AN ANALYSIS OFTHE SNFLUENCEOFRACE. SEX, - g ;‘ '- AND 324m PéGMEWxTEON an swam ‘ ' ~ PREFERENCES FOR POTENTiAL couusaoas Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MECHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY v CARLOS LUIS OLIVAREZ 1975 LIBRARY Michigan State I; UniVCtSitY {vi ill] mu;@1111!ij HUI II um um 9195 This is to certify that the thesis entitled AN ANALYSIS OF THE INFLUENCE OF RACE, SEX. AND SKIN PIGMENTATION ON STUDENT PREFER- ENCES FOR POTEibgg‘eIBAéd [SPUNSELORS Carlos Olivarez has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PR. D degree in COO"). W % 604W (W) Major professor Date 7%? A3} /7 75’ 0-7639 " ABSTRACT AN ANALYSIS OF THE INFLUENCE OF RACE, SEX, AND SKIN PIGMENTATION ON STUDENT PREFERENCES FOR POTENTIAL COUNSELORS BY Carlos Luis Olivarez The purpose of this study was to investigate the influences of race, sex, and skin pigmentation on the prefer- ences of students in selecting potential school counselors. More specifically, this study examined the preferences of black, Chicano, and white students enrolled in selected urban elementary, junior high, and high school grades for potential black, Chicano, and white counselors. Student preferences for light or dark-skinned counselors and for male or female counselors were also examined. In addition, the various possible interactions among the above variables were analyzed. A counselor preference instrument was administered to black, Chicano, and white students from three grade levels in one urban school district. Four hypotheses were formulated and tested. Hypothesis I stated that there would be no significant differences among students from elementary, junior high, and high school in Carlos Luis Olivarez their preferences for counselors relative to: (a) counselor race, (b) counselor sex, or (c) counselor skin pigmentation. The second hypothesis stated that there would be no signifi- cant differences among black, chicano, and white students in their preferences for counselors relative to: (a) counselor race, (b) counselor sex, or (c) counselor skin pigmentation. A third hypothesis was tested to determine if there were a significant difference between male and female students in their preference for counselors relative to: (a) counselor race, (b) counselor sex, or (c) counselor skin pigmentation. The final hypothesis predicted that there would be no signifi- cant interaction effects between and/or among the variables of grade level, race, and sex of students and race, sex, and skin pigmentation level of students' preferences for counse- lors. The Counselor Preference Instrument was administered by the investigator to equal numbers of black, Chicano, and white students (N=108) enrolled in an elementary, junior high, and high school of an urban school district. Equal numbers of students from the three grade levels as well as equal numbers of male and female students participated in this study. Analysis of variance tests of significance were used to test the hypotheses of this study. In addition to the primary analysis, analysis of means was conducted to further describe the preference of students for potential counselors. Carlos Luis Olivarez Hypothesis I was not rejected. No significant dif— ferences were found on student preferences relative to counselor race, sex, and counselor skin pigmentation across the three different grade levels. An analysis of means appeared to show that female counselors were preferred over male counselors by all students in all three grade levels. Even though there was no significant interaction, an analysis of the means made it appear that across the three grade levels, white counselors were preferred over black and chicano counselors when the race and sex variables were ignored. An analysis of the means also appeared to show that dark counse- lors were preferred over light counselors across the three grade levels. Part a of Hypothesis II was rejected, while parts b and c were not. A statistically significant difference was found among black, chicano, and white students in their preferences for counselors relative to counselor race. An analysis of the means showed that white students preferred white counselors and that black students preferred black counselors, but that chicano students did not prefer chicano counselors. The chicano students' preferences favored the white counselor first, the black counselor second, and the chicano counselor last. Parts a and c of Hypothesis III were not rejected, while part b was. There was a significant difference between male and female students in their preferences for counselors Carlos Luis Olivarez relative to counselor sex. It was found that male counselors were preferred by male students and female counselors were preferred by female students. Hypothesis IV as a whole was not rejected. There were no significant interaction effects between and/or among the variables of grade level, race, and sex of students and race, sex, and skin pigmentation level of students' prefer- ences for counselors. AN ANALYSIS OF THE INFLUENCE OF RACE, SEX, AND SKIN PIGMENTATION ON STUDENT PREFERENCES FOR POTENTIAL COUNSELORS BY Carlos Luis Olivarez A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1975 AC KNOWLEDGMENT S This written dissertation represents only one phase of my educational career. The phases that go unnoticed are those that began at the moment of my birth. I acknowledge my gratitude to my first real teachers, Irene G. Olivarez and Reynaldo Olivarez, my parents. There have been many others that have been influ- ential in my outlook on life and therefore on how to use that time that I shall be here on this earth. To list every- one would be impossible. Everyone that I have come across has in some way changed me. Many of my past classroom teachers I hold in deep respect and gratitude. However, my most important lessons in life I have learned outside of the classroom. Valuable achievements never come easy. The person that knows the real price that I have paid for this present achievement is my wife, Anna. Not many can give as much. To our daughter, Sara, my thanks for making every day brighter and more beautiful. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . Chapter I. II. III. THE PROBLEM, RATIONALE, AND Need . . . . . . . Purpose . . . . . . Review of the Literature Theory . . . . . . Research . . . . . Sex Preferences . . . Relevant Statistics . Hypotheses . . . . . Overview . . . . . . RELATED RESEARCH RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . . . Subjects . . . . . . Procedures . . . . . Description of Schools . Selection of Sample . . Design . . . . . . Analysis . . . . . . ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . . . Hypothesis I . . . . Hypothesis II . . . . Hypothesis III . . . . Hypothesis IV . . . . Summary . . . . . . iii Page ii vi vii H CWQO‘WWNH I-" 15 15 15 18 18 22 23 25 25 27 27 28 28 Chapter IV. LIMITATIONS AND SPECULATIONS . Skin Pigmentation . Race Student Preference Pilot Study . Speculations Hypothesis I Hypothesis II Hypothesis III Summary V. SUMMARY, Summary Discussion Conclusions Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES DISCUSSION, Instrument iv Page 30 30 32 32 32 33 34 37 43 45 45 48 51 52 54 Table 1.1. 2.3. 2.4. 3.1. LIST OF TABLES Page Pupil-Counselor Ratios--Secondary, Elementary, and Total Schools, in Southwestern Districts 10 Percent or More Mexican-American . . . . ll Pupil-Counselor Ratios by Ethnic Group in Secondary Schools in Southwestern Districts 10 Percent or More Mexican-American . . . . 12 Total Counselors and Number and Percent of Counselors that are Mexican-American in Southwestern Districts 10 Percent or More Mexican-American . . . . . . . . . . 13 Number of Percentage of School Personnel and Students by Race and Sex . . . . . . . 19 Number and Percentage of School Personnel and Students by Race and Sex . . . . . . . 20 Number and Percentage of School Personnel and Students by Race and Sex . . . . . . . 21 Research Design, 3 x 3 x 2 Fixed Effects Model . 24 Significant Levels Across all Subjects and Measures 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 26 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 4.1. Analysis of Means of the Three Grade Levels Across the Counselor Sex Variable . . . . 34 4.2. Analysis of Means of the Three Grade Levels Across the Counselor Race Variable . . . . 35 4.3. Analysis of Means of the Three Grade Levels Across the Color of Counselor . . . . . . 36 4.4. Analysis of Means of the Three Student Races Across the Three Counselor Races . . . . . 37 4.5. Analysis of Means of the Three Student Races Across the Counselor Sex Variables . . . . 38 4.6. Analysis of Means of the Three Student Races Across the Counselor Skin Pigmentation . . . 40 4.7. Analysis of Means of the Sex Variable Across the Race of the Counselor . . . . . . . 40 4.8. Analysis of Means of the Student Sex Variable Across the Sex of the Counselor . . . . . 41 4.9. Analysis of Means of the Student Sex Variable Across the Counselor Skin Pigmentation variable 0 O O O O O C O O O O O O 42 vi LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Student Preference Instrument . . . . . . . 58 B. Reliability Instrument . . . . . . . . . 60 C. Photographs of Potential Counselors . . . . . 62 vii CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM, RATIONALE, AND RELATED RESEARCH Need In the past, much of the counseling literature and research has been focused on the process of counseling, the important variables in effective counseling relationships, and the qualities of effective, white counselors. During this time, the desires, needs, and preferences of clients (especially clients of minority races) have been virtually ignored. It appears illogical to disregard the preferences and needs of clients. It is possible that studies of client preferences would contribute to a greater understanding of the counseling process and the effectiveness of counselors. In recent years, several opinions have been expressed in the professional literature (Beck, 1966; Calia, 1969; Aragon & Ulibarri, 1971; Palomares, 1971; Vontress, 1971; Linberg & Wrenn, 1972; Tolson, 1972; Smith, 1973) concerning the need of clients to have counselors of their own race. Most of these reports refer to the ineffectiveness of white counselors in counseling black clients, although a few discuss chicano-white counselor-client interactions. All indicate that black or chicano clients prefer counselors of their own race. Few research attempts, however, have been made to discover if such opinions received from clients are valid. This study will focus on certain preferences of students when asked to select counselors to help with problems that are of a personal nature. An attempt will be made to determine whether race, sex, and skin pigmentation are variables that are important to students when given choices of selecting counselors whom they prefer. If these variables are important to students, then the profession needs to know which type of counselors and why. If these variables are not important to students, then much of what has been written with regard to cross-racial and cross-sexual counseling will not be substantiated. A greater understanding of client preferences for counselors will assist counselor educators in designing training programs and in selecting trainees to enter these programs. Such understanding would also aid employers when adding or replacing members of counseling staffs. Most of all, clients might be better served, and more positive out- comes of counseling achieved, if a greater understanding of the variables influencing client preferences for certain types of counselors were known. Purpose The purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of race, sex, and skin pigmentation on the preferences of students in selecting potential school counse- lors. More specifically, this study will examine the prefer- ences of black, chicano, and white students enrolled in selected elementary, junior high, and high school grades for potential black, chicano, and white counselors. Student preferences for light or dark-skinned counselors and for male or female counselors will also be examined. In addition, the various possible interactions among the above variables will be analyzed. Review of the Literature Theory As mentioned previously, several writers have voiced unsubstantiated opinions concerning the importance of racial preference in choice of counselors. Tolson (1972) has stated that ". . . those whom society has labeled disadvantaged tend to seek out counselors who have a background or life experi- ence similar to their own--who themselves have felt the lash of racism and elitism. . . (p. 738)." In discussing the shortage of black and chicano counselors in the Phoenix (Arizona) Union High School District, Linberg and Wrenn (1972) state that "It is laboring the obvious to speak of the need for and the shortage of professionally qualified counselors who, by virtue of their skin color, language, or inner city origin, have some advantages in relating to minority students (p. 371)." Vontress (1971) maintains that "white counselors find it difficult to establish and maintain adequate rapport with black clients (p. 8)." Carter (1970), in writing about the nation's neglect of the education of the Mexican-American, states that Mexican- Americans see themselves as less willing to seek counseling than their white student counterparts. Smith (1973) maintains that if a student's problem is academic in nature, then the student may be more inclined to accept a counselor of a different race. Race, however, may become an issue when the problem is of a personal nature. Aragon and Ulibarri (1971), on the other hand, present an interesting argument. They state that The whole notion of counseling and guidance presumes that there is a common understanding between the professional and the client. Even when this com- monality exists, counseling and guidance present a most difficult task. It is difficult when the pro- fessional and the client are from common backgrounds. The problem becomes doubly difficult when the proe fessional and the client are culturally different (p. 87). Further opinions about the preference of clients for counselors of their own race have been given by Linberg and Wrenn (1972) in their description of an in-service counselor program for minority teachers. They state that "An increasing number of students were indicating that they felt they could relate to only a black or chicano counselor and would not initiate a meaningful contact with an anglo counselor (p. 372)." After studying the needs of Mexican-American ele- mentary students and their implications for counselor preparation, Seymour (1972) noted that the personal charac- teristics which are viewed as important for an effective counselor of chicano students were no different from those considered important for counselors of any group. Seymour noted, however, that a sizeable minority of 137 educators interviewed stated that the counselor should be a chicano and should identify with the chicano movement. A possible reason for these views has been given by Calia (1969). He states that "the disadvantaged client may well regard many of the counselors' efforts to assist him as manipulating, patronizing, and authoritative (p. 48)." Beck (1966) adds another possible reason when discussing cross-racial coun- seling by stating that clients ". . . must be given ample opportunity to identify with models whom they accept and are important to them (p. 225)." Palomares (1971) summarizes the contention that dissimilarities between client and counselor may be detri- mental to an effective counseling relationship in the following statement: Even now when I see a counselor or somebody who is supposed to help me in my adult life, I get a feeling in the pit of my stomach that there will be something missing from the relationship. I know I will be appreciated for being a professional, for having been poor, for having been a cripple once, for any number of reasons that a counselor might relate to with similar feelings. There is one part of me I am sure will be denied, however: I am a Chicano with very specific deep feelings about my chicanismo. I am not a Spanish-American, an Anglo in psychologist's clothing, or an upper class Mexican. I am a Chicano, and I am quite sure that even in a counseling re- lationship, this fact will be denied (p. 137). Vontress (1971) conveys a similar idea to that of Palomares (1971) in discussing self-disclosure. He states that "if the counselor is white, the black client is apt to be hesitant to disclose himself, for a person will permit himself to be known only when he believes that his audience is a man of good will (p. 10)." There are some writers who contend that there should be no differences in preferences of counselors relative to race and ethnicity. Hosford and Visser (1972) after studying the ethnic characteristics as factors in social modeling reported that anglo and chicano were equally effective in counseling students of either ethnic group. Washington (1968) concedes that racial differences between the counselor and the client may make a counselor's task more difficult and challenging but not impossible. Haettenschuiller (1971) has written that he believes that counseling transcends race. Research Only a few studies directly related to this investi- gation were located. The preferences of students for counselors were examined by Pinchot (1972) on the dimensions of race (blacks and whites) and sex. Counselor selections made by male and female sixth grade students for counselors they preferred from most to least showed: (a) the sex of the counselor was a major variable with girls in the accept- ance of a counselor, (b) the sex of the counselor was not a major variable with boys, (c) the least preferred counselor for all students was the male counselor of their own race, and (d) students preferred counselors of their own race. Burrell and Rayden (1971) conducted an experimental study of black and white student reactions to white counse- lors. The results of this study indicated that black students perceived the counseling situation less favorably than did white students. Black females reflected a slightly more negative attitude than did black males. A study by Banks, Berenson, and Carkhuff (1967) indicated that black clients initially interviewed by an inexperienced black counselor and three white counselors of varying degrees of experience and training unanimously said that they would return to see only the black counselor again. Another study by Carkhuff and Pierce (1967) indicated that the depth of self-exploration of patients in initial interviews is significantly affected by both race and social class of both patient and counselor. In a study of client motives for counselor selection and satisfaction with counseling in an unassigned counselor setting, Deardorff (1972) reported that students are appar- ently more satisfied with self-selected counselors than when the choice is made for them. This study did not incorporate race or sex variables. Sex Preferences The research of Pinchot (1972) examined the prefer- ences of male and female sixth grade students for black, white, male, and female counselors as reported previously. In addition to that research, Vontress (1971) has stated that ". . . the female white discloses most readily, the male white next, the female black next, the male black least (p. 9)." His reports are based on studies of self-disclosure to others. He explained the differences in self-disclosure between the black male and the black female as being due to the black male's disenfranchisement in the American society and to the black matriarchy that exists. Research by Littlefield (1974) examined self- disclosure among blacks, whites, and Mexican-American adolescents in the South and Southwest. Results indicated that females reported more disclosure than males. White subjects reported the greatest amount of disclosure, and the Mexican-American group the least. Males favored the mother as the target of most disclosure, whereas for all groups the least favored target of self-disclosure was the father. Vontress (1969) has also discussed race and sex taboos. He states that: The combination which is fraught with the most anxiety in the American culture is the white female-black male dyad, especially if the male is between the ages of 16 and 30, tacitly known as the sexually dangerous period. Thus, many white female counselors are beset with anxiety when they relate to a black client in the counseling office (p. 15). Pinchot (1972), in his study of elementary student preferences for counselors, found that students least pre- ferred male counselors of their own race. As such, there appear to be barriers not only between race and ethnic groups, but also between sexes of both intra- and inter- racial groups. Relevant Statistics With increased political and social power, minority races have demanded greater representation among the ranks of professional people. In the counseling and guidance profession, the strong opinions voiced above for counselors of minority races for minority students are obviously due to lack of these counselors. The small number of counselors of minority races may well be one important variable in terms of student preferences for counselors of their same race. The following statistical information is included here to indicate the number of counselors of different races and of different sexes. In addition, information relevant to particular geographical areas is included. Armor (1969) reported the results of a United States Office of Education sample of the percentages of male and female counselors in the United States. Sixty-one percent were male and 39 percent were female. Ninety-two percent 10 were white, 7 percent were black, and 1 percent were counse- lors of other races. The United States Commission on Civil Rights (1974) reported the results of its 1969 survey on pupil-counselor ratios in Southwestern districts of the United States. These districts include Arizona, California, Colorado, New Mexico, and Texas. The results showed ratios of students to counselors at the secondary school level for Mexican- Americans as 1926 to one, for blacks as 1047 to one, and for whites as 347 to one. Additional relevant statistical data can be seen in Tables 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3. Hypotheses The review of the related literature does not reveal any definitive research on which to base directional hypothe- ses. Rather, the research is inconclusive, and the scholarly opinion is contradictory. Therefore, the following hypothe- ses to be tested during the course of this study have been stated in the null form: Hypothesis I. There will be no significant differ- ences among students from elementary, junior high, and high school in their preferences for counselors relative to: (a) counselor race, (b) counselor sex, or (c) skin pigmentation. Hypothesis II. 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Hypothesis IV. There will be no significant inter- action effects between and/or among the variables of grade level, race, and sex of students and race, sex, and skin pigmentation level of student preferences for counselors. Overview The organization of the remaining chapters is as follows: In Chapter II, the experimental subjects, experi- mental procedures, racial, ethnic, and sexual composition of the schools, selection of the sample, statistical design, and analysis will be discussed. Chapter III will present the results of the analysis of the data, and Chapter IV will present limitations and speculations. A discussion of the results, conclusions, and a summary will be presented in Chapter V. CHAPTER II RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Subjects The subjects for this study were 108 students from one elementary, one junior high school, and one senior high school from the Lansing, Michigan public school system. The schools selected contained sizeable enrollments of black, chicano, and white students. Thirty-six students from each school in grade levels 4, 5, and 6; 7, 8, and 9; and 10, 11, and 12 were randomly selected to include an equal number of blacks, chicanos, and white students, as well as an equal number of males and females. Procedures Students were asked to indicate independently their preferences for counselors from 12 photographs randomly arranged in booklet form. The photographs were of four blacks, four chicanos, and four whites. Each racial group was composed of two males and two females. Photographs of one male and one female in each group were of individuals with a dark level of pigmentation. Likewise, photographs of one male and one female in each group were of individuals with a light level of skin pigmentation as constant as possible from one racial group to another. 15 16 Students indicated their preferences for counselors represented by the photographs by following these instruc- tions: Imagine that you want to talk to a school counselor about a personal problem. Indicate on the rating scale below how you would feel about having the individual in the above photograph as your counselor. The instructions were placed below each of the photographs, along with the rating scale. The ratings were made on a scale from 1 to 5. The corresponding rating for each number was as follows: 1 - Very Unhappy, 2 — Unhappy, 3 - Neutral, 4 - Happy, and 5 - Very Happy. After a student made a response to one of the photo- graphs and before responding to another, he or she indicated a reason for the rating in the following manner: Please indicate the main reason for making this rating by marking an X by one of the following reasons or by writing a reason in the space marked 92121;. 1. ____ Eyes 2. ____ Facial expression 3. ____ Sex 4. ____ Clothes 5. _____Color of skin 6. ____ Nose 7. ____ Mouth and lips 8. ____ Race 9. Resembles someone I know or have known 10. Hair ll. 12. 13. 17 Physical attractiveness Age Other reason (please state) A copy of the instrument may be found in Appendix A. The steps followed in the collection of data were as follows: 1. Six students at one time entered a designated classroom and were asked to sit at desks of their choice. Having this number of students permitted the investigator to monitor them closely and to make sure that they followed directions. After all students had reported for a particular session, the investigator informed the students that: they were about to participate in a survey. they had been selected at random from all the students at their school. their responses would be kept confidential. their preferences for particular types of school counselors would be required (a description of a school counselor was given at this point by the examiner). they were to respond, by marking their ratings, to how they would feel about being counseled by an individual who would be represented by a photograph. (The rating scale was described at this point by the examiner.) they were asked to give the main reason why they rated the individual in a given manner. they were to respond independently. ("It is important to know what you as a student of School prefer.") there should be no talking after the booklets were passed to them. it should take no longer than about 10 minutes to indicate their preferences. The examiner passed out the booklets and pencils. 18 4. As each student completed the task, he/she took the booklet to the examiner and signed a roster that corresponded to his/her booklet number. 5. While the student signed the roster, the examiner checked to see that the student had followed directions. 6. Some of the students (85) were asked to complete a reliability instrument, which can be found in Appendix B. The instructions were as follows: a. On this page, there are twelve rectangles. In each rectangle you are to circle the race of the person in the photograph as well as the skin color. b. Each photograph is numbered at the upper right-hand corner. c. Each rectangle is numbered at the top. d. Circle the race and skin color as you perceive the person in the photograph. e. When you have completed this, you may turn in the page. 7. When the student had completed this last task, he or she was then asked to return to class. A copy of this instrument can be found in Appendix B. Description of Schools A description of the three respective schools relative to racial, ethnic, and sex variables of the teachers, counselors, administrators, teacher aides, and students may be found in Tables 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3. Selection of the Sample An official representative at each of the three schools supplied the examiner with the relevant information needed. Each school supplied a student list that identified. each student by race and sex. The examiner then divided l9 TABLE 2.1. Number and Percentage of School Personnel and Students by Race and Sex. School: Elementary, 5th and 6th Grade Black Chicano White Male Female Total Teachers Number 2 10 12 13 Percent 15.4 7.7 76.9 7.7 93.3 100 Counselors Number 0 1% 1% O 1% Percent 0 100 100 0 100 Administrators Number 1 1 1 Percent 100 0 100 100 Teacher-Aides Number 1 2 8 10 11 Percent 9.1 18.2 72.7 9.1 90.9 100 Students Number 26 20 34 42 38 80 Percent 32.5 25.0 42.5 52.5 47.5 100 20 TABLE 2.2. Number and Percentage of School Personnel and Students by Race and Sex. School: Junior High, 7th, 8th, and 9th Grades Black Chicano White Male Female Total Teachers Number 60 31 32 63 Percent 1.6 3.2 95.2 49.2 50.8 100 Counselors Number 2 9 4 7 11 Percent 18.2 81.8 36.4 63.6 100 Administrators Number 1 3 3 1 4 Percent 25.0 75.0 75.0 25.0 100 Teacher-Aides Number 0 0 Percent O 0 Students Number 161 126 907 591 603 1194 Percent 13.5 10.6 75.9 49.5 50.5 100 21 TABLE 2.3. Number and Percentage of School Personnel and Students by Race and Sex. School: High School, 10th, 11th, and 12th Grades Black Chicano White Male Female Total Teachers Number 80 44 40 84 Percent 2.4 2.4 95.2 52.4 47.6 100 Counselors Number 3 7 7 3 10 Percent 30.0 70.0 70.0 30.0 100 Administrators Number 4 3 l 4 Percent 100 75.0 25.0 100 Teacher-Aides Number 1 0 5 2 4 6 Percent 16.7 0 83.3 33.3 66.7 100 Students Number 124 199 1339 841 821 1662 Percent 7.5 11.4 81.1 50.6 49.4 100 22 each particular school list into three sub-lists according to race. The three sub-lists were again divided into two smaller sub-lists according to sex. A 5000 Random Digits list was then used to randomly select seven males and seven females from each of the racial sub-lists. A total of 42 students were randomly selected from each of the three schools. Thirty-six students were used as the final sample from each school. Design Three independent variables were examined in this study: grade level, race, and sex of the student. The grade level variable was a fixed, categorical variable chosen to include students from three grade levels of the public school system (elementary, junior high, and high school). The race variable was also a fixed, categorical variable that included an equal number of blacks, chicanos, and whites. An equal number of males and females from each race category was utilized as well. This comparative study also included 12 response variables. These 12 variables were composed of 12 photo- graphs representing counselors equally comprised from the three race categories, the two sex categories, and the two skin pigmentation levels (light and dark). The dependent variables were equally divided among the three categories, so that there were an equal number of black, chicano, and 23 white counselors, an equal number of males and females within each race category, and one dark and one light-skinned counselor for each sex. The design was a 3 x 3 x 2 fixed effects model with all cells having an equal number of observations, as shown in Table 2.4. The total N was 108. Analysis Multivariate Analysis of Variance was used to test for main and interaction effects. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the reasons why students made specific ratings of the photographs. 24 323 I a xumo I U meEmm I m osmowno I O uanH I H 6H6: I z HomHm I m "Has a z z m o mucmcsum z m m s H n H o H n H o H m z a z o m mHoHomcsoo .Hmooz muomumm omme N x m x m .amHmma noummmmm .v.~ mHmaa CHAPTER III ANALYSIS OF RESULTS This chapter contains a report of the statistical analysis of the results of the study. Since the analysis of variance test of significance was used to test all of the hypotheses of this study, the data have been arranged in two-way interaction tables by subject and measure cate- gory. The predetermined level of confidence to indicate rejection of any hypothesis was .05. Table 3.1 presents the significance levels across all measures and subjects. As can be noted, the only sig- nificant overall measures effects were those across Race and Sex. Because of this, only the Race and Sex columns were investigated across all measures. This investigation showed that two interactions were significant, these being Sex x Sex and Race x Race. Hypothesis I Table 3.1 presents the results of the data relevant to Hypothesis I. This hypothesis was stated as follows: There will be no significant differences among students from elementary, junior high, and high school in their preferences for counselors relative to: (a) counselor race, (b) counselor sex, or (c) skin pigmentation. 25 26 . Go. .VI 8 4.533538 HHHmoHumHumum N uocmmm mama. «Ham. aHmm. mmmm. ammoo. «ammo. oaao. Homo. mcusmmcz HHch>o xcm x hmmH. mhov. name. mamm. mmmo. vaH. mnam. Hooo. HoHoo x comm NhMH. momm. mvov. mama. mvoH. oaav. mnnm. mmnm. xcm x HoHou mama. vqu. Nmmm. omvH. hmmn. mmmh. mnao. omoo. xcm x comm aHmm. ommm. mnam. mama. mamm. mmmm. mmmo. Homo. Hoaou x comm mmva. mvmm. hmmm. omom. «Homo. Nmmm. aooa. Nooo. xcm mmhm. mama. vam. mmhm. anmv. vam. mmmH. mmoo. HoHou NmHa. ommo. aanm. mamm. vaom. «mooo. mahm. ammo. comm hmom. amaH. ammo. mama. mama. mnmm. hHoo. Homo. cmcz mcmuw xcm xcm x xcm x comm xcm comm mmmHO cmcz x comm comm mmmHO x mmmHO mcmnw x mmmHO muocnnsm .mcusmmcz mam muocnnsm HHm mmouom ch>cH cosmowmwcaflm .H.m mammB 27 The results show in Table 3.1 that Hypothesis I was not rejected. The significance levels of class of students-- elementary, junior high, and high school-~across counselor Race, Sex, and Skin Color were greater than the .05 level. There were no significant differences on student preferences relative to the counselor variables across the three grade levels. Hypothesis II Table 3.1 presents the results of the data relevant to Hypothesis II. This hypothesis was stated as follows: There will be no significant differences among black, chicano, and white students in their preferences for counselors relative to: (a) counselor race, (b) counselor sex, or (c) skin pigmentation. The results show in Table 3.1 that part (a) of Hypothesis II was rejected, while parts (b) and (c) of this hypothesis were not. A significant difference was found among black, chicano, and white students in their prefer- ences for counselors relative to counselor race. The level of significance for this interaction was found to be .0003 within the univariate cell. The exact value is unknown, but it is probably less than .0024. Hypothesis III Table 3.1 presents the results of the data relevant to Hypothesis III. This hypothesis was stated as follows: There will be no significant differences between male and female students in their preferences for counselors 28 relative to: (a) counselor race, (b) counselor sex, or (c) counselor skin pigmentation. The results show in Table 3.1 that parts (a) and (b) of Hypothesis III were not rejected while part (c) was rejected. The level of significance for part (c) was equal to or less than .0008. The levels of significance for parts (a) and (b) were .2094 and .4279, respectively. Hypothesis IV Table 3.1 presents the results of the data relevant to Hypothesis IV. This hypothesis was stated as follows: There will be no significant interaction effects between and/or among the variables of grade level, race, and sex of students and race, sex, and skin pigmentation level of students' preferences for counselors. The results show in Table 3.1 that this hypothesis as a whole was not rejected. There were no statistically significant differences found among the grade level, race, and sex of students and race, sex, and skin pigmentation level of counselors. Summary Of the four hypotheses tested, only parts of Hypothe- sis II and Hypothesis III were rejected. It was found that black students preferred black counselors and that white students preferred white counselors, but that chicano students did not prefer chicano counselors. It appeared that the preference by white students for white counselors was greater than the preference for black counselors by black students. 29 A statistically significant difference was also found in the Sex x Sex interaction. Male students appeared to prefer male counselors across the three grade levels, and female students appeared to prefer female counselors. It appeared that the preference by female students for both sexes of counselors was greater than the preference by male students for both sexes of counselors; male students appeared to prefer male counselors to a greater degree than female students preferred male counselors. CHAPTER IV LIMITATIONS AND SPECULATIONS This chapter contains a discussion of the weaknesses and limitations of this study. Every attempt was made by the experimenter to come forth with the strongest scientific study possible. It is in retrospect that one begins to see weaknesses that were not evident before. It is important that these weaknesses be pointed out. At the same time, of course, it is possible that there are further weaknesses which remain undetected. Skin Pigmentation A review of the literature failed to produce a definitive measure of the term "skin pigmentation." It was speculated by the experimenter that the difference between light and dark was determined not by a specific standard, but more by each individual's concept of what is light-skinned in one person and what is dark-skinned in another. The experimenter attempted to use skin pigmentation as a variable relative to a particular race. In attempting to locate potential counselors of a particular race and a particular skin pigmentation type, various members of the three races were asked to recommend people who would fit the criteria. 30 31 The people asked to make recommendations were Michigan State University professors, Michigan State University graduate students, and professional educators in the East Lansing School District. Up to three people per criterion for a particular race and skin pigmentation type were photographed. The 12 photographs that best suited the light-dark criterion were selected. As such, there were two dark and two light potential counselors for each race. Of the two potential counselors of each particular skin pigmentation type, one was male and the other female. The subjects therefore had a choice of a light or dark potential counselor of each sex and each race. The experimenter realizes that this variable is very difficult to measure and therefore document. However, it was felt that an attempt to study this variable was necessary. This variable was found not to be significant in this study. It is hOped that more research in this area will be performed in a scientific manner. The experimenter feels that skin pigmentation in our society plays a very subtle but important part in our everyday life and in our everyday relations with one another. As part of the attempt to determine the reliability of the Student Preference Instrument and the reliability of the photographs used in this study, a Reliability Instrument (Appendix B) was administered to 68 randomly-selected subjects. It was found that on the skin pigmentation variable, only 64% 32 of the subjects were in complete accord with the experimenter. As such, therefore, this variable can be considered weak in this particular study. 3.3.02 The term "race" in this study was purposely over- generalized. The experimenter was aware that scientists, like Coleman (1969), have classified homo sapiens into three races: Caucasoid, Mongoloid, and Negroid. As such, there were only two races covered by this study, the Caucasoid and Negroid. The term "chicano" refers to an ethnic group and not a race. Student Preference Instrument The instrument used in this study was designed by the experimenter, since a review of the literature failed to reveal a comparable study or pertinent instrumentation. While there have been studies of preferences relative to race, these studies have compared only two races. The multi- variate approach used in the present study therefore made it necessary for the experimenter to design his own instrument. Pilot Study There was no pilot study performed on the Student Preference Instrument. The main reason for this was the small percentage of the designated races and ethnic group in the school district utilized. Through the help of the 33 Research Department of that school district, it was found that there was only one school per grade level that contained the necessary number of students relative to race and eth- nicity. Within the respective school buildings that met the number-race criteria, it became evident that a pilot study would only confound any results. The Student Preference Instrument was written as simply as possible. The subjects were allowed to ask for clarification after the instructions had been read. It was found that no student asked for further clarification after the reading of the instructions. It was assumed by the experimenter that the lack of need for further clarifi- cation meant that the instrument was understood by all. However, this assumption may not have been correct. A pilot study in another school district might have added strength to the instrument and therefore to the entire study. Speculations It will be remembered that only two variables were found to be statistically significant--the race and sex variables of the potential counselors by the race and sex of the student. However, the experimenter conducted an analysis of means on the interactions studied. Even though these interactions were not statistically significant, the experimenter felt it important to include the analysis of means for purposes of speculation and description. These 34 speculations are divided according to their reference to the hypotheses studied. Hypothesis I Figure 4.1 shows the means of the three classes, when examined individually, across the Sex variable. Even though there was no interaction, an analysis of the means suggests that female counselors were preferred over male counselors by all students in all three grade levels. Mean 3.20 / \ 3.00 Female Counselor (2. 96, 3.12,2. 97) / 2.80 Male Counselor (2.77,2.96,2.76) 2.70 I T 7 Elementary Junior High High School Students Figure 4.1. Analysis of Means of the Three Grade Levels Across the Counselor Sex Variable. 35 Figure 4.2 shows the means of the three classes, when examined individually, across the Race variable. Even though there was no interaction, an analysis of the means makes it appear that across the three grade levels, white and black counselors were preferred over chicano counselors by students when the race and sex of the student was ignored. Mean 3.30 3.20 3.10 //7////A 3.00 White Counselor (2.97,3.21, 2'90 2 931 Black Chicano Counselor \?gn;§1§r30 (2. 80, 3. 05,2. 82) 2.85) 2.80 I T ' Elementary Junior High High School Students Figure 4.2. Analysis of Means of the Three Grade Levels Across the Counselor Race Variable. 36 Figure 4.3 shows the means of the three classes, when examined individually, across the Counselor Skin Pigmentation variable. As can be graphically seen, the dark counselors were preferred over the light counselors across the three grade levels. As can also be seen graphi- cally, there was no interaction on the Skin Pigmentation of Counselor variable; there was a lack of statistical significance. Mean 3.30 3.20 3.10 / 3,00 /\ \ // ark Counselor (2.96,3.31, 2.89) 2.90 / Y Light Counselor 2.80 W I T 7 Elementary Junior High High School Students Figure 4.3. Analysis of Means of the Three Grade Levels Across the Skin Pigmentation of Counselor Variable. 37 Hypothesis II Figure 4.4 shows the means of the three student races across the three counselor races. The interaction between the black and white student preferences is very clear; white students preferred white counselors, and black students preferred black counselors. However, chicano students did not prefer chicano counselors. Chicano students seemed to prefer white counselors first, black counselors Mean White Counselor (2.93,2.89,3.23)1/ 3.20 3.10 Black Counselor (2.91.3.03.2.90 2'90 fid{‘-/' 3 Chicano Counselor /////’ (2.76,2.87,2.90) 2.80 // r’ 2.70 I I 7 Chicano Black White Student Figure 4.4. Analysis of Means of the Three Student Races Across the Three Counselor Races. 38 second, and chicano counselors last. While black students preferred black counselors, and white students preferred white counselors, chicano students did not prefer chicano counselors. This overall interaction proved statistically significant. There were no significant differences among black, chicano, and white students in their preferences for counse- lors relative to counselor sex. Figure 4.5 shows an analysis of the means of the three student races across the sex of the Mean 3.20 3.10 White Student (2.85, 3.08) 3.00 2'90 Black Studentv’r (2.89, 3.12) 2 30 Chicano Student (2.83, 3.13) 2.70 r I V Male Female Counselor Figure 4.5. Analysis of Means of the Three Student Races Across the Counselor Sex Variable. 39 counselor. As can be seen, there was no interaction between student race and counselor sex. However, all three student races appeared to prefer female over male counselors. This preference of female over male counselors was almost identi- cal across the black and white student race variables. Chicano students appeared to have a greater relative prefer- ence for female counselors. There was no significant difference among black, chicano, and white students in their preferences for counse- lors relative to counselor skin pigmentation. Analyzing the means of the three student races across counselor skin pigmentation, one can see that the black student preferred dark skin pigmentation counselors more than the chicano and the white student. The dark skin pigmentation counselor was preferred by the three student races over the light skin pigmentation counselor. As such, skin pigmentation of the counselor appeared to be more important to the black student and less important to the white and chicano student, although these differences were not found to be statistically signifi- cantly. Hypothesis III Figure 4.7 shows an analysis of the means of the Student Sex variable in relation to the race of the counselor. It appears from Figure 4.7 that the male students of all three races preferred the white counselor the most often, the black counselor less often, and the chicano counselor the least often. Mean 3.20 3.10 3.00 40 ‘~ Dark Counselor Light Counselor (3’0613'1113000) (2.92,2.91,2.931_ _/—-" fi U T V Chicano Black White Student Figure 4.6. Analysis of Means of the Three Student Races Mean Across the Counselor Skin Pigmentation. Black (2.99, Counselor 3.07) r” “\\,White (3.10, Counselor 2.98) Chicano (2.87, #4,“,LH-Counselor 2.91) / . I 1 7 Male Female Student Figure 4.7. Analysis of Means of the Sex Variable Across the Race of the Counselor. 41 However, the females of all three races preferred the black counselor the most often, the white counselor less often, and the chicano counselor the least often. Even though this part of Hypothesis III was found not to be significant, the analysis of the means does show some difference in the preference of counselors by the male and female student. There was a significant difference between male and female students in their preferences for counselors relative to counselor sex. Figure 4.8 shows an analysis of the means Mean 3.20 3.10 3.00 2.80 2.70 , , , Male Female Student Figure 4.8. Analysis of means of the Student Variable Across the Sex of the Counselor. 42 of the student sex variable relative to the counselor sex variable. It appears that male students preferred male counselors and that female students preferred female counse- lors. It also appears as if male students preferred male counselors to a greater degree than female students preferred male counselors. There was no significant difference between male and female students in their preferences for counselors relative to counselor skin pigmentation. The dark counselor seemed to be preferred over the light counselor across the two student sexes. Figure 4.9 shows this analysis. Mean 3.20 3.00 2.90 \\ Male Female Student Figure 4.9. Analysis of Means of the Student Sex Variable Across the Counselor Skin Pigmentation Variable. 43 Summary The limitations of this study were discussed. It was pointed out that the Skin Pigmentation variable was a weak variable in that it was difficult to measure with any reasonable consistency. The use of the term "race" was generalized to include an ethnic group, the Chicano. The experimenter designed his own instrument when a review of the literature failed to reveal a pertinent instrument. This study would have been strengthened if a pilot study on the Student Preference Instrument had been performed. Even though only two of the various possible inter- actions were found to be statistically significant, an analysis of the means was conducted on all of the inter- actions studied. It was felt that a descriptive analysis would point out some interesting interactions. The analysis of the means of the interaction between the three student classes and the Sex of the Counselor variable suggested that female counselors were preferred over male counselors. When the student class was analyzed across the Counselor Race variable, it appeared as if white and black counselors were preferred over chicano counselors when the sex and race of the student were ignored. An analysis of the means also suggested that dark counselors were preferred over light counselors. As mentioned before, the three student races across the three counselor races analysis was found to be 44 statistically significant. White students preferred white counselors, black students preferred black counselors, and chicano students preferred white counselors. On the Counse- lor Sex variable, an analysis of the means suggested that the three student races preferred female counselors over male counselors. Relative to the Counselor Skin Pigmentation variable, it appeared that dark counselors were preferred over light counselors, across the three student races. When the means of the Student Sex variable across the race of the counselor were analysed, it appeared as if the male students preferred white counselors most often, black counselors less often, and chicano counselors the least often. However, it appeared as if the female students preferred black counselors most often, white counselors less often, and chicano counselors the least often. The inter- action between the sex of the student and the sex of the counselor was significant. Male students preferred male counselors and female students preferred female counselors. The analysis of the means of this interaction suggested that male students preferred male counselors to a greater degree than female students preferred male counselors. Relative to the sex of the student and the skin pigmentation of the counselor, the analysis of the means suggested that the dark counselor was preferred over the light counselor by both sexes. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, AND CONCLUSIONS Summary The purpose of this study was to investigate the influences of race, sex, and skin pigmentation on the preferences of students in selecting potential school counselors. More specifically, this study examined the preferences of black, chicano, and white students enrolled in selected urban elementary, junior high, and high school grades for potential black, chicano, and white counselors. Student preferences for light or dark-skinned counselors and for male or female counselors were also examined. In addition, the various possible interactions among the above variables were analyzed. A counselor preference instrument was administered to black, chicano, and white students from three grade levels in one urban school district. Four hypotheses were formulated and tested. Hypothe- sis I stated that there would be no significant differences among students from elementary, junior high, and high school in their preferences for counselors relative to: (a) counse- lor race, (b) counselor sex, or (c) counselor skin pigmentation. The second hypothesis stated that there would be no significant 45 46 differences among black, chicano, and white students in their preferences for counselors relative to: (a) counselor race, (b) counselor sex, or (c) counselor skin pigmentation. A third hypothesis was tested to determine if there were significant differences between male and female students in their preference for counselors relative to: (a) counselor race, (b) counselor sex, or (c) counselor skin pigmentation. The final hypothesis predicted that there would be no signifi- cant interaction effects between and/or among the variables of grade level, race, and sex of students and race, sex, and skin pigmentation level of student preferences for counselors. The Counselor Preference Instrument was administered by the investigator to an equal number of black, chicano, and white students (N=108) enrolled in an elementary, junior high, and high school of an urban school district. Equal numbers of students from the three grade levels as well as an equal number of male and female students participated in this study. Multivariate repeated measures analysis of variance tests of significance were used to test the hypotheses of this study. In addition to the primary analysis, analysis of means was conducted to further describe the preference of students for potential counselors. Hypothesis I was not rejected. No significant differences were found on student preferences relative to counselor race, sex, or counselor skin pigmentation across 47 the three different grade levels. An analysis of means appeared to show that female counselors were preferred over male counselors by all students in all three grade levels. Even though there was no significant interaction, an analysis of the means made it appear that across the three grade levels, white counselors were preferred over black and chicano counselors when the race and sex variables were ignored. An analysis of the means also appeared to show that dark counselors were preferred over the light counse- lors across the three grade levels. Part (a) of Hypothesis II was rejected, while parts (b) and (c) were not. A statistically significant differ- ence was found among black, chicano, and white students in their preferences for counselors relative to counselor race. An analysis of the means appeared to show that white students preferred white counselors and that black students preferred black counselors, but that chicano students did not prefer chicano counselors. The chicano students' preferences favored the white counselor first, the black counselor second, and the chicano counselor last. Parts (a) and (c) of Hypothesis III were not rejected, while part (b) was. There was a significant difference between male and female students in their preferences for counselors relative to counselor sex. The analysis of the means made it appear that male and female counselors were equally 48 preferred by male students, but female counselors were strongly preferred by female students. Hypothesis IV as a whole was not rejected. There were no significant interaction effects between and/or among the variables of grade level, race, and sex of students and race, sex, and skin pigmentation level of students' preferences for counselors. Discussion One possible explanation as to why no significant differences were found among students from the three grade levels in their preferences for counselors relative to counselor race, counselor sex, and counselor skin pigmentation was the small number of subjects per cell (n=6). A greater number of subjects per cell might have resulted in a sta- tistically significant difference. It is of interest to note that an analysis of means of the three grade levels across the counselor race variable seems to indicate that black and white counselors are pre- ferred almost equally and that the chicano counselor is the least preferred. A possible explanation for this could be the advance of Blacks in our society in recent times. There has been a clear increase in the number of black professionals in the field of education. This increase in role models for blacks as well as a change in acceptance of Blacks, whether by law or free will, could explain the very close means of 49 the black and white counselors across the three grade‘ levels. A clear lack of role models for chicano students in the public school systems could account for the low means for the chicano counselors. If Chicanos are not readily seen as "making it" in this society by all students, then the self-fulfilling prophecy could account for the chicano counselor being least preferred. The lack of successful chicano role models in our society as well as the low number of chicano professionals in the public school systems could account for the difference in the lack of preference of chicano counselors by chicano students. A lack of identity and possible low social self- concept of chicano students could also account for the lack of preference of chicano counselors by chicano students. The preference for black counselors by black students could be attributed to the Black is Beautiful concept and the increase of Black Pride in the past few years. It is of no surprise that white students would prefer white counselors. The analysis of means of the three student races across counselor skin pigmentation presents an interesting point relative to the chicano culture. Within the chicano culture, much.value has been placed on skin pigmentation. It was previously thought by the investigator that the lighter the skin pigmentation of a chicano, the more other Chicanos would see him or her in a positive light. Dark- skinned chicanos, until recently, were seen as inferior. 50 This light-dark dilemma has not been emphasized in the literature, but all one has to do is compare the preferences of Chicanos for dark or light skin pigmentation of other chicanos, as shown in Figure 4.6. The previous "white is right" conditioning by society does not appear to show up in the people who are still striving to succeed. Color of skin pigmentation does not appear to be as large an issue among the white students. It is also of interest to note that the female student appears to be more sensitive to the sex of the counselor than the male student. Figure 4.8 readily seems to reveal this finding. Perhaps an early identification with female models in the elementary grades persists within the female students throughout the 12 years of school. The male student, on the other hand, does not appear to show any major preference. Perhaps the male student learns to perceive both sexes as being equal in value and understanding and therefore has no preference for one sex over the other in seeking counseling aid. Female students may think that male counselors do not understand them as much as would a counselor of the same sex. The dark-light variable showed no significant differ- ences in the study. One possible explanation could be low differences of interest in skin pigmentation among the black and white students. It is also difficult to determine what is light and dark and how this variable is perceived, if it 51 is perceived at all. A random sample (n=85) of the 108 subjects was selected and given an extra instrument. The objective of this instrument, which can be seen in Appendix B, was to determine whether the students were perceiving the counselors, relative to race and skin pigmentation, as they were to be analyzed. It was found that on the race variable, 83.6% of the random sample of students correctly categorized the 12 counselors. On the skin pigmentation variable, only 69.3% of the random sample of students correctly categorized the 12 counselors as they were to be analyzed. As such, the skin pigmentation variable in this study was weak. Conclusions The lack of a greater number of significant differ- ences among the variables investigated might be attributed to either a weak instrument or to the fact that there indeed are not as many differences perceived by students, as many articles in professional periodicals seem to indicate. As mentioned before, a low number of subjects per cell (6) could also have contributed to the fact that only two significant differences were found. A greater number of subjects per cell could have increased the power and perhaps resulted in a greater number of significant differences as well. 52 The significant differences that were found help to support much of what has been written relative to counseling across race and sex variables. This study should serve not as a conclusion but as a catalyst to more and deeper scientific study of student preferences for counselors relative to race and sex. Recommendations The results of this study suggest the following recommendations: 1. A replication of this study should be conducted with a larger number of subjects so as to increase the power within each cell. 2. A comprehensive study should be conducted on the value of light and dark skin pigmentation as perceived by chicano students. A more scientific measure of skin pigmentation is necessary. The preference for light as opposed to dark skin pigmentation is inherent in the chicano culture. How exactly this influences a person's view of himself and how he views those around him is important to better understand human interactions. 3. A comprehensive study of counseling services in public school systems should be conducted to determine whether counseling is indeed serving the students or instead the educational system. It is important 53 to document whether students utilize the counseling services available and then to analyze the findings to determine whether all student races and both student sexes are being given true choices. Is there a representative counseling staff in relation to the races and ethnic groups of the student body? Are new counselors hired just on the basis of work experience and educational background? Are the students' preferences for particular types of counselors taken into consideration when employing new counselors? 4. A comprehensive study of counselor training programs should be conducted to determine whether a more representative counselor, relative to race and sex, is being trained to meet the needs and preferences of students. Are race and sex important variables that are considered when accepting new students into a counselor training program? Are counselors meeting the needs of the population that they are supposed to be serving, or are they meeting the needs of the various admissions committees of colleges and universities? Could this be a reason why many counselors become administrators once they are absorbed into an edu- cational system and disregard the reason and purpose of their training? Could this be a reason why they are often regarded by school administrators as professionals who must be given objectives and responsibilities that many times do not comply with the Code of Ethics presented by the American Personnel and Guidance Association (1961)? BIBLIOGRAPHY 54 BIBLIOGRAPHY American Personnel and Guidance Association. "Ethical Standards.“ Personnel and Guidance Journal, 40 (1961), 206-209. Aragon, J. A., and Ulibarri, S. R. "Learn, Amigo, Learn." Personnel and Guidance Journal, 50 (1971), 87-89. Armor, D. J. The American School Counselor. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1969. Banks, G.; Berenson, B. G.; and Carkhuff, R. R. Counseling the Culturally Different Black Youth. Edited by E. E. Smith. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1973. pp. 72-73. Beck, C. E. Guidelines for Guidance. Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. Brown, 1966. Burrell, L., and Rayden, N. F. "Black and White Students' Attitudes Toward White Counselors." The Journal of Negro Education, 40 (1971), 48-52. Calia, V. F. "The Culturally Deprived Client; A Reformulation of the Counselor's Role." The Counselor's Role-- Commentary and Readings. Edited by J. C. Bentley. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1968. Carkhuff, R. R., and Pierce, R. Counseling the Culturally Different Black Youth. Edited by E. J. Smith. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1973. Carter, T. P. Mexican-Americans in School: A History of Educational Neglect. New York: College Entrance Examination Board, 1970. Coleman, J. C. Psychology and Effective Behavior. Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman, and Co., 1973. Deardorff, C. D. "Client Motive for Counselor Selection and Satisfaction with Counseling in an Unassigned Counselor Setting." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, The University of Arizona, 1972. 55 56 Haettenschuiller, D. L. "Counseling Black College Students in Special Programs." Personnel and Guidance Journal, 50 (1971), 29-35. Hosford, R. E., and Visser, de L. "Ethnic Characteristics as Factors in Social Modeling." Research project for the U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, University of Cali- fornia, Santa Barbara, 1972. Linberg, R. E., and Wrenn, C. G. "Minority Teachers Become Minority Counselors." Pgrsonnel and Guidance Journal, 50 (1972), 371-376. Littlefield, R. P. "Self-Disclosure Among some Negro, White, and Mexican-American Adolescents." Journal of Counseling Psychology, 21 (1972), 133-136. Palomares, M. H. "Nuestros sentimientos son iguales, la diferencia es en la experiencia." Personnel and Guidance Journal, 50 (1971), 137-144. Pinchot, N. K. ”Preferences of Elementary Students and Their Parents for Counselors.” Unpublished Ph.D. Disserta- tion, The Ohio State University, 1972. Senour, M. N. "The Needs of Mexican-American Elementary School Students and Their Implications for Counselor Preparation." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Wayne State University, 1972. Smith, E. J. Counseling the Culturally Different Black Youth. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1973. Tolson, H. "Counseling the 'disadvantaged.'" Personnel and Guidance Journal, 50 (1972), 735-739. U. S. Commission on Civil Rights. Towardggality Education for Mexican-Americans. Report VI: Mexican-American Education Study, Washington, D.C., 1974. Vontress, C. E. "Racial Differences: Impediments to Rapport. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 18 (1971), 7-13. Washington, K. S. ”What Counselors Must Know About Black Power." Personnel and Guidance Journal, 47 (1968), 204-208. APPENDICES 57 APPENDIX A STUDENT PREFERENCE INSTRUMENT 58 Student Preference Instrument Imagine that you want to talk to a school counselor about a personal problem. Indicate on the rating scale below how you would feel about having the individual in the photograph as your counselor. l 2 3 4 5 Very Unhappy Unhappy Neutral Happy Very Happy Please indicate the main reason why you made this rating by marking an x by one of the following reasons or by writing a reason in the space marked other: 1. _____ Eyes 2. _____ Facial Expression 3. _____ Sex 4. _____ Clothes 5. _____ Color of Skin 6. _____ Nose 7. ______Mouth and Lips 8. _____ Race 9. ______Resembles someone I know or have known 10. _____ Hair 11. _____ Physical attractiveness 12. _____ Age 13. Other reason (please state) 59 APPENDIX B RELIABILITY INSTRUMENT 60 Reliability Instrument BLmflc (Inmano Ikmk lflfiie light Bkmk Chkmmo [Emk mite Light BLmflt Ihmk Chimmx> Lflfiu: thte 12 l Bunk Chflxmn rnmk lMfite Lflfin: 4 BLmflr Chkzmo Inmk ltfite light 7 Inack (Incano [hmk Vtfite light 10 BLmflc (Incano [Emk Vtite light BLmflc lxuk Chhxmo light Vifite 5 BLmflc Dark (Incano light lflfite 8 Ifladk [Emk Chnxnx> light ltfite 11 Black Ikmk Chflmnx> Light lflfite lflack (flfimano [Emk lfifite light 61 APPENDIX C PHOTOGRAPHS OF POTENTIAL COUNSELORS 62 Chicano Male Dark 63 64 Chicano Female Dark 65 Chicano Male Light 66 Chicano Female Light 67 Black Male Dark 68 Black Female Dark 69 Black Male Li ht 70 Black Female Light 71 White Male Dark 72 White Female Dark 73 White Male Light 74 White Female Light HICHIGQN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES 1|11111”WWWWII“W“WHHNHWWI 31293101999195