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I111. .. 3x1 . iii . . .LR:1Y..1»(-w\ .{vl.. . « . we». ...;22: ‘ 11:1 .+t).v!§ 'u\. If 3*..3. \ {I .2». y. ‘s‘ i . <.\.- i. ‘3... ; .175. . I"... , ‘ ~ ‘ ‘vxr.,-.a‘ w. I. I. p . £Y.lf. .fifii‘m .1? . x . ‘ V . , .4 .. vamw , ... ...-..n” \...l l o’ 3 vllhv ...: IHESIS ' 1111 11 \H 111“ 11 \ \\\\ \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\ \ M 31293 10196 6251 ; K This is to certify that the thesis entitled DEVELOPING A RATIONALE FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION' presented by I'Morris Wiener has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ed.D. degree in Education ABSTRACT DEVELOPING A RATIONALE FOR ‘ OUTDOOR EDUCATION by Morris'Wiener Statement 2§,§hg Problem. _h The purpose of this study was to examine and analyze the historical development of the basis for outdoor education and to suggest a current rationale. The major objective was to develop consistent and comprehensive elements of a ration- ale that could serve as a reasonable basis for developing outdoor education pregrans and practices in the public schools. Subsidiary objectives were: (1) to trace the development of the present basis for outdoor education through a review of related studies and an analysis of the contributions of two key leaders in the outdoor education movement, and (2) to indicate implications that a current rationale may have for designing.prograns in outdoor edu- cation and for processes of developing such programs. M 9_f_ Research A historical-developmental approach was used in treating the problem. The general procedure included documentation, analysis, synthesis, and inductive reason- ing. Library researchjprocedures including personal Morris Wiener interviews and correspondence, were followed in documenting the deve10pment of the basis for outdoor education. Through- out the study, and especially in the development and inter- pretation of elements of the rationale, a research method that could be deemed philosophical was employed. For the purposes of developmental research in this study, philoso- phical was interpreted as projection through rational means employing accumulated evidence of past experience. Summary " The present basis for outdoor education was identified through an examination of the careers and contributions of Lloyd B. Sharp and Julian W. Smith. Factors that may have influenced Sharp and Smith were presented and the present basis was interpreted from their writings. An analysis of this basis and its historical development indicated a need for constructing a current rationale for outdoor education. 1 Sources from which elements of a rationale for out- door education should be selected were determined. Seneral 1 elements concerning values of society, the nature of soci- ety, the learner and learning, and objectives of education were presented along with implications for outdoor educa- tion. Specific elements of the rationale focused on the uniqueness of the outdoors as a setting for meaningful ; learning experiences. if I ! Morris Wiener Specific elements of the rationale followed from a basic premise that recognized the unity of nature and man's place in that unity. The beauty, mystery, and power of the outdoors serves as a stimulation for questioning, examining, and exploring in seeking to gain personal understanding and committment. The outdoor setting provides, in varying degrees, a learning environment in which discovery of per- sonal meaning can result from direct involvement with physical reality in a broad context. The outdoors affords opportunities for experiences that are an integral part of a learning process that focuses on the development of rational powers and personal values. Conclusions 1. "Rationale development" afforded an appropriate means for examining the basis of outdoor education and for building a logical foundation for outdoor education. 2. Identifying the present basis for outdoor educa- tion through the contributions of Sharp and Smith resulted in an understanding of thgir own interpretation of that basis. 3. Outdoor education is best conceived of as a process of utilizing the outdoors as an integral part of the school curriculum. Morris Wiener h. The development of rational powers can serve as an acceptable criterion for determining priorities in outdoor education. 5. The uniqueness of the outdoors as a setting for learning experiences is basically an expression of the unity of the universe of which man is an integral part. DEVELOPING A RATIONALE FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION By Morris Wiener A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION College of Education 1965 Copyright by MORRIS WIENER 1966 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express his gratitude to all those persons who offered encouragement and guidance in carrying out this study. Especially is he indebted to Dr. Charles A. Blackman, advisor and committee chairman, for continuous support and direction throughout the under- taking of thisflstudy. Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Julian W. Smith, a member of the advisory committee, for his willingness to share personal information and insight. Appreciation is also expressed to the other members of the committee, Drs. Gilbert W. Mouser and George R. Myers, for their helpful assistance and counsel. Sincere thanks is offered to Patricia Ann Wiener, his wife, for her constructive criticism and patient understanding . TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGENENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . culprsn I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . Need for the Study . . . . . . . . . . . Statement of Scope and Limitations . Significance of the Problem. . . . . . . Assumptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methodology and Conceptual Framework . . Definition of Terms. . . . . . . . . . . Organisation of the Study. . . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES. . . . ... . . . ,Early Studies in Camping as Education. . Studies in Outdoor Education and School Camping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF A BASIS FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION. . . . . . . . . . . . Historical Developments and the Careers of Two Individuals . . . . . . . . . . Developments in L. B. Sharp's Career . . Developments in Julian W. Smith's Career iv PAGE 111 viii 11 12 13 11. 16 20 21 23 38 56 56 56 89 CHAPTER _ The relationship between Sharp's and Smith's careers. . . . . . . . . . . . . The Present Basis for Outdoor Education. . . Sources of the basis for outdoor education . The nature of the basis for outdoor education. . . . . .V. . . . . . . . . Efforts toward refining the basis for outdoor education. . . . . . . . . . . . Problems and issues. . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of the Development and Status of the Basis for Outdoor Education. . . . . . The life-space concept in analyzing developments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The status and effectiveness of the present basis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The need for developing a current ration- ale for outdoor education. . . . . The role of principles of curriculum development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV. DEVELOPING A CURRENT RATIONALE FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Determining the Elements of a Rationale for Outdoor Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . PAGE . 11h 1&8 148 150 162 161+ . 167 . 167 170 176 178 180 180 vi CHAPTER Determining general elements for public education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Determining specific elements for outdoor education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Rationale for Outdoor Education. . . . . . General Elements of a Rationale for Outdoor Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Specific Elements of a Rationale for Outdoor Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Application of a Rationale for Outdoor Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Designing programs in outdoor education. . The process of developing programs in outdoor education. . . . . . . . . . . . Involvement in utilizing a rationale . . . Participation in developing and utilizing a rationale. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . . Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I Concluding statement . . . . . . . . . . . PAGE 182 186 187 187 21k 222 22k 237 2A7 252 256 259 259 263 267 273 vii BI BL IOGRAP HY O C O O O O C C O I O O O O O O O O O O O APPEND Ix A C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O I O APPEND Ix B O O O O O O C O O O O O O O O C O O I ,0 I 0 PAGE 27A 287 288 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE I. A Conceptual Framework for the Study . . . . . . 17 II. A Comparison of Sharp's and Smith's Careers. . . 122 III. Changes in Outdoor Education Terminology . . . . 153 IV. Individual Experience in Learning. . . . . . . . 204 V. A Dynamic Concept of Outdoor Education in the Public Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227 viii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION , For the past thirty years or so a number of individuals and groups have been working to further the concept of out- door education in the public schools. Some educators have been striving for the incorporation of outdoor learning experiences in the general program of education while others have been promoting an array of specific outdoor experiences such as‘camping,xponservation activities, and recreational activities. All of these pursuits are a part of an effort to gain wide recognition of the values of utilizing the outdoorswfor learning and of preparing individuals to make the most of the outdoors. The energy eXpended in this cause Chas come geographically from all parts of the country, pro- fessionally from many branches within the educational family, and historically from the leadership and direction of a few pioneering men and women. This concern for and with the outdoors has by no means been limited to educators nor to the time span of some thirty years, but it is within these bounds that this study examines the basis which supports and sustains the outdoor education movement as it is directed toward the public schools. From its inception, outdoor education has relied 1 2 heavily upon the philosophical interpretations and principles of Lloyd B. Sharp, later accompanied by those of Julian W. Smith. In the development and spread of outdoor education, the concurrent thinking of these two individuals has been highly influential and today this thinking continues to stand out as the main source of significant concepts and principles which are basic to outdoor education. Their work for many years has been concerned with outdoor education, and each in his own particular life pattern has inspired many individuals who have come in contact with it either directly or vicariously through writings. Their prolific writings reflect to some degree the general tenor of out- door education--what it has been and what it is today. The significant leadership roles that Sharp and Smith have played place them in a position of authority in inter- preting the nature of outdoor education. Their lives and their contributions, when viewed in historical retrospect, offer a meaningful point of view for examining the founda- tions of outdoor education. Acknowledging the importance of the ideas and inspir- ation of Sharp and Smith, it becomes the task of those who would seek further to interpret the outdoor education concept to be not only its spokesmen but also its most severe and conscientious critics--to examine continually its basic 3 tenets and provide new insights. By pushing beyond the pre- cepts and perceptions of these two individuals through a process of scientific inquiry and research, outdoor educa- tion becomes a more meaningful concept. One direction that could aid in providing a current basis for outdoor education would be towards developing a rationale. Such a rationale should include an intelligible exposition of underlying reasons for outdoor education. The interrelated elements of a rationale should provide an expla- nation and interpretation for supporting and sustaining outdoor education programs and practices. There have been several statements of the basis for outdoor education. These have been helpful to some degree in understanding the changing nature of the outdoor education concept and have supported the beliefs of those who have translated this concept into action. However, the extent to which examination of the basis has been continuous and expanding has been negligible. A rationale developed new with new perceptions could serve not only as a demonstration of the role that outdoor education may currently play, but may also demonstrate a process by which the basis for outdoor education could be continually examined in the future. I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM The purpose of this study is to develop a rationale . 7 h for outdoor education that can serve as a basis for curricu- lum development in outdoor education in the public schools. Such a rationale should be broad, yet intensive, in laying out the essential elements for both the processes of curri- culum development in outdoor education and curriculum design in outdoor education. The study first traces historical developments that have led to a present basis for outdoor education. This involved the examination and analysis of significant factors in the beginning of the outdoor education movement and in its growth and progress. From analysis of the development of the present basis for outdoor education the need for construct- ing a more current rationale was indicated. Accordingly, an attempt was made to note refinements in the basis, and con- sideration was given to unresolved problems and issues. Special emphasis was given to presenting the ideas of key persons and their impact on the movement. The next phase of this study seeks to answer the philosophical questions: (1) What should be the elements of a rationale for outdoor education,and (2) how should the elements be determined? Here, principles of curriculum development were used in determining criteria for the nature of the elements and their selection. Both elements from the past and those derived from new knowledge and insights were 5 considered in bringing together a consistent rationale. The third phase of the study illuminates how the rationale may be used in curriculum design, in selecting and organizing outdoor learning experiences, in identifying critical issues, in preparing teachers, and in developing further research. The relationship of process and design was considered of importance also. Again, at this level, principles of curriculum development were emphasized in attacking these problems. The specific aspects of the problem were designated by the following questions: I. What has been the basis for outdoor education I and how was the concept developed? A. What were early significant ideas and events and what contributions have leaders made? B. What have been the significant factors of progress and growth? C. What are the present shortcomings and critical issues? II. What should be the elements of a current rationale for outdoor education and how can they be deter- mined? A. What criteria should be used in selecting elements? 6 B. How should elements be selected? C. What elements from the past and what new knowledge should be used as a consistent rationale? III. What are the implications for developing programs A and practices of outdoor education? A. How may processes of curriculum development be applied? B. What are the implications for designing cur= riculum in outdoor education and what is the relationship between process and design? C. What functions can such a rationale serve in selection and organization of outdoor learning experiences, in preparation of teachers, in development of further research, in identi- fication of critical issues? II. NEED FOR THE STUDY The use of the outdoors as a teachingmlearning envira onment has frequently been included in formal and informal educational pregrams in our society. It was not until the decade of the thirties, however, that a conscious awareness of the educational potentials in camping led to the rise of school camping and subsequently to present concepts of outdoor education. a From a scattering of isolated leaders and programs there evolved a web of common concern built around the many ideas of how the use of the outdoors might help in achieving the goals of education. As the pattern of the web became clearer and more coherent, it became apparent that the bind- ing force and inspiration centered in key places and programs and with key individuals. Strength and direction were being drawn from interrelated socio-cultural forces of the times, as well as from current thought in education and its under- lying disciplines. Thus, the on—going rush of enthusiasm for "first hand experiences in real life situations" brought forth a loosely knit movement with outdoor learning as its main theme and school camping as its focal point. As more programs identified with, or classified as, outdoor education got underway in the forties and early fifties, school camping still stood as the apex of the move- ment, although efforts were being made to give broader meaning to the term "outdoor education". The areas of influence that outdoor education has had from its beginning down to the present time have been ’ ever increasing; but, when viewed in light of the total impact on the schools, it still remains only a partial reality of fulfilling the dream of becoming a widely accepted 8 and valued concept in public education. As outdoor educa- tion has progressed, so, too, have all phases of the educa- tion profession. The changes in educational practice have moved swiftly along with the accelerated pace of our tech- nological society and have led to many new emphases and innovations. Drawing from an ever growing accumulation of research, theory, and knowledge, education has responded to societal needs and demands in retaining that which is sound while discarding that which no longer has relevance. In this arena of changing values, outdoor education has been a constant force attempting to demonstrate its value as a unique contributor to the programs and practices of our schools. At all levels, in practice as well as in theory, it has been confronted by those who would continue to sup- port it, by those who would seek in some way to make it a part of the school“s function, by those who would recognize but ignore it, and by those who would challenge its being. To the extent that outdoor education has been recognized as fulfilling a particular need has it been incorporated in individual school programs. In school camping a setting is provided for unique kinds of learning experiences, in advo- cating first hand experiences of discovery and exploration a method is encouraged for universal usage, and in emphasizing skills for outdoor activities broader programs are stressed. 9 As all phases of curriculum are brought under closer, more perceptive scrutiny of laymen and educators alike, supporters of outdoor education are being challenged contin- ually to bring new and deeper meaning to its principles and practices. The "apparent goodness of outdoor living" as a wholesome activity for youth has been one idea advanced in support of outdoor education. This cannot serve adequately for developing educational programs in our current society. A more substantial and logical basis is needed if outdoor education is to move forward. Reported research and professional literature attest to the fact that conscientious efforts have been made in developing outdoor education. A critical examination of such writings reveals that through descriptive accounts and status surveys ample attention has been given to aspects of admin- istrative and program organization and content. Evidence concerning educational effectiveness has been presented chiefly in the form of opinions of educators and students who have been closely associated with outdoor programs of one kind or another. Little serious consideration has been given, however, to continuous rationale development. Many of the tenets that seemed adequate in the initial and developmental stages of outdoor education and school camp- ing are still revered and spoken of as if they constitute » 10 a finality for all that takes place in the name of outdoor education. In attempting to explain the outdoor education ~ philosophy through school camping there has been a tendency to rely on emotional appeal. To the extent that this kind of position has been interpreted as a defensive posture, it has detracted from that which is basically sound in outdoor learning experiences. Such effort as has been made in theory or rationale building has primarily taken the form of amplification and interpretation of early experimentalist-pragmatic thought. The growing body of new knowledge in the social sciences, as well as in education, has never been thoroughly utilized in continuous refinement of the basis which underlies out- door education. Furthermore, the processes through which outdoor education becomes an accepted, integral part of the curriculum have been largely ignored except for widely scattered incidents. Such incidents have usually been report- ed through means of descriptive "how we did it" type accounts. No research studies have ever dealt directly with this vital topic of curriculum development processes applied to outdoor education. The basis for outdoor education which was expounded by a few pioneers, and which focused primarily on concepts of school camping, still remains a dominant factor in current 11 thought. The fact that a broader application has been sought in recent years may have compounded any errors which existed in the conceptual foundation, or which appear to exist today in light of current conditions and new knowledge. The need for a coherent and sound basis for outdoor educa— tion in the schools seems warranted in light of possible weaknesses in the conceptual foundation. The realization that continuous rationale building is necessary to meet changing needs and demands provided the motivation for defining of the problem as previously stated. III. STATEMENT OF SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS A. The concept examined is that of outdoor educa- tion as it is related to the public schools, although there may be implications that go beyond public education. B. The study is set within the time span of the lives and contributions of Lloyd B. Sharp and Julian W. Smith, concentrating mainly on their professional careers from 1930 to 1963. C. In examining the outdoor education movement, socio-cultural forces were not treated directly. The impact of such forces constitutes another study within itself. 12 Rationale development as used in this study has the built-in limitation of relying on the per- ceptions and judgments of the writer in selecting and interpreting elements. This study seeks to provide guidelines, to indi- cate directions, to offer suggestions, and to document historical events. In this sense it is theoretical and no attempt is being made to test rigorously or measure phenomena for predictive purposes. IV. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROBLEM Some possible outcomes resulting from this study are that it may: A. Provide outdoor Promote outdoor well as persons Help to a guide for establishing priorities in education practices and programs. understanding and c00peration among educators from various orientations as between outdoor educators and those in other areas of education. indicate new directions for outdoor education and give impetus to further growth of present Provide programs. a means for aiding in the identification 13 and resolution of basic issues in outdoor educa- tion. _ Provide a pattern for continuous examination and evaluation of the basic tenets of outdoor educa- tion. Provide an account and interpretation of some of the historical developments in outdoor education. Provide a guide for, and indicate direction in, further research efforts in outdoor education. Provide a stimulus for other individuals and groups to seek higher levels of consistency in their awareness of the potentials and limitations of outdoor education. V. ASSUMPTIONS Outdoor education is a significant and useful concept in American life and especially in pro- grams and practices of the schools. Principles of curriculum development are appli- cable in the development of outdoor education programs and practices. The degree of success or failure of any movement in education is dependent in part on the sound- ness of the basic tenets which support it. 14 D. Developing a rationale is one method of providing a basis through which individuals may gain insight into, and understanding of, the concept of outdoor_ education and thereby more discriminately judge its values and limitations for public education. E. In the process of developing a rationale the writer makes every effort to bring to conscious awareness his own biases and subjective feelings and acknow— ledges these factors in seeking a consistently high degree of respectability of work. VI. METHODOLOGY AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK _ This study may best be classified as a historical- developmental type of research. The general procedure in- cluded historical documentation, analysis, synthesis, and inductive reasoning in developing and interpreting a consis- tent set of statements that could serve as a rationale for outdoor education. Library research was used in documenting pertinent portions of the beginning, growth,and present status of the outdoor education movement, supplemented by personal interviews and correspondence with key individuals. Throughout the study, and especially in dealing with the synthesis of issues, implications, and interpretations, a research method that could be termed philosophical was 15 employed. VFor the purpose of developmental research as used in this study, philosophical was used to mean projection through rational means, employing accumulated evidence of past experience. This study seeks to reflect a reasonable and sensible foundation for outdoor education. The idea that rationale development could result from a historical-developmental study came from inquiry into theory construction. In resolv- ing some of the practical problems in outdoor education it seemed helpful to examine its conceptual framework through a process of formal logic. After examining this process and its potential outcomes, however, it was felt that such a narrow quest for authentic doctrine could not account for a more inclusive consideration of the human situation. What was needed was an approach which would reflect a broad scope of elements including an emphasis on human experience and interaction. In this way, the interdependence of theory and practice could be recognized as resulting from what people do as well as what they think, and subjective values and committments could be more openly acknowledged as factors affecting the development of a basis. Awareness of personal Judgments involved in a logical presentation of elements of a rationale could lessen the tendency to present an emotion- al justification for outdoor education. A rationale could 16 reflect sound educational thinking that may serve as a frame- work out of which significant programs might emerge. Since reality is a function of the individual's own perception, it becomes the intent of this study to be as much concerned with hp! facts appear to the individual as ‘with what appear to be objective facts. This perceptual orientation seemed to be congruent with a rationale develop- :ment process. It necessitated approaching the study in terms of ”reasonable and sensible" as viewed through the aware- nesses and experiences of the writer. The elements that constitute the rationale are recognized as being complex, interrelated units that toge- ther form a foundation for outdoor education. They were derived from theories and principles and can be used for guiding and directing action. Here the action proposed takes the form of programs and practices in outdoor educa- tion. Summarized briefly this may be stated as: The and practices in outdoor education. The conceptual frame- work is expressed in Figure l.on page 17. VII. DEFINITION OF TERMS The terms used in this study fall into two categor- ies: (1) those concerned with the conceptual framework, and 17 (2) those concerned more directly with the subject. 1335; Upgg_ip phg Conceptual Framework Rationale is an intelligible explanation of under; lying reasons that account for something. In this study, a rationale for outdoor education is an explanation of funda— mental reasons for outdoor education being an integral part of the public school curriculum. What It Is Concept What It Does Programs and practices ACTION Affects behavior Basis, foundation, under;//fi T R\\\ lying reasons for RATIONALE Explains, interprets, influences, supports, guides, directs, sustains Constituent part of ELEMENT Enters into a //fl T R\\complexity Beliefs, attitudes, ideas, THEORY & Selected as opinions, speculation, PRINCIPLE proposition, assumption that becomes FIGURE 1 A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY Element, as used in this study, refers to one of the constituent parts of the rationale, and is defined as one of the simplest units into which the rationale can be analyzed. 7H ,. , 18 Theopy is a more or less plausible or scientifically acceptable general principle; the analysis of a set of facts in their idea: relation to one another. Principles refer to those ideas, opinions, or beliefs that are based on scientific fact and/or experience. Action refers to the overt act of carrying out in practice that which is set forth in principle. Programs and practices reflecting the outdoor education concept constitute action as used in this study. Defining Outdoor Education "Outdoor education" has various connotations depending on the~orientation of the reader. It may already be surmised from previous sections of this chapter that determining the meaning of outdoor education is one of the unresolved problems within the outdoor education movement. With changes in the movement, outdoor education, as a term, has also changed. The definition as used in this study and stated below was derived from an analysis of previous statements by other writers. These statements are more fully explored in other chapters as the problem of definition is dealt with. The definition that follows is also elaborated upon later, but for the present purposes it only need be mentioned that a broad interpretation is being made rather than one represent~ ing a specific group, field.or subject matter area: 19 Outdoor education is the effective use of the outdoors X as an integral part of the school curriculum. Concept, as used in the term "outdoor education concept", includes all that is characteristically associated with, or suggested by, ideas that reflect or promote concrete action in outdoor programs and practices. Hovement, as used in the term "outdoor education movement", refers to the connected and long continued series of events that are associated with the goals of outdoor education. All that is carried out in the name of outdoor education is a part of the movement. Other Terms Defined School camping is an aspect of general education involving learning experiences that can best be achieved through a twentyafour hour group living situation in a campelike setting. School camping is considered to be one phase of outdoor education. The terms "resident outdoor education" and "outdooreschool program" are synonymous with school camping.' A Curriculum in this study refers to all of those experiences for which the school assumes responsibility. Curriculum developpgpp is defined as any attempt to improve the present experience of those involved in education. The terms "curriculum improvement" and "curriculum change" 20 are used synonymously with curriculum development. VIII. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY In Chapter I, the problem has been presented along with those factors necessary as an orientation to the study. Chapter II provides a review of studies that are pertinent to the present basis for outdoor education. Interpretation and analysis of the historical development of the present basis is presented in Chapter III. Chapter IV is concerned with the development of a current rationale and its impli- cations for programs and practices in outdoor education. A summary of the findings, and conclusions and recommendations constitute Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES Historically, as outdoor education programs were initi- ated and expanded, the ideas and concepts supporting and defining the movement developed from several sources or points of view. The outdoor education movement, as it is known today, was at first not easily recognizable as "outdoor edu- cation" per se, but resulted from the work of people in such fields as camping, education, recreation, physical education, social welfare, natural science, and conservation. ‘Within the social and cultural setting of America in the late nineteen twenties and the nineteen thirties, the inception and development of a school camping movement took place. .This was the primary form that outdoor education took at that time and was largely due to a recognition of the educational implications of summer camping programs. Thus, in the literature, some of the early studies from which a present basis for outdoor education evolved were concerned ‘with the values of thewsummer camping experience. These early studies reflected an effort being made toward experi- mentation, with camping in public education. Later, studies were devoted directly to school camp- ing and several texts on school camping were published 21 22 during the nineteen fifties. An attempt was underway to define the unique role of camping in public education as well as within the professional field of camping. The outdoor education concept at that time was more or less dormant while school camping1 seemed to be gaining recogni— tion and impetus. Some research studies viewed these terms as synonymous and used them interchangeably. There were, however, persons attempting to broaden the outdoor educa- tion concept to make it more encompassing. They contended that outdoor education included all educational activities that utilized the natural setting in the out-of-doors, including not only camping, but field trips, forestry and gardening activities, and the use of the school grounds for instruction, projects, and problem solving in many areas of study. This effort toward a broader interpretation gained prominence in more recent writings and research studies. Because the present basis for outdoor education seemed so clearly related to concepts in school camping and its camping origins, studies in these areas were thought to be most pertinent to the present study. There have been studies in areas other than camping that have had an impact on the movement, but these were considered secondary in 1Outdoor education was the term used primarily to describe the program carried on in a school camp setting. 23 light of the orientation of the two main exponents of out- door education, L. B. Sharp and Julian W. Smith. Along with research studies reported during the period included in this investigation, there was other relevant literature in the form of texts, articles, pam- phlets, and newsletters. These, too, played an important role in determining the basis for outdoor education. In this chapter, research related to the main task of the study, that of rationale development for outdoor education, is reviewed. No attempt is made to cite a vast number of studies from the total body of research in out- door education. Such reviews have been previously presented in historical accounts, surveys, and status reports.2 The chapter is presented in two parts: (1) early studies in camping as education, and (2) studies in outdoor education and school camping. I. EARLY STUDIES IN CAMPING AS EDUCATION The studies reviewed in this section were undertaken prior to and following the depression of the nineteen thirties when there was an upsurge of concern for society and an 2Donald R. Hammerman, "A Historical Analysis of the Socio-Cultural Factors That Influenced the Development of Camping Education," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Pegnsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 19 1 . 2h urgent desire to make education the means to a better life for all. Up until this period camping had been valued mainly for its recreational and health benefits. How the philosophy of progressivism.was changing educational goals and practices, and some camping leaders were examining the educational potentials of their own endeavors that were in keeping with the "new times." Attempts were being made to re-define the role of camping and to seek recognition from the progressive elements in education. Many persons during that time were serving in dual roles as educators and professional summer- camp leaders and so the relationship between the school's emerging objectives and those of the camp seemed to be a natural development. One of the earliest studies to recognize the educa- tional values in camping was that of Elwell at Harvard in 1925.3 Elwell attempted to show the differences between the summer camp that was primarily for amusement and the "School of the Open" that was the organized camp in which the aim was distinctly educational.h He examined a number of factors in society including the school program and then built a 3Alcott F. Elwell, "The Summer Camp: A New Factor in Education! (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard ‘University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1925). A Ibid., p. iv. 25 philosophical case for the "School of the Open" based on a camping program that fulfilled the Objectives of the new social philosophy. His emphasis was on simple natural set- tings, actual experience, and cooperative group effort. Arnold sought to determine the educational possibil- ities of the summer camp through a study of the choice and administration of the activities included in programs of 5 private boys camps. From replies of camp directors to a questionnaire on camping objectives he formulated aims that were in harmony with a set of objectives for secondary education. He grouped these objectives into four major divisions: moral, physical, mental, and social. Arnold foresaw that the values inherent in the summer camp move- ment would be taken up by social, religious, and philanthro- pic organizatiOns as well as by the public schools.6 He reported that "the public schools have begun to take an interest in educational possibilities of the summer camp and have established a few experimental camps."7 Dimock and Hendry's book, Camping and Character,8 5J. Shailer Arnold "The Educational Possibilities of the Summer Camp Program! (unpublished Masters thesis, Univer- sity of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, 1928). Ibid., p. 2. 7Ibid. 8Hedley S. Dimock and Charles E. Hendr§, Camping and Character (New York: Association Press, 1929 . 26 'was one of the early studies that attempted to give experi- mental evidence of social and moral values in camping. Recognizing the demand for reorganizing camping as an educational agency, they responded to the newer currents in educational theory by seeking to evaluate the changes that occur in boys' character traits during a period of summer camping. They used paper and pencil tests, behavior obser- vation records, and a behavior frequency rating scale in appraising changes in attitudes and behavior. The results gave some indication of the ability of one particular camp- ing program to develop certain attitudes and appreciations and, at the same time, contributed to the development of more adequate evaluative instruments. They, too, predicted that the schools would begin to recognize the values of camping: The next decade will doubtless see schools extending their program through the summer to include the camp- ing experience. Educators will increasingly become aware of the place of the camp in a complete year- long scheme of education.9 Included in this investigation were views on educa— tional opportunities in camping and objectives of the summer camp. ‘Uilliam H. Kilpatrick, in the foreword, outlined poten- tial contributions of camping within the framework of a 9Ibid., p. 335. 27 broader concept of education that he was helping to popu- larize. This seemed to reflect a mood of educational exper— imentalism.in which Dimock and Hendry's work was undertaken. _ Mason;o used the concept of elemental wishes proposed by'William I. Thomas11 and Kilpatrick's approach to method12 as a frame of reference for examining the summer camp exper- ience. Through a structured interview technique, be secured the reactions and opinions of campers to the social and moral values of camping, camp leadership, the organization of the program, and the importance and popularity of various acti- vities.13 Mason visualized the camp as a "society within itself as well as a fragment of a greater society".lh The camp A could befitharacterized by the same fundamental phenomena which describes any society--subjected to the same laws, motivated by the same social forces, and controlled by the same social 10Bernard 8. Mason, "Camping and Education," (unpub- lished Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1929). 11Thomas' four elemental wishes of mankind, as reported by Mason, were: new experience, security, recognition, and response. 12See‘wm. H. Kilpatrick Foundations gngethod (New York: The Macmillan 00., 19255.““"“““" “"” 13Benard S. Mason, Camping ggg_Educa§ion (New’York: The McCall Co., 1930). 1‘Ib1d., p. 236. 28 methods“.1§ He described the basic characteristic of youth as activity, or the desire for new experience, and pointed out the relationship of this striving for activity to children's interests. He further showed how this relation- ship could be capatilized on in the camp program. The conclusion he reached was that "any adequate approach to camping problems must rest upon an understanding of camper interests".16 Mason, a sociologist, won the Redbook Magazine's Camp Literature Prize Award for constructive and creative contri- bution to the theory and practice of organized camping, and his work was published the following year as Camping and Education. This study represented one of the earliest attempts to apply a sociological point of view to a research project on camping. Mason opposed the interpretation of camping as either recreation or education, and maintained that they were one and the same. He said that: ...the modern educational approach, centering around the element of interest in subject matter, comes very close to being a play approach. The 'educational camp' building its 'curriculum' upon interests becomes a 'recreational camp”. The distinction, it seems to me, is an unnecessary and poorly drawn one. 17Ib1d., p. 8. 29 L. B. Sharp's dissertation,18 undertaken at a time when he was involved in the transformation of a welfare camp from a fresh-air farm to an education enterprise, helped to lay out some of the broad aims and principles of educational camping. Sharp, like others, saw a relation- ship between the goals of education as outlined by Dewey and Kilpatrick and the possibilities inherent in the camp environment. Of the Cardinal Principles of Secondary 19 he said, "These apply to the camping program Education as well as to education in general, and have aided in inter- preting the aims and values of camping."20 He sought to apply the ”new educational philosophy" in analyzing a pro- gram of welfare agency camping and in making application and recommendations to that program during a four year experimental period. Sharp's concern at this point in his career was not for public education, but like many camping 1 8Lloyd B. Sharp, "Education and the Summer Camp, An Experiment," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1930). 19The Cardinal Principles were part of a statement of objectives proposed by the Commission on the Reorgani— zation of Secondary Education of the National Education Association in 1918. 20Lloyd B. Sharp, Education and the Summer Camp, An Ex eriment in Contributions to Education Series, No. 390 (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1930). 30 leaders of the time, he was trying to relate broad educa- tional values to that program with which he was most imme- diately involved.21 Although in this early work Sharp made no reference to public school camping, he did acknowledge that "camping is a series of purposeful, related experiences in real life situations, and is therefore an educational process."22 He further stated that "the aims of education can act as a guide and an aid to the wider and fuller interpretation of camping."23 Creative Camping,24 published as a text in 1931, was in a sense a study of camping, and was one of many writings that emerged from a group work orientation. Lieberman stated that "the book was planned only as a description of our camp experience and not as a theoretical work."25 But the description and the framework in which it was written helped to interpret more clearly the application of social 21Sharp applied his ideas of camping to public education later, and in 19h? an experiment in camping edu- cation was conducted at Life Camps which he directed. 22Sharp, _p. cit., p. 36. 23Ib1d. 2hJoshua Lieberman, CreativeC mping (New York: Association Press, 19311). 25 Ibid., p. 232. 31 idealism to the camping movement. Hence, it is included in this review. V Lieberman was at the time of the study executive director of Pioneer Youth of America, a club and camping organization conducted by leaders in the progressive educa- tion and labor movements. William H. Kilpatrick was serving as educational adviser to Pioneer Youth and wrote the fore- word to the text. In regard to the organization, he said: It has built itself consciously and critically upon the best education it could find. When, therefore, it took up camping, it had already a considerable experience based on democracy and education of the 'whole child'. The camp simply brought the all day opportunity for living gut its already proved methods and principles.2 Lieberman directed the organizationis National Exper- imental Camp from 192A to 1929, and he listed the following as out—standing elements of the camp: Co-education . Varied religious and national and racial groups Democratically managed Activities based on creative interests, not predetermined Respect for the individual . Real responsibility Opportunities for achievsment and growth of a sense of personal worth. 7 \IO‘VI «P'WMH 26Ibid., foreword. 27Ibid., p. 234. 32 A few years following the publication of Creative C in , Blumenthal's book, Group work in Campigg,28 helped to crystalize the theoretical concepts and refine the application of principles that Lieberman illustrated. The aim of Blumenthal's work was to "examine the nature of groups in camp, how relationships in the group modify camper behavior, and how this group work process may become a con- structive educational force in the group setting."29 It was written with the hope that emphasis on the group would point to social process as a significant part of the camp program. Basic philosophical concepts of group work were examined as well as means of application in group function- ing, social control, leadership, and the relationship of the individual to the group. McAuliffe, in 1934, used examples from his own private camp in examining the contributions of summer camp to education.30 His study was written as a running commen- tary and consisted mainly of opinion based on personal 28Louis H. Blumenthal, Grou WOrk in Camping (New York: The Association Press, 19375. This was first presented as a series of lectures. 291mm, p. vii. 3OF. Joseph McAuliffe, "The Summer Camp: A Contribu- tion to Education," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Boston College, Boston, Massachusetts, 193A). 33 experience and advice to other camp directors. He saw as the aims of summer camping character building, intellectual advancement, and physical development, with character train- ing as the unique educational outcome of camping.31 In contrast to McAuliffe's thesis, the study by Ward32 attempted to relate camping directly to the progres- sive education movement. Perhaps by 1935 there was enough firmament in camping, as well as in progressivism, to seek a stronger bond between the two movements. ward presented a number of insights into the origin of summer camping and listed the following as contributing factors which prepared the way for camping: 1. Breaking away from conventional life by Thoreau and other lovers of the outdoors who popularized their experiences through writing. 2. Influences toward adventure and outdoor living that came from the Mexican and Civil Wars. 3. Rapid urbanization and industrialization which caused people to seek relief from cramped living and working conditions. . Increased wealth and improved transportation. 5. The school calggdar which made no provision for summer months. 31 32Carlos W. Ward, Organized Camping gag Progressive Educatign (Nashville, Tennessee: Cullum and Ghertner, 1935). 33Ibid., pp. 7-8. Ibido , ppo 1-20 3h 7 ‘He traced the history of summer camping from its early beginnings and documented its growth from an outdoor vacation program to an educational program designed to fill the gap created by the school calendar's lack of provision for summer programs. Ward recognized the beginnings of organized camping from 1880 to 1900 "as a part of the outdoor recreation move- ment . . . with no definite educational philosophy, just a vague purpose of a 'better life'."3h He further postulated that summer camping had not sprung from any one source but "from varied ideas, impulses and efforts35. . . that increas- ingly became recognized as an educational force."36 He saw a danger in summer camping becoming academic, highly organ- ized, and formalized as a result of the influences of testing and extrinsic awards in the nineteen twenties, but was assured that some camp directors sensed the importance of change and experimentation. He commented that they: ...came in contact with educators and psychologists who fired them with ideas of the possibilities of changed and less mechanized methods of dealing with boys and girls. They became critical minded and began to study, to experiment, and to evaluate their results. . . Others caught this spirit of 3“Ibid., p. 7. 35Ib1d., p. 20. 36Ibid., p. 38. 35 investigation and inquiry and began searching for ways of transforming the regimented academic camp curricula. A movement of free and unhampered pro- gressive education may result.37 A documented case history of one such experimental camping program comprised a major portion of the book. The approach used in the YMCA camp described was based on cooper- ative living, camper interests, democratic government and control, and personality enrichment. 'Ward recognized as a danger that the new educational direction in camping could become mere verbiage rather than actual practice. It is difficult to determine to what extent the trend toward a new philosophy of camping has become incorporated in actual practice. In times of transition there is a tendency for the phraseology and philosophy of a progressive movement to get acceptance and to run far ahead of the aggual under- standing and practice of the procedures. In regard to the Progressive Education Association and the Camp Directors Association of America he had this to say: Are net they destined to a realization that they have enough in common to make it worth while to form some bond of affiliation for the sharing of_certain types of experience? Both seem to be seeking similar goals for their patrons and to be finding common 3711331., p. 51. 331b;d., p. 160. 36 ground in educational methods, techniques and philosophies. He acknowledged the fact that "the majority of camp direc— tors have had teaching experience, and many of them are employed as teachers in schools and colleges for the major part of the year."l*0 As for the future that these indivi- duals might have in educational camping, he raised the following questions: Will education take over camping and thus make the school calendar extend all year? Can public education become sufficiently progressive? Will camping be truly creative or will if become a trailer of educational philosophy? §EEE§£I The early studies in camping as education that were produced during and following a period of depression, unem- ployment, and business failure were a small part of the awakening in society that looked forward to a brighter future for all. Those persons engaged in camping either full time or part time could not help but be aware of what was happening around them and respond in some way. A few camp 39Ib1d., p. 167. h°Ib1d., p. 169. hlIbid. 37 leaders became swept up in the surging progressivism and responded to the newer social and educational philosophies in theses, dissertations, and texts, as well as in other writings. Although stemming from different backgrounds and interests, their ideas found expression in a common theme: summer camp and its new role in society. The transition of camping objectives from recreation- al to educational seemed to occupy much of the effort of the writers of this period. Whether such a transition was simi- larly taking place in camping practices was difficult to discern, except for the few experimental programs reported. Also, a desire to gain recognition as well as direction from progressive education was a paramount interest of the times. Dimock and Hendry, whose work helped pave the way for others, warned that: If the summer camp is to be a significant factor in progressive education, it is essential that its $355253.Eem3%§°§2%iii§2i§x2§§”§§.331iiifi‘fii“ms This was the challenge that was being answered by Elwell, Arnold, McAuliffe, and Guggenheimer from a background of private camping experience. Masonls sociological orien— tation added another perspective of the nature of the camp ”Dimer: and Hendry, J. 3.13., p. 15. 38 society and was followed later by the groupdwork point of view of Lieberman and Blumenthal. A study by Osborne, closely related to these, was also completed during this period"3 and published in 1937 as Camping Egg Guidance. ward's text describing an agency camp's transition ‘was noteworthy in its detailed description of the historical background of camping and the social and cultural setting in which it arose. Sharp's work in social welfare camping presented still another orientation. His study was parti- cularly significant because of the importance attached to his continued role in outdoor education up to the time of his death in 1963. The work carried on during this early period laid a foundation for studies in school camping that followed during the nineteen forties and fifties. Pertinent studies from that period will be reviewed in the following section. II. STUDIES IN OUTDOOR EDUCATION AND SCHOOL CAMPING Following the period of initial experimentation in educational summer camping, school camping began to gain ABErnest G. Osborne, "The Individualization of Large Group Camping," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teacher's College, Columbia University, New'York City, 1936). 39 prominence. The studies concerning school camping were varied in nature; some preceded or were in conjunction with ongoing programs, while others were more philosophical. Still other studies evaluated actual programs and practices, and presented objective evidence, while some dealt with administrative and organizational problems. Many studies offered general proposals for implementing school camping or specific proposals for particular programs and communi- ties. In 1961, Hammerman listed sixty-two completed theses and dissertations in school camping under the following six categories: Values of School Camping Administration and Organization of School Camping Evaluative Studies Proposals for Implementing Outdoor Education Leadership Traifiing and Teacher Preparation General Studies OwrwNH Several studies in school camping dealt with values, aims, objectives, and outcomes either totally or in part. Some were devoted almost entirely to a discourse intended to justify camping in the school program, while others accounted for the historical and philosophical basis of school camping in introductory chapters as a corollary of particular problems. In one sense, all of the school camping M‘Hammerman, loc. cit. #0 studies comprised a body of knowledge that helped form the present basis for outdoor education.“5 However, the task here was to review only the most pertinent studies available. _ MpKnight analyzed social, economic, cultural, psycho— logical and educational factors, and trends in American living in order to indicate the need for school camping #6 experiences. She invisioned that such experiences would help prepare youth for the changes in modern living and contribute toward the growth and development of the indivi- dual child. She said that: The emphasis throughout this study is mainly upon the possibilities of program development based on the best known educational concepts as they relate to educational camping, and upon the values which such a prfigram may offer to the school and the individual. The "best known educational concepts" that McKnight referred to were Thorndike's laws of learning and Kilpatrick's 45Titles of studies are listed in: Biblioggaphz Q; School Camping gag Outdoor Education (martinsville, Indiana: American Camping Association, 19625; and, "A Bibliography of Theses and Dissertation," (prepared for the Outdoor Education Project of the American Association for Health, Physical Edu- cation and Recreation, Washington, D. 6.: National Education Association, may, 1962). (Mimeographed.) “6martha E. mcKnight, "Contributions and Potentials of School Camping," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New'York City, 1952). h7Ib;d., pp. 9~10. #1 theme of learning through living. She presented arguments for school camping based on these sometimes conflicting orientations and illustrated how educational camping could become a part of the school curriculum. She emphasized the importance of the time factor in learning, the place of guidance, and the importance of clear objectives and definite direction. She also presented some basic considerations for the development of school camping programs, but they ‘were primarily concerned with administrative arrangements. ncxnight's study, although not so labeled, constitutes a_basis for school camping. It is therefore helpful in ana- lyzing the historical relationship between outdoor education and school camping. Hammerman saw a need for more extensive analysis of the socio-cultural forces influencing the development of A8 His study documented the rise and camping education. development of school camping and revealed transitional patterns and significant trends that led to its current status in education. Important conclusions based on the historical data gathered in this study follow: 1. The emergence of school camping as an integral part of American public education was socio- cultural in origin. Philosophical, social, “83ammerman, lgg, gig. #2 political and economic influences were instru- mental in shaping the development of camping education. 2. Camping education was an expression of the pragmatic or experimentalist influences on education. It was an outgrowth of the broaden— ed objectives of education, and the expanded function of the American public school. 3. School camping developed as an extra-curricular innovation during the decade of the nineteen thirties. It became an integral part of many school curriculums during the Experimental Period of the nineteen forties. A. During the nineteen fifties school camping showed some tendency to become regimented, standardized, highly organized.... He recognized three important periods in the develop- ment of camping education that roughly corresponded to the decades of the thirties, forties and fifties. He named these the periods of Inception, Experimentation, and Standardiza— tion and described the characteristics and trends of each period. Hammerman visualized camping education as a supple— ment to the curriculum and maintained that "the school camp conceived as an extension of the school facility whose pur— poses and aims are in keeping with the aims of education can be justified."50 Moore was one of the first investigators to attempt ‘9Ib1d., p. 176. 5°Ib1d., p. 178. #3 an objective appraisal of a school camping program,”1 In examining a camp experiment during the summers of 1939 to l9h2 she sought to measure improvements in the mental level, skills and knowledge, and social habits of the campers. The criteria she used for rating responses made by campers,. parents, school agencies, counselors, and social workers ‘were based on the Seven Cardinal Principles of Education. Results indicated by her measurements showed that large gains were made in many skills and understandings related to outdoor living. Positive changes also were made in nude- sirable social and personal habits and in.health and eating habits. As an early effort to objectify results rather than to rely solely on subjective judgment, Meore's study provided a response to the demand for justification of school camping at a time when experimentation was just getting underway. Four years after Mbore's study another similar but more extensive study was made in the New York City schools under the direction of L. B. Sharp.52 The Board of Education 51Harriet B. Mbore, "A Plan for the Organization of Camps as an Integral Part of the Public School System of the City of New York," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, l9h3). 52New York City Board of Education, Extending Educa- tion Through ggmping (New York: Life Camps, Inc., 19h35. 4h _ in cooperation with Life CampsSBundertook a controlled experiment to determine whether camping was an effective meansfor meeting educational objectives. The educational objectives used as a basis for the study were taken from those adapted by the New York City schools and listed under the following headings: (1) Character, (2) Our American Heritage, (3) Health, (A) Exploration, (5) Thinking, (6) knowledge and Skills, (7) Appreciation and Expression, (8) Social Relationships, (9) Economic Relationships.“+ _ fl Two classes totalling sixty-two children attended camp for three weeks during the school term while two control groups remained in the classrooms and continued their regular program. Objective, semi-objective, and clinical data were gathered using a number of appraisal techniques. These included direct observations, interviews, paper and pencil tests, opinion surveys, interest inventories, and sociometric tests. In regard to the objective test results, the study concluded that there were indications of "initial and final superiority of the experimental group, with many of the differences in their favor being statistically significant.55 53Life Camps was a non-profit organization for which L. B. Sharp served as executive director. '5‘New'Iork City Board of Education, pp. cite, PPo 47“ 53. - 551b1d., p. 62. #5 “ However, positive conclusions are most marked ’ in the semi-objective or clinical findings, mainly from the observations of the campers and individual ifififiiffi .§§°§§.§§§§1§§§°E§.§§§.i§?§3”°d by ... A final general conclusion offered in light of the limita- tions of the study stated that ”the implications from the data are that the experimental groups benefited to an extent not possible in the usual school-in-schoolhouse program."57 It was emphasized, however, that further research and eval- uation were needed to substantiate any positive results obtained from the data on the sample population used in the study. ' Extending Education Through Cam in , because of its timeliness and extensiveness, gave support and encouragement to educational camping endeavors. It further emphasized the values of resident experiences thus idealizing school camping as the ”greater good” in a continuum of outdoor activities. Irwin's study,58 later published as Ihg,zhgggz'gf Cam in , reported his experience in private and agency camps. It provided a background for examining the educational 56Ibid., p. 100. 57Ib1d., pp. 100-101. 58Frank L. Irwin, "Camping Education-~0utline for College Course in Camping Education," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Hew'York University, New'York, l9h8). ,. 46 aspects of the summer camp, drawing together camping and educational materials to point out the educational nature of camping.59 The book, a more refined version of earlier studies in camping as education, typically illustrated the "camping point of view" of school camping as opposed to a view more directly resulting from public education orienta- tion and experience.60 This distinction is perhaps most readily recognized in program development where, on the one hand, activities are primarily derived from the immediate setting, and on the other hand a more conscious attempt is made to relate activity to the ongoing program of the class- room. In both instances, however, the overall aims of edu- cation stated by the Educational Policies Commission seem to serve as a basic foundation. Irwin emphasized a kind of outdoor education concept that was identified primarily with the programs in various types of camping. Many references used in developing the study were from L. B. Sharp's writings, and Sharp's ideas were incorporated either directly or implied throughout the chapter on public school camping. The book has been used 59Frank L. Irwin, The Theo 9; Camping (New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1950 , p. ix. 60See George W. Donaldson, School Camping (New York: Association Press, 1952). .. W as a guide for summer camp leaders and as a text for camp leadership courses, but it has been used as a reference for school programs as well. 61 was published shortly Clarke' 8 descriptive study following Irwin's text, thus adding another link in the growing body of school camping literature developed during the nineteen fifties.62 His book described the public school camping program of San Diego, giving a detailed account of the history of the program, administration, staff, and curriculum. In addition, an analysis of the values of camping as an extension of public education was presented, along with an appraisal of methods by which those values might be realized. The analysis was based on data obtained through opinion questionnaires given to teach- ers, pupils, and parents. Recommendations were offered as a guide to other communities contemplating beginning a 61James Mi. Clarke, Public SchoolC (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, $9 mf)n 62See: Geor e‘w. Donaldson, School Cw wping (New York: Association Press, 952); Helen Manley and M. F. Drury, Education Through School Camping (St. Louis: The C. V. Imosby Company, 1952); John W. Gilliland, School Cm in , A Frontier of Curriculum Improvement (Washington, D. C. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1954); Dorothy L. MacMillan, School Camping and Outdoor Education (Dubuque, Iowa: ‘William G. Brown Co., 195 and Julian‘W. Smith and Committee, Outdoor Education for .American Youth (Washington, D. 0.: American Association of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1957). #8 school camping program. _ The San Diego pattern was one unique approach taken in school camping during the formative years of such programs. The description itself offered a kind of practical basis for others to use in developing programs and administrative organisation. Camping "in toto" was seen as an educational enterprise and considered an acceptable part of the schools' broadened responsibilities. Clarke said that: In l9h0, organized recreation, organized camping and public education were like three men waiting to be introduced so they could go into business together. The artificial partitions between them had been broken down through the realization that under appropggate circumstances all experience is educational. Many forms of camping were recognized as educational experience contributing to the welfare of society during this period. The role of camping in America was then being extended to become a part of public education. In the San Diego approach, an activity curriculum in a group living situation using the natural environment was considered to be a valuable component of education and a responsibility of the community under the leadership of the schools. A number of studies were conducted to evaluate the 63Clarke, _p_. 3439., pp. 19-20. #9 etfectiveness of school camping programs. .moore's study in l9h3 was one of the first to present objective evidence, and other studies followed seeking to determine results of programs in the areas of knowledge and skills, attitudes and social relationships. A study similar to Clarke's evaluation was that of Rupff.65 In comparing aspirations with achievements of a group of Michigan school camps, he used questionnaires to :measure achievement as rated by campers, parents, and teach- ers. The close similarity between the major purposes of education stated by the Educational Policies Commission and those expressed by camping experts as objectives for camping ‘was used as the basis for developing the instruments. 'Each questionnaire was designed and constructed on the basis of the four major goals of education with subdivisions under each goal. Clarke's norms were incorporated in the study ‘wherever applicable, and also his format aided in the phras- ing of questions. Rupff acknowledged difficulty in obtaining valid data, possibly because a distinction between camping and educational 6l’Moorehloc. cit. 65Paul E. Rupff, "A Comparison of Aspirations with .Achievements in a Group of Selected Michigan Public Schools," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State Univer- sity, East Lansing, 1957). _ _ _ 50 objectives was not clearly made. However, he stated that the broad objectives of education were being achieved to a reasonable degree. Even so, he was still unable to deter- mine the importance of school camping in the school curri- culum. In 1960, Stack conducted a study to determine objec- tively the outcomes of school camping.66 Her study was concerned with attitudes that campers had toward their class- mates, school, teachers, school camping, self, and friends. Mbasurement was made of the changes occurring in the respon— ses of eighty-eight children following a five day period at Clear Lake Camp, Michigan. A battery of objective tests ‘was used along with interviews, case studies, and school records. Stack stated several conclusions which indicated that the school camping experience resulted in positive social and attitudinal changes. In particular, she noted changes in friendship patterns, rapport between teacher and pupils, attitudes toward school, and interest in relation- ships regarding school, teacher, camping, and self. Kranzer completed a study similar in design to 66Genevieve C. Stack, "An Evaluation of Attitudinal outcomes of Fifth and Sixth Grade Students Following a Period of School Camping," (unpublished Doctoral disserta- tion, University of Oklahoma, Norman, 1960). 51 Stack's in 1958 in which he also measured various effects ofa fivefday school camping experience on sixth graders.67 Results from data on experimental and control groups indi- cated that desirable social and behavioral changes occurred in the experimental group beyond what might have occurred in the classroom. One other example of an evaluative study was that conducted by Beker.68 His research was undertaken to test whether the social and emotional growth of school campers over a given period of time could be shown to exceed that of an otherwise equivalent group of school children who had not had a school camping experience. Results from a battery of tests measuring self-concept, social relationships, and a comparison of social climate in thirteen groups suggested that school camping could have a marked positive impact on children's self-concept and, perhaps, on their social rela- tionships as well. Beker cautioned that the precise nature and depth of this influence and its specific determinants, 67Herman C. Kranzer, "Effects of School Camping on Selected Aspects of Pupil Behavior--An Experimental Study," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of Califor- nia, Los Angeles, 1958). 68Jerome Beker, "The Relationship Between School Camping Social Climate and Change in Children's Self- 'Cencepts and Patterns of Social Relationship," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teacher's College, Columbia Univer- sity, New York, 1959). 52 however, remain obscure. Beker9s study was exploratory in nature, but it suggested possibilities for further research to determine more exactly the values of school camping. At a time when school camping was gaining momentum, Rogers saw a need for developing a guide that would define and explain the uses of outdoor education in the’schools.69 From an analysis of the literature from 1925 to l95h, he developed composite statements of definition, objectives, and principles of outdoor education. These were checked against the judgment of nine experts in outdoor education andschool camping. The objectives were said to be consis= tent with objectives of general education derived from philosophies underlying "modern education". Illustrations of objectives and principles applied in practice were cited from a breadth of resources in the literature. Rogers' analysis resulted in defining outdoor education broadly as "a method of approaching educational objectives through guided, direct, real-life experiences in the outnof—doors, utilizing as learning materials the resources of the natural 70 environment.“ He listed twentyuone general objectives and 69Martin Rogers, "Principles and Functions of Outdoor IEducation," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Syracuse ‘University, Syracuse, New.York, 1955). 7OIbid., p. 39. 53 forty-nine guiding principles. - Rogers' definition of outdoor education as a method, or process, applicable to the "whole child" in an integrated curriculum provided aninterpretation that recognized not only school camping but also a broad scope of activities as outdoor education. However, school camping was still seen as the climax or ultimate goal to be sought. He stated that ”even though the beginnings may be simple, the ultimate development of the outdoor education program consists of group living in an outdoor camping situation."7l Rogers"study was completed during a time when the debate on subject matter versus experience curriculum was in vogue. The pragmatic position concerning experience was evident throughout his development of a basis for objectives and principles. Outdoor educationis potential contribution to general education was, within the elementary school, a central concern of the study. School camping, though put in the perspective of one aspect of outdoor education, played a major role both in principles formulated (thirteen of fortybnine principles pertained directly to school camping) and in illustrations cited as support for outdoor education principles. 71Ibid., p. 167. 5k ._ _ Studies in outdoor education and school camping from 19A3 through 1961 reviewed in this section indicate a trend away from.viewing outdoor education as the process and con- tent incorporated in school camping to a concept of school camping as one phase of outdoor education. Still, school camping played a central role, and most studies as well as texts during this period were directed toward examining camping's contribution to American education. In regard to goals, aims, objectives, and purposes, the statements of the Educational Policies Commission were used as a primary foundation for justifying camping's role in the school program, However, the exact nature of the public school's role and responsibilities in American society was either lightly treated or completely overlooked in the drive to incorporate camping in the curriculum. A professional camping orientation to school camping was presented, and only gradually did the emphasis shift toward a broad school " program of outdoor education. The basis for outdoor educa- tion, growing out of a camping philosophy, was undergoing a transition. Reports of the effectiveness of school camping pro- grams, as well as the publication of a number of texts, seemed to have helped keep school camping programs at the 55 forefront during a period of some twenty years although there was a move underway to broaden the concept of outdoor education as revealed in Rogers‘2 study. The historical development of a basis for outdoor education cannot be fully visualized through research studies alone. Further presentation and analysis of this development will be made in the following chapter. CHAPTER III HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF A BASTS FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION I. HISTORTCAL DEVELOPMENTS AND THE CAREERS OF TWO INDIVIDUALS The studies reviewed in Chapter II provided insight into some of the influences that summer camping had on the origins of school camping and the development of a basis for outdoor education. Those persons involved in school camping looked to many sources for leadership both from 'uithin their own groups and from related areas such as con- servation and social work. Some individuals were directly involved in formulating basic ideas and concepts, directing programs, and promoting the movement. Others gave indirect support and encouragement. Key spokesmen emerged in time and their contributions were recognized as being‘highly significant in giving strength and direction to outdoor education. Two such key individuals were Lloyd B. Sharp and Julian W. Smith. They, perhaps more than any other spokesmen, were most instrumental in giving national leader~ ship to outdoor education. Developgsnts in L; fig Sharpie Career Lloyd B. Sharp was one of the leaders of the nineteen thirties and forties who gave direction to organized camping. 56 57 He was actively involved in the inception of school camping and the training of leaders in camping and outdoor education. He became identified as "the father of the outdoor education movement” and his ideas and principles have been a basis for many outdoor education programs and practices throughout the country. . Sharp's ggglx 11:; gng career. Lloyd B. Sharp was born in 1895 in Carbondale, Kansas, the youngest of four children. He grew up on a small farm near the edge of town and had a very warm and close family life. His parents were of pioneer stock who had come from a New Jersey farm with their parents in a covered wagon. His family had to struggle to make a living and his father farmed at various times between having a rural mail route and trying to sell insurance.1 Sharp was described by close friends as "a creative farm lad who was very cognizant of his environment and who had a built-in awareness of things around him."2 He enjoyed hunting rabbit, birds, and ducks as well as fishing and adventuring in the outdoors. He was a good student in 1Information from Ann Brinley and Thomas J. Rillo, personal interview, June 27, lQét. 21bid. _ 58 school and quite active in sports, being especially out- standing in football and track. He worked at various part- tine jobs during high school and after graduation in 19lh he taught for one year in a rural elementary school. In the summer of 1915 Sharp enrolled at Kansas State Hormel School at Emporia. He graduated with a bachelor of science in education in 1918 and enlisted in the navy that sane summer. After serving as an ensign for three years he took a position in Michigan as field representative for the Playground and Recreation Association of America. Taking a leave of absence in February, 1923, he left that position to begin graduate study in physical education at Teachers College, Columbia University. Sharp received his master's degree in February, 192t and immediately began doctoral study while serving part-time as an instructor in physical education at Teachers College.3 Growing up in midswestern rural America following the turn of the century seems to have had a lasting effect on Sharp's basic values, interests, and outlook on life. Although very little has been published about his early childhood and family life, it seems apparent that he later perceived his early environment as significant in his 3Information from Ann Brinley, letter, July 20, l96h. _-, 59 professional career. In Camping Magazine he was quoted in reference to his start in camping: ...apparently it_began just living on the farm and in the country~~fishing, hEnting, camping out some- what like the Indians did. And in an address to a conference on outdoor teacher educa— tion one of his first remarks was: I really got my Ph.D. on the farm in Kansas, and it took me about four years and a half at Columbia to convince them that I had it. The realism of education is the thing that I learned on the farm...5 The period from 1925 to 1952. In 1925, Sharp began a reorganization of the Life Fresh Air Fund. The Fund was organized in 1887 in New York City and its program was part of a welfare movement that sent underprivileged children to the country for summer vacations. Sharp examined the program and its underlying purposes and during a four year period he instituted changes that gave it a broader educa- tional emphasis rather than one limited to health and welfare concerns. The basis for those changes, as well as #Qagpigg magazine, "News of ACA," 3627, January, lQSl. Slloyd B. Sharp, "Administrators, Teachers, and the Out-of-Doors," Outdoor Teacher Education (DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois University, 1961), p. 9. 60 an historical review of fresh-air work in New York City, were included as part of his doctoral field study.6 During that same four year period Sharp was working towards a doctoral degree and serving as an instructor in physical education at Teachers College and the Horace Mann School. Also, he was active in the New York City area in organized efforts to improve standards, programs, personnel, and conditions in welfare homes and camps. In 1929, he completed his doctoral program and continued as executive director of Life's Summer Camps on a part-time basis. During the years at Teachers College, Sharp roomed with a philosophy major who later became a faculty member at Columbia University. He studied under John Dewey, William H. Kilpatrick, Frederick G. Bosner, and Elwell K. Fretwell. Jesse F. Williams, a highly regarded physical educator, served as chairman of his doctoral committee. The time spent in earning advanced degrees in physical education was important in shaping Sharpfis future career. His working experiences and his exposure to the philosophies of outstanding educators through close association with faculty members helped to broaden and crystalize his think- ing on education and camping. Teachers College had been 6 . See Chapter II, p. 26. 61 the first institution to begin educational work with the camping movement in 1920 under the leadership of Fretwell, and Sharp assisted him from 1926 to 1929 in camp—leadership courses° In the fall of 1929 Sharp became head of physical education in the Laboratory Schools, School of Education, University of Chicago, and remained there through the spring of 1933. He also continued as director of Lifeis Summer Camps and in 1936 he became full-time executive director as that organization changed its title to Life Camps, Incorporated. ' Beginning in 193A, Sharp turned his attention towards the public schools, He conducted an experimental camping program with sixteen New York City drop-outs and examined over fifty school courses of study to determine what subject matter might be acquired by direct experience outside the classroomo In 1935, he presented plans for a school camp project to the New York City Board of Education, but it failed to be carried out, During the nineteen thirties Life Camps' program expanded so that by 1938 three camps were serving some two hundred and fifty children each summer and a fourth tract of land was being developed in Sussex, New Jersey. gigs magazine reported that: 62 ' With stone and timber on the land, Dr. Sharp is building a village, erecting a year-round girls' camp and a center where camp leaders will be trained to spread the Sharp camping plan farther afieldo7 A member of the New York City Board of Education, Johanna M. Lindlof, who was interested in camping, started a private fund for sending underprivileged children to Life Camps in the summers° This project, which began in 1939, continued for four years and the results were reported in l9lr3,8 ”_ , In l9h0, the New Jersey site was established as National Camp and became a leadership training facility for advanced study in outdoor education. The six—week summer sessions during the nineteen forties drew people from all over the country to acquaint themselves with Sharp’s philosophy and to work on individual problems related to their own position or communityo The usual procedure for each participant was to define a problem in the first few days, but then to participate directly in outdoor education for three weeks with the aid of Sharp and his staff, The last three weeks were then used primarily for completing 7Time, ”New Frontier," 32:39, October 17, 19380 8Johanna M, Lindlof Camp Committee for School Child- ren, Adventures in Camping (10 Park Avenue, New York: published by the Committee, 19h3). 63 the_problem and turning in abwrittenreport.9 Credit was _ available through NeW'York University and other co-operating institutions for those who desired it. Hundreds of people went through that progran.and other workshops and clinics at National Camp from 19E9 through 1953. many of them, and others who served as staff members for the children's camps, helped to spread outdoor education widely. many of the leaders today attribute a good part of thdhr enthusdasm-flor and interest in, or their Start in, outdoor with Sharp. Buring‘World‘War II his activities continued although the camps were short of male staff and some programs had to -Iurkdfiéu to the experiences they had be curtailed or modified. Fohlouing the war years, interest in outdoor education and school camping was renewed and a national conference was held at national Camp in the summer of 19‘6. The conference was called by Sharp to make an appraisal of the outdoor education movement and to develop guideposts for the futures Sons twenty leaders representing collages, government departments, youth organisations, and school systems studied the program of Life Camps and the 9 . w . Volumes of Ngtiogal gggp Problems fron,19t0 through 1953 are bound and kept at the office of the Outdoor Educa- tion Association, Inc,, in Carbondale, Illinoiso 6h leadership training program. Under the general chairmanship of halter D. Cooking, editor of The School Executive, the group divided into three working committees to discuss basic issues. The reports from the committees dealt with the place of camping and outdoor education in American education and teacher education, and the development of public support.10 In l9h7, Sharp's philosophy was the basis for an experimental project at Life Camp involving the New York City public schools. Two classes, a fifth and seventh grade, were selected for the experiment to be conducted for one month in a camp setting. A control group was set up with a corresponding fifth and seventh grade in the city. The research technique was the matched ~pairs. Both groups were evaluated according to standard school achievement tests in many subject areas, both before and after the experiment.... The test results favored the experimental camp group with the measurements showing a significant gain over those who stayed in school.1 The details of that experiment, along with a summary of loWalter D. Cooking, "How the Basic Issues in Outdoor Education were Developed, Eh; Bulletin 9; Egg National Association g; Secondagy School Princi als, 312107-103, May 2 191*7 ' 11 Lloyd B. Sharp, an address presented at the National Convention of the American Association of School Administrators, Atlantic City, New Jersey, February 19, 1963. 65 results and recommendations, were published in 191.8.12 f. Sharp's focus during the nineteen forties was on camping, but toward the end of that period he and others ‘were thinking about moving to a broader program in order to service all educational agencies and to carry out in practice the ideals that he held. At the suggestion of friends, the idea of a private, non-profit organization devoted to his philosophydeveloped in 1950. "Sharp was convinced that he couldn't stay just with the underprivileged groups”.13 In 1951 with the help of friends, he established the Outdoor Education Association and by 1953 the corporate seal was signed. Immediately prior to that period Life Magazine changed ownership and its new publishers were not interested in sup- porting Sharp's broadened program and interests. When finan- cial support was about to be withdrawn, Jay B. Nash, Head of the Department of Physical Education and Recreation at New'York University, made Ernest O. Melby, dean of the College of Education, aware of the situation. IMelby had been a sympathetic supporter of outdoor education, and Nash lzNew'York City Board of Education, Extending Educa— tion)Ihrough Camping (New York: Life Camps, Incorporated, i§a§ . '131nformation from Ann Brinley, personal interview, June 27 y 1961i 0 sought to have Sharp join the staff of his department. Kelby agreed and proposed that Lifg continue to subsidize the pro; gram over a tensyear period. Sharp, however, was only inter- ested in a separate department responsible to the administra- tion and not under physical education and recreation. Nash's program.and philosophy were not in harmony with Sharp's ideas and Sharp "didnlt want to lose his identity or com— promise. He was beginning a national organization and didn't want to be swallowed up by a large university."14 With the loss of support from Lifg and with the arrangement at New York University unthinkable, Sharp was at.a low point as he began the Outdoor Education Association through voluntary contributions, camp fees, and field ser- vices. The following year, however, brought new promise ‘when he moved the program to Matamoras, Pennsylvania, to continue his mission of extending the benefits of learning in the out-of—doors. By 1951 outdoor education and school camping had gained noticeable recognition as a movement in public education, and Sharpie name was synonomous with it. Sharpie early writings. Articles and other publica- tions written by Sharp during the period when he served as director of Life Camps provide a source of ideas and concepts Ibid. for analysis in determining the basis of outdoor education. A chronological survey of his writings indicates not only the many avenues through which his message was presented, but also affords an opportunity to examine growth, refine? ment, and change. The field study written in 1929, as a part of doctor- al work, provides a beginning point in examining early writ- ings of Sharp. It appeared as a part of the Contributions to Education Series.15 Sharp's work with Lifeis fresh air program began in 1925 and provided a laboratory through which his ideas were tried and tested in practice. The study was in itself a report of change and development in Life's Fresh Air Program in which Sharp, as director, instituted and carried out revisions using an educational orientation as a basis for replacing a fresh-air farm relief program with camping. The prime thesis asserted by Sharp was that camping should be viewed as an educational endeavor and should be based on educational principles.16 Thus, instead of'a program of relief work at fresh air farms, Life Camps became 15Lloyd B. Sharp, Education gag the Sggger Cam , Ag E oriment (in Contributions to Education—Series, No. 390, lew'IorE: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1930). 16 .I_'.b;1_d.°, P° 2° ._ . 68 - embodied with a framework that provided aims, objectives, and methods adapted from the progressive elements in educa- tion. Sharp looked to such men as Dewey, Kilpatrick, Bosner, fleflnrrary, and Williams for inspiration and guidelines. He stated that "the fundamental processes of learning go on in activities of the camp as they do in those of the school elsewhere.”17 "It was logical to turn to the field of edu- cation and take advantage of its experience in curriculum making."18 The modification of McMurrary's principles of curriculum making served as a guide in developing the camp activity program.19 Also, principles adapted from Teachers College's Lincoln School were used in selecting and judging the activity program since much criteria were applicable for a camp-project type program similar to the "unit of work" concept employed at Lincoln School.20 Viewing the camp as a favorable learning situation for accomplishing educational aims, Sharp was able to con— duct a program for implementing the broadened objectives of education that he recognizedo His ooncerns were with real life situations, interests and needs of children, democratic processes, self-reliance, social interaction, intrinsic l7lhido. pa ho. 13Ibid, 19Ib1d. 2°1bid., p. bl. 69 motivation, total growth of the child, and the knowledge and appreciation of the outdoors as a way of life. His defini- tion of camping as a series of purposeful related experiences in real life situations,21 and his adaptation of educational objectives and principles to complement that definition represented a significant early effort to identify the camp setting as a place for worthwhile learning experiences. In 1933 Sharp wrote an article for Progressive Educa- tion in which he presented portions of his doctoral study.22 He emphasized the importance of intrinsic motivation, indi- vidual differences, and projects based on needs and wants of campers in building a camp program. He repeated verbatim from.his study.the list of principles for selecting activi- ties and the considerations which make camping a desirable learning situation. Thus Sharp made available through a professional educational journal the philosophy which had guided his early work at Life Camps. £180 in 1933 Sharp wrote on the need for recreation 23 during the period of depression. He pointed out the 21Ibid., p. 36. 22Lloyd B. Sharp, "Some Educational Considerations of a Camp Program,“ Progressive Education, 10° 260-262, May, 1933 . 23Lloyd B. Sharp, "Need for Recreation in Times of Depression," Recreation, 272193 195, July, 1933. 7O necessity for adapting family recreation patterns to the depressed times and elaborated on the values of recreational activities. Suggestions were offered for simple types of activities that could be carried on by families with little expense, including camping and other outdoor pursuits. _ Two articles which appeared in march, 1935, indicated that Sharp was becoming more aware of the potential of camp- ing programs under the sponsorship of the schools. In Clear- ‘igg.House he called for a community centered school which would meet the recreational needs of people.2h As a part of a proposal for using the schools as recreational centers, and for schools assuming a leadership role in recreation, he recommended that: Camping activities should be made a part of the regular school program. There is much of education- al value in the camp which the school should utilize. Every school center should have its camps. These camps could operate the year round. The school program could be arranged on some stagger plan so that the school buildings and the camps, and the other facilities, would he in use at all times.25 For The Camping.Magasine Sharp elaborated on the role of public school camps and outlined ways of incorporating 21"Lloyd B. Sharp, "Health and Physical Education in a Community Centered School," Clearing House, 9:407-h09, ‘March, 1935. 25Ibid., p. £09. 71 camping into the school program.26 In that article Sharp presented to his fellow professional campers a hope for the future of camping in public education based on a philosophy and understanding of progressive education. By 1935 he had already experimented at Life Camp with sixteen "problem boys? from.the New York City Schools. He felt that camping principles could be employed under the auspices of the schools for all children as well as with special groups. Sharp expressed the need for integrating camping ‘with the total school program so that it could make a unique contribution through a "totally different approach to and procedure in the education of the child."27 He recommended that a careful and thorough analysis be made of the contri- butions that camping makes to children and how these are ‘brought about. He believed that the values to be gained .from such an experience must be arranged according to various levels of learning to match those of the school. It would also be necessary to study the curriculum of the schools at the various levels and fit their values into the life and activities of the camp.28 26Lloyd B. Sharp, "The Public School Camp," The Camping ma azine, 720—8, March, 1935. 27Ibid., p. 6. 281bid., p. 7. _ 72 ‘ Sharp interpreted the "experience method" as living. It is life itself, and not merely preparation for life... One has to see and feel, and become a part of a happening in order to understand its full significance. When personality changes take place as a result of one or more desirable exper- iences, we call this education. Camping, therefore, represents more completely than anything I know this Egperience Method of learning.29 He concluded with some educational considerations based on sections of his doctoral study, emphasizing the nature of camping as a way of living in a real life situation and the values that might be derived from.a camping experience. In an address delivered to the 17th Annual Convention of the American Camping Association in January, l9h0, Sharp explored the issue of highly centralized and specialized camping programs versus decentralized, small living group programs.30 Defending decentralized camping with "camp- tivity procedures", a term he coined, he pointed out the values of the methods employed at Life Camps. One important concept mentioned concerned the source of camp programs. A study of the struggles and living conditions of our early settlers gives us a basis for our camping program. They lived a life of daring and, ngbidog ppo 7-80 30Lloyd B. Sharp, "Give Camping Back to the Campers," The Campingima azine, 225-7 and 21-22, march, l9h0. 73 adventure. They Were on their own as individuals and families. Out of their pattern of living was created our concept and form of democracy. It might be said that camping and democracy started together in this country. 1 Sharp felt that decentralized camping resulted in a better implementation of democracy. Sharp and Osborne reviewed school camping develop- :ments in 19LO, for Proggessive Education.32 They pointed out that more had been written about concern for the whole child and the providing of a continuum of experiences than had been carried out in practice. Examples of broadened curricula through camping experiences were cited and ques- tions were raised concerning the future development of school camps: How can the experiences of camps and of schools become more unified? Are there experiences possible in the camp which would be difficult to secure even in the school which is progressive and informal? Who should be the counselors in a camp run by the school-~the teachers, or an entirely different group?33 In "Growth of the Modern Camping Movement", Sharp 31lbid., p. 6. 32Lloyd B. Sharp and Ernest c. Osborne, ”Schools and Camping," Progressive Education, 17:236-2Ll, April, l9h0. 33Ibid., p. 239. 7o clarified and expanded some of his previous philosophical statements.3h Camping as a way of life "refers to the broader conception of life or to a way of living and there- fore relates to the way people lived and live close to nature in the open."35 The way Indians, explorers, trappers, traders, and settlers lived showed that shelter, food, self- occupation, spiritual influence, group living, and community effort were basic elements in the development of this country.36 Sharp maintained that these basic elements were as fundamental and necessary to present day living as they ever were, and that there was a better opportunity to exper- ience them in a favorable camp situation. In 19A2 Sharp was called upon to relate the role of camping to the American heritage in a special issue of Campigg'Magazine.37 He stressed the values gained from pioneer experiences in developing a deep understanding and appreciation of this land and the history of the people 3I’*Lloyd B. Sharp, "Growth of the Modern Camping Movement," The Commonwealth, 282h—o, Jan.-Feb.-Mar., l9hl. 351bid., p. h. 36Ibid. 37Lloyd B. Sharp, "The Role of Camping and Our American Heritage," Camping Ma azine, 1&233-36 and 56-57, February, l9h2. _ 75 who settled it. He described how, with moderation, Life Camps provided such direct experiences through living and exploring in the outdoors. In referring to the need for camping for all children, he emphasized the role of camping as an integral part of the school program. He said: The school program is mostly indoors, studying about things. Camping education is primarily an outdoor program, working with things. That which ought and can best be learned in the classroom should there be taught, and that which can best be learned outside in direct contact with life situa- tions and materials should there be learned through experience.38 This appeared to be his first use of the phrase "camping education", and also the first time he expressed concisely the basis of his philosophy for school camping. In 1943 Sharp wrote an article specifically directed toward the schools.39 Analyzing the changes in society brought on by World war II and the needs of an urban popu- lation, he visualized curriculum changes and administrative leadership that would inaugurate a more realistic school programgand provide more outdoor experiences in the schools. The community school plan was suggested as a proper vehicle 381bid., p. 57. 39Lloyd B. Sharg, "Outside the Classroom," Ihg Educational Forum, 723 1~368, May, 19h3. .p x 3‘1. nfiulfn¢é . .. . .qulI ..D'lll I'llllll n 76 for implementing such changes. Camping education as a part of the outdoor movement was shown to have many educational values and its basic thesis was similar to that expressed in 1942..“0 School leaders were urged to re-examine their curri- culum and decide where would be the best place to learn the things that are educationally worthwhile. It was Sharp's belief that a far greater amount of the school time could be more profitably spent in the out-of-doors.Al Egg §ghggl Executive provided a medium through which Sharp was able to describe some of his experimental work with school children and with leadership training programs,“2 and later to restate his basic point of view.)+3 In the latter article Sharp used the term "outdoor education" in referring to the program of school camping, He emphasized z"OIt is noted that the previous reference to Sharp's basic principle was used in 19h? for suggesting that camping become a part of the school program. This same principle was used to recommend camping education in 19A3. In l9h9 Sharp stated the principle in referring to outdoo; education gnd cam in education, Apparently, Sharp felt that even though the principle first applied to camping per se, it could serve as a basis for other outdoor experiences. “11bid., p. 36h. 42Lloyd B. Sharp, "Schools Go Out-of—Doors," The School Executive, 63:2&~26, January, l9hh. h3Lloyd B. Sharp, "Out-of—Door Education-~A Point of View," 1h; School Executive, 6&256-57, February, 1945. the need for learning through direct experience, the effects of urbanization, and the lack of real work experiences for youth. A plan was presented for developing outdoor education under five phases. First it would be necessary to decide which things could be learned outdoors in the community and in school camps. Then would follow the education of admin— istrators and teachers in the philosophy of outdoor educa- tion. The next steps would be to establish a school camp and to start programs of day camping on or near the school grounds. The final phase would be interpreting the program to the publicfiz’lP In the l9h6 yearbook of American Sghggl and University, Sharp turned his attention to administrative aspects of out- door education and camping.h5 He emphasized the adminis~ trator's role in basic planning, designing facilities, secur- ing financial support, and operational procedures. He referred primarily to camping although he indicated that the outdoor program begins right outside the school building 'with the immediate environment. He stated as a basic prin- ciple that: MIbid., p. 57. hsLloyd B. Sharp, "Basic Planning for Camping and Outdoor Education," American School'ang Universit , Yearbook, pp. 192-198, l9h6. 78 ‘The essence of outdoor education means taking the children to the original source of material wherever possible . . . subject matter should be divided on the basis of wherg it can best be learned--inside or outside.“ It has been proved that children learn most through direct experience, learn faster, retain longer, and have a deeper appreciation and understanding of the things they experience.47 In the May, 1957, issue of the National Education Association Journal Sharp presented to the educational profession his ideas on camping and outdoor education.#8 In that same month he and Partridge served as editors for The Bulletin.g§ the National Association of Secondagz School Principals}’9 The Bulletin contained several articles on camping and outdoor education as well as the proceedings and results of the three day national conference held at National Camp in lQLb. Sharp and Partridge presented some historical back- grounds of camping in which they restated the same basic thbid., pp. 192—193. L7Ibid., p. 192. #8Lloyd B. Sharp, ”Camping and Outdoor Education," The Journal of the National Education Association, 36:366- 367’ May, 19L7° thloyd B. Sharp and E. DeAlton Partridge, editors, The Bulletin 9: the National Association of Secondary School Princi als, Vol. 31, No. 1&7, may, l9h7. ‘_ 79 position that Sharp had previously taken on many occasions.50 Noting the changes that had taken place in organized camp- ing as well as in the country following the war, they called for the develoPing of a life philosophy based on "the ability and disposition to live peaceably with man and nature."51 They foresaw that the continuity of experience in camping would greatly help in providing such an outlook. Camping education was hailed as perhaps the most promising new development in education and as the direction of the future in the schools.52 In another article in the Bulletin, Sharp stated his basic thesis for school camping, this time worded to apply to outdoor education and camping education.53 On the one hand outdoor education referred to the utilization of the whole environment, while camping education referred to learning that took place in a favorable camp environment. Sharp presented basic considerations for each of these, soLloyd B. Sharp and E. DeAlton Partridge, "Some Historical Backgrounds of Camping," The Bulletin of the National Association_p£ Secondary School Principal§,—§lz 15’5633 fiay$ 1911.7. 51Ibid., p. 20. 521bid., p. 19. 53Lloyd B. Sharp, "Basic Considerations in Outdoor and Camping Education " The Bulletin g: the National 330» ciation 2; Secondary School Principals, 3I2h3, may, l§ZV. 80 summarizing "the experience to date as a guide for those who want to make a serious and intelligent attempt to extend education out into the open for American youth."5h Outdoor education, consisting of experiences on the school grounds, in parks, on field trips and excursions, and through day camping, seemed to provide a natural lead-up to the more preferred experience of school camping. In l9h8 a research project conducted at Life Camps was completed and the results published.55 ‘With the data as ”evidence", Sharp seemed more convinced that his position was sound. In The Joupna; 9; Educational Sociology he cited the following as a basic reason for justifying outdoor and camping experiences as part of the curriculum: It has been proven in educational research that 'we learn most through direct experience, we learn faster, the learnings are retained longer, and the appreciation is greater.56 This argument is expressed similarly to the one used in l9A6 (see footnote A?) and is found continually in Sharpie 5h ssNew York City Board of Education, Extending Education Throu Camping (New‘York: Life Camps, Incorpor- ated, 1948 . 5 Lloyd B. Sharp, "Why Outdoor and Camping Education?", Ihngournal of Educational Sociolo , 21:31, January, 1948. Ibid., p. 38. 81 writings after this time. Sharp suggested that "a teacher in any subject matter at any level will find abundant material outside the classroom which can be learned through direct exper- iences."57 He described the nature of the school community camp and gave special emphasis to the role of camping in developing self-reliance and understanding for both youth and teachers. With the closing of Life Camps in 1951, a phase in Sharp's career was ended. During the time when his emphasis shifted from physical education and recreation to welfare agency camping, and then to camping and outdoor education in the schools, a philosophy was developed and refined. In a period of some twenty five years Sharp became recognized as the outstanding proponent of outdoor education; and his philosophy and ideas expressed in writing became the inspir- ation and guide for others throughout the country. His interpretation of realism in education through direct experience in the outdoors had been repeated in numerous professional journals. Sharpie writings often contained objectives, method— ology, and program content. Though he referred to educational 57Ibid., p. 315._ 82 research for evidence on learning, he never provided refer; ences or sources other than the results of the Life Camps experiment; nor did he ever write for research journals. His style was simple and direct, in language that practi- tioners could easily understand. While he tended to tailor his presentations with special emphasis on.some particular part of his philosophy, the primary message always seemed to come through. llhgpggtgoor Eduggtion Association, Incorporated. ‘With the same offices that were used for Life Camps in New Iorkaity and with a program at Matamoras, Pennsylvania, Sharp continued his efforts in 1951 under the title of The Outdoor Education Association. The Pennsylvania site was already being used for Pole Bridge Camp, a program for older boys. Under the new organization it became a co-educational camp while National Camp for leadership training also operated on the same 750 acres. In 1953, the association was incorporated and two years later a membership program was inaugurated to help support its work. The activities of the association in— cluded: Promotion of living and learning in the out-of- doors as an integral part of education and organi— zation programs. 83 Diesemination of information through materials, publications and films. Training of leaders at National Camp in summer sessiOns, short institutes, pilot and demonstration projects and workshops. Research and study of problems and new frontiers in the operation of childrenls camps and related projects. Field service and consultant assistance--to com- munities, agencies, and institutions--on program surveys, plans for camp layout, leadership training programs, and study groups.5 For ten years Sharp struggled to keep the organiza— tion going with the aid of friends, an advisory board, and financial assistance from memberships, donations, consultant services, and camp fees. He continued as a prominent national figure while directing the only national organization devoted exclusively to the promotion of outdoor education. In 1959, Sharp was invited to Southern Illinois University as a guest faculty member to teach and lecture, and also to develop plans for an outdoor education center. He stayed on through the 1959-1960 school year and then Joined the faculty on a half-time basis while devoting half— time to the Outdoor Education Association. In 1961, the offices of the association were moved to Carbondale, and 58The Outdoor Education Association, Inc., Living and Loam ing in the Out-of- Doors (Carbondale, Illinois: The Association, undated brochure). 8A the following year equipment was also moved there from fennsylvania. It was with this arrangement that Sharp carried on until the time of his death in December, 1963. During the time from the early nineteen fifties to 1963, Sharp's philosophical position remained essentially the same as it had for the previous twenty years. He con- tinued to defend the concept of direct experience as the best kind of learning, although at one time he acknowledged that "there may be some room for debate in the areas where one deals only with ideas and concepts."59 He emphasized the values of extended periods of time in the outdoors where teachers and students together explore the interrelatedness of nature. He said that: Outdoor education forces the issue of integration in the curriculum, to study and experience things ighggegg total relationship-~one thing to the Sharp also continued to clarify terminology and interpret outdoor education and school camping in light of changing conditions. Camping, which for so long a time had 59Lloyd B. Sharp, "The Place of Outdoor Education in the Education of Children," Education, 73:23, September, 1 60Lloyd B. Sharp, "What is Outdoor Education?," The School Executive, 71:20-21, August, 1952. 85 been his main concern, still was prominent in his writings, although he viewed it as only one aspect of outdoor educa— tion. In 1952 Sharp stated that "camping stands out at the very peak of outdoor education..."6l, and he went so far as to suggest that "if all of the units of learning that can best be handled out—of~doors were organized around certain fixed periods of school camping, the mounting cost of education could be materially reduced."62 He proposed that camping experiences be added to the curriculum, and felt that such additions benefited children through a sharpening and deepening of all of their learn- ing.63 A few years later he said: While school camping is not synonymous by defin- ition with outdoor education, it rests on the same premises and is recognized as one of the forerunners in its development. It furnished the laboratory in which testing could be done, processes refined, leadership identified. Experiments were conducted which related camp legfinings to the progress of the camper in school. 64Ju1ian W. Smith, chairman, Outdoor Education :2; American Youth (Washington, D. 0.: American Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, 1957). (Introduction by Lloyd B. Sharp). 86 And in another instance he stated: There is the belief that school camping and outdoor education are one and the same. However, outdoor education comprises all of that learning at all levels in all areas that can best be acquired ‘through direct experience outside the classroom. ‘Therefore school camping is only one aspect of the larger concept-95 Sharp seemed to realize by the latter part of the nineteen fifties that the emphasis on school camping had begun to detract from his main thesis of outdoor education. In many instances outdoor education had come to mean a school camping program involving children at the fifth and sixth grade levels. And too, it was not the kind of camping pro- gram that he had once envisioned. "If we could define camping the way I would like to define it and live it, we could use the term, but for all practical purposes, it is not 'camping' that we are promoting".66 "From 1958 on, Sharp seemed to have changed quite a bit and was emphasizing utilization of the schoolyard because he had seen failures in school camping programs."67 He urged the development of bSLloyd B. Sharp, Outdoor Education Center (Carbondale, Illinois:. The Educational Council of 100, Inc., 1961), p. 11. 66Lloyd B. Sharp, "Administrators, Teachers and the Out—of-Doors," Outdoor Teacher Education (DeKalb, Illinois: Northern Illinois University, 1960), p. 10. 67Information from Thomas B. Goodkind, personal interview, February 20, l96h. , 87 a broader application of outdoor education, including resident experiences, through a study of the curriculum and a reorganization of the total school program.58 By 1961, Sharp was attempting to avoid using the word "camping" and stated that he had "always thought of it (school camping) as a resident outdoor education experience arising out of the classroom."69 In that same year, at the annual meeting of the association, he said: We are not concerned with a camping program. It is 'Living and Learning in the Out—of-Doors‘, that we are concerned with... The whole idea should emanate from the classroom and be carried on by the teacher, basically. Anybody else involved with the program is resource or assistant. A master plan for the outdoor education program for Southern Illinois? Outdoor Education Center was published in 1961. In it, Sharp envisioned experiences in the outdoors for all grade levels.71 Sharp explained the nature of the program at the annual meeting, showing how a mobile trailer unit 68Lloyd B. Sharp, "Outdoor Education," Illinois Journal 9: Education, 52:9, October, 1961. —“———-—* 691bid., p. 8. 7oLloyd B. Sharp, "Outdoor Education is Off the Pad," Extending Education Vol. VI No. l (Carbondale Illinois: The Outdoor Education Association, Inc., September, 1961). l 7 Sharp, op. cit., Outdoor Education Center, pp. 16—21. 88 which he had experimented with for a number of years could be utilized to give education more mobility. . f Along with the need for more mobility, he saw a need for using more land for education. "Land for Learning" was the theme he was working with in 1962 and 1963,72 and the Outdoor Education Center was visualized as a pilot demon— stration project in which the concept could be tested out in practice. At the time of his death he was involved in this undertaking as well as carrying on several field service commitments. Sharp was described recently as a man who was carry- ing the load of five men. Under great pressure he had a heavy work load, almost always putting in sixteen hours a day, seven days a week. He had so much to do to accomplish his mission.73 He was described by Melby as "a peculiar kind of a man, a visionary, a loner, not an 9organization man”; but a person with a sound philosophy and integrated thinking."7h The soundness of his ideals has been demon: strated not only in tributes paid him, but also in the 72The Outdoor Education Association, Inc., Land for Leazging (Carbondale, Illinois: Southern Illinois University in co-operation with the Association, undated brochure). 73Information from Ann Brinley, personal interview, June 27, 196%. 7LInformation from Ernest O. Melby, personal inter» view, July 23, 1963. ‘ 89 continuation of the "Land for Learning" project and the emerging development of the Outdoor Education Center by the Association and Southern Illinois University, with the assistance of the Education Council of 100.75 Developments in Julian E. Smitth Career Julian W. Smith has been instrumental in the develop- ment of school camping programs and the outdoor education concept. From an active role in Michigan outdoor education, he became prominent on a national level in giving leader- ship to the outdoor education movement. Hammerman stated that he "probably contributed more to the expression and dissemination of the school camping and outdoor education idea than any other single person."76 He has helped to broaden the scope of outdoor education through continuous examination of changes in society and through a broad interpretation of the role and function of the public schools. Smith“s early life and public school career. Julian Smith was born in Leslie, Michigan, in 1901. He was reared 753harp, Outdoor Education Center, 92. cit. 76Donald R. Hammerman, "A Historical Analysis of the Socio-Cultural Factors that Influenced the Development of Camping Education," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The ignnsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 0 9O on‘a twelve-acre fruit and vegetable farm and attended rural school in Barry County, Michigan. His youth was that of a farm boy, helping with the chores and work, and participat— ing with his father in outdoor activities such as fishing, 77 After graduating from high school hunting, and trapping. he attended normal school and then at the age of nineteen began teaching in a rural school. Two years later he com- pleted work for a life certificate and was appointed prin— cipal and coach of the high school at Woodland. In 1928, after completing an A.B. degree in education at the University of Michigan, Smith became principal of Lakeview High School in Battle Creek. He continued there as principal for fourteen years, in the meantime completing his master's degree in 1936. In 1940 Lakeview High School was one of three schools that participated in the first year~round school camping program conducted at Clear Lake Camp under the sponsorship of the W. K. Kellogg Foundation. The story of the early developments at Clear Lake Camp and the role that the Kellogg Foundation played in the development of school camping and outdoor education have been well—documented by 77Information from Julian W. Smith, personal inter— view. August 20, 1963. 91 Snithand others.78 Portions of that history will be dis- cussed in other sections of this chapter. ' _ Also during those years at Lakeview, Smith was active in the Michigan High School Athletic Association and served as vice-president of its Representative Council's Executive Committee in l9h0 and l9hl. It was from this activity that he gained temporary appointment as State Director of Athlet- ice in the Department of Public Instruction the following year. The period from 1252 tg_;22§. For three years after leaving Lakeview High School, Smith served as the state director of high school athletics. This period brought him new insights into the Michigan education picture. He had the opportunity to assume a statewide leadership role, coming in contact with many individuals, working with com- mittees, schools, Department of Public Instruction personnel, as well as handling voluminous administrative details and serving as editor of a monthly bulletin.79 In 19h5 Smith’s temporary position ended and he was 78Julian‘W. Smith, g§_§;., Outdoor Education (Engle- wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1963). ,— 79Julian W. Smith, "Three Years in Retrospect," Michigan.High School Athletic Association Bulletin, 22:h- 5, August, l9h5. _- 92 then appointed director of a new project in the Department of Public Instruction concerned with health, physical educa- tion, recreation, school camping, and outdoor education. It was this project that launched Smith more directly into a career of outdoor education. In August of 1946 the Michigan Department of Public Instruction and the Department of Conserva- tion, in co-operation with the W. K. Kellogg Foun- dation, joined in an experimental program of camping and outdoor education. The general purpose was to improve the processes of education and the more complete development of the natural resources of the state, with special emphasis on school camping. This project, under the direction of Smith, continued for seven years during which time great strides were made in Michigan and the impact was felt throughout the country. Some of the activities of the project and its director in- cluded: (l) a national conference on community school camping in l9h9, (2) materials published and widely distri- buted, (3) representation and participation at state and national meetings, workshops, institutes, and conferences, (A) an experimental work-learn camp for school drop-outs, (55 a pilot school camping program for high school youth, (63 an outdoor education workshop for teacher education in 8OMichigan Department of Public Instruction, Educa- tion ingichigan's Out:g§:Doo;§ 1956-1953 (Lansing, Michi- gun: The Department, 19537. p 93 1953, (7) prolific publication in professional journals, and (8) consultant services in school systems, state departments, youth agencies, colleges, and universities throughout the nation.81 In the summer of 1953 the project was completed. During that spring, Lee J. Thurston stepped down as Super- intendent of Public Instruction to accept appointment as Head of the new School of Education, Michigan State College. Smith was asked to join him on the faculty to help carry on the task of leadership training and further promotion of outdoor education. Just before Thurston was to take office he was called to serve as U. S. CommiSsioner of Education, but died that summer before leaving for'Washington. Smith, under a new dean, attempted to move forward with plans previously made, but due to the changes in administration, progress was slow. Even though he was still very active in 1954 on the state and national scene, he was unable to pro- gress wholeheartedly at the college. The following year, however, he began a new phase in his career when the Ameri- can Association for Health, Physical Education, and Recrea- tion initiated an Outdoor Education Project and asked Smith to serve as its director. 9h W Smith's gggly writings. Smith's three years as direc- tor of athletics in Michigan ended in the summer of l9h5 and the project in the Department of Public Instruction was to commence that fall. In the August, l9h5, issue of the Rfichigan fligh_§ghggl Athletic Association Bulletin he devoted attention to the forthcoming project.82 It was also in that last issue edited by Smith that some of his first published statements on camping and outdoor education were found. He referred to outdoor education as pertaining to activities that cut across the curriculum when using natural resources. School camping was suggested as a means of providing all children with a camping experience. Camping was said to be "an educational process, built on sound principles...a way of living...made up of life situations."83 Smith suggested that the camp program provided learn- ing experiences and development of children that could not be attained in the classroom. Consequently, he envisioned that a unique program would grow out of an examination of the school curriculum, providing those things that could be better learned in a camping situation. Six general areas of learning experiences in camp were listed and described: 82Smith, 9p. cit., p. 3. 83Ibid., p. 47. 95 work experience,_hea1th and fitness, social living, train- ing for citizenship, leisure-time activities, and other more specific experiences.8h H In 1947 Smith, in conjunction with Eugene B. Elliott, Superintendent of Public Instruction, described the nature of the Michigan camping and outdoor education program in a bulletin edited by Sharp and Partridge.85 Attention was. called to the fact that the DPI project was a co-operative endeavor in outdoor education with special emphasis given to camping and conservation. Several patterns of school camping were described along with outdoor activities at school forests, on school sites, through travel and excur- sions, in clubs and special activities, and through extended field work and trips. Smith again described the Michigan pattern in l9h8 and gave this simple explanation for using the outdoors, especially the camp site: The outdoors was once man‘s.school, and his home. It seems only reasonable that the outdoors, filled with real things, surrounded by beauty, fresh air, and sunshine should be used to provide 8hlbid., pp. h7-h9 85Eugene B. Elliott and Julian W. Smith, "The Michi- gan Program in Action," The Bulletin of the National ssociation of Secondagyfl School Princi als, 31: °50- 7h, May 9 19_-—__-Z—-7o 96 simple and girect learning experience for boys and girls. He went on to say that: Outdoor education and camping are not frills to be scalloped around the curriculum. In the woods, fields, and streams children can see, feel, hear; they can even smell and taste. Here reality, with all its vividness, becomes both motivation and method for learning. Here too youth may experience the discipline of living results. Here is real life, with its simplicity and wholesomeness, yet with its Shroud of mystery and unexplored realms of truth. Another opportunity for explaining the Michigan pro- gram was provided in The National Elementapy Principal in. 88 1999. Following an account of how camps have been organ- ized and administered, Smith concluded with the following reasons for incorporating camping into the school program: There, out—of-doors, the children experience reality and learn by doing. It gives them roots in the land, which will be expressed later in the best use of our resources.I tIt offers balance to an age of city dwellers. may be the only safety valve to modern living. 86JulianW. Smith, "Education Goes Camping,” The Executive, 68: #5, September, l9h8. 871b1d., p. A6. 88Julian W. Smith, "An Overview of School Camping in.Michigan,” The National Elementary Principal, 28 February, l9h97 891b1d., p. 10. , 97 - _ In that same year Smith interpreted societal changes as further justification for providing children with real and direct experiences in the schools, community, and camp.90 Rapid changes from a simple to a more complex society, people removed from the soil, crowded urban living conditions, and mass production were cited as having serious repercus- sions manifested in a lack of appreciation for resources and emotional strain in modern living. A simple four-step plan for initiating a camping and outdoor education program was offered with the admonition that a willingness and desire to do something were the only prerequisites.91 By 1950, the "Michigan Story" had been told many times and to many audiences. With the project five years old, Smith gave another concise account of history and progress in.Michigan school camping.92 On that occasion he acknowledged the contributions of Hugh B. Masters of the Kellogg Foundation in giving leadership to significant concepts and programs of school camping. He presented patterns of camping and outdoor 90Julian W. Smith, "Camping and Outdoor Education," The School Executive, 68:60-61, April, l9h9. 911bid., p. 61. 92' Julian W. Smith, ”The Michigan Story of Camping and Outdoor Education," The Journal pf Educational Sociology, 25 3 508-515 9 May, 19500 98 education operations and gave the following optimistic view of the future: Camping and outdoor education takes youth back to the land where, in the presence of natural resources, the learner finds his place in natural interrelationships. Camping belongs to the whole community school-—it is a part of general educa- tion. It will grow and find increased support as the public sees the results... The goal for camp- ing and outdoor education in Michigan is for every child to have a week or more of camping as a part of public education. Another publication in 1950 provided an elaboration 9h on learning experiences for older youth in camping. Smith said that: Some of these learnings grow out of the school curriculum-~others are unique because they cannot be achieved successfully in the formal classroom. While campers may take to the woods to obtain specific educational objectives, a multitude of new learning situations arise which have many implications for the classroom.95 A detailed listing and description of activities ‘were presented under the following five headings: social living; healthful living; purposeful work activities; recreational living; and outdoor education. Outdoor educa- 93Ibid., p. 515. 94Ju11an w. Smith, Youth Love "Thy WOods and Templed Hills" (Lansing, Michigan: The Michigan Department of Public Instruction, 1950). 95Ibid., p. a. 99 tion in this instance referred to activities related directly to the school curriculum. Thus, subject matter was related to reality through activities in science, social studies, language communication, mathematics, shop, homemaking, music, art, and dramatics.96 Two bulletins dealing with community school camping, edited by Smith, were published by the DPI in 1951.97’ 98 They offered a more complete and detailed account of the Michigan philosophy, program, and organization of school camping than anything previously written. In Community School Campipg emphasis was given to the co-operation and teamwork of many agencies and departments, with schools assuming major responsibility for developing school camping, and to the implications of school camping for teacher educa- tion. Community School ggppp presented a comprehensive discussion of the relationship of outdoor education and school camping to the curriculum; the values of a camping program; and the organization and planning necessary for 96Ibid., p. 4-10. 97Julian w. Smith, editor, Community School Camping (Lansing, Michigan: The Michigan Department of Public Instruction, 1951). 98Julian W; Smith, editor, Community Schop; Camps (Lansing, Michigan: The Michigan Department of Public Instruction, 1951). lOO facilities and program. Both of these bulletins were widely distributed throughout Michigan and other states to serve as guides for future development. Writing for the health, physical education, and recreation fields, Smith listed three general objectives of camping and outdoor education: ...(1) learning to live happily and healthfully in the out-of—doors; (2) gaining a better understanding of the physical environment and how to use natural resources wisely; and (3) finding opportunities to participate in democratic living. The pattern of a particular program depended on local needs, facilities,and interests. Although many schools start with field trips and day camps, the ultimate hope was to establish a resident camping program.100 In evaluating the growth of the school camping movement Smith said that "this rapid growth must be largely attributed to the goodness of the program and the apparent results in the lives and interests of boys and girls."101 In interpreting the implications of school camping 99Julian W. Smith, "Community School Camping," Journal 9: the American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 22:5, June, 1951. lOOIbid. 101Ibid., p. 6. 101 and outdoor education he pointed out that: Not only do the objectives of school camping and outdoor education fall in the scope of these fields, but the instructional methods used more nearly approach those found in good programs of health education, physical education, and recreation. This is because the center of attention is on the indi- vidual, with primary concern about his growth and development and with little emphasis placed on subject matter and abstract learning. 02 Smith's primary interest in school camping continued in 1952 as was revealed in two articles published in educa- tional journals. From the early beginnings he had vizual- ized that, ideally, the proper setting for such programs should be within the framework of the community school phil- osophy. In Education he outlined procedures for developing a community school camping program103 and in The National Elementapy School Principal he explained the relationship between camping and education in light of that same ideal: Community school camping is considered an integral part of the educational program... The camping program is as much an integral part of the curri- culum of the entire School as is any other educa- tional experience that takes place in or out of the classroom. Those learnings which can best be achieved in the out-of-doors, or can best be prac- ticed in round-the-clock group living, find their 1021bid., p. 5. 103Julian‘W. Smith, "Planning for Community School Camping," Education, 73:50-58, September, 1952. 102 f f place in the camp program. It may be said that school camping is an experimental curriculum, which provides a direct and simple learning experience for children. It is based on the best we know about how human beings learn--by doing and seeing.10h Later that same year he wrote an article for Camping thazine which seemed to indicate a change toward a broader application of the concept of outdoor education.105 He defined it as simply education in the out-of—doors, and ' described various facilities and methods used in outdoor education. Even individuals and families that just go out to enjoy the outdoors on their own initiative were included as participants in outdoor education. Programs sponsored by local, state and national organizations, both public and private, all had a stake in the future of the movement, but Smith cautioned that to provide the greatest opportunities for all those who desire to participate in some form of outdoor programs would necessitate a maximum amount of cooperation and coordination of effort.106 In 1953 Smith left the DPI with Thurston to go to ‘Michigan State College. While there in 195A he contributed loI‘Julian'W. Smith, "Outdoor Schools," The National Elementary School Principal, 31:31, April, 1952. 1°5Jm11an w. Smith, "Outdoor Education--Fad or Fun- damental?," Camping Magazine, 25:lO~12, December, 1953. 1°61hid., p. 12. f 103 chapters on school camping to two yearbooks and a textbook. For 1gp National Elementary Principal's bulletin on guidance he emphasized the role of camping in developing the rapport and relationship between students and teachers that) would offer "new avenues for real guidance."107 Smith illustrated this point and then asked: Where in the schoolis educational offerings can guidance function more simply and more directly than in the round-the-clock program in a camp setting?103 He suggested that the camp setting had great potential for democratic group living and the practicing of the best in human relations.109 In Children 13,29ppp, Smith described the modern curriculum as "developmental in nature and...based on real experiences that meet child needs in learning to live in a democracy and in the achievement of self-realization, human relationships, and civic responsibility."110 He related 107JulianW. Smith, "Guidance Values in School Cam - ing," The National Elementapy School Princi a1, 3L:l98-20 , September, 195t. 1°81b1d., p. 198. 1°9iLid., p. 204. 110Julian W. Smith, "Community School Camping," Children 1p Focus, Yearbook (washington, D. C.: The Amer— ican Association “for Health, Physical Education, and Row creation, l95h), p. 197° 4104 a hot community school camping served this concept, giving special attention to the implications for health, physical education, and recreation. Physical and recreational activities were said to be an important part of the school, camping program and a part of general education that pro- vides opportunities for "the development of skills, attitudes, and appreciations for learning and living in the out-of- doors."111 ‘ f Smith's chapter in Sghggl and Community clearly put school camping in the context of the community school con- cept.112 Presented as a part of general education for all children and teachers, school camping was shown to be a "natural and logical aspect of the community school." He believed that the outdoor environment provides added re- sources for learning opportunities and also "stimulates interest and concern for the protection and wise use of the many natural resources of the community."113 August, 1955, brought a change to Smithes position and title. While continuing part-time on the faculty of L lllIbid., p. 200. lledward G. Olsen and others, School and Communit , Chapter 10, "School Camping" (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954),.pp. 277-30h. 113Ib1d., p. 200. 105 , ' Machigan State University, he assumed directorship of a newly created project sponsored by the American Association 11“ and embarked for Health, Physical Education and Recreation ' on a nationwide mission of promoting outdoor education. Prior to the Outdoor Education Project, in June, . 1955, Smith published an article which seemed to indicate a change also in his interest and major emphasis.115 Whereas school camping had been the chief concern for the past ten years, his attention now was focused on a somewhat newer and broader interpretation of outdoor education. He recog- nized that learning activities which develop skill and appre- ciation for satisfaction in leisure time were as essential in the total outdoor education program as school camping. Instead of a concern for the goals of education being accomplished in a camp setting, he now suggested the use of many outdoor areas and facilities in a community and the use of an interdisciplinary approach. "No single department, subject matter, field, or individual interest has a corner "116 on outdoor education. The social, philosophical, and 11"Referred to hereafter as the AAHPER. 115JulianW. Smith, "Adventure in Outdoor Education," Journal 9; Health-Physical Education-Recreation, Vol. XXVI, PP. 7‘3: May-June, 1955. 1161bid., p. 8. 106 psychological basis that supported school camping now pro- vided Smith with a foundation for a broadly conceived out- door education program. ,ihg Outdoor Education Project 9; AAHPEE. The long- time interest of AAHPER in outdoor education resulted in a project designed to intensify and speed up the outdoor edu- cation programs of schools and colleges. An awareness of the role that such an organization might play had been maturing for some time, and by the early part of 1955 Plan- ning was under way to bring the project to reality; That summer it was about ready to be launched, and Smith, while in washington, was asked to examine the proposed plans. It was then that he was first requested to serve as director of the project. Smith took a quarter load with Michigan State Univer- sity in order to devote time to the project. He began to organize workshops throughout the country with the co-opera- tion of many groups and organizations. He continued to teach part time while gaining national stature and prestige with the expanding program of the project. From 1955 until the present time, Smith has been heavily involved in the work of the project and the activities of AAHPER. During this period he has continually modified his interpretation of outdoor education and his emphasis on programs and practices. 107 ‘ f In September, 1955, an outdoor education.newsletter, which Smith began in l95h, was jointly published by Michi- gan State University and the Outdoor Education Project.117 Smith presented a basic point of view which incorporated his concern for broad objectives of education including worthy use of leisure time and self-realization: Like the outdoors itself, outdoor education is an adventure experimental in character and not circumscribed by tradition. The activities that can take place outdoors are varied and whether labeled 'educational' or 'recreational', can fulé fill individual needs and desires. The challenge to schools and colleges in the use of the out-of- doors is to design learning experiences that will help to achieve objectives of education and Ego specific purposes of the school curriculum. In 1956, Smith gave an interpretation of‘the broad concept of outdoor learning, stating that "some kind of outdoor education is possible in every school even if it has to take place on the playground."119 He cited the need for schools to prepare students for increased leisure time 117The newsletter has been published, usually semi- annually, and provides one means of tracing modifications in Smith's concept of outdoor education. 118Julian W; Smith, Outdoor Education, newsletter, Vol. III, No.1 (East Lansing, Michigan: Outdoor Education Project, College of Education,.Michigan State University, September, 1955). 119Julian‘W. Smith, "Adventures in Outdoor Learning," LEA Jo rnal, L5: 156, March, 1956. 108 ”f . in later life and explained the purposes of the project in promoting outdoor education. He noted that: ...the project will place special emphasis on casting and fishing, shooting and hunting, boat- ing, and camping. Various other activities such as conservation, school camping, outing clubs, and winter sports will be straiggd since they are related to outdoor living. Elsewhere he described outdoor education as "primarily the use of the outdoors as a learning laboratory and the teaching of skills, attitudes, and appreciations for the use of "121 In a leisure time in the outdoors. report of the pro- ject's first year, a review of activities was presented and the purposes were listed: (1) Leadership training for outdoor education through workshops and clinics. (2) Interpretation of outdoor education and its . implications for school and college programs. (3) Preparation and distribution of needed ggstruc- - tional materials in outdoor education.l Also in 1956, Smith presented his interpretation of 12°1b1d., p. 158. 121American Association for Health, Physical Educa- tion and Recreation, The Outdoor Education Project (washing- ton, D. 0.: AAHPER, 19565. {brochure 122Julian‘W. Smith, "The Outdoor Education Project's First Year," Journal of Health-Physical Education~Recreation, _ ‘ p _ 109 outdoor education for classroom teachers.123_ He discussed reasons for including outdoor education in the elementary program under the following five topical headings: 1. Learning takes place most effectively through direct experience--beginning with concrete activities and letting useful abstractions follow. 2. Outdoor education provides a setting that makes teaching more creative. 3. Some objectives of the curriculum can be achieved more effectively outside the classroom in an outdoor situation. A. The out-of-doors is a community resource for education and should be used to the best advan- . tage in the school program. 5. Modern conditions of living gave increased the need for outdoor education.1 In describing the contributions of outdoor education to fitness, Smith envisioned outdoor education as a "climate for learning" and said that it ”may also be considered as an emphasis in the achievement of skills, attitudes, and appreciations that are essential for fitness in this age."125 By 1957 Smith was using the expression "education in and for the outdoors" in defining outdoor education. The 123Julian‘W. Smith, Outdoor Education (washington,D . C.: AAHPER,1956). (pamphlet 12“Ibid., pp. 6- 8 125Ju11an N. Smith, "What is Outdoor Education‘2, " Fitness for Secondar School Youth, Yearbook (washington, ‘79 c".":" ATHP-ER ""19 56; . p 779—— _ H . 110 , first part of thisphrase referred to use of the outdoors as a laboratory and the latter referred to the use of the outdoors for maximum participation in outdoor pursuits.126 This concept was further clarified and attention was given to its interpretation in three successive yearbooks of the AAHPER. "Maximum participation in outdoor pursuits" was changed to "acquisition of knowledge, attitudes, and skills 1:2; wiser use of the outdoors and natural rescurces" in 1960.127 In 1961, it was get; "the intelligent use of the "128 outdoors, and in 1962 it was for "a wiser use of the outdoors for the enrichment of living."129 Also in 1961, Smith described education for the outdoors as "acquisition of skills and appreciations for creative and satisfying free-time outdoor pursuits".130 , 126JulianW. Smith, Outdoor Education, newsletter, Vol. IV, No. 2 (East Lansing, Michigan: Outdoor Education Project, College of Education, Michigan State University, August: 1957). 127JulianW. Smith, "The Scope of Outdoor Education," Current Administrative Problems, Yearbook (washington, D. C.: AIHPEB, 1960), P. 156. 128Julian‘w. Smith, ”Outdoor Education," Leisure and the Schools, Yearbook (Washington, D. C.: AAHPER, 1961), p. 119. 129JulianW’. Smith, "Outdoor Education," The Growing Yearsa-Adolescence, Yearbook (washington, D. C.: AAHPER, 1962}, p. 252. - 130Julian W. Smith, "The Meaning and Purpose of Out- door Education," Illinois Journal of Education, 5225, October, 1961. 111 f f _ Thus, while still using a philosophical and psycho- logical basis for outdoor learning similar to that developed earlier in Michigan, he continued to give more attention to societal changes and to outdoor activities for leisure time. The first five or six years of the project helped to make Smith's broad interpretation of outdoor education widely known. He was very active on the national scene, and the period was highlighted by numerous state and regional work- shops, the publication of Outdoor Education £9; American Youth,131 and a conference in 1958 that brought together many leaders in outdoor education.132 In 1961, Smith began preparing a report for the Out- door Recreation Review Commission on developments in educar tion that affect outdoor recreational resources.133 In that same year he also began preparation for a second national conference to review developments in outdoor 131JulianW. Smith and Committee, Outdoor Education :2; American Youth (washington, D. C.: AAHPER, 1957). 132Julian‘w. Smith, "First National Conference on Outdoor Education," Journal 9; Health-Physical Education- Recreation, 29:8-10, October, 1953. 133Jnlian w. Smith, "Developments in the Field of Education Affecting Outdoor Recreation Resources," Trends ‘in Amerigan Living and Outdoor Recreation, ORRRC Study Report #22 (washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1962). education and suggest directions for the future. Elsewhere that year he said that "oneof the important next steps of the project should be to gigs ggeater emphasis ggggtg gut; .ggg; recreation".13A He felt that the AAHPER should have a major responsibility for that phase of outdoor education. I The ORRRC summary report135 was published the follow; ing year and the national conference, held in May, 1962, devoted a good deal of attention to the report and its implications for the future.136 the Journal of AAHPER, Smith's editorial examined changes In the may-June issue of in patterns of modern living and foresaw the need to recap-' ture some of the values of outdoor living and outdoor re- creation. He said that "the band wagon for outdoor recrea- tion in the United States has begun to roll", and raised the question as to whether schools and colleges would meet the new challenge of education for worthy use of leisure-~an lBl’Julian w. Smith, "A Look at the Activities and Accomplishments of the Outdoor Education Project, 1955-1961," (East Lansing, Michigan: The Outdoor Education Project, 1961).- (mimeographed) 135Outdoor Recreation 29; America, a report to the President and to the Congress by the Outdoor Recreation Review Commission (washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, January, 1962). 136American Association for'Health, Physical-Education and Recreation, Education in and For the Outdoors (Washing- ton, D. C.: AAHPER, 1953). _ 113 important part of which is learning and living in the out- doors.137 In stating a philosophy of recreation in 1962, Smith began by acknowledging that "the changing scene of living makes it necessary to translate time-used concepts into ideas and words that fit into the context of our current society."138 He presented a broad interpretation of recreation emphasizing the need for creative living, and the role of recreation and education in helping to provide for such living. In 1963, in a report on the project, Smith outlined the work that had been completed in eight years and listed priorities for the future. ‘Whereas "outdoor education and school camping" had been a commonly used phrase in the past, "outdoor education and outdoor recreation" seemed to be the dominant emphasis in the nineteen sixties. His interest and effort had shifted more directly to the worthy use of leisure time in a changed society and to the role that AAHPER might play in giving direction to programs of outdoor activity and recreational skills, and leadership preparation. 137Julian w. Smith, "Learning and Living in the Outdoors," Journal of HealthePhysical Education-Recreation, 138Julian W. Smith, "My Philosophy of Recreation," Recreation, 55:7 and 38, January, 1962. 11h ‘ A highlight of 1963 was the publication of the text, Outdoor Education.139 Smith, as senior author, brought to fruition a long-time desire to be able to incorporate in one volume the philosophy, ideas, and experience that had been ~a part of his professional career. The first section of the “book presented the philosophy and historical development of his broad concept of outdoor education, including diagrams of how outdoor education fits into the curriculum and cuts across all grade levels and subject matter areas.11*0 Much of the book goes beyond the public schools in a look at community-centered outdoor education and its implications for future developments of programs and practices. Smith's recent activities have continued at a national level in outdoor recreation and in the reinterpretation of outdoor education to fit the changing times. Though still involved with the schools, he has gone beyOnd them in his understanding and concern for the future physical, mental, and spiritual life of all people in the community. The Relationship Between Sharp's and Smith's Careers Having examined developments that centered around 139Julian‘W. Smith, et al., Outdoor Education (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963). 14°1bid., pp. 17 and 20. Sharpand Smith separately, it would seem.helpfu1 now to look briefly at the relationship between their lives and careers. There were apparently many similarities in their lives, yet individual differencesa-personal, geographica1,. educational, vocational, and professional--stand out and influenced the development of the basis for outdoor educa- tion. Chronologically, Sharp and Smith may be considered as contemporaries, both growing up in a rural family life in the early part of the twentieth century.. Being close to the land with its hardships, mysteries, and pleasures shaped their values which included respect, appreciation, and concern for the natural environment. They also gained spiritual and recreational satisfactions in the outdoors. Thus "outdoor living" was a part of a way of life that con- 'tinued in their private and professional lives in Varying degrees. Sharp's higher education took him from Kansas to New York where, by the age of thirty-four, he had earned a doctoral degree, and had followed his interest in sports 'with professional preparation in physical education. He had personally come in contact with some of the outstanding educational thinkers of his day. His interest in the out- doors, coupled with experiences at Teachers College and in 116 welfare agency camping, started him on a career in outdoor education thatbecame his one pursuit for over thirty years. n 0n the other hand, Smith stayed in Michigan and after Normal School began a career in public education that con- tinued while he worked toward degrees in education and edu- cational administration. At the age of forty-one he had completed a master's degree and twenty three years of public school service as teacher, principal, and coach. After "Sharp had already gained a reputation in school camping and outdoor education in the nineteen forties, Smith moved to the state level of educational activities in Michigan and_ for the next ten years progressed concurrently with Sharp in school camping, while gaining a broad perspective of educational developments in Michigan and around the country. In the nineteen fifties, each man was able to alter his career somewhat within the outdoor education movement. Sharp, after closing Life Camps, formed an independent association and, although struggling for existence, he then could more fully put into practice the ideals which he had been advocating. Not until he joined the faculty at Southern Illinois University and moved the Outdoor Education Associa- tion to Carbondale did he become involved in a co-operative arrangement. It was then, at the age of sixty-five, that he began to implement his philosophy in a new phase of activity. 117 f 'With broader emphasis on the total curriculum of the class- room at all grade levels, he developed plans for a new outdoor education center. Smith moved to the university setting in 1953 and two years later became director of the Outdoor Education Project for AAHPER. It was then that he started to develop more clearly his own concepts of what outdoor education should and could do. As the Project matured, Smith turned more to a concern for leisure time and the role of physical educatihn and recreation in outdoor education. Although the Project has brought him in close association with the physical education and recreation fields, he has continually emphasized the interdisciplinary nature of outdoor education and its application to all phases of curriculum. "From its inception, the Project interpreted outdoor education in its broadest sense and has been concerned with general educa- tion."lh1 » Both at the state and national levels, Smith's work involved him in co-operative ventures. The Michigan program brought together education and conservation fields in con- junction with the Kellogg Foundation. The Outdoor Education lhlJulian‘W. Smith, The Outdoor Education Project 2; the American Association for Health, Physical Education.ggg figcreation lundated}. (mimeographed) 118 Project is jointly sponsored by business, industry, and education. ‘ . Sharp and Smith developed spheres of influence that in many instances cut across and complemented each other. Sharp's influence was felt much earlier and it was in later developments that their differences in interpretation and approach became more noticeable. Sharp had always been more the idealist and philosopher with a missionary zeal, who would rather suffer than compromise his convictions. Smith was more the seasoned schoolman who was involved with admin- istration and promotion in public education at various levels, and who looked more to contemporaries for guidance and direction. Both, however, recognized the need to train and develop leadership in order to further outdoor education. Sharp was directly involved a good deal of his life in living in the outdoors and teaching in somewhat primitive conditions using small group processes while still carrying on the other programs of the Outdoor Education Association - and participating on a national level. Smith has been more involved than was Sharp in organizational and administrative matters. He has spent less time in actual outdoor living and teaching than in recreational activities. While Sharp and Smith each followed a different life pattern, they both were recognized by various segments of A 119 society and by the educational community as leaders who made significant contributions to the outdoor education movement and to education in general. Historically, Sharp stands out as one of the early leaders who devoted his life to one goal. ‘Smith, after public school experience, joined in the move- ment and moved rapidly to a position of leadership. Harold Benjamin, in a consideration of comparative education, stated as a law of diminishing reform that "any development in education will have less effect the further away from the origin".ll"2 Considering Sharp and his work in New York as the source of one approach to outdoor education, it seems reasonable that his particular approach would not necessarily be as successful in Michigan as it was in New York. One might also conclude that those persons most closely associated with Sharp would recognize his approach as the most ideal one to follow, and other approaches as less desirable. Benjamin also stated as a principle of comparative education that "once a people start along a particular educa- tional road nothing ever turns them aside except another educational road".ll*3 The inference drawn in making an lMaLecture by Harold Benjamin, Nashville, Tennessee, June 20, 1958. 143Ib1d. 120 _ analogy to "the people in outdoor education" is that the leaders have not only been able to influence their own followers, but in some instances the followers have looked from one leader to another; and, too, the leaders have gained new insights from particular followers as well as from each other. Thus it seems that as Sharp’s and Smith's “educational roads“ developed, modifications may have result- ed not only from their own personal awareness of the changing times, but also from association with other leaders and followers and from each other as well. Both leaders shared an interest in many of the same professional organizations and agencies concerned with camp- ing, education, conservation, and recreation. Also, Sharp was associated with the Progressive Education Association in the beginning and later was influential with the American Association of School Administrators. Smith has been closely associated with the Society of State Directors of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, and through the AAHPER has been involved with many facets of the National Education Association and more recently with the Bureau of Outdoor Recreation of the United States Department of the Interior. After the nineteen forties, Sharp and Smith had many opportunities for close association in committee work, at conferences and workshops, and with other professional - _ 121 programs. It_appears that each had a high regard for the other's contribution regardless of their differences. In 1961, Sharp said: "we will always owe a great debt of thanks to people in Michigan. Julian Smith became active in that program and took over from Lee Thurston who turned over the first spadefuls”.lh4 Following Sharp's death in 1963, Smith said: His life and work have inspired many of us to' give professional leadership to camping and outdoor education and he will live in the hearts and efforts of countless numbers who, in their own situations, will help make outdoor educaiign a reality in the lives of children and youth. ‘ . The figure on the following page presents a graphical comparison of the chronological development of periods and events in the careers of Sharp and Smith. Factors That Influenced Sharp and Smith The progressive education movement. The progressive education movement, an expression of progressivism, was so lhhtloyd B. Sharp, "Outdoor Education is Off the Pad," Extending Education, Vol. VI, No. l (Carbondale,' Illinois: The Outdoor Education Association, Inc., Septem— ber, 1961).. ' . ll’SJulianW. Smith, Outdoor Education, newsletter, Vol. II, No. 2 (East Lansing, Michigan: Outdoor Education Project, College of Education, Michigan State University, Spring, 196k). .122 mmmmmHza memem z<0HIUHE ZOHHODmHmzH QHQmaa mo Hzmzem 126 throughout his lifetime. It seems apparent also that some progressive ideas were later recognized by Sharp and Smith as they formulated broader concepts of outdoor education and emphasized a broader range of outdoor activities. Progressive education focused on the individual learner within a democratic society during the twenty years prior to Horld War II. This focus seemed to help provide Sharp and Smith with a baSis that would in effect make camp; ing a necessary part of the school program. It was apparent that the school camp was conceived asoa miniature democratic community for all children. Following the war, school camping continued to flourish as attacks on the schools and particularly on ”progressive education” led to the decline of the progressive education movement. In the early 1950's the Progressive Education Association disbanded, but outdoor education programs con- tinued to expand as the outdoor education concept was given new meaning in relation to the need for gaining understanding, self-reliance, and fitness. pip; organized camping movement. That camping and education were of mutual concern to many persons prior to 1960 has been substantiated in early studies reviewed in Chapter II, and in the camping literature as well. Profes- siomal journals have been the vehicle for voicing fact and . . . . .. i .. e , I. t . w . . e .w a .. . . . n . .. . 1 . . . . .... e. a 1 Wu . . g ,. n. , ... . .. J .m 127 . _ opinion, and for reporting research on the camping-education relationship. The following list of articles taken from Campipg Magazine from 1930 through 1960 gives a partial indication of that relationship: What Entitles a Summer Camp to a Place in the Progressive Education Association? Education and the Camp The Educational Program of a Camp Camping and Education The Contributions of Camping to Democracy Where Do we Stand in Education? The Role of Camping in Education Today The Role of the School in Camping Camping is Education Educational Leadership in School Camping School Camp--Outdoor Laboratory for Enriched Learning _ Sharp's association with many of the early recognized leaders in summer camping seems likely to have helped him in formulating or modifying some of his ideas on school camping. He acknowledged the contributions of organized camping in the formulation of plans for reorganizing Life Camps, and camping was an interest of some of his associates at Teachers College. Also, it may be assumed that he was continually aware of camping practices and familiar with the professional - 128 literature. - _ Sharp was active in professional camping organiza; tions early in his career, and served as vice-president of the American Camping Association. He was a contributor to Camping Ma azine, served on camping committees, and parti- cipated in camping programs and conferences throughout the country. In the early nineteen forties, he was a partici- pant in the series of American Camping Association workshops, cofsponsored by the Kellogg Foundation, that developed camp standardsl52 and examined the role of camping in America.”3 Smith's involvement in camping dates from the begin— nings of school camping at Clear Lake Camp in Michigan in l9h0. He has been a member of the American Camping Associa- tion, serving as chairman of its school camping committee and has been a contributor to Camping Magazine. He, too, has participated in numerous camping workshops and confer- ences. As school camping progressed, Smith, as well as others, came to feel that "the voice of school camping" should be within the field of education rather than within organized camping. 152American Camping Association, marks of Good Campipg (New York: Association Press, l9hl).‘_TpampElet) l'53The Camping Ma azine, Vol. XIV, No. 2, February, l9h2. (Special issue) 129 . Sharp, and later Smith, were both active spokesmen in the American Camping Association and they were influential at various times among its members. Later, however, they apparently withdrew from participation at the policy making level as their own interests moved in other directions. It would be extremely difficult to assess the extent of influence that the organized camping movement had on Sharp and Smith. Camping had gained public acceptance over a number of years and was generally felt to be a good exper; ience for youth. Therefore, it provided an expedient way for interpreting the outdoor education concept. It seems reasonable that Sharp would have had more opportunities for direct contact with persons actively involved in all types of camping, while Smith's contacts were limited more to indirect associations, except in school camping, and with key staff and officers of the American Camping Association. From such direct and indirect associations, new insights and ideas could have possibly been gained and been of help in the development of a basis for outdoor education. Specifically, the organized camping movement may have provided Sharp and Smith with ideas about: (1) how camping experiences could serve as a partial fulfillment of the broad objectives of education, (2) how camping could be used as a framework for providing outdoor learning experiences 130 related to the school program, and (3) how direct exper- iences might best be employed outdoors with groups of children. Each man in his own way moved away from.organized camping as his own satisfactions within the movement less- ened and as his own interests and insights developed suffi- ciently to move beyond the level of the camping movement itself. Recreation, 1a , gpg physical education movements. The early growth of the three closely related movements—- recreation, play, and physical education-~has been documented in texts, articles, and dissertations. It is obvious from a broad sampling of these sources that: (1) many of their leaders were one and the same, (2)a number of their advo- cates were engaged in summer camping, or recognized it as a part of one or more of the movements, (3) there was a desire by some leaders to have camping incorporated in the school program and other community programs, and (A) much of their philosophy and many of their programs were an expression of progressivism. As these movements were becoming more solidified and gaining recognition in the schools and community, profes- sional fields were becoming more clearly drawn. This served as a means for identifying more sharply similarities and differences of opinion and interest. The professional p 131 organizations that also developed further provided for group identity and, co-operatively as well as competitively, they sought to assume responsibility for leadership in camping. Sharp's training and early experiences were directly involved in these developments and, while continuing to maintain working relationships with the physical education and recreation fields throughout his life, his interest in these aspects of the school program diminished as he moved more from school camping to a broader school program of outdoor education. In contrast, Smith's early training and experience kept him on the periphery of recreation and physical educa- tion until he was past forty years old. It was then as State Athletic Director and later as a staff member in the Department of Public Instruction that he became professionally involved in health, physical education, and recreation. ‘Uith the advent of the Outdoor Education Project he entered the main stream of national affairs becoming one of the major spokesmen for outdoor education in the AAHPER. Re- cently, his broad interpretation of outdoor education, including a concern for leisure time, has resulted in more involvement with the expanding program of outdoor recreation. Thus it seems that Sharp moved away from the physical educa- tion and recreation areas while Smith moved towards them. - . 132 In the process, both seemed to have broadened their inter- pretation of/outdoor education. iPhysical education provided Sharp with a stimulus to pursue professional preparation through the doctoral level and also served as part of a framework for conducting camping programs. The endorsement of camping by physical education and recreation groups lent support to his early. efforts at making camping a part of the school program and helped him in emphasizing the role of camping in developing physical and recreational skills. Later physical education and recreation seemed to act as a thorn in his side as he shifted towards more of a concern for outdoor learning experiences with classroom academic subject matter. Smith's long association with health, physical education, and re- creation provided him with ideas on the nature of fitness and leisure and the role of camping and outdoor education in meeting fitness and leisure-time needs. Physical education and recreation groups have served both Sharp and Smith with a market place for sharing ideas on outdoor education. As sponsors of outdoor activities, such groups have brought together many persons from various fields for meetings, conferences, workshops, and task forces. Thus Sharp and Smith have had many opportunities for not only voicing their own philosophy, but for sampling the . 133 thoughts and reactions of others who share some of their same 603691118 0 ‘zhg coppunitz gphppl,movemgnt. The community school movement, with its emphasis on the relation of the school program to community living and the use of the community as a laboratory for learning, has served as a catalyst for out; door education. It emphasizes the major areas and problems of the community as a source of direction for the curriculum and the utilization of community resources for improving human welfare. It provides a framework in.which teachers can leave the classroom and move outdoors for enriched learning experiences. Hart's social interpretation of education helped to give impetus to the community school.l§k The yearbook of the National Association for the Study of Education was 156 twice devoted to the community schoollS5’ and Olson provided a detailed treatment of the community school concept ' 15hJoseph K. Hart, A_Social Inter rotation pf Edu- cation (New York:. Holt and Co., 1929 . 155Iiational Society for the Study of Education, Egg Communitz School, Yearbook, No. 52, Part II (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953). . 156National Society for the Study of Education, Communitz Education, Yearbook, No. 58, Part I (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1959). 13# in 1954.?57 - - Sharp, it seems, gave little recognition to the community school in his writings on outdoor education. However, in examining his ideas and programs, it was evident that these could be interpreted as an expression of that concept. On the other hand, Smith was involved in school camping and outdoor education as a part of community school development in Mflchigan. As chairman of the planning com— mittee for the 1957 bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals on outdoor education, he called upon G. Robert Koopman to relate the theory of the community school to outdoor education. In the 1963 text, Outdoor Education, he devoted several pages to the community school in tracing the development of outdoor education.”8 The community school movement seems to have provided Sharp and Smith with two kinds of ideas that were adaptable to their own concerns. To extend learning beyond the class- room into the outdoors required a reasonable basis. While the concept of direct experience offered one element of that basis, the notion of using the community as a resource for such experiences provided another. much of the community 157Edward G. Olsen and others, School gpg Communit (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 195A). 1533mith, _e_:t__g_l_., pp. cit., pp. 32-36. _ 135 was made up of natural phenomena, and the outeof-doors was in some way a part of daily living for most people. The two elements seemed to complement each other and were closely associated with the progressive education movement's effort to broaden the functions of the school. The school camp was conceived as a community apart from the larger community. Both Sharp and Smith recognized the near ideal situation of the camp setting as a children's community for democratic living. In their later interpre- tations of outdoor education, community school camping remained an important goal for schools, but other outdoor activities were also acknowledged as part of an on-going community school program. Smith particularly advocated out- door education for leisure time as a part of the community school program. he conservgtion movement. It would seem natural that educators interested in outdoor learning would also be concerned with conservation. Such has been the case with many individuals and groups involved in outdoor edu- cation and so it was with the leaders in the outdoor edu— cation movement. Both Sharp and Smith developed an awareness and appreciation of natural resources in their youth and the H 136 wise use of the outdoors was very much a part of the outdoor education concept that each advocated. Sharp, as a teacher, was himself an example worth emulating in his knowledge and skill in the outdoors. The setting he taught in for many years was rustic and primitive and the subject matter he dealt with was primarily native and natural. Smith, as a participant in outdoor activities, was concerned with the tremendous use being made of the outdoors for leisure-time pursuits and the need for educating for wise use of resources in satisfying the increasing demand placed on outdoor areas and facilities. Sharp and Smith had broad associations with persons identified as professional conservationists and conservation educators. Sharp had outstanding conservation teachers on his staff at National Camp while Smith worked closely with the State Department of Conservation in Michigan. They both envisioned conservation not as a separate subject, but rather as being integrated with many kinds of learning experiences in camping and in the school curriculum. _ The conservation movement seemed to provide Sharp and Smith with a continually deepening appreciation and under- standing of the outdoors as they attempted to interpret the importance of the outdoors in the school program and in the lives of people everywhere. Their own personal concern for 137 . wise use of the outdoors may have served as a motivation for seeking further insight into the sociological and soon? omic aspects of using the outdoors. Such insights seem to have aided them in giving meaning to outdoor education pro- grams and practices that provide satisfactions for many~ diverse purposes and interests. .— Educational philosophy and psychology. It has already been shown in examining other influences on Sharp and Smith that elements of progressive education philosophy helped to form a basis for camping, recreation, physical education, and the community school movements. It is also apparent that elements in these interrelated movements, along with conservation, were significant in the development of a basis for outdoor education. In conjunction with the philosophical position of progressive education were psychological concepts and educational methodology which emphasized the emotional and social needs of the individual, learning by experience, creative self-expression, pupil interests, and co-operative planning and problem solving. Sharp's life was devoted to implementing the demo- cratic ideals implicit in progressive education. Through a program of camping he attempted to prove that democratic educational goals could be met, capitalizing on first hand 138 . experiences. Later he used the same basic principle in promoting outdoor learning for the classroom. Smith was concerned with essentially the same prin- ciple of direct learning, but his own convictions and exper- iences led him away from Sharp's concept of camping toward a broader application in many areas of the school program. Both Sharp and Smith seemed to rely heavily on the concept of direct experience, but without providing clear insight into the quality of such experience or its rela- tionship to other forms of learning. They each made refer- ence to authorities that supported their views, but seemed to feel little need for presenting a detailed examination and analysis of the process of learning. The goals of education stated by the Educational Policies Commission in 1938 seemed to be accepted by Smith as a reflection of philosophy that could serve as a baseline for interpreting outdoor education. Sharp, too, relied on these educational objectives, but neither man provided a comprehensive discourse on the application of educational philosophy to outdoor education. Thus it seems that Sharp and Smith chose carefully from the broad body of philosophical and psychological lit- erature those elements which they recognized as lending support to their efforts, and which in some instances were 139 popular positions taken by many leading educators during the early period of school camping. Whereas Sharp looked primarily to some of the basic pronouncements of Dewey and Kilpatrick, Smith relied more on interpretations from.con- temporary sources in gaining an understanding of the develop- ment of school curriculum, the nature of the learner, and the process of learning. Socio-cultural factors. Just as the changing char- acter of society has influenced all educational endeavors so too its impact has been felt in the development of out- door education. Historically, events and conditions over the past fifty years have in some way influenced the think- ing of many educational leaders resulting in proposals for change and modification in the school program. Political, economic, and social factors were recognized and led to certain innovations and emphases. Thus, the Civilian Con- servation Corps grew out of events surrounding the depres- sion era, fitness programs became important following periods of conflict, and camping grew out of the social and economic stress of the nineteen twenties and thirties. The philosophical basis that supported early camping efforts has been discussed separately, but may also be included as a part of a combination of causal factors that influenced outdoor education. In 1961, Hammerman analyzed socio-cultural 1&0 factors that influenced the development of camping education and concluded that the development was a result of the - natural outgrowth of socio~cultural forces in the American society.”9 As Sharp and Smith developed the outdoor education concept it was apparent that they were sensitive to the changing times and responded with modifications in both philosophy and programs. It may well have been that in the nineteen fifties, at a time when "progressive education" was rapidly falling out of vogue, a shift away from school camping was partly due to a recognition by Sharp and Smith of changing sociomcultural conditions as well as to the immediate situation in which they found themselves. During that time Sharp and Smith were establishing new organiza- tional patterns under the Outdoor Education Association and the Outdoor Education Project respectively. Later, Sharpie program for preparation of classroom teachers at all grade levels and Smithis concern with out- door recreation may have resulted from their recognition of a need for change of emphasis because of recognized changes in society. During the years immediately preceding Sharp“s 159Donald R. Hammerman, "An Historical Analysis of the Socio-Cultural Factors that Influenced the Development of Camping Education? (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Penn- sylvania, 1961). 141 _ . death, he seemed to be responding to a general concern for quality in education and.a growing emphasis on efficiency and excellence in intellectual development. Smith, mean- while, seemed to have focused on the complex problems grows ing out of the increase in leisure time available to many people in urban areas. Curriculum g§g_§grriculum development. Just as those persons involved in camping were able to establish a pro? fessional field with professional organizations, individuals involved in curriculum improvement became identified and represented in professional organizations. Principals7 and administratorsv associations have noted the rise of school camping and outdoor education and in many instances have given support and leadership. The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development also has shown an interest in the movement at various times. Van Til explored the possibilities of school camping in the lth Yearbook,160 and in 1951 a concern for experiencing reality first hand resulted in a proposal for extending the school year through campingolél 16OWilliam Van Til, "Schools and Camping,” Toward g 32! Curriculum, Yearbook of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Chapter 7 (Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, l9hh)9-PP. 92-10h. 161Association for Supervision and Curriculum Devel— opment, Action for Curriculum Im roveme t, Yearbook of the Association (washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1951h A . lh2 f By l95h, ASCD gave recognition to school camping as a pros mising frontier in school improvement,162 but since that time there have been no further publications.163 During the approximately thirty-year time span which has encompassed Sharp‘s and Smith's efforts in outdoor education, the concept of curriculum change has itself been modified. In 1930, Sharp referred to Cockingl6h and 165 who had proposed administrative and organiza- Bosner tional procedures for curriculum making and curriculum construction. The curriculum seemingly was printed on paper and specialists were responsible for its improvement. Thirtys three years later Smith discussed curriculum improvement in relation to the "initiation of outdoor education activities "166 and programs in a community, and cited as a reference the 1962 ASCD yearbook which was concerned with underlying 162John w. Gilliland, School Camping (Washington, D. C.: ASCD, 1951.). ""“"‘ 163Margaret Gill, Executive Secretary of ASCD, letter to author, February 13, 196A. 16(”Walter D. Cooking, Administrative Procedures in Curriculum.Making for Public Schools (New'York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1928). 165Frederick G. Bosner, The Elementary School Cur- riculum (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1922?. 166Smith, g3 al., op. cit., p. 287. - ~ , . 1&3 . _ f principles for affecting change in behavior.‘ Curriculum was envisioned as learning experiences that the school assumes responsibility for, and the teacher was conceived as the agent most directly responsible for improved curri; culum. In 1961, Sharp emphasized the role of the teacher in developing outdoor education when he Said that "the whole idea should emanate from the classroom and be carried on by the teacher, basically. The concept of outdoor education still emanates from the classroom as basic cur- riculum".167 Smith, too, argued that school camping and outdoor education were a part of the curriculum and not something added on.168 As the concept of curriculum underwent changes Sharp and Smith seemed to recognize that a broader interpretation would more readily encompass the kinds of outdoor activities they had been proposing, and also would open the way for further programs and practices outside the classroom. They often referred to outdoor education as a curriculum inno- vation and evidently saw the value of having outdoor educa- tion adapted as part of curriculum improvement endeavors. 0““ 167Lloyd B. Sharp, "Outdoor Education is Off the Pad,“‘Extending Education (Carbondale, Illinois: The Outdoor Education Association, Vol. VI,.No. l, 1961). 1688mith, loo. cit. 144 On several occasions both leaders outlined plans for develop- ing outdoor education programs. However, their writings revealed little discussion in depth of the underlying prin- ciples and procedures for affecting change in behavior necessary to improve curriculum. Contributions f individuals. Movements and organ- izations can be used effectively as a framework for describ- ing historical developments; but another approach may be made through an examination of people who individually and in groups work toward the achievement of recognized goals. In retrospect these people can be categorized impersonally as part of particular historical events, but they can also be approached through an examination of the human elements, the personal nature of events, and the interaction between individuals. To paraphrase Allport, there are many instances where individuality is of no concern, but when there is an interest in transcending the limitations of averages and the generalized human mind, we then become concerned with a more adequate account of personal growth.169 Neither time nor purpose permits a detailed account of the personal relationship between Sharp and Smith and their relationship with countless other individuals 169Gordon W. Allport, Becoming (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955). f 1A5 associated with the outdoor education movement. However, an example to illustrate the importance of such personal relationships described above seems worthy of inclusion in this section.dealing with influential factors. . At the time that Ernest 0. Nelby was at Northwestern University he was involved in professional activities that brought him in contact with Sharp, who was for a time at the University of Chicago.170 In 19A5, Melby went to New York University to become Dean of the College of Education. The University had already been offering credit for parti- cipation in Sharp's leadership training program for a number of years and Melby was a participant in the 19t6 conference on outdoor education held at National Camp. .When Sharp was about to lose support from Life, it was Jay B. Nash, head of the recreation department, who arranged for Sharp to seek Melby's help. The result of the events that occurred at that period were described by Melby as "one of my worst failures at New York University".171 Also, while Melby was at Northwestern University, a faculty member suggested bringing Hugh B. Masters from North Texas State College to teach a summer guidance course. When 170Information from Ernest O. Melby, personal inter- view, July 23, 1963. 1711b1d. 1 _ . 11.6 the Kellogg Foundation was looking for an assistant educa- tional director in 1937 it was Melby that recommended Musters for the position. Masters took the position, came to know Sharp and his work, and began to work closely with Smith. He was instrumental in giving impetus to school camping on a year-round basis. His vision of the role of the outdoors in education and his inspirational leadership have been ap- preciated by others in the outdoor education movement. In 1952, Melby wrote the introduction to Donaldson's book in which he championed school camping programs under competent leadership as a valuable contribution to educa- tion.172 Donaldson was exposed to Sharp's philosophy and program in the nineteen forties,173 and later went to Michi- gan where he worked closely with Masters and Smith before moving on "to Tyler, Texas. As Smith got involved in the Michigan program in the nineteen forties, he came to know Masters and Donaldson quite well and also Sharp and Melby in New York. When Melby retired from.New York University in 1955, he joined the faculty at Michigan State University where Smith was already l72George'W. Donaldson, School Cm mping (New York: Association Press, 1952). 173George‘w. Donaldson, "Living and Learning Out- doors," The School Executive, 6h 65 6 February, l9h5. 1h? a member. . _ .. f. ‘f -_ ‘ In 1962, the Outdoor Education Project sponsored a national conference on outdoor education. All of the men previously mentioned were participants--Smith was chairman of the planning committee, Masters delivered one of the keynote addresses, and Melby spoke at the conclusion.174 _ - Smith related an example of a similar nature in describing early developments centered around Clear Lake Camp.175 Arrangements had been made with Sharp to recount other such events, but his death occurred during the time the writer was planning for a personal interview with him. The role that Melby has played in the development of a basis for outdoor education might be described as one of facilitator and supporter. To that extent he, like many others, has been a part of the outdoor education movement. Though the ihpact of his thinking may not be asrroadily identified as that of John Dewey or of Earl C. Kelley of wayne State University, his contributions have been signi- ficant in his serving as a catalyst and in his voicing support. The number of persons who were in some way influential 17“American Association of Health, Physical Educa— tion, and Recreation, Education in ggd For the Outdoors (Washington, D. C.: AAHPEB, 19637. 1753mm, _e_t_ ale. 22o cit... pp» 93-99 , 1&8 . in the lives and careers of Sharp and Smith would be almost endless and the contributions that each made to either one or both of them would constitute a study within itself. However, a partial list of some persons recognized by Smith, friends of Sharp, and the writer may provide additional insights. Smith recently acknowledged the contributions of Kelley, Masters, Thurston, Hoffmaster, KOOpman,and Nash.176 One could add to this group Sharp, Donaldson, Troester, Carlson, and several figures in education, physical educa- tion, recreation, and conservation. Sharp gained much from Dewey and Kilpatrick.177 His close working relationship with Fretwell, and later Vinal, Partridge, and other staff members of National Camp may have been significant. Cooking, Cooper, and Morris were impor- tant catalysts. II. THE PRESENT BASIS FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION Sources 9: the Basis for Outdoor Education In the historical development of the outdoor education ’ l761nformation from Julian W. Smith, personal inter- view, June 23, 196L. 177Information from Ann Brinley and Thomas J. Rillo, personal interview, June 27, l96h. _+ or 1A9. _ _ concept there have been keyindividuals who devoted them? selves to the task of interpreting and promoting outdoor education programs and practices. It has been suggested that Sharp and Smith were the two most outstanding figures in this development and that a basis for outdoor education can be attributed to their philosophy and thought. Analysis of the developments centered around their lives and careers has provided a background for stating the nature of that basis which was established and modified during a period of some thirty years. The sources of the basis might be viewed in several ways. First, it is recognized that all things verbalized by Sharp and Smith were not necessarily original with them. The interrelatedness of both personal and impersonal factors that were influential in their lives has been previously acknowledged. The contention here is that the contributions of these two individuals have been the most significant in interpreting the outdoor education concept, and that it has been their leadership roles which have been recognized as outstanding in the development of the movement. In another sense, the sources of the basis, whether :interpreted originally by Sharp and Smith, or by other spokesmen in the movement, are multidimensional and are traceable to a number of historical events, to the thoughts 150 and ideas of many other individuals, and to the particular set of personal circumstances that may have occurred at any given time. Finally, the sources used in describing the nature of the basis can be found in the writings of Sharp and Smith, or in other writings referred to by them as supportive of their position. The Nature of the Basis for Outdoo;,Education _“_— Some type of organizational framework seems necessary to describe the characteristics of the basis for outdoor education. Rather than presenting a detailed exposition, the nature of the basis will be stated under the following headings: The definition of outdoor education The nature of society and its cultural values The learner and learning The role and function of the school Processes of developing programs and practices Although reference will be made to Sharst and Smith's con- tributions, no attempt will be made to present two bases. It is reasonable to assume that Sharp‘s early leadership has been duly acknowledged in previous sections of this chapter. The purpose here is to state briefly what ig and 151 not who did. . The definition 9f outdoor education. In examining the literature, three fairly distinctive outdoor education concepts were found. These can be classified chronologically according to: a. The period when the outdoor education concept was called school_camping or camping education as part of a school camping movement. b. The period when the outdoor education concept ‘was part of a school camping find outdoor educa- tion movement. c. The period when the outdoor education concept was part of an outdoor education movement. (This classification also implies that there were changes in the school camping and camping education concepts as well.) Thus it becomes necessary to give meaning to each concept within each period. As organized summer camping became more of an esta- blished movement, its emphasis changed from "recreation and play" to "education". There was experimentation with educa- tional camping in agency, welfare, and private camps, and in a few private and public school programs. Beginning in the mid-nineteen thirties and steadily increasing over a period of approximately ten years, a number of school camping pro- grams developed. The term "outdoor education" was rarely h 152 in the literature during this time, but rather the conhept of "camping" or ”camping education" was used in describing learning experiences in a camp setting or in outdoor activi- ties that served as a lead-up to school camping. By the mid-nineteen forties, and from then until the mid-nineteen fifties, outdoor education became a concept used at first to describe certain ”curriculum experiences" in camp and later to designate a number of outdoor learning experiences and areas. Itwas during this period, when the outdoor education concept became more widely accepted, that the movement became one of school camping and outdoor educa- tion. ‘ For approximately the past ten years, school camping has gradually become relegated to one aspect of an outdoor education movement as the concept of outdoor education has become broader, encompassing a wider range of learning experiences. Camping education now refers only to those experiences that take place in a camp setting, or "resident outdoor education" facility. This change in terminology might be more easily under- stood if visualized diagrammatically.~ For purposes of illus- tration, Figure 3 on page 153 has definite dates assigned to each period. In actuality, there are no clear delinea- tions and, therefore, the dates should be interpreted as 153 representative approximations. In the past few years, outdoor education, as applied to the school program, has come to mean "all of that learn- ing included in the curriculum in any area at any level that can best be learned outside the classroom".178 Primary Secondary Periodf movement Concept Concept 1880-1935 Organized Summer Camping Outing Camping l935-l9h5 School Camping Camping er School Camping Camping Education l9h5-l955 School Camping School Camping or Outdoor and Outdoor Camping Education Education Education 1955-1964 Outdoor Educa- Outdoor Education Camping tion Education or Resident Out- door Education *Dates are representative“approximations. FIGURE 3 CHANGES IN OUTDOOR EDUCATION TERMINOLOGY This implies not only a wide variety of learning experiences in various outdoor settings, but also the development of 178Lloyd B. Sharp, Outdoor Education Center (Carbondale, Illinois: The Educational Council of 100, Inc., 1961), p. 10. 15. e skills, appreciations, and attitudes needed for_gaining maximum satisfaction in outdoor pursuits. outdoor educa: tion, therefore, is sometimes simply stated as "learning .i3 and :2; the outdoors".179 The above definition differs from those stated during the school camping movement when outdoor education was described as a common sense method of learning through direct experience or thought of as the subject matter of the curriculum that could best be learned in a camp setting. No definition suffices without detailed explanation, and the current one can be amplified by citing functional definitions that have been provided by Sharp and Smith through? out the past thirty years. Some of the definitive expressions used in describing outdoor education were also used at times in describing camping education and school camping. Therefore, the reader is cautioned to refer to the periods and terminology in Figure 3 as a reference point. Sharp stated the basic thesis for outdoor education many times and in many ways: That which can best be learned inside the class- room should be learned there; and that which can 1793mm, _e__t_ al., 92. gig. 155 best be learned through direct experience outside the classroom, in contact with native materiaig and life situations, should there be learned. 0 In the literature from l9h5 to 1963*, he further stated that outdoor education: 9. ...places the main emphasis on learning through direct experience. ...is the wedge that can open that interesting door to realism, adventure, and other values. ...means taking the children to the original source material whenever possible. ...is the utilization of the whole environmental area commencing with the school yard and extending outward as far as the students care to walk or the school authorities care to transport them. ...forces the issue of integration in the cur- riculum, to study and experience things in their total relationships--one thing to the . other; ...provides children with "the experience of natural living as a means of sharpening and deepening all of their learning. ...is normal; it is plain, direct, and simple. ...has to come in a flow of experience and discovery. ...is a total interrelationship of all kinds of experiences. 180Lloyd B. Sharp, "Basic Considerations in Outdoor and Camping Education," The Bulletin of the National Associa- tion.gf Secondary School Princi als, 31:43, may, l9h7. *Reference sources are listed chronologically in Appendix A. 10. ll. 12. 156 ...includes all the curriculum, all areas of learning at any level. ...is living and learning in the out-of-doors. ...provides many opportunities for action which in turn produces a change in behavior. Smith also provided numerous interpretations of the outdoor education concept during the same period.* He said that outdoor education: 1. ...cuts across the school's curriculum offerings through the sciences, arts, music, outdoor sports, and many other activities. ...involves the use of the outeof-doors as an experiential curriculum in which some of the needs of children and youth can be fulfilled. ...includes activities related directly to the school curriculum. ...presents opportunities for relating subject matter to reality rather than using a new method to meet old subject matter objectives. ...is 'those learnings that can be achieved best outside of the classroom'. ...is an integral part of the community school curriculum and an essential in general education. ...is more conducive to direct experience and lends itself to a maximum amount of co-operative planning. . ...means education in the outdoors.' ...deals directly with the natural resources *Reference sources are listed chronologically in Appendix B. 157 and life situations that are found in outdoor settings. 10. ...consists of those direct learning experiences that involve enjoying, interpreting, and wisely using the natural environment in achieving, at least in part, the objectives of education. 11. ...constitutes a setting for learning and a way of living. 12. ...is a means of curriculum enrichment. The nature 9: society gng itg cultural values. It is reasonable to assume that leaders in outdoor education have been aware of many of the facets of society and values held by different segments of the culture. Filtered through a personal value system, a person gains insights and impres- sions of what is happening around him and attributes special importance to those particular aspects of societal values and changes as it fits his own needs and interests and his perception of the needs and interests of others. In light of the above, it seems that in outdoor education, a leader's personal awareness of himself and society becomes translated into a social basis for action. As a spokesman for the outdoor education movement, he reveals his interpretation of the basis for outdoor education verbally both in speech and writing. From an examination of Sharp's and Smith's recent writings there was found to be due recognition given to the 158 impact of industrialization and to needs growing out of changing patterns of living. As population increased and shifted from a rural society to an urban society with less than ten percent of the people still living on farms, a frenzied tempo of modern living has resulted. Urbanization has deprived children from close contact with the land, automation and mechanization have dulled creative energy while leaving more free time available, and people have become more sedentary. While a high standard of living has brought material advantages, man has also harnessed a force that is capable of mass destruction. In America, people have more time to engage in acti- vities of their own choice, and there has been a parallel increase of interest in and use of the outdoors for release, relaxation, and stabilization of body and mind. However, there is a wide-spread lack of appreciation and skill for participation in creative living. Modern society has created the need for mental and physical fitness, for regaining contact with basic realities found in nature, for a more creative living, and for spiri- tual satisfactions. Man has the need to live peaceably with man and with nature and to develop tolerance, self-reliance, and understanding. One very important value held for a democracy such as 159 cars is the demand for literate people who will preserve and extend freedom, and who can grasp basic human values, and the basic realities of life. Our natural heritage of outdoor living in the frontier tradition and our concern for the wise use of natural resources are two very significant aspects of our cultural values. A free public education for all children is important in society and the school acts as an agent for developing each individual to his fullest potential as well as for in- stilling democratic values and passing on the cultural heritage. Ihg learner and learning. It is believed that the nature of man is such that basically he has a need for none artificial environment and cannot be separated from it, for to separate him causes continuous pressures. Therefore, there will always.be a need to get back to the soil in which man has his roots. Man is totally dependent upon the natur- a1 resources for food, clothing, and shelter, and this condi- tion will always exist. Man basically needs to identify with something larger than self and strives for spiritual uplift. He is by nature a social animal and seeks to have pleasure in life. Children and youth can be described as adventurous, exploratory minded, active, energetic, and curious. They 160 possess a natural yearning for the vigorous outdoor life and respond readily and happily to it. Outdoor education is predicated on the principle of learning through direct experiences. This implies that there is multisensory learning in which the learner is actively involved with concrete, physical reality. "Learning by doing," as this principle is sometimes commonly called, also implies that the learner is involved as a total organism. The methods used in outdoor education are said to pro- vide intrinsic motivation. The outdoors is approached through discovery, exploration, adventure, and research in which there is intense interest in activities that are natural to children and problem solving is used in the context of the natural setting. Outdoor education provides for integration of learn- ing in a setting that makes teaching more creative, and also is directed toward the acquisition of specific skills and knowledge. There is a permissive atmosphere which develops teacher-pupil rapport and allows students to become actively involved in planning with the teacher for learning experiences. The role and function of the school. When education is broadly defined as living and the objective is prepara- tion for living at its best, the goals for general education become spelled out in the detailed aims formulated by the . 161 Educational Policies Commission,181 The implementation of these aims in the community school setting means that public education has as part of its responsibility the providing for: (l) a background for citizenship through opportuni— ties to emperience democratic processes and to develop appre- ciation and respect for the country, (2) the preservation of a heritage of outdoor living and the development of the ability to live safely and happily in the outdoorso (3) experiences in realistic and purposeful living which include practice in living together in a manner that would bring about the best total personality growth and understanding of all groups, creeds, and raceso (A) an enrichment of spiritual lifeo (5) the use of the outdoors as a laboratory to supplement classroom learningc (6) instilling love, appreciation, understanding, and wise use of the outdoors and all of its resources and beauty. 181Educational Policies Commission, 1g; Purposes 9; Education in American Democrac (Washington, D, Co: Nation- al Education Association, 19335,. The aims were stated under the headings of self-realization, human relationship, economic efficiency, and civic responsibility, 162 (7) experiences relating to fitness and safety. (8i development of skills, attitudes,and apprecia- tions that result in happy and constructive use of leisure time° Processes pf developing programs and practiceso Both. Sharp and Smith recognized the need for preparing leadership and were actively involved in teaching courses, conducting workshOps and institutes, and speaking before many audiences throughout the country, As consultants they served a key role in the initiation and development of a number of pro? grams, pilot projects,and experimental ventures° Sharp's own participation in primitive outdoor living and Smith's interest in outdoor recreational activities served as living examples of the philosophy they promoted, In the literature, they offered advice, inspiration, and encouragement as well as precepts and specific information on procedures for initiating and developing programs. They emphasized the need for co-operative effort through an interdisciplinary approach at all levels-~local, state, and nationalo Efforts Towards Refining the Basis for Outdoor Education In the past few years there has been an increasing awareness by Smith of the importance of outdoor recreational activities in various segments of societyo He has become 163 , more active at the national level in encouraging the expan- sion of outdoor recreation programs, facilities, and resources, and has given more time to the reinnerpretation of the outs door education concept in light of these developments. In, the process, depth and breadth have been given to the meaning of the outdoor education concept. It is interesting to note that outdoor education was at one time thought of as being jointly a movement with school camping whereas now, in the literature, it is used in the phrase "outdoor education gpg outdoorrecreation"o Thus there are indications thata new movement is in the making with modifications in the basis for outdoor educationo Sharp, on the other hand, was aware of another characteristic in society more closely concerned with the conventional role of the school. The general shift in education in the past few years towards "excellence" and efficiency in learning provided the opportunity for Sharp, a short time before his death, to give more attention to land areas for enriched learning and to interpret the "academic soundness” of outdoor education. In 1963 he said that ”as long as the program (of outdoor education) is based on efficiency of learning and is an integral part of the curriculum, rapid progress will be made.”1$2 182Lloyd Bo Sharp, address presented at the National~ Convention of the American Association of School Administra— tors, Atlantic City, New Jersey, February 19, 1963,- _ . 16h Intellectual efficiency through outdoor learning was also emphasized by Hammerman and Hammerman in 196A.183 ‘ A basis does not evolve apart from experience and involvement of those who are part of the movement. Through the activities and concerns for leadership, there seems to be a continuous recognition of changes resulting in ideas and concepts that become part of the basis for outdoor education. Problems gpg Issues At one time_a major issue in outdoor education was, whether school camping programs should be ”camping oriented” or ”school oriented."18h There have been a number of occa; sions when this and other basic issues were debated at na- tional conferences, in special committees, within the struc- ture of organizations, and between individuals. In inter- preting outdoor education and the direction it should take, the primary concern seemed to be not so much with the soundness of the basis, but with the form taken in programs and practices. In 1958, Donaldson suggested as an urgent 183Donald R. Hammerman and WilliamlM. Hammerman, Teachin in the Outdoors CMinneapolis, IMinnesota: Burgess Publishing Company, I954). . 18“Robert P. Brimm, "What are the Issues in Camping and Outdoor Education?, " C mping4Ma azine e, 31: lb- 15, Jan- uar79 1959. 165 need: ...that a body of wallethought-out, well stated philosophical literature be developed least out- door education, which has been called this century's greatest contribution to education, go the way other movements which were long on enthusiastic doors and short on rationale.135 . There have been efforts made to develop such a body of literature,-yet there still seem to be apparent problems that remain unresolved. The writer's own experience and his extensive survey of historical developments suggest a need for continuous examination of the basis for outdoor educa- tion. In the opinion of the writer, the following needs must be faced in the next stages of developing a basis for outdoor education: | 1. To give precise meaning to the definition of outdoor education and such concepts as reality, experience, and curriculum. ' 2. To define outdoor experiences in qualitative terms. 3. To determine the validity of the proposition that man is inherently attached to the land. h. To define the teaching-learning process in the l85(}eorge Donaldson and Louise Donaldson, "Outdoor Education--A Bibliography," (Washington, D. C.: AAHPER,‘ Mby, 1958). (mimeographed) 166 outdoors more fully in relation to continuity, growth, per? caption, and personal meaning. I 5. To examine the relationship between direct and vicarious experience and between concretions and abstrace tions. _ 6. To determine the role of outdoor education in the continuity and balance of the curriculum, kindergarten through high school. 7. To determine priority needs of society and the. role of outdoor education in meeting those needs within the framework of public education. 8. To develop a more adequate concept of the process of change in developing programs and practices in outdoor education. 9. To develop awareness of the image that outdoor education communicates to various people. 10. To provide a more adequate concept of program development for local needs and interests, and individual teacher ability. 11. To resolve inconsistencies between elements of the basis. 12. To make assumptions more explicit at all levels. 167 III. ANALYSIS OF THE DEVELOPMENT AND STATUS OF THE BASIS FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION .Living and learning in the outdoors is as old as man himself. History of modern civilization is replete with examples of using the outdoors for education. Philosophers and educators such as Rousseau in the 18th century and Dewey in the 20th century endorsed first-hand experiences in the outdoors as a part of their concept of education. _ However, it was not until the middle nineteen forties that the concept "outdoor education" as it is known today began to emerge out of school camping and other related move- ments. In the process, all previous historical and philoso- phical developments have come to be considered as a part of an expanding outdoor education movement. It has been shown that both the concept and the move- ment were closely associated with the careers of Sharp and Smith, and that through an analysis of their lives and writings the historical development of the basis for out- door education could be traced. The Life- -space Concept in Analyzing Developments Thoughts and ideas, as well as dates, periods, and events, constitute a body of information that can be useful in gaining historical perspective. Also, the lives and , 16:8 g relationships of people afford further insight and under? standing. An attempt will be made here to show how ”life- space”, aterm used by Lewin in exploring psychological freedOm and responsibility, might serve equally well as a concept for describing the personal relationships of indi- viduals involved in the development of a basis for outdoor education. V Lewin described the kind of psychological life-space needed by children in attaining a high level of reality necessary for making responsible decisions.186 Life-space in this sense could be used as a model for describing and analyzing the contributions of learning experiences in the outdoors to responsible decision making. But at this point in the study another meaning is being given to the concept of life-space as the development of a basis for outdoor education is being considered. Here, life-space is used to describe the patterns of interaction that occurred in the relationships of persons associated with the outdoor educa- tion movement. The experiences, both personal and professional, included in each individual‘s life-space have been as much a part of the development of the basis for outdoor education .. 186Kurt Lewin, A Dypamic Theory p§_Personalit (New York:- McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1935}. ,- f _ “169 as the philosophical positions that have been verbalized orally and in print. An example of 1ife=space in outdoor education was briefly cited in developments centered around Melby.187 This may be viewed as complex interrelations of persons involved in those events. However, instead of a pattern similar to that diagrammed in a sociogram, the pattern of life-space represents the personal associations that Melby, Easters, Sharp, Smith, and Donaldson had with each other. - The extent and quality of their relationships could hardly be diagrammed, nor would it be possible to represent the entire life-space of all those persons involved in the outdoor education movement. But, the life-space of each person does exist in time and place, and has had a signifi- cant impact on the basis for outdoor education. Sharp and Smith's early life-space on the farm.would seemingly instill values quite different from those acquired by~a boy growing up now in the heart of a large metropolis, or an equally large suburbia. The lifeespace surrounding developments at Life Camps was certainly different from that in the Michigan Department of Public Instruction and both are different frOm the life-space of the world today as 187See page 1&5. 170 compared with then. Where the term life-space has been suggested as a concept for giving meaning to the healthy development of children, it seems that it might also be appropriately used in giving meaning to the pppgp development of outdoor educa- tion. 1p; Status gpg,Efgectiveness p§_phg Present ngip “ . The basis for outdoor education, in one sense, exists in the general body of literature that supports all educa- tion. But in order to be useful in furthering the outdoor education movement, it must be extracted and interpreted through the perceptions of people concerned with outdoor education. Therefore what has been spoken and written over a period of some thirty years by persons in outdoor educa- tion constitutes a recognizable source for determining the basis that has evolved. The outdoor education concept has been interpreted and promoted by many persons among whom Sharp and Smith stand out as the most prominent in giving it wide national recog- nition. Their writings, both past and present, have been a key source for identifying the basis for outdoor education and have been augmented by those who share many of their values and convictions. In passing through developmental stages, the basis 171 has changed from a vague awareness of related factors to a more consciously thought—out body of ideas and philosophy, and from narrowness to breadth in its application to educa-‘ tional activities in the school program. Specifically, this has meant a change from a concept of outdoor education as subject matter taught in a camp setting to the present concept of outdoor education as the utilization of the outdoors as an integral part of the curriculum. This change has been in a sense a reflection of changes in a cultural pattern from simple rural life, where the outdoors was a part of the everyday experiences of people, to a highly complex mode of urban living in which the outdoors is alien to many people who still depend on it for basic necessities as well as for leisure time pursuits. The role of the public school has changed from that of primarily providing intellectual learning for the few going on to higher education to a comprehensive program geared to make a maximum contribution to the total develop- ment of all people. As the schools have sought to improve themselves and society, there has been a tendency to focus alternately on the learner and on what is to be learned. In the process, overall gains have resulted in balanced progress. During a period of some thirty years the increased amount of knowledge about the learner has been used effectively p 172 in determining educational programs; also new insights into the nature of the process of learning have had an impact on the quality of learning. This in turn has heightened concern for direct experience and the relationship of direct exper- ience to other learnings. The process of developing new programs and practices has changed from that of administrative expediency in which the end goals were extolled and provided the sanction for issuing decrees at the top level, to that of a deep concern for the means by which changes become reflected in desirable behavioral outcomes. This in turn has heightened an inter- est in the process of change and in the need for competent professional leadership. Such concern is reflected in ef- fective decision making where leaders assume responsibility for improvement in the school program through outdoor educa- tion. The effectiveness of the basis for outdoor education must be determined in relation to some acceptable criteria. One yardstick could be the results obtained from outdoor education programs as revealed in behavioral outcomes. Such criteria wbuld indicate specific changes of behavior in the areas of: (1) information and knowledge about the outdoors, (2) attitudes and appreciations, (3) competency in outdoor skills, (4) development of outdoor interests, and (5) 173 participation in outdoor pursuits. Attempts at determining behavioral changes resulting from outdbor educatiOnprograms have been extremely limited. However, a few research studies reported in Chapter II offer come indication of the effectiveness of school camping programs. _ Another indication of effectiveness might be found in quantitative and qualitative information concerning; 1. The initiation or modification of programs and practices in schools and in leadership preparation programs. f 2. The involvement of teachers and administrators in outdoor education. 3. The degree to which the outdoor education concept has penetrated organized groups such as professional asso- ciations and governmental agencies. a. The enactment of legislation which facilitates outdoor learning resulting in part from the efforts of outdoor educators. 5. The publication of books, theses and disserta- tions, pamphlets, articles, and other literature. 6. The accomplishments of the Outdoor Education Association and the Outdoor Education Project. To compile and present all available evidence is not the purpose of this study, but insight gained from examining . 17h some of the kinds of evidence suggested leads to the con- -clusion that: l. The outdoor education concept has been accepted: (a) in pilot projects, experimental programs, and isolated cases of state and local programs; (b) in the recognition to some degree of the meaning and value of outdoor learning experiences; (c) in the close contact persons have had with leaders in the movement or with those who have had leader- ship training; and (d) in organizations and agencies to the degree of personal and direct association with key leaders. 2. The volume of outdoor education literature has declined since the late nineteen fifties, but more complete and comprehensive texts have been published since that time. 3. Nationally, the impact of the concept on programs and practices has only within the past five to ten years begun to reach beyond efforts limited to school camping. A. Although the "goodness" ascribed to outdoor education has been theoretically presented, it has not been substantially confirmed through evaluation of behavioral changes. _ 5. The Outdoor Education Association and the Outdoor Education Project have played key roles in promoting and interpreting outdoor education and disseminating general information and specific knowledge of practices. 175 w A ‘ The Need for Developing a Current Rationale for Outdoor Education Sharp was always enthusiastically optimistic about the progress in outdoor education. In 1961, he said: I just hope to share the thrill and the really- deep satisfaction to find that, as I really think, the concept of outdoor education is off the pad. It may go a little irregular now and then, but a very substantial and powerful influence in American education and life is on the way. It's had a long festering period and if anybody can find any fault with it, bggically, they should have said so a long time ago.1 Smith believed that "outdoor education is no longer in the catagory of 'desired objectives9 of education-~it is a necessity which is now urgent because of the rapid changes in the American pattern of living".189 As Sharp and Smith were primary spokesmen for the movement, their enthusiasm and urgency is understandable. Their broadened interpretation of the outdoor education concept in the past few years provided an opportunity to reach more people while at the same time prograhs and prac- tices already being carried on began to receive more atten- tion. 188Lloyd B. Sharp, "Outdoor Education is Off the Pad," Extending Education (Carbondale, Illinois: “The Outdoor Edu- cation Association, Inc., Vol. VI, No. 1, September, 1961). 139Ju11an w. Smith, OutdoOr Education, newsletter,‘ Vol. VIII, No. 2 (East Lansing, Michigan: The Outdoor Education Project, Spring, 19 3). 176" The outdoor education movement has had an impact on many segments of education. In passing from an inception period to one of ripening maturity, it has taken new direc? tions and has changed in its emphasis. However, along with whatever progress has been made there still remains much that could be accomplished in improving school programs and teaching practices. For outdoor education to meet the needs of a rapidly changing society and the demands for quality education, the continuous task of building a sound basis is necessary. The enthusiasm for outdoor living that is reflected in the lives and careers of leaders in outdoor education has been interwoven in the present basis. To go beyond the level of justification for outdoor education programs seems to be' the next logical step in the improvement of that basis. The development of a current rationale would help to strengthen the basis for outdoor education by giving serious consider- ation to the underlying reasons for using the outdoors as a setting for meaningful learning experiences in the school curriculum. The Role Of Principleg of Curriculum Development Outdoor education has been referred to at various times as a curriculum frontier, innovation, and development. It has also been described as an integral part of the 177 curriculum.or a curriculum supplement that enriches, facile itates, enhances, and vitalizes learning. A ”climate for learning" and "an emphasis in learning” are'qualities that have been attributed to the use of theoutdoors as a labor; atory or as an extension of the classroom. ‘ Such grandiose expressions in one paragraph are almost overwhelming. But there is an implied assumption that the outdoor education concept has value for the schools. This assumption leads to another--that if outdoor education is to be incorporated in the curriculum it must be-recognized as a means of meeting certain objectives in a given situation. .This recognition is dependent in part on the meaning derived from its basis and the process by which the basis is con- structed and weighed. It has been suggested that if outdoor education is to make its maximum contribution to schools, a continuous exam- ination and strengthening of its basis is essential. Those persons respOnsible for education are continually judging the value of proposed innovations and modifications and it is through such persons that changes occur in the curriculum. Change is a concern of much of society today and no less of one to those involved in continuous improvement of the school curriculum. Ont of this concern for change and improvement has grown a body of knowledge that reflects 178 principles for curriculum development. Such principles would seem to be a reasonable guide for developing an out? door education rationale and would also provide direction for translating the rationale into action. IV. SUMMARY In this chapter an account of historical develop- ments in the lives and careers of Lloyd B. Sharp and Julian W. Smith was presented, citing pertinent facts and ideas which seemed to have had an important effect in shap- ing the basis for outdoor education. Attention was called to the relationship between Sharp's and Smith's careers, and several forces that served as a stimulus for new ideas and insights here discussed in relation to the kinds of signi- ficant impact they may have had on the thinking of the two men. The nature of the basis for outdoor education was presented, indicating its sources, efforts at refinement, and some of the problems ahd issues that have resulted. In analyzing the development and status of the basis, the role that relationships and interaction of people played in the rise of the outdoor education movement was emphasized. Conclusions reached in evaluating the effectivenss of the basis for outdoor education indicated that although 179 _ _. outdoor education has had a significant influence on American education, there is a need for continuous improvement. It was suggested that for outdoor education to become more effective in the years ahead its basis needs to be contin- ually examined and strengthened. Development of a current rationale using principles of curriculum development was proposed as a possible next step towards improvement of the basis for outdoor education which in turn would hopefully result in more effective programs and practices. The following questions seem to suggest direction that needs to be taken in considering elements for a current ra- tionale: ‘ How are elements of a rationale determined? What are the sources of elements for a rationale? Who is involved in developing and utilizing a rationale, and what processes should be used? Which elements from the present basis for outdoor education should be incorporated in a current ra- tionale, and which elements need to be scrutinized and strengthened? What elements can be derived from new insights and new knowledge? CHAPTER IV DEVELOPING A CURRENT RATIONALE FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION I. DETERMINING THE ELEMENTS OF A RATIONALE . . FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION Rationale development, one fundamental step in improving school programs and practices, is viewed as a part of_a curriculum development process. Tyler stated that in the improvement of curriculum "the purpose of the rationale is to give a view of the elements that are in- volved in a program of instruction and their necessary interrelations."l A rationale may not necessarily be the starting point for curriculum study but it does become an important aspect as educational objectives are examined in relationship to proposed changes. Taba viewed the ration- ale in conjunction with objectives in the following way: An organized statement of objectives should be more than a mere grouping of individual objectives. It should also convey the fundamental rationale on which the very conception of objectives is based. This rationale should indicate what is importagt in education and where the subsidiary values lie. 1Ralph W. Tyler, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,_ 1955), p- 33 2Hilda Taba, Curriculum Development Tho and Prac- tice (New'York: Harcourt, Brace and WOrld, l90 2 , p. 21f. 180 181 Whether outdoor education is defined as an integral part ofthe curriculum or is viewed as an innovation in the curriculum, it seems reasonable to assume that curriculum development processes, including rationale development, would be applicable to outdoor education. The direction and scope that a rationale for outdoor education might take is partly dependent on the needs and insights of a particular person or group in relation to his or their own problems and concerns. However, elements that become incorporated in a rationale should be selected on the basis of valid criteria and, in order that the elements be reasonable, they should result from an intelligent examination of past experience as well as from new know— ledge. — Conditions that warrant curriculum improvement serve as a basis for determining which general elements should be included in a rationale. These conditions are recognized as valid reasons for change when one believes that education should help people to live better lives and build better societies. If our instructional program.is to consist only of knowledge that is of tested worth to man every- where, little reason exists for changing the pro- gram except as some new knowledge proves itself worthier than some older knowledge. But if the schools' curriculum is to be derived 182 from an analysis of society and of students' gersonal-social needs as these are related to road social problems and conditions, then the curriculum will change as the major currents of society change.3 A rationale for outdoor education must then reflect an under- standing of the conditions affecting the total educational program as well as present the unique contributions that the outdoors can make to education. Determinin General Elements for Public Education _ There have been several points of view concerning factors that should be considered in determining the nature of the school curriculum. IMcNally and Passow stated that educational leadership: ...must take account of the values of the society the curriculum is to serve, the needs of the children who are part of that society, and the practical realities of time, place, and circumstance that exist in the educational system in which they work.k They went on to say that "there is no essential conflict between 'eternal' values and the constant adaptation and 3Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- ment, Action for Curpiculum Imarovement, Yearbook (washington, D. C.:_ Association for Supervision and Curriculum-Develop- ment, 1951), p. 19. “Harold J. McNally and A. Harry Passow, Improvipg £13; Quality pf Public School Programs.(New York: Bureau of Pub- lications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1960), P.5. ‘ j 183 improvement of curriculum".5 , ‘ Anderson discussed the following factors that affect decisions regarding curriculum policy and practice: (1) the teacher's orientation, (2) the culture and community values, (3) democratic principles, (4) learning principles, and (5) human growth and development.6 ‘ Smith, Stanley, and Shores cited as the first signi- ficant aspect of curriculum development the determination_ of educational directions.7 Such direction, they said, is related to educational objectives that must be validated on the basis of five criteria: (1) social adequacy, (2) basic human needs, (3) democratic ideals, (A) consistency and non-contradiction, and (5) behavioristic interpretation. Tyler, in suggesting a means of arriving at educa- tional objectives, discussed sources for getting information that would be helpful in making wise choices. He felt that no one source would suffice and he gave consideration to the following for selecting objectives: (1) studies of the learners, (2) studies of contemporary life outside the ’- x- 5Ibid. ‘ 6Vernon E. Anderson, Principles and Procedures 2: Curriculum Improvement (New York: The Roland Press, 1956). " 7B. Othanel Smith, William 0. Stanley, and J. Harlan Shores, Eundgpental§_p§ Curriculum Develo ment (Yonkers-on- Hudson, New York: Wbrld Book Company, 19505. 18h school, (3) suggestions from subject matter specialists, (h) the use of philosophy, and (5) the use of the psychology of learning.8 Krug stated that solving problems in the schools "depend on philos0phy, objectives, values, fundamental directions".9 He pointed out that: ...these cannot be arrived at without a consider- ation of the nature of our society and the nature of human personality, leading to some conception of Eiiii‘fiiflkaii? {2322136§§§1§2.3§§.§‘1‘132§3éSign” ”he Taba suggested the.analysis of society, culture, learn- ing, the learning process, and the nature of knowledge in order to determine the purposes of the school and the nature of the curriculum.11 There seems to be common agreement in the curriculum literature reviewed that the nature of society, the learner and learning, and the role of the school are three broad areas that need to be considered in any curriculum develop- ment effort. Recent major changes in cultural values and 8Tyler, pp. pip. 9Edward A. Krug, Curriculum Planning (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950), p. 31. lOIbid. 1 . 1Taba, pp. cit., p. 10. 185 conditions should be recognized as social realities, know: ledge about the learner and learning needs to be carefully analyzed, and the role and function of the public schools need to be clearly defined. Since outdoor education is considered an integral part of the total education program, all three of these interrelated factors should be consider- ed as sources for deriving general elements for an outdoor education rationale. Also, basic values and beliefs must be considered while at the same time new meaning is being given to such values. Although the primary group of values for our society, democratic principles and ideals, appear to be somewhat vague, continuous sharpening and clarifying of these values can result in democratic practices reaching higher levels of consistency. While these ideals are always growing and being reinterpreted as conditions change, a certain degree of continuity of meaning is always present. They therefore supply the most reliable guideposts by which the profession can tell Ygether or not it is serving the total public good. General elements of a rationale for outdoor education cannot be derived from any one source. The rationale must be based on multiple, interrelated sources and must be con- sistent with the basic values held by our society. It must lzsmith, Stanley, and Shores. 92o ....citoa P° 653° 186 grow out of an understanding of the culture, the nature of the learner and learning, and the functions of the public schools. ~There must be both internal consistency and compre- hensiveness in presenting elements that will lead to more effective outdoor education programs and practices. Determining Specific Elgpentg fer Outdoor Education The specific elements of a rationale for outdoor education should follow from the general elements and be in accord with them. Specific elements should be validated on the basis of broad human experience with the natural en; vironment as well as substantiating evidence from principles and theories. Special attention should be given to the unique qualities of the outdoor setting that can be utilized as an integral part of the school curriculum. A statement of belief about the natural environment and the human organism's relation to it should form a basic premise upon which a position can be taken. Intellectual and aesthetic notions about the qualities which are inherent in the outdoors should be expressed. Qualities which can make learning more effective and meaningful need to be recognized and the relationship between such qualities and the educational program of the school should be made apparent. The effect that the outdoors can have on the individual 187 and the group should be indicated along with an explanation of opportunities that outdoor settings offer for learning experiences. An explanation of how such experiences fit into a learning sequence and how they contribute to the learner's acquiring personal meaning should also be present- ed. The role of the teacher in outdoor situations should be considered, indicating how outdoor experiences can be carried out as a part of the on-going curriculum. The teaching-learning process in the outdoors should be in agreement with democratic values and should contribute to objectives of education, especially to its central purpose. II. A RATIONALE FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION The elements of a rationale form a basis for develop- ing programs and practices. The elements of this rationale for outdoor education are presented under five main headings: (1) Cultural values of society, (2) Contemporary conditions in society, (3) The learner and learning, (4) Objectives of education, and (5) The outdoors as a setting for education. General Elements pf g Rationale for Outdoor Education Cultural values pf society. The basic core of cultural values is expressed in the democratic values of our society. When such values are applied not only to political action but . g 188 to_a way of living they embrace all human behavior. ‘They provide a set of guidelines for carrying out in practice goals that are professed to be those of a free society. \ Democratic values can be stated briefly as: (l) the expression of faith in and the respect for all indi; viduals, (2) the concern for the welfare of others and one's own actions, (3) the participation in the making and carrying out of decisions, and (A) the use of intelligence in solving problems. These ideals reflect ethical and moral principles that can be used for determining direction in which a program of the public schools should move. When democracy is interpreted as a way of life--a means as well as an end--its basic principles must be applied to all phases of life and opportunities must be provided for the development of individuals who will live by these prin- ciples. As an institution created by society, the public schools help to serve that function. The schools must then reflect democratic principles not only in their goals, but in their programs and practices as well, to insure the pre- servation and continuous growth of our democratic society. A belief in the worth and dignity of the individual means that each person must have an opportunity for develop- ing his potentials to the fullest extent. Respect for the individual implies that differences, uniqueness, creativeness, 189 autonomy, independent thinking, and equality of opportunity must be cherished. Every individual must have the opportun- ity for maximum personal growth not only intellectually, but socially, physically, and emotionally as well. The task of developing citizens who will have concern for the welfare of others requires opportunities for indi- viduals to grow in their own sense of security, to become sensitive to the needs and problems of their fellow men, to develop empathy with other human beings, and to work cooper- atively for the common good. Experiences in working together to solve common problems must be provided. Individuals need to examine the meaning of their experiences, examine their own values and beliefs, develop appreciation for the beauty in life, and gain the knowledge and understanding necessary for living in a scientific age. In arriving at solutions to problems that affect both the individual and the group, facts must be utilized. A method of intelligence must be employed by persons who have the self-discipline to accept freedom and the respon- sibility for their own actions. Democratic values require that action must be taken and that such action be based on understanding and sound thinking. Through such understanding problems can be solved intelligently. Experiences that will help to build the 190 generalizations necessary for understanding are essential. Such experiences must involve contact with and participa- tion in various kinds of situations that call for sound choice and further action. The school serves as the primary agent of society charged with the responsibility for developing democratic values in p11 children and youth. Outdoor education, as an integral part of the school curriculum, must be in harmony with democratic principles and must incorporate democratic practices as a part of any proposed curriculum development involving the use of the outdoors. gpptemporary condipgppp‘;p society. The most prom; inent features of the world today are: (l) the vast amount ,of change taking place and (2) the rate at which some changes are occurring. "Today, change is taking place so rapidly in every aspect of life that this quality has become the most outstanding characteristic of the mid-twentieth century."13 In our own country we are continuously faced with complex and far-reaching problems that are created by technological progress. These problems have not just sprung up over night, but have been with us for some time. However, as one ‘13Lavone Hanna, "Meeting the Challenge," What Are the Sppppgp pf phg_§pzpipplpp (flashington,'D. C.: Association—for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1962), p. 93. l9l sociologist says: The spread of technological change in the 20th century has startled the layman, but the direction of those changes has always seemed clear. Both literary and scientific prophets have outlined these changes for us over the past half century. We are surprised primarily because the prophicies come true so quickly. That they do in fact come about, however, surprises few people. The direction of change has been noticeable both in our rising standard of living and in our patterns of living. We point with pride to the spread of industry over the past fifty years. The growth of the economic sector of our society has brought great material abundance. The means of production has steadily moved to higher levels of effi- ciency through automation and specialization, and has resulted in increased quantity and quality of consumer goods. Trans- portation has become more rapid and comfortable, communica- tion has advanced to new frontiers of satellite relay systems, and space exploration has begun to take us to the outer reaches of the universe. Advances in all areas of science have been at the forefront of public attention. People, on the whole, are better educated, have more cultural op- portunities, and have more leisure time than they had a “William J. Goode, "Outdoor Recreation and the Family to the Year 2000," Trends ip American Living 25g Outdoor Recreation, ORRRC Study Report #22 (Washington, D. C.: U. 3. Government Printing Office, 1962), p. 102. 192 generationago. g . . ,, _On the other hand, we are faced with social problems that affect a_majority of the people in some way. Poverty, inadequate housing, racial strife, moral and spiritual apathy, family breakdown, mental illness, intergroup tensions, job unemployment and displacement, depletion of natural resources, concerns for world peace, and idealogical competition with communism are some of the broad categories into which these problems fall. ‘Within each there are numerous and complex facets which defy easy solution. Some of these problems have resulted from a population increase and from a shift of population to urban and suburban areas, but essentially they concern all people regardless of geographical location. They will continue to press upon us both in the immediate future and in the lifetime of future generations. The outdoors has played a particularly important role in a growing industial society such as ours. The relation- ship of people to the natural environment has been histor- ically one of struggle to live in harmony with the basic sources of primary physical needs--food, clothing, and shelter. The depletion of natural resources remains a national concern as the cultural pattern of living in close association with nature gradually becomes a heritage of the past. Shifts in population to urban areas have put a large 193 majority of people out of direct contact with the more natural areas in their everyday living. This in turn has created a greater need for gaining knowledge and under- standing of the dimensions and potentials of the outdoors. A reinterpretation of our outdoor heritage is being made as, individually and collectively, man learns how to utilize natural resources more effectively and to control the harmful effects of natural phenomena. Newer patterns of urban living are rapidly spreading in all areas of the country causing people to seek relief from living in an artificial environment. The use of the outdoors for gain- ing physical and emotional well-being is becoming an increas- ingly important part of modern living, and, therefore, an adjunct of our outdoor heritage.l5 A In order to meet the challenges of modern living, it is essential that all citizens be capable of partici- pating in the changes that are going on around them. Such participation should be the result of critical thinking and should be directed toward improving the conditions of our society as well as of all mankind. This calls for the development of healthy individuals who are capable of self- direction and who are willing to assume intelligent respon- 15Outdoor Recreation Resources Review Commission, Outdoor Recreation for America (washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1962). 19h sibility for themselves and for the welfare of others. It should be the task of the schools to help develop the kinds of people who cannot only live productively in present society, but WhO‘Will participate in making the world a better place in which to live. Part of this task involves preparation for making wise choices in the utilization of natural resources and in the selection of outdoor pursuits that contribute to the worthy use of leisure time. The learner and learning. Recent theory in percep- tual psychology has provided new insights into the nature- of the learner and learning. The learner is seen as an individual in the process of becoming a more fully function; ing person, and learning is viewed as the means by which such a person develops. The perceptualist's concern for human personality and behavior has led to attempts to define what a fully functioning, adequate person would be like.16 This model serves as a means of further identifying the conditions.necessary for providing effective learning in the schools. Although each theorist has a somewhat differ- ent viewpoint, they all seem to agree that behavior is 16Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop— ment, Perceivin , Behaving, Becoming! A New Focus, Yearbook (washington, D. 0.: Association for Supervision and Cur- riculum Development, 1962). ~ f _ 195 learned or that, conversely, learning results in a change of behavior. . ‘ Combs describes the adequate individual as one who has a positive self-concept, who identifies with others, who is open to and accepting of experience, and who has a rich and available perceptual field.17 The basic assump- tion underlying this position is that behavior is a result of the perceptions occurring at the time of the individual's behaving. Therefore the way in which the individual feels about himself and his environment will determine the action he will take in any situation. Perception occurs within the individual and cannot be changed directly. But in order to change behavior, a change in perception must take place. Learning thenbecomes a matter of focusing attention 0n the factors that affect perception, and teaching becomes a process of helping the learner to perceive differently. Perhaps the most important element of an adequate personality is a positive self-concept. This positive regard for self sets off a chain reaction which allows an individual to identify closely with others and in turn to be more open and accepting of experience. As a result he 17Ibid., pp. 50-62. V 196 is better able to develOp a rich and available perceptual field. It is this kind of person who, because of his favor— able past experiences--especially with other people, feels an inner strength and security that allows him to go beyond self in his sensitivity to others. It should not surprise us, therefore, that adequate persons usually possess a deep sense of duty and responsibility or that they are likely go be democratic in the fullest sense of the word.1 The adequate person is freer from threat and as a result is more capable of accepting change and using his own perceptions as a guide to making wise decisions regarding change. ‘He is also more capable of accepting himself, thus allowing him to be more realistic in his own self-direction° An openness allows the adequate person to be more inquiring, to be more imaginative, and to be more creative in response to his experiences. He is better able to gain the understandings and information needed for living in today's world and can use these more effectively in action. However, the availability of his perceptions is not automa- tic. It is largely the result of the individualis discovery of personal meaning in his experiences and in the satisfac— tion of his needs. Deeper and more significant meanings are 13lbld., p. 55. 197 more likely to affect behavior, and, therefore, mere exposure to experiences and fragmentary knowledge alone will not suffice. Deeper meanings involve perceptions that result in understandings, beliefs, and convictions. Teaching, then, is largely a matter of providing the learner with opportunities in which he can discover and explore the personal meaning of what is to be learned. Teaching is being aware of the learner as an individual, trying to understand him, and helping him satisfy basic needs as he is maturing. Because of the uniqueness of the learner, Kelley and Rasey said that teaching method "becomes one of doing things to the circumstances under which the learner tries to learn, rather than doing things to the individual."19 The learner must be encouraged and stimulated to fulfill his potentialities. He must be able to discover his own unique self and those qualities which make him a person of worth. He must be able to discover the personal meaning of the world around him and the people in it. He needs to develop not only an awareness of facts and infor- mation, but of the deeper understandings, beliefs, and 19Earl C. Kelley and Marie I. Rasey, Education and the Nature 2; Man (New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1952), p. 1&2. . . 198 _ convictions about those things that are significant for him and society. . Acquiring a rich perceptual field results from the individual's discovering personal meaning through experiences that he has as he interacts with the environment. It has been indicated that internal factors greatly affect percepe tion of self and the world. These factors include selfe concept, needs, purposes, motivation, and previous exper- sience. Also, the nature of the external environment at the time of perceiving affects the extent of personal meaning discovered. Environment here refers to sources outside the individual. The perception of the external environment constitutes reality for the individual since it is how things seem to him that are real. Each individual has his own unique environ; ment created through perception. It is this reality that serves as a basis for action. ‘Uhether there is an absolute reality is a philosophical question that is not germaine to the understanding of the learning process in this context. Learning and experience. The concept of experience is used to describe personal involvement of the total organ- ism in interaction with the environment. As such, it becomes intricately entwined with the nature of learning and can hardly be considered apart from the learning process. 199 _ Dewey saw the purpose of experience as leading to further experience and, thus, as synonymous with growth. He looked upon the goal of education in one sense as the acquiring of the desire to go on learning. He said that "every experience should do something to prepare a person for later experiences of a deeper and more expansive "20 This means that serious attention must be quality. devoted to the conditions, both internal and external, which give each experience a worthwhile meaning so that education may be an on-going process of growth. The bio-social orientation of Dewey‘s philosophy is closely related to organismic theory found in perceptual psychology. They both stress the notion of the individual learner as a total organism, or "whole person", capable of growth and direction from within. This belief that the human creature is an organism motivated from within con- stitutes a basic premise from which Dewey viewed experience as an essential part of the growth process. Experimentalism...holds that human values are paramount, and that the ultimate good is wealth of human life and experience. The human being is a physical and mental unity, an organism which is an 20John Dewey, Experience and Education, Collier Books Edition (New York: Collier Books, 1963), p. A7. 200 integrated whole from its earliest beginning as a single cell.21 .Dewey's concept of growth is similar to the concept of self? actualizing proposed by Maslow and Rogers' concept of the fully-functioning individual.22 ' What the organism experiences within is in response to what is outside the organism. The organism actively interacts with the environment. In this process of inter- action, equal rights are assigned to both the objective and the internal conditions.‘ Any normal experience is an inter— play of these two sets of conditions and together they form what Dewey called a "situation". "The conceptions of situa- pign and interaction are inseparable from each other. An experience is always what it is because of a transaction taking place between an individual and What, at the time, constitutes his environment..."23 Theoretically, action within the organism may be divided into two phases for purposes of clarification. 21John A. Hockett, ”Procedure for Developing an Inter- grative Curriculum," Newer Instructional Practices 9f Pro- ise, 12th Yearbook, Department of Supervisors and Directors -of Instruction (washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1939): P. 75. 22Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- ment, loc. cit. 23Dewey, 9p. cit., p. 43. 201 These consist of the action of the sensory mechanisms that relay impressions through the nerves to the brain and the response that occurs. These operations either occur simule taneously or in close proximity to each other. Sensory action may be multiple through any combination of senses or it may be singular, and may occur in varying degrees within each of the five senses. Response may also vary in degree within either the cognitive, affective, or motor demains, or a combination of domains. Thus, while the organism interacts as a whole, it does so in each situation with varying kinds and degrees of sensory action and varying kinds and degrees of response. Internal action of the organism raises the question of what the action is involved with, and what the response is in relation to. This leads to a consideration of the environment in the interaction process. The environment, when thought of as everything outside the organism, includes not only the physical setting and objects, but people, ideas, influences, conditions, and circumstances as well. These constitute the external real- ity with which the organism interacts. Although physical environment is relatively easy to conceive of, other elements of environment must be accounted for also. There is emotion- al reality as indicated by feelings of love and hate, and 202 social reality as experienced in the atmosphere created by a group of people._ These are also part of the learning situation. Thus, the environment is made up of realities of various kinds that occur in various degrees of concrete— ness or abstraction. The process of interacting means that the organism is involved with the environment through participation in activity. This activity may be direct or vicarious, or a combination of both, and results in giving meaning to a situation.24 At any instant the kind of interaction may be minutely described using the detailed aspects of organism and environment as vehicles for verbal description. Since experience is not static but a continuous phenomenon, how- ever, it seems fruitless to attempt such an analysis. What appears to be more significant is an understanding of the learning situation in relation to the functional use of experience. To summarize, the organism senses and responds throughthe vehicle of perception in interacting with the concrete and abstract realities of the environment. Inter- action constitutes involvement either directly or vicar- iously. Hence, a complexity of separate acts is a whole 2“Activity, in this sense, does not mean overt, physical activity only. 203 process of experience, affected by many forces, that results in bringing personal meaning to the organism. The figure on page 20h presents one way of looking at the com? ponents of a learning experience. The organic connection between experience and educa- tion does not necessarily mean that all experiences are genuinely or equally educative. Experience can be mis- educative if it arrests or distorts growth. Also, exper- iences may be disconnected and not cumulatively linked to one another. The idea that experience can promote growth automatically was refuted by Dewey and he insisted that "everything depends upon the Quality of the experience that is had."25» He proposed two interrelated principles fer insuring the quality of experience. These two principles, continuity and interaction, serve as criteria of experience and help to define the nature of growth experiences. Continuity of experience rests on the biological interpretation of habit. The basic characteristic of habit is that every experience enacted and undergone modifies the one who acts and undergoes, while this modification affects, whether we wish it or not, the quality of subsequent experiences.2 25Dewey, 92. gig., p. 27. 26Ibid., p. 35. "in 20h 52HzmHo>uH hopes o>wpoomm¢ eeapadwoo omnoamom weapons wdaaaoam wswnosoe wuwhmom wnfioom unencum3< snowmen Bzgomezm Tl Ava? IIIIZOHBOEHZH Ill n23? .Illv EmHzmwmo , 205 The continuity principle implies that: (1) when develop— ment in a particular line promotes continuous growth, it functions as a worthwhile experience, and (2) growth is not only physical but intellectual and moral as well. Although any experience can be a positive force, "its value can be _judged only on the ground of what it moves toward and into."27 The teacher, who has a greater maturity of exper— ience, has the responsibility for evaluating and directing the experiences of youth. He must help organize the con— ditions of children's experiences on the basis of what he judges to be conducive to continual growth, but he must also have "that sympathetic understanding of individuals as individuals which gives him an idea of what is actually going on in the minds of those who are learning."28 Direct experience. ‘Direct experience is a term some- times used to describe involvement in a gross activity or situation utilizing to the fullest extent the physical and social environment. It is also used to convey the idea of sensory awareness of the physical environment such as in seeing and touching a tree. In the first instance, learners may have both direct and vicarious sensory experiences as a 271bid., p. 38. 281bid., p. 39. 206 part of a "gross direct experience". The use of the same term for different purposes creates confusion when trying to understand the nature of experience. Direct experience 3 must be recognized as having different meanings in different instances. Sensory experiences are sometimes described according to levels of directness and vicariousness. However, in the context of the figure on page 20h, the use of the terms "direct experience" and "vicarious experience" seem to be misnomers. Experience designates a whole precess in which the organism.senses and responds to the environment which is either concrete or abstract. Therefore, it is the =. process of interaction or involvement that is either direct . l or vicarious and the term "direct interaction" would appear . to be more appropriate. ' Any classification of experience on the basis of directness or‘indirectness tends to compartmentalize artificially actual experience when considering a gross learning situation. There is a continual flow and inter- change of both direct and vicarious interaction in almost any learning experience. In analyzing sensory awareness, however, it may be possible to construct a theoretical con- tinuum of experience. Multisensory contact with concrete environment would constitute direct interaction at one end 207 of the continuum, and single sensory contact with symbolic abstractions would constitute vicarious interaction at the opposite end. Varying degrees of sensing, directness, and concreteness would occur along the continuum. When direct experience is used to refer to gross learning situations, vicarious experience may be interpreted as organized race experiences in the form of abstractions. Sensory experience (awareness) through both direct and vicar— ious interaction, may then be considered as a different concept concerned primarily with the functioning of the human sensory mechanisms in relation to the total learning process. Sensory awareness, one aspect of experience, is inseparable from total experience. They both are factors in the process of gaining meaning through the perception of reality. Since reality does come from what is made of sensory clues when such clues are acted on, concreteness of the experience is a vital part of the learning process. Kelley says that: Abstractions must originally be derived from concretions and get their meaning from them. To the extent that we value abstractions in themselves, ewe depart from reality... Abstractions kept reasonably close to concretions from which they are derived are useful tools. When we assign them reality in themselves, we confuse a tool with what 208 we are making with the tool. The means becomes the end.29 _ This implies that experience (including senSOry awareness through direct interaction) provides a necessary basis from .1, which meaningful generalizations, concepts, and beliefs may be derived. However, the nature and use of direct involve- ment must be flexible in kind and amount to fit the re- quirements of a given situation. In an organized learning situation, such requirements are determined, in part, through an understanding of the self-concept, the background of experiences, the maturity and purposes of the learner, and the nature of what is to be learned. Experiences that are related to purposes become meaningful in that they become part of a continuous process of learning. "We might say that direct, purposeful exper— ience is a means to an end--generalizations——provided we remember that generalizations are means to other general? izations and to new direct experiences. It is a dynamic process, an organic process".30 Regardless of whether involvement is direct or vicarious, the individual must be able to organize and structure his experiences if they are 29Earl C. Kelley, Education for What is Real (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947),p 30Edgar Dale, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching W (New York: The Dryden Press, l9h6 , p. 78. ' 209 to be means to ends in an organic process of learning. When experience is purposeful, learning is active and the learner has certain aims in mind as he engages in an experience. The learner must identify his purposes and later be able to relate his experience and compare it with that of others. Experience must be reflected on and crite ically analyzed in order to be meaningful. _ A consideration of maturity led Stratemeyer to state that: When the learner has had little previous experience in the area of study or in closely related situations, and accordingly has had little . g background against which to check judgments and l i ideas, direct (sensory) experience becomes essenr . tial to intelligent active involvement.3 I % She remarked elsewhere that: For most students, actually to go to see, or to have the real object in the classroom, provides the most meaningful experience. Pictures are one step- removed. Words alone represent a second level of abstraction... In general, however, the younger the child, the more important the concrete exper— ience is. Even at the adult level concepts are less accurate when experience background is meager.32 31Florence B. Stratemeyer, "The Expanding Role of Direct Experience in Professional Education," Off-Cam us Student Teachin , 30th Yearbook (Cedar Falls, Iowa: The Association for Student Teaching, 1951), p. 7.. 32Florence B. Stratemeyer, pp gl., Developing g Cur- riculum for Modern Living (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1957), PP. 68-69. 2l0 Taba said that "primary experience is a starting point for all further learning and a prerequisite for learning new ideas".33 However, as the learner matures and "the complexity of learning experiences increases, it is increasingly more difficult to channel direct experience into intellectually organized knowledge".3h Burton, in making distinctions between general and specialized education, pointed out the differences between the level of maturity of the learner who is participating in general study and the one who is ready for specialization. He concluded that with more maturity: ...the learner is capable of learning through L i vicarious, particularly verbal, experience. He y g can generalize and transfer understandings, skills, 5 y and other learnings to new situations. He is quite g i capable of learning new through.logically organized ; subject matter abstracted from the original and real situation.35 Burton went on to state that "the learning of many things for many persons takes place through vicariously experienc- ing the direct experience of others".36 But he cautioned 33Taba, loo. pip. 34lbid., p. 405. 35William H. Burton, The Guidance 23 Learning Acti- vities (New York:. Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1962, 3rd Edition), p. 22. . 361_bi_d., p. 37. s 211 that the vicarious experience must be an active process, and that merely to go through the motions is not to have a real vicarious experience. The significance of the theory of experience is that learning not only begins with exper- ience, but that "the learner experiences the operations by which facts are compounded into ideas and concepts".37 As raw experience is compounded into ideas, it acquires mean- ing. Then, "once a basic meaning is established by direct experience, conceptualization can be carried on by verbal abstractions and through vastly extended vicarious learn- ing".38 Because all personal experience is subject to bias, prejudice, and rationalization, it must be checked against the collective experiences of many others, critically ana- lyzed, and subjected to controlled experimentation. However, "personal experience in simple, non-complicated, repetitive everyday affairs, experienced over and over by all indivi- duals, is a reasonably reliable basis for knowledge".39 Objectives pf education. A period of thirty to thirty—five years has not changed the general objectives of 37Taba, _p_. pi_p., p. 1.01.. 381bid., p. 155. 39Burton, pp. pip., p. 39. 212 education appreciably, although shifts in emphasis have occurred and different interpretations have been made over the years. The role of the public school remains essene tially the same as that defined in the objectives of educae tion of the Educational Policies Commission in 1938.1*0 The objectives were presented in detail under these headings: (1) objectives of self—realization, (2) objectives of human relationships, (3) objectives of economic efficiency, and (h) objectives of civic responsibility. A detailed account of these objectives and other statements of educational ' purposes made by the Educational Policies Commission from 1937 to 1955 may be found in Kleindiest's study."1 v ,~ In 1961, the Educational Policies Commission clari- fied the role of general objectives and indicated the need for a principle by which to identify the school's "necessary and appropriate contributions to individual development and the needs of society".t’2 The principle, presented as the 40Educational Policies Commission, The Purppses pf Education ip American Democracy (Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1938). hlViola K. Kleindiest, "A Study of the Experiences of Camping for the Purpose of Pointing Out Ways in Which A School Camp Program May Supplement the Elementary School at the Sixth Grade Level," (unpublished Doctoral disserta- , tion, New York University, New York, 1957). pp. 38-57. g thducational Policies Commission, The Central Purpose pf American Education (Washington, D. 0.: National Education Association, 1961), p. 2. g 213 central purpose of American education,was said to be the development of the rational powers of the individual. These powers involve the processes of recalling and imagining, classifying and generalizing, com- paring and evaluating, analyzing and synthesizing, and deducing and inferring. These processes enable one to apply logic and the available evidence to his ideas, attitudes, and actions, and to pursue better whatever goals he may have. While recognizing the importance of intuitive, moral, and aesthetic capabilities, the Commission pointed out that the "common thread of education" is represented in the ability to: (1) think creatively, (2) derive knowledge and insight from rational inquiry, (3) reason, and (h) make intelligent choices. Rational thinking was said to be the foundation for achieving personal goals and for fulfilling one‘s obligation to society. The means for developing the central purpose of education were outlined by the Commission pointing out that rational powers develop gradually and continuously. The motivation to seek such powers is dependent upon feel- ings of personal adequacy and is reinforced by successful experience. No one method or body of knowledge can assure rationality. However, “31bid., p. 5. 214 ...the processes of thought demand the ability to integrate perceptions of objective phenomena with rjudgments of value in which subjective emotional commitments are important elements° Perceptions of the feelings of individuals--one’s own and those of others--also provide data for the processes of thought, There is no assurance that the ability to perceive or integrate these varied elements is acquired by abstract study alone.hh It may be inferred from this statement that exper- ience is a necessary part of developing rational powers, Experiences in outdoor settings are especially important in helping to fulfill the objectives of education and the central purpose of education because we find there such an abundance of opportunities for developing not only rational powers, but physical, aesthetic, and moral powers as well° .——..—-_——__———_—————. Th; outdoors fig g setting :9; educationo Man is considered a part of a cosmos that includes all of the objects and phenomena of the natural environmento This cosmos is sometimes referred to as deity, supreme being, or nature, and man‘s place in such a cosmos forms a basis for beliefs that are found in the spiritual and ethical teachings of mankind, Seeing human beings as a part of a universe that includes all of nature constitutes a basic 4AIbido, p. 18, ' “W: -u."”' , , 215 assumption that is held by many peoples and is substantiated in scientific theory.its The unity of nature is reflected in balance, order- liness, and harmony, and is expressed in both the unique- ness and the interrelatedness of the natural environment. The outdoor setting abounds in beauty, mystery, and power that challenges man to discover, analyze, interpret, and use that which surrounds him and of which he is a part, These notions about nature are substantiated in a large body of recorded human experience. Furthermore, scientific and descriptive literature in the fields of ecology, conserva- tion, nature interpretation, and natural science attest to the wholeness and inclusiveness of the natural environment. An intimate contact with the unity of nature can result in a feeling of internal freedom. This freedom, recognized in many theories of human behavior, allows and encourages informality and rapport, meditation and intro- spection, deeper awareness of one's self and of the world, and the increased use of the powers of perception. The writings of naturalists and poets such as Thoreau and Long- fellow illustrate the impact that the natural environment can have on freeing creative potentialo A5Kelley and Rasey, 9p, £13., p, 53. V 0 . 216 A close association with the unity of nature has a positive effect on the social structure and climate of a group. When a teacher and his pupils are in a more natural setting, especially for prolonged periods of time, they become freed from the artificiality of the classroom. The less controlled and less structured physical environment allows individuals to be more Open to their experiences and to genuine relations and communications. This in turn results in extended opportunities for meaningful learning.h6’ “7 The outdoors provides in varying degrees a setting for teaching-learning experiences quite different from the man-made environment of the school building. The natural environment, existing as a total unity, contains situations and problems in a broad context that cannot be duplicated in the same way in the classroom. There is an open-ended opportunity for experiencing concrete situations through direct sensory involvement and emotional awareness. Such experiencing inside the school occurs in a more limited manner and on a more restricted basis because of the heavy dependence on verbal abstractions and contrived learning. In the outdoors the individual learner has access to sources “Taba, _p. g9, pp. 161.467. ”Kelley, loc. gig. 217 of raw data closely associated with physical reality that help form a foundation for significant cognitive and aesthetic meaning. Through both perception of the outdoors and feeling for the outdoors, the learner is able to gain a rich experiential background needed for developing higher mental processes and personal commitments and values.h8’ A9 In the natural setting all aspects of reality are present including the dimensions of movement, time, and ecological relationships. An apple tree exists not only in size, shape, texture, odor, colOr, and taste, but also as an object which interacts with natural and man-made forces. It has a history of growth within itself as well as in relation to its surroundings. Its growth can be repeatedly observed and its life cycle can be recorded in sensory impressions. The whole natural world of physical reality can be perceived by man through direct symbolism. Realism of this kind cannot be reproduced in the classroom although ways of overcoming the lack of realism are con- stantly sought. The rapid development of instructional media has thssociation for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- ment, Perceiving, Behavin , Becomin , loa cit. A9Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- ment, Individualizing Instruction, Yearbook (washington, D. C.:. The Association, 1954}. '7 V 5 11' PIT; 218 helped to lend some realism to learning by providing vivid sensory impressions through new and improved techniques and materials. Film strips and television instruction dealing with the natural environment can be used in a learning sequence. Ideally, when particular concepts and understand- ings are to be developed the artificial signs of communita- tion represented by these and other audio-visual media can best be used to focus on the specific and the relevant. In this way contrived experiences become a more natural link between the world of concrete reality and abstract symbol- 50 Contrived experiences, however, still remain a step ism. removed from sensory experiences with reality and also deny the learner direct involvement with natural phenomena as it exists in a total context. The continuity of the learning process is more effectively maintained when the need for direct involvement in the outdoors is recognized as a part of a continuum that also includes the need for appropriate contrived experiences, discussion, and reflection. Outdoor experiences should be an integral part of the total learning process that helps to develop personal meaning. 50Pearl A. Nelson and Gaylen B. Kelley, "The Use of Audio-visual Materials in Elementary School Science Teach- ing," Journal of Education, 1&5: 12-18, 1963. 219 Personal meaning can best be developed in the schools through a method of discovery which focuses on experience ing rational processes.51’ 52 The discovery approach to learning has a lot more natural potential for fulfillment where the outdoors is used for experiences with reality than it has in the classroom where such opportunities are more limited. Direct involvement with the natural environment results in both feeling and sensory awareness. These two forms of reaction work in conjunction with each other. Feelings become appreciations which may serve as motivation or desire to search for cognitive meaning. Sensory aware- ness of physical reality in turn adds depth to affective meaning. Both are essential for developing a rich percep- ‘: tual field characteristic of the fully-functioning indivi- dual. Sensory and feeling awareness are intricately tied together with motor and kinesthetic learning, and are nec- essary in reaching higher levels of personal meaning. The discovery of cognitive meaning is directly related to the goal of developing rational powers recognized in The Central Purpose of American Education.53 The discovery 51Taba, loc. cit. 52Jerome S. Bruner, The Process 9: Education (Cgmbridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 19 l . . 53Educational Policies Commission, loc. cit. 220 method allows the learner to develop for himself under- standings and generalizations as a result of many exper- iences. Just as it does in concept formation, discovery of meaning begins with experience in which the learner first develops an awareness by manipulating processes and things themselves instead of symbols.54 For example, in learning about rocks, the learner becomes a classifier by becoming acquainted with the properties of a variety of specimens rather than by using a classification system to identify names. The learner is actively participating in inquiry that provides intuitive insight and knowledge.55 Inquiry, as a mode of learning, is applicable to any level of development. Forms of inquiry may differ, but essentially there is individual, self-directed activity at either the stage of manipulating concrete environment or conceptualizing by abstract reasoning. Styles of inquiry also vary, causing one to consider the need for providing an environment where individual discovery can take place.56 5hTaba, 93. git., p. 155. 55J. Richard Suchman, "The Child and the In uiry Process,".Intellectugl Development: Another Look wash- ington, D. C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 196A), pp. 59-77. 56Ibid. 221 Once a basic meaning is established, through exper- ience, word symbols are developed and higher processes become involved through vastly extended vicarious learning. By means of rational processes such as deducing, inferring, analyzing, and synthesizing the learner is able to arriver at broad principles and generalizations. Since principles and generalizations have been found to be more transferable than specific facts and information,57 it may be inferred that situations in which experiences in the outdoors are an integral part of a discovery approach maximize the possi- bility of transfer of learning closely related to reality. Discovery which includes active participation and direct involvement makes the outdoors an ideal setting for many of the experiences needed for understanding and appreciating the conditions of the world we live in. In an organic process, however, the learning sequence must not only provide initial experiences in the outdoors but must also allow for repeatedly returning to such experiences as the need occurs. Understandings, generalizations, values, and commitments at one level can be deepened and enlarged through a continuous process of growth in which the learner returns to further experiences such as those possible in 57Taba, _p_. _c_i_p., pp. 125-129. 222 the outdoors. _ The need of the learner to feel a kinship with the unity of nature makes it likely that he will be intrinsi- cally motivated to participate in outdoor discovery. But within the context of the classroom, outdoor experiences must be employed according to the best judgment of the teacher in relation to other acceptable principles and practices. The guidance of the teacher is important in helping the learner, at his own level, identify clearly the purposes for engaging in particular outdoor experiences and in arranging for the learner to relate his experiences and share his reactions with others. The teacher then becomes actively involved with his pupils in experiencing the outdoors, in helping them gain personal meaning while in the outdoors, and in tying learnings together later in the classroom. III. THE APPLICATION OF A RATIONALE FOR OUTDOOR EDUCATION A rationale for outdoor education should serve as a basis for developing effective programs in the schools. Each program must be tailored to a particular situation and must grow out of local needs. There are, however, some general considerations that are broadly applicable to both the design of programs and the processes of translating the 223 rationale into programs. Designing outdoor education programs forms the next logical step to be taken in carrying out that which is suggested by the rationale. The process of designing such -programs is suggested by the rationale itself in the com- mitment to the democratic means of intelligent decision making. Design and process become closely linked when those persons who implement the program become involved in critically examining the elements of the rationale and in determining its applicability to their own situation. A program of outdoor education developed from the rationale must be closely related to the overall program of the schools as it exists. Therefore an understanding , of the implications that outdoor education would have for ‘ E a particular school, or school system, is a first require- ment. This understanding calls for involvement by persons at the local level in giving serious consideration to the consequences that would result from making changes in the present school program in order to incorporate outdoor education. Where a school system has previous commitments which are in conflict with a broad program of outdoor edu- cation it may be necessary to experiment with only certain phases or practices initially. Whatever the proposed action may be, there must be commitment to the values which they 22h see in outdoor education by those who are involved in analyzing the rationale and in developing a program. The design of a particular program is closely related to the processes employed in its development, and both must be jointly considered in applying the rationale. The fol— lowing discussion of design and process is not meant to be prescriptive, but should be taken as a point of departure when considering the development of a specific program. The rationale presented in this chapter suggested implica— tions for designing programs and, thus, the discussion provides an interpretation of the position taken by the writer in stating elements of a rationale. Designing Proggams ig Outdoor Education Designing programs in outdoor education will be discussed under the following headings: (1) Defining outdoor education, (2) Determining objectives for an out- door education program, (3) Organizing and selecting out- door experiences, (4) Adapting patterns of teaching and learning, and (5) Evaluating outdoor education programs. Defining outdoor education. Outdoor education is defined as the effective use of the outdoors as an integral part of the school curriculum. Using the outdoors places emphasis on the process of learning and, since learning is I 225 a function of meaning, the outdoors is considered an environment that contributes to an individual's gaining personal meaning. Outdoor education, therefore, is a dynamic concept of action in which the learner is involved in outdoor experiences as a part of an on—going school program. Effective use of the outdoors means that the learner is provided a situation in which he can be open to his experience and in which he is able to perceive the changing nature of reality with the least amount of distortion. In this way the learner will be continually moving towards the goals of education. Outdoor education is best conceived as a part of general education in which experiences are integrated and contribute to the needs of all citizens in this society. Some outdoor education practices, however, can be utilized in compartmentalized or specialized programs. Opportunities for learning experiences in the outdoors are broad in scope and therefore can be used in the curriculum, kindergarten through twelfth grade. The methods used in the outdoors emphasize direct involvement as a part of discovery and problem solving, but they also include techniques required to develop higher mental processes as well as motor performance and aesthetic 226 appreciation. The outdoor setting extends from the more natural, untampered areas to those completely developed by man. A more natural setting is preferred, but in many instances learning in the outdoors can be effectively carried on in some setting that is a combination of natur— al and man-made environments. When outdoor education is considered a dynamic pro- cess of using the outdoors, the individual student, teacher, and administrator are able to grow in their search for more effective means of learning and teaching in the natural environment. A dynamic concept of outdoor education is illustrated in Figure 5 on page 227. Using the outdoors is represented on five continua where an individual can ;_ identify his own definition on any or all continua at a ‘ H given time. The individual is able to change his defini— tion, or move along the continua as his understanding of outdoor education takes on new meaning. Determining objectives f9; pp outdoor education program. As an integral part of the school curriculum, outdoor education programs should provide learning exper- iences that are in keeping with the broad objectives of education. Outdoor education should contribute to the total growth of children and youth through their active involvement mdoomUm UHAnDA mzh 2H ZOHHwo .uuuwnuaue .aosuupano .HmuoOn .Aecoiuofiu .Hosuowafieuc« no=~a> pone—mu m HMDOHh uuouu N" we :Oaueuauuucoua "mmgm:aa no so: a nu“: vauewOOWna mco«ummowuaam .mumwuqu. mucus flaw cw mmucmuoze ¢->~— -e um .noucoqueaxo age a“ 227 m~=~w> omnwfim~ .nufimxu wadswmw “Ow chocouso one mafia: .m ucusfiuonxw awofioan u :« newcoumsa "mmgmzcwm «mason “fie wnwus >uo>00muv ceauoaauquuua u=w6u>~o>aa soothe oeu- . noonuuoflaa “ensue: .u>wu«a«un Became-"o emu no acuncouxe an .u:a5¢ou«>:o cu .Auow-uonan - .wnuuuuu - no nuooouso emu mew»: Hw>ofi wceuw eco um Ewanoun no vac: wco cw coauooavo conga-«00am use Hquunww manna: muOOnuao on» magma .o 3...: E: a madman "mmqmzao>su n50wu¢uu> nuocowuoaxo waacunow new nuoonuso emu mean: .A museum 32.8 2.2.:- 53% cousin-s "asasoauusu emu no when anyways“ no no uuoovuao on» we on: ukuuouuo on n~oonuo oufinsm can :a acuueosvo noouuso 228 in a program that utilizes the outdoor environment for meaningful learning. Outdoor programs should provide the individual with opportunities that will foster discovery of personal meaning of himself and of the world around him. Such programs should contribute to the individual's ability to live intelligently, creatively, and abundantly in this society. Outdoor education should help each individual student develop appreciation for and understanding of the natural environment and man's relation to it as the student matures in a changing world. Through a program of general educa- tion every child in the school should have opportunities to become aware of the bond that exists between human beings and the natural environment. Students should become aware also of how they, as well as all of society, can derive the most benefit from the outdoors while at the same time helping to maintain a proper balance in the whole scheme of unity that is greater than man himself. Cooperative action by local groups can provide the means for developing specific objectives for programs of outdoor education. Each school or school system must devel- op objectives that are pertinent to their own situation and needs. Where only certain grade levels or particular parts 229 of a school program are to be considered for outdoor edu- cation, objectives should be stated for selected and spe- cific practices. Such a piecemeal approach, however, should be considered a beginning step that could later lead to developing objectives for a broader program. Regardless of the extent of the program to be developed, specific behavioral objectives should be clearly stated and should indicate what values are held for outdoor education. Behavioral objectives follow from broad objec- tives and serve as guides to selecting and organizing out— door experiences. Principles for formulating behavioral objectives are outlined by Taba along with a discussion of 58 types of behavioral objectives. Organizing gpg selecting outdoor experiences. The self—contained classroom with its opportunity to afford the learner a more integrated type of school experience would seem to enable the learner to gain the most for general education purposes or for learning that cuts across a number of subject matter areas. Within this organizational frame- work, outdoor experiences can be more effectively carried on. There is less conflict with scheduling by teachers and pupils who want to go beyond the school building. There 581bid., pp. 19a-23o. 230 are also more opportunities for using large blocks of time necessary for some kinds of extended outdoor experiences. The continuity of planning for, participating in, evaluat- ing, and following up outdoor experiences is better pre— served, and individual and small-group instruction will likely be provided in such a way that it can be highly effective. Within a departmental organization there are dif- ferent kinds of opportunities for use of the outdoors for school-related experiences. These opportunities are usually confined to more specific practices, such as developing particular skills or acquiring knowledge in a particular area. Short field trips are possible during school time and a variety of audio-visual techniques may be employed. Sponsorship of hobby groups, clubs, and special projects offer further opportunities for outdoor experiences as a part of an outdoor education program. Some examples of outdoor experiences possible in a departmental organiZa— tion are: (1) Development of skill in outdoor recreational activities that have a life-long value. (2) Observation and discovery of natural phenomena in settings such as forest preserves, parks, and arboretums. (3) Analysis of pollution problems in a community 7 231 area or visiting historical landmarks. (A) Discovery of basic mathematical concepts through manipulation of concrete objects in an outdoor problem—solving situation. (5) Appreciation of natural beauty that results in expression through the use of native materials. (6) Inspiration to do original writing,or writing descriptive accounts as a result of actual experience in an outdoor setting. Interdepartmental efforts at the secondary level through team-teaching arrangements and core programs pro- vide a kind of integrated learning situation which has some of the advantages of the self-contained classroom. Out- door experiences may be carried on with more than one , teacher or with the help of outside resource persons. Pup- ils have more opportunity for sharing purposes and outcomes, and larger blocks of time are available for outdoor exper- iences. Cooperative planning, an integral part of core, can be realistically employed in designing meaningful outdoor experiences. In selecting outdoor experiences at any level the maturity of the learner must be considered. The ability to handle abstractions in deriving personal meaning varies considerably and involvement with the natural environment 232 could afford a kind of enrichment that would be helpful where a learner's background of experience has been limited. Regardless of chronological age, the necessity to return to direct involvement is important where meaningful asso— ciation with reality is valued in an organic process of learning. Involvement in problem-solving provides a situation in which outdoor experiences may be needed to help develop personal meaning. The experiences themselves would not assure meaning, but they would serve as‘a vital first step in moving to higher levels of awareness and understanding. When a problem is significant to a learner, intrinsic mo— tivation is greater and the learner is more likely to ; discover for.himself solutions as a result of personal inquiry. Outdoor experiences must be selected within the framework of the values and commitments of the local school system, and within the limitations of time, admin- istrative policy, and leadership ability. However, all things being equal, outdoor experiences that are selected as.an integral part of the on—going classroom program and that actively involve the learner in the total learning process will be most effective in developing rich personal meaning. ' i 233 Adapting patterns pf learning gpg teaching. Reality is a function of perception that occurs within the indie vidual. Each perSon perceives differently and reality therefore cannot be considered apart from the learner. This viewpoint suggests that learning must begin with the individual and that the purposes of the individual must be considered in outdoor learning and teaching. Since percep— tions that are not acted upon have little meaning, the learner must be actively involved in outdoor education programs. The teacher needs to recognize the necessity for jointly planning with students so they‘may become involved in attacking problems that are personally mean- ingful. i When a problem-solving approach is used in the self— 1 contained classroom certain parts of the learning sequence lend themselves more readily to actual participation in the outdoors. The planning and purposing of an outdoor exper- ience begins in the classroom with the active participation of the learners. Involvement continues throughout the entire learning experience as discovery, discussion, and reflective thinking are brought into play. Outdoor dis- covery which includes a process of inquiry involving sensory and feeling awareness encourages intuitive insight and thinking. Hence direct involvement in the outdoors using E 23h all the senses is a firSt step in the process of developing meaningful concepts and generalizations and aesthetic appre- ciation. Small group work and individual projects can be carried on in the outdoors where an informal atmosphere encourages initiative and motivates self-learning and cooperative action. Learning takes time and the time needed for discovery must be provided in outdoor exper— iences and in considering the meaning of such experiences. This calls for careful planning, recognition of purposes,\ unhurried opportunity for inquiry, and sharing of infor- mation and ideas. Communication and interaction help the learners to verify and critically appraise the meaning of personal experience. The teacher facilitates learning in the outdoors by helping students find effective ways of learning things they need and want. This suggests that the teacher must share his enthusiasm and his approach to discovery. The teacher becomes a co-learner in the vast unknown natural environment where he cannot possibly have all the answers. With a sensitivity to the purposes and needs of the learn— ers, he must be skillful in helping learners discover meaning for themselves by providing clues, by asking questions, and by giving support. 235 Building specific skills, acquiring specific infor- mation, or developing aesthetic appreciation may be impor- tant adjuncts of particular problems or may be recognized as necessary in working through certain problems. In these instances different methods of teaching such as drill, lecture, or demonstration may be needed. There are occasions when for the purposes of a particular activity contrived experiences may serve more efficiently than direct involvement in the outdoors.‘ The proper use of audio—visual materials and techniques can be used as a part of a learning sequence to develop per— sonal meaning. However, these procedures should be in conjunction with, and not a substitute for, learning in the outdoors where experiences such as field trips and short excursions can be effectively provided. Resident outdoor education, or school camping, affords students a more integrated type of learning exper— ience in which cooperative group activity strengthens social support for desirable behavior changes. Living in a natural setting for a week provides opportunities for . experiences that realistically help to meet objectives of general education. The extended period of time in a children's community allows for functionally integrating study, work, recreation, and healthful living under the 236 guidance of the teacher. Evaluating outdoor educgtion program . Evaluation is the process of determining what behavioral changes occur and of appraising these changes against the values 59 Evaluation of an represented in stated objectives. outdoor education program then should help to determine to what extent objectives are being achieved and to identify strengths and weaknesses in all phases of the program. Evaluation therefore can serve as a guide to improvement, and also can be used to validate the basis‘ from which the program is derived. Appraising behavioral changes means that many kinds of appropriate evidence should be gathered before, during, and following outdoor experiences. When objectives are stated behaviorally, evaluation becomes a complex process that results from a recognition of the complexity of human behavior. Evaluation thus conceived involves: (l) clarification of objectives to the point of describing which behaviors represent achievement in a particular area; (2) the development and use of a variety of ways of getting evidence on changes in students; (3) appropriate ways of summarizing and interpreting that evidence; and (A) the use of information gained on the progress of students or the lack of it to improve curriculum, teaching, and guidance.0 59Ibid., p. 312. 601bid., p. 313. 237 The evaluation process should include broad parti- cipation by those who are engaged in developing and carry- ing out the outdoor education program. This means that not only should the learners be involved, but teachers, admin- istrators, and parents as well. As the program of outdoor education grows, evaluation should be continuous, and sufficient number and kinds of valid evidence should be used to provide direction for continuous improvement of outdoor experiences. Egg Process pf Developing Programs i5 Outdoor Education Developing programs in outdoor education must be effected through a process similar to that used in any curriculum improvement endeavor. The change process itself serves as a functional frame of reference in which curri- culum improvement procedures applicable to outdoor educa- tion may be examined. Processes pf curriculum change. Change in curriculum is viewed not only as a product but a process as well. "Process and product-~means and ends--are intertwined in all teaching and learning."61 However, "far less atten- tion has been given to the problems of how to make changes 61McNally and Passow, _p. p§p., p. 39. 238 in the educational program than has been given to the formulation of the changes themselves."62 A survey of recent literature reveals that curri- culum development is thought of primarily as a process of ' change in people-~in their total personalities and their relations to each other. When curriculum improvement was previously considered as an administrative approach a central staff of "experts" focused on changes in courses of study, schedules, and printed materials. At that time the effect on actual changes in classroom programs and procedures was minimal. Now a different approach is taken. A broadened concept of curriculum change has gradually brought about a merger of administration, supervision, and in-service education in refining the means of improv- ing instruction. Once curriculum workers had accepted the view that little real curriculum improvement occurs without continuous professional and personal growth of teachers, concern shifted from administrative structure to include thg complexities of educating the professional staff. 3 Behavioral change in the professional staff of the 62Smith, Stanley, Shores, 0 . cit., p. 618. 63McNally and Passow, pp. pip., p. 38. 239 school results from changes in beliefs and values gained through new insights and perceptions. It is this behavior- al change which is the key to improving the quality of education. Because the teacher is so directly involved with the learners over extended periods of time, the ul- timate goal of improving programs and practices focuses attention on the classroom situation and the teacher. Curriculum change has been analyzed in many ways, but common to all is the concern for change in personality and human relationships. George Sharp recognized the growth of the teacher as the crucial factor in curriculum develop- ment.6h He believed that a process of re-education is necessary to affect change with the curriculum worker serving as a facilitator of change. In examining factors that affect change both in the individual and group set- tings, he described the nature of relationships and the kind of atmosphere necessary for re-education. Other writers have also recognized the key position of the classroom teacher in affecting the quality of the school program.65 They emphasize the importance of 6“George Sharp, Curriculum Development as Re- education of the Teachers (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers C31Ieege,CoIm51a University, 1951). 65See: Alice M. Miel, Chan in pp; Curriculum (New York: Appleton— Century- Crofts, 19A55, and Kenneth D. Bonus and Bozidar Muntyan, Human Relations in Curriculum Change (New York: Dryden Press, 2h0 understanding the social structure of the school and the community when considering changes in the school program. Smith, Stanley, and Shores agree that "change in the curriculum is in reality a major social change."66 Ander- son views curriculum improvement in a social context as a planned social change.67 Because a broader interpretation of curriculum development has evolved, there has been a concurrent search for understanding of the change process in many areas. Emphasis on human relations and behavioral change has caused curriculum workers to turn more to research and experience in group dynamics, leadership training, social psychology, psychotherapy, and in personality, motivation, and learning theory for understanding and interpretation of the process of change. If change to incorporate outdoor education is to be effective, then an understanding of the dynamics of change is essential in systematically planning for and control- ling such an educational change. Analysis of knowledge from various disciplines and fields has been incorporated in recent curriculum development literature which provides 66Smith, Stanley, and Shores, 0 . cit., p. 63h. 67Anderson, pp. cit., p. 19. 2&1 insight into the process of facilitating change. Facilitatipg pprriculpp pQgpgg. There are a number of ways of looking at the task of helping to bring about curriculum change. When such change is conceived of as change in people, it entails a complexity of interrelated factors that promote and support growth of the school staff. These factors may be thought of as facilitators of change. Anderson identified morale, leadership, teacher personality, and human relations structure as factors vaffeqting curriculum change.68 McNally and Passow examined facilitation of change in terms of organization, personnel, techniques, procedures, leadership, and resources.69 Smith, Stanley, and Shores looked at the social nature of change in proposing a systematic approach to curriculum change.7o Each text presented examples and descriptions of how change could be facilitated. The following means of facilitating change were identified in a survey of curriculum development litera— ture, each being employed to suit particular purposes or goals: study groups, workshops, in—service courses in 68Anderson, loc. cit. 69McNally and Passow, loc. cit. 7eSmith, Stanley, and Shores, lp_. cit. 2&2 school systems and colleges, clinics, conferences, commit? tees,_school visitations, research projects, and seminars. Resources, both personal and material, also aid in the process of change. Consultants may be called in for spe- cific tasks and a wide variety of materials may be used by individuals or groups. Facilities and the atmosphere they create are also important factors, as well as the element of time and how it is utilized. > One concept that seems to be prevalent in curriculum development proposals is that of the group, its role and function, and the procedures used in working with groups. Much of what takes place in curriculum change is carried out in group situations within individual schools and school systems as well as at higher levels. Anderson suggests that the primary focus in curriculum study should be on the group in facilitating the process of curriculum change.71 Qpppp process ip curriculum ppgpgp. Research and experience in group dynamics has helped to shed light on the process of change and has been applied in curriculum study over a good many years. Obviously, working in groups constitutes a major portion of curriculum improvement 71Anderson, loc. cit. q 243 endeavors when one believes that "the collective intele ligence of the group, utilizing the method of concensus, is a better guide for action than the judgment of any one individual".72 An examination of curriculum development texts and periodicals reveals the effort being made towards enlarging and refining the body of knowledge dealing with group dynamics applied to the school situation. Bringing to bear the understanding of group organization, leader- ship, procedures, and techniques has benefited those concerned with the programs of the schools and their betterment. Taking the findings from the fields of psy- chology, sociology, human relations, and other applied social sciences, the curriculum worker has been able to increase his skill in understanding group functioning in relation to a sound philosophical basis. He has used this skill in helping people become more effective in curriculum development. It has been previously pointed out that many dif- ferent people contribute to school improvement programs. It is in the group setting that opportunity is provided for people to share ideas, interests, and concerns, and 72Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- ment, Action £9; Curriculum Improvement, Yearbook (washing- ton, D. C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1951), p. 186. _ 7 Zhh to work out co-operatively solutions to their problems. Such activities as committee work, staff meetings, and study groups may result in opportunities for discovery of new insights and new meanings which may lead to change in behavior. It is in this manner that the individual is able to personalize and internalize meaning in such a way that improvement in learning experiences becomes the ultimate out come . Changg in Egg individual. While people work col- lectively in groups and a positive group climate serves as a means of facilitating change, it is each individual in the group who is the center of focus for change. As the teacher, principal, layman, student, or curriculum worker is provided with a favorable condition for growth, he becomes a more fully-functioning individual. He is able to perceive more realistically the world around him-~the physical world and the world of people, the global world, the community, and the school--and his role in the world. And, too, he is better able to see himself as others see him and to derive personal meaning from his encounter with other people. A favorable climate for growth is a vital concern cf curriculum workers who seek to bring about positive changes in individuals. The field of perceptual psychology 2h5 has given us some important clues to the growth process and the releasing of individual human potential that have had an impact on programs and practices in curriculum improvement. Conditions necessary for promoting growth have been interpreted in many ways. One such interpreta- tion states that: (1) a person must have a desire for change and that assessing his most pressing concerns is one way of finding a starting point for growth, (2) a person must be accepted as he is and his concerns must be accepted without anxiety or falsehood, (3) a person must feel that he has worth as a person, positively and uncon- ditionally, (A) a person must receive empathetic under- standing of his feelings and what he is experiencing by the person or persons that serve to facilitate his growth, (5) the facilitator must attempt to communicate his positive and unconditional regard and empathic under- standing for the person he seeks to help, and (6) a per- son must receive such communication of regard and under— standing.73 Change in the individual is a normal aspect of growth and development. "It appears whenever a person is 73Robert E. Bills, "People and Progress," address to the Michigan Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Fall Conference, East Lansing, Michigan, November 2, 1961. 246 not blocked in his being. It appears also to the extent that we can be authentic in our relationships and it is the outcome of our own being."7h Implications. If a rationale for outdoor education is to bring about changes in the programs of schools, and form a basis for effective outdoor experiences, then serious attention must be given to the process by which such a rationale is utilized in curriculum development. There seems to be sufficient evidence to indicate that processes of curriculum change can serve as a guide for those who would attempt to examine an outdoor education rationale and translate it into programs and practices. This kind of action would call for the consideration and resolution of such questions as: (1) What is the relationship between rationale development and the total process of curriculum improvement? (2) What are the conditions necessary for a rationale to become used as a functional document in de: veloping outdoor programs? (3) What is the relationship between involvement'in developing outdoor programs and utilizing a rationale for conducting outdoor programs? (h) What are the implications for individual and group effort in rationale development and utilization at different 7thid. 2h? levels and between levels? (5) What are the implications for developing programs in outdoor education when curricu- lum change is viewed as change in people? The answers to such questions are complex, but they must be faced continually in each situation as attempts are made to improve the quality of learning through out- door education. A consideration of "involvement" can offer some enlightenment in understanding the nature of curriculum change which is necessary for outdoor program development. Involvement ip Utilizing a Rationale The concept and role 9; leadership. The concept of i leadership is significant in any undertaking designed to bring about improvement in the curriculum. Utilizing a rationale for outdoor education, whether at the national, state, or local level, is partially dependent on the inter- pretation of leadership employed and can be related to general principles of educational leadership. In interpreting the meaning of leadership, Smith, Stanley, and Shores stated that: The common notion is that leadership consists of certain qualities inherent in some individuals and that an individual who possesses these qualities is a leader... Nowadays leadership is not conceived as a set of qualities, traits, or abilities inherent 2h8 in the individual and marking him as a leader. Rather it is conceived as a functional role of a group member, played by an individual at a particular time in a particular group of people. In other words, leadership is being exercised when a group member is helping the group to define and meet its needs. And that person is the leader who at a given moment is mos? effectively helping the group in these respects. 5 This position is substantiated by McNally and Passow who recognized the functional role of leadership at the local level as involving many different people attempting to improve the educational program.76 Anderson refers to concepts developed from research on group process in de- scribing leadership as a function of the group thus placing emphasis upon the situation in which leadership is exer— cised.77 He describes four types of atmospheres in which groups work and concludes that democratic leadership can be expected to accomplish more than authoritarian, benevo- lent despotism, or laissez faire leadership. The 1951 ASCD yearbook described leadership as a "function which belongs to all participants and may, in a democratic group, pass from one member to any other member or members 75Smith, Stanley, and Shores, pp. p1p., pp. 656-657. '76McNally and Passow, pp. pip., pp. 55-56. 77Anderson, pp. cit., p. 27. 2A9 who can make a needed and significant contribution."78 The role of leadership includes the responsibility of ”arranging opportunities for persons who have a stake in the educational program to think, plan, and act co-opera— tively".79 This would mean that teachers, principals, supervisors, curriculum specialists, superintendents, and citizens would all share leadership responsibilities in developing outdoor education programs. Another way of viewing leadership is to examine - status positions and their relation to functional roles. I g In the past, curriculum development was delegated to par- 1 ticular individuals at the top of the administrative 1 ladder who co~ordinated efforts of a central staff of "experts". Now leadership comes from many directions, but may still begin with status persons such as adminis- trators or supervisors. Anderson says that "research in leadership and group process has indicated that, unless the responsible status leader is active in the study to improve a situation, the 80 chances of improvement are slim indeed". McNally and 78Association for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- ment, pp. cit., p. 218.. 79Ib1d. 80Anderson, pp. cit., p. 150. 250 Passow concur in the belief that leadership for curriculum improvement begins with the status person, but should go beyond administrative domination and direction to providing the means for the effective functioning of a group.81 Smith, Stanley, and Shores acknowledge the line and staff organization operating in most school systems and the key role that status persons at the top echelons of the line organization play in giving leadership to curriculum improvement.82 They point out that administrators are bound by laws and regulations that make it difficult to perceive status positions as functional in effecting change. They explain, however, that "if persons in offi— cial positions are also able to play the role of functional leader, curriculum development by the school-community personnel will be in large measure assured".83 Broadly conceived, leadership may be considered as an on—going process in the interaction of people and their -ideas, occurring both at the time a group is physically present and in operation and at the time ideas and insights of individuals are perceived as being helpful in a groupas 81McNally and Passow, pp. pip., p. 55. 82Smith, Stanley, and Shores, 0 . pip., pp. 657-658 83Ibid., p. 659. 251 efforts. Educational leadership was defined in the 1960 yearbook of ASCD as "that action or behavior among indie viduals and groups which causes both the individual and the groups to move toward educational goals that are in- 84 These two creasingly mutually acceptable to them". definitions do not seem to be necessarily incongruent. , It would seem that in utilizing a rationale for outdoor education the leadership role at any level might be conceived of as one that facilitates a groupis action in meeting its particular needs. At the national level, this may mean promoting co-ordination and co—operation between many organizations and individuals who interpret the outdoor education concept. The group, or individuals being served by such endeavors, consists of all who look to national leadership for guidance and direction in developing outdoor education programs. In many instances, efforts at the national level would involve persons from other levels in developing guidelines and positions for consideration by groups and individuals at the state and local levels. This same role may also function for leader- ship at the state level in serving the needs of particular 8hAssociation for Supervision and Curriculum Develop- ment, Leadership fpp Ipproving lpgtructipp, Yearbook (Wash— ington, D. C.: Association for.Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1960), p. 27. 252 groups within a state or in combination with other states on a regional basis. At the local level, utilization of an outdoor education rationale may result from a consideration of classroom problems within a school system or individual school, or from recognition of a need for improving an onegoing outdoor education program. In either instance, this would call for leadership in involving all concerned in a serious consideration of how an outdoor education on rationale might be implemented. The leadership role may ll be shared among members of a faculty, whether it includes 1‘ the principal and teachers, or just the teachers, but the support of the principal would seem to assure the value of the undertaking. In a democratic climate any member of the faculty may become a leader in helping others to examine their own purposes and commitments in coming to some real understanding of what an outdoor education rationale means for their particular situation. Participation ip developing ppg utilizing p ration— plp. Development of an outdoor education rationale may occur at any of several levels: (1) nationally by indivi- dual spokesmen or by special groups called for that pur- pose, (2) statewide or regionally by departments, organi— zations, or curriculum committees, (3) locally by school 253 systems or individual schools, or (h) by individuals. Regardless of the level at which a rationale for outdoor education is developed, it should have broad applicability to public education in various kinds of school programs. However, in adapting a rationale toga particular situation it is extremely important that the nature of the outdoor education program be closely related to the existing school curriculum. The program should result from critical examination and real understanding ]i of the rationale by those intending to carry out the ‘ program. Those persons affected must be involved in the ? designing of the outdoor education program and must be fully aware and committed to the changes that would result from employing an outdoor education rationale. If we believe that all those who are affected by an outdoor education rationale should participate in the development of outdoor education programs, then there should be widespread participation at all levels by pro- fessionals and lay citizens. For some, participation might occur at more than one level where, for example, a teacher becomes involved in outdoor education by serving on a national committee, participating in state workshops, serving as chairman of a community study group, and helping to design a program for a particular school. In all these 251+ capacities, the teacher may be involved in utilizing a rationale for outdoor education while personally adapting such a rationale to his or her own classroom teaching. 0r another example might be a national figure who publishes widely in professional journals, serves as a committee chairman of a state organization, acts as a consultant for a community program, participates in a local workshop where he demonstrates outdoor education practices, and carries on independentsmudy in apprasing outdoor education programs. It is easy to see in both examples that involve— ment in utilizing an outdoor education rationale can occur at any level and may contribute to developments at other levels. There is a need at all levels to be concerned with organizing and facilitating efforts that will result in continuous examination of elements of a rationale for outdoor education so that programs growing out of the rationale will be increasingly more meaningful. National and state organizations, colleges and universities, and individual spokesmen should provide interpretations and state positions that would be available to others. They can also facilitate action through policy statements, publications, sponsorship of conferences, workshops and experimental projects, and provision of assistance and 255 consultant services. Locally, the professional adminis- trative staff can play-an important role in co-ordinating wide-spread participation by teachers and representatives of the community. The superintendent and his delegated staff have a direct responsibility for curriculum improve- ment and they set the tone for involvement and expectation in such activities as continuous examination of an outdoor education rationale and the utilization of such a rationale. A rationale employed locally may become a working tool for soliciting public support, providing teachers with a basis for program modification, or serving as a basis for in- service education. When attention is focused on each building as the primary site for curriculum development, the building principal becomes a key person in helping teachers improve their classroom practices. It is the teacher who ultimately determines the curriculum and the principal's position and talents serve a vital function in the curriculum improve- ment proCess. He should provide the flexible kind of organization that allows teachers to work on common inter- ests and concerns such as may be the case with the initia- tion of an outdoor education program. Students, too, should be involved in setting goals and developing objec— tives for outdoor experiences based on needs and interests. . 256 . Programs should be co-operatively worked out between students and their classroom teacher. Lay citizens may become involved in diverse ways at any level. They may serve on advisory or study commit- tees, serve as consultants, participate in workshops and conferences, and work co-operatively with individual schools and teachers. Lay leadership becomes increasingly more effective as individuals are given an opportunity to par- ticipate in improving the school program. Having lay citizens involved in developing an outdoor education pro- gram constitutes one valuable source of ideas and insights for making outdoor education more effective. It cannot be over stressed that in all efforts of utilizing a rationale for outdoor education there is a need for co-Operation.between individuals and groups at each level and between levels. ‘Participation cannot be viewed as a static process anymore than a rationale itself can be considered a finality. Both should be in a constant process of dynamic growth. IV. SUMMARY In this chapter a current rationale for outdoor education was presented and its application in developing programs as a part of the school curriculum was discussed. 257 A basis for selecting elements of the rationale was considered and resulted in identifying the following areas of general elements: (1) values of society, (2) the nature of society, (3) the learner and learning, and (A) the objectives of education. Specific elements for out- door education followed from the general elements and fOCused on the unique qualities of the outdoors that can be used for learning experiences. The general elements dealt briefly with democratic i values that provide direction for means and ends, changes ,1 occurring in society, and educational objectives. Major attention was given to a consideration of the process of learning and the role of experience in learning. Specific elements for outdoor education were sup~ ported by a basic premise that recognized the unity of nature and man's place in that unity. The beauty, mystery, and power of the outdoors motivates the individual to seek an understanding of the relationship between man and the rest of the universe. The outdoor setting provides, in varying degrees, a learning environment in which discovery of personal meaning can result from direct involvement'with physical reality in a broad context. A position on the place of the outdoors in the school program was defined, emphasizing the role of the teacher in guiding-outdoor . .. 258 learning. A description was given of how the natural environment affords opportunities for meaningful exper- iences that help develop ratiOnal abilities and personal values and committments. The process of developing outdoor education pro- grams was considered as a part of curriculum change in which an awareness and understanding of the processes of change become key factors in implementing the rationale. The necessary involvement of people in bringing about change was discussed in relation to leadership and parti~ cipation, and these were related to the utilization of‘a rationale for outdoor education. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS I. SUMMARY The problem involved in this study was to examine and analyze the historical development of the basis for outdoor education and to suggest a current rationale for outdoor education. A The primary objective of this study Was to develop E consistent and comprehensive elements of a rationale that xii can serve as a reasonable basis for developing programs and practices of outdoor education in the public schools. This first necessitated identifying the present basis for outdoor education and analyzing some of its strengths and weaknesses. The historical development of the basis was traced through a review of related studies and an analysis of the contributions of two key leaders in the outdoor education movement. Following the presentation and analysis of the present basis for outdoor education, elements for a ration» ale were selected and stated. The implications that such a rationale have for program development were spelled out in suggestions for both the design of outdoor education programs and the processes of developing such programs. 259 260 Both in the selection of elements and in the application ofithe rationale, principles of curriculum development served as a guide. The necessity to first become familiar with the present basis for outdoor education prompted a thorough investigation of research studies and pertinent litera» ture. Studies in camping and school camping were found to be highly significant since these two concepts are gener- ally recognized as being predecessors to a broad outdoor education concept. The approach used in determining the present basis for outdoor education was that of historical documentation, interpretation, and analysis of the contributions of two key figures in outdoor education. An examination of Lloyd B. Sharp's and Julian W. SmithVS lives and careers was carried out through personal interview and corresponm dence, and through an extensive review and documentation of their writings. Synthesis of factors that may have influenced Sharp and Smith was presented and the present basis for outdoor education was interpreted from their writings. An analysis of this basis-and its historical development indicated a need for constructing a current rationale for outdoor education. 261 Sources from which elements of a rationale should be selected were determined. The appropriateness of elements that were incorporated was documented with refer» ences from supportive literature. General elements con- cerning values of society, the nature of society, the learner and learning, and objectives of education were presented along with their implications for outdoor education. Folo lowing from the general elements were specific elements that focused on unique qualities that the outdoors holds [ for learning experiences as an integral part of the school A program. ‘ The specific elements of the rationale recognized the broad context of the outdoor setting that affords the learner many kinds of opportunities for meaningful exper- iences. Through discovery in the outdoors the individual becomes directly involved in situations closely related to physical reality and, thus, gains a better understanding of himself and his relationship to the world around him. The realism of the outdoors cannot be duplicated in the classroom. Because of the unity of man and the natural environment, the outdoors can serve as a motivation and stimulation to question, to examine, and to explore in seeking to gain personal understanding and committment. The application of the rationale was considered in 262 a discussion of the design of programs in outdoor education and the process of developing such programs. This section of the study was intended to serve as a guideline for devel» oping specific programs at the local level. ‘The discussion of design was based on the rationale itself, and the dis- cussion of process was documented from sources in curriculum development literature. Tracing the historical developments of the present basis for outdoor education revealed that summer.camping and school camping were forerunners of outdoor education as it is known today. .Much of what was written concerning outdooreducation in the school throughout its historical development pertained more to experiences in camp settings than to experiences in the total outdoor environment. The basis for outdoor education found in Sharp's and Smith's writings served historically as a basis for school camping programs prior to its application to broader outdoor experiences sponsored by the schools. The devel» epment of that basis was intricately associated with Sharpgs and Smith's life experiences, careers, and their interaction withinumerous other peeple. Furthermore, the basis for outdoor education identified in their writings is primarily concerned with social conditions growing out of changes from an agrarian culture to a technological one and with 263 the value of direct experience in the outdoors in meeting some of the problems resulting from those changes. The rationale developed in this study and its implications for developing outdoor education programs helped the writer to identify issues that need to be resolved if outdoor education is to continue to develop and to become more meaningful in the total school program. The following issues were identified: 1. What kinds of outdoor education practices are appropriate for various levels throughout the school pro- gram, and how can continuity and balance of outdoor expera iences be assured? 2. What should be the nature of pro-service and in-service teacher preparation programs in outdoor education that are predicated upon the rationale developed in this study and that recognize individual differences in teachers and teaching styles? 3. What should be the appropriate role of "outdoor education specialists" in a school or school system? A. How can outdoor education programs contribute to the development of rational powers at various grade levels and within different organizational patterns? II. CONCLUSIONS As a result of undertaking this study, of analyzing 26A 1 _ the information gathered, and of developing a.rationale for outdoor education, the following conclusions seem. justified: _ 1. The proCess of "rationale develOpment" as used in this study afforded an appropriate means for examining the basis of outdoor education and for building a logical foundation for outdoor education. The need for recognizing an emotional involvement was a crucial factor in being able to reach a degree of objectivity. While not denying sub- Jectivity as a part of the wholeness of the writer, an awareness of its existence provided clearer perspective for the task at hand. This aWareness was made more vivid through consultation with others, and facilitated giving serious consideration to the development of a reasonable basis for outdoor education. ‘ 2. Identifying the present basis for outdoor education through an examination of the contributions of Sharp and Smith resulted in an understanding of their éwg interpretation Of that basis. Although they have written extensively, they did more to interpret the im~ plications of a basis for outdoor education than to con- tinually expand in depth the foundation for the direction theyueach.took. 3. Outdoor education is best conceived of as a . 265 process of utilizing the outdoors as an integral part of the scheol.curriculum.~ As such, it is considered a dynamic concept.adaptable to the perceptions and growth of the in; dividual regardless of his interests, needs, or past expere ience. h. The development of rational powers as the central purpose of education can serve as an acceptable criterion for value judgments in determining priorities in outdoor education. In this study an attempt was made to recognize some of the contributions that outdoor experiences can make to the development of rational thinking. _ 5. The effective use of the outdoors is dependent to a large extent on the committment and ability of teachers and, thus, the designing of teacher education programs that will.assure a real understanding of the rationale is essena tial. Both in pro-service andxin-service preparation programs, teachers need to.have opportunities for.growth in their understanding of the role of outdoor educatiOn as an integral part.of the school program, and of the nature of change and how to bring about desirable changes that will lead-to significant outdoor learning experiences. Teacher preparation programs should include sufficient time, expera iences, and leadership that will help future teachers develop appreciation of the outdoors, knowledge.abont the 266 outdoors, and outdoor teaching skills. _ _ 6. Processes of curriculum development are appli- cable in the development and utilization of a rationale for outdoor education. The rationale developed in this study was the result of one individual's involvement in using the best possible resources available to him, within the limits of his abilities and experience at this time, to present what seemed to him to be reasonable elements of a rationale for outdoor education. Guidelines for utilizing the rationale suggested the necessity for involvement by those implementing a program of outdoor education in giving serious consideration to the meaning of the rationale for their own particular situations. 7. The uniqueness of the outdoors as a setting for learning experiences is basically an expression of the unity of the universe of which man is an integral part. Experiences in the natural environment more nearly repre~ sent a direct encounter between man and the rest of that unity than do the artificial, man-made confines of the classroom. Involvement in the outdoors affords thelearner mere-opportunities for perceiving a wide variety of con~ crate reality than does the school building, and thus a richer-background of meaningful experiences can be incor- parated in the curriculum. Providing anoutdoor environment 267 full of situations and phenomena to raise questions about it helps set the stage for problem solving and higher levels of learning. III. RECOMMENDATIONS Vhen outdoor education is defined as a process of utilizing the outdoors, a rationale to support such action must of necessity be broad and encompass fill uses made of the outdoors as an integral part of the school curriculum. There is a danger however that this definition may lose meaning because of its breadth unless it is clarified for each'situation. For instance, outdoor education in a self-contained elementary classroom may be different from that in a secondary social studies course. Using the outdoors for brief field trips as opposed to resident experiences in a camp also constitutes a difference. In departmentalized education the use of the natural environment in a physical education class would differ from the use made in a biology class, and.both uses would be different from those employed in an agriculture course or even in an astronomy club's, activities. An interdisciplinary approach that emphasizes ecological relationships would differ from an approach,that was concerned with one particular discipline or subdect area. 268 The point being made here is that while all purposes are being served through utilizing the outdoors, they are being served differently in each instance. This suggests a need for recognizing portions of a rationale that are applicabltho particular areas, levels, and practices. Thus, a rationale for outdoor education should be supple» mented by elements that are unique to outdoor recreation, outdoor science, outdoor conservation, elementarymlevel outdoor education, or resident outdoor education. Each i "subwrationale" may have a complex relation to other ones, i; but all of them should be consistent with elements of a 1 general outdoor education rationale. The validity of the rationale developed in this study must be established through research that presents concrete evidence of the ability to utilize the elements of the rationale in developing effective programs. Appro= priate means of gathering and evaluating data must be used in securing comprehensive evidence. Although evaluating the outcomes of an outdoor education program developed from this rationale is a complex procedure, the ultimate assessment should appear in the changes in behavior that result from such a program. Criteria to assess changes in behavior are difficult to apply, yet such evaluation must be continually approached in the improvement of outdoor 269 education. f Research is needed to indicate how the rationale may be.utilised in developing programs for teacher preparation. Using the rationale as a framework, research projects need to he designed and carried out which will reveal changes in the behavior of graduates who have participated in outa door teacher education experiences. The means by which such changes become reflected in desirable behavioral out» comes needs to be more fully explored. There is a need for both longitudinal and depth studies. Research is also needed to present evidence on the process of incorporating an outdoor education program in an already existing curriculum. Documentation and analysis of processes used in establishing successful programs need to be presented. The failure of some school camping pron grams to continue beyond an experimental period suggests the need for critical appraisal of the processes that were employed in such programs. Principles of curriculum devel: opment may be used as a frame of reference in examining actual situations, and may also be employed in action» research projects where outdoor education is being consim dered or is to be developed. In this study, identifying the present basis for outdoor education through the contributions of Sharp and _ 270 smith did not allow due consideration to be given to other possible sources of that basis. While outdoor education has developed like many other curriculum innovations that gained attention through forceful leadership, there has been a growth of outdoor education literature too. Within some of the studies, texts, and other printed materials there may be elements not recognised in Sharp's and Smith's writings that could be considered as a part of a current rationale for outdoor education. This calls for an intenw sive examination of pertinent literature in order to gain further insights into the present basis. Such an effort 1 was made by Rammerman in tracing developments in camping 2 in determining principles of out- education and by Rogers door education, but in light of the evidence presented in this study further investigation seems warranted. The rationale developed in this study attempted to define a reasonable basis for outdoor education, but it is not considered a finality. Perhaps its uniqueness lies in the approach or frame of reference which focused on the 1Donald R. Hammerman, "A Historical Analysis of the Susie-cultural Factors that Influenced the DevelOpment of 9amping Education," (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Bennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsyla yania, 1961). 2Hartin H. Rogers, "Principles and Functions of cute door Education,9 (unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York. 1955). process of rationale development.' In this sense, it could serve as a model for determining other elements. Other possible sources of elements that need to be explored may be found in the field of education and its underlying disciplines. Three areas not treated, or lightly treated, in this study particularly need scrutinu izing to determine direction and establish priority in developing current outdoor education programs. They are: (l) the individual and individualized learning, (2) existential philosophy, and (3) the structure of knowledge. The central role that an individual's perception plays in changing behavior, and thus in the learning process,3 suggests a need for enlarging and giving depth . to the elements in this study concerned with the unique‘ contributions of outdoor settings. An individualised approach to learning that places emphasis on the process of discovery and inquiry may have important implications for outdoor education. Such implications should be clearly defined. Existentialism has become an important force in philosophy and has served.lately as a focus for educational 3Arthur W. Combs and Donald Snygg, Individual Bea havior (New York: Harper and Brothers, 193?). g 272 thought." A concern for authentic experience of the individual, as suggested in the following quotation, emphasises the need to examine some of the tenets of existentialism in relation to outdoor learning: Existentialism reminds us that we should not “ deprive the individual of the privilege of exper- iencing life for himself by trying to tell him what it means, by supplying abstract answers before he has even framed a question. ESpecially in a largely Spectator culture, education should increasingly be placing emphasis upon the question, upon the quest, upon the irreplaceability of personal experience.5 ' _ Bruner's worké’ 7 reflects recent effort that has been made to re-define the role of the organized disciplines in making curriculum decisions. Proposals that the struc~ ture of knowledge be used as a basis for curriculum organ- isation have been receiving attention in current practice, notably in mathematics and science. The relationship between organized disciplines and learning experiences “Harold O. Soderquist, The Person 3nd Education (Cos lumbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., l§5h5. 5Paul Nash, "The Strange Death of Progressive Education," Educational Theory, 1&272, April, 1964. 6Jerome S. Bruner, The Process of Education (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,.I9 . 7Jerome S. Bruner, 9g Knowing (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 19 3). _ . 2'73 A . that involve the use of the outdoors should be spelled out in a rationale for outdoor education. - It would seem that knowledge and thought in the three areas mentioned have implications for further developing a sound basis for outdoor education and theree fore should be approached through developmental research. Concluding,$tatement ‘ Ihat has been presented as a rationale for outdoor education resulted from an intensive investigation by the writer over a three year period. The elements of the rationale appear to be logical and reasonable but insight gained from involvement in the study made it possible to suggest action needed to define further a reasonable basis for outdoor education. The recommendations for further rationale building were then a natural outcome of the texperience undergone. As the rationale is tested out in program development, other insights may also be gained into the need for refinements and changes in the rationale. Thus the rationale presented in this study is considered as one link in a dynamic process of development, application, and appraisal thatmust be continued if out- door education is to be a truly integral part of the school curriculum. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Booxs Allport, Gordon W. Becomi g. 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"Outd00r Schools," The National Elementary School Principal, 31230-359 April, 19520 0 "Planning for Community School Camping," Educa- tion, 73: 50- 58, September, 1952 o "The Meaning and Purpose of Outdoor Education," iélinois Journal g: Education, 52:5~7, October, a "The Michigan Story of Camping and Outdoor Education," The Journal of Educational Sociolo 231508-515 Maya-01955 , "The Outdoor Education Projectis First Year," Journal of Health- Physical Education-Recreation, 27: lA- 15, October, 1956 0 "Three Years in Retrospect, " Mchi an Mg School Athletic Association Bulletin, 2 2A— -5, August, 191.5o am in IMagazing, Volo XIV, Noo 2, February, 19A2, special issue) 28A Time, "New Frontier," 32:39, October 17, 19380 Do UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS "A Bibliography of Theses and Dissertations," Prepared . for the Outdoor Education Project of the American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, washington, D Co. National Education Association, May, 1962o (mimeographed) Arnold, Jo Shailero "The Educational Possibilities of the Summer Camp Program," Unpublished Masters thesis, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, 1928 Beker, Jerome. "The Relationship Between School Camping, . Social Climate, and Change in Childrenls Self- Concepts and Patterns of Social Relationship," Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 19590 Bills, Robert Eo "People and Progress," An address presented to the Michigan Association for Super- vision and Curriculum Development, Fall Conference, East Lansing, Michigan, November 2, 19610 Brinley, Anno "Letter," July 20, 196Ao Donaldson, George W,, and Louise Eo Donaldson° "Outdoor Education--A Bibliography," Washington, D Co: American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, May,1958 (mimeographed) Elwell, Alcott F, "The Summer Camp: A New Factor in Education," Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 19250 Gill, Margaret, "Letter," February 13, 196A, Hammerman, Donald R, "An Historical Analysis of the Socio- Cultural Factors That Influenced the Development of Camping Educatriono". Unpublished Doctoral dis- sertation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 19 lo .-235 , lrwin, Frank'L. "Camping Education--Dutline for College Course in Camping Education,” Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, New York University, Hew'York, l9h8. Kleindiest, Viola K "A Study of the Experiences of Camping for the Purpose of Pointing Out Ways in Which a Sohool Camp Program May Supplement the Elementary School at the Sixth Grade Level." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, New'York University, New York, 19570 , Kranzer, Herman C. ”"Effects of School camping on Selected - Aspects of Pupil Behavior--An Experimental Study." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles, 1958 Mbson, Benard S.” "Camping and Education;" Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, 1929, iMcAuliffe, F. Joseph; "The Summer Camp: A Contribution to Education." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Boston College, Boston, Massachusetts, l93h. MCKnight, iMartha E "Contributions and Potentials of School Camping," Unpublished Doctoral disserta- tion, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City, 19520 iMoore, Harriet B0 "A Plan for the Organization of Camps as an Integral Part of the Public School System of the City of New York." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City,.l9l+3o Osborne, Ernest Go "The Individualization of Large Group Camping," Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York Rogers, martin Ho "Principles and Functions of Outdoor Education," .Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, 19550 Rupff, Paul E. "A Comparison of Aspirations with Achieve- ment in a Group of Selected Michigan Public Schools," Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1957, Sharp, Smith, Stack, 286 Lloyd B. Address presented at the National Conven- tion of the American Association of School‘Admin- isggators, Atlantic City, New Jersey, February 19, . "Education and the Summer Camp, An Experiment." Unpublished Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, 1930; -Ju1ian W. "A Look at the Activities and Accomplish- ments of the Outdoor Education Project, 1955-1961." East‘Lansing,lMichigan: The Outdoor Education Project, 19 1. (mimeographed)_ . Outdoor Education, newsletter. East Lansing, Michigan: The Outdoor Education Project, College of Education, Michigan State Universit , Vol. III, No. 1, September, 1955. (nimeographed¥ . Outdoor Education, newsletter. East Lansing, Michigan: The Outdoor Education Project, College of Education, Michigan State University, Vol. IV, No. 2, August, 1957. (mimeographed) .’ Outdoor EduCatign, newsletter. East Lansing, Michigan: The Outdoor Education Project, College of Education, Michigan State University, Vol. VIII, No. 2, Spring, 1963. . Outdoor Education, newsletter. East Lansing, Michigan: The Outdoor Education Project, College of Education, Michigan State University, Vol. IX, No. 2, Spring, 196A. . The Outdoor Education Project 9; the Americgg Association for Health Physical Education and Recreation, no dateo (mimeographed Genevive C. "An Evaluation of Attitudinal Outcomes of Fifth and Sixth Grade Students Following a Period of School Camping." Unpublished Doctoral disser- tation, University.of Oklahoma, Norman, 1960. \OQQON 10. ll. 12. 287 APPENDIX A REFERENCES CITING LLOYD B. SHARP'S DEFINITIONS OF OUTDOOR EDUCATION Sharp, Lloyd B. "Outdoor EducationaeAPoint of View," The Sghggl Executive, 6A256, February, 19h5. gg;g. Sharp, Lloyd B. "Basic Planning for Camping and Outdoor Education," The American School and University (New York: American School Publish- . ing Corporation, 1946), p. 192. Sharp, Lloyd B. "Basic Considerations in Outdoor and Camping Education," Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary Schoo P __ rinziials, BI: :3, May, 19h7o Sharp, Lloyd B. "What is Outdoor Education?," The School Executive, 71:21, August, 1952. 1 Ibid., p. 22. Ibid. Ibid. . . Sharp, Lloyd B. "Administrators, Teachers, and the Out-of-Doors," Outdoor Teacher Education (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University, 1956), p. 9. Ibid., p. 11. Sharp, Lloyd B. "Outdoor Education is Off the Pad," Extending Education, Vol. VI, No. 1, September, Sharp, Lloyd B. Speech presented at the National Convention of the American Association of School Administrators, Atlantic City, New JerSey, Februm ary 19, 1963. 10. ll. 12. 288 APPENDIX B REFERENCES CITING JULIAN W. SMITH'S DEFINITIONS , OF OUTDOOR EDUCATION Smith, Julian W. Michigan High School Athletic Association Bulletin, Vol. XXII, No. 1, August, 19h5, Po kh- Smith, Julian W. "The Michigan Story of Camping and Outdoor Education," The Journal 2; Educational Sociology, 232515, May, 1950. Smith, Julian W. Youth Love "Thy Woods and Templed Hills." (Lansing, Michigan: The Department of Instruction, revised 1950), p. 8. Ibid. Smith 'Julian W. Community School Cam in . (Lansing Michigan: The Michigan Department of Public ’ Instruction, 1951), p. 13. Smith, Julian W. Outdoor Education, newsletter, Vol. I, No. 1, January, 195 . Smith, Julian W. Outdoor Education, newsletter, Vol. I, No. 2, September, 195A. Smith, Julian W. "Outdoor Education--Fad or Funda- menta1?," Camping Magazine, 25210, December, 1953. Smith, Julian W. Outdoor Education. (Washington, D. C.: American Association or Health, Physical Education and Recreation), pp. 5n6. Ibid., p. 6. Smith, Julian W. "Outdoor Education," Leisure and Egg Schools, Yearbook. (Washington, D. C.: American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1961), p. 107. Smith, Julian W., 23 £1. Outdoor Education. (Eng1e~ wood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-fiziij‘i963), p. A3. :== :xagn—p-o—w—o-w , IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII I“(IWW”(WNWWWWWINH‘WII!”