the second section to present a profile of a worldminded person. The third section describes six studies of the ethnocentric personality. The fourth section examines designs for learning, including how adults learn. Changes in Attitudes of Worldmindedness Studies of worldmindedness have been conducted primarily with high school,college, and university students. Experimental and control groups have been used to determine whether an overseas study experience, a weekend cross-cultural workshop, or a formal cross- cultural course would make a difference or effect attitudes of world- mindedness. .In general, the results have shown little or no signi- ficant change taking place in either direction. 18 19 Robert Moran, l974 The Moran study was concerned with possible changes in world- mindedness of 45 foreign and United States students after their participation in an Intercultural Communication Workshop. Moran attempted to identify those personality characteristics of the parti- cipants that are associated with changes in worldmindedness as a result of the experience. The Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale and Gough's California Personality Inventory were administered to the experimental and control groups before and after the Workshop which took place over two weekends. Moran wanted to know if there are personality differences between a worldminded person and a nationalminded person; if participation in an Intercultural Communication Workshop would have an impact on these attitudes; and if there are personality differ- ences between those individuals who change their attitudes in either direction. His null hypotheses were stated this way: a. there are significant personality differences as determined by the California Personality Inventory between a worldminded person and a nationalminded person as determined by the Worldmindedness Scale; b. there are significant differences in worldmindedness as determined by the Worldmindedness Scale between persons who participate in a weekend Intercultural Communication Workshop experience and a control group; and c. there are significant personality differences as determined by the California Personality Inventory 20 between those who change towards greater worldmindedness and those who change towards greater nationalmindedness after a weekend Intercultural Communication Workshop experience as determined by the Worldmindedness Scale. The conclusions of the study showed no significant correlations between gain scores of the Worldmindedness Scale and the California Personality Inventory, and the group as a whole did not increase in worldmindedness after participation in the Workshop. Also, Moran concluded that personality variables are involved in the changing of worldmindedness attitudes. There appeared to be some significant personality differences between a worldminded person and a national- minded person. Moran found the worldminded individual, compared to the nationalminded individual, to be more liberal in the political and economic spheres, much less authoritarian, and more favorably disposed to democratic ideology. This typology is supported by the research of Smith (1955), Lentz (1950), and Campbell and McCandless (1951). He found the worldminded individual to closely parallel the typology of the non-authoritarian personality described by Adorno, et a1 (1950). Other personality characteristics were identified. World- minded as opposed to nationalminded females tended to be more dominant, responsible, sociable and have higher measures of intellectual potential and efficiency. For the total group, the worldminded person tended to be more responsible, more clear-thinking and capable, and more self-accepting than the nationalminded person. 21 Lee Howard Smith, 1973 Smith was interested in knowing if Patterns in Human History, a semester course developed by the Anthropology Curriculum Study Project, would affect the worldmindedness of students in the St. Louis Park High School, Minneapolis, Minnesota. He administered the Sampsop:$mith Worldmindedness Scale to 171 students before and after they took certain courses. Forty-five students in the experimental group were enrolled in Patterns of Human History, 97 students took a general world studies course (Control A), and 29 students completed a current affairs course (Control B). An analysis of co-variance at (.05) level indicated no difference among the three groups of students in attitudes of world— mindedness. William Murphy, 1974 The main concern of Murphy's study was to discover whether or not there were any significant relationships between worldmindedness and overseas study. The experimental subjects were Indiana University students living and studying abroad for one year in Spain, France, Israel, or Germany. The control group consisted of students from the Indiana University Honors Division with characteristics similar to the experimental group. The Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale was administered to both groups before and after the academic year. In addition, a locus 22 of control scale, Rotter's Internal-External Scale (1966), Okedji's Adjustment Satisfaction Scale (1964), and a biographical question- naire were completed. The null hypotheses tested were: There will be no difference in worldmindedness . . . a. as a result of participating in the overseas study program; b. after the overseas study experience of those parti- cipants characterized as internals . . . and externals; c. after the overseas experience between those who had satisfactory . . . and unsatisfactory experiences; d. scores . . . between internally and externally oriented students who were satisfied or dissatisfied with their overseas study experience; e. among groups of students classified according to the overseas study centers they attended; and f. scores of internally or externally oriented overseas students when compared with internally or externally oriented campus students. Murphy's conclusions and summary are not too clear in detail, but the results indicate that locus of control, satisfaction of adjustment, and the site of the overseas experience do not affect worldmindedness. Even so, he states, "the explicit assumption in overseas study programs that people will change as a result of the experience has been given support." William F. Duffey, l976 Duffey's hypothesis was that American junior and senior high school students who were in attendance at an American sponsored school 23 abroad two or more years would demonstrate greater international understanding than matched American students in a domestic school. 00 students in American schools abroad have international understanding? Do they do so more than similar students with no international experience? Is the American school abroad responsible in any way for creating, maintaining, or increasing that attitude? If so, what specific aspects of the schools are related to that phenomenon? The subjects in the experimental groups were enrolled in two American-International schools; 131 students in grades seven through twelve in the fall term, and 99 in the same grades in the spring term attending the International School in Vienna, Austria; and 109 students in grades nine through twelve attending the Frankfort International School in Oberunsel, Taunus, Germany. The control group consisted of 147 students in grades seven through twelve in the Baltimore Public Schools, Baltimore, Maryland. Instruments used were the Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale, the Bogardus Social Distance Scale, and a biographical data _sheet. The study was designed to measure mutual (international) understanding defined as worldmindedness and diminished social distance. Duffey found no significant differences between the experi- mental and control groups, with one possible exception. The foremost characteristic of the three groups was their tolerance towards persons and customs of other cultures. All three groups perceived little social distance between themselves and social outgroups. 24 The exceptional finding was that while the students at the American-International schools had worldminded attitudes with regard to religion and race, they tended to be more nationalistic when it came to questions investigating their attitudes towards their own government. (This point is emphasized in some detail here because of the possible relationship it may have to the investigations of this study.) Duffey stated that while the respondents agreed generally that every person in the world ought to have equal rights which are guaranteed by an international charter, they were opposed to the notion that a world government ought to be established in order to guarantee the welfare of all nations irrespective of the rights of anyone. The students were opposed to the idea that national govern- ments ought to be abolished and replaced by one central world government and felt that the United States should not participate in any international organization which requires that the United States give up any of its national rights or freedom of action. They valued the benefits bestowed upon them by their government and were unwilling to risk interference with their operation. Duffey noted that these views parallel Terhune's findings that ". . . for American students, nationalism seems to be a defensive attitude associated with fear of loss of the status and Prosperity enjoyed by the United States."5 25 And, in conclusion, it would appear from Duffey's study that parents are not as influential as they once were with their offspring. He noted that the opinions that make up a general attitude of tolerance toward outgroups are apparently the product primarily of peer- and media-induced norms and may be only residually a product of parental influence. Thomas Patrick Gleason, 1969 Gleason sampled 157 American overseas-experienced college undergraduate students with overseas businessmen, missionaries, DepartmentcH’Defense federal and civilian employees to find out the intra-group manifestations and degrees of worldmindedness. The most positive responses he received were, in this order, (1) students in grades one through seven with five to seven years overseas, (2) students in grades eight through 13 with five and six years overseas, (3) Democrats before Republicans, (4) those with family income less than $20,000 per year, and (5) those who had moved three or more times while overseas. He concluded that the factors which contributed to the positive responses were living among the local population, frequent interaction with local citizens, attempts to learn and use the local language, living many years overseas, feeling at home overseas, and having foreign students as best friends. Generally, as a result of numerous cultural confrontations missionary youth developed a worldminded outlook and acquired a different cultural background than their age group in the United States. 26 The intimate contacts with another culture, the knowledge of several languages, and the association with friends of different nationalities all helped the students to develop an international outlook, a sense of worldmindedness. Louis P. Aikman, 1972 Aikman's aim was to test the effectiveness of the Sampson- Smith Worldmindedness Scale in cross-cultural research. He found that it was highly reliable and valid, and most appropriate to use for such purposes. The subjects of his study were secondary school students, age 16-18; 104 Italians, 121 Germans, 128 Americans, and 70 American adults, all in overseas settings. Aikman found that a basic similarity in attitudes exists among the three national groups and that adolescents in these countries appear to share a common, value-oriented worldminded view. Karl C. Garrison, 1959 One of the earliest studies using the Sampson-Smith World- mindedness Scale was this survey of college students enrolled in introduction to education, educational psychology, and adolescent psychology courses at the University of Georgia. Garrison made various correlations and came to the following conclusions, among others: (1) There is a progressive increase in the worldmind- edness attitude score from the freshman to the senior year in college, with the scores for girls slightly higher than those for boys; 27 (2) Students from the South and Southeast score lower on the worldminded attitude scale than do students who have lived outside the South; (3) The Baptists and related religious group of students scored lowers on the worldminded attitudes test; and (4) Students from an agricultural background scored lowest while those from a professional background scored highest on the worldminded attitude scale. Iraijoudiani, 1975 The Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale and a background inventory questionnaire were administered to 100 foreign students (74 male, 26 female, 38 foreign students) at Indiana University, Bloomington, in 1975-76. Roudiani wanted to know whether, in their time-limited experience of American university and social life, the foreign students, who were for the most part from developing countries, became more worldminded in their attitudes. It was an attempt to isolate environmental, interactional, and background variables which correlate with the students' level of worldmindedness. The focus of the study was to examine the relationship of the foreign students' worldmindedness with the length of their interna-, tional experience, personal background variables, and patterns, char- acter, and frequency of their interaction. Roudiani found a significant correlation between the subjects' worldmindedness and their major area of study and their frequency of social interaction with other foreign students and the length of international experience. There was no significant correlation between the subjects' worldmindedness and the frequency of their 28 social or academic interaction with Americans or members of their own nationality group. There was no significant correlation between the subjects' worldmindedness and their nationality, socio-economic and demographic backgrounds, marital status, age, sex, and their parents' educational background, number of children, academic degree goal, frequency of time spent alone. Roudiani found no significant correlation between the subjects' worldmindedness and their total international experience, their total social interaction frequency, and their total parental educational level. Joseph M. Correa, 1970 The purpose of this research project was to determine the relationship of intercultural interaction of American students with foreign students and their attitudes of worldmindedness. The intercultural interactions included parental origin, travel abroad, and friendship with foreign students. The main hypothesis was that American students who have more intercultural interaction with foreigners would exhibit a high sense of worldmindedness. Correa administered a Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale and a 16 item Personality Factor Questionnaire to 245 undergraduate students attending the spring and fall quarters at the University of Washington in 1969. Pearson r correlations revealed that college students in general were more worldminded than the general population of the 29 United States; male students were significantly more worldminded than female students; freshmen tended to be significantly more worldminded than the other three classmen; and students who were more intelligent, imaginatively creative, are high on undisciplined self-conflict, expedient, forthright, placid, and experimenting score higher than those who were less intelligent, and who were practica1,controlled, conscientious, shrewd, and apprehensive. The results of this study indicated that the relationship of worldmindedness and interactions with foreign students is not significant. Travel abroad does not indicate any significant rela- tionship with worldmindedness of the students. Eric Philip Kafkp, 1968 This study was conducted by Kafka as an evaluation of the cross-cultural based curriculum of the then three-year-old Justin Morrill College at Michigan State University. His purpose was to evaluate the effects of an intensive overseas educational experience on the simultaneous development of toleration for diversity and appreciation for the similarities of mankind. Tests were given to the initial class of Justin Morrill College at the end of their freshman year before and after an over- seas study experience in the summer. A control group was used. The tests were the Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale, the Dogmatism Sgglg, and the Differential Values Inventory. Using one-way analysis of covariance Kafka found that no variables were related to change in worldmindedness attitudes. And 30 exposure to a foreign culture usually reinforced a student's apprecia- tion for his homeland while the image of the host country was often lowered. He concluded that change in attitudes and values is probably too much to expect from overseas study programs of brief duration. Summar Most of the studies cited dealt with the question of whether an international experience of some kind made a difference in stated attitudes of worldmindedness among students. The experiences may have been travel or study abroad, contacts with foreign students in the U. S., or participation in cross-cultural education programs. It can be concluded that, in general, none of these exper- iences made a difference in stated attitudes of worldmindedness. Those subjects who were considered pro-worldminded or anti-worldminded before the studies merely reinforced those attitudes as a result of participating in the study. The studies found no correlation of stated attitudes of worldmindedness l. with interaction of U. S. students with foreign students, or travel abroad (Correa), 2. between home and overseas U. S. students (Duffey), 3. with immersion in foreign culture, knowing a foreign language, or having foreigners as close friends (Gleason), 4. with short overseas experiences (Kafka), 5. with cross-cultural workshop experiences (Moran), 6. between U. S. and overseas groups (Murphy), 31 7. of foreign students with Americans or their own national groups; with nationality, marital status, age, sex, parents' background, number of children, time spent alone, academic degree goal, demo- graphy (Roudiani), and 8. with enrollment in international-oriented courses (Smith). Several characteristics of the more highly worldminded indi- viduals were identified. 1. College students are more worldminded than the population at large, male students more than female students, freshmen more than the other three classes (Correa). 2. Worldmindedness is lower for students from the South and Southeast, for Baptists, for agri- culture students, and higher for professionals (Garrison). 3. Worldminded students are more responsible, more clear-thinking, more capable, more self-accepting (Moran). One cannot be too sanguine about the implications of this research for world affairs citizen education: first, the lack of information on adult attitudes of worldmindedness; and second, inter- national experiences did not change existing attitudes, but tended to reinforce them. Profile of a Worldminded Person A description of the worldminded person comes in bits and pieces. Hints are found in studies and literature dealing with authoritarian and ethnocentric personalities, worldminded persons being anti-authoritarian and anti-ethnocentric. They would be thought to be open-minded rather than close-minded, also (Rokeach, 1960). 32 The following references are made, briefly, to suggest a composite worldminded person as an aid in considering the subject of this study, that is, the differences in worldmindedness among parti- cipants in voluntary world affairs organizations and their relation- ship to certain variables. The perspectives of the following commentators is varied. Their approaches focus on questions of individual capacities, human needs, psychological symptoms, prestigeful bio-variables, and authoritarianism. Washburne,,l954 Carleton Washburne begins his discussion of worldmindedness with a plea for social integration, which is the thread running through his volume noted here. He assumes that society is composed of individuals interacting and that it is with the individual that a peaceful and cooperative world—society will be created. The fundamental needs in the emotional life of the individual are 1. self-expression . . . response to one's environment in one's own characteristic way and finding an outlet for one's energies, satisfaction of one's desires, in accordance with one's own development pattern; 2. security . . . the feeling of being at home in one's environment, of knowing that one has a well- established place in the social structure, of feeling that one is loved and cherished and is a respected part of the home, the school, the community, and the social environment, generally; and 3. social integration . . . the identification of oneself with one's fellows--a full realization of the fact that we are "all members of one another." 33 The individual having such emotional characteristics will tend to be worldminded. Anderson, 1968 Anderson laid out detailed outlines for designing school curricula for teaching and learning how to live in a global society. He identified worldmindedness as a generalized ability to perceive the world as a whole and to see one's own position in time and space from the perspective of the world system as a whole. Anderson suggested that a worldminded person will have the following capacities: l. to see the world from a global perspective; 2. to see actions of others sympathetically, and to understand cultures of others empathetically; 3. to recognize and overcome ethnocentric biases; 4. to define oneself as a human animal existentially, and identify oneself with life-at-large; 5. to see common needs of all peoples, see parallels in all human development; and 6. to experience multiple loyalties and see oneself as a responsible member of many kinds of human groups. Queener, 1949 Reporting on a study of attitudes as positive and negative responses to prestiged and non-prestiged persons, respectively, Queener cited a combined profile of an internationalist as found in certain other studies. Not all of the studies agreed on all points, but they seemed to Queener to represent trends in the findings. As 34 a whole, and allowing for occasional contradictions, the studies claimed that a subject was more likely to be internationalist 1. if his parents were internationalist; 2. if one or both parents were foreign-born; 3. if the brothers and sisters were internationalist; 4. if older brothers and sisters had college educations; 5. if the religion was Jewish, Protestant, or non- affiliated; 6. if the age-group was below forty; 7. if the region was non-Southern; 8. if the sex-group was female; 9. if the spouse was internationalist; 10. if the college was non-sectarian and private; and 11. if the college curriculum was the social sciences and humanities rather than the physical sciences. Lentz, 1950 Lentz compared the results of studies conducted in 1936 and 1946 concerning the phenomenon of world-mindedness vs. nationalism in the psychology of the individual. The 1946 data was obtained from a 158-item questionnaire submitted to 514 high school seniors and college underclassmen. Lentz concluded that the worldminded person showed 1. more definite antagonism toward war; 2. more hopefulness regarding universal disarmament; 3. less prejudice against peoples of other nations; 35 4. less conventional religious feelings; 5. less aversion to domestic minorities; 6. less regidity in sex ethics; 7. less emphasis on the virtue of obedience; and 8. less favorable toward censorship. Lentz concluded by declaring the world citizen to be not only more international as shown by his assent to various interna- tionalistic expressions, but secondly more democratic, tolerant, social-minded, and thirdly more liberal in his outlook, generally. Reischauer, 1973 Worldmindedness is a matter of an individual's emotional set, according to Reischauer. In the context of education for a changing world, he stated that world citizenship is an emotional awareness of shared interests and common identity as human beings, and the intellectual recognition of the need for world community and the organs of international cooperation required. While the nation-state requires an emotional identity saying "we Americans," so the world community needs an emotional identity stating "we human beings." He noted that the feeling that others are too different from us to be really part of the same "we" group is an emotional problem, basically. Reischauer feels that very little is being done to build a sense of identification with the whole human race in the schools; the "our gang" approach permeates our schools, turning out non-world citizens. 36 Smith and Rosen, 1958 Worldmindedness is inversely related to authoritarianism as measured by several personality factors. This was the conclusion of this test of twelve variables derived from Adorno's Authoritarian Personality (1950) against scores on the Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Spglp_made by 193 middle-class, young-adult, college-educated subjects. High-worldminded subjects were found to possess the following personality traits: 1. self-expansiveness . . . love-orientation . . . equalitarianism . . . non-stereotypic . . . highly internalized . . . independent and individualized . . . optimistic . . . socially and personally secure . . ., and soooxlowmbwm artistic-intellectual-humanitarian ego-ideals. Alfred 0. Hero, 1959 In Chapter I of this study a voluntary utOpian world affairs organization was defined as an organization interested in interna- tional affairs based on idealism. It was stated that a utopian organization proposes or advocates visionary and usually impractically ideal schemes, especially for the perfection of social and political conditions. 37 Hero supports this description of voluntary utopian world affairs organizations by claiming that the attitudes of internation— alists are formed more from idealist and emotional than informational determinants. He claims, further, that by definition, utopians are not inclined to test reality when they formulate their objectives and consider the means for achieving them; that few utopian interna- tionalists are very analytical toward the world around them; and that many interested and active utopian internationalists are poorly informed and emotional rather than knowledgeable and analytical. Hero contends that utopian internationalist movements appear to be heavily populated with inner-directed idealists who have little inclination to grapple with specific realities of foreign policy. This rather severe profile of a utopian internationalist organization and movement is tempered somewhat by his statements in another context. He suggests that 10% of Americans belong to organi- zations in which world affairs are discussed, but only one-half of one-percent of American citizens participate in responsible analytical discussions of world affairs. Hero places the sophisticated Quaker in this one-half of one-percent. This is an individual whose own views may be relatively pacifistic, but who exposes himself to alter- native interpretations from various sources and participates in programs where he often encounters views different from his own. Also, Hero notes that little high-rapport communication seems to take place between the less- and more-sophisticated utopian participants. It is the more sophisticated utopian citizen with whom we are dealing in the American Friends Service Committee. 38 The definition of a voluntary traditional world affairs organ- ization given in Chapter I of this study was an organization inter- ested in international affairs based on realpolitik; politics based on practical and material factors as distinguished from ethical or moralistic objectives. Traditional organizations are more likely than others to represent an established way of thinking. Hero credits the traditional internationalist with more solid thinking and less emoting on world affairs than the utopian internationalist, but, also, suggests that he may tend to be among those participants in voluntary world affairs organizations referred to as isolationists or neo-isolationists. While there are several types of isolationism from pacific to retaliatory, common elements of this attitude can be identified with the traditional internationalist: an inclination to wish for disengagement from other nations; a veiw that U. S. interests differ from and are incompatible with other nations; advocacy of unlimited and eternal sovereignty of nation-states; avoidance of obligations to other nations; and the need to protect U. S. purity, virtue, and vitality from corrupt and decadent nations. Hero identifies the traditional internationalist with a high level of generalized hostility, suspiciousness, misanthropy, inflexi- bility, tendency to we-they distinctions, and an intolerance of differences and ambiguities. 39 Summary A composite worldminded personality drawn from these six studies which approached the subject from six different perspectives might be stated in broad terms as follows. A world minded person has 1. the ability to identify with humankind as a whole rather than to just any part of it; 2. an inner state of security, well-being, and at-homeness in the world; 3. a tolerant, accepting, optimistic, flexible, and expansive mental and emotional set; and 4. a family heritage and an association with groups having similar attitudes and frames of refer- ence. Studies of the Ethnocentric Personality Attitudes of worldmindedness have a close relationship to attitudes of ethnocentrism. Research reveals a high negative correlation between characteristics marking worldminded and ethno- centric personalities. It is appropriate that a review of world- mindedness literature include some of the findings of studies on ethnocentrism. A few of these studies are reviewed here. Reference is made to the definition of ethnocentrism cited in the definition section of this proposal. A profile of the ethno- centric personality is also included. Donald T. Campbell and Robert A LeVine (1951) A survey of 55 groups listed in the Human Relations File at the University of Chicago was conducted to investigate existent 4O cross-cultural research on ethnocentrism. The index contained 186 entries on ethnocentrism. Thirty-six of the 55 groups were judged to be ethnocentric. A second research area addressed by Campbell and LeVine was stereotypy. The cited several studies pointing to the existence of "universal stereotypes" on two grounds: (1) ethnocentrism theory, itself, and (2) psychoanalytic theory. The first theory assumes that hostility is primary, and sterotypes are unconscious rationalizations for the hostility. A set of "universal stereotypes" for outgroups contains such traits as: 1. They are egotistical and self-centered; they love them- selves more than they love us; they think they are God's chosen people . . . . 2. They are clannish; they stick together; they exclude others . . . . 3. They use different standards in dealing with one of their own than they do in dealing with us. 4. They are aggressive, expansionistic. 5. They hate us and others not of their tribe. They are a hostile people. 6. They are immoral and unclean. For the psychoanalytic theory, outgroup stereotypes represent the common projections of the unconscious guilts and wishes of the ingroup. Ethnocentrism theory is based upon the tendencies of ethnic groups to teach their own customs as moral and all deviations as immoral and unclean. The “universal stereotypes" noted by Campbell 41 and LeVine parallel the ethnocentric descriptors of Levinson cited above. Bernard Spilka and E. L. Struening (1954) Measures of degrees of ethnocentric attitudes were obtained from 129 male students in introductory psychology and public speaking courses at Purdue University. The Ethnocentrism (E) Scale and three personality questionnaires were administered to investigate certain personality correlates of ethnocentrism. Twenty-two scores were correlated with four measures of ethnocentrism via the product- moment method. Data analyses showed the ethnocentrist as one who tends to be a thinking introvert, and one who demonstrates poor emotional control with a tendency toward depression. Ethnocentric thinking persons tend to possess schizoid personality trends; to be withdrawn, depressive, and emotionally labile. The ethnocentrically oriented individual tends to rate himself negatively with respect to the personal attributes and behaviors sampled by the personality tests. He tends to feel unworthy and personally inferior. Socially, he tends to disregard the rights of others, does not possess good personal control, and is somewhat anti-social in behavior. In contrast to the characteristics of the ethnocentrist, the anti-ethnocentrist seems to have a non-schizoid outlook on life. He has good emotional control, and good personal and social adjustment patterns. 42 Lawrence A. Dombrose and Daniel J. Levinson (1950) An Ideological Militancnyacifism Scale was constructed from the literature of liberal political and religious groups, newspapers, and everyday discussion of social issues and administered to 100 college students, administrators, and social workers. Also, the Ethnocentrism (E) Scale, the Political, Economic Conservatism Scale, and the Fascism (F) Scale were included. The hypothesis of the study was that intensity of anti- ethnocentrism is related to the preferred program of action. What differences exist among people in the means proposed for the reali- zation of democratic values? The issue was black-white relations and the possible courses of action to achieve agreed upon goals of socio-economic justice for blacks which might take "pacifist- democratic" or “militant-democratic" directions. Dombrose and Levinson defined pacifistic-democratic as an ideology which advocates slow change to reach projected goals, which sees these changes originating in formal educational methods, which prefers not to press democratic demands until there is more universal acceptance of them, and which hopes to achieve democratic goals within the existing socio-economic structure--or if it be necessary to disturb the social order, to obtain the consent of contemporary authority for this action. They defined a militant-democratic ideology as one which rejects or makes secondary pacifistic methods (education is secondary to more direct methods), which proposes the use of law and force to 43 achieve democratic values immediately, or within a relatively short period of time, whether or not there be universal acceptance of these values, and which would attempt to change the existing socio-economic framework wherever present institutions hinder democratic achievement. The conclusion was that those who strongly reject ethnocen- trism tend toward militancy in their programs of action for the propagations and realization of democratic values, whereas those who moderately reject ethnocentrism tend toward pacifistic programs of action. The greater the intensity of support for democratic ideology, the greater the tendency to prefer militant forms of social action. Bernard Fensterwald, Jr. (1958) In his interest to explore the psychological bases of the U. S. isolationism-expansionism syndrome, Fensterwald alluded to the ethnocentric literature. He discussed the primary characteristics of ethnocentrism, that is, the law of inverse loyalties and stereo- typing, noted the factors of projection and irrationality, then presented a capsule of personality traits upon which he felt the experts agreed, in general. His list included such traits as conven— tionalism, submissiveness to authority, aggressiveness to outgroups, anti-intraception, superstition, stereotypy, identification with power and toughness, cynicism, and projectivity. Jack Block and Jeanne Block (1951) One of the pervading traits of the ethnocentric personality is intolerance of ambiguity. The Blocks referred to this tendency 44 to resort to "black-white" solutions to problems and to arrive at premature closure as to valuative aspects, often at the expense of reality. The ethnocentric personality is disposed to think in rigid categories and to use dichotomies rather than continua in evaluations. He approaches and comprehends multiple complexities of strange situations with concepts of unqualified and unrealistic simplicities. As a result of this avoidance of ambiguous or unstructured situations, he may experience unpleasant emotional reactions ranging from uneasiness to anxiety. Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn W. Sherif (1953) The Sherifs' account of social distance is noted here because of its effect on the individual. Degrees of social distance emerge from interaction between groups. These groups are usually functionally related and have conflicting vital interests, values, and ways of life. The norms, the classifications and definitions, which figure in the scales of social distance are those of the majority, not the minority. This is where the individual comes in. An individual is under pressure to conform to the standards of the majority. The tendency to be prejudiced in favor of the majority norms exists. The Blocks contended that the anti-ethnocentrist in society is the one who is to some degree rebellious against at least some of the major norms of the larger society; he is, to that extent, a non—conformist, and less prejudiced toward outgroups. 45 Daniel J. Levinson (1950) At the outset, a distinction was made between prejudice and ethnocentrism. Prejudice was regarded commonly as a feeling of dislike against a specific group. Ethnocentrism referred to a relatively consistent frame of mind concerning aliens generally, and may be negative with respect to outgroups and positive regarding ingroups. Ethnocentrism is an ideological system pertaining to groups and group relations. There are ingroups with which the individual identifies himself actually or psychologically and towards which he has positive, friendly relations. And there are outgroups with which he has negative, hostile feelings, and which are regarded as anti- thetical to the interests of the ingroup. Levinson recounted the development of the Ethnocentrism (E) Spglp_through several stages beginning with a 34-item instrument to an E-Scale in final form consisting of 20 items covering sub-scale categories of Jews (anti-semitism), Negroes (blacks), other minorities and patriotism (zootsuiters, Okies, Filipinos, women, foreigners, religious sects, the American way). The scale was designed to answer questions about the generality of outgroup rejec- tion, the content of ideas about ingroups and outgroups, and the amount of stereotypy in thinking about groups, generally. The E-Scale was first submitted to 144 women subjects in an Introductory Psychology class at the University of California in April, 1944, including 19 members of major minorities. Levinson 46 describes in much detail case studies of two persons representative of relatively extreme pro-ethnocentric and anti-ethnocentric person- alities. It was a Likert-type scale and all items were regarded as pro-ethnocentric. The total E-Scale was intended to measure the individual's readiness to accept or oppose the ethnocentric ideology as a whole. The questions in the E-Scale were designed to get at most of the ideology regarding the subjects of the sub-scales noted above when the scale was tested. Blacks are described as lazy and ignorant and not really wanting equality with whites. Are they uppity if they seek a better life? Are they lazy if they do not seek a better life? Moral and ethnic minorities were described as inherently incapable people who should be subordinated, segregated, restricted (including the majority-minority, women). The United States was described as a superior nation in a hierarchy of superiority-inferiority, and should be dominant among nations. Discipline, loyalty, and obedience are highly valued. Other nations are inferior when distant and threatening when close. A cynicism about peace and a moralistic attribution of the cause of war to other nations indicated the sense of threat from outgroups and the moral righteousness of the ingroup. These pseudo-patriotic attitudes may be held while most Americans can be rejected on the 47 other sub-scales. This brought out an attitude that it is only the native, white Christian Americans who can be trusted. An individual may be highly nationalistic in a pseudo-patriotic way while placing large sections of the U. S. population in outgroup categories. Summary Some general observations from this research are in order. First, most people were not entirely consistent in their ethnocentric ideas on an item-by-item basis, were moderately consistent on a subscale-by-subscale basis, and were notably consistent on acceptance or rejection of general ethnocentrism from the scale as a whole. Second, the generality of outgroup rejection as a primary characteristic of ethnocentric ideology was affirmed. "It is as if the ethnocentric individual feels threatened by most of the groups to which he does not have a sense of belonging; if he cannot identify, he must oppose; if a group is not 'acceptable,‘ it is 'alien.‘ The ingroup-outgroup distinction thus becomes the basis for most of his social thinking, and people are categorized primarily according to the groups to which they belong." Third, Levinson reported a general characteristic of ethno- centric ideology to be the shifting of the outgroup among various levels of social organization. Once the social context for discussion has been set, ethnocentrists are likely to find an outgroup-ingroup distinction. And, fourth, the content of ethnocentrism was found to be similar to that found in anti-semitic ideology. That is, outgroups 48 were seen as threatening and power-seeking, although weaker than the ingroup. Accusations against them tend to be moralistic and mutually contradictory. The conflict, as the ethnocentrist sees it, is between an ingroup trying to maintain or recapture its justly superior position, and an outgroup, resentful of past hurts trying to do to others what they have done to it. The worldview of the ethnocentric personality as described by Levinson based on results of research with the E-Scale has a close relationship to stated attitudes of worldmindedness. It is recounted here in some detail because of its relevance to the subject of this study. Levinson noted that the ethnocentric need for an outgroup prevents that identification with humanity as a whole which is found in anti-ethnocentrism. This incapacity takes the political form of nationalism and cynicism about world government and permanent peace. In group and outgroup characteristics are similar but go in opposite directions. Ingroups are thought of as superior in morality, ability, and general development. They ought to be superior in power and status, and when their status is lowered or threatened the ethnocentrist tends to feel persecuted and victimized. The ingroup is clean, unaggressive, hard-working and ambitious, honest, disci- plined, and well-mannered; outgroups are the opposite. One final note of some interest in considering the behavior of the ethnocentrist or anti-worldminded person is offered here. Levinson carries his discussion to the ethnocentric solutions to 49 problems of group conflict which are based on liquidation, subordin- ation, and segregation. These methods are used to keep the ingroup pure and strong. While liquidation of outgroups still remains beyond democratic vistas, the second and third methods are supported and practiced by many Americans. Designs for Adult Learning An important purpose of this study was to gain insight into the most effective designs for learning for participants in voluntary world affairs organizations. In this section a background for designs for adult learning and research findings on how adults learn are presented. What is Learning? The literature reviewed for this study revealed no consensus on the definition of learning except perhaps, that "learning is change." Some commentators say that "learning is a change in behavior" which is relatively easy to measure, and other commentators say that "learning is change in the learner," a state not so easy to measure (Howe, 1977). One researcher states that "learning is a change in character formation" (Maslow, 1954). Also, he states that the most important learning may canalized learning which meets basic needs and is regulated by gratification phenomena, rather than associative learning which is based primarily on the stimulus-response mechanism. 50 Several commentators describe the learning process in dissimilar terms but with similar conceptual bases: Learning as Change (des Brunning, 1959) 1. 2. 3. 4. change in cognitive structure change in motivation change in group belongingness change in voluntary control of the body Learning Process (des Brunning, 1959) l. 2. 3. 4. 5. learning about idea or practice interest in seeking more information about the idea or practice evaluation of the idea or practice trial of the idea or practice adoption of the idea or practice Processes of Learning (des Brunning, 1959) l. perception and comprehension of the material to be learned capacity for short term storage of material as bridge to long term retention process retention by biochemical or structural change recognition of demand for re-use of the material learned recall of learned material use of learned material The Adult Learner Samuel Butler is quoted as writing, "the best time to learn about something is when one feels uncomfortable in not knowing it" 51 (Knowles, 1950). Following are considerations for the adult educator involved in creating designs for adult learning. Whether learning is a change in the learner's behavior or change in the learner, there was a general belief up to the time of William James that little learning of any kind took place after one reached maturity. It was Edward L. Thorndike's Adult Learning pub- lished in 1928 that brought the acceptance of a belief in the power of adults to learn effectively through their life span of years (Bryson, 1936). Thorndike is quoted as follows: "A person should attempt to learn what he needs when he needs it. Age should be considered an unimportant factor" (Bryson, 1936). It became generally accepted that the decline in learning powers was much slower and more selective with age. Requirements for learning are (1) a desire to learn, (2) active participation in the process, and (3) an experience of satisfaction. John Dewey refers to these requirements as (1) need, (2) effort, and (3) satisfaction (Knowles, 1950). Motivation is based on needs. Learning needs have been defined as physical, growth, security, new experience, affection, and recognition (Knowles, 1950). Then, they became known as a hierarchy of needs and were called physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization (Maslow, 1954). Maslow considers pre— requisites for meeting these needs in part or in whole are the freedom to learn, justice, honesty, and a modicum of orderliness and 52 dependability. He states that the cognitive capacities, or perceptual and intellectual learning are tools to meet these needs. There are barriers to adult learning to be considered. They are stated as lack of practice, lack of incentive, lack of time, and the energy needed to relearn knowledge not used in the immediate past (Bryson, 1936). The adult human learner is a highly active and relatively autonomous being who makes plans and decisions, who organizes his experience, and is very far from being the passive recipient of environmental influences that earlier ideologies tended to suggest (Howe, 1977). Andragogy (Knowles,197l) Pedagogy, the art and science of teaching children, has been and continues to be in too many instances the basic approach to adult education. This means that adults are taught as children are taught. Also, pedagogy is based on the concept that the purpose of education is to transmit knowledge. In a rapidly changing world in which the learning generation is becoming much shorter, "it is no longer functional to define education as a process of transmitting what is known; it must now be defined as a lifelong process of discovering what is not known." Also, pedagogy emphasizes teaching in a subject-centered environment while adults tend to enter learning situations with a problem-orientation. Adults "engage in learning largely in response to pressures they feel from their current life situation." Andragogy, the art and science of helping adults learn, is suggested as a framework for designing the most meaningful learning 53 experiences for and with adults. This means that problem areas of learners, not educational content, are the basic organizing elements of adult learning programs, that the learner is directly involved in the planning and design process, and that the design for learning experiences may take many forms. It was noted in Chapter I, Definition of Terms, that any design for learning can best be seen as a complex of interacting elements rather than a sequence of events. Once the problem is defined, the decision to move ahead is made, and the learning objectives are determined, the development of the means (format, design) for meeting the objectives proceeds. The format-designing process is a blend of many and various elements from individual, group and institutional categories. The term design for adult learning as used in this study refers to the formats or patterns of learning rather than to the educational content of the learning experience. How Adults Learn Basically, learning is one or a combination of (1) training the mind---acquiring truths (mental discipline), (2) conditioning or reinforcement (stimulus-response), and (3) development of insight (Gestalt-field). Learning models for these three types of learning are content acquisition, problem solving, and self-actualization, respectively (Apps, 1973). A recent profile drawn of adult learners shows that they are disproportionately young, white, well educated, employed in 54 professional and technical occupations, and making good incomes. The best single predictor of whether an adult will participate in continuing learning activities is prior level of educational attain- ment. Eighbpfive percent of adult learners have at least a high school diploma. A college graduate is four times more likely to participate in an organized learning experience than a high school dropout. Those with no interest in adult learning are predominantly older and from lower socio-economic classes (Gross, 1978). Recent surveys have shown why and where adults learn. In rank order of preference, a survey of 1,501 adults indicated their reasons for learning were personal development, home and family, hobbies and recreation, general education, job, religion, voluntary activity, public affairs, and agriculture/technology (Penland, 1977). World affairs considered as public affairs ranks eighth out of nine choices. Only nine percent of 256 adults surveyed in Nebraska engaged in learning activities to acquire social and civic compe- tencies (Hiemstra, 1975). Penland learned in his survey that preferred loci for adult learning were the home, on the job, outdoors, discussion groups, classrooms, libraries, and public events, in that order (Penland, 1977). Allen Tough conducted a study in 1971 which pointed out the importance of adult learning projects for the field of adult and continuing education (Tough, 1971). He conducted interviews with 60-70 blue collar workers, low rank white collar workers, beginning 55 elementary school teachers, municipal politicians, social science professors, and upper middle class women with pre-school children. Tough learned from his study that the typical learner spends 500 hours per year in five learning efforts of 100 hours each; that 73% of the learning efforts are self-planned, 20% are professionally planned, and seven percent are planned with the assistance of friends and peers; that less than one percent of the learning efforts are intended for academic credit, accreditation or certification; and that 70% of his sample conducted at least one major learning effort in any year. From this study, Tough arrived at his definition of a major learning effort: a deliberate learning activity in which the learner does most of the day-to-day planning to acquire knowledge, a skill, or a change of some sort, and in which the learner is engaged for seven hours a week over a six month period. Tough learned that the most common motivation for learning was the future use or application of the anticipated knowledge or skill. The learner had a task to perform. A common motivation was curiosity, puzzlement, or knowledge for its own sake. A less common motivating factor was the acquisition of academic credit; a degree, license or certificate. Reasons given by the study sample for preferring self-planned learning over formal, externally planned learning were a desire to set one's own learning pace, to put one's own structure on the learning project, to use one's own style of learning, to keep one's 56 own learning strategy flexible and easy to change, to learn right away and not have to wait for class to start, classes often not being available, no time to engage in group learning programs, dislike of a classroom and teacher environment, no money for course fees, and no transportation, in this order of importance. Summary The literature examined in this section points out plusses and minuses for world affairs education. Of particular interest to the world affairs adult educator are the findings in the above survey studies suggesting that (1) adult education attracts those persons who already have a great deal of formal education, (2) knowledge of public affairs and the acquisition of social and civic competencies rate very low on the list of expected benefits to be derived from learning, (3) the most common motivation for learning is the application of knowledge or a skill in a reasonably near future, and (4) adult learning is predominantly self-initiated, self-planned, and self-evaluated activity. Age is not a barrier to further learning, and the satisfaction of needs, motivational factors, and learning processes cited in this section are guides to the design of effective adult learning. Cato was studying the Greek language when he was past 80 years of age. He was asked, "Why do you try to learn Greek at your age?" Cato replied, ”What other age have I?" (Bryson, 1936) CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Introduction This chapter describes the research methodology used in the study. 'nwapopulation and sample are presented followed by a discus- sion of the survey instruments and the administration process. An analysis and summary of the study design conclude the chapter. The purpose of the study was to compare stated attitudes of worldmindedness and stated behavior about world affairs among parti- cipants in voluntary world affairs organizations, and the implications for the designs for adult learning in world affairs. This was a descriptive and comparative study based on data collected through two written research instruments. A Participant Background Questionnaire and an International Attitudes Survey were submitted to subjects selected by simple random sampling of parti- cipants in two voluntary world affairs organizations. The Participant Background Questionnaire included items on subjects' personal backgrounds, behavior about world affairs issues, and preferred designs for learning. The International Attitudes Survey consisted of the Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale and the 57 58 World Affairs Citizen Education Scale. (These research instruments are in Appendix A. Population and Sample The Michigan International Council has identified approximately l25 world affairs organizations in Michigan classified as voluntary, divisions of government, institutions of higher education, associa- tions of business, industry, or labor, or religious. Eighty-seven of these organizations were included in the first edition of the Council's directory of international organizations in Michigan, Michigan in the World. One voluntary utopian world affairs organization and one voluntary traditional world affairs organization were selected from Michigan in the World for this study. The basis for their selection was that the members would be broadly representative of either the utopian or the traditional world affairs points of view and as such, would provide a measurable range of stated attitudes of worldmindedness, behavior with respect to world affairs issues, and preferred designs for learning about world affairs. A comparison of the definitions of ut0pian and traditional world affairs organizations used in the study was made with the goals, objectives, and programs of several voluntary world affairs organi- zations. The organizations selected on the basis of these comparisons were the American Friends Service Committee of Michigan representing the voluntary utopian world affairs organizations, and the Michigan 59 Partners of the Americas representing the voluntary traditional world affairs organizations. American Friends Service Committee of Michigan A utopian world affairs organization has been defined as an organization interested in international affairs based on idealism. A utopian organization proposes or advocates visionary and usually impractically ideal schemes, especially for the perfection of social and political conditions. The American Friends Service Committee of Michigan, a Quaker organization, was selected as the utopian world affairs organization for this study. It is founded on a belief in the dignity and worth of every individual and a faith in the power of love and nonviolence to bring about change. Holding fast to the Quaker testimonies of love, integrity, compassion, and simplicity, the AFSC seeks to express a tenderness for the dignity and promise of every individual, the importance of people rather than agendas, structures, or ideologies; and appreciation for cultural and philo- sophical diversity and an affirmation of the power of nonviolence to bring positive change. The AFSC sees each human life as sacred, each person as a child of God.6 Programs in service, social and economic development, justice, and peace are based on these convictions. Their programs deal with such issues as sharing the world's resources, controlling the arms race, economic conversion to peace, U.S. and world hunger, peace studies in the schools, human rights, and U.S. relations with repres- sive national governments. Programs are designed to meet human needs, 60 promote international and intercultural understanding, and secure justice and equality for persons everywhere. The American Friends Service Committee of Michigan has two offices in Michigan: the Michigan American Friends Service Committee in Ann Arbor and the Western Michigan American Friends Service Committee in Grand Rapids. References to the American Friends Service Committee of Michigan in this study include both of the Michigan offices. The American Friends Service Committee of Michigan is affiliated with the international office of the American Friends Service Committee in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Examples of programs conducted in Michigan by the American Friends Service Committee of Michigan are support of Save Our Communities Week to stop the arms race, encouragement of letter writing in support of international food programs, sponsorship of community forums on multinational corporations and world hunger, nuclear disarmament and energy resources, human rights in Southeast Asia, the right to food, South Africa and economic divestment, the co-existence of the Israelis and the Palestinians, the New Interna- tional Economic Order, a 30-member social and economic development tour to Jamaica, support for Friendshipment—-a citizen aid program for Vietnam, participation in a coalition for the proposal of prison alternatives, hosting the visit to Michigan of a Catholic priest working with the poor in Chile, and supporting a nuclear power moratorium march in Midland, Michigan. 61 Michigan Partners of the Americas The traditional world affairs organization has been defined as an organization interested in international affairs based on real- politik, that is, politics based on practical and material factors as distinguished from ethical or moralistic objectives. Traditional organizations are more likely than others to represent an established way of thinking. The purpose of the Michigan Partners of the Americas, the traditional world affairs organization selected for this study, is to promote good relations between the people of Belize and the Donimican Republic, and the United States and Michigan on the basis of mutual partnership. The Partners is an organization for private citizen volunteers committed to fostering closer ties with Belize and the Dominican Republic through international programs of technical educational and cultural exchange. It works through programs of economic, social and cultrual development which utilize the skills of volunteers in mutual self—help efforts. Michigan citizens initiate projects in conjunction with their counterparts in Belize and the Dominican Republic by sharing appropriate resources, both human and material. Self-help projects in education, public health and medicine, agriculture and rural development, tourism, community recreation and sports, youth activities, environmental improvement, emergency relief, and cultural exchange are conducted. Personal contacts between the people of Belize and the Dominican Republican and the people of Michigan are emphasized. Funds are obtained from individual and corporate contributions. The United States Agency for International 62 Development provides financial assistance for Michigan travellers participating in projects in the partner countries. Following is a sample of projects and programs conducted during the period l977-l978. In Belize: 4-H Youth International rural work camps, arts and crafts workshops, staff and program development, vegetable and flower gardens, and small animal breeding; livestock feed research project; organization of softball teams and training of umpires, softball clinics by MSU women's team; donation and delivery of five commerical vehicles; donation of 40,000 textbooks; consultation on special and adult education; and provision of hurricane relief supplies. In the Dominican Republic: on-site survey of medical technician and paramedical personnel needs by a team of medical doctors; donation of furniture-making tools and clothing; pine seedling project; donation of an X-ray unit to a rehabilitation facility. In the United States activities include an exhibit of Dominican art, scholarships for two Belizean students studying at Michigan State University and for three Dominican Republic students attending school in Detroit, a three-week visit of a Belizean government official, visit of a Dominican Peace Corps director, collection of funds to finance surgery for an injured Dominican Republic student in Detroit. 63 The Michigan Partners of the Americas is one of 44 organiza- tions in the United States affiliated with the National Partners of the Americas, Inc. in Washington, D.C. Instruments Two research instruments were used in the study to collect data about stated attitudes of worldmindedness, behavior about world affairs issues, and preferred designs for learning from a sample of members of the two selected organizations. These research instru- ments were the International Attitudes Survey and the Participant Background Questionnaire. The two instruments are in Appendix A. International Attitudes Survey The International Attitudes Survey was made of two separate but related scales. The first was the 32-item Sampson-Smith World- mindedness Scale. The second scale was the World Affairs Citizen Education Scale, a l4-item scale constructed specifically for this study. Items on the two scales in the International Attitudes Survey were mixed to disperse the l5 categories of items and to disperse pro-worldminded items and anti-worldminded items. The 46-item International Attitudes Survey consisted of l5 categories of world affairs items. The Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale, one of the two scales making up the International Attitudes Survey,contained eight categories of world affairs items: religion, 64 immigration, government, economics, patriotism, race, education, and war. There were four items in each of the eight categories. Two of the four items in each category were statedirlpro-worldminded form, and the other two items in each category were stated in anti- worldminded form. 0f the 32 items in the Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Sgal§_16 were stated in pro-worldminded form and l6 were stated in anti-worldminded form. The World Affairs_Citizen Education Scale, the second of the two scales making up the International Attitudes Survey, consisted of seven categories of world affairs items: the USSR, the military, social action, foreign policy-making, cultural exchange, foreign policy, and communism. There were two items in each of the seven categories. One of the two items in each category was stated in pro- worldminded form, and the other item in each category was stated in anti-worldminded form. 0f the l4 items in the World Affairs Citizen Education Scale seven were stated in pro-worldminded form and seven were stated in anti-worldminded form. The International Attitudes Survey consisted of a total of 46 items. Allocating six points for the most worldminded response for each item and one point for the least worldminded response for each item, the total score for all 46 items ranged from 46 points for the least worldminded total score through 276 points for the most worldminded total score. The mid-score, representing a neutral worldminded total score, was 16l points. There was an interval of ll5 points between the mid-score and the extreme high and the extreme low scores. 65 The International Attitudes Survey yielded total worldmind- edness scores and scores on l5 categories of attitudes of worldmind- edness. Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale The Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale, on of the two scales used for the International Attitudes Survey, was designed by Donald L. Sampson and Howard P. Smith in the post-World War II period. Inter- national tensions were increasing and the cold war between the United States and the Soviet Union was underway. There was an interest in research into and the evaluation of cross-cultural and educational programs aimed at the development of worldminded attitudes (Sampson and Smith, l957). They felt that existing scales were deficient because they measured attitudes limited by concepts of nationalism-internationalism. What was needed was an instrument that would examine attitudes transcending these narrow boundaries. The definition of worldmindedness used in this study distinguished between the essential foci of the terms international-mindedness and worldmindedness. That is, international-mindedness refers to interest in or knowledge about specific international affairs with the nation as its reference group. Worldmindedness refers to a value orientation apart from such interest or knowledge with humankind its reference group. The Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale is designed to distinguish worldmindedness from national-mindedness on a Likert-type 66 continuum of 32 items, l6 pro- and 16 anti-worldminded, 4 in each of eight dimensions of worldmindedness: religion, immigration, govern- ment, economics, patriotism, race, education, and war. The items represent stated attitudes rather than statements of fact about national or international affairs. They are not topical in nature. The eight dimensions of worldmindedness are categories with which opinions on specific issues may be compared. Research use of the Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale has shown it to be valid by statistical correlations with other scales whose validity has been independently established. Also, it has demonstrated its capacity to distinguish at a statistically signi- ficant level between the attitudes of subjects known to differ in worldmindedness, and its capacity to predict differences between highly worldminded and highly national-minded subjects in certain types of internationally oriented behavior (Sampson and Smith, l957). When administered to subjects, Sampson and Smith called the scale a "social attitudes questionnaire." The reliability of the Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale was determined by both the odd-even and test-retest mehtods. The product-moment correlation of .87 was corrected to .93 by the Spearman-Brown formula. A test-retest with 33 students over 28 days yielded a similar correlation of .93. Empirical tests of the scale's validity was confirmed by correlations with the Ethnocentrism Scale of the California Public Opinion Scale (Pearson coefficient -.7l) and similar correlations with other scales (Sampson and Smith, l957). 67 Additional evidences of validity were derived from the scale's internal consistency and a known group comparison of overseas American students with an international service group. The response mode consisted of six response options ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Subjects responded to each item by checking one of the six degrees of agreement/disagreement as follows: strongly agree, agree, mildly agree, mildly disagree, disagree, strongly disagree. Pro-worldminded responses received a score of six for strongly agree, five for agree, four for mildly agree, three for mildly disagree, two for disagree, and one for strongly diagree. The scoring was reversed for anti-worldminded items. That is, anti- worldminded items received a score of one for strongly agree, two for agree, three for mildly agree, four for mildly disagree, five for disagree, and six for strongly disagree. A high cumulative score indicated a pro-worldmindedness attitude and a low cumulative score indicated an anti-worldmindedness attitude on the part of the subject. World Affairs Citizen Education Scale The World Affairs Citizen Education Scale accounted for 14 items in the International Attitudes Survey. The categories were the USSR, the military, social action, foreign policymaking, cultural exchange, foreign policy, and communism. These categories were selected for inclusion in the International Attitudes Survey to 68 broaden the content areas of the Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale by including current world affairs interests and issues. The categories added for this purpose were the USSR, the military, foreign policy, and communism. The category of cultural exchange was added because of the interest of the two voluntary world affairs organizations used as the population in this study--the American Friends Service Committee of Michigan and the Michigan Partners of the Americas--in conducting cultural exchange programs. The categories of social action and foreign policy-making were addedix>help determine differences in the subjects' behavior about world affairs. The World Affairs Citizen Education Scale items were validated by three independent judges. Each of them were asked to score the items as to whether, in his view, the attitude represented by the item would be held by a participant in a traditional or utopian world affairs organization. If the judge was uncertain, he scored the item with a question mark. Each item was considered valid if two or all of the judges agreed on its score. From this pool of valid items, a total of 14 items were then selected for inclusion in the Interna- tional Attitudes Survey. Two items were selected for each of the seven categorical areas. The response mode consisted of six response options ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. Subjects responded to each item by checking one of six degrees of agreement/disagreement as follows: strongly agree, agree, mildly agree, mildly disagree, 69 disagree, strongly disagree. This response mode was designed to be consistent and compatible with the mode used for the Sampson-Smith Worldmindedness Scale. The following two item from the International Attitudes Survey demonstrate the scoring procedure for the agreement/disagreement scale used for each of the 46 items. Item 28 in Figure l is stated in pro-worldmindedness form and a score of six was recorded for the highest pro-worldmindedness response, that is, "strongly agree." 28. Any healthy individual, regardless of race or religion, should be allowed to live wherever he or she wants to live in the world. Strongly Mildly Mildly Strongly Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree 1 l l l l l 6 5 4 3 2 l Figure l--Example of a Pro-Worldmindedness Item Item 23 in Figure 2 is stated in anti-worldmindedness form and a score of six was recorded for the highest pro-worldmindedness response, that is, "strongly disagree." Pro-worldmindedness responses received a score of six for strongly agree, five for agree, four for mildly agree, three for mildly disagree, two for disagree, and one for strongly disagree. The scoring was reversed for anti-worldminded items. That is, 70 23. Our country should refuse to cooperate in a total disarmament program even if some other nations agreed to it. Strongly Mildly Mildly Strongly Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree l l l l l l l 2 3 4 5 6 Figure 2--Example of an Anti-Worldmindedness Item anti-worldminded items received a score of one for strongly agree, two for agree, three for mildly agree, four for mildly disagree, five for disagree, and six for strongly disagree. Participant Background Questionnaire The Participant Background Questionnaire requested different types of information from subjects of the study: biographical, the ways subjects respond to world affairs issues, preferred designs for learning, subjects' self-perception about their general attitude of worldmindedness, and general comments on the two research instruments. The subjects were requested to complete this questionnaire prior to filling out the International Attitudes Survey. The biographical information included items concerning age, sex, occupation, income, level of schooling completed, religious preference, political persuasion, membership in organizations, and frequency and length of overseas travel. Biographical information was used to test hypothesis four, that is, there is a relationship between the personal backgrounds and degrees of worldmindedness among participants in voluntary world affairs organizations. 71 The Partigjpant Background Questionnaire contained items relating to the subjects' behavior about world affairs. The items asked with whom the subjects shared their interest in and information about world affairs, whether the subjects hadever attempted to influence anyone's thinking about world affairs, and, if so, whom had they attempted to influence and in what ways had they attempted to influence them. These items were used to test hypothesis two, that is, there are differences in preferred behavior about world affairs among participants in voluntary world affairs organizations. The information about preferred designs for learning contained in the Participant Background Questionnaire was found in three items. Subjects were asked where they obtain their information about world affairs, and what educational formats they prefer. The data from these items were used to test hypothesis three, that is, there are differences in preferred designs for learning among participants in voluntary world affairs organizations. The Panticipant Backgroundgguestionnaire contained a single item about the subjects' self-perception of their overall attitude of worldmindedness. The response mode for the item was a scale of l-6 with the score "one" recorded as "not worldminded at all" and the score "six" recorded as "completely worldminded." Administration Approval was received from the executive director of the American Friends Service Committee of Michigan and the president of 72 the Michigan Partners of the Americas for the use of the membership lists of their organizations in the study. Copies of the Interna- tional Attitudes Survey and the Participant Background Questionnaire were provided to them for their information, and conversations were held with them to clarify the purpose of the research study and the use of the International Attitudes Survey and the Participant Back- ground Questionnaire with their members. Anonymity of the subjects was assured since no names were included on the International Attitudes Survey_and the Participant Background Questionnaire. The population used for the study consisted of 300 members of these two organizations. One hundred and fourteen were members of the American Friends Service Committee of Michigan (38% of the popu- lation) and l86 were members of the Michigan Partners of the Americas (62% of the population). The Participant Background Questionnaire, the International Attitudes Survey, a cover letter, a postcard to be returned if the respondent wanted to receive a summary report of the study, and a stamped return envelope were mailed to the 320 members of these two organizations; l20 members of the American Friends Service Committee of Michigan and 200 members of the Michigan Partners of the Americas. Twenty mailings were returned as undeliverable by the U.S. Post Office. This resulted in a population of 300; ll4 members of the American Friends Service Committee of Michigan and l86 members of the Michigan Partners of the Americas. 73 Respondents were given an opportunity to request a summary report of the study by returning a postcard to the researcher. Also, the postcards were used to identify those responding to the first mailing. Eight-four of the l06 respondents who responded within four weeks after the first mailing returned the postcard requesting a summary report of the study. Four weeks after the first mailing a follow—up letter was sent to the 2l6 members of the two organizations who had not returned a postcard requesting a summary report of the study. This follow-up letter requested that they complete and return the Participant Background Questionnaire and the Intennational Attitudes Survey. One hundred and thirty-two members of the two organizations (44% of the p0pulation of 300 used for the study) responded within six weeks after the first mailing and were then specified as the research sample of subjects used for the study. The l32 subjects consisted of lO6 subjects who responded within four weeks of the first mailing and 26 subjects who responded within two weeks after the second mailing. Of the l32 subjects, 66 were from the American Friends Service Committee of Michigan (50% of the sample) and 66 were from the Michigan Partners of the Americas (50% of the sample). This represents a 57.8% return from the membership of the American Friends Service Comnittee of Michigan (66 of H4 members) and a 35.4% return from the Michigan Partners of the Americas (66 of the l86 members). 74 ProcessingiResponses for Analysis Items in the Partigipant Background Questionnaire and the International Attitudes Survey were organized in specific ways for purposes of comparison and correlation. A preliminary analysis of the responses from 9l subjects was made to assist in this process. This preliminary analysis is referred to as the sample preview in this section. The responses to item l, "In what year were you born?", were organized according to the following age ranges: "35 years or fewer," "36-55 years," and "56 years and over." The responses to item 4, "In what community do you live?", were omitted in the data analysis due to its nondiscriminating nature. There was no large grouping of respondents from any single community. The responses to item 6, "What is your occupation?", were organized as follows: "professional," "education," "business," and "other." The “professional" classification included clergy, physicians, dentists, lawyers, architects, and engineers. "Education" was treated separately even through it is considered to be a profession, because the sample preview showed that 24% (32 cases) were public school teachers, educational administrators, or college and university teaching faculty members. The "other" classification included public service, clerical, blue collar, homemaker, and student. The sample preview showed less than 5% (4 cases) for homemaker which was the "other" classification that was selcted most often. 75 The responses to item 7, "What is your religious preference?", were organized as follows: "Protestant," "Catholic," "Society of Friends" (Quakers), "others," and "none." This division was deter- mined by the sample preview showing no preference for the Jewish religion, two preferences for Greek Orthodox, two Unitarians, and each for Buddhist, Druid, Christian Scientist, Bahai, and humanist. The responses to item 8, "What is your annual income, approxi- mately?", were organized according to the following income ranges: "under $l2,000," "l2,00l-$25,000," "$25,00l-$50,000," "$50,00l and over." The responses "$50,000-$lO0,000," and "over $l00,000" were combined into a single classification "$50,000 and over" based on the sample preview showing only two subjects earning over $100,000 annually. The responses to item 9, "List organizations to which you belong," were used to organize subjects into "utopian" or "traditional" world affairs groupings. These classifications were the bases for comparing and correlating the Participant Background Questionnaire and International Attitudes Survey data. Organizations were listed as "utopian" or "traditional" according to the definitions accepted for this study. Organizations included were non-governmental, peace fellowships, patriotic societies, social action groups, fraternal orders, civic organizations, social clubs, professional associations, and world affairs groups. Organizations listed but not considered appropriate for classifying subjects as utopian or traditional were fine or practical 76 arts groups, hobby clubs, literary societies, special education associations, denominational fellowships, and social welfare organi- zations. (These organizations are listed in Appendix B.) The responses to item 10, "How would you classify yourself politically?", were organized as follows: "Democrat," "Republican," "independent," and "other." In the sample preview four subjects identified themselvesas apolitical, five subjects as socialists, and one subject as a feminist-anarchist. These responses were included in the I'other" classification. The responses to item ll, "How many times have you made trips out of the United States?", were organized according to "less than or equal to five," I'6-lO," and "more than 10." The responses to item 12, "Have you ever lived in a foreign country for an extended period of time (over 6 months)?", were organized as "yes" or "no" responses. Item l3, "Where do you get your information about world affairs?", listed l5 possible response options. The respondent was asked to rank order these options in terms of importance. The three "most important" responses were used for analysis. Items l4, l5, and l6 concerning sources of interest in world affairs, sources of information about world affairs, and how subjects influenced others about world affairs were quantified according to the total number of times each response option was selected by the respondents. 77 For item l7, "How did you first become interested in world affairs?", only one response for each subject was recorded. Data was not recorded on this item for any subject who checked more than one response. Responses for item l8 concerning subjects' preferences for designs for effective world affairs learning listed eight possible response options. The respondent was asked to rank order these options in terms of importance. The two "most important" responses were used for analysis. The responses to item l9 concerning self-rating as a world- minded person were recorded on a scale of l-6. This score was then compared with the subject's total worldnindedness score from the International Attitude§_Survey. Responses to item 20, "Why do you devote a portion of your time, attention, energy, and resources to world affairs to the extent you do?", were used in the descriptive narrative of the study to identify perceived reasons for participation in world affairs programs by utopian and traditional subjects. The responses are in Appendix C. Item 2l, "Do you have any general comments on this question- naire?", were used to provide feedback from the subjects about the form, content, and act of completing the research instruments. The responses are in Appendix C. Subject responses were omitted from the data analysis if response options were checked with an "X" rather than rank ordered "l-2-3. . .n" as requested. A response was omitted from the data 78 analysis if the subject checked several responses rather than just one item as desired. Responses to individual items in the International Attitudes Snnyey_were omitted from the data analysis if more than one response was circled or underlined when only one response was requested. Some subjects did not respond at all to some of the items. Also, responses to individual items were omitted when subjects altered the meaning of an item substantiallywith their own comments before expressing their position on it. Subjects' comments are in Appendix 0. Analysis The research instruments were made up of items requiring different statistical analyses. Some items had either-or answers; some items required single choices; other items called for multiple choices from a number of response options; and still other items asked for l-2-3 rank order responses from a number of choices. The statistical methods of analyses used were the multivariate analysis of variance, the multiple response program, the chi-square test for homogeneity, the analysis of variance, and the Pearson product-moment correlation. This section describes the statistical processes applied to the two research instruments. Hypothesis 1: There are differences in statednattitudes of world- mindedness among participants in voluntary_world affairs organizations. The 46 items in the International Attitudes Survey were grouped in two ways for statistical testing: (l) all 46 items were 79 taken as one group and tested for total worldmindedness scores, and (2) each of the 15 categories of worldmindedness items was tested individually and (3) differences were tested on the 15 categories taken altogether. This allowed for an examination of each of the 15 individual categories and also two procedures for examining total worldmindedness scores. Also, statistical tests were made to determine differences on the subjects taken in two ways: (1) differences by sex (men and women) in total worldmindedness scores and in scores for 15 categories of worldmindedness items taken as a whole, and (2) differences group (voluntary utopian and traditional world affairs organizations) in total worldmindedness scores and in scores for 15 categories of worldmindedness items taken as a whole. Statistical tests were made to determine if there was any interaction between sex and group on total worldmindedness scores and on scores of 15 categories of worldmindedness items taken as a whole. A two-way analysis of variance was used to determine differ- ences in total worldmindedness scores by sex and by group, and to determine any interaction between sex and group on total worldmind- edness scores. A multivariate analysis of variance was used to determine differences in worldmindedness scores for 15 categories of worldmind- edness items taken as a whole by sex and by group, and to determine any interaction between sex and group on scores for 15 categories of worldmindedness items taken as a whole. 80 Hypothesis 2: There are differences in preferred behavior about world affairs among participants in voluntaryiworld affairs organizations. Two statistical tests were applied to items in the Participant Background Questionnaire to determine differences in preferred behavior about world affairs among the subjects. Questionnaire items concerning behavior about world affairs were these: Item l4. With whom do you share your interest in and information about world affairs? Item 15. Have you ever attempted to influence anyone's thinking about world affairs? Whom? Item 16. Indicate the ways you have attempted to influence others. Each of items 14, 15, and l6 contained 10 response options. Subjects were asked to respond to as many of the response options as were appropriate. Chi-square tests for homogeneity were used to test each of the total of 30 response options for the three items. A multiple response program was used with items 14, 15, and 16 to determine the percentage of total responses for each of the 30 response options in the three items. Differences between subjects associated with voluntary utopian world affairs organizations and subjects associated with voluntary traditional world affairs organizations in behavior about world affairs were measured in each of the 30 response options included in items 14, 15, and 16 in the Participant Background Ques- tionnaire. 81 Hypothesis 3: There are differences in preferred designs for learning amongiparticipants in voluntary world affairs organizations. Two statistical tests were applied to items in the Participant Baekground Questionnaire to determine differences in preferred designs for learning among the subjects. Participant Background Questionnaire items concerning preferred designs for learning were these: Item 13. Where do you get your information about world affairs? Item 17. How did you first become interested in world affairs? Item 18. There are many different educational formats for effective world affairs learning. For each of the following formats, write a number to indicate your own preference. Item 13 contained 15 rank-order response options. Item 17 contained 13 response options among which each subject was requested to select one. These were then coded into seven items for purposes of analysis. This was done to consolidate several items of similar character and to facilitate the statistical analysis. Some of the 13 items received very few responses and it was felt that reducing their number would not make significant differences in the results. Item 18 contained eight response options among which each subject was requested to select three in rank-order of preference. A multiple response program was used with items 13 and 18 to determine the percentage of total responses for each of the 22 response options in the two items. A chi-square test for homogeneity was 82 used to test each of the thirteen response options contained in item 17. Differences between subjects associated with voluntary utopian world affairs organizations and subjects associated with voluntary traditional world affairs organizations in preferred designs for learning were measured in each of the 35 response Options included in items 13, 17, and 18 in the Participant Background Questionnaire. Hypothesis 4: There is a relationship between personal backgrounds and degrees of worldmindedness amongrparticipants in voluntary world affairs organizations. The relationship of age, level of schooling completed, occupation, religious preference, annual income, political persuasion, and frequency and length of overseas travel to the total worldmind- edness scores from the International Attitudes Survey for all subjects was tested by a one-way analysis of variance. Self-Perception of Worldmindedness Given a definition of worldmindedness, item 19 in the Parti- eipant Background Questionnaire was stated as follows: Item 19. Using this definition, how would you rate yourself in a general way as a "worldminded" person on the following one-to-six scale? (1 - not world- minded at all, 6 - completely worldminded) The correlation between the subject's self-perception of his worldmindedness and the subject's total worldmindedness score received 83 on the International Attitudes Survey which he completed after responding to item 19 was tested by a Pearson product moment corre- lation. Included was a test for significance of the total perceived worldmindedness scores and the total actual worldmindedness scores. Results from this test had no direct bearing on the four hypotheses, but did indicate a degree of the subject's self-awareness of his worldmindedness attitudes. Reponses Omitted from the Research Analysis Responses to items in the Participant Background Questionnaire and the International Attitudes_Survey by research subjects were omitted from the research analysis if essential information could not be obtained. An item was omitted if the subject responded to an item by selecting response questions in some manner other than ranking the items l-2-3. . .n as requested. An item was omitted from the research analysis if the subject responded to an item by selecting several response options rather than selecting just one response option as requested. For item 17 in the Participant Background Questionnaire, "How did you first become interested in world affairs?", only one response was requested. The item was omitted if the subject selected more than one response option non-numerically. For item 18 in the Participant Background Questionnaire, "There are many different educational formats for effective world affairs learning. . .," first and second rank order responses were 84 requested from research subjects. The item was omitted if the subject responded to the item non-numerically. Responses to items on the International Attitudes Survey were omitted if the subject selected more than one response option or did not respond at all. Fifteen responses by research subjects to items in the Participant Background Questionniare (.597% of total possible responses) were omitted from the research analysis. Sixty-five responses by research subjects to items in the International Attitudes Survey (1.1% of total possible responses) were omitted from the research analysis. Limitations of the Study The findings of this study may be subject to certain limitations which are set out in this section for consideration. Religious Influence The American Friends Service Committee of Michigan, one of the two voluntary world affairs organizations from which the research subjects were drawn, is the social service and action division of the Society of Friends, an international Quaker organization. It is probable that a majority of the 66 research subjects associated with this organization (referred to in the study as the voluntary utopian world affairs organization) may be members of or associated with the Quaker religious order. If this is the case, those items in the Participant Background_Questionnaire and the International Attitudes 85 Survey in whidireligious preference or religious orientation plays a role may be affected to a certain degree. Study Sample While not necessarily a limiting factor, the relatively small sample size of the study should be noted. A sample of 132 research subjects was drawn from a population of 300 (44% of the population). Of the 132 research subjects, 66 subjects were drawn from 114 members of the utopian organization (American Friends Service Committee of Michigan) and 66 subjects were drawn from 186 members of the traditional organization (Michigan Partners of the Americas). The utopian return was 57.8% and the traditional return was 35.4% An assumption is made that this sample adequately represents the study population. There is no obvious reason to suspect that the validity of the sample is affected because of it size, but this possibility exists to the extent that the sample size may be too small. Protestants and Professionals The study showed two groups of research subjects requiring special designation due to their relatively large numbers in propor- tion to their categorized counterparts. "Quakers" were separated from the "Protestants" in the Religious Preference category, and "Education" was separated from the “Professions" in the Occupation category in the Participant Background Questionnaire. The added weight given these items may be a factor to be considered in the data analysis. 86 Definition of Worldmindedness The Sampson-Smith definition of worldmindedness may be conditioned by the times in which it was propounded. It was a bi-polar world in 1958 with the United States and the USSR playing "choose up sides" with the nations of the world. The definition of worldmind- edness and the research instruments reflect this relatively simplistic, nationalistic, and political view of the world. Since that time, our perspectives and the world have changed. Power has been redefined and dispersed. Relationships have been re-aligned. Issues take on different fonms and nuances. New voices are heard. Findings and conclusions of the study about worldmindedness will be considered in light of this particular definition of worldmindedness in the context of the period in which it was conceived. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS In this chapter, personal characteristics of the research subjects and results of analyses of the research data are presented. The first section of the chapter is a comparison of the personal characteristics of the research subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization and the personal characteristics of the research subjects associated with the traditional world affairs organization. The personal characteristics of the research subjects are examined in terms of the group with which they are associated (voluntary utopian world affairs organization and voluntary tradi- tional world affairs organization, sex (men and women), age ranges, highest level of schooling completed, occupations, religious prefer- ences, income, political persuasions, numbers of trips abroad, and number of trips abroad for stays of six or more months. These personal characteristics were drawn from specific items in the Participant Bagkground Questionnaire. The second section of the chapter includes findings about the four hypotheses of the study in terms of statistical differences, relationships, and correlations. Also, comparisons among subjects 87 88 are made as a basis for drawing implications for the world affairs educator. Sources of the findings presented in the second section are items in the Participant Background Questionnaire about designs for learning, behavior about world affairs, self-perception of attitudes of worldmindedness, and the 46 items in the International Attitudes Survey. Section three of the chapter is the relationship between the research subjects' self-perception of worldmindedness and their stated attitudes of worldmindedness. Section four is a summary of the research subjects' responses to the narrative items in the Participant Background Questionnaire about their reasons for involvement in world affairs and their general comments on the research instruments, the Participant Back- ground Questionnaire and the International Attitudes Survey. Personal Characteristics of the Research Subjects Group Association and Sex of Research Subjects The research population consisted of 300 persons. The study sample totaled 132 research subjects (44% of the population). Table 4.1 shows the number of subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization and the voluntary traditional world affairs organization in total numbers and according to their distribution by sex (men and women). Sixty-six subjects (50% of research subjects) were associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization and 66 subjects 89 (50% of research subjects) were associated with the voluntary tradi- tional world affairs organization. TABLE 4.l--Number and Percentage of Subjects on the Basis of Group by Total Number and by Sex (N = 132). Sex Group Men Women Total N (%) N (%) N (%) Utopian 26 (39.4) 40 (60.6) 66 (100) Traditional 52 (78.8) 14 (21.2) 66 (100) Of the 66 subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization, 26 subjects (39.4% of utopian subjects) were men and 40 subjects (60.6% of utopian subjects) were women. Of the 66 subjects associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization, 52 subjects (78.8% of traditional subjects) were men and 14 subjects (21.2% of traditional subjects) were women. Table 4.2 shows the number of subjects by sex (men and women) in total numbers and according to their distribution by group (voluntary utopian world affairs organization and voluntary tradi- tional world affairs organization). Seventy-eight subjects (59% of research subjects) were men and 54 subjects (41% of research subjects) were women. 0f the 78 subjects who were men, 26 subjects (33.3% of the men) were associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization. 90 TABLE 4.2--Number and Percentage of Subjects on the Basis of Sex by Total Number and by Group (N = 132) Group Sex Utopian Traditional Total N (%) N (%) N (%) Men 26 (33.3) 52 (66.7) 78 (100) Women 40 (74.0) 14 (26.0) 54 (100) Of the 54 subjects who were women, 40 subjects (74% of the women) were associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization and 14 subjects (26% of the women) were associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization. Age Ranges of Subjects Table 4.3 shows how the groups (voluntary utopian world affairs organization and voluntary traditional world affairs organization) compared by age ranges of all research subjects. TABLE 4.3--Comparison of Groups by Age Ranges of All Research Subjects Age Ranges 35 Years 36-55 56 Years Group and Under Years and Over Total N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) Utopian 18 (27.3) 22 (33.3) 26 (39.4) 66 (100) Traditional 2 (3.0) 35 (53.1) 29 (43.9) 66 (100) 91 Eighteen subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization (27.3%of ut0pian subjects) and two subjects associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization (3.0% of traditional subjects) were under 35 years of age. Twenty- two subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization (33.3% of utopian subjects) and 35 subjects associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization (53.1% of traditional subjects) were between the ages of 36 and 55 years. Twenty-six subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization (39.4% of utopian subjects) and 29 subjects associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization (43.9% of traditional subjects) were 56 or more years old. Table 4.4 shows how the sexes (men and women) compared by age ranges of subjects in the total sample. Table 4.4--Comparison of Sexes by Age Ranges of All Research Subjects Age Ranges 35 Years 36-55 56 Years Sex and Under Years and Over Total N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) Men 10 (12.8) 38 (48.7) 30 (38.5) 78 (100) Women 10 (18.5) 19 (35.1) 25 (46.4) 54 (100) 92 Of the 78 subjects who were men in the research sample, 10 subjects (12.8% of subjects who were men) were 35 years of age or younger, 38 subjects (48.7% of subjects who were men) were between 36 and 55 years of age, and 30 subjects (38.5% of subjects who were men) were 56 years of age or older. Of the 54 subjects who were women in the research sample, 10 subjects (18.5% of subjects who were women) were 35 years of age or younger, 19 subjects (35.1% of subjects who were women) were between 36 and 55 years of age, and 25 subjects (46.4% of subjects who were women) were 56 years of age or older. Table 4.5 shows how the sexes (men and women) compared by age ranges according to the group (utopian and traditional world affairs organizations) with which they were associated. Of the 26 subjects who were men associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization, eight subjects (30.7% of the ut0pian men) were 35 years of age or younger, 10 subjects (38.6% of the utOpian men) were between 36 and 55 years of age, and eight subjects (30.7% of the utopian men) were 56 years of age or older. Of the 52 subjects who were men associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization, two subjects (3.8% of the traditional men) were 35 years of age or younger, 28 subjects (55.8% of traditional men) were between 36 and 55 years of age, and 22 subjects (40.5% of traditional men) were 56 years of age or older. 0f the 40 subjects who were women associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization, 10 subjects (25% of 93 utopian women) were 35 years of age or younger, 12 subjects (30% of ut0pian women) were between 36 and 55 years of age, and 18 subjects (45% of utopian women) were 56 years of age or older. Table 4.5--Comparison of Age Ranges of All Research Subjects by Group and Sex Age Ranges 35 Years 36-55 56 Years Group and Sex and Under Years and Over Total N (%) N (%) N (%) N (%) Utopian Men 8 (30.7) 10 (38.6) 8 (30.7) 26 (100) Women 10 (25.0) 12 (30.0) 18 (45.0) 40 (100) Traditional Men 2 (3.8) 28 (55.8) 22 (40.5) 52 (100) Women 0 (0.0) 7 (50.0) 7 (50.0) 14 (100) Of the 14 subjects who were women associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization, none of the subjects (0% of traditional women) was 35 years of age or younger, seven subjects (50% of traditional women) were between 36 and 55 years of age, and seven subjects (50% of traditional women) were 56 years of age or older. 94 Highest Level of Schooling Completed Table 4.6 shows how groups (voluntary uptOpian world affairs organization and voluntary traditional world affairs organization) compared on the basis of the highest level of schooling completed by the research subjects. 0f the 66 subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization, none of the subjects (0% of utopian subjects) noted high school as the highest level of schooling completed, 15 subjects (22.7% of utopian subejcts) noted college as the highest level of schooling completed, and 45 subjects (68.2% of utopian subjects) noted graduate school as the highest level of schooling completed. Of the 66 subjects associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization, one of the subjects (1.5% of traditional subjects) noted grade school as the highest level of schooling completed, seven subjects (10.6% of traditional subjects) noted high school as the highest level of schooling completed, 26 subjects (39.4% of traditional subjects) noted college as the highest level of schooling completed, and 32 subjects (48.5% of traditional subjects) noted graduate school as the highest level of schooling completed. Occupation of Subjects Table 4.7 shows how groups compared on the basis of the occupations of all research subjects. 0f the 66 subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organizations, four subjects (6.1% of utopian subjects) 95 Aoo_v we Am.wev mm Ae.mmv em Ao.o,v N Am.PV _ Pacoapweazp AOOPV we Am.mmv me AN.NNV m_ A_.mv m Ao.ov o cameo“: ASS z Asv z ASS z ASS z flay z Foogum mmmppou Foogum Foogum Page» mumzumgu gap: mange azogu umumpaeou mew—oosum PP< s3 capaPasou mcw_oo;um to _a>a4 “macaw: as» to mamam an» muomnnzm :ugmmmma :o manage we :omwgmasou--o.¢ m4m

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GP .000. fl 0000 .000. 0000 (iii L v §%3. mp .0 0 0 "chowuwuagp "mwnou: 4 up sasuodsau jo JaqwnN . 10 ueLdo £99 99 = [PUOLlIPPJI 143 TABLE 4.26--Comparison of Groups on the Basis of Preferred Educational Formats for Effective World Affairs Learning Group Response Options Utopian Traditional N (%) Rank N (%) Rank Lecture 6 (3.3) 7 9 (5.4) 7 Lecture and Discussion 34 (18.6) 2.5 34 (20.8) 1 Panel Presentation/Discussion 34 (18.6) 2.5 23 (14.1) 4 Workshop 38 (20.8) 1 22 (13.5) 5 Independent Study 17 (9.3) 6 16 (10.1) 6 Films/Slides 24 (13.1) 5 24 (14.7) 3 Field Trip 25 (13.7) 4 32 (19.6) 2 Other 4 (2.6) 8 3 (1.8) 8 Total 182 (100.0) 163 (100.0) 144 When all subjects are grouped together, the response option "Lecture and Discussion" as a preferred educational format for effective world affairs learning was selected most. Sixty-eight subjects, 34 subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization (18.6% of utopian responses) and 34 subjects associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization (20.8% of traditional responses), preferred "Lecture and Discussion" as an educational format for effective world affairs learning. When all subjects are grouped together, the response option "Lecture" as a preferred educational format for effective world affairs learning was selected least (excluding the 12 responses for the "Other" response option). Thirteen subjects, six subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization (3.3% of utOpian responses) and seven subjects associated with the voluntary tradi- tional world affairs organization (5.4% of traditional responses), preferred "Lecture" as an educational format for effective world affairs learning. The response option "Workshop" was in the first rank order of responses for all response options for subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization and in the fifth rank order of responses for all response options for subjects associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization. Thirty-four subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organi- zation (20.8% of utopian responses) and 22 subjects associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization, preferred the 145 "Workshop" as an educational format for effective world affairs learning. The response option "Lecture and Discussion" was in the first rank order of responses for all response options for subjects asso- ciated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization and in the second-and-one-half rank order of responses for all response options for subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization. The response option "Lecture" was in the seventh rank order of responses for all response options for subjects associated with the voluntary utopian world affairs organization and for subjects associated with the voluntary traditional world affairs organization. Hypothesis 4: There is a relationship between participant backgrounds and degrees of worldmindedness among_participants in voluntary world affairs organizations. The findings of this study showed that there is‘a relationship between participant backgrounds and degrees of worldmindedness among participants in voluntary world affairs organizations. Table 4.27 shows the total worldmindedness mean scores for all research subjects on the basis of participant background character- istics. Table 4.28 shows differences in total worldmindedness mean scores for all research subjects on the basis of participant background characteristics at the .01 level of significance. 146 TABLE 4.27--Tota1 Worldmindedness Mean Scores for All Research Subjects by Participant Background Characteristics Participant Background Categories Means* N Age: 35 and Under .768 20 36-55 .050 58 56 and Over .982 54 .269 77 .970 41 .908 13 Education: Graduate School College High School Grade School .022 1 Occupation: Education .328 50 Others .274 27 Professional .155 7 Business ,728 30 Religion: Quaker .655 17 None .480 13 Catholic .202 24 Other .182 17 Protestant .858 59 Income: $12,000 and Under $12,001-$25,000 $25,001-S50,000 .631 29 .239 53 .769 36 Over $50,000 .560 13 Political Persuasion: Other .565 13 Democrat .533 35 Independent .255 49 Republican .395 35 .263 34 .251 52 .899 46 .180 53 .099 79 Trips Abroad: 6-10 Times 1-5 Times Over 10 Times Length of Trips Abroad: Under 6 Months 6 Months and Over 45-h Och-D w-D-fi-h woo-94> wh-D-DD ooh-hp meow-b 0045-12- *6 = highest possible worldmindedness mean score, 1 = lowest possible worldmindedness mean score 147 TABLE 4.28--Differences in Total Worldmindedness Scores for All Research Subjects on the Basis of Participant Background Characteristics Source Of Variation 5:55:25 sgfigge F Sigfiiiingce Age 9.700 4.850 12.799 .0005* Education 4.390 1.463 2.962 .03474 Occupation 7.329 2.443 5.338 .00180* Religion 10.803 2.701 6.120 .OOOl6* Income 16.835 5.612 14.048 .00001* Political Persuasion 27.817 9.272 29.806 .OOOOl* Trips Abroad 3.831 1.916 3.873 .02326 Length of Trips Abroad .211 .211 .407 .52476 *Significant 148 There were differences in total worldmindedness mean scores for all research subjects on the basis of the participants' age, occupation, religion, income, and political persuasion as indicated on the corresponding items in the Participant Background Questionnaire. That is, the worldmindedness mean scores are not the same for all research subjects when the subjects are examined on the basis of their age, occupation, religion, income, and political persuasion. There were no differences in total worldmindedness mean scores for all research subjects based on the participants' education, trips abroad, and length of trips abroad. That is, the worldmindedness mean scores are the same for all research subjects when the subjects are examined on the basis of the participants' education, trips abroad, and length of trips abroad. The participant background category "Age," a basis of differences on total worldmindedness mean scores for all research subjects, showed worldmindedness mean scores as follows: "35 and Under" (4.768), "36-55" (4.050), "56 and Over (3.982). The participant background category "Occupation," a basis of differences on total worldmindedness mean scores for all research subjects, showed worldmindedness mean scores as follows: "Education" (4.328), "Other" (4.274), "Professional" (4.155), "Business" (3.728). The participant background category "Religion," a basis of differences on total worldmindedness mean scores for all research subjects showed worldmindedness mean scores as follows: "Quaker" (4.655), "None" (4.480), "Catholic" (4.202), "Other" (4.182), "Protes- tant" (3.858). 149 The participant background category "Income," a basis of differences on total worldmindedness mean scores for all research subjects, showed worldmindedness mean scores as follows: "$12,000 and Under" (4.631), $12,001-$25,000" (4.239), $25,001-$50,OOO'l (3.769), "Over $50,000" (3.560). The participant background category "Political Persuasion," a basis of differences on total worldmindedness mean scores for all subjects, showed worldmindedness mean scores as follows: "Other" (4.565), "Democrat" (4.533), “Independent" (4.255), "Republican" (3.395). The participant background category "Education," which showed no differences on total worldmindedness mean scores for all research subjects, showed worldmindedness mean scores as follows: "Graduate School" (4.269), "College" (3.970), "High School" (3.908), "Grade School" (3.022). The participant background category "Trips Abroad," which showed no differences on total worldmindedness mean scores for all research subjects, showed worldmindedness mean scores as follows: "6- 10 Times" (4.263), "1-5 Times" (4.251), "Over 10 Times" (3.899). The participant background category "Length of Trips Abroad," which showed no differences on total worldmindedness mean scores for all research subjects, showed worldmindedness mean scores as follows" "Under Six Months" (4.180), "Six Months and Over" (4.099). 150 Self-Perception and Stated Attitudes of Worldmindedness Table 4.29 shows that there is a relationship between the research subjects' self-perception of their worldmindedness and the research subjects' stated attitudes of worldmindedness at the .01 level of significance. TABLE 4.29-~Re1ationship of Mean Scores for Self-Perception of World- mindedness and Stated Attitudes of Worldmindedness Among All Research Subjects Correlation Test For Coefficient Cases (N) Significance .4538 126 .001* *Significant The positive correlation (.4538) shows that research subjects having high mean scores for self-perception of worldmindedness had high mean socres for stated attitudes of worldmindedness, and research subjects having low mean scores for self-perception of worldmindedness had low mean scores for stated attitudes of worldmindedness. Table 4.30 shows the total worldmindedness mean scores for all research subjects based on their self-perception of their worldmind- edness and their stated attitudes of worldmindedness. The total worldmindedness mean score for all research subjects based on their self-perception of their worldmindedness was (4.7063). 151 The total worldmindedness mean score for all research subjects based on their stated attitudes of worldmindedness was (4.1313). The total worldmindedness mean score for all research subjects based on their self-perception of their worldmindedness appears higher than the total worldmindedness mean score for all research subjects based on their stated attitudes of worldmindedness, but was not found to be signifi- cantly different. TABLE 4.30--Wor1dmindedness Mean Scores for All Research Subjects Based on Self-Perceptions of Worldmindedness and Stated Attitudes of Worldmindedness* Total Variable é::?:¥?:: Worldmindedness C?§§S Mean Scores Self-Perception .9803 4.7063 126 Attitudes .7186 4.1313 132 *6 = highest possible worldmindedness mean score, 1 = lowest possible worldmindedness mean score Subject Comments on Survey Instruments and Reasons for Participating in World Affairs Organizations One hundred and twenty—one research subjects responded to the item, "Why do you devote a portion of your time, attention, energy, and resources to world affairs to the extent you do?" in the Partici- pant Background Questionnaire. The responses were classified as 152 follows: (1) Religious Imperatives (N = 23), (2) National Interest (N 3), (3) Human Development (N = 27), (4) Global Interdependence (N 32), and (5) Personal Rewards (N = 36). Specific responses to the item are shown in Appendix E. Sixty-four research subjects responded to the item "00 you have any general comments on this questionnaire?" in the Participant Background Questionnaire. Half of the responses related to what the respondents felt was bias and ambiguity in some of the items in the International Attitudes Survey. Half of the respondents expressed appreciation for being included in the study, a few of them noting some uncertainty as to the specific purpose of the study. Specific comments to this item are shown in Appendix E. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSION The first section of Chapter V is a summary of the purpose of the study, study design and administration, review of literature, population and sample, instruments, hypotheses, and data analysis. The second section is an analysis and discussion of the research findings, including profiles of research subjects according to their association with the utopian or traditional world affairs organiza- tions, the four research hypotheses, research subjects' self- perception of worldmindedness, a contrasting view of the data, a discussion of the findings and conclusions of the study in terms of implications for the adult educator, relationship of the literature to conclusions, a subject profile of worldmindedness, designs for learning, the research process, further research, and a further discussion of the concept of worldmindedness. Summar Purpose Of the Study The purpose of the study was to find out if participants in voluntary world affairs organizations heldsfimilar views of the world, if they responded to world issues in the same ways, if they preferred 153 154 to learn about world affairs in like ways, and if there were any relationships between their personal backgrounds and their world views. Study Design and Administration Two descriptive survey instruments soliciting information about personal backgrounds and worldmindedness attitudes were mailed to a population of active participants in two voluntary world affairs organizations. The survey instruments were accompanied by a cover letter, a postcard to be returned if the respondent wanted to receive a summary report of the research study, and a stamped return envelope for the survey instruments. A follow-up letter was sent after several weeks to encourage a response. Subject anonymity was assured. Review of Literature The review of literature included doctoral dissertations on worldmindedness, studies of ethnocentrism, surveys on designs for adult learning and how adults learn. Population and Sample The research instruments were sent to 300 members and asso- ciates of two voluntary world affairs organizations in Michigan which the researcher felt represented a broad spectrum of world views. One was the American Friends Service Committee of Michigan referred to in the study as a voluntary utopian world affairs organization. The other was the Michigan Partners of the Americas, known as a voluntary 155 traditional world affairs organization in the study. The 132 respon- dents (44% return) were divided equally between the two groups. Instruments The Participant Backgroundguestionnaire contained biograph- ical items and questions (“[116 ". Robert J. Rentschler 312 E. Brookfield Drive East Lansing, Michigan 48823 200 NACE SCALE The following items are being Robert J. Rentschler considered for inclusion in a research 3l2 E. Brookfield Dr. project designed to measure the atti- East Lansing, Michigan tudes of worldmindedness held by persons 332-0237 (H) 353-0682 (0) participating in selected world affairs citizen organizations (NACET. Would you please mark by each item a letter U_for "utOpian," I_for "traditional," or_3 if you are undecided according to whether you think the item represents an attitude that would be held by a member of a "utopian" or "traditional" organization as described below. A "utopian" organization would be one holding political, economic, or social ideals thought be many people to be impossibly visionary or impractical in the existing world of hard knocks and compromise. Examples: Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, World Federalists. A "traditional" organization would represent more of an established way of thinking, feeling, and doing, and would hold political, economic, and social views based on what many people would consider to be practical and material factors rather than theoretical, ethical, or moralistic grounds. Examples: world affairs councils, Council on Foreign Relations. Responses 13293 T T T l. The most reliable source of information on foreign policy issues are officials of the federal govern- ment who have access to knowledge that no other persons have and are responsible for making and carrying out that policy. T T T 2. Voting and petitioning our Congressmen are the best ways to influence foreign policy in our country.* T U U 3. Institutions will not change significantly or reform themselves unless threatened overtly with disrup- tion or dissolution. 20l Responses T ? T l0. ll. 12. 13. 14. 202 Items International affairs are very complex and it is best to leave them in the hands of the experts without interference by an uninformed public. * We should make every effort to communicate with the power structure in our communities if we want to have the greatest impact on social policy-making. It makes no sense to put on a public affairs confer- ence and offer a forum for views with which you do not agree. The greatest threat to world peace is international comnuni sm. It is naive to think that travel abroad by U.S. citizens or foreigners visiting the U.S. will have any real and lasting effect on international affairs.* By and large, the elected and appointed officials of our national government can be trusted to look out for the general welfare of all citizens without a lot of constant monitoring. The best possible government we can have is one that keeps out of our way and acts only when and where our national security is threatened. The affairs of our country should be run by persons skilled and experienced in managing large enter- prises. we should never compromise our principles in dealing with foreign governments no matter whether we consider them to be our friends or not.* The United States should not exclude other countries from participation in our cultural exchange programs for political or any other reasons.* There are different kinds of communist countries and we should judge them according to their own particular standards.* Responses U U U l6. l7. 18. 19. 20. 2l. 22. 23. 24. 25. 203 Items Visiting other countries will improve international relations only if contact is made with the common people, not just the officials or VIPs (Very Impor- tant People). The conduct of foreign affairs in our country is influenced too much by special interest groups and needs the constant input of public opinion to keep it in balance. The purpose of government is to promote economic and social justice and opportunities for personal fulfillment for everybody. What our country needs is more social science and humanities-oriented people involved in making public policy. We should remember that this is an imperfect world and sometimes we need to deal with one country one way and another country another way.* Politicians and bureaucrats will always serve their own best interests or the interests of those who apply the most pressure, so we should keep our eye on them at all times. Even in a democratic countrylike ours, communists should not be allowed to espouse their doctrines in public schools or other tax-supported institu- tions.* Educational meetings on social issues should present all points of view for open and unprejudiced discussion. The most important thing is to go directly to the pe0ple and encourage them to make their opinions known on matters of public importance for their welfare. Cultural exchange programs do not work because a host country only lets visitors see what the govern- ment of that country wants them to see. Education and persuasion are the most effective tools for effecting change in public affairs. Responses U U U 26. U ? T 27. T ? U 28. U U U 29. U ? U 30. T T T 3l. ? U U 32. 204 Items Sometimes we need to express our views about foreign policy in our country by taking part in public demonstrations.* Only private persons who have been directly affected by or subject to certain foreign policy decisions can really tell you what is going on. The ideals of communism have much merit and are worth considering for our country. The Russian leaders will honestly support any United Nations plan to keep the peace.* In the long run, it would be in our best interest as a nation to spend less money for military purposes and more money for education, housing, and other social improvements.* The only way peace can be maintained is to keep the U.S. so powerful and well-armed that no other nation will dare to attack us.* We should try to help all nations, whether we get anything special out of it or not.* Do you have any comments to make about these items? Thank you very much for your very kind assistance. *Items included in the World Affairs Citizen Education Scale APPENDIX B ORGANIZATIONS TO WHICH RESEARCH SUBJECTS BELONG 205 WORLD AFFAIRS ORGANIZATIONS TO WHICH RESEARCH SUBJECTS BELONG ACCORDING TO THE VOLUNTARY WORLD AFFAIRS ORGANIZATIONS WITH WHICH THEY ARE ASSOCIATED American Friends Service Committee of Michigan American Association of University Women American Civil Liberties Union Amnesty International Anti-Nuke Coalition Bahai In ternational Bread for the World Center for Democratic Studies Coalition for Justice Common Cause Concerned Scientists Episcopal Peace Fellowship Fellowsh ip of Reconciliation Great Lakes Life Community Institute for World Order International Institute League of Women Voters Michigan Michigan Michigan Michigan Michigan Michigan Michigan Coalition for Development Action CROP Hunger Appeal Education Association Institute for Global Education Institute for Non-Violence International Council* Partners of the Americas* Mobilization for Survival *Members in both voluntary world affairs organizations. 206 207 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People National Association of Welfare Rights National Association of Women Religious National Council of Catholic Women New Directions Pax Christi Peacemakers People for the Promotion of Global Understanding Peoples Food Co-op SANE - Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy South African Liberation Committee Street Corner Society UNICEF - United Nations Children's Fund United Nations Association of the USA* Urban League U.S.-China Peoples Friendship Association War Resisters League West Michigan Environmental Council World Federalists Association Women's International League for Peace and Freedom Michigan Partners of the Americas American Association of University Professors American Legion American Medical Association American Red Cross Boy Scouts of America Chambers of Commerce (various) Christian Camping International Country Clubs (various) Detroit Economic Club Disabled American Vets Elks Club Jaycees Kiwanis International Knights of Columbus 208 Lions Clubs International Masons Michigan Education Association* Michigan 4-H International Michigan International Council* Michigan Manufacturers Association Michigan State Medical Society Organization Executives of Michigan Rotary International Shrine United Nations Association of the USA* U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary Veterans of Foreign Wars Women's Economic Club YMCA Non-International - Unclassified Actors Equity American Cancer Society American Chemical Society American Choral Directors Association Big Brothers-Big Sisters Detroit Boat Club Dulcimer Players of Michigan Feminist Karate Association Institute of Radio Engineers Michigan Association for Hearing and Speech Michigan League for Human Services National/Michigan Council for Senior Citizens National Microfilm Association National Wheelchair Athletic Association Phi Delta Kappa 209 Radio and TV Pioneers Renaissance Society of America Screen Actors Guild Society of Sigma Xi Veterans Wireless Operators APPENDIX C COMMENTS BY RESEARCH SUBJECTS ON PARTICIPATION IN WORLD AFFAIRS 2l0 COMMENTS BY RESEARCH SUBJECTS 0N PARTICIPATION IN WORLD AFFAIRS Subjects' comments on the item, "Why do you devote a portion of your time, energy, and resources to world affairs to the extent you do?", in the Participant Background Questionnaire. Total Responses: Utopian - 61 Traditional - 59 National Perspective Utopian 1. (none) Traditional l. Because I am concerned about the future of our international economy as it affects American bu51ness and our citizens. Due to my heritage and I am interested in world affairs and their effect on the U.S. and parti- cularly in Greece. World Perspective Utopian l. I feel that events in other places affect me and vice versa. I also feel committed to promoting the values of "one-world" because I believe that we are, in part, one people inside. I consider myself bi-cultural and there is no way I can live without being involved in world affairs. I belong to a western country and I belong to a 2ll 2l2 third world Asian country. I see the way western countries have bled Asia and know the cause and effect relationship between them. I believe we can be the most effective, useful and fulfilled actors on the stage of life if we view our relatively short existence here in the largest practical context, that of the world as a whole, as well as in a myriad of sub-contexts. An awareness of the smallest of the world and our dependence on each other to survive. People from other nations no longer seem strange or impersonal to me. I'm interested in humanity and I care about what happens. I consider my citizenship to be universal. Having had several opportunities to travel outside the U.S., I have come to the realization that we, as a nation, are a very powerful economic and military source to deal with, ppt_we are by no means the only power. . .people are by far a much more important factor. Humanity transcends all nationalities, languages, customs, etc. Science and technology have made us as people interdependent on a worldwide basis. Social, economic and political problems which were national in my youth have now become interna- tional in their relevance. For more than 60 years I have tried to concentrate my efforts on what I am fpp_and always regret having to devote time, thought and effort to what I am against. Because I believe it is probably the surest means of achieving world peace, to avoid a very possible nuclear war, which is bound to happen someday if we persist in the idea that national boundary lines are sacred and the resources found within those boundaries belong only to the persons living within those boundaries and the continued insane weapons race between the Powers. We must bring up children to believe and acknowledge that they are world citizens first and inhabitants of a certain part of the globe by chance. Preventing nuclear war through worldmindedness is our most important business. 10. ll. 12. l3. I4. 15. T6. 213 Because I feel there is no other answer to world problems. Because of my convictions for peace and justice. Concern for pe0ple. I have lived in Germany during the first world war; I have lived in this country during the second world war; and learned the destruction and the futility of all wars first hand. We must arrive at some way to settle national and inter- national problems by some other ways than by wars or war-like measures. One step, for a start, is to point fingers at ourselves before pointing fingers at others. Another step: U.S. presidents claiming that we must have the most powerful weaponry only forces USSR leaders to exhort their people to the same for them. The continued existence of all life on this planet rests upon the removal of hunger, of greed, and fear of man for man. The interdependence of people becomes both more imperative and apparent hourly. Have always been interested in how other people live and are conditioned by their beliefs, climate, customs, social organization, food, etc. . . . I believe we can make the world a better place in which to live--we can learn from others and they can learn from us. It seems that all of us belong to one family. We should behave_that way to each other: with care, understanding and love. My concern for world affairs is inseparable from my concern for humanity. In order to make this world a better place for mankind, efforts of many individuals and concerns of individuals in world affairs is important. I feel that my concern and involvement in world affairs is my duty as a human being and as a citizen of this world. It helps me to grow more human each day. Because I know that we now live in ppg_world with interconnected parts. Because through my friends and a husband of another nationality, I am con- vinced that there is no such thing as national superiority or inferiority. l7. l8. T9. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 2l4 Need to extend a world consciousness as a form to eradication of wars and other exploitation, as a way of gaining better knowledge by wider scope. I do so because no other way has even entered my mind. The only hope for the world is to establish world peace and understanding. I believe we are interdependent and this is a fragile world. We must work teogether to achieve peace, slow pollution, feed people, nurture our children, educate our children, young people and adults, achieve health care for all people, insure religious freedom, protect political rights. No one nation has a right to a monopoly on these basic needs of all. I believe the priorities of the U.S. are wrong and I cannot support morally or in any other way our huge defense budget. Margaret Mead said everyone should have a child in his/her life so that he/she cares what happens to the world. I have 2 grandchildren. Devoting time and energy also means that it brings me together with people of like mind. I feel a responsibility. I have a six-year-old son, alive and intelligent-- I want there to be a world in existence for him to grow up and not just any world, but one in which individuals are respected and humans and the whole ecosystem is prioritized over and above profit and goods. I believe children everywhere should have this right and we as responsible adults need to provide it. . . . Only possible means of achieving an enforceable world peace and the preservation of human rights for all. Believe it is obligatory for those who have "enlightenment" with regard to the aforementioned to invest in its attainment. The U.S. and multi-nationals based in the U.S. have a large impact upon almost every country in the world, particularly upon underdeveloped countries. Because I believe we are all part of one another and as friends we must give of our resources to those who have less than we do. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 215 I am firmly committed to the idea of personhood survive in the Global Village. . .attempting more and more a life style that is more and more simple with a motto of caring, sparing and sharing. Because I believe there exists basically an inter- national monetary/resources exchange system, i.e. those powers of the world who have the most wherewithal hold the power. Thus, to limit one's perspective to exclude the implications of this reasoning is counter-productive. Because I am concerned about the welfare of all people and know that quality of life will increase for all as it becomes more fair and satisfactory for all. Our "standard of living" may be lowered in terms of material things. The increase in quality would be in terms of less fear of war, theft, violence, etc., and the release from guilt that we are too fat while others starve, warm while others are cold, get medical attention while others suffer and die in need of medical treat- ment, etc. . . . Because it's all of us together that makes the world better, not just some of us--I'm working for all of us to get together. Because time is of the essence in solving the human conflicts to eradicate war. The gap between the well-fed and the hungry needs to be closed. A system to bring a better economic distribution to meet human needs must be developed. The alter- native is disaster. So much needs to be done! In part, because of an interest in other cultures and people; in part because of an academic interest in theories of modernization and political devel- opment; and in part because of the realization that world survival hinges on our ability to walk together toward the solution of common problems and to achieve mutual understanding. I believe strongly that each of us must be our brother's keeper and that "no man lives unto him- self or dies unto himself." I also believe strongly that we must move steadily and rapidly toward finding global solutions for 32. 33. 34. 35. 216 global problems or humankind will be self-destroyed, so will most other forms of life. Because I want my daughter and all the children of the world tohave a future. Unless we see ourselves as world citizens, we will continue to stockpile nuclear weapons to use against our "enemies“ and we will eventually blow up our world. My Christian beliefs also play a large part in motivating me to devote time and energy to world affairs. I feel that we are headed for destruction if we don't as a nation change our way of thinking. Because they are interesting. Because I think they are of immeasurable importance to individual, ordinary persons in their effects. Because I feel we are responsible for each other's well-being as much as possible. Teachers affect eternity through their contact with today's children, preparing them for tomorrow's world. My experience has been that teacher preparation is very slight in developing a "world view." Also, increasing fiscal pressures have not enhanced opportunities for "in-service" training of those already teaching. Therefore, my energy, time and resources are spent in attempting to develop global education oppor- tunities by promoting organization plans and programs. Traditional 1. For the betterment of this world, this nation and a better future for my family, my friends, and all the people of the world. I am very interested in the world human community and feel human beings are basically the same regardless of national boundaries. The ultimate determinant of the fate of humankind will be our ability--or failure--to learn to live in harmony, one with the other, in the world community. Nothing can be more important. Indi- vidual efforts can only be pragmatic bits which hopefully will contribute to the whole. 4. 217 I am interested in world affairs from a cultural (anthropological) viewpoint. I am fascinated by how much of behavior is culture-bound, and I enjoy studying behavior. I strongly believe that the only sensible way to live is in peace, and I'm sure much more communi- cation among peoples of all cultures is necessary to achieve this objective. We live during a time when travel and communication have made the world seem smaller. Within this world people practice different customs, differ- ent ways of doing things, but in a sense, they do the same things. Manners, cultural differences, and basic needs don't change. We have a common existence of " iving" that should allow mankind a better understanding and appreciation of one another. As we study world affairs, I feel we can become more knowledgeable of our own domestic problems. . .politically, as well as in community living. Even on a very personal level, we can become more tolerant, more understanding and more generous in sharing and even sacrificing for others. I need to be able to expose my children to more and more of the complete world in order for their growth and preparedness for the world they and their children might live in. I believe in the dignity of all men--everywhere. Because I feel that the only real solution to any individual country's problems cannot be solved without worldwide correction and understanding. It is particularly true in the United States because we consume so much of the world's resources. I was an advisor to the United States delegation to the International Sugar Conference in May, l977, representing Sugar Users. Because we in the U.S. take so much for granted-- there are so many places in the world that are undeveloped--without bare necessities--we should help them to develop their talents and resources. I work with preschool blind. The world is at approximately the same level of development. It is a waste of time to concentrate one's efforts 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 218 in a locality when together more can be done. The world is small. What happens in other areas affects us. What we do can/does affect others. Believe we have "one world"—-all share this planet and all should benefit from its resources and accept responsibilities for the earth's liabilities. The only way we will have world peace is for all of us to work at it all the time. Without better human interplay and understanding, the world as we know it is doomed. Tolerance of the values and ideas of all men must be learned. I believe nations can, and indeed, should main- tain their independent roles, while also mutually cooperating towards world peace and economic development, higher educational levels, birth control, etc. . . . Became "sensitized" to international problems as a Peace Corps volunteer. I don't think there can be world peace and stability without all countries cooperating to solve economic and social problems in lesser developed countries. I am interested in a world free from the exploitation of man by man; a world with everyone given an equal opportunity to develop to the fullness of their ability. Because citizen efforts are needed to create a basis for world peace, world political freedom and freedom from hunger. The misery through wars and hunger and natural disasters is almost too much for the average person to absorb or comprehend. It is difficult to imagine myself as a human being having to endure so much suffering. Most of us take for granted our own good fortunes and life style. What goes on in the world affects us at home. Therefore, I am interested in world affairs. This becomes more true each day. The time is coming that we will be one big family. Without each person putting his "drop in the bucket," positive changes would be impossible. I do believe the sum of individuals influences the whole. 18. 19. 219 I enjoy working with people of other cultures. I feel that I need to keep abreast of world affairs because it affects all of us to some degree. I feel that too many Americans do not see the role that this country plays in world affairs and how everything we do affects those in other countries to some extent. We must take more responsibility as individuals to realize that our own communities are pp; the only thing that matters. I finmly believe the good for all can be achieved only to the extent that all people better understand each other--as we get better acquainted with different cultures, values, patterns, etc., we get insights, understandings, erasing our biases, prejudices, etc. Keeping abreast of world affairs help me to better understand my present role--why things happen as they do--helps me to know how best to help others to achieve a better life—-helps me to better understand the larger context in which we operate. Over the years I have observed world hardships, catastrophes, war, etc. I want to do all in my power to help avert such problems. I am vitally interested in current events. Religious Perspective Utopian 1. With the possible exception of family and reli- gious faith, a deep interest in world affairs is my life. Because I am aware of the unequal distribution of basic human needs such as food, clean water and shelter. In addition, the gap between rich (or first world countries) and "developing" countries is being exploited or widened at an alarming rate. The U.S. should be an example and leading catalyst in avoiding mass starvation. Since we have the technology and the Lord showed us the right direction 1900 years ago. Personal experiences and religious beliefs combine to motivate me to devote some time to world affairs. 220 I believe that God is the Father of the whole human race and that all people are my brothers and sisters. I desire peace and cooperation among all people so that we may address our collective wisdom and resources to creating a better world. The amount of time, energy and resources I personally contribute is not large, but joined with contributions of many other persons I hope that it contributes positively to these ends. As a Christian, I believe that my allegiance is first and primarily to God--the creator and redeemer of the world. Therefore my responsibility is to seek justice for and to demonstrate God's love to all peoples regardless of where they live or what they believe. We live in a world community which is interrelated by political, economic, and ecological ties. In any system, movement in one part creates a response in other parts of the system. It is not possible to isolate ourselves from the rest of the world community. The coffee, sugar, bananas, gas, etc., that I buy are often a direct link to people in other countries. We (the U.S. government and its citizens) share a responsi- bility for much of the poverty and injustice in the third world and we may share the consequences of that injustice, should the third world mobilize itself--either to fight for their rights or to refuse to continue to support our excessive use of world resources. We must become one world! "God is at work" to make this One Brotherhood. I have had opportunities to live and work overseas and to see the unbalanced interdependent world we live in. My personal concerns to raise these issues of economic dependence and domination by some countries over others and of the opportunities westerners have to learn from other peoples some valuable aspects of humanhood come from my reli- gious understanding of the wholeness of humankind.‘ My commitment to the human race. We must join the human race before it is too late. Deep reli- gious commitment to world peace. "Blessed are the peacemakers for they are the children of God." 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 221 Because I am convinced of the "global village" concept. God has made us brothers and sisters, and we have responsibilities toward each other. What I do and say and how I live affects the whole world. I am a citizen of the world trying to seek that of God in every living person, answering that good and spreading it. I believe it is the responsibility of every person created by God to make this world a good place, that we will be answerable to our Creator for how we have lived our life, helped our fellow creatures. Because I feel too many of us have tunnel vision. Because my faith mandates my concern and my obligation to do what I can do. Because I believe it all begins with me, like a stone thrown into the water-~and ripples into a wide circle. Because I cannot believe that the material wealth of this world is meant for such a few people. And finally, because the children whom we neglect today are the potential world leaders--and will never reflect love and care and concern if it is not shown to them, now. My belief in Christ, my desire to follow Him, my knowledge of His caring for the world--all people, has been my strongest motivation. My parents were Christian and were broad in their concepts of world affairs. I have had a privileged life with great opportunities for education and growth. I have always sought for answers and have been open in mind and have welcomed change. Primarily because I enjoy the stimulation and excitement of learning and sharing with others. The challenge of working with like-minded people in the struggle for better human relationships and a higher level of humanistic development is what keeps me optimistic. The basic roots of of involvement in this area are firmly established is my deep religious convictions. 15. 16. 17. 222 I interpret my religion to mean that we are all sisters and brothers on earth and in this context individual nations are not important. I also believe that the only way for the human race to survive is for everyone to share my view. I am concerned for the quality of the lives of my descendents if they live. I have always had an altruistic bent which I developed while in Methodist Youth Fellowship. Then as I drifted away from organized church I still had a commitment to a life of service and feel one in such a field has a duty to be an informed person about the world affairs and to work toward peace and relieving the suffering of all people of the world. As a Christian I feel compelled to do something about the many problems. I also enjoy the type of people and activity involved in the peace movement (using broad definition). Being a student it is a good educational experience. Traditional 1. We should and need to be concerned about others in the world. From a religious point of view we have the responsibility to help others wherever they may be. However, that help must be based on their requests and needs, not our perceived ideas of what's best. A real live interest and sensitivity to the needs of others. The command of Jesus: "Go ye into all the world. . . ." Personal Perspective Utopian 1. (a) Find it stimulating, meaningful and fulfilling, (b) as a parent, feel it is giving to my child's future, especially regardin anti-nuclear work and conflict resolution, and (cl it is my occupation (shoe-string!). Cultures and peoples of the world are interesting and exciting. Others enrich my experiences and 223 make life much more interesting. Our arrogance as U.S. citizens has added to suffering around the world. I'm outraged by work of CIA and global corporations. Because I have close relatives and friends in Europe. Because I think it a moral duty. Traditional 1. 10. In an effort to pay my "rent" for being--and I enjoy my associates and friends on both sides of the water. Personal interest in values and cultures of all people. Future of the human species depends on friendly, successful communication. Interested in politics. GI service in India with stop in North Africa. Reading New York Times daily in college. Like to have a fair, balanced presentation of other countries to citizens of USA. Because of my ability to teach and to do constructive work in matters of health needs. Because of personal attitude or involvement for general knowledge as an interested citizen. We have resources/abilities to make a difference. Leverage--we can accomplish a considerable amount of exchange/cooperation/assistance in development in our "extra time." It's great fun--the people are in it not for profit but to work with and enjoy other people. We can and do learn a lot. They affect me, my business, my investments, my taxes, and my very safety. As a foreigner in the USA, I felt that I should be better prepared than the average American. (a) Selfishness--I enjoy it, and (b) many of my best colleagues are foreigners. I am interested in the world, travel, etc. Also, I am interested in the interchange of politics 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 224 and political forces. Having travelled considerably I feel I have some international perspective to contribute. I am interested in short term medical groups working in foreign countries--especially Honduras. Promote this by talk/slide shows and personal recruitment. Yes. I financially support overseas projects. Interest in world affairs as it has bearing on children and grandchildren. It is interesting, but I really don't know very much about world affairs. I have always been interested in politics and developed a natural interest in politics and forms of government in other countries. The Jaycees have given me a natural outlet for my interests. - The personal fulfillment from the high degree of response and progress experienced from the invest- ment in other (less independent) cultures. World affairs interest me, and I'd like to know and understand as much as I can about the attitudes, beliefs and conditions of citizens of other . countries. To avoid getting old. Having good health; keep studying and the brain active. We have been interested in learning new values re: "The American way." Example: the communist theories are working in Russia--Soviet Union and China--the "American way" or "democratic methods" would not feed the masses or control them as efficiently. We enjoy and intensely interested in our studies of the changing world. I enjoy international involvement. I feel I have something to offer to better world understanding. It is challenging intellectually. I feel somewhat obligated after having gained so much personally from international experiences. Other 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 225 Personal satisfaction in aiding people of countries less fortunate than us. Plus unless we build for the future (personal relations and goodwill) communism will succeed. I am interested in knowing people, their cultures and problems. The best way to get to know them is to work among them. Ideally learn their language. Again, this December, I am spending a portion of my vacation in Mexico teaching an intensive, short (l week) course in Analytical Instrumentation at no pay from the University. This enables me to work directly with these people and to know them. Other countries have also asked me to come teach and some day I hope to have the time--but one vacation only goes so far. (a) Personal satisfaction, (b) help others achieve more profound personal fulfillment, and (c) help others understand human values better. Lack of sex. Because I view myself as a sensitive humanistic type of person, plus I have a great interest in working with handicapped and disadvantaged persons through local, state, and national/inter- national organizations. Because I can personally make a greater contri- bution in this area, and I believe that inter- national events have a greater impact on my life than national, state, or local events. Further- more, I could not be an educated person without understanding world affairs. Important part of my income is from foreign business. It is a refreshing break from local routine activity. I enjoy foreign travel and new experi- ences. It is important for the U.S. to have a sound foreign policy. Utopian 1. I can't expect someone else to do it if I don't. N 226' I have to leave as much for the world as I take from it. I send money to UNICEF. I attend lectures about world/countries problems. I talk to people-- students—~about what is happening. If I have the opportunity, I vote. I cannot help it. It's the way I was born-~a Cancer birthday--and Cancerians are said to be "mothers of the earth." I believe in unity of principles and diversity in methods. Example: compulsory education is a universal principle and each nation develops its educational system according to its culture and needs. At this point in my life, I don't feel I am so involved other than through re-evaluation counseling which is a peer-counseling, grass roots world changing group. Most of my energy is taken up with earning a living and dealing with my family. Past activities have included AFSC, LWV, Salvation Army (fresh air camp). Unless through AFSC or Quaker affiliation, I don't see how my name would have come to your attention. Traditional 1. All people should improve their living conditions and standards. A worldwide communication will be very good program, starting in school. I have been involved in working with the country of Belize because I feel I have been blessed with more than I need and I want to share with those who don't have enough. My activities have included sending aid to the country as well as travelling to the country to help them raise funds. I believe other people need our help. Because I think I can do some good; give true facts. I respond or participate in the response of an expressed need if I am capable. 227 I really don't, except in discussion which really doesn't rate. Continuous awareness of state of world affairs in the USA, Latin America and Europe-~no active involvement. Currently I devote no time. Don't really spend that much time on world affairs. APPENDIX 0 COMMENTS BY RESEARCH SUBJECTS ON THE SURVEY INSTRUMENTS 228 COMMENTS BY RESEARCH SUBJECTS ON THE SURVEY INSTRUMENTS Subjects' comments on the item, "Do you have any general comments on this questionnaire?", in the Participant Background Questionnaire. Total Responses: Utopian - 38 Traditional - 25 Utopian None exceptdifficultto answer the international attitudes survey without qualifying my answer. Because you requested I answer every one, I some- times answered when no one response listed was entirely indicative of my thinking. I circled that answer which was closest. (For some questions the answer was very clear cut.) Some of the questions were very difficult to answer. The last statement for instance, that war is never justifiable even if it is the only way to protect our national rights and honor. In war time we are told we are fighting for our country and its honor when we are not. In all wars, I feel there is only one that could not have been avoided and that is World War II. Even that needn't have happened if we had joined the League of Nations or had joined with other countries to prevent Hitler from rearming. But after he was allowed to break the Treaty of Versailles by rearming, it was too late. Yes--questionnaires often leave room for indi- vidual response--I find boxes don't always leave space for what I really am and how I would like to respond. Questions l-46 deserve more response than can be given. Agreeing or disagreeing is too simplistic, but, hopefully you'll draw con- clusions helpful to your thesis. 229 10. 11. 12. 230 Very thorough. It was not clear to me how the answer to question 19 should be answered. Very good and interesting questionnaire. Some of your attitudinal questions are so impractical it's difficult to answer objectively; e.g. one world is a fine ideal if it is not achieved at the expense of diversity and individuality. I like being asked to think about these things. I think you should have a category of "don't know," "haven't decided," or some such. I can't list all things in their importance by numbers. I just wish there had been a way on the survey to say, "I don't know." Only wish the attitude survey had another category between "mildly agree" and "mildly disagree." Often an issue is not either/or; example: No. 33. We can do both--teach world history and our own. Not much can be done about such statements. The questionnaire seems-adequate for its purpose. However the international attitudes survey state- ments reflect a heartland (if not a hinterland) mentality. A large number of these statements contain loaded or stereotype words, or are so vague that they render any response to them meaningless. Hence, the value of the survey is suspect. Most of the questions are so blatantly biased that even my junior high Sunday school group were amused. (a) The attitudes survey--no place for anarchist replies, i.e. those who feel uncomfortable with centralization involved in world government, yet certainly are not patriotic nationalist, either; and (b) a few additional questions would have been interesting, such as: the affectivity people perceive in their attempts to influence others and/or their sense of general pessimism or optimism to change things. Occupation of parents and/or spouse--any influence? Political involvement of parents and/or spouse—- any influence? 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 231 Those where I answer mildly (17, 25, 28, 33), there was no really correct answer. In l7 (immigration)-- control is too strong-—aided, perhaps. In 25 (social action) sometimes that's the best way and sometimes picketing or civil disobedience is best. 28 (immigration)--there are other factors to consider. 33 (education)--schools should teach world history apg_national history. Don't know that you can improve on them, but those are my problems with them. Some of the questions are vague and would be interpreted by different people in very different ways, since I don't want to be misinterpreted it was difficult for me to answer. Some of the questions are a bit unclear--or at least they force decision that aren't stated the way I would do it. Some questions such as 16 and 25 seem to be able to be answered ambiguously. This questionnaire is written with an obvious perspective that you belong to a "dominant" group. Example: against p§_(re: question 7-- education). It's a little "honky" and too damned long and contains a lot of dumb questions. Fine. I just hope you have a good response and can do something constructive with the results and with the respondents toward elimination of war and hunger. Some of the statements under "survey" could easily be interpreted two ways: thus I failed to answer 27, 39, 32, and 42. Many questions are double-barreled and ambiguous. I doubt if this questionnaire ever underwent a reliability check. No. 18 (designs for learning) I couldn't honestly answer because the method is not nearly as important as the effectiveness of the method. Very thorough, indeed. Looks interesting. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 232 How nice to be asked to comment on my opinions and feelings without a questionnaire so weighted that the person who designed it gets the answers he/she wants and there is no room or space to present the interviewee's position. Answering the questions forced me to face the implications of some of my convictions. Most of the questions were formulated so that it was possible to circle one of the choices. I hope that the study will contribute to worldmindedness. It is timely, should be widely disseminated, should be repeated about every 5 years, and, I hope, the present findings will be compared with past findings to delineate change and direction of change. I will be interested very much in the report. (The type on the next pages should be larger for people past 60.) Think it was pretty well designed. Very interesting. Our frequent lament is the provincialism of our fellow-countrymen. Would that more had a world view! Interesting. A good job. I thank you very much for this innovation in edu- cational research. Another important area is the resolution of conflict by means other than terror (war) and the threat of terror. I appreciate the chance to analyze myself in relation to concern for world affairs. I often wish to have more company in my concern and wonder if I have been extreme in my activities and actions. I am glad that such a survey is being made and I will be interested in the report. This is a marvelous project! I hope a concrete plan for furthering worldmindedness for all people (not just an educated middle class) will be devel- oped. I teach adults and I look for materials and 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. Traditional l. 233 different forms of presentation constantly. Someone in favor of worldmindedness will probably be quite delighted with my answers. However, I know that my husband and I are very different from others in our community. I enjoyed taking the questionnaire--it got me thinking about some of the reasons for my involvement in foreign (world) affairs. I say "foreign" because that is how so much of what I read, hear, and see strikes me intellectually and emotionally. I still need a much greater level of sensitization. Your work endeavors sound fascinating--I wish you continued success in the future. Yes, I heard on the radio today Ted Kennedy saying we now have the "best Congress money can buy," referring to special interest groups. I believe him. I also believe fewer, yet bigger, multi- nationals are running international trade, resulting in much suffering and early death for many people. I am unsure of what use it will be to you. My comments would not be of too great value; I don't know exactly what this questionnaire is supposed to accomplish, though I have a general idea. Hope your study is revealing. Regarding question 19, definition of worldminded- ness too complex to answer effectively. Not exactly; some questions I would like to qualify answers, but there is not enough space. Each citizen (of the world hopefully, but for now the U.S.) needs to operate on what I call C3R. This stands for communication, cooperation, contribu- tion (of some kind to his other society) and R responsbility to see that the C3 are carried out. I try to teach this to the groups that I work with in my teaching or working with Boy Scouts, and my fellow workers. 10. 234 I found the attitude questions too simplistic and not adequately answered by the choices given. Difficult to answer some of the questions because of the wording-~or choice of answers. I don't enjoy these questionnaires. There is no way one can temporize--even with the multiple choices. And at times, I want to temporize. The way some of the last 46 questions are asked leave one no answer that fully expresses my real opinion, but I answered them all to hopefully help in obtaining a better profile. While there are a lot of good points, the quality of questions could be improved; e.g. (a) instead of foreign aid. . ., or along with such a question, such question as whether the U.S. should aid other countries to help them attain self-sufficiency; and (b) instead. . .abolishing national govern- ment to institute world government. . ., or along with it, such question as national governments under world government functioning much as state governments in a federal system. . . . Organi- zation of questionnaire: (a) other important international aspects should be included; and (b) questions could have been under different cate- gories. Note: Good luck with your efforts. The general tone of questioning seems biased to an "internationalist posture" at any price, without giving alternative choices to accurately reflect my viewpoint. Adding up the check numbers will not really represent me. A simplistic approach to an exceedingly complex topic--disappointing. Your questions tend to make me feel I have to endorse either narrow nationalism or world "Big Brotherhood." A world government is not workable, but peace among individually governed nations hopefully is. You have neglected to determine if trips abroad have been frequent and repeated, of one day duration or anything else less than more than 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 235 6 months. You have neglected to determine how many parts of the world (continents or countries) are involved in the respondent's "worldmindedness." This project does not interest me further—-it is too naive. It is thought-provoking, memory-stimulating and the two of us have discussed quite a few of the answers. Thank you. Well done. Good luck. I hope it will give you perspective you seek. Yes, it shows somewhere somebody is beginning to understand the imperative need of helping other countries less fortunate than ours, not with money but know-how. Enlightening. I expect greater interest in world affairs of the foreign born. Average American citizen feels self-sufficient within the national boundaries. In my 25 years of experience, I have not had the experience of filling out a questionnaire or survey like this. I will look forward to receiving a summary of the outcome. Hope you have other input than the response to this and the attitudes survey--else you haven't included the "man on the street"--who wouldn't read and write, but has an attitude toward the issue. Questionnaire well organized and presented and should reveal interesting data. It points out to me my differing views. At times I perceive myself as being broadminded-worldminded, and at other times, reveals my biases, presumably because of my biases. For example, I like to view myself as being openminded but felt it difficult when so patriotic to my own country. My five years of U.S. Army and combat over 2% years (8 major campaigns) obviously had a major effect on my life and views. Probably I would have answered the questions differently had it been 15-20 years ago. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 236 With age I have tended to become more conser- vative on certain views. In answering the questions I recognize there are two extremes-- what is asked and what represents reality in the present world order. Good luck in securing your doctorate. Seems like a very worthwhile effort. Hopefully, you can find the key or keys to turning other people to a "worldview." I hope that I have helped in some measure to contribute to the success of progress to you and our community. I found it of great value. None--good luck. This is a toughie--some answers you know the "right" answers, but I tried to put down what I "feel," and not the intellectually accurate response. Insufficient knowledge on its end use to determine value. Curious as to what you are up to--questionnaire is well organized. But elusive in its non-apparent objective. Assume you're trying to develop a profile. APPENDIX E COMMENTS BY RESEARCH SUBJECTS ON ITEMS IN THE INTERNATIONAL ATTITUDES SURVEY 237 COMMENTS BY RESEARCH SUBJECTS ON ITEMS IN THE INTERNATIONAL ATTITUDES SURVEY (U = UTOPIAN GROUP, T = TRADITIONAL GROUP) Our country should have the rights to prohibit certain racial and religious groups from entering it to ljye. We should not discriminate, but there is a limit on how many we can allow to enter (T). But not necessarily exercise it (T). Not at this time. Future could offer health reasons (T). Immigrants should not befpermitted to comg_jnto our country if they compete with our own workers. I believe in free enterprise, but there are limits (T). As long as new groups are not taken financially advan- tage of (T). ‘ It would be a dangerousprocedure_if_every personpjppthe world had equal rights which were_ggaranteed by an international charter. Only dangerous in getting it organized (T). My reaction conditioned by type of international enforcement (U). All_prices for expgrted_f99§_and manufapturegpgopds should'p§_set by an international trade committee. I believe in free enterprise (T). Trade committee should include consumers who purchase and farmers and other workers who produce (T). 238 9. 239 Difficult to answer because of other contingent factors (U). What composition (U)? Exported and manufactured by whom (T)? Our country is probably no better than manyiothers. Countries are all good--the individuals suffer (T). Depends on criteria used: in some ways we're better, some ways no better (T). It would be a mistake for us to encourage racial groups to become well educated because they might use their new knowledge against g5, Dumb question (U). I hope they do: to keep this country honest (U). Confusing statement (T). We should be willing to fight for our country without questioning whether it is right or wrong. For our survival (T). Depends on who is running our country and why (T). If called upon to protect our country, we should do so, but should have the option to question the rightness or wrongness of it. I would not refuse to fight for my country if called upon to do so. To me it would be immoral (T). The Russian leaders will honestly support any United Nations plan to keep the peace. Who knows (U)? Don't know how to answer that because of word "any" and what you mean by it (U). Depends on issues involved (U). 12. T4. 15. 240 International affairs are very complex and it is best to leave them in the hands of the experts without ipterference by an uninformed_public. "Uninformed public"--the key words that make me agree (T). But help educate the uninformed (T). I agree that the public should be informed and use its influence (U). We should never compromise our principles in dealing with foreign governments no matter whether we consider them to be our friends or not. Who is our (U)? Another dumb question (U). What principles (U)? Assuming principles which I approve (U). Semantic difficulty here (U). Who is "we?" The government already compromises my principles. What.principles--economic, moral, religious (T)? The word "never" gives different meaning to the statement. I believe in principles, but also recog- nize the world of reality. We must be flexible. Situations change (T). There are different kinds of communist countries and we should judge them according to their own particular standards. Which certainly doesn't mean one agrees with the tenets of communism (U). How can we judge another country (T)? 17. 18. 19. 20. 22. 241 Immigration should be_contrplled by an international organization rather than by each country on its own. Countries have their own peculiariies. More cooper- ation would be good (T). We ought to have a world government to guarantee the welfare of all nations irrespective of the rights of any ong_nation. What composition (U)? I would want to see a world government charter, first, before I passed opinion (U). The other purposes would have to be spelled out (T). World government is great, but countries, too, are sovereign (T). Our country should not copperate in any international trade agreements which attempt to better world economic conditions at our expense. We have grown rich at the expense of other nations, so why not vice-versa (U)? It would be better to be a citizen of the world than of any parti- cular country. In theory, yes--reality at present, no (U). In today's society--disagree (T). The same rationale as all families being the same; it's against basic human tendencies and drives (T). Can't one be a citizen of both a country and to larger world (T)? An international committee on education should have full control over what is taught in all countries about history and policies. 23. 24. 25. 26. 242 All peoples should be free to seek truth (U). What composition (U)? Only if the real truth were taught (T)? Influence, perhaps-~not control (T). What assurance is there that an international committee knows what's best (T)? Our country should refuseix>cooperate in a total disarmament program even if some other nations agreed to it. The ful Depends on which ones (T). Statement seems redundant. As most fanciful nation, USA should dare to lead (U). We must give and take, but must first look out for ourselves (T). onlyway peace can be maintained is to keep the U.S. so power- and well-armed that no other nation will dare to attack us. Not the “only" way (T). Peace not monitored only by force. Must give and take (T). Voting and petitioning our Copgresspersons are the best ways to influence foreign policy in our country. Among other things (U). Education and travel (T). But petitioning is not enough. Knowledgeable dialogue is necessary (U). Even in a democratic country like ours, communists should not be allowed to espouse their doctrines ipppublic schools or pther tax-supported institutions. 27. 28. 29. 30. 243 There's no reason why we should deny this. What I object to is the espousing of other doctrines without expressing our own (T). If there is to be a debate, a communist must be heard (U). It would be dangerous for our country to make ipternational pgreements with nations whose religious beliefs are antagonistic to ours. Yes, it might be dangerous, but not evil (U). Should be separate problems (T). Amy healthy_individualg_regardless of_race pr religion; shopld be allowed to live wherever he or she wants to live in the world. Dumb question (U). Abortion? Family planning (T)? Our country should not participate in apy international organiza- tion which reqpires that we gjye pp_apy_of our national rights or freedom of action. Dumb question (U). In l965 some southern states believed they should not belong to the United States. If necessary, we ought to be willing to lower our_standard of living to copperate with other countries in ggtting anppgual standard for every person in the world. Not necessary (U). Contingent factors (U). It should start here in the USA! It's long overdue (T). Providing the others are benefiting (U). 244 No need to lower our own standards. Instead, our goal should be to help others to raise theirs--all working toward common goals (T). 3l. We should strive for loyalty to our own country before we can afford to consider world brotherhood. Dumb question (U). 32. Some races ought to be considered naturally_]es§_jntelligent than ours. And we less than some others (T). 33. Our schools shpgld teach the history of the whole world rather than of our own country. Both (T). Both (U). Than of "just" our own (U). Both (U). Than of "just" our own (T). Than of "merely" our own (U). Teach both (T). They do! We need both (T). We should teach both (T). 34. An international police force ought to be the only group in the world allowed to have armaments. Under representative international control (U). Eventually (T). There would have to equal representation of major political ideologies, races, and geographical areas of the world (U). 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 245 Why not totally disarm (U)? Who would police the international police force (T)? The Soviet Union is likely to start another Eurppean war, sooner or later. We must be the strongest military nation in the world (T). Or have a grgpt_influence (T). Doubtful (U). If they can't win the economic war (T). We should try to help all nation§,;whether we get anything special out of it or not. But realistically, what we do should benefit us in some way. True collaboration is the goal (T). The U.S. should not exclude other countries fromyparticipation in our cultural exchangeprograms for political reasons or any other reasons. Until conditions arise which make discontinuance advisable (U). We should remember that this is an imperfect world and sometimes we need to deal with one country one wayyand another country another way. A bit ambigious (U). We can make it perfect if we want to (U). Lousy question. But not for the condition given (U). It would be dangerous for us to guarantee in international agree- ment that every person in the world should have complete religious freedom. 40. 41. 43. 246 Dangerous, but just (U). "Us"--who (T)? At the present time (U). Our country shouldypermit the immigration of foreignypeoples even if it lowers our standard of living- All If it lowers our living "some" (U). Most Americans could lower and not know it (T). nationalygovernments ought to be abolished and replaced by one central world goverpment. Some try to start it, but the world is not yet ready for it (T). When (U)? What composition (U)? National governments should be like member states (U). Yes, but still need national governments without power of making war and other powers, limited (U). Eventually (T). Patriotism should be a primary aim of education so our children will believe our country is the best in the world. Not necessarily, but patriotism should be one of aims, not primary one (T). It would be a good idea if all the races were to intermarry until there was only one race in the world. Stupid (T). Will happen within 5 centuries (T). Biologically not possible (U). 46. 247 Year 2400 (T)? Never thought of it long enough (T). Is one way to achieve an end, but would do cultural damage (T). What a question. But I do agree that the faces of the world will grow darker (T). As a black, I am not sure I would be happy to see my race and heritage and tradition disappear (U). War should never be justifiable even if it is the only way to protect our national rights and honor. Yes, in light of nuclear weapons (U). How are rights and honor defined (U)? War is Hell. Night is protective of our rights (T). I hate war. It's a ghastly experience for anyone. But there are times when it is our only recourse to protect what we have. If we believe in something, we should stand up for those beliefs. More important, we can't stand idly by and be taken over by others (T). Necessary, perhaps. But justifiable, no (U). Protection of human life (T). In conclusion: It should be noted that I have answered these ques- tions as of October, 1978, and not for tomorrow or the year 2000 (T). APPENDIX F STATISTICAL TABLES 248 249 TABLE F.l--One Way Analysis of Variance of Participant Background Categories on Stated Attitudes of Worldmindedness Scores Source of Significance Variation 55 DF MS F of F Age 9.700 2 4.850 lO.799 .OOOOS* Within Cells 57.937 l29 .449 Education 4.390 3 l.463 2.962 .03474 Within Cells 63.247 l28 .494 Occupation 7.329 3 2.443 5.338 .00180* Within Cells 50.340 llO .458 Religion 10.803 4 2.701 6.l20 .OOOl6* Within Cells 55.l59 l25 .44l Income l6.835 3 5.6l2 l4.048 .OOOOl* Within Cells 50.734 l27 .399 Political Persuasion 27.8l7 3 9.272 29.806 .OOOOl* Within Cells 39.820 128 .3l1 Trips 3.83] 2 1.916 3.873 .02326 Within Cells 63.806 l29 .495 Time Abroad .21l l .2ll .407 .52476 Within Cells 67.426 130 .519 250 TABLE F.2--Mu1tiple Response: Where Do You Get Your Information About World Affairs? Utopian Traditional % Diff. Response Options Total R R % R % U T Newspapers - local 16 27.1 30 51.7 21.4 46 (2) Newspapers - national 22 37.3 22 37.3 .6 44 (3) Magazines 28 47.6 38 65.5 17.9 66 (1) Pamphlets/Journals 26 44.1 12 20.7 23.4 38 (4) Government Publications 3 5.1 1 1.7 3.4 4 (13.5) Books 11 15.6 5 8.6 7 l6 (9) Discussions 8 13.6 4 6.9 6.7 12 (11) Conferences/ Meetings 20 33.9 10 17.2 16.7 30 (5) Speakers/ Lecturers 14 23.1 5 8.6 14.5 19 (7) Friends/ Acquaintances 12 20.3 6 10.3 10 18 (8) Work Associates 2 3.4 2 3.4 4 (13.5) Government ' Officials 1 1.7 l 1.7 2 (15) Foreign Visitors/ Students 2 3.4 3 5.2 1.8 5 (12) Travel 7 11.9 15 25.9 14 22 (6) Media/Other 3 5.1 11 19 13.9 14 (10) 251 TABLE F.3--Chi-Square Test: With Whom Do You Share Your Interest in and Information about World Affairs? Response Options DF X5 Significance Family/Relatives 1 .002 .9612 Friends/Acquaintances 1 .377 .3491 Work Associates 1 .190 .6627 Government Officials: Local 1 .422 .5159 National 1 5.792 .0151 International 2 1.045 .5930 Students 1 13.495 .0002* Organization Members 1 1.998 .1575 General Public 1 4.428 .0353 Mass Media/Other 2 3.900 .1426 —.__ — — —— .— *Significant at (.01) level of significance 252 TABLE F.4--Mu1tip1e Response: With Whom Do You Share Your Interest in and Information about World Affairs? Utopian Traditional % Diff. Response Options ——- Total R R % R % U T Family/Relatives 50 50.0 50 50.0 50 100 (2) Friends/ Acquaintances 57 47.9 62 52.1 4.2 119 (1) Work Associates 31 47.0 35 53.0 7 66 (4) Government Officials Local 19 55.9 15 44.1 11.8 34 (6) National 32 64.0 18 35.0 29 50 (5) International 12 50.00 12 50.0 24 (9) Students 26 78.8 . 7 21.2 57.6 33 (7)* Organization Members 46 54.8 38 45.2 9.6 84 (3) General Public 21 67.7 10 32.3 35.4 31 (8) Mass Media/Others 14 65.2 8 34.8 30.4 22 (10) *Significant at (.01) level of significance TABLE F.5--Chi-Square Test: to Influence? 253 Whose Thinking Have You Ever Attempted Response Options DF x2 Significance Family/Relatives 1 5.154 .0139 Friends/Acquaintances 1 .951 .3296 Work Associates 2 4.419 .1098 Government Officials: Local 1 10.318 .0013* National 1 11.708 .0005* International 1 .265 .6069 Students 1 13.868 .0002* Organization Members 1 5.560 .0184 General Public 1 10.514 .0012* Mass Media/Other 1 5.712 .0169 *Significant at (.01) level of significance TABLE F.6--Mu1tip1e Response: to Influence? 254 Whose Thinking Have You Ever Attempted _Otopian Traditional % Diff. Response Options —— Total R R % R % U T Family/Relatives 48 58.5 34 41.5 17 82 (2) Friends/ Acquaintances 53 52.0 49 48.0 4 102 (1) Work Associates 37 56.9 26 43.1 13.8 53 (5) Government Officials: Local 26 74.3 9 25.7 48.6 35 (8)* National 45 64.3 25 35.7 28.6 70 (3) International 12 57.1 9 42.9 14.2 21 (10) Students 28 77.8 8 22.2 55.6 36 (7) Organization Members 38 61.3 24 38.7 22.6 62 (4) General Public 30 71.4 12 28.6 42.8 42 (6) Mass Media/Other 20 71.4 8 28.6 42.8 28 (9) V..— *Significant at (.01) level of significance 255 TABLE F.7--Chi-Square Test: In What Ways Have You Attempted to Influence Others? Response Options DF x2 Significance Addressed an Audience 1 .516 .4724 Organized a Meeting 1 3.752 .0528 Wrote to Legislators 1 45.158 .0000* Letters to the Editor 1 25.165 .0000* Talked with Officials 1 2.751 .0972 Published Article/Book 1 2.807 .0939 Appeared on Radio/TV 1 .019 .8913 Took Part in a Demon- stration: In Own Community 1 48.113 .0000* In Another Community 1 11.751 .0005* In Out-of-State Community 1 34.863 .0000* *Significant at (.01) level of significance TABLE F.8--Mu1tiple Response: Influence Others? 256 In What Ways Have You Attempted to Utopian Traditional % Diff. Response Options Total R R % R % Audience 42 53.2 37 46.8 6.4 79 (2) Meeting 35 59.3 24 40.7 18.6 59 (4) Legislators 61 72.5 23 27.4 45.1 84 (l)* Letters to Editor 37 80.4 9 19.5 60.9 46 (6)* Officials 37 57.8 27 42.2 15.6 64 (3) Published 15 68.2 7 31.8 36.4 22 (10) Media 19 50.0 19 50.0 38 (7) Demonstration: Local 44 89.8 5 10.2 79.6 49 (5)* Non-Local 20 83.3 4 16.7 66.6 24 (4)* Out-of-State 31 96.9 4 3.1 93.8 32 (8)* *Significant at (.01) level of significance 257 TABLE F.9--Chi-Square Test: How Did You First Become Interested in World Affairs? Item DF X2 Significance Interest 6 18.266 .0056* *Significant at (.01) level of significance Utopian Traditional Total Response Option ————————- ——————-——- N % N % N % Family 16 13.0 13 10.6 29 23.6 School 5 4.1 14 11.4 19 15.4 Individual 5 4.1 2 1.6 7 5.7 Group 3 2.4 8 6.5 11 8.9 Travel 7 5.7 10 8.1 17 13.8 Religion 14 11.4 2 1.6 16 13.0 Other/Media 10 8.1 14 11.4 24 19.5 Total 60 48.8 63 51.2 123 100.0 TABLE F.10--Multip1e Response: in World Affairs? 258 How Did You First Become Interested Utopian Traditional % Diff. Response Options -——-————— Total R R % R % U T Family 16 55.2 13 44.8 11.4 29 (1) School 5 26.3 14 73.7 47.4 19 (3) Individual 5 71.4 2 28.6 42.8 7 (7) Group 3 27.3 8 72.7 45.4 11 (6) Travel 7 41.2 10 58.8 17.6 17 (4) Religion 14 87.5 2 12.5 75 16 (5) Media/Other 10 41.7 14 58.3 16.6 24 (2) *Significant at (.01) level of significance TABLE F.ll--Multiple Response: 259 What Educational Formats Do You Prefer for Effective World Affairs Learning? Utopian Traditional % Diff. Response Options -——~————— __ Total R R % R % U T Lecture 6 9.5 9 14.5 5 15 (7) Lecture - Discussion 34 54.0 34 54.8 .8 68 (1) Panel - Discussion 34 54.0 23 37.1 16.9 57 (3.5) Workshop 38 60.3 22 35.5 24.8 60 (2) Independent Study 17 27.0 16 25.8 1.2 33 (6) Films/Slides 24 38.1 24 38.7 .6 48 (5) Field Trip 25 39.7 32 51.6 11.9 57 (3.5) Other 4 6.3 3 4.8 1.5 7 (8) APPENDIX G COMPUTER CODES FOR STATISTICAL ANALYSES OF RESEARCH DATA 260 COMPUTER CODES FOR STATISTICAL ANALYSES OF RESEARCH DATA Items 13, 14, 15, 16, and 18 in the Participant Background Questionnaire were analyzed manually rather than by use of the computer. All other items in the Queeejonnaire and the International Attitudes Survey were analyzed with the computer. The computer code book was as follows: Column-Item Category Code Book Description 1 Age 0-35 36-55 56-over (JON—J 2 Sex Male Female N—I 3 Marital Status Single Married AA AA AAA N _l VV vv vvv 4 City (not used in study) 5 Education Grade School High School College Vocational Graduate School CIT-kWN-J «b (A) N -‘ vvvvv ~4va vvvvv ( ( ( ( ( 6 Occupation Professional ( Education ( Business ( Other ( 7 Religious Protestant ( Preference Catholic ( Quaker ( ( ( Other None 261 Column-Item 8 10 11 12 13-16 17 18 19 20-21 22-26 262 Category Approximate Annual Income Groups Political Persuasion Number of Trips Abroad Length of Stay Abroad (blank) First Interested in World Affairs (blank) Self-Perception of Worldmind- edness (blank) Attitudes of Worldmind- edness (46) Code Book Description Under $12,000 $12,001-$25,000 $25,001-$50,000 $50,001-over Utopian Traditional Democrat Republican Independent Other ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( 5 or less ( 6-10 ( 10 or more ( ( ( ) ( ( ( ( ( ( ( Less than 6 months 6 months or more (manual computations Family School Individual Group Travel Religion Other (manual computation) Not W.M.-1 (1 -2 (2 -3 (3 -4 (4 -5 (5 All W.M.-6 (6 (manual computation) Not W.M.-1 (l) -2 (2) -3 <3) -4 (4) -5 (5) (6) All W.M.-6 BIBLIOGRAPHY 263 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Adorno, T. 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Articles and Periodicals Anderson, Lee J. "An Examination of the Structure and Objectives of International Education." Social Education 32 (1968): 639. Block, Jack, and Jeanne Block. "An Investigation of the Relationship Between Intolerance of Ambiguity and Ethnocentrism." Journal of Personality 19 (1951):303-311. Campbell, Donald T., and R. A. Levine. "A Proposal for Cooperative Cross-Cultural Research on Ethnocentrism." Journal of Conflict Resolution 5 (196l):82-108. Cross, K. Patricia, Allen Tough, Rita Weathersby. "The Adult Learner.“ Current Issues in Higher Education, 1978 National Conference Series, American Association for Higher Education, Washington, D.C., 1978. Dombrose, Lawrence A., and Daniel J. Levinson. "Ideological 'Militancy' and 'Pacifism' in Democratic Individuals." Ipe_ Journal of Social Psychology 32 (1950):lOl-113. Fensterwald, Bernard, Jr. "The Anatomy of American Isolationism and Expansionism, I and II." 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"Foreign Students: A Comparative and Correlational Study in Frames of Reference, Length of International Experi- ence, and Patterns of Interaction in a Multi-cultural Environ- mept." Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University, December, 19 5. Smith, Lee Howard. "The Development of Worldminded Attitudes Through the Use of Anthropological Materials." Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1973. Webster, E. D. "An Evaluation of Some Factors Related to Worldmind- edness." Ph.D. dissertation, Syracuse University, 1961. "11141411!!!“11111 _‘-‘---_-.-_-_-_-_-_-_I