. A STUDY OF lNTER ORGANIZATIONAL
» RELATTDNSHIPS AND COMMUNITY NEEDS
-. TN A COMAaUNTTY COLLFGE DISTRICT

Thesis for fire Degree DT Ph. D
MICHTGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

DAVID A 11mm
' i‘ 1921 _

.........

 

 

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled
A STUDY OF INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL
RELATIONSHIPS AND COMMUNITY NEEDS
IN A COMMUNITY COLLEGE DISTRICT

presented by

David A. Groth

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph.D. degreeinAdministration and Higher
Education

 

K
45;,5/1/ 7:, ' 2 144’“)

Major professor

Date 6/71/7’

0-7639

ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL
RELATIONSHIPS AND COMMUNITY
NEEDS IN A COMMUNITY
COLLEGE DISTRICT

BY
David A. Groth

This study was concerned with analyzing inter-
organizational relationships and community needs in a
community college district. The purpose of the study was
to develop a process of community and inter-organizational
analysis which could be used by community service profes-
sionals to engage in community development efforts. The
objectives of the process were to (1) identify patterns
of inter-organizational interaction, (2) determine sig-
nificant community organizations which have the potential
to use their energies and resources in an organized way
to provide for specific community needs.

An organization interaction scale, a community
needs scale, and an interview guide were developed to
obtain the data necessary to accomplish the purposes of
the study. Seventy-one non-profit organizations located
in eight communities in a rapidly growing suburban area

were studied. The organizations were selected on the

David A. Groth

basis of a reputatiOnal nomination process. The organi-
zations were classified in nine subsystems: (1) economic;
(2) governmental; (3) recreational; (4) family, religious
and voluntary; (5) health; (6) educational; (7) social
welfare; (8) political; and (9) planning and zoning. The
chief administrative officers of these organizations were
interviewed and given the community needs scale and
organizational interaction scale, which was designed to
determine which organizations engaged in cooperative and
reciprocal interactions.

The major findings of the study were:

1. In the community studied, extensive inter-
organizational interaction was identified by the process.
Among the seventy-one organizations, 633 reciprocal inter-
actions were identified and 26 potential constellations
ranging in memberships from 9 members to 2 members were
identified.

2. Organizations from the same subsystem, with
the exception of economic organizations and planning and
zoning boards, had more interaction with other organiza-
tions within their subsystems than with organizations
outside their subsystem.

3. The analysis of community needs resulted in
the identifications of five major need categories: the
need for citizen involvement; the need for improved com-

munity planning and development; social pathology needs;

David A. Groth

health, education and recreation needs; and minority
group needs.

4. Within each subsystem some agreement as to
perceptions of community needs was found, but the process
did not clearly identify differences in perceptions of
community needs between subsystems of organizations.

5. Agreement as to community needs within and
between sub-subsystems of organizations was sufficient
to identify coalitions of organizations which could be
formed to meet specific community needs.

The major conclusions of the study were:

1. Interaction in a community can be identified
by the process of studying inter-organizational inter-
action.

2. The community is made up of subsystems of
organizations, and organizations within a subsystem
interact with other organizations in their subsystem
more frequently than they do with organizations outside
their subsystem.

3. The process of studying community needs may
be utilized to identify important community problems
and to identify common concerns of organizations within
subsystems or between organizations in different sub-
systems.

4. The distinction between community development,

as a process for strengthening the horizontal patterns;

David A. Groth

and community action, as a specific action episode to
achieve specific project goals, may be useful for the
community service professional in determining the goals
for the community service program.

5. Community service efforts should include a
major obligation to study the organizational structure
of the community and perceived priorities of community
needs in an effort to strengthen the inter-organizational
cooperation of organizations in a community.

In a final portion of the study, implications
for community services, community theory and future

research were discussed.

A STUDY OF INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL
RELATIONSHIPS AND COMMUNITY
NEEDS IN A COMMUNITY
COLLEGE DISTRICT

BY

A.
David A. Groth

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration
and Higher Education

1971

AC KNOWLEDGMENT S

I wish to express my special thanks to Dr. Max R.
Raines, Chairman of the doctoral committee, for his
encouragement and the confidence he expressed in me.

I also wish to acknowledge the assistance and
suggestions of the other members of my committee:
Dr. Gunder Myran, Dr. Jim Nelson and Dr. James McKee.

I also wish to express my deepest appreciation to
Beverly, my wife, who patiently encouraged me throughout
my graduate work; and to Todd and Deon, my sons, who were

an inspiration for me to complete my degree.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . .
Chapter

I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . .

II.

Introduction . . . . . . . .
Development of Community Services
Function of the Community College
Statement of Purpose . . . . .
Background of Theory and Research .

Social Systems Theory and Community

Community Patterns . . . . .
Community as a Social System. .

Inter-Organizational Relationships.

Community Development . . . .
Urban Planning and the Community
Overview of Study . . . . . .
Terminology and Definitions . . .

REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . .

Community Studies . . . . . .
Concept of Commmunity . .

Changing Emphasis in Community Study

Interaction Concept of Community

Elements of the Interactional Model

Community Design. . . . . .

Interorganizational Environments and

Analysis. . . . . . . . .
Organization Environments. . .
Summary of Inter-Organizational

Analysis. . . . . . . .

iii

Page
ii
vii

ix

24

24
24
27
27
28
30

31
31

42

Chapter ‘ Page

Community Development . . . . . . . 42
Sanders' Conceptualizations . . . . 43
Warren's Conceptualizations . . . . 45

Community Action Studies . . . . . . 48
Community Involvement . . . . . . 48
Further Studies of Community

Involvement. . . . . . . . . 51

Discussion of Previous Research. . . . 54

III. DESIGN OF STUDY . . . . . . . . . . 57

Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

The Community. . . . . . . . . . 59

Instruments . . . . . . . . . 60
Community Needs Scale . . . . . . 60
Organization Interaction Scale . . . 61
Interviews. . . . . . . . . 62
Design and Procedures . . . . . 62

Analysis of Inter-Organizational

Interaction. . . . . . . . . . 62

Inter-Organizational Interaction of

Subsystems of Organizations . . . . 64

Interaction Between Subsystems . . . 65
Interaction Between and Within

Subsystems . . . . . . . . . 65

Analysis of Community Needs . . . . . 66
Outstanding Needs . . . . . . . 66
Community Needs as Perceived by

Subsystems . . . . . . . . . 66
Subsystem Needs as Perceived by
Subsystems . . . . . . . . . 67
Community Needs as Perceived by
Each Subsystem. . . . . . . . 67
Community Needs as Perceived by
Two or More Subsystems . . . . . 67
Analysis of Community Needs as Perceived
by Potential Coalitions of
Organizations . . . . . . . 68
Application of Sociometric Methods to
Inter-Organizational Analysis. . . . 68
Summary of Design of Study . . . . . 68
IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA. . . . . . . . . . 70
Introduction . . . . . . . . . 70
Analysis of Inter-Organizational
Interaction. . . . . . . . . 7O
Interaction Structures. . . . . . 74

iv

Chapter

Constellation Sets . . . . . . .
Constellation Frequency . . . .
Constellation Memberships. . . .
Linkages Between Constellation Sets

Influence Patterns . .
Status Arrangement by Membership

Scores . . . . . . . . .

Assumption I . .
Analysis of Interaction of Subsystems
of Organizations . . . . . .

Reciprocal Choices Between Subsystems.

Reciprocal Choices to Total Number
of Organizations . . . .

Percentage of Recirpocal Choices
Between Subsystems . .

Sociogram Representation of Subsystem

Relationships . . . . . . .
Reciprocal Interaction Between and
Within Subsystems. . .
Assumption II. . . . .
Analysis of Community Needs .
Community Needs Analyzed .
Distribution of Item Means .
Ranking of Item Means . .
Assumption III .
Commonality Among the 30 Items with

Lowest Mean Scores . . .
Community Needs by Organizational Type
(Subsystem). . .
Item Means for Each Subsystem on 23
Items with Lowest Means. . .

Subscale Means for Each Subsystem
of Organizations . . . . . .
Assumption IV. . . . . . . .
Analysis of Potential Coalitions . .
Community Needs as Percieved by
Organizations in Potential
Coalitions . . . . .
Analysis of Items by Subsystems.
The Other Subsystems .
Subsystems in Sub- Groupings of Needs
Citizens' Involvement . . . .
Community Planning . . . . .
Social Pathology Needs. . . .
Health, Education and Recreation
Needs. . . .
Minority Group Needs
Assumption V . . .
Summary of Results . .

Page

77
78
80

81

84
85

109
110
115
117
117
118
119

119
120
122
123

Chapter

V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAP

APPENDICES

Summary. . . .
The Purpose of the Research . .
The Basic Theory of the Research
The Design of the Research . .

Conclusions . . . . . . . .

Observations for Interviews . . .
Cooperation in the Community. .

Implications for Theory . . .

Implications for Future Community

Service Efforts . . . . . .

Implications for Future Research .

HY O O O O O O O O O O 0

vi

Page
125

125
125
125
127
130
133
136
138

141
143

145
153

Table
l.

10.

11.

12.

LIST OF TABLES

Rank Order of Sociometric Scores Received
from and Given to (Reciprocal Choices) All
Other Organizations: And Percentage of
Reciprocal Choices to Total Choices Given
and Total Choices Received . . . . . .

Summary of Reciprocal Choices . . . . .

Summary of Percentage of Total Number of
Organizations for Each Subsystem Versus Per-
centage of Total Number of Reciprocal
Choices for Each Subsystem . . . . . .

Summary of Percentages of Reciprocal Choices
for Each Subsystem . . . . . . . . .

Summary of Mean Reciprocal Choices of Organ-
izations of Same Subsystem Versus Mean
Reciprocal Choices of Organizations of All
Other Subsystems. . . . . . . . . .

Frequency Distribution of Item Means . . .

Mean Scores for the 30 Items with the Lowest
Mean Scores on the Community Needs Scale. .

Item Means for Each Subsystem on the 23
Items with Lowest Mean Scores . . . . .

Means for Each Subscale on the Community
Needs Scale for Each Subsystem of Organi-
zations in the Study . . . . . . . .

Citizens' Involvement Item Means Below 2.99
for Each Subsystem . . . . . . . . .

Community Planning Item Means Below 2.99
for Each Subsystem . . . . . . . . .

Social Pathology Item Means Below 2.99
for Each Subsystem . . . . . . . . .

vii

Page

71
86

88

90

95

97

98

105

107

118

119

120

Table

13.

14.

Page

Health, Education and Recreation Item
Means Below 2.99 for Each Subsystem . . . 12l

Minority Group Needs Item Means Below 2.99
for Each Subsystem . . . . . . . . . 122

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Matrix Representation of Constellations
Based on 71 Selected Organizations. . . . 76

2. Constellation Sets Formed by 71 Selected

Organizations. . . . . . . . . . . 79
3. Constellation Sets and Membership Scores of

71 Selected Organizations in 26

Constellations . . . . . . . . . . 82
4. Sociogram Reflecting Percentage of

Reciprocal Interaction Among Subsystems

in the Community. . . . . . . . . . 93

ix

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page
A. ORGANIZATIONAL NOMINATION FORMS. . . . 154
B. COMMUNITY NEEDS SCALE . . . . . . . 158
C. CHECK LIST OF INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL

INTERACTION . . . . . . . . . . 167
D. INTERVIEW GUIDE-~ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERS . 171
E. LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION AND FOLLOW-UP. . 173
F. APPLICATION OF SOCIOMETRIC METHODS TO

INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS AND

CRITIQUE OF THE METHOD. . . . . . . 176
G. INTERVIEWS WITH LEADERS OF COMMUNITY

ORGANIZATIONS. . . . . . . . . . 191

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Introduction

 

This study is designed to develop a process for
studying inter-organizational relationships and community
needs which could be used by community service workers to
participate in efforts to improve communities. In a
process of formulating a model for this community analysis,
it became necessary to review the development of the com-
munity college and the community services function of the
community college.

Development of Community Services
Function of the Community

College

The major purposes of community colleges have

 

 

emerged during the three major periods of the two-year
college: (1) the evolution of the junior college, 1850-
1920; (2) the expansion of occupational programs, 1920-
1945; and (3) the community college concept, 1945 to
the present (74:45-56).

Corresponding to this historical development were
socio-political forces which helped to shape American

education and the community college as we know it today.

 

The socio-political forces have been classified as:

(l) the reactionary position forwarded by Mortimer Adler
and Robert Hutchins that education should be for a select
few in order to preserve absolute values; (2) the liberal
position of Dewey which stressed the egalitarian View
that educational programs should meet the current needs
of students without regard to tradition; (3) the conser-
vative view, espoused by James B. Conant, which was a
compromise between the reactionary and liberal views and
stressed the need for vocationalism at the same time
stressing the need to perserve the culture and the funda-
mental ideas; and (4) the final force, the advocates of
radical change, who argued that schools should be the
agents of social change (8:7-13).

The impact of all these forces can be seen in
the purposes of the contemporary community college.
Thornton identified the generally accepted purposes as:
(l) occupational education; (2) general education;

(3) transfer or pre-professional education; (4) part-
time education; (5) community service; and (6) counsel-
ing and guidance (74:59).

The emphasis on liberal arts, pre-professional
and college transfer is a legacy of the educational
tradition of the reactionary movement. However, liberal
thinking insisted that public education should be for all

and, therefore, vocational and technical programs as well

as programs for adults were developed. Mediating the
reactionary and liberal stresses was the conservative
interest in providing general education to meet the
needs of expanded educational programs for expanding
groups of people. Lastly, the community college
assumed a role in social change by acknowledging a mis-
sion to provide programs to improve social, cultural,
recreational and other community conditions.

This last force is reflected in the most
recently developed task of the community colleges--com-
munity services. Myran noted (52:4):

The decade of the 1960's has been characterized by
rapid social and technological change. It is in
this period that community services has emerged as
an identificable component of the community college.
Problems related to technology, race, poverty, and
urbanization have mandated a broadening of the col-
lege mission to provide a more viable base for the
development of human resources in the community.
Response to this mandate is evident at many com-
munity colleges at two levels: (1) service to the
community as a whole, and (2) the division of
community services within the college is growing
rapidly in terms of staff and scope of service.

The community service function has been a central
result of the develOpment of a community college.
Gleazer saw the developing community college as (26:20):

. . . both the catalyst to stimulate a community
consciousness and the product of this consciousness.
The college became a symbol of what the community,
sometimes almost wistfully, wanted to become. The
slow and difficult process of establishing new
alignments and groupings of people into concentra-
tions of somewhat common interests was unexpectedly
facilitated by the development of the college.

The development of the community service function
has been accompanied by many efforts to define it.
Medsker noted, "The term 'community service' has come to
denote generally the various special services which an

educational institution may provide for its community"

(47:78). Reynolds suggested that community services are
(59:142):
. . . provided through an extension of the regular

school program in terms of the traditional school
day, the traditional location of the instructional
activities, the traditional curriculum, and the
traditional concept of students. Community services,
moreover, often transcend the traditional definition
of education in the sense of teacher-student rela-
tionships.

Shaw and Cummiskey provided yet another definition
of community services (63:4):

Community services, in the broad sense, are all of
the programs and resources of the institution that
serve the needs of the community and its citizens.
In a more operational sense, they include the educa-
tional, cultural, recreational and community devel-
Opment services of the community above and beyond
the traditional day and evening classes.

Although there is general agreement among prac-
titioners and academicians as to the boundaries of the
community service concept, explicit operational defini-
tions do not exist. One important conceptual approach to
community services was provided by Myran (52:12-14). He
classified the educational approaches of the community

college according to the likelihood that they would be

identified as community services. Transfer programs, in

this approach, would not likely be called community
services; however, public forums or conferences would.
Similarly, he distinguished between community oriented
and relatively non-community oriented programs. For
example, subject-matter classroom oriented programs are
less likely to be classified as community services than
are problem-solving community oriented programs.

Raines categorized community services into three
major types: self-development (directed toward goals of
individuals); community development (directed towards
goals of organizations and groups); and program develop-
ment (directed to functions and activities of the commu-
nity services staff) (57). In a taxonomy of community
service functions, Raines defined self-development
functions of the community ". . . as those functions and
activities focused upon the needs, aspirations and poten-
tialities of individuals to help them achieve a greater
degree of personal self-realization and fulfillment."

The self-development effort included: personal counsel-
ing, educational extension, educational expansion, social
outreach, cultural development, and leisure-time activity
(57) .

In contrast, Raines defined the community devel-
opment functions of the community college as,

Those functions and activities of the college pri-

marily focused upon cooperative efforts with com-
munity organizations, agencies and institutions to

improve the physical, social, economic, and political
environment of the community (e.g., housing, trans-
portation, air pollution, human relations, public
safety, etc.).
Among the community development functions are: community
analysis, inter-agency cooperation, advisory liaison,
public forum, civic action, and staff consultation.

Community development functions have been impli-
citly referred to throughout the community college move-
ment. Fields noted that the, ". . . introduction of
opportunities for adults led to the broadening of the
aims of the community life, not just through educational
opportunities, but through research and planning activi-
ties as well." Thus, the college, to realize its fullest
potential as a community service institution, began to
utilize its resources for the study of community problems
and for the planning of needed improvements as well as
for the organization of educational opportunities for
community members (21:345).

The focus of this research is on two aspects of
the community development functions: community analysis
and inter-agency cooperation. Basic to this research is
the assumption that the emerging and legitimate role of
the community college is to actively participate in con-
structive development of the community. Thus, it is

assumed, the community college has an obligation to serve

as a catalyst to analyze community needs and to provide

leadership in the cultural, social, physical, and economic
development of the community. This reflects the need for
public institutions to rationally plan to provide for
individual and collective needs in the community setting.
As community colleges develop at an increasing
rate, and their societal impact is escalated, it can be
anticipated that communities will have rising expectations
for the community college. To meet these expectations,
community service administrators will need models for
community development based on relevant research. Experi-
ence of community service administrators most likely
trained in colleges of education, prepares them to coordi-
nate self-development functions but they are ill prepared
by reason of education or experience to mount community
development programs. For this reason, there is clearly
a need for research methods and concepts that the prac-
titioner can utilize in his own community if he is to
constructively participate in efforts to meet community
needs. There is also a need for him to understand the
role of the community college in the inter-organizational
environment and the factors which affect purposive change

in the community.

Statement of Purpose
The purpose of this study was to develop a process

of community and inter-organizational analysis which could

be used by community service workers to actively engage

in community development efforts. It is the explicit

purpose of this investigation to identify significant

community needs and organizational interaction in a com-

munity college district, and to determine what constel-

lations of community organizations have the potential to

use their energies and resources in an organized way to

provide for specific community needs. It is the hope

that this research will suggest a rational procedure for

the community service worker to identify community needs

and mobilize organizations to use their resources to

provide for these needs.

It was the intent that this study would examine

the following assumptions:

1.

The process of identifying inter-organizational
interaction of organizations in a community
reveals interrelations which may be called
constellations.

There are differences in levels of interaction
between organizations within similar sub-
systems and organizations in different sub-
systems.

The process of identifying community needs
reveals commonality of agreement among organ-
izations as to the priority of community needs.

The process of identifying community needs
reveals differences between the priority of
community needs as perceived by organizations
of different types.

The process of identifying inter-organizational
interaction and perceived community needs
reveals commonality of agreement among constel-
lations of organizations as to priorities of
community needs.

Background of Theory and Research

This study examines the interaction of many inter-
dependent organizations in a geographic environment. The
theoretical basis is derived from several converging
lines of theory. First, it draws on the concepts of
social systems as they apply to communities and community
change. Second, the study addresses itself to the
research and theory on the interaction and behavior of
specific organizations in the environment. Third, it
utilizes the concepts of community action and community
development models and theory. Finally, it focuses on
the concepts of community college community service.

Social System Theory and
CommunIEy

 

The basic sources for social system concepts are
the contributions of Loomis (45), Parsons (56), and
Homans (33). Out of these works come the fundamental
definitions of social systems and related concepts.
Among the concepts basic to social system theory are the
distinctions between external and internal patterns of
group behavior. Homans defined the external system as
"a set of relations among the members of the group that
solve the problem: How shall the group survive in its
environment?" (33:193). He defined the internal system

as (33:109-110):

10

. . . the elaboration of group behavior that simul-
taneously arises out of the external system 'internal'
because it is not directly conditioned by the environ-
ment, and we speak of it as an 'elaboration' because
it includes forms of behavior not included under the
heading of the external system. We shall not go far
wrong if, for the moment, we think of the external
system as~a group behavior that enables the group to
survive in its environment and think of the internal
system as group behavior that is an expression of

the sentiments towards one another developed by the
members of the group in the course of their life
together.

The distinction between internal and external
systems can be compared with another set of concepts
known as task and maintenance functions. The external
system could be described in terms of the tasks the group
is supposed to accomplish in relationship to its environ-
ment. Maintenance functions are similar to the internal
system's spontaneous relations, based principally on
sentiment, which arise in the course of a group's acti-
vities. Thibant and Kelley defined task functions of a
group as, ". . . controlling its social and physical
environments so that they will yield high outcomes for
its members." They further defined maintenance functions
as ". . . those activities by which the interdependence

of members is maintained" (71:274-275).

Community Patterns

The relationships of these particular concepts--
external, internal patterns and task-maintenance func-
tions--have particular relevance to the social system

approach to the study of the community. In his book,

11

The Community in America, Warren identified two rather
distinct types of systemic ties characteristic for local
community units. First, were the relationships through
which community units are oriented to larger society
beyond the community. This constitutes the community's
vertical pattern. Second, were the relationships which
local units share with each other on the local level.
This constitutes the community's horizontal pattern.
According to Warren, the vertical ties (81:237)

Are multiplying and strengthening to the extent that

it is questionable whether the ties of community

units to each other on the local level are suffici-

ently strong and meaningful for them to constitute

a localized social system called the community.

Vertical pattern.--Generally speaking, vertical
ties are stronger than the horizontal ties of any single
community. Warren noted, in addition, that the changes
in society continuously operate to strengthen the verti-
cal ties and to establish new ties between community
organizations and extracommunity organizations. Thus,
the branch plant of the corporation is likely to be more
closely oriented to its corporate headquarters and to
suppliers and customers who are outside the community
than to local organizations located in the same community
(33:242).
The external system as described by Homans is

similar to the vertical pattern of the community described

12

by Warren. The community functions in relation to its
environment as it performs tasks which relate it increas-
ingly to the surrounding geographic environment. The
specific organizations (subsystems) which provide for
community needs tend to have strong formal organizations
designed to get the job done and dictated by the extra-
community organizations of which they are a part. For
example, the local schools are oriented vertically to
the state education offices which provide capital or
operating funds. The local branch plant of a manufac-
turing company requires services from headquarters staff
.and develops objectives and procedures to satisfy the
next higher bureaucratic unit.

Horizontal pattern.--As a community functions,

 

relationships develop which are based on sentiment and
not dictated by the environment. These relations cor-
respond to what Homans (33:109-110) called the internal
system and are a part of what Warren (81:267-302) meant
by the community's horizontal pattern. In simple terms
the horizontal pattern of the community could be identi-
fied as the systematic manner whereby community units
relate to each other on the local level to hold the
community together. These are the interrelationships
based on common locality which provide for many types of
local action. Warren noted that "despite their strong

ties to extracommunity systems, the functioning of such

13

local units characteristically involves at least a mini-
mum of local interaction" (81:268). From the practical
standpoint, no local unit, no matter how strongly inte-
grated in the extracommunity system, can function in
complete disregard of the impact which its own behavior
makes on other units in the locality. Part of this
present study seeks to explore and delineate the nature

of relationships among units on the locality level.

Community as a Social System
In a community the interaction of its local units

performing locality-relevant functions often is strongly
related to extracommunity systems in a combination of
vertical relationships. These same units also interact
on the local scene in a somewhat different combination
of relationships which are known as horizontal patterns.
At different times the dynamic interplay of these two
patterns will cause the vertical pattern to be brought
into sharp focus at one time and the horizontal pattern
at another time. It is important to recognize that each
unit in a community has both vertical and horizontal
aspects. Emery and Trist emphasized the importance of
the social system concept as it applies to communities
when they made the point that (17:21):

In a general way it may be said that to think in

terms of systems seems the most appropriate concep-

tual response so far available when the phenomena
under study--at any level and in any domain--disp1ay

14

the character of being organized, and when under-
standing the nature of the interdependencies con-
stitutes the research task.
In summation, then it can be said that at the
local level there appears to be a structured interaction

which displays characteristics as described in a social

system.

Inter-Organizational Relationships
Sociology concentrates upon the social relation-
ships which are patterned into groups and larger social
systems. Much study has been devoted to the interaction
among persons and the interaction among groups; however,
we know little about the interaction among organizations.
In our modern bureaucratic society, organizations
increasingly perform the locality-relevant functions.
Terreberry noted (70:601):
In modern industrial societies the evolutionary
process has resulted in the replacement of indivi-
duals and informal groups by organizations as actors
in the social system. Functions that were once the
sole responsibility of families and communities are
increasingly allocated to formal organizations;
child-rearing, work, recreation, education, health,
and so on. Events which were long a matter of
chance are increasingly subject to organizational
control, such as population growth, business cycles,
and even weather.
While performing the locality-relevant functions
organizations operate in the inter-organizational environ-

ment. The interaction of two organizations is affected

by the nature of the inter-organizational environment or

field.

15

Aiken and Hage reviewed the growing literature

and research on the relation of organizational behavior

to various aspects of the environment and on the inter-

action of specific organizations (1).

Particularly relevant to the field of inter-

organizational study were the basic postulates set forth

by Anderson in his study of inter-organizational relation-

ships (2:2). These basic postulates were as follows:

1.
2.

Social power is structured.

The social structure of a region is made up of
constellations of interdependent heterogeneous
interacting organizations. These represent basic
resource holding, allocating, and receiving units.

The organizations within a region can be seen as
having a fabric of roles that constitute the
social organization of that region. Within this
structure, individual organizations act and con-
tribute in accordance with role prescriptions or
expectations. They perform and coordinate their
activities with one another in accordance with
the relationship of their own roles to other
roles in the structure.

Organizations are the basic units of power.

Organizations represent the basic social units
responsible for development. Societal development
is carried out by some combination of large, small,
simple, complex, public or private organizations.

Organizations are in themselves basic resources of
development activity, as are air, water, iron,
trees, etc.

Organizations are control mechanisms through which
power for development is generated and flows.

Organizations form constellations in order to
achieve development goals. As specific issues
arise, overlapping constellations of special-
interest organizations are formed. A specific
organization sometimes cooperates, at other times
competes, and at still other times is not involved
with other organizations in issue resolvement.

16

9. A given organization's involvement and influence
in issue resolvement and/or development depend
upon the place it occupies in the legitimate
order of the organized constellation of organiza-
tions affected by the issue and/or the develop-
mental activity. For any given issue, some
organizations are more powerful than others. An
organization's power rank will generally vary
with the issue to be resolved.

The postulates noted above indicate the potential
value of studying inter-organizational relationships.
Concepts and techniques which reveal the dynamic inter-
actions of organizations could be valuable in identifying
organizations which typically work together performing
the relevant community functions. Further knowledge of
the effects of status arrangements, influence hierarchies,
and vertical or horizontal patterns could provide the

practitioner a sound basis for systematic mobilization of

community organizations to provide for fundamental needs.

Community Development

The study of inter-organizational relationships
is one aspect of the field of community development.
The concepts of inter-organizational analysis were devel-
oped to study the effectiveness or ineffectiveness of
organizations in providing for community needs. In a
broader sense, the field of community development has
been concerned with local action to achieve developmental
goals. Sanders categorized the various definitions of

community development according to the major approaches

17

people use when writing or speaking about community
developments: As a process, a method, a program and a
movement (61:4).
Warren distinguished between community action
and community development. He viewed community actions
As individual episodes which activate the 'horizon-
tal pattern' for the period of the action episode
bringing together in a specific action system, units
of the community which are not otherwise so related..
Community development, on the other hand, emphasized

"the long run,‘ and its primary goal is to strengthen
the horizontal pattern. It represents an attempt delib-
erately to "administer" a program of strengthening the
horizontal pattern, rather than leaving it to the oper-
ation of the interactional market (81:323). The social
system involved in community development, according to
Warren, "is the total community's horizontal pattern,"
while the social system involved in community action is

a specific ad hoc action system (81:327).

Warren noted that because of the great change in
'American society which tends to strengthen the vertical
ties of community units to extra-community systems, and
the concommitant weakening of the horizontal ties between
community units, the focus on the horizontal pattern is
crucial (81:327-329). The importance of helping communi—
ties strengthen their horizontal pattern appears to be

a significant objective of community development; however,

18

frequently, the methods which would ultimately strengthen
the horizontal pattern must be abandoned to achieve a
specific task goal. In short, the process of encouraging
people to make their own decisions as to what is good for
them gives way to the process of convincing them of what
a change agent or a small group of "leaders" thinks is
good for them. Broadly based decision-making is replaced
by decision-making by a few who "sell" the task objective
to others. The net effect is that the goal of strength-
ening horizontal ties is displaced by more immediate task
goals of the action system. In short, community action
episodes may replace long-term community development goals.
Closely linked to the concepts of community development

are the concepts of planning.

Urban Planning and the Community

Urban planners' presentation of physical solutions
to complex physical and social problems has received
mounting criticism. Planners are calling for a greater
interest in the total social system for planning purposes.
Herbert Gans has stated that (25:39):

City planning has traditionally sought community
betterment through so-called physical methods, such
as the creation of efficient land use, and transpor-
tation schemes, the sorting of diverse types of land
use, and the renewal of technologically obsolescent
areas and buildings to achieve functional as well as
aesthetically desirable arrangements of structures
and spaces.

19

Gans in noting that contemporary planning has somewhat
over concentrated on "physical" methods of problem solv-
ing called for a "new planning concept which places
greater emphasis on economic and social methods of
improving community life"(25:39).

Melvin Webber has also noted that systematic
research has shown that the simple relationships between
physical and social aspects in the city are no longer
substantiated. He commented (85:10):

The simple one-to-one cause-and-effect links that
once tied houses and neighborhoods to behavior and
welfare are coming to be seen as but strands in
highly complex webs that, in turn, are woven by the
intricate and subtle relations that mark social,
psychic, economic, and political systems.

Norton Long succinctly summarized the long-
standing planning interest in physical factors when he
said (44:67):

At long last non-physical considerations are receiv-
ing belated and still hopelessly inadequate attention
in city planning. At the federal level the Model
Cities Program represents at least a gesture toward
alteration of the overwhelming physical preoccupation
of urban renewals.

With the Demonstration Cities Act of 1966, the
federal government acknowledged the deficiencies of tra-
ditional urban renewal. The Model City Program, as it
came to be known, was making an attempt to integrate
social, economic, and physical factors into the renewal

process in order to deal more effectively and realisti-

cally with the urban problem (76:1).

20

Closely related to this concept is the idea of
policy planning. Henry Fagin described the concept of
policy planning as, ". . . a new instrument necessary
for bringing physical, social, economic and political
considerations into an adequate state of coherence"
(20:109). He visualized policy planning as an effort
to integrate all aspects of planning into a comprehen-
sive approach.

Fagin introduced five functions of planning
necessary to produce a policy plan: First, the gathering,
analyzing, and reporting of physical, social, economic
and political facts. Second, the formulation of goals,
which involves the process of interaction among: (1) the
public and its voluntary organizations; (2) the govern-
ment as embodied in the elected representatives and their
appointive administrative officials; and (3) the profes-
sional and technical aides and consultants who staff
urban planning offices. Third, the specific plan per-
formed by a planning staff. Fourth, coordination in the
planning office of factual research, liaison with groups
and organizations, and on the policies plan. The fifth
function of planning is furnishing assistance and advice
(20:110-111).

The crux of the planning problem is how it deals
with social problems. Frieden noted that "much of city

planning deals with social policy issues--who is to live

21

where, how are public services to be distributed--but
these issues are seldom the object of systematic analysis
on planning" (24:311). Frieden further observed that in
the future planning agencies will be more concerned with
devices for communication and interaction (24:321).

The implication of the development of planning
from the Urban Planning viewpoint is that before planning
can be effective and programs developed, planners need to
know what the needs and what the interactions really are.
The study to be developed here will describe one approach
to a more rational social planning and community develop-

ment.

Overview of Study

 

In general, community services are concerned with
identifying unrealized community potentialities and unmet
community needs, drawing together resources in the college

and in the community, and creating appropriate educational

 

programs. To do this effectively, the community college
must bring to bear the theory and knowledge of previous
community development efforts to achieve their specific
goals. This is research on one aspect of the community
services function of the community college--community
development. It is based on the idea that community
development represents efforts to strengthen the horizon-

tal pattern in the community. Thus, of central importance

22

is an understanding of the horizontal pattern. In order

to obtain this understanding, at a minimum, the elements,
structure, and interaction of the horizontal pattern must
be analyzed.

In Chapter II, the literature on inter-
organizational interaction, inter-organizational environ-
ments, and community development is reviewed and discussed.
The hypotheses, the community studied, subjects, design,
analysis, and instruments are described in Chapter III.
Results of the data gathered in the study are analyzed in
Chapter IV. The final chapter includes a summary, con-
clusions, discussion and recommendations for future
research and implementation of techniques in community

service programs.

Terminology and Definitions

For purposes of this study, the terminology and
concepts of the social systems approach to sociology will
be used. Warren's definition of community will be used:
". . . that combination of social units and systems which
perform the major social functions having locality rele-
vance" (80:9). The social system terminology is utilized
because it places emphasis on relatively enduring systems
of action shared by groups of people or organizations.
The idea for this study is that social relationships are

not random expressions of human activity, but part of a

23

systematic arrangement of social units found in a locality
called a community. In other words, there is a need to
better understand the community as a social system.

This study further assumes the idea advanced by
Moe that a community is a system of systems (51:29).
Organizations and groups are part of the social system of
the community.

Further guidance for the study was taken from
Sanders contention that "the basic unit of analysis for
the study of a community is the subsystem (combined into
major systems) and that the behavior of a community as a
total system is greatly dependent upon the interaction
among these subsystems" (60:192). Sanders identified
major systems as the economy, family, government, religion,
education, and public information, health, welfare and
recreation and modifications of these were used in this
study.

Other important definitions were: constellation--
two or more organizations who indicate they engage in
cooperative activities or programs; community develop-
ment--activities of organizations primarily focused on
cooperative efforts to improve the physical, social,
economic, political or other aspects of the environment
of a community; inter-organizational relationship--any
cooperative activity, program, or project which requires

reciprocal coordination by two or more organizations.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The focus of this research is on several converg-
ing fields of theory and research. Selected studies and
theories will be reviewed for each relevant area. Where
possible, references to more extensive reviews will be
cited. The literature reviewed will cover three major
areas: (1) community studies and theory; (2) inter-
organizational environment and analysis; and (3) commu-

nity development theory.

Community Studies

 

Concept of Community

 

Writing in 1928, Jesse Steiner noted (68:3):

A quarter of a century ago the growing interest in
the community as a social unit began to express
itself in social surveys designed to reveal the
actual conditions existing in the local areas
studied. Through a wide application of this survey
method, a flood of light has been thrown on the
nature and extent of community problems in many dif-
ferent types of places.

With the more recent emphasis on community organiza-
tion, it has become apparent that this older type of
social survey is inadequate. From the point of view
of the community organizer it is essential that there
should be an understanding of the nature of the com-
munity as well as of the ills to be corrected. The
cross section of the community as revealed by the

24

25

survey must be supplemented by a vision of the com-
munity in action if progress is to be made in
uniting people in support of a common project.

The growing concern of the general public and of
individuals involved in community development work is
that the growth of the community has been accompanied by
a series of forces hastening its decline, namely, cen-
tralization, specialization, and the increase in
impersonal relationships. Nisbet identified the growing
concentration of power in the sovereign political state
as one of the most important social facts in our world.
He cautioned that the state has taken up the vacuum
created by the decline of the religious, kinship and
locality groups, and commented "the decline of community
has made ours an age of frustration, anxiety, disintegra-
tion, instability, breakdown and collapse" (53:7).

Brownell in support of this concept related,
"this public and private tendency toward indiscriminate
centralization and mass control of life in fields of
economics, corporate industry, technology, art, religion,
politics, recreation, education, agriculture, and human
affairs in general, may be a tendency toward death" (9:5).

The interest in community change and decline has
resulted in a sizable volume of research in community or
closely allied fields. Hollingshead reviewed the commu—
nity research in the forties and classified research on

the basis of its central focus into three categories:

26

ecological, structural and typological (31). Hillery
listed 94 definitions of community and did not claim to
exhaust the conceptions. He did reveal that most
scholars were "in basic agreement that community consists
of persons in social interaction within a geographic area
and barring one or more additional ties" (30-111).
Sanders reviewed the qualitative, ecological, ethno-
graphic and social systems approach to viewing the commu-
nity (60:11-23). Kaufman discussed available definitions
of any use in isolating this unit for study (36).

Simpson presented an overall classification of community
studies (64). Comprehensive review of the theoretical
and historical development of approaches to community
study were provided by Sanders' text, The Sociology of

Community (60), and Warren's readings on community,

 

Perspectives on the American Community (79).

Kaufman noted that, in general, it could be said
that some consensus existed concerning the definition of
community. First, community is a social unit of which
space is an integral part, community is a place. Second,
community indicated a configuration as to way of life,
both as to how people do things and what they want--their
institutions and their collective goals. Third, is the
Instion of collective action. Persons in a community
Should not only be able to, but frequently do act together

1J1 the common concerns of life (37:9).

27

Changing Emphasis in
Community_Study

 

The changing emphasis in community study is upon
the search fer principles of process and the nature of
change in contrast to the original description and taxo-
nomic orientation. Arensberg and Kimball stressed that
the development of methods for system, interaction and
event analysis have proven to be important theoretical
tools in this advance (3). The trend is toward studying
the community in action and thus dynamics, interaction

and process have become important concepts.

Interaction Concept of Community

 

Jesse Bernard (4:13) wrote:

For the most part, the sociologists have been inter-
ested in the community structures which result from
interaction rather than the interaction processes
themselves. . . . It would seem . . . that the time
may be ripe for a greater emphasis on dynamic inter-
action in community studies and also, perhaps, for
greater recognition of the community aspect of all
interaction studies.

Kaufman made the significant point that the con-
vergence of contributions of several types of work would
be valuable in developing the notion of community as an
interactional field (37:10). One is the conception of
the community as a group presented by Hiller, one of the
most referred to treatments of the community as a group
(29). The second type of contributions to the notion of

the community as an interaction field is the community

action analysis. The studies of Sower et al. (66),

28

Miller (49), Bruyn (10), and Biddle (5) represent this
type of analysis.

Additional types of research which contribute
to the concept of community as an interactional field
are Lasswell and Kaplan's studies of local leadership
and power structure (39), Lewin's notions of field

(40), and Cottrell's emphasis on the situation (13).

Elements of the Interactional Model

In order to make the concept of interaction under-
standable it is important to describe elements of inter-
action. Sanders noted that in describing the community
function of a particular group such as the Chamber of
Commerce, one does not merely ask what are the purposes
of the Chamber as drawn up in its charter and as believed
by its members; instead, one assumes that the Chamber has
connections with many other groups and groupings of the
community and that one can best describe the actual
functioning of the Chamber, from the community viewpoint
at least, by tracing these social relationships between
it and other groups (60:348).

Sanders further noted that function is more than
interaction in a general sense, it is rather an analysis
of interaction between some part of the community struc-
ture and other parts. This is why it is almost impossible

to talk clearly of function without thinking of structure,

29

or the social organization through which functions are
traced (60:349).

The dynamics of community also must deal with
that which is moving or changing. The concept of dynamics
adds the element of change to interaction, which itself
usually has a neutral tone. Without interaction, change
would not occur. Thus, social dynamics would look at the
community as a changing system and would try to work out
the laws that govern change within them. Sorokin noted
that the concept of dynamics, added to that of structure
and function, gives a more complete account of a social
system (65).

A unit of study at the interaction level is the
action or interaction. Kaufman identified three important
analytical elements of any action, whether community or
other: (1) the persons involved--participants or actors,
(2) the associations or groups through which the action
takes place, (3) the stages and phases of action through
time (37:11).

Kaufman further developed a set of criteria of
community action which set off community from non-
community activities. First was the range of interests.

. . . It is essential that an action be identified
with the locality and that it either express a number
of interests in the local life or be closely related
to other actions which express such interests. By
definition, the ends of the community development

program are entirely oriented toward improving and
increasing identification with the locality.

30

Second, the identification with locality. Many
activities are oriented to mass society and have little
reference to the locality. An example of these orienta-
tions would be the community health fund drive which can
be locality identifying if it is integrated with local
effort but when carried out from district or regional
headquarters, it is an activity of mass society.

The remaining criteria were: (1) the relative
number, (2) status and degree of involvement of local
residents, (3) the relative number and significance of
local associations involved, (4) the degree to which the
action maintains or changes the local society, and

(5) the extent of organization of the action (37:13).

Community Design

 

An important part of the interaction model is to
discover what people think the community ought to be.
This is especially true given the fact that community
action is to a large extent problem solving and change
oriented. It is directed more to the creating of new
associations and institutional forms than to maintaining
the existing ones. For this reason, special attention
needs to be given to the ends of community action. Thus,
Kaufman noted that (37:16):

A legitimate and much needed task for the sociologist
is to analyze those ends and goals which the average

citizen as well as the leaders of thought and opinion
regard as desirable and good. It is essential to

31

carry out this analytical function for two reasons:
(1) in order to complete the analysis of the action
process and (2) to make interaction analysis highly
relevant for community improvement and development
programs.

In summation, it seems that community study must
focus both on the researcher and the man of action. The
social value of community research may be measured by its
contribution to realizing the types of community that
people desire. It is a continuing process of examining
alternate designs for good community and suggesting
conditions under which these goals can be reached.

Inter-Organizational Environments
and Analysis

Organization Environments

 

Since Darwin published The Origin of Species by

Means of Natural Selection in 1859, modern genetics has

 

altered our understanding of the factors which affect the
processes of natural selection. In spite of that break-
through, there has not been until recently much under-
standing of the evolution of environments. Even today
most energy of theorists is directed toward the internal
interdependencies of systems--biologica1, psychological
or social--a1though the external environments are perhaps
changing more rapidly than in any previous period.

Von Bertalanffy was the first to identify the

importance of a system being open or closed to the

32

environment. He distinguished between living and inani-
mate systems and made it possible to look at a system's
exchange process in a new perspective; however, he did
not deal with those processes in the environment itself
that are among the determining conditions for exchange
(77:1-10).

Emery and Trist introduced the concept "the causal
texture of environment" which encouraged an understanding
of the potential connection between the organization and
the environment. They offered the following proposition
(17:21-31):

That a comprehensive understanding of organizational
behavior requires some knowledge of each member of
the following set, where L indicates some potential

lawful connection, and the suffix 1 refers to the
organization and the suffix 2 to the environment:

L12 L12

L21 L22

L12 here refers to processes within the organization--
the area of internal interdependencies; L12 and L21

to exchanges between the organization and its environ-
ment--the area of transactional interdependencies,

from either direction; and L22 to processes through
which parts of the environment become related to each
other--i.e., its causal texture--the area of inter-
dependencies that belong within the environment itself.

Emery and Trist indicated, "a main problem in the
study of organizational change is that the environmental
contexts in which organizations exist are themselves
changing, at an increasing rate, and towards increasing
complexity" (17:21). In their terms, L22 relations (i.e.,

interdependencies within the environment itself) comprise

33

the "causal texture" of the field which is the changing
texture in the environment.

Emery and Trist postulate four types of environ-
ment which may be ordered according to the degree of
system connections that exists among the components in
the environment. The first type is called the "placid,
randomized environment" in which goods and noxiants
("goods and bads") are relatively unchanging in them-
selves and randomly distributed. The second type is the
placid, clustered environment: "characterized in terms
of clustering of relatively unchanging goods and bads."
The third type of environment is the "disturbed-reactive
environment" which is characterized by the existence of
a number of similar organizations in the environmental
field. They commented that in this third type of environ-
ment (17:25):

Each organization does not simply have to take
account of the others when they meet at random, but
has to consider what it knows can also be known by
the others. The part of the environment to which
it wishes to move itself in the long run is also
the part to which the others seek to move. Knowing
this, each will wish to improve its own chances by
hindering the others, and each will know that the
others must not only wish to do likewise, but also

know that each knows this.

Turbulent field.--The fourth type of environment

 

is new and is called the "turbulent field." Emery and
Trist suggested in this type of environment "dynamic
processes, which create significant variances for the

component organizations, arise from the field itself"

34

(17:26). Terreberry's alternate description of the "tur-
bulent field" is "that the accelerating rate and complex-
ity of interactive effects exceeds the component systems'
capacities for prediction and, hence, control of com-
pounding consequences of their action" (70:593). Warren
provided a succinct elucidation of the turbulent field
when he said, "The ground is in motion" (83:398).

Emery and Trist noted three trends which contri-
bute to the emergence of these dynamic field forces
(17:26):

1. The growth to meet type three conditions of organ-
izations, and linked sets of organizations, so
large that their actions are both persistent and

strong enough to induce autochthonous processes
in the environment.

2. The deepening interdependence between the economic
and the other facets of the society. (This means
that economic organizations are increasingly
enmeshed in legislation and public regulation.)

3. The increasing reliance on research and develop-
ment to achieve the capacity to meet competitive
challenge.

Under type four environments there is a gross
increase in the area of relevant uncertainty. The
achievement of organization stability becomes precarious
under these conditions because individual organizations
cannot expect to adapt successfully simply through their
own actions.

The significance of the type four or turbulent

field is in the strategy and operations that organiza-

tions undertake to cope with the environment. Emery and

35

Trist concluded that "turbulent fields demand some overall
form of organization that is essentially different from
the hierarchically structured forms to which we are
accustomed" (17:28). Turbulent environments require some
relationship between dissimilar organizations whose fates
are, basically, positively correlated. This means rela-
tionships that will maximize cooperation and which recog-
nize the necessity of selection of goal paths that offer
maximum convergence as regards interests of other parties.

Terreberry in elaborating and extending the
environmental conceptions of Emery and Trist concluded
(70:590-613):

The theoretical and case study literature of organ-
izations suggests that these systems are increasingly
finding themselves in environments where the com-
plexity and rapidity of change in external connected-
ness (L22) gives rise to increasingly unpredictable
change in their transactional interdependencies (L21
and L12). This seems to be good evidence for the
emergency of turbulence in the environments of many
formal organizations.

Terreberry postulated that just as living systems
are progressing by the process of evolution from less to
more complex states of organizations so does the environ-
ment of any living system evolve from less to more
complex states of organization. In addition, she offered
the corollary that the "evolution of environments is
characterized by an increase in the ratio of externally

induced change over internally induced change in a

system's transactional interdependencies (L12 and L12)"

36

(70:599). A turbulent environment requires relationships
between dissimilar organizations whose fates are inde-
pendent or, perhaps, positively correlated. Put simply,
in a turbulent environment the constituents of the
environment are a multitude of other formal, complex
organizations and systems.

Inter-organizational analysis.--The importance of

 

studying inter-organizational behavior is related to the
evolution of more complex environments. In the disturbed-
reactive type of environment it was noted that survival
depends upon the ability of the organization to anticipate
and counteract the behavior of similar systems. The
turbulent field, as was noted, also requires strategies
for coping with similar as well as dissimilar systems in
the environmental field. Thus, the study of organiza—
tional interdependence has become more important in more
complex environments.

Sociology concentrates upon the social relation-
ships which are patterned into groups and larger social
systems. Much study has been devoted to the interaction
among persons and the interaction among groups, and since
the 1940's the systematic study of intra-organizational
analysis has proceeded at a rapid pace. Peter M. Blau
in his Bureaucracy in Modern Society has reviewed some of
this literature (7). Compared to the problems of intra-

organizational analysis, that is studies in bureaucracy,

37

little has been done to follow up the general problems
of inter-organizational analysis.

General inter-organizational studies.--Studies of
inter-relations have largely been confined to units
within the same organizational structure or between a
pair of complementary organizations such as management
and labor. Dimock's study of jurisdictional conflict
between two federal agencies is an exception (11).
Another is Form and Nosow's study on the interaction pat-
terns of local health organizations and community reac-
tion to disaster. They observed that "organizational
cooperation was facilitated among organizations with
similar internal structures" (22:236). In a similar
study of organizational independence and intra-
organizational structure, Aiken and Hage found that
"organizations with many joint programs tend to be more
complex, more innovative, have more active internal com-
munications channels and somewhat more decentralized
decision making structures" (1:927). March and Simon
suggest that inter-organizational conflict is very
similar to intergroup conflict within organizations but
present no supporting data (46). Etzioni specifies that
the area of inter-organizational relationships is one of
three meriting further intensive empirical study (18).

Other studies of inter-organizational interaction

have recently been conducted. Clark studied

38

inter-organizational patterns in education and noted that
"modern social forces have recast education as part of
the economic and political institutions of society, which
requires adjustments and adoptions within the single
school system" (11). Litwak and Meyer developed a theory
based on the idea that both bureaucratic organization and
community primary groups are essential for achieving most
tasks in our society. They proposed that organizations
and primary groups should be linked at some mid-point of
social distance (43).

Miller described inter-institutional conflict as
a major impediment to delinquency prevention and implied
this has more to do with the nature of relations among
the various concerned institutions than with a lack of
knowledge as to effective procedures (50:23). Reid in
another study of inter-agency coordination in delinquency
prevention and control noted the pervasive difficulty in
getting agencies to coordinate (58).

Black and Kose studied the needs and problems of
inter-agency cooperation in rehabilitation and mental
health. They related the problems to changing environ-
mental conditions such as (1) population, (2) medical
needs of people, (3) methods of medical treatment and
patterns of use of services, (4) changes in use of tra-
ditional services, and (5) changing concepts in profes-

sional practice (6:26-27).

39

Studies developing interactional concepts.--Addi-
tional studies of inter-organization interaction have
utilized more operational definitions and concepts as
methods for analysis. These studies develop such con-
cepts as: organizational set; organizational exchange
and domain consensus; and the consequences of goal
setting as related to cooperative strategy.

Evan (19:177-180) utilized Morton's (48) "role-
set" to develop the concept of "organization-set." He
illustrated how relations between a focal organization
and members of its organization-set are mediated by the
role-sets of boundary personnel. Evan offered a concep-
tual tool for identifying transactions at a given time;
however, Terreberry noted a shortcoming of Evan's theory
was that he made "no explicit assumptions about the
nature of environmental dynamics, nor did he imply that
they are changing" (70:602).

Levine and White attempted to explain relation-
ships among community health and welfare agencies by
viewing them as being involved in an exchange system.
They viewed organizational exchange as ". . . any volun-
tary activity between two organizations which has
consequences, actual or anticipated, for the realization
of their respective goals or objectives." They proposed
that interaction becomes necessary under conditions of

scarcity when the relevant resources are not available

40

from outside the region. They argued interdependence of
agencies is contingent upon three related factors (39:583):

1. The accessibility of each organization to neces-
sary elements from outside the health system;

2. The objectives of the organization and particular
functions to which it allocates the elements it
controls; and '

3. The degree to which domain consensus exists among
the various organizations.

In referring to "domain consensus" Levine and
White commented, "obviously there will be no exchange of
elements between two organizations that do not know each
other's existence or that are completely unaware of each
other's functions" (39:597). Exchange depends upon some
agreement or understanding as to organization's domains.
The domain is the organization's claim as to area of
responsibility, population served and services rendered.
Exchange agreements depend upon prior consensus regarding
domain.

In another study of health and welfare organiza-
tions, Litwak and Hylton developed hypotheses concerning
coordination. They began with an assumptiOn that a situ-
ation of partial conflict exists in inter-organizational
interaction and studied interaction under such conditions.
Studying conditions of moderate interdependence, they
hypothesized (42:25):

(1) . . . coordinating agencies will develop and con-
tinue in existence if formal organizations are partly

interdependent, and agencies are aware of this inter-
dependence, (2) their transactions or exchanges are

41

in standardized units of action, and (3) . . . two or
more organizational strategies for dealing with the
environment.

One was competition; the remaining three were types of
cooperative strategy: bargaining, co-optation, and
coalition.

They argued that cooperative strategies require
the organization to interact with other organizations
and this increases the potential control of the environ-
ment over individual organizations. In bargaining, the
negotiation of an agreement for exchange results in
limits on the amounts of resources available, the way
they may be employed; and, therefore, on the choice of
goals. Co-optation means that final choice of goals is
altered by the process of absorbing new elements into
the leadership or structure of an organization. Coali-
tions were viewed by the authors as the ultimate form
of environmental conditioning of organizational goals
(42:25-28).

Thompson in a separate study developed a model
for accounting for output roles of complex organizations.
His typology accounted for the relationship between the
output role of the focal organization and the reciprocal
roles required of non-members or other organizations.

He concluded (722315):
Managerial or administrative influence over transac-

tion structures rests less on authority to dictate
standards or procedures than on ability to negotiate

changes in organizational posture; that is, a rela-
tionship between the organization and its relevant
environment resulting from the joint action of both.
Thompson and McEwen's concepts contributed to
the study of inter-organization interaction by distin-

guishing different kinds of inter-organizational rela-

tions and their existence in turbulent fields (73).

Summary of Inter-Organizational

Analysis

Overall, the field of inter-organizational
analysis is growing in significance. The important
elements to the evolution and characteristics of organ-
izational environments, the elements and nature of inter-
ogranizational interaction, and the strategies for
adapting to the environment. This theory and research
provides a knowledge link for the practitioner seeking
to understand the nature of his community and the
methods for achieving purposive change. Of additional
importance are the methods of analysis. What follows
is a description of the sociometric method of analysis

of inter-organizational interaction.

Community Development

 

It has been noted that community development is
an old idea in a new dress (12:1). It uses new methods
to achieve long—standing objectives. Simpson in his
review of the status and prospects of the sociology of

community noted (64:149):

43

. . . we have made no mention of one very important
burgeoning activity of community sociologists:
research and action programs in community development.
We have left this area out of our discussion, not
because it is unimportant, clearly it is of major
importance, but because it is rather than a separate
area of theoretical knowledge, an area in which dif-
ferent areas of knowledge intersect.

His comments reflect the importance of community develop-
ment. Following is a selected overview of the theoretical
formulations regarding community development of Irwin T.

Sanders and Roland Warren.

Sanders' Conceptualizations

 

Sanders delineated some of the dimensions of what
is currently called community development. He (1958)
identified two possible levels of theoretical formula-
tions of community development: "that of the practi-
tioner, which is largely administrative and action-
oriented in character, and that of the social scientist,
which is largely conceptual in nature." He noted that
community development evolved from two sources: (1) com-
munity organization which had as forebearers social
'welfare and adult education; and (2) economic develOpment
which had its genesis in agricultural extension, economic
planning, rural reconstruction, planning, zoning, and
urban renewal (61:1).

Sanders commented that the mixed lineage of com—

munity development makes it somewhat difficult to describe.

Adding to the problem of an explicit identity for

44

community development are different theoretical formula-
tions. At the practitioner's level, a series of
principles which focused on "getting the job done" were
found in case studies, evaluative reports, development
handbooks and training materials. The practitioner's
theory stressed applicability, not abstraction. On the
other hand, the social scientists related the theoretical
concepts and abstraction of their various disciplines to
the important aspects of community development. Sanders
expressed the opinion that the various theories at this
second level--that of the social scientist--will probably
never be very well integrated "because the practitioner
will not be concerned with the systematics of social
theory, and, also the contributions of social sciences to
community development will no doubt reflect the uncoor-
dinated state" of the social sciences (61:3).

Perhaps Sanders' most significant contribution
has been his typological analysis of the four major
approaches to community development. He offered the
following explanation (61:10):

Some social scientists think of community development
as a process and focus upon the sequences through
which communities (or their segments) go as they move
from a pre-industrial to an industrial type or a
similar overall change; others who are action, rather
than research oriented, think of community develop-
ment as a method to be used in moving toward their
objective. They do not lose sight of the fact that
processes are involved, but they focus upon accom-

plishments rather than upon sequences. With a third
grouping community development means a program that

45

has been carefully thought through in terms of con-
tent as well as procedures. The stress here is upon
activities as set forth in the program, and the
program itself becomes the objective. A fourth view,
shared in different degrees by all who work full
time in this area, is that community development is
a movement. It is more than a mere program, impor-
tant as programs are, but it is rather a special
kind of program that holds unusual promise and one
worthy of unabashed commitment by those in under-
developed countries or who want to see poverty and
illness alleviated among the great masses of under-
privileged humanity.

Warren's Conceptualizations

 

A basic thesis of Warren's theory was that a
great change has been taking place in Western institu-
tional life, in recent decades, and the basic effect of
this great change has been (81:327):

Strengthening the vertical ties of community units
to extra community systems, making less viable the
horizontal ties based on propinquity of community
units to each other, and removing the local community
types of decision about what will take place on the
local scene.
Warren identified the dimensions of this great change as:
(l) progressive division of labor; (2) differentiation of
interests and associations; (3) strong links to their
extra-community occupational and interest groups;
(4) development of bureaucratization and impersonaliza-
tion; and (5) transfer of functions which were formerly '
performed by family, neighborhood, and local community,
to voluntary organizations, profit enterprise, and govern-

mental offices. He also argued that in addition, there

has been a switch in values to a gradual acceptance of

46

governmental activity as a positive value in an increas-
ing number of fields, as well as other value changes
(81:2).

In a paper entitled "Community Theory and Commu-
nity Development" Warren discussed the link between
community theory and community development. He noted
that as the "great change" is taking place in Western
institutional life, in recent decades, as a part of this
change a new component has been added to the process of
social change; a developing body of experience and know-
ledge regarding the channeling or bringing about of
change as a matter of rational interest (78).

A purposive change model was developed by Warren
to focus on the combination of individuals or organiza-
tions who are trying to bring about the change. He has
outlined the "action system," which focuses on the
behavior of ad hpg_constellations of parties who are
working for change. The components of the five-stage
model were: (1) initial systemic environment; (2) incep-
tion of the action system; (3) expansion of the action
system; (4) operation of the expanded action system; and
(5) transformation of the action system (78:10-11).

Leading from Warren's theory and research,
Anderson (2) conducted a systematic conceptual and method-
ological approach to the phenomena of inter-organizational

relationships, they developed an organizational inventory

47

profile of perceived organized structure of Michigan's
Upper Peninsula. He identified organizations responsible
for economic develOpment of Michgian's fiftenn-county
Upper Peninsula region and accounted for the dependence
relationships found to exist among them. Organizations
included in the study were those who could significantly
affect economic development activity in the region by
taking three alternative courses of action (2:5).

As a result of the study they discovered organi-
zational constellations formations for every organization,
coalition formations in the form of blocks (organizations,
all of which have some specified relation to one another),
coalitions, memberships, coalition sets, and two types of
liaisons--primary and secondary. He identified 21 coali-
tions among 61 heterogeneous Upper Peninsula organizations.
He also identified coalition linkages where organizations
hold membership in more than one coalition.

One aspect of Anderson's study was the analysis
of influence patterns and status arrangements among
organizations. By this analysis it was possible to
identify the level of reciprocal interaction for each
organization and, thus, status and influence. Anderson
concluded (2:19-20):

1. The configuration of organizations around general
recurrent activities indicates the centers of
influence in the system and that some knowledge
of nature of the bonds in the system can be

detected by examining the interaction structures,
influence patterns and status arrangements;

48

2. When the nature of these bonds are known, specific
issues can be related to specific coalitions;

3. From a practical standpoint, knowing the relation-
ships (or lack of them) among coalitions and among
their members, a developer has some knowledge as to
who should be included in the planning phase of an
activity and who has the greatest access to and
influence on the relevant elements of the system;
and

4. He may be able to detect those whose interests are
adversely affected by some plan, the extent of the
Opposition, and the degree of conflicting interest.

This study provided a fundamental analytical step
for analyzing sociometrically the inter-organizational
pattern, and suggested practical ideas for utilizing this
understanding of inter-organizational structure to accom-

plish results in the form of community action or community

development.

Community Action Studies

 

Directly related to the concept of community
development and the significance of inter-organizational
interaction to community development are the important
approaches to community action. Given the understanding
of inter-organizational relationships it is important to

understand the process of community action.

Community Involvement

A significant contribution on the strategy of
directed social action is the work of Sower §£_§l. This
is a study of the processes involved in achieving a goal

of a house-to-house health survey of 10,000 families in

49

a midwestern county which was organized by a few profes-
sionals and involved 700 volunteers. The survey was
developed because of lack of citizen interest and support
in the County Health Council and for health planning in
the community; and eventually involved leaders in twenty-
three communities. Three salient stages of the community
action process were identified: the initiation stage,
the legitimation stage and the execution stage (66).

Initiation stage.--The first stage of the commu-

 

-nity action was the initiation stage where a common set
of goals are established and concrete action takes place.
The authors related "the essential difference between
latency and initiation is that in the latter, some person
or group must do something in order for community action
to get under way" (66:63).

They identified the central problem in the process
of interaction as understanding the manner in which an
idea held by a few individuals moved to a specific pro-
posal of action for the community to be accepted or
rejected. They commented (66:63):

It would appear that the crucial element of this
transition is that it be brought to the stage of
attention where it is possible for others to decide
whether or not it can be justified as being related
to the welfare of the community.

Legitimation stage.--The second stage of community

action, the social action--legitimation stage--was the

intervening process between the initiation and execution

50

of community action. It involved the convergence of
interest necessary before an acceptance of purpose is
possible. Sower and Freeman noted that a convergence
of interest dependent upon a process composed of
(1) symbols and sentiments appropriate to the social
order, (2) a rational appraisal of individual ends, and
a rational perception of organized ends (67:28). Sower
§E_§l, noted that agreement on the charter does not
provide means of achieving the ends. To do this, three
tasks are left for the initiating set: (1) To be able
to justify appropriately the proposed actions "good" for
the welfare of the community; (2) to gain support from
the appropriate "legitimizers" for the action; and
(3) to be able to deal with any possible opposition in a
manner to prevent the blockage of legitimation (66:97).
The authors commented (66:117),
There is one clear-cut difference between the involve-
ment of the members of the legitimation set and those
of the initiation set. While all except one of the
members of the initiation group were full-time
employees of either county or community agencies,
this was the case for none of the next tier of the

involvement pattern.

Execution stage.--In the final stage--the social

 

action-execution--access to the means of completing goals
is obtained. This is the stage where the involvement
process finally resulted in the concerted social action of
the people for a solution of a problem. The execution of

action was described in detail and it was noted that no

51

action sequence divides itself into neat compartments
(66:152).
The authors depicted the elements in the action

sequence as (66:308-314):

1. Convergence of interest. In order for action to
take place at all, there must be some convergence
of interests of those actors in the social system
who had appropriate sentiments, beliefs, and/or
rationally calculated purposes with reference to
a problem.

2. Establishment of an initiating set. Until estab-
lishment of an initiating set takes place, action
is existent only in the minds of the individual
actors.

3. Legitimation and sponsorship. The charter must
become acceptable to a sufficient number of
members of the larger community so that action
goals can be realized. The right to initiate
must be legitimized.

4. Establishment of an execution set. The execution
set, as distinguished from the initiation set,
must be established and accept the charter, and
have access to the resources of the community.

5. Fulfillment of charter. The ultimate objective.
Further Studies of Community
Involvement

Biddle and Biddle in their analysis of case

studies offered a preliminary outline of the community
develOpment process which identified many stages similar
to the ones mentioned above (5). Among the parts of
their outline were the dependency upon the formation of
a small community-serving group (initiation), the devel-
opment of sub-associations with similar groups and
initiation of all institutions, agencies, and class

levels in helping (legitimation) and the process of

52

starting with a few people and continuing through the
actions of small groups as it seeks a local wholeness
that includes all people and all factions (participa-
tion).

They also identified the major skills of the
community developer as growing out of a friendship that
encourages self-respect and self-confidence. This
means a lack of domination, a willingness to suffer with
the group, and to work cooperatively on the activities
chosen by the group, and a willingness to share ideas in
the expectation that these will be examined on their
merits (5) .

Hoffer identified three similar aspects of the
action process: Initiation of the action; legitimation
of the proposed action; and execution of the action.

He suggested that the final stage may be accomplished
by (31:44-50):
1. Employing an agency to do the work.

2. Assigning the task to an existing
organization.

3. Establishing an organization especially
for the task.

Another significant study of community action
was Miller's analysis of community health action. Using
a questionnaire method, the authors attempted to fulfill
what they believed to be important needs in community

research:

53

l. The need for comparative studies of commu-

nity action toward identical community goals.

2. The need to relate the community scene to

such larger sociocultural systems as the
state, region, and nation.

Using the decision-making process as a framework
for viewing data and an interdisciplinary effort, the
author investigated small communities' quests for major
health goals-~hospital facilities, public health
resources, and devices to solve medical health costs
(49:6).

Miller sought to understand community action in
terms of who made the decisions and the way a maker
acquired the "rightfulness" to make them legitimate. His
objectives included (49:19):

1. Demonstrate the overall similarities and dis-
similarities in the community action plans for

acquiring hospitals, local health departments,
and consumer-sponsored prepayment plans.

2. Portray some of the subtleties of decision-making
in community action in various sections of the
United States.

3. Reflect some phases of problems, method planning,
cooperation as the citizens of small communities
tune to the improvement of health facilities.

Of particular interest was Miller's analysis of the two
major capacities of "rightful" decision-making, authority
and influence. He argued that "decisions are made when
the capacity of authority is possessed, or when the

capacity of influence is possessed, or through combina-

tions of both" (49:15).

54

The capacity of authority was identified as the
body of rights and privileges belonging to certain roles
in the community. These may be a result of holding
office, family, kinship group, or even socio-economic
status. He noted that the capacity of influence is
primarily a collection of relevant resources or profi-
ciencies which the maker of decisions brings to the action
project. The resources of influence included wealth,
respect, morality, success, access, obligation, and time.
It was also related to subject matter, competence, and
organization skill.

Miller's study suggests that the nature of the
problem will make a difference in the style of community
action appropriate. Other community problems, lying
outside the area of health, may evoke responses from
groups and decision-makers of an altogether different
order. Such investigation would examine the extent to
which there are distinctive social domains of decision-

making within the field of community action.

Discussion of Previous Research

 

Research in inter-organizational relationships
has resulted from converging research interest in the
process of rational planning for social change. The
impact of cultural as well as technological change and
the ensuing social crises in contemporary society has

accentuated the need to understand ways and means

55

society, through its organizations and institutions,
provides for fundamental human needs.
Inter-organizational research is characterized
by two distinct trends. First, research has proceeded
from an orientation toward general concepts of community,
community organization, and community development to
more specific conceptualizations of the structure and
elements of each of these concepts. There has been a
funneling of interest to more operational concepts. The
general framework for research has proceeded in a fashion
similar to empirical investigation in other fields from
general relating to the elements of the general subject.
Accompanying the more explicit formulation of research
concepts are efforts to account for more factors in
research on community. For example, efforts to study
decision-making processes must also account for previous
findings in regard to arrangements, domain consensus and
also implications of these factors in a turbulent field.
The second, and complimentary, trend of research
in inter-organizational relationships has been the
change from studies primarily descriptive of how the
community is organized to studies of the commerce in
~action, i.e., processes. In short, the basic reason for
the development of interest in inter-organizational
behavior is to understand the answers to the following

types of questions:

56
1. Who are the organizations that perform the
basic community functions?

2. How are these organizations related to each
other?

3. Why are these organizations effective or
ineffective in performing the relevant
functions?

4. What are the factors in the inter-
organizational field (environment) which
affect the performance of basic community
functions?

5. How can the inter-organizational relations
be altered to bring about change in the
community?

Accompanying this second trend in inter—organizational
research is a need for action research. In short,
interest is in research in which the experiments seek

to manipulate events and processes to achieve predictive
results. The researcher is not as interested in descrip—
tion, but in making things happen. The effect of this

is to apply cumulated principles to the community setting

and see if they will work to promote a better quality of

life in the community.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF STUDY

The design of this study included the following
steps: (1) nomination and selection of subjects,
(2) development of Community Needs Scale, (3) development
of Organizational Interaction Scale, (4) completion of
the Community Needs Scale and Organizational Interaction
Scale by subjects, (5) analysis of inter-organization
interaction, (6) analysis of inter—organizational inter-
action between subsystems, (7) analysis of community

needs, and (8) analysis of community needs by subsystem.

Sample

Subjects for this study were non-profit organ-
izations located in eight suburban communities in a
rapidly growing suburban area of a midwestern metropoli-
tan area. For purposes of the study, an organization
was defined as three or more people in social contact
who have given their relationship a formalized name and
who have purported to--and in varying degrees were
legitimated to--represent the interests of the community
in some segment of broad community concern. For this

study, the broad areas of concern were defined as

57

58

governmental, economic; educational and public informa-
tion; family, religious and voluntary; health; social
welfare; and recreation.

Organizations included in this study were selected
as a result of the following procedures. An exhaustive
list of over 500 organizations in these communities was
developed, and organizations in this list were sorted
into seven major types--economic; governmental; recrea-
tional; family, religious and voluntary; health; education
and public information; and social welfare. From this
list of organizations, three organizations from each
major type were drawn in a random manner. These organiza-
tions were contacted to nominate ten organizations or
agencies in the selected communities which they felt were
the most effective in providing for community needs or
community development in the seven major areas mentioned
above (see Appendix A).

An effective organization was defined as an
organization which by its program, staff, position,
influence, or other resources provided desired services
or action to meet community needs. Organization presi-
dents were asked to nominate other organizations until a
list of 79 organizations receiving at least two nomina-
tions was developed. One organization nominated was out-
side of the defined geographic area so the list was

reduced to 78 organizations.

59

The final list of 78 organizations was classified
by a chief officer in each organization into one of the
following types:

Group A--Organizations providing for economic
needs.

Group B--Organizations providing for recreational
needs.

Group C--Organizations providing for family,
religious, or voluntary needs.

Group D--Organizations providing for health needs.

Group E--Organizations providing for educational
and public informational needs.

Group F--Organizations providing for social
welfare needs.

Group G--Organizations providing for governmental
needs of the:

1. Political type;

2. Municipal or Township Governing Board
type;

3. Planning or Zoning Board type.

The Community

 

The community studied included three townships
with a total population of over 250,000 people. Within
these townships were eight municipalities of varying
sizes. The largest being over 60,000. These communities
are primarily suburban communities located on major com-
muter train and tollway routes to a major midwestern
metropolitan city. The area includes large portions of

unincorporated land which is governed by the county.

60

In addition, boundaries for school districts, park dis-
tricts, municipalities, fire districts, and other dis-
tricts overlap and intermingle in no coherent manner.

The major factor in these communities is growth
from a base of about 50,000 in 1950 to the present
250,000 and projected growth to 350,000 by 1980. Housing,
industrial and commercial development are growing at

accompanying high rates.

Instruments

 

Community Needs Scale (CNS)

A special scale was developed to measure organi-
zations' perceptions of community needs (see Appendix B).
The scale was constructed in the following steps:

1. A preliminary scale of 120 items concerning
community needs was developed.

2. The preliminary scale was given to three
experts to judge the content and to insure
the universe of items was well represented,
and to add additional items.

3. The items from the preliminary scale were
given to three different experts who sorted
the items on the revised preliminary scale
into seven categories of needs--economic;
governmental; educational and public infor-
mation; social service; health; recreational;
and family, religious, and fraternal.

4. The revised preliminary scale of 120 state-
ments concerning community needs was admin-
istered to a selected sample of subjects.
These subjects were organizations drawn ran-
domly from the exhaustive list of organiza-
tions—-three organizations from the seven
organization types. The chief executive
officer from these organizations was asked
to complete the instrument.

61

5. The final scale consisted of 79 items chosen
as a result of the pilot administration of
the revised preliminary scale. Half of the
items were selected because respondents to
the pilot instrument strongly agreed that an
item indicated the existence of a community
need. Half of the items were selected
because respondents to the pilot study
strongly disagreed that it represented a
community need. Items which did not elicit
a strong response were systematically
rejected based on a quantitative scheme for
measuring strength of response. Eight items
from each of the seven need categories were
selected for the formal instrument.

6. On the final scale subjects indicated the
extent to which they agreed or disagreed
with each item by checking one of the alter-
natives: strongly agree, agree, undecided,
disagree, and strongly disagree.

7. The alternatives on the final scale were
weighted from 9 (strongly agree), 7 (agree),
5 (undecided), 3 (disagree), and 1 (strongly
disagree) for positively phrased items.
Weights for negatively phrased items were
reversed. The score for an item was the sum
of all the weights for the alternatives
endorsed by the subjects. High scores indi-
cated that the subjects saw the item as a
major need; low scores indicated that the
subjects saw the item as less of a community
need.

Organization Interaction Scale (OIS)

A list of all the community organizations
included in the study was developed for each organization
to indicate with which other organizations in the study
they work.' Each organization was asked to determine
whether or not it worked with another organization by

considering if their organization engaged in cooperative

projects, programs, or other activities which require

62

coordination with the organization named. If such a
working relationship existed with the other organization,
they were to place an "X" by the organization's name.

The Organizational Interaction Scale is included in

Appendix C.

Interviews

 

A structured interview was developed to ascertain
the nature of the interaction and the degree of concern
regarding community needs. The interview focused on
identification of major community problems, the forms of
interaction with other organizations, and the nature of

the interaction process (see Appendix D).

Design and Procedures

The study was divided into two basic phases.
Phase one consisted of determining perceived community
needs by means of the Community Needs Scale (CNS) and
assessing organizational relationships with the Organi-
zational Interaction Scale (018). Phase two of the
study was designed to probe for potential coalitions,
inter-organizational cooperation, and priorities of com-
munity needs. In phase two, the structured interview
was utilized (see Appendix E).

Analysis of Inter-Opganizational
Interaction
First, each organization's interaction was ana-

lyzed by determining all the scores received from and

63

given to other organizations and the reciprocal choices
for each organization. .

Utilizing the OIS, each organization's link with
other organizations was traced sociometrically through
its choices of other organizations in the study.1 Each
organization was matched on the basis of reciprocal
sociometric choice by processing the choices by each
organization to produce a matrix of choices. Each row
of the matrix represented "mention or non-mention" of
every other organization in the study. The purpose of
this process was to detect constellations. A constella-
tion was a number of organizations, all of whom mentioned
each other.

The detection of constellations was accomplished
by taking each pair of reciprocal choices and searching
the matrix for a third organization which is the recipro-
cal choice of each of the first two. After all constel-
lations based on the original pair of organizations were
listed, these constellations were checked against con-
stellations on a permanent list which had been selected
on the basis of previous pairs of reciprocal choices.
Any new constellation which was completely included in
some other constellation was eliminated and others were

added to the permanent list. The constellations were

 

1The analysis phase of this procedure comes from
Robert C. Anderson's "A Sociometric Approach to Analysis
of Inter-Organizational Relationships," pp. 2-21.

64

then ordered by size and to reflect organizational inter-
action.

Constellation members and influence patterns were
then analyzed or identified. Influence patterns were
determined by adding, for each organization the number of
constellation members chosen by that organization in each
constellation. The sum for all organizations was deter-
mined and a membership score for each organization was
calculated by dividing its sum by the overall total sum
and multiplying the result by one hundred.

Constellation scores were also calculated for each
constellation. The number of constellation members
chosen for each constellation was totaled. The constella-
tion score was this total divided by the overall total and
multiplied by one hundred. A score, therefore, is merely
a percentage of total interaction.

Inter-Organizational Interaction of
Subsystems of Organizations

 

Next, the inter-organizational relationships
between organizational members of each subsystem were
analyzed. This was accomplished by completing the recip-
rocal interaction structures for all organizations in
each subsystem in the same manner as it was completed for
all organizations. Thus, the reciprocal interaction

structures for each subsystem were developed.

65

In a like manner, the reciprocal interaction
structures for combinations of two subsystems were also

developed.

Interaction Between Subsystems

 

Further, the level of interaction between organi—
zations of different subsystems was determined by calcu—
lating the percentage of the total reciprocal choices
that each subsystem of organizations had with every other
subsystem of organizations. This was contrasted with the
percentage the organizations in each subsystem represented
of the total number of organizations. A sociogram of
organizational interaction was developed to depict graph-
ically the reciprocal interaction between subsystems.

Interaction Between and Within
Subsystems

 

The total number of reciprocal scores for all
organizations in each subsystem was calculated. This was
to show the relative amounts of interaction within and
across organizational types. The reciprocal scores were
determined to analyze the interaction between organiza-
tions of different types.

For each subsystem, the mean number of reciprocal
choices of organizations within the same subsystem (RN)
and the mean number of reciprocal choices of organizations
outside a subsystem (HO) was determined using the follow-

ing formula:

W-N
XW= S
Ns
_ O-W
XO=N—--——-N
T S
NS = Number of organizations in a subsystem.
NT = Total number of organizations.

W = Total number of reciprocal choices of
organizations within a subsystem.

O = Total reciprocal choices of all organi-
zations in the subsystem.

Analysis of Communitnyeeds

 

The CNS was analyzed by utilizing standard
descriptive statistics. The mean scores for each item
and scale was determined for all subjects and for each

subsystem.

Outstanding Needs

The 23 needs with the lowest mean scores were
analyzed. A frequency distribution of item mean scores
was developed to depict the distribution of scores as
items.
Community Needs as Perceived
by Subsystems

Next, community needs as identified by organi-
zations in each subsystem was developed. The responses
of all organizations in each subsystem to each item

were analyzed.

67

Further analysis of the needs with the lowest
mean scores was conducted to see whether there was agree-
ment on these items by organizations in different sub-
systems. Thus, the scores of each subsystem on the 23
needs receiving the lowest mean scores were analyzed.

Subsystem Needs as Perceived
by Subsystems

 

 

The mean score on each scale by each subsystem
was next determined. Thus, the group of items related
to each subsystem was analyzed in respect to the
responses of organizations from each subsystem. For
example, the scores of the organizations in the economic
subsystem on each subscale were determined.

Community Needs as Perceived
py Each Subsystem

 

Next, the items which received the highest and
lowest mean scores by organizations in each subsystem
were determined. Thus, the priorities of needs for each
subsystem were determined.

Community Needs as Perceived
by Two or More Subsystems

 

The items with mean scores below 2.99 and above
7.00 for each subsystem were next determined. These
items were then analyzed to determine which items were

perceived by two or more subsystems to be priority needs.

68

Analysis of Community Needs as Perceived
by Potential Coalitions of
Organizations

 

 

 

The final step was to determine what community
organizations could be mobilized around specific commu-
nity needs to form potential coalitions to meet community
needs. This was accomplished by analyzing the constella-
tions of organizations described in previous steps, the
priorities of community needs and the interview data.

Application of Sociometric Methods to
Inter-Organizational Analysis

The basic tenets of sociometry and sociometric
techniques were advanced by J. L. Moreno, Gardner Lindzey,
Eggar Borgatta, ep_§l., and the modifications of these
were used in the study presented. A review of the appli-
cation of this technique to inter-organizational analysis
and a critique of the method as applied to this study are

included in Appendix F.

Summary of Design of Study

In general, the design and analysis will follow
a sequential process. Each step will indicate the neces-
sity for the next. First, the inter-organizational
relationships between 71 organizations will be analyzed
sociometrically. Next, the interaction between and
within subsystems will be examined to make generalizations
regarding the nature of inter-organizational interaction.
The following two assumptions regarding interaction will

be tested:

69

1. The process of identifying inter-organizational
interaction of organizations in a community
reveals interrelationships which may be called
constellations.

2. Differences in levels of interaction between
organizations within similar subsystems and
organizations in different subsystems exist.

Next, the responses of the 71 organizations to the
Community Needs Scale will be analyzed to identify the
significant community needs. The following assumptions
will be tested:

3. The process of identifying community needs
reveals commonality of agreement among organi-
zations as to the priority of community needs.

4. The process of identifying community needs may
reVeal differences between the priorities of
community needs as perceived by organizations
of different types.

Finally, the inter-organizational interaction and
community needs of 71 organizations will be analyzed to
ascertain if constellations of organizations identified
could form coalitions to meet community needs identified.
The following assumption will be tested:

5. The process of identifying inter-organizational
interaction and perceived community needs may
reveal commonality of agreement among constel-
lations of organizations who have the potential
to use their resources to meet these needs.

Finally, the implications of this process to the
community college and in particular the community service

worker in the community college will be drawn.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA

Introduction

 

As noted in Chapter III, a 79-item Likert-type
scale identifying community needs and a check list of
inter-organizational interaction assessing inter-
organizational relationships were administered to 71 non-
profit organizations in eight suburban communities.
Organizations were identified through a nomination pro-
cess; and interviews and responses to the instruments
were obtained from the top administrative officers in
each particular organization.

Analysis of Inter-Organizational
Interaction

The first step in the analysis of the data was
to calculate the sociometric scores given and received
by each organization in relation to every other organi-
zation in the study. Table 1 lists the organizations
included in the analysis by rank order of sociometric
scores received from and given to all other organizations.
High scores indicate high inter-organizational inter-
action; 1ow scores indicate low inter-organizational inter-

action.

70

71

TABLE l.—-Rank Order of Sociometric Scores Received from

and Given to (Reciprocal Choices) All Other Organizations:

And Percentage of Reciprocal Choices to Total Choices
Given and Total Choices Received'

 

Sociometric Scores

 

 

26 .73 27 .70
23 .83 28 .68
24 .79 36 .53
25 .76 26 .74
33 .58 21 .90
23 .78 24 .75
23 .74 18 .94
29 .59 19 .89
19 .84 23 .70
15 1.00 22 .68
27 .56 18 .83
28 .54 20 .75
29 .52 16 .94
15 .93 29 .49
25 .56 16 .88
19 .68 24 .54
18 .72 21 .62
28 .46 15 .87
15 .80 16 .75
15 .80 13 .85
13 .68 24 .50

School District 78
School District 85
Community College
14 Mental Health Center
16 North Township Government
17 Heights Village Board
15 County Handicapped Center
26 Opportunity Council
7 School District 84
12 Catholic Hospital
20 Grove Village Board
27 Opportunity Center
33 West Village Board
32 High School District 899
36 Special Educational Center
11 Community Hospital
35 Boy Scouts Council
55 West Township Government
25 Grove Community Service
22 Grove Park District
2 School District 51

No. Organizations
RC TG % TR %

8 High School District 896 36 39 .92 46 .78
3 School District 51 26 30 .87 33 .79
1 School District 95 25 28 .89 37 .68
4 School District 89 23 28 .82 31 .74
9 Center for the Handicapped 22 28 .79 31 .71
5
6

10

HAAFHAFJHAJFHAPJHAAFHAPJHAJFHAFJH
tonamcuuubcsatnuuhowm~4xunu>mxou>o

18 Buffalo Village Board ll 16 .69 13 .85
19 East Village Board 11 17 .65 12 .92
28 Neighbor Youth Corps 10 26 .38 12 .83
29 State Employment Security 10 21 .48 17 .59
31 West League of Women Voters 10 17 .59 11 .91
52 Heights Park District 10 16 .63 17 .59
23 Central Industrial Park Assn. 9 10 .90 14 .64
24 Grove Chamber of Commerce 9 15 .60 9 1.00
49 West Township Republican Org. 9 17 .53 ll .81
13 Welfare Council 8 22 .36 13 .62
51 Association of University 8 17 .47 15 .53
Women
53 East Park District 8 15 .53 8 1.00
54 West Lions Club 8 13 .62 ll .73
21 Grove Plan Commission 7 9 .78 8 .88
34 Council of PTA's 7 9 .78 15 .47

72

TABLE l.--Continued.

 

Sociometric Scores

 

 

No. Organizations
, RC TG % TR %
38 South Park District 7 17 .41 10 .70
50 West Chamber of Commerce 7 16 .42 9 .78
30 Heights League of Women Voters 6 6 1.00 16 .38
59 Cancer Society 6 17 .35 8 .75
41 Buffalo Plan Commission 5 6 .83 7 .71
45 North Township Republican Org. 5 9 .56 8 .63
Center for Community
57 Development 5 11 .45 10 .50
60 Heights Board of Local 12 .42 5 1.00
Improvement

43 Buffalo Park District .80 7 .57
44 West Township Republican Org. 2 .19 5 .60
47 East Village Plan Commission 1.00 6 .67
56 West Park District .57 ll .36
58 Grove Village Zoning Board 1.00 7 .57
39 South Village Board 1.00 17 .24
40 South Village Plan Commission .75 5 .80
42 Buffalo Village Zoning Board 1.00 6 .50
46 North Township Republican Org. 1.00 4 .75
48 East Village Zoning Board 1.00 6 .50
37 South Village Zoning Board .75 4 .75

.75 15 .20
.75 13 .23

61 Young Men's Christian Assn.
62 Heights Chamber of Commerce

HI-Jmmwwwwwwwwwwwwnpasasnas U'l
NHWNWWfiO‘Wb-b-bWWWDfifiQbI—JUT

63 Grove Township Government 1.00 20 .15
64 Heights Lions Club .50 7 .43
65 North Village Zoning Board .75 3 1.00
66 West Village Zoning Board .80 5 .60
71 East Chamber of Commerce .60 5 .60
67 Heights Village Zoning Board 1.00 8 .27
68 North Township Democratic Org. .40 3 .67
69 Grove Township Democratic Org. 1.00 4 .25
70 Grove Township Republican Org. .50 6 .17

 

RC = Reciprocal Choices
TG = Total Choices Given
TR = Total Choices Received

73

Table 1 may also indicate the accuracy with
which each organization viewed its relationship with
other organizations in the study. The accuracy of each
organization's perception was described as the percen-
tage of reciprocal choices to total choices. In general,
the accuracy of an organization's perception of its
relationships could be expressed as:

RC
Accuracy = T5

where: RC equalled the reciprocal choices given
and received and TG equalled the total
number of choices given.
The accuracy with which other organizations per-
ceived their relationships with an organization could be

expressed as:

RC
Accuracy = TR

where: RC equalled the reciprocal choices given
and received and TR equalled the total
number of choices received.

Sociometric scores received by each organization
from all other organizations in a study could indicate
their dependency upon that organization. Note, for
example, School District 896 has the highest number of
reciprocal choices, which could mean that organizations
included in the study tend to be highly dependent upon
the District in the conduct of their normal activities.

The Grove Democratic Organization, on the other hand,

receives a very low sociometric score, indicating that

74

other organizations did not appear to depend on it in the
execution of their normal activities.

Sociometric choices given by each organization to
all other organizations in the study indicate an organi-
zation's dependence upon other organizations. An organ-
ization that is highly dependent upon organizations in
the study will have a higher number of choices given;
and an organization which has a low dependency relation-
ship with other organizations will have a lower number

of choices given.

Interaction Structures

 

The inter-organizational structures emerge on the
basis of matching reciprocal sociometric choices. Each
organization's choices were listed with the choices of
all other organizations to produce a matrix of choices.
Each row of the matrix represented choices given by each
organization to every other organization. Each column
represented values received by each organization from
every other organization in the study.

Constellations which represented a number of
organizations all of which were reciprocally chosen by
each other, were ordered by size and arranged so as to
detect the inter-organizational patterns. The matrices
of reciprocal choices along the matrix diagonal were
arranged to reflect the inter-organizational patterns of

the community. These clusters along the diagonals were

75

referred to as constellations. Constellations, as
referred to by Anderson, represent specified groups of
organizations, all of which are reciprocally chosen by
one another (2:13). These are shown in Figure 1 along
the diagonal and are labeled A through Z. Some recip-
rocal choices also appear off the diagonal. The number
of these depends upon the complexity of organizational
relationships.

Figure 1 is the matrix presentation of constel-
lations based upon reciprocal choices of 71 selected
organizations and indicates the extensive interaction
of the organizations in the study.

There were 26 constellations identified among
the 71 organizations, with 55 organizations or 77 per
cent of the organizations shown in some form of con-
stellation. The largest constellations (A and B) have
nine members and the smallest (M, O, P, R, S, T, U, V,
W, X, Y, and Z) have two members. These constellations
could be analyzed according to whether they are grouped
on the basis of similarity of function or similarity of
location. For example, constellation A appeared to be
composed of organizations involved in providing for
educational needs. Constellation I, on the other hand,
was composed of organizations all located in Grove
Village. Constellation H was made up of the governing

organizations of the local municipalities.

76

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS CONSTELLATION-s
l 2 3 6 S 6 7
so. Organisations l23!:567890123456789012345618901234 678901236567890123456789012345678901
l. 7 School District 95 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 ——"
2. School District 53 9999999999
3. School District 51 9 * 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
4 School District 89 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
1 501001 District 87 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
b. School District 35 r r * r s t 9 r r r
7. School District at. 9 ~ 9 i r a 9 t a t
8. High School District 896 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
9. Center for the Handicapped 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
L (munity Calm; o o e a e e a e s o
11. Community Hospital 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
12. Catholic Hospital 9 9 9—91
13. Ueltare Council 9 9 9 9
'.. Hental Health Aasoeiation 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9L 9 9 9 9
15. County “999189131399 Center _ :,_- L9 9_9_9 9 9 9 9 9 9
16. North Township Government 9 9 9 9 9 9 D 9 9 9 9 9
l7. Heights Village Board 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
18. Buffalo Village Board 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
19. East Village Board 9 9 9 9 9 9
2 . Grove Village Board 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
21. Grove Plan Camissiori 9 9 9 9 9 9 .__. ’
22. Grove Park District 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
23. Central Industrial Park 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
2'9. Grove Chamber of Courts 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
25. Grove Conunity Service 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9]
26. Opportunity Cauncil '9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
27. Opportunity Center 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 4 9 9 9 it
28. Neighborhood Youth Corps 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
29. State Employ-em Security 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
04 11:11th League of Human Voters 9 9 9 9 9
31. Heat League of Honsn Voters 9 9 t a a a
32. High School District 899 I9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
33. East Township YOuth Canission 3' 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
34. Council of PTA's '9 e a;e
35. Boy Scouts Council '9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 a s
36. Special Education Organisation '9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
37. South Zoning Board
38. South Park District 9 9
39. South Village Board as
40. Scuth Plan Collusion 9 9
41. Buffalo Plan Comission * 9 a e
42. Buffalo Zoning Board a e e
43.. Buffalo Park District 9 9 o
64. Heat Township Republican Org. a
61; North Township chublican 0;;, e a n .
46. North Township Republican Has. 9 " ‘
47. East Plan Couission * e a
48. East Zoning Board 9 a e
69. Heat Cos-unity Council 9 s a a s s
50. Heat Chmber ot Couarca 9 a a s e c
51. Association 01 Univ. filo-en 9 9 9 9 t a e e
52. Heights Park District 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 e e
53. East Perl: District e s e e a s a
56. Heat Lions Club 9 a a t s a o e
55. _1e_st Township Goverrnsnt s a a s a e s e e e e a e
56. West Park District v: e s a
57. Center for Con-unity novel. 9 9 9 9 a
58. Grove Zoning Board «a a. o .
59. Cancer Society s s e s e e
601 Haixhts Board of Local Insro. 9 9 9 9 '
61. ‘.'oun; Men's Christian Assoc. 9 a a
62. Heights Chnbar of Genome 9 9 c
63. Grove ‘l’ounship Govern-ant 9 9 e
M. Heights Lions Club 9 e a
65. test Chamber at Col-arcs 9 9 e
66. Heat Zoning Board 9 e a
67.I Heights Zoning Board 9 a
68.’ North Township Demo. Org. 9 e
69.J North Zoning Board 0 9 s
70. Grove Township Duo. Organ. s
71.! Grove Township Republ. 051a . o
Organisationflo. 23456fi9012349678901237a36789012715678901234567890123456789012365678901
l 2 3 5 J 6

 

 

Figure l.--Matrix Representation of Constellations Based on
71 Selected Organizations

77

The two largest constellations, A and B, were
composed of educational organizations except for the
Center for the Handicapped. In general, constellations
appeared to be formed on the basis of either of two
factors mentioned above--geographical proximity or simi-
larity of function. A further indication of the exten-
sive interaction is that there were 633 reciprocal
choices or an average of 8.92 reciprocal choices per
organization. Stated differently, the mean number of
reciprocal choices for all organizations was 8.92.

If every organization chose every other organi-
zation, there would have been 4,970 reciprocal choices
[(71 X 71) - 71]. Since there were 633 reciprocal
choices (704 - 71), 12.9 per cent (33%;) of the potential
number of reciprocal choices existed at the time the
study was conducted.

In summation, it was found that the 71 selected
organizations made 633 reciprocal choices, which were

organized into 26 constellations with an average of

8.92 reciprocal choices per organization.

Constellation Sets
Constellations, as shown in Figure l, are a
particular configuration of original blocks chosen in
such a way as to display most clearly the structure of
interaction between organizations. Thus, constellations

represent specific groupings of organizations, all of

78

which are reciprocally chosen by one another. Some
reciprocal choices also appear off the diagonal, the
number of these depending on the complexity of organi-
zational relationships.

In order to illustrate the interactions of each
organization in relationship to the constellations thus
formed, Anderson introduced the idea of constellation
sets (2:13). A constellation set is a group of organi-
zations, some of which are reciprocally chosen by all
members of the constellation—-primary members; and
others which are reciprocally chosen by some, but not
all, members of the constellation--secondary members.
Organizations that interact with members of more than
one constellation set will be called liaisons. Primary
liaisons are members of two or more constellation sets;
secondary liaisons are secondary members of at least
one set and primary or secondary members of one or more
additional sets. Anderson regarded liaisons as actual
or potential links between constellation sets (2:15).

Figure 2 illustrates the constellation sets and
the memberships of heterogeneous organizations. These
constellation sets were based on reciprocal high fre-

quency interaction linkages among organizations.

Constellation Frequency,
The 71 heterogeneous organizations included in

this study grouped themselves into 26 constellation sets

79 .

 

Homborship
Proquoncy

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l. School District 95
3. School District 33
3. School District 31
c. Ichool District II
5, School District 87
t School DistrictTS
7. School District in
I. lligh School District 896
9. Contsr for tho Hondicoppod
10. Co-mitj Collo‘o
. Co-nunity Hospital
12. Catholic Hospital
13. Holiars Council
it. lontal Health Association
l5. Count; Handicsmg Cantor
16. North Township Gavsnnsnt
17. “nights Villa‘s Board
1.. Buffalo Villa‘s Board
19. East Villa‘s Board
20. Grants Village Board
21. Grovs Plan Co-ission
22. Grovo Park District
23. Control Industrial Pad
2‘. Crows Chs-bor of Co-rco
15. Gram Co-mity Ionico
7‘. Opportunity Counci
27. Opportunity Contor
2s. Noi‘hborhodd Youth Corps
29. Suts loploy-snt Socurity
JO. Heights Loses oi lilo-on Votors I I
T Host [A1300 oi filo-on Votors
32. High School District 899
33. Host Township Youth Ct-iosiu
M. Council of PTA's
Boy Scouts Council
36. Special Education Organisatial
37. South Zoning hoard
38. South Park District
39. South Villsgo Board
60. South Plan Co-ission
. Buffalo Plan Co—ission
c2. Buil’slo Zonin‘ Board
0. Buffalo Park District I I
M. Host Township lopublicon Orson. I I
as. North Township loggblicao Organ. I
. '60th Township lspublican Hanan I
‘7. last Plan Cc-ission
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as. Host c-suty Council I I
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51. Association of Univorsity Econ
52. Hsi‘hts fork District
53. last Part District
56. Host Lions Club
5. Heat Tovnshig Govorlunt
56. Host Park District
57. Coutsr tor may Dovolopot
SI. Crows Zoning loud I I
59. Csncor Iocisty

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61. flights Ch-bsr oi C1—rco
63. Cross Township Cour-sot
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66. Host Zoning Board

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68. lorth township Ds-ocratic Duos. I

69. lorth Zoning Boon! 3
70. Crovo Tom-hi Ds-o. Or on.
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Figure 2.--Constellation Sets Formed by 71 Selected Organiza-
tions

80

A through Z. Set A has 53 members and the smallest set,
R, has only 3 (see Figure 2). The "constellation fre-
quency" row at the bottom of Figure 2 indicated the
number of organizations holding primary and secondary
memberships in each constellation set. For example,
Set A has nine primary members (organizations 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) and 44 secondary members (organi-
zations 10, ll, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21,
22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37,
40, 41, 43, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61,
62, 64, 65, 66, and 68) for a total membership of 53

organizations.

Constellation Memberships

 

The membership of each organization in a con-
stellation is also illustrated in Figure 2. For example,
organization 2 was a primary member of constellations A
and B and a secondary member of constellation Y. The
"membership frequency" column of Figure 2 indicates the
number of constellation sets in which each organization
holds primary and secondary memberships. From this we
can see that High School District 896 holds primary mem-
berships in nine constellations and secondary memberships
in eight constellations for a total of 17. Center for
the Handicapped, organization 9, and School District 51,
organization 87, had the second greatest number of pri-

mary memberships in constellations. But School District

81

95 and School District 89 have more total (primary and
secondary memberships) memberships than the Center for
the Handicapped. The same was true for the Opportunity

Center and West Community Council.

Linkages Between Constellation Sets

Every organization studied except two, organiza-
tions 69 and 70, occupied liaison positions. Figure 2
makes it possible to trace combinations of potential
linkages to primary or secondary liaison relationships
of members to individual constellation sets. The 128
primary memberships and 368 secondary memberships clearly
illustrated the extensive interrelatedness of organiza-

tions as well as constellation sets.

Influence Patterns

Anderson analyzed influence patterns in terms of
values assigned for reciprocal relationships (2:18). In
the procedures, he assigned a value of one for each
reciprocal bond an organization had with each primary
member of each constellation set. For example, School
District 53 had reciprocal bonds with all nine primary
members of constellation set E; therefore, it was
assigned a membership value of 9 in cell 2 of the matrix
in Figure 3. It has nine reciprocal bonds with primary
member organizations of set B, so the value assigned in

matrix cell 2 was 9. The School District 53 had

82

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SILICTID OICANIZATIONI COflSTIL.ATXOI SET HZHBEISBI? VAIU! Hfllbsrship Bank
1:... Organisation A s c n r r c a 1 '1 r 'L x ‘T o p Q a 1 r u v v r Y Scores Order
1. School District 95 9 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 2.66 9
2. School District 33 9 9 1 1.76 13
3. School District 31 9 9 1 1 2 2 l 2 3 3 3 3 1 1 2 I.33 2
I. School District I9 9 9 1 1 2 3 3 2 1 l 1 1 3.13 I
. 3 School District 87 9 9 2 1 2 2 1 1 l l 1 2.78 0
6. School District 63 9 9 1 2 3 2 1 2 1 2.677 7
7 School District II 9 9 2 l 2 3 1 1 2.39 10
I. High School District 896 9 9 2 J 2 3 I I 3 3 3 I 1 1 1 2 2 3.00 l
9 Canter for tho Handicappod 9 9 2 3 3 3 1 2 1 1 1 2 3.63 3
10 Con-unity Collega B 9 3 1 2 2 1 l 1 3 1 1 3.06 3
1. Coanunity Hoapital 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 442:0; 13
12. Catholic Hospital 1 2 3 3 2 1 3 3 3 3 1 2.31 11
13. Helfsrs Council 1 1 1 3 I 2 2 3 1.37 17
16. Mental Health Association 6 6 2 3 3 3 l 1 3 3 1 1 3.06 3
13. Gaunty Hondicagped Center I 7 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 2.69 9
1 . North Township Govern-out 3 3 1 2 3 I 3 1 2 2 2 1 2.967 ’17
17. Heights Village Board 3 6 2 1 I I 1 1 1 2.31 11
18. Buffalo Village Board 2 3 1 1 I I 1 2 1.67 16
19. East Village Board 1 l 1 I I 1 1 1 2 1 1.37 17
20. Grove Village Board 2 2 1 1 3 I 3 I 2 1 2.31 11
Grove Plan Coulission l l 1 37 I 1.117 21
22. Grove Park District 2 2 1 1 1 3 I 1 1 1.67 16
23. Control industrial Park 2 2 1 1 3 I 1 1.II 10
2I. Grove Cha-bsr of Con-area 1 1 1 1 3 I 1 1 1.39 19
25. Grove Conaunitv Service 2 2 1 2 1 l I I 3 3 2.13 12
26. Opportunity Council 3 2 3 3 2 1 1 3 I 2 1 1 1 1 2.76 6
27. Opportunity Center 3 2 1 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 3 3 1 2.39 10
28. Neighborhood Youth Corps 3 3 1 1 2 I 1.30 20
29. State Biploynont Socurity 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 I 1 1.37 17
30. Heights League 0! Honen V0325! 1 1 2 2 2 1 .63 13
31. Heat League of Uooon Voters 1 1 1 2 3 2 1 2 1 1.30
32. High School District 899 3 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 2 1.60 16
33. Host Township Youth Co-aission 2 2 1 2 2 1 3 2 2 2 2 2 1.9I 16
3I. Council of PTA's 1 1 2 2 2 .7I 26
33. Boy Scouts Council 7 6 l 1 1 2 1 1.76 15
36. Special Education Organization 1 1 I z 2 1 1 2.61 U
37. South zoning Board 1 l 1 1 .63 23

3
36. South Park District 3 1 .37 20
3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

39. South Village Board 2 .I6 27
IO. South Plan Co-iasion 1 1 2 .37 26
I1. Buffalo Plan to-ission 1 1 l 2 .
I2. Buffalo Zoning Board 1 1 2 .37 20
I3. Buffalo Park District 1 1 1 1 1 .66 27
Is. Best Township Republican Org. 1 1 2 1 .66 27
65. North Township Rapublican Ora. 1 2 1 2 2 .16 26
66. North Township Republican Has. 1 1 2 .37 2
I7. East Plan Connisaion 1 1 2 1 .66 27
At. Last Zoning Board 1 1 2 .37 13
49. Heat Con-unity Council 1 l 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1.11 21
50. Heat Chaaber of Con-ores 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 .93 22
:1. Association 0? Univ. Hon-n 1 2 3 1 1 41 l 2 1 1.11 21
l . Heights Part District 6 6 1 1 2 2 1.67 16
1 . Bast Part District 3 3 1 1 1 1 2 1.11 21
3I. Host Lions Club 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 .93 22
33. Host Iownahi Govsrllsnt 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 3 1 2 2 1.76 15
T asst For: District 2 1 1 .37 73
:7. Center (or Coo-unity Dswol. 1 1 1 .26 29
36. Grove Zoning Board 1 3 1 .I6 27
:9. Cancer Society 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 .63 23
60. Heights Board of local ro. 2 2 1 2 1 .7I 2I
. Young Men's Christian Assoc. 1 1 .19
t2. Haights Che-bar oi Con-arcs 1 1 1 1 .37 23
(3. Grave Township Govern-ant 1 2 1 .37 23
u. Iaights Lions Club 1 1 1 .2s 29
65. East Chaabsr of Cos-arcs 2 1 1 .37 28
”667— West Zoning Board 2 1 .
67. Haights Zoning Board 1 1 .19 30
6B. north Township Dons. Org. 1 1 .19 30
69. Barth Zoning Board 2 2 .37 23
70. Grove Townshipgpozg. Organ. .00 31
. Crows Township 2.9061. on... .615 31
Constellation “t A I C D I 7 C I 1 .7 I 1. I I O P Q I I 3' U V H X 2 l
e\
Com-Immune»- 353633853333;38.265323366163339 mo
3 3 n n . n n . ‘ " ‘ n d Pl d d ‘1 I. III F‘ N
mow-r "Nasts"°~s°*=:n==..a..sa..s::+

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 3.--Conste11ation Sets and Membership Scores of 71
Selected Organizations in 26 Constellations

83

reciprocal bonds with only one primary member of constel-
lation set Y; therefore, values of one were assigned to
this matrix cell.

The constellation membership values of School
District 53 indicated that it was a highly influential
member of sets A and B and a less influential member of
set Y.

Status Arrangements by
Membership Scores

Anderson analyzed the status arrangement variable
in terms of scored measures (2:18). These measures con-
sisted of a score for each organization, called a member-
ship score, and a score for each constellation set,
called a constellation set score. Figure 3 shows the
scores derived from the constellation set membership
value matrix. A total membership value for a given
organization was obtained by summing across all columns
for the organization in question; the organization mem-
bership score was then computed by expressing the organi-
zation's total membership value as a percentage of the
sum of all total membership values obtained from the
sample column multiplied by 100. For School District 95
the score was 2.87. This procedure was repeated for all

organizations in the matrix.

84

Constellation Membership Scores

In a similar manner, constellation set scores
were obtained by first summing over all rows for a given
constellation set to obtain total constellation set
values, and then converting these total constellation
set values into constellation set scores by expressing
them as percentages of the sum of all total constellation
set values and multiplying by 100. In the case of con-
stellation set A, the score calculated was 18.05. The
data presented in Figure 3 indicated that the High School
District 896, School District 51, Center for the Handi-
capped, School District 89, Community College, and the
Mental Health Association exhibited the greatest amount
of high level reciprocal interaction, with respective
membership scores of 5.00, 4.35, 3.43, 3.15, 3.06, and
3.06. This data revealed that these organizations were
highly influential and deeply involved in the inter-
organizational activities of the community, and, on this
basis, they may also be identified as high status
organizations.

Figure 3 also indicates that constellation sets
A and B exhibit the greatest amount of high level recip-
rocal interaction among their member organizations, as
indicated by their respective constellation set scores
of 18.05 and 16.85. These two constellation sets were
most influential, high status sets affecting community

development.

85

Assumption I

The data in Figures 1, 2, and 3 illustrated the
reciprocal interaction patterns of 71 organizations
studied. The assumption that potential constellations
existed among the organizations in the study would have
to be accepted based on this data. The 71 organizations
interacted extensively as indicated by 633 reciprocal
choices forming 26 constellations with an average of
8.92 reciprocal choices per organization.

Analysis of Interaction of Subsystems
of Organizations

 

 

It was further assumed that differences in the
level of interaction between organizations within the
same subsystem and organizations in different subsystems
would be found. To analyze these differences the recip-
rocal choices of each organization were analyzed to
determine whether reciprocal choices were with other
organizations in the same subsystem or organizations of
other subsystems.

Reciprocal Choices Between
Subsystems

Information for Table 2 was obtained by analyzing
the number of reciprocal choices of organizations in each
subsystem with organizations in every other subsystem
(see Table 2). This shows the gross level of interaction

between organizations in one subsystem with other

86

 

 

 

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87

organizations. The educational organizations accounted
for 37.83 per cent of the total number of reciprocal
choices. Health organizations accounted for 13.81 per
cent and governmental organizations accounted for 13.65
per cent.

Reciprocal Choices to Total
Number offiorganizations

 

 

Because there were more educational types of
organizations than any other type, it was necessary to
see whether educational organizations accounted for a
disproportionate amount of the total reciprocal choices.
Table 3 shows the percentage of total reciprocal choices
for each subsystem compared to the percentage of the
total number of organizations in each subsystem. Thus,
15 educational organizations were lS/7lth of the total
number of organizations or 21.12 per cent, but accounted
for 37.83 per cent of the reciprocal choices. Health
organizations were 8.45 per cent of the total organi-
zations and accounted for 13.81 per cent of the recipro-
cal choices. At the other extreme, planning and zoning
boards made up 16.90 per cent of the organizations, but
accounted for only 5.18 per cent of the reciprocal

choices.

88

TABLE 3.--Summary of Percentage of Total Number of Organ-
izations for Each Subsystem Versus Percentage of Total
Number of Reciprocal Choices for Each Subsystem.

 

Per Cent of Per Cent of

Subsystem Number of Total Number Total Number

 

Organizations of of Reciprocal
Organizations Choices
Economic 6 8.45 5.49
Recreational 6 8.45 6.12
Family, etc. 6 8.45 5.18
Health 6 8.45 13.81
Educational 15 21.12 37.83
Social Welfare 6 8.45 11.14
Governing Board 8 11.26 13.65
Zoning/Planning 12 16.90 5.18
Political 6 8.45 1.56
Total 71 99.9 99.9

 

Percentage of Reciprocal Choices
Between Subsystems

 

 

A further indication of the level of interaction
between organizations in different subsystems could be
determined by examining the percentage of reciprocal
choices that each group of organizations within a sub-
system had with every other subsystem (see Table 4).
This was accomplished by totaling the reciprocal choices
that each organization had with organizations from each
subsystem. For example (see Table 2), the economic
organizations had the following number of reciprocal
choices with each system: Economic, 2; Recreational, 2;
Family, Religions and Volunteer, 2; Health, 5; Educa-

tional, 11; Social Welfare, 6; Governmental, 5; Planning

89

and Zoning, 2; and Political, none. The total number of
reciprocal choices for the economic organizations was 35;
and of this number, 2 were with other economic organiza-
tions. The percentage of interaction of economic organ-
izations to the total reciprocal interaction is, thus,
2/35th or 5.71 per cent. The percentage of reciprocal
interaction of economic organizations with health organ-
izations was 5/35th or 14.28 per cent. Table 4 summa-
rizes the percentage of reciprocal choices that
organizations in each subsystem had with organizations
in each other subsystem. It can be seen from Table 4
that economic; recreational, family, religious, and
voluntary; health; and social welfare organizations all
had the highest percentage of interaction with educa-
tional organizations. This could be expected because
there are more educational organizations in the study
than any other kind. Governmental organizations had
equal percentages of reciprocal choices with educational
organizations and with other governmental organizations,
25.58 per cent. Planning and zoning boards interacted
more with governmental organizations (33.33 per cent)
than with any other subsystem of organization. Only
educational and political organizations had higher per-
centages of reciprocal choices with other organizations
within their subsystems than with organizations outside
their subsystem with 49.79 and 40.00 per cent, respec-

tively.

90

 

 

 

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91

Economic organizations appeared to have their
greatest percentage of their reciprocal interaction with
educational (31.43), social welfare (17.14), health
(14.28), and governmental (14.28) organizations. Recre-
ational organizations had their greatest percentage of
interaction with educational (35.89), recreational (20.51),
governmental (12.82), and planning and zoning (12.82)
organizations. Family, religious, and voluntary organiza-
tions had their highest percentage of reciprocal inter-
action with educational (36.36), social welfare (18.18),
and other family, religious and voluntary (18.18) organ-
izations. It would appear that the health organizations
had their major interactions with educational (40.90),
social welfare (17.04), and other health (22.72) organ-
izations. Educational organizations had almost 50 per
cent of their interaction with other educational organ-
izations; however, they also had reciprocal interaction
with health (14.93) and governmental (9.12) organizations.
Social welfare organizations had the highest percentage
of reciprocal interaction with educational (23.94)
organizations, followed by other social welfare (22.53)
organizations and health (21.12) organizations. Govern-
mental organizations had any percentage of interaction
with educational (25.58) and other governmental (25.58)
organizations. As would be expected, they had also

reciprocal interaction with planning and zoning boards

92

(12.79). Planning and zoning boards indicated inter-
action with governmental (33.33), educational (27.27),
recreational (15.15), and other planning and zoning
boards (18.18). They also showed a small percentage

of reciprocal interaction (6.06 per cent) with economic
organizations. Reciprocal choices for political organ-
izations were primarily with other political organiza-
tions (40.00) and governmental organizations (30.00).

Sociogram Representation of
Subsystem Relationships

 

The sociogram presented in Figure 4 reflects
the percentage of reciprocal interaction among subsystems
in the community. Each sociometric bond reflects what
could be high interaction among the organizations. The
arrows attached to each bond indicate direction (score
given or score received) of the relationship. Socio-
metric scores reported above each bond represent a
measure of percentage of interaction between the sub-
systems connected by that bond. Scores presented in
each circle represent interaction frequency among
organizations within that particular subsystem. It could
be interpreted that the higher the percentage score, the
higher the intensity or strength of the bond.

This sociogram distinguishes one strong grouping
of subsystems--the educational, health and social welfare

organizations--and several lesser groupings of subsystems.

93

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94

On the left hand side of the sociogram is the govern-
mental sphere of organizations and on the right are the
social welfare and health organizations. Educational
organizations appear to the center as key linking
agencies; and family, recreational and economic organi-
zations appeared to play lesser linkage roles. Thus,
the relationships between educational, social welfare,
and health subsystems appeared to represent one set of
relationship and relationships between governmental,
planning and zoning, and educational organizations
another. This latter relationship appears to be a chain
type of relationship going from the planning and zoning
to governmental organizations to educational organiza-
tions.

Reciprocal Interaction Between
and Within Subsystems

 

The preponderance of reciprocal choices between
organizations of the same subsystems was next determined.
For each subsystem, the mean number of reciprocal choices
of organizations within the same subsystem and the mean
number of reciprocal choices of organizations outside a
subsystem was determined using the following formula:

RCW - NS

XI
w
0
u

\C‘
LII

where:
NS = Number of organizations in subsystem.
NT = Total number of organizations.
RCW = Total number of reciprocal choices within
a subsystem.
RCO = Total reciprocal choices of all organiza-

tions in the subsystem less number of
organizations in subsystem (NS) and RCW.

Table 5 shows for each subsystem the summary of
mean reciprocal choices of organizations within each sub-
system and the mean reciprocal choices of organizations

of all other subsystems.

TABLE 5.--Summary of Mean Reciprocal Choices of Organiza-
tions of Same Subsystem Versus Mean Reciprocal Choices of
Organizations of All Other Subsystems

 

 

Organizational Type Réw REC
Economic .33 .51
Recreational 1.33 .48
Family, Religious 1.00 .42
Health 3.33 1.05
Educational 8.06 2.16
Social Welfare 2.67 .83
Governmental 2.75 1.01
Planning and Zoning .50 .46
Political .67 .08

 

96

Assumption II

With the exception of the economic subsystem,
the mean reciprocal choices for each subsystem of other
organizations within that subsystem is greater than the
mean reciprocal choices of organizations outside the
subsystem. Thus, in general, the assumption that there
would be greater interaction within organizations of
similar types would have to be accepted except for
economic organizations and planning and zoning boards,
Which interacted on about an equal level with other
planning and zoning boards as with other types of organ-

izations.

Analysis of Community Needs

 

Community Needs Analyzed

 

The third assumption tested was that no signifi-
cant differences in priorities of community needs could
be found by the process of identifying community needs

with the Community Needs Scale.

Distribution of Item Means

 

Table 6 shows the group frequency distribution of
item mean scores. As can be observed from the table, six
items had an average mean score of 3 or less, which would
indicate that the average respondent agreed with this

item. These six items were 7.5 per cent of the total

97

TABLE 6.--Frequency Distribution of Item Means

 

 

Item Means Frequency
1.00 - 1.49

1.50 - 1.99

2.00 - 2.49 111

2.50 - 2.99 111

3.00 - 3.49 lllllllllllllllll 17
3.50 - 3.99 11111111111111111 17

4.00 - 4.49 1111111
4.50 - 4.99 1111111
5.00 - 5.49 111111111

5.50 - 5.99 1111111111 10
6.00 - 6.49 111111 6
6.50 - 6.99
7.00 - 7.49
7.50 - 7.99
8.00 - 8.49
8.50 - 8.99

 

items. Twenty-three items had an average mean score of
less than 3.50. These 23 items could be viewed as the

items most agreed upon by the respondents.

Ranking of Item Means

Table 7 lists the 30 items with the lowest mean
scores on the Community Needs Scale. The remaining items
are in Appendix F. The need for citizens to become
involved in community affairs received the lowest mean

score of 2.18. Forty of the respondents strongly agreed

98

 

 

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100

that this was a community need and 26 agreed that this
was a community need, while 7 disagreed that this was a
community need, and one strongly disagreed. The need to
improve citizen participation in local government elec-
tions had the highest total number of respondents who
either agreed or strongly agreed that this was a commu-
nity need. For this item, 23 strongly agreed and 45
agreed that this was a community need.

Items: 67, there are not adequate means available
to promote change in the community (4.92); 37, there are
too many zoning boards and authorities (4.94); and 57,
low income housing is needed to attract the labor force
to this area (5.08) had the mean scores closest to 5.00.
This could mean that these were items most people were
undecided about, and/or there was considerable disagree-
ment concerning these items. Looking at the distribution
of responses on these items it could be inferred that both
reasons could have been the case.

The highest mean scores were on items 16, low
income housing would solve the problems of the communities
disadvantaged (6.52); and 33, cooperation between village,
township and county governments is satisfactory (6.55);
and item 45, resources to deal with mental health problems

are adequate (6.75).

101

Assumption III

Judging from the item mean scores it would appear
that differences in priorities of community needs as
assessed by the Community Needs Scale did exist. However,
the analysis of specific items did not indicate any out-
standing patterns of needs. To analyze community needs
in greater detail the 30 items with the lowest mean scores
were further analyzed to see whether groupings or patterns
of needs existed.

Commonality Among the 30 Items
with Lowest Mean Scores

 

 

Besides subscales of needs, it became apparent that
subgroupings of needs could occur which were not antici-
pated in the development of the Community Needs Scale. To
account for this possibility the 30 items with the lowest
mean scores were examined in detail to determine whether
there were groups of needs which represented common factors.

The analysis of the 30 items with the lowest mean
scores resulted in these items being grouped into five
need categories: (1) citizen involvement; (2) community
planning and development; (3) social pathologies;

(4) health, educational and recreational needs; and
(5) minority group needs. The items which make up these
factors were as follows:

Citizen Involvement

6. Citizens need to be stimulated to become
involved in community affairs (2.18).

78.

35.

36.

76.

47.

48.

102

There is a need to improve Citizens' parti-
cipation in local government elections (3.00).

There is a need to encourage more individuals
to seek local public office (3.00).

Local governments need to find ways to help
citizens become more aware of local problems
and issues (3.00).

There is a need to have common election dates
for local government, park district, and
local school elections (3.17).

There is a need to improve Citizens' pride in
the community (3.20).

There is a need for broader citizen involve-
ment in local educational planning (3.31).

There is a need to reduce the number of local
election dates (3.51).

Community Planning and Development

 

46.

27.

75.

19.

60.

64.

Air and water pollution does not pose a
threat to this community (2.44).

School planning needs to be integrated with
other community planning (2.61).

There is a need to control types of housing
construction (i.e., single, multiple dwelling,
low, moderate, or high cost housing) (3.06).

Adequate public transportation is needed in
the community (3.14).

Fire protection services are not adequate
for the community needs (3.28).

There is a need to improve community build-
ing codes, zoning and use of land (3.37).

There is a need to build a master plan which
includes all the villages (3.48).

Social Pathologies

 

21.

Juvenile delinquency is not a community
problem (2.80).

103
39. Educational programs on drug and alcohol
abuse are needed (3.08).
10. Crime is a growing community problem (3.23).

28. Drug and alcohol abuse are major community
problems (3.54).

Health, Education and Recreation Needs

 

55. There is a need for four-year college and
graduate opportunities in the community (3.17).

43. There is a need for more post-high school
vocational training programs (3.20).

5. Recreation and leisure time activities for
senior citizens are needed (3.37).

11. There is a need for year-round park and
recreation programs (3.51).

59. Moderately priced or free mental and psychi-
atric community counseling services are
needed (3.51).

29. Medical facilities should be improved and
increased (3.62).

Minority Group Needs

 

7. There is a need to increase the awareness of
available social agency services (2.80).

9. There is a need for improved intercultural
group relations (White-Spanish) (3.48).

40. Methods for resolving conflict among groups
are needed (3.51).

61. Consumer education for the poor and disadvan-
-taged is needed (3.54).

41. Recreation and leisure time activities for
disadvantaged citizens are not needed (3.62).

54. Training Opportunities for unskilled
employees are needed (3.65).

The five categories of needs appeared to also be

ranked in priority of importance themselves. For example,

104

of the eight items in the Citizen Involvement category,
five of these items were in the lowest 15 mean scores.
The mean of means for the eight items in the Citizen
Involvement category was 3.05. The mean of means for the
Community Planning and Development category was also 3.05
and three of its seven items were in the lowest 15 mean
scores. The mean of means for the other categories were:
Social Pathologies, 3.16; Health, Educational and Recrea-
tional Needs, 3.40; and Minority Group Needs, 3.43.

As a result of the above analysis it would appear
that the need to get broader citizen involvement in com-
munity affairs and the needs for community planning and
development were perceived by the leaders of the respec-
tive organizations in the study as of primary importance.

Communitnyeeds by_Organizational
Type (Subsystem)

Item Means for Each Subsystem on
23 Items with Lowest Means

Table 8 shows the item mean scores for the 23
items with the lowest mean scores. Strong agreement
among organizations in different subsystems on the 23
items with lowest mean scores can be identified from this
table. For example, the lowest mean score on item 6,
citizens need to be stimulated to become involved in com-
munity affairs, came from economic organizations (1.33).
The recreational, social welfare, and planning and zoning

boards all had a mean score of 1.67 on this item.

105

 

 

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mnu co Emumannnm nunm uou memo: Emuuua.o mamas

106

On other items, organizations from particular sub-
systems appeared to feel more strongly than the organiza-
tions from other subsystems. An illustration of this may
be found on items 21, 7, 52, and 9. The mean scores for
the social welfare organizations on these items were 1.67,
1.67, 1.67, and 2.0. The corresponding mean score for all
organizations on these items were (respectively) 2.80,
2.80, 3.31, and 3.44. One would infer from the above that
social welfare organizations feel more strongly that
juvenile delinquency is a community problem (item 21),
and there is a need to increase the awareness of available
social agency services (item 7), voluntary organizations
need to improve cooperation and communications in their
community service efforts (item 52), and there is a need
for improved inter-cultural group relations (item 9)

(e.g., White-Spanish).

In a similar manner, economic organizations
appear to feel more strongly that crime is a growing
problem (item 9) as they had a mean score of 1.67 while
the mean score for all organizations on this item was
3.23.

Subscale Means for Each Subsystem
of Organizations

Table 9 shows the mean score for each subscale on
the Community Needs Scale for each subsystem of organiza-

tions. For example, in this table, the mean score for

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108

economic organizations on the economic, recreational,
family, religious and voluntary, health, educational,
social welfare, and governmental scales is shown. The
table allows one to visually inspect whether the organ-
izations from one subsystem viewed the community needs
related to that subsystem as more important than commu-
nity needs related to other subsystems. Inspecting
these scores on the scales corresponding to a particular
subsystem (along the diagonal), the lowest mean score
was obtained by family, religious and voluntary organi-
zations on the family-religious scale. Family, religious
and voluntary organizations had a lower mean score on
the family-religious scale than on all other scales. In
contrast, economic organizations had lower mean scores
on all other scales than they did on the economic scale.
Recreational organizations had a lower mean score (2.82)
on the family-religious scale and the governmental scale
(3.74) than they had on the recreational scale (3.80).
On all other scales, the recreational organizations had
higher mean scores than they had on the recreational
scale. The mean scores on the family-religious scale
for all organizations was the lowest (3.53) of all the
community needs subscales. The highest mean score on

a community need subscale was on the economic scale

(4.86).

109

Assumption IV

 

From the above data, it would be difficult to
state precisely whether or not there was agreement among
organizations within each subsystem as to perceived
priorities of community needs. Obviously, some agreement
does exist between organizations within different sub-
systems; however, the substance of the agreement could
not be inferred from the data. The analysis of the sub-
scales for each subsystem of organizations did not show
consistent perceptions of community needs by each sub-
system. In other words, clear differences in perceptions
of community needs by different subsystems or organiza-
tions was not found.

Analysis of Potential
Coalitions

Community Needs as Perceived by
Organizations in Potential
Coalitions

Referring again to Table 2, it was noted that,
in general, reciprocal interaction appeared to be great-
est among organizations within the same subsystem. As
a general rule, this seemed to indicate that constella-
tions of organizations tended to be formed among
organizations with the same purpose or mission. Where
organizations forming constellations were from two or

more subsystems it was quite often because they had core

functions which were common to both types of organizations.

i I! (I!

The process so far described leads to the iden-
tification of potential coalitions of organizations which
could use their resources to respond to community needs.
For purposes of this study, it was determined that a
potential coalition was a constellation of organizations
who perceived community needs in a similar manner.

In examining whether or not a constellation of
organizations met the requirements to be a potential
coalition, it was necessary to analyze in detail the
items receiving low mean scores in a selected subsystem.
Subsystems were used as a base because the patterns of
reciprocal interaction in the subsystems of education,
social welfare, health, and governing boards were suffi-
cient to believe that the organizations in these sub-

systems were linked to each other in a variety of ways.

Analysis of Items by Subsystem

The items receiving mean scores below 2.99 for
each subsystem were examined closely to discover which
items were particularly related to needs and problems
within that subsystem. It was inferred that items which
were related to a particular subsystem and received a
low mean score would be priority needs or problems as
viewed by organizations in that subsystem; and, thus,
the potential existed to mobilize the organizations to

use their resources to do something about meeting the

lll

needs specified. Such an analysis was carried out for
each of the subsystems.

Education.--The education organizations appeared

 

to perceive the need for post-high school vocational
training programs as important (2.47); the need for
four-year college and graduate opportunities (2.73); and
the need to integrate school planning with other planning
(2.87) as important. These were the educational items
receiving the lowest mean scores by educational organiza-
tions. Items closely related to education and receiving
low mean scores were the need for mental and psychiatric
community counseling services (2.60); and the problem of
juvenile delinquency (2.60). Other items, although not
related directly to education, also could be considered
needs upon which educational organizations could act.
They included: increasing awareness of available social
agency services (2.33); developing adequate public trans-
portation (2.20); air and water pollution (2.20);
citizen's participation in local government elections
(2.87); and stimulating citizens to become involved in
community affairs (2.87). In addition, educational organ-
izations disagreed that resources to deal with mental
health problems were adequate (7.80).

Social welfare.--In general, the social welfare

 

organizations viewed most social welfare items as important

needs. The lowest mean scores included: increasing

112

awareness of available social agency services (1.67);
methods for resolving conflict among groups (1.67); the
need to improve community service efforts of voluntary
organizations (1.67); need for improved intercultural
group relations (2.00); need for disadvantaged represen-
tation in local government (2.00); recreation for dis-
advantaged (2.33); training for unskilled (2.33); need
for local governments to be more sensitive to problems
of disadvantaged (2.67); consumer education for disad-
vantaged (2.67); and free or low priced community
counseling services (2.67).

Related to these social welfare needs was also
a group of needs which seemed aimed at increasing aware-
ness of problems in involvement of people. These needs
were involvement of citizens in community affairs (1.67);
encouraging disadvantaged to seek representation in local
government (2.00); need for local governments to find
ways to help citizens become more aware of local problems
and issues (2.33); need to improve citizen's participa-
tion in local government elections (2.33); making local
governments more sensitive to problems of disadvantaged
(2.67); public forums on community issues (3.00); and the
need to encourage more individuals to seek local public
office (2.67).

The above items appeared to represent a cluster

of concerns which relate to making citizens more aware of

113

community conditions and getting new individuals in
public office. The apparent unity of perception regard-
ing these needs would seem to indicate that a coalition
could be formed with these organizations around these
needs.

In addition, supporting the items agreed upon,
the social welfare organizations disagreed that educa-
tional opportunities for out of sChool youth (7.33) and
disadvantaged (7.33) were adequate. They also did not
feel that community planning was adequate (7.67); social
services sufficiently broad (7.67); the disadvantaged
had adequate access to health services (8.00), financial
assistance (8.33), and job placement (8.00); that
resources to deal with mental health were adequate (8.33);
and cooperation between village, township and county
governments was satisfactory (8.67).

Governing boards.--Community needs related to

 

government and receiving low mean scores by governmental
organizations were: the need for fire protection ser-
vices (2.00); adequate public transportation (2.00); air
and water pollution (2.00); control of types of housing
construction (2.25); involvement of citizens in community
affairs (2.50); crime is a growing problem (2.50); juve-
nile delinquency (2.75); and citizen's participation in
local government elections (2.50). Other items which

were related to the functions of governing boards were

114

the need to integrate school planning with other commu-
nity planning (2.75) and educational programs on drug

and alcohol abuse (2.75). These latter two appeared to
be needs which schools and governing boards could jointly
meet.

Governing boards disagreed that villages need to
give up some of their autonomy (7.25); opportunities for
business and industrial growth were inadequate (7.00);
and that cooperation between village, township and county
governments was satisfactory (7.75).

Health organizations.--Health organizations per-
ceived drug and alcohol abuse (2.00); increasing aware-
ness of social agency services (2.00); improvement of
medical facilities (2.67); and air and water pollution
(2.67) as the major needs and problems related to health.
They also disagreed that sufficient health personnel
were available in the community (7.33) and that resources
to deal with mental health were adequate (7.67). The
number of items with low mean scores which did not appear
to be related to health needs was interesting. These
included: integration of school planning with other
planning (2.00); training for unskilled (2.33); improved
building codes, zoning and use of land (2.33); coordina-
tion of refuse and sewage disposal (2.33); improved
participation in local government elections (2.33); and

control of types of housing construction (2.67).

115

Health organizations disagreed that disadvantaged
had adequate access to financial assistance (7.00); com-
munity planning was adequate (7.00); low income housing
would solve the needs of the disadvantaged (7.00); and
job placement for the poor or disadvantaged was adequate

(7.57).

The Other Subsystems

 

Since interaction was not as evident among other
subsystems, only the most outstanding needs related to
each subsystem were analyzed. They were as follows:

Recreation: The need for recreation for senior
citizens (2.00); the need for year-round park and
recreational programs (2.33); and recreation for
disadvantaged (1.67) were the recreational items
receiving the lowest mean scores. Numerous other
items received lower mean scores, including: the
need to improve citizens' pride in the community
(1.67); to stimulate citizens to become involved
in community affairs (1.67); need to reduce num-
ber of election dates (1.67); need for four-year
college and graduate opportunities (1.67); and
need for common election dates for local govern-
ment, park district, and local schools (1.33).
This last need stresses the fact that there is

a very small turnout for park district elections.

 

Family, Religious and Voluntary: Among the items
most agreed upon by these organizations were:
Citizens' need to be stimulated to become
involved in community affairs (2.00); local
government's need to find ways to help citizens
become more aware of local problems and issues
(2.33); there is need for a broader citizen
involvement in local educational planning (2.33);
and there is need to improve Citizens' partici-
pation in local government elections (2.33). The
common thread to these items appeared to be
involvement..

116

Planning and Zoning: The planning and zoning
boards agreed on a need to stimulate citizens to
become involved in community affairs (1.67); fire
protection services are needed (2.17); school
planning needs to be integrated with other plan-
ning (2.67); there is a need to encourage more
individuals to seek local public office (2.67);
and there is a need to improve Citizens' parti-
cipation in local government elections (2.50).
They disagreed that there were too many zoning
boards and authorities (7.17).

 

Political: The political organizations agreed
that recreation and leisure time activities for
senior citizens were needed (2.33); citizens need
to be stimulated to become involved in community
affairs (2.00); and there is a need to increase
awareness of available social agency services
(2.33). They also agreed that drug and alcohol
abuse was a community problem (2.33); there was

a need to encourage more individuals to seek
local public office (2.33); local governments
need to find ways to help citizens become aware
of local problems and issues (2.33); air and
water pollution poses a threat (2.33); there is

a need to control types of housing construction
(2.00); and there is a need to improve Citizens'
participation in local government elections (2.00).

 

They also disagreed that opportunities for busi-
ness growth are adequate (7.00); low income
housing would solve the problems of the disad-
vantaged (7.00); that resources to deal with
mental health were adequate (7.00); and there

is a need for a centralized suburban government
(7.00).

Economic: The economic organizations agreed that
citizens need to be stimulated to become involved
in community affairs (1.33); crime is a growing
problem (1.67); there is need to improve Citizens'
pride in the community (2.33); there is a need

for year-round park and recreation programs (2.67);
adequate public transportation is needed (2.67);
and educational programs on drug and alcohol abuse
are needed (2.67).

 

They disagreed that low income housing would solve
the problems of the communities' disadvantaged
(8.17); job opportunities should be created to
attract disadvantaged to the community (7.33); and
low income housing is needed to attract the labor
force (7.67).

117

Subsystems and Sub-Groupings
of Needs

 

The purpose of this process is to selectively
identify community needs which would appear to be held
sufficiently important by sub-groupings of organizations
to indicate that these organizations may be encouraged
to initiate programs to meet these needs. For this
analysis the five major groupings of community needs
were utilized to determine what subsystems held these
needs as priorities. Tables were developed to indicate
which subsystems of organizations had mean scores below
2.99 on the items in each of the five major categories
of community needs. These needs were then analyzed in

respect to the scores received by the subsystems.

Citizens' Involvement

Item 6, citizens need to be stimulated to become
involved in community affairs and item 78, there is a
need to improve Citizens' participation in local govern-
ment elections, both received mean scores below 2.99 in
eight subsystems. The recreation and political sub-
systems followed by the family and social welfare sub-
systems appeared to perceive these groupings of needs to
be of highest priority. About half of these items (35
out of 72) were preceived by the total subsystems as of

high priority. (See Table 10.)

116

TABLE 10.--Citizens' Involvement Item Means Below 2.99 for
Each Subsystem

 

 

 

Item Subsystem Total
Eco Rec Fam Heal Ed SW GB P/Z Pol

3 2.33 1.67 2.67 3
6 1.33 1.67 2.00 2.87 1.67 2.50 1.67 2.00 8
35 2.33 2.67 2.67 2.33 4
36 2.00 2.33 2.33 2.33‘ 4
47 2.67 2.33 2.67 3
48 1.67 l
76 ‘ 1.33 2.67 3
78 2.67 2.33 2.33 2.47 2.33 2.50 2.50 2.00 8
Tot 2 8 4 2 2 4 2 3 7 35

 

Community Planning

 

The items related to community planning also
received mean scores of below 2.99 by about half of the
subsystems (31 out of 63). Item 27, integration of school
planning with other planning, and item 47, the need for
broader Citizens' involvement in local educational plan-
ning, both were perceived by all but the economic organi-
zations as of high priority. Item 75, the need to control
types of housing construction, and item 19, the need for
adequate public transportation, were also preceived to be
of importance by several of the subsystems. Fire protec-
tion services appeared to be a common concern of the
family, religious, voluntary subsystem; governing boards;

and planning and zoning boards. (See Table 11.)

TABLE ll.--Community Planning Item Means Below 2.99 for

Each Subsystem

 

Subsystem

 

 

Item Total
Eco Rec Fam Heal Ed SW GB P/Z Pol

4 2.67 2.00 2.17 3
19 2.67 2.67 2.20 2.00 4
27 2.00 2.67 2.00 2.87 .33 2.75 2.67 2.67 8
47 2.33 2.67 2.67 2.20 .00 2.00 2.83 2.33 8
60 2.33 1
64 2.33 2.67 2
75 2.33 2.67 2.25 2.83 2.00 5
Tot l 5 4 4 3 2 5 4 3 31

 

Social Pathology Needs

 

Juvenile delinquency, item 21, was perceived as a
community problem by recreational; family, religious and
voluntary; educational; social welfare; and governing
boards. Economic and governing boards both perceived crime
as a growing problem (item 10). Health and political
organizations perceived drug and alcohol abuse as major
community problems (item 28). Interestingly, economic and
governing boards perceived the need to develop educational
programs on drug and alcohol abuse (item 39), but other
subsystems did not appear to perceive it as importantly.
About one-third of the subsystems (11 out of 36) gave

these items scores below 2.99. (See Table 12.)

Health, Education and Recreation Needs
Recreational; health; governing boards; and

political organizations perceived the need for recreation

120

TABLE 12.--Social Pathology Item Means Below 2.99 for
Each Subsystem

 

 

 

Item SUbSYStem Total
Eco Rec Fam Heal Ed SW GB P/Z P01

10 1.67 2.50 2

21 2.67 2.67 2.60 1.67 2.75 5

28 2.00 2.33 2

39 2.67 2.75 2

Tot 2 l l 1 1 l 3 0 1 ll

 

for senior citizens (item 5) of importance. Recreational,
educational, social welfare, and governing boards perceived
the need for free or moderately priced psychiatric services
(item 59) as important. Social welfare and education per-
ceived the need for more post-high school vocational
training programs as a priority and organizations in these
same two subsystems and recreational organizations per-
ceived the need for four-year college and graduate oppor-
tunities (item 55) as significant. Economic and recrea-
tional organizations both viewed the need for year-round
park and recreation programs. Less than one-third of the
items\(l6 out of 54) received mean scores of less than

2.99. (See Table 13.)

Minority GroupyNeeds
Five subsystems, recreational, health, educational,
social welfare, and political, perceived the need to

increase awareness of available social agency services

121

TABLE l3.--Health, Education and Recreation Item Means
Below 2.99 for Each Subsystem

 

 

 

 

Item SUb$¥§tem Total
Eco Rec Fam Heal Ed SW GB P/Z Pol

5 2.00 2.67 2.75 2.33 4
11 2.67 2.33 2
29 2.67 1
43 2.47 2.67 2
55 1.67 2.73 2.33 3
59 2.60 2.67 2.50 3
Tot l 3 0 2 3 3 2 0 l 15
(item 7). Recreational, health and social welfare organiza-

tions agreed on the need to improve intercultural group
relations (item 9). Recreational; family, religious and
voluntary; and social welfare organizations perceived a
need to find methods to resolve conflict among groups
(item 40). Recreational, social welfare and political
organizations agreed on a need to provide recreation for
disadvantaged (item 41). Health and social welfare organ-
izations both perceived the need to find training opportu-
nities for the unskilled (item 54). Social welfare organ-
izations perceived all of these items as important, with
recreational organizations and health organizations also
showing concern for the minority group needs. (See

Table 14.)

122

TABLE l4.--Minority Group Need Item Means Below 2.99 for
Each Subsystem

 

 

 

Item Subsystem Total
Eco Rec Fam Heal Ed SW GB P/Z Pol

5 2.00 2.67 2.33 3
11 2.67 2.33 2
29 2.67 l
43 2.47 2.67 2
55 1.67 2.73 2.33 3
59 2.60 2.67 2.50 3
Tot l 3 0 2 3 3 l 0 1 14

 

Assumption V

The final assumption was that no agreement would
be found among constellations as to the priority of commu-
nity needs. The process and previous results indicated
that a change in this assumption was necessary. First,
because it was found that the primary interaction for
subsystems, with the exception of the economic subsystem,
was within subsystems, it was determined that need
priorities of organizations within a subsystem were of
primary importance. Therefore, the agreement of needs
within a subsystem was perceived as being important to
analyze instead of the constellations. Second, it was
determined that need constellations or categories existed,
so these groupings were analyzed for each subsystem and
needs which were common to two or more subsystems were

identified.

12..)

The result was that specific needs and need
groupings were determined for all subsystems. It was
found that within subsystems specific needs could be
identified which the respective organizations within a
subsystem commonly perceived as of priority. From this
analysis, it could be inferred that these organizations
within a subsystem could be mobilized to use their
resources to meet these needs. It was further found
that groups of needs within the five need categories
identified were also commonly perceived to be of prior-
ity by organizations in two or more subsystems. In
short, specific needs were perceived as common concerns
by organizations in two or more subsystems.

In summation, it could be said that agreement
within and between subsystem organizations as to commu-
nity needs was found in many areas. The assumption that
agreement among potential coalition members would be

found was confirmed.

Summary of Results

 

The analysis of reciprocal interaction patterns
of 71 organizations resulted in the acceptance of the
assumption that potential coalitions would exist among
the organizations in the study. It was further found
that with the exception of the economic subsystem, the
interaction between organizations of similar types was

greater than the interaction between organizations of

124

different types. Analyzing 79 community needs, it was
determined that differences in priorities of community
needs did exist for the 71 community organizations. In
addition, the top priority needs could be grouped into
five need categories: citizen involvement; community
planning and development; community social and criminal
problems; health, education, and recreation needs; and
minority group needs. It was further concluded that
these categories also could be ranked in terms of overall
priority for the 71 organizations. Assumption IV was
that organizations of different types perceived priori-
ties of community needs differently. From the analysis
of the data, it was determined that it was not possible
to determine whether or not organizations of different
types perceived priorities of community needs differently.
Thus, the null hypothesis was accepted pending further
research. Finally, it was determined that sufficient
agreement did exist within and between subsystem organ-
izations as to priorities of community needs so that the
potential formation of coalitions of organizations to

meet these needs would be possible.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary

The Purpose of the Research

 

The purpose of this research was to develop a
process of community and inter-organizational analysis
which could be used by the community service worker to
actively participate in efforts to improve the community.
It was designed to provide a rational base for planning
programs to meet the individual and collective needs in
the community studied through the following processes:
(1) Identifying significant community needs and organi-
zational interaction in a community college district:
and (2) Determining what constellations of community
organizations have the potential to use their energy and
resources in an organized way to provide for specific

community needs.

The Basic Theory of the Research

 

The basic theory for this research is derived
from the concepts of social systems and focused in partic-

ular on the ideas of community development as developed

125

126

by Roland Warren (81). In particular, it grows out of
Warren's contention that the vertical ties of organiza-
tions within a community to extra-community organizations
are multiplying and strengthening to the extent that it
is questionable whether the ties of community units to
each other on a loCal level are sufficiently strong and
meaningful for them to constitute a localized social
system called the community. The major idea for this
study was based on Warren's contention that a goal of
community development should be the strengthening of
relationships between local community units at the commu-
nity level, the horizontal pattern. Thus, in this study,
a process of analyzing the relationships between organi-
zations at the local level was studied for its possible
use in strengthening a community's horizontal pattern.
This appraoch was considered appropriate for the commu-
nity college because of the college's community service
objective of identifying unrealized community potential-
ities, and unmet community needs, and drawing together
these resources in the college and the community to meet
these needs.

The study tested the following assumptions:
(1) no potential coalitions of organizations would be
found in the community; (2) there would be no difference
in the level of interaction between organizations of the

same subsystem and the level of interaction between

1.27

organizations of different subsystems; (3) no differences
of community needs would be found by the processes of
identifying community needs; (4) no differences in the
perceptions of community needs of organizations of dif-
ferent types would be identified; and (5) no agreement
would be found among coalition organizations as to per-
ceptions of community needs as identified by the

processes utilized.

The Design of the Research

 

Subjects for this study were 71 non-profit organ-
izations located in eight suburban communities in a
rapidly growing suburban area of a midwestern metropoli-
tan city. The organizations were classified by nine
major types: (1) economic; (2) governmental; (3) recre-
ational; (4) family, religious and voluntary; (5) health;
(6) educational; (7) social welfare; (8) political; and
(9) planning and zoning. The chief administrative offi-
cers of these organizations were given a community needs
scale and an organizational interaction scale designed
to determine whether or not organizations engage in
cooperative activities or projects with other organiza-
tions in the study. To provide further information on
the dynamics of the community, interviews were Conducted
with the chief administrators in each of the organiza-

tions.

128

As a result of a matching of reciprocal scores,
each organization's link with every other organization in
the study was traced sociometrically. A matrix represen-
tation of the choices of each organization was developed.
The sociometric manipulation of the reciprocal choices
showed interaction patterns of 633 reciprocal choices
forming 26 constellations of organizations. In addition,
influence patterns for each organization and coalition
scores for each coalition were determined. The aggregate
sociometric reciprocal choices for each organization in
each subsystem was determined to show the relative
amounts of interaction within and across subsystems. The
scores given and scores received were determined to
analyze the level of interaction of organizations of
different types. The level of interaction was computed
sociometrically for all the organizations in each sub-
system; and the reciprocal interaction between each sub-
system and every other subsystem was shown to study
reciprocal interaction between subsystems. It was found
that with the exception of the economic system, the
average number of reciprocal choices for organizations
in each subsystem was greater than the reciprocal choices
outside the subsystem.

The priorities of community needs were next ana-
lyzed by examining the scores on the Community Needs

Scale. Mean scores for the 21 needs showing greatest

 

129

agreement were identified. It was found that the great-
est need seemed to be to get citizens involved in commu-
nity affairs. Other needs of high importance were the
threat of air and water pollution, citizen participation
in local government elections, integration of school
planning with other planning, and the need to increase
awareness of social agency services.

Next, the items with the lowest mean scores were
analyzed to determine whether they could be grouped into
common categories. Five categories of needs were deter-
mined: citizens' involvement; community planning and
development; community social pathologies; health, educa-
tion and recreation needs; and minority group needs.
Further, specific needs as perceived by each subsystem
were analyzed in detail. The priority needs as identi-
fied for each subsystem's organizations were determined.

The final step was to analyze the five major
sub-groups of needs for each subsystem and to determine
community needs which were perceived as priorities by
two or more subsystems. It was found that in many cases
two or more subsystems had commonly perceived specific
‘community needs or groupings of community needs as
;important, and, thus, it would be possible to identify
(organizations who could form coalitions to meet community

Ileeds which they commonly agreed were important.

130

Conclusions

 

The theory outlined in the first chapter of this
study indicated that the great change in America's
society was toward the weakening of the relationships
between local community organizations with one another
and the strengthening of relationships of local units
with organizations outside the community The theory was
that the community college in providing for its service
function could, thus, serve the community by seeking to
strengthen the horizontal pattern of the community. To
do this, it was felt that a better understanding of the
inter-organizational relationships in the community
college district was necessary. To date, few studies
have been conducted which focused on inter-organizational
relationships and these studies were primarily descrip-
tive of relationships and not related to questions of
needs. This study focused on interrelationships and
related them to community needs and the role of the com-
:munity college in strengthening relationships and meeting
needs. The conclusions from this study are as follows:

1. The 633 reciprocal choices and 26 constella-

tions indicated that there are relatively

large amounts of interaction in the community.

The limits to this interaction can be

explained by the following principles:

a. The purpose of an organization determine
what elements and resources the organiza-
tion will need to carry out its functions.

If these elements or resources are readily
available to an organization, or if the

131

resources or elements may be obtained
from sources outside the community, the
need for interaction is diminished.

An organization protects its territory by
trying not to unnecessarily share power.
Each organization estimates the position
of the other relevant organizations to
determine whether they are willing to
enter into or to alter their existing
relationships.

Organizations enter into relationships
with other organizations where there is
consensus that the organization they are
going to relate to has the resources and
authority to carry out its function.

The number and severity of local problems
causes organizations to seek cooperative
relationships. Organizations that per-
ceive problems to be sufficiently numer-
ous or severe will seek out cooperation.

Limits of resources at the local level
will also cause organizations to interact.
Organizations seek to band together to
gain more resources through taxation,
state or federal support of resources at
the local level. The theory that exchange
occurs under conditions of scarcity holds
in this case when the objective sought
cannot be met with the means available.

Limits on influence at the next higher
levels will cause organizations to band
together to have more "clout" at the
state or federal level.

Cooperation is enhanced when the environ-
ment changes so quickly that an organiza-
tion must maintain contact with other
organizations to learn about changing
circumstances to make adjustments for
survival. If an organization's relation-
ships with other organizations are not
adequate, its stability and existence may
be threatened. The interdependency of
park district and school district boards
in the passing of bond and operation
referendums is one example of the need to

132

maintain good working relationships with
other organizations in the community.

The constituency of a school district,
for example, may be used against a park
district to defeat a park district refer-
endum if the school district does not
agree with the goals and purposes of the
referendum.

The community is made up of subsystems of
organizations and organizations within a sub-
system interact with each other on a more
frequent basis than they do with organizations
outside their subsystem.

The subsystems within the community of educa-
tional; economic; recreational; social welfare;
governing boards; family, religious and volun-
tary; health; and political have two distinct
types of systemic ties. First, is the inter-
action through which they are oriented to
other organizations within their subsystem,
and, second is the interaction through which
they are oriented to organizations outside
their system.

The process of studying community needs may
be utilized to identify important community
problems and to identify common concerns of
organizations within the same subsystem or
between organizations in different subsystems.

The horizontal pattern, relationships between
organizations at the local level, may be
strengthened by a process of need identifica-
tion which requires organizations to examine
the community need priorities.

The distinction between community development
as a process for strengthening the horizontal
patterns and community action as a specific
action episode to achieve specific project
goals may be useful for the community service
professional in determining the goals for his
community service program.

Community service efforts by the community
college should assume as a major fundamental
responsibility the obligation to study the
organizational structure of the community and
the community needs as perceived by these

133

organizations, and to engage in active projects

which seek to strengthen the interrelationships

between organizations in the college district.

A criteria for evaluation of such efforts

should be its contribution to that goal.
Observations from Interviews

The central theme of this research was that a com-
munity is essentially a system of interaction. Inter-
action in the community is affected by the components of
the social structure and the setting in which the inter-
action takes place. The concept of interaction could be
thought of as the observable and meaningful behavior of
the groups and individuals with each other. Sanders has
related interaction to the concepts of communication,
process, function, and dynamics (60:345-373).

In this study, the following definitions were
used: (1) communication--the interchange of meaningful
symbols between two or more organizations; (2) process--

a series of interactions; and (3) function--the contribu-
tion that an organization makes to the total community.

The interaction between some part of the community
structure with other parts depends upon the function of
each particular organization. Function, of course, is
closely related to the structure of the community viewed
from the standpoint of status. Thus, function, structure
and status are all important in interaction.

A final concept which was used in this study is

dynamics. This acknowledges that the effect of

134

interaction is change. No two organizations after they
interact are ever the same after the interaction. Without
interaction change might not occur. Thus, social dynamics
looks at the community as a changing system, it tries to
work out the laws governing change within it.

Interaction may also be of different types: con-
flict, accommodation, assimilation, competition, coopera-
tion, and amalgamation. The interviews in this study
were used to look at the nature of interaction in the
community in terms of communication, process, function,
and dynamics: to look for conflict, accommodation and
cooperation in the community; and to validate the Organ-
izational interaction of each organization within the
study area. Participants in the study were asked about
their organizational goals, their assessment of major
community problems, their efforts to study community
problems, the nature of their interaction with other
organizations within their village, outside their village,
and outside this community. They were also asked what
activities they thought should be undertaken to solve
major community problems, and what role they saw the
community college fulfilling in terms of community devel-
opment. (See Appendix G for reports of interviews.)

The pervasive mode for most of the individuals
interviewed was introspective and concerned with the prob-

lems of their own organizations. In general, the broader

135

the definition of the organization in terms of area and
population served, the more there seemed to be the ten-
dendy to view the big picture and the need for coopera-
tion, conservation and planning for the use of resources.
Some viewed cooperation as important but not necessary.
This attitude was in keeping with the view of most
organizations that they could carry out their functions
in isolation and that cooperation was necessary only when
resources were scarce, citizens demanded it, or it was
forced by the legislature.

Several problems or needs were identified as a
result of the interviews which were not determined in the
community needs study. The major overall problem men-
tioned by most heads of organizations was the pervasive
growth of the community in terms of population, commerce,
industry, and in all related factors of life. Many
organizations had to devote so much energy to carrying
out their basic functions that cooperation was not even
possible if they were to meet their basic goals. As an
example of this, many of the school districts noted they
were building one or two new schools a year, which did
not allow the individuals at the head of the organizations
time to worry about cooperative relationships with other
organizations. V

Related to this problem of growth was also the

multiple problem of overlapping geographical boundaries

136

for all the organizations mentioned. Most notable was
the lack of congruity between municipal boundaries, park
district boundaries, school district boundaries, and
township boundaries. A related problem is the problem
of continued congestion caused by the influx of popula-
tion. Thus, mass transportation and the need for better
transportation were viewed as important.

Another problem which was mentioned, which is
more specific in nature, was the problem of water. One
problem was getting enough water to meet the demands of
the pervasive growth in the community, and the other was
flooding. If these items had been on the community needs

scale, they may have been noted as priority needs.

Cogperation in the Community

At the local level, there appeared to be some
very practical reasons for certain organizations being
engaged in cooperative efforts. Among these factors

were the following:

1. The top level leadership of the organization
had a predisposition for seeking out coopera-
tive projects as part of a personal adminis-
trative attitude and as part of an institu-
tional philosophy or policy towards cooperative
relationships with other organizations.

2. Certain organizations were in an economic
position which would allow them to utilize
their resources to assist other organizations
in not as favorable an economic position.

For example, the township government's ability
to create committees on youth is an example of
this type of relationship.

4.

137

Some organizations appeared to seek coopera-
tive relationships in order to extend their
power and influence in the community. The
motivation for this type of activity was to
move an organization into an influence posi-
tion for the good of the organization, the
benefit of its employees, and the preserva-
tion of a leadership position.

A further reason for cooperation was sympathy
or common belief in the causes and functions.
In fact, some organizations were formed to
support the functions of other organizations.
The League of Women Voters or the Association
of University Women were examples of these
types of organizations. A further example of
this type of cooperation could be centered
around the nature of issues involved. The
thrust for clean air and clean water may be
one such issue which would lead organizations
to cooperate to attack a common concern.

Of equal importance to the reasons for coopera-

tion were the parctical barriers to c00peration. Among

the barriers noticed in the interviews were:

1.

Leadership: A negative attitude by the leader-
ship of an organization toward the whole idea
of cooperation. In some cases, the leadership
may not be competent to work through the com-
munication and structure in order to develop
cooperative programs with other organizations.
The provincial attitude was also evident in
some of the interviews. In other cases, con-
flict among leaders prevented cooperation.

 

Availability of Time and Resources: A further
barrier to cooperation was noted by many of
the administrators interviewed and that was
the available time and resources to continue
and initiate cooperative relationships. The
pervasive growth of the area had not allowed
organizations to keep pace with their own
growth and consequently little time had been
left to developing cooperative relationships.

Preservation of Territory: Further reason

for failure to cooperate was the desire of an
organization to preserve its territory and not
be threatened by other organizations.

138

4. Avoidance of Controversy: The desire to
avoid controversy within the organization and
with community groups was also evident.

5. Lack of Information About the Goals: Among
the organizations there appeared to be a lack
of information and understanding of the pur-
poses or objectives of other organizations.

6. Nature of Man: Another practical barrier to
cooperation was in the nature of man and
cultures. By the sheer force of habit, organ-
izations tend to do things the way they have
always done things and efforts to establish
new working relationships require the breaking
of habits which is difficult to accomplish.

The development of new relationships in this
community appeared to be affected by this fact.

 

In general, the interviews produced a feeling for the
dynamics of interaction in the community. It was apparent
from the interviews that interpersonal relations, as well
as other specific conflicts of interest, could and did

have a bearing on interaction.

Implications for Theory

This study drew on four basic fields for its
theory--social systems theory, inter-organizational theory,
community development theory, and urban planning theory.
Of particular importance was the concept that there is a
distinction between the external and internal patterns of
group behavior--task and maintenance. The interaction
patterns of organizations within individual subsystems
certainly indicated that this concept could be applicable
to the subsystems of organizations within a community

such as the education subsystem. For example, it can be

139

seen that the educational organizations engage in system
maintenance functions which are designed to maintain the
interdependence of the system's members; and task func-
tions are designed to yield high outcomes for the system.
An important question relative to this theory is the
relative energy each subsystem finds it necessary to put
into task and maintenance functions. Elaboration of the
systems theories as they apply to organizational develop-
ment seems essential.

The second emphasis of this study was on inter-
organizational theory. A further elaboration of a theory
of inter-organizational relationships as opposed to intra-
organizational relationships seems justified, based on the
nature of interactions found in this and other studies of
inter-organizational relationships. Future research in
community which would be valuable to professional commu-
nity service workers could include a further investiga-
tion of social systems and inter-organizational theory.
Perhaps the theory could suggest a method of continual
monitoring of the needs and patterns of organizational
interaction in our communities.

The theoretical framework of community development
was the third basis for this study. A useful theoretical
distinction was made between community development as the
long-range goal of strengthening the relationships between

organizations in the community; and community action as

140

specific action episodes to meet specific community needs
or goals. The implications for each of these approaches
should be fully investigated to determine whether the
actual allocation of efforts to one or the other of these
philosophies would result in any different long-term
results.

The final theoretical foundation utilized in this
study was the development of urban planning theory. It
was suggested that urban planning should be the science
of systematic analysis of communication, interaction and
priorities of the community needs. The implications for
community services are closely related to the development
of urban planning strategies. Perhaps in the future we
will have on-going systematic monitoring systems feeding
community leaders information on needs and interaction;
and suggesting possible methods for strengthening the
community. It would appear that the development of both
urban planning and community service would be strengthened
by a systematic elaboration of social systems, inter-
organizational, and community development theories to meet
the needs of the professional community planner and worker.

In summation, the development of social systems,
inter-organizational interaction, community development
and urban planning theories promises to yield further
insight into the complex task of meeting the individual

and collective needs of citizens of our communities.

141

Elaboration of these theories should lead to greater
insight into the methods that can be applied to effective
community building.

Implications for Future Community
Service Efforts

 

A major implication of this research for commu-
nity services is that any commitment by the community
college to community development must be substantial or
eliminated. In short, superficial attention to the
objective of community development may be counterproduc-
tive. From this research, and other studies, it should
become evident that human communities are mazes of com-
plex interactions and needs; and these needs can only be
met by careful and reasoned action by community groups
who have the power to promote change.

The reasons for the above statement are two-fold.
First, the identification of organizational interaction
and community needs and goals is a complex process. No
unrefined common sense can accurately identify the core
needs and thus the fundamental goals of the community.
Second, the achievement of community goals requires a
substantial effort to utilize all available community
resources, both individuals and organizations, to make
but the slightest progress.

A look at the community needs identified in this

study illustrates the fundamental nature of the task

142

ahead of anyone who claims the role of community develop-
ment worker. The goal of increasing citizen involvement:
for example, is so complex and pervasive that no super-
ficial effort can be effective. The same is true of the
needs for community planning and development; the prob-
lems of community social pathologies; health, educational
and recreational needs; and minority group needs. Indeed,
each of these sub-groupings of needs may represent merely
the surface of subsystems of immense community problems
which interact in countless ways.

In summation, community development requires
sophisticated systematic efforts by competent profes-
sionals if communities are to meet the demands for change.
The community college and other community service organ-
izations must consider the possible serious consequences
of any misdirected effort to perform functions and activi-
ties designed to increase cooperative efforts with com-
munity organizations, agencies and institutions to improve
the physical, social, economic and political environment
of the community. The task requires fundamental commit-
ment of large resources, both human and otherwise.

The responsibility for community development and
its subfunctions--community analysis, inter-agency cooper—
ation, advisory liaison, public forum, civic action, and
staff consultation, suggest the keenest analysis of

available resources and skills before the community

143

college publicly accepts this role. Perhaps only the
best staffed and most adequately financed organizations
can afford to engage in comprehensive community develop-

ment efforts.

Implications for Future Research

For the community service worker, future research
on community development should focus on experimental
. efforts to achieve specific community development goals.
Beyond efforts to identify community needs and organiza-
tional interaction, it would be most beneficial if speci-
fic techniques for updating communities, promoting change,
and meeting needs were identified. In short, research
should be on proactive efforts to change communities.

Because any inferences made about the community
involve elements of a multitude of subsystems, it would
seem that the best direction for future community research
would be inter-disciplinary and would involve teams of
researchers from the disciplines of sociology, psychology,
economics, political science, urban planning, as well as
biology and other natural and physical sciences. Ecolo-
gists have been telling us that we must take a complete
look at our actions as they relate to each other and it
would seem to follow that future community research should
involve comprehensive analysis of single communities
utilizing the competence of professionals from many disci-

plines. The combined efforts of many resources may lead

 

11:.

to better methods to study, build, and change communities
in substantive ways.

In the press for public organizations to be
increasingly accountable for their results, it may be
imperative that specific community development goals be
presented and debated by as wide a range of organizations
in the community as possible to obtain the necessary
legitimacy for this role. Without this process, there
would seem to be little hope for the community development

function becoming a mainline goal of the community college.

 

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145

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Damson, Jack E. "An Analysis of the Perceived Organ-
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Emery, E., and Trist, E. L. "The Casual Texture of
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Fields, Ralph R. The Community College Movement.
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Golembiewski, Robert T. The Small Gromp. Chicago:
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Greer, Scott A. Social Organization. New York:
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Hoffer, Charles R. "Social Action in Community Devel-
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Kaufman, Harold F. "Toward an Interaction-Conception
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Lewin, Kurt. Field Theory in Social Science. Edited
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Science Quarterly (October, 19607) p. 637.

 

APPENDICES

153

APPENDIX A

ORGANIZATIONAL NOMINATION FORMS

154

1&5

NOMINATIONS
COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS

Your Organization

Your Name and Position

 

INSTRUCTIONS

Please nominate significant community organizations which
.in your judgment could provide for community needs by active.
involvement and commitment of staff and other resources to
given community projects:

 

_ For puposes of this study, the organizations should be
located in the Villages of Arlington Heights, Buffalo Grove,
Elk Grove Village, Mount Prospect, Palatine, Prospect Heights,
Rolling Meadows, and Wheeling. Organizations which service
these Villages as well as others should be included. If you
are in doubt about the location of an organization please
include it anyway.

In order to help you think of the types of organizations
which might be included in this study, the Nomination Form
is arranged for you to nominate organizations of different
types. Examples of the types of organizations you may consider
for nomination are attached; -Nominate as many or as few organi-
zations as you want. As previously stated, the criteria for
nominations should be organizations which could have significant
affect in providing for community needs. Be sure to designate
the appropriate Village with the organization name, 6.9.,
Zoning Board, Arlington Heights.

Economic

NOMINATIONS

Recreation'

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Education and Public Information

 

 

 

. ‘0 l ..
- hlvs-JI‘W'

 

 

 

 

 

 

Family, Morality, and Religion

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A. n.
B. Government . F.
C. Social Service G.
D . Health H.

Other

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ORGANIZATIONAL TYPES

A. Economic

Chamber of Commerces
Unions

Retail Merchants Assn.
Professional Assn.
Employment Bureaus

Labor Councils

Area Development Councils
Manufacturers Assns.

B. Government

Political Party Organizations
League of Voters '
Patriotic Organizations
.Taxpayers Assns.

Planning Boards,

Zoning Boards

Community Councils

Community Boards

Housing Assns.

Real Estate Assns.

Law Enforcement Organizations
Village Councils

Township Councils

C ' Social Welfare

Charitable Organizations
Social Service Agencies
Welfare or Humane Assns.
Child Welfare Organizations
Big Brother Organizations
.Human Relations Groups
Social Agency Councils
Better Housing Groups

D. Health

General Community Health Groups
‘United Appeals Groups
Hospitals

Safety Councils

Community Chests

Health Departments

Mental Health Agencies

E. Recreation

Park Districts

Recreation Groups

Youth Councils or Commissions
Cultural Groups '

Concert Societies

Drama Groups

Art Societies

YMCA, YWCA

F. Education

School Districts

Colleges

Voluntary Education Organizations
Educational Cooperatives

Study and Forum Groups

Literary Societies

University Extensions

Public Libraries

G. Family, Morality, and Religion
Fraternal Groups

Lodges

Religious Groups

Ministerial Associations

Newcomers Organizations

Church Councils

Women's.Clubs

Churches '

Environmental Health Groups

APPENDIX B

COMMUNITY NEEDS SCALE

158

159

 

IMPORTANT

You are assured your name and your responses will
be held in strictest confidence.

David A. Groth

 

1. Name:

 

’iLast First Middle

2. Name of Organization:

 

3. Address of Respondent:

 

 

 

Street Village
4. Position of Person Completing this Questionnaire:
Board Chairman Organization Officer
Board Member Other - Specify:
Organization Pres.
5. Name of the Village in which your organization is located:
Heights Heights
Buffalo South
Grove North
East Other - Specify
West
6. Read the fbllowing and select the classification which
best describes the functions your organization seeks to
perform.
Economic
Recreational

___family, Religious, Moral or Fraternal
___Hea1th
___Educational or Cultural
___Public Informational
___§ocial Welfare
___Covernmental (Specify)
___Governing Board
___Planning and Zoning

Political

160
SURVEY OF COMMUNITY NEEDS

Introduction

The purpose of this research is to study community needs in
the section of the Community College District which includes the
Villages of Heights, Buffalo, Grove, East, West, East Heights, South,
and North. Although your name is essential for coding and statis-
tical processing, you are unconditionally assured that your name and
your responses will be held in strictest confidence by the author.

Directions

 

Below is a series of statements about specific community needs.
There are no correct answers for these statements. They have, there-
fore, been set up in such a manner as to permit you to indicate the
extent to which you agree or disagree that the need expressed is a
major community need. Suppose the statement is:

 

 

 

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Organizations should provide recreational
Opportunities for senior citizens.

As you read the statement, you will know whether you agree or
disagree that the idea expressed is a major community need. You
must then indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree. If
you agree fully, place an x under the words, "Strongly Agree. " If
you agree but with some reservation, that is you do not fully agree,
place the x under the word "Agree," as in the sample above. In like
manner, if— you disagree fully, place an x under the words, "Strongly
Disagree." If you disagree, but with some reservation, that is you

do not fully disagree, place an x under the word "Disagree." If you
neither agree or disagree, that is you are uncertain, place the x
under the word "Undecided." To indicate your attitude, read the-

statement carefully, then quickly check the position which best in-
dicates your attitude. Do not spend much time with any statement;
however, please be sure to answer every statement. You should be
able to complete your responses in approximately 15 minutes.

 

 

161

 

 

10.

11.

12.

13.

140

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The poor or disadvantaged of the community g
have adequate access to health services. >: 9
Depersonalization is not a problem in the
community 10
There is need to improve citizen's pride
in the community. ‘11
Fire protection services are not adequate g
for the community needs. E 12
Recreation and leisure time activities for
senior citizens are needed. 13
Citizens need to be stimulated to become
involved in community affairs. 14
There is a need to increase the awareness S
of available social agency services. 15
Opportunities for business and industrial
growth are inadquate. 16
There is a need for improved intercultural
group relations (e.g. white-spanish). 17
Crime is a growing community problem. 28‘ 18
There is a need for year round park and E
recreational programs. 19
There are not adequate means for communi- E
cating with local residents regarding
local issues. E 20
Quality of life is a major community
problem. 21
The community is unaware of the needs and :3
conditions of the community's disad- ‘
vantaged. S 22

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

162

Improved cooperation and communication
among local businesses is needed.

Low income housing would solve the problems
of the community's disadvantaged.

Individuals representing disadvantaged
groups should be encouraged to seek
representations in local government.

Educational Opportunities for out of
school youth are adequate.

Adequate public transportation is needed
in the community.

Job placement Opportunities for the poor
or disadvantaged are adequate.

Juvenile delinquency is not a community
problem.

'The local governments need to be more

sensitive to the problems of disadvantaged
citizens.

Public forums on local community issues
are needed.

Studies of community recreational needs
should be undertaken.

There is a need to deveIOp better employ-
ment bureau services.

Recreation and leisure time activities
for adults are adequate.

School planning needs to be integrated
with other community planning.

Drug and alcohol abuse are major
community problems.

 

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29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

163

Medical facilities should be improved and
increased.

The community is in need of unskilled
workers.

There are not adequate physical fitness
Opportunities available in the community.

Community planning is adequate.

COOperation between village, township,
and county governments is satisfactory.

There is a need to coordinate all adult
education offerings in the community.

There is a need to encourage more individ-
uals to seek local public office.

Local governments need to find ways to
help citizens become more aware of local
problems and issues.

There are too many zoning boards and
authorities.

Community library services are not
adequate.

Educational programs on drug and alcohol
abuse are needed.

Methods for resolving conflict among
groups are needed.

Recreation and leisure time activities
for disadvantaged citizens are not needed.

There is a need to attract professionals
in law and other professional fields to
establish practices in the community.

 

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43.

44.

45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
so.
51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

164

There is a need for more post-high school
vocational training programs.

There are sufficient health personnel
(doctors, nurses) available in the
community.

Resources to deal with mental health
problems are adequate.

Air and water pollution does not pose a
threat to this community.

There is a need for broader citizen
involvement in local educational planning.

There is a need to reduce the number of
local election dates.

There is need for a centralized suburban
government for the northwest suburbs.

Units of local government should be com-
bined or eliminated.

Job Opportunities should be created to
attract disadvantaged to the community.

Voluntary organizations (e.g. Rotary,
Chamber of Commerce, League of Women
Voters) need to improve cooperation and
communications in their community
service efforts.

The types of services offered by social
service agencies are sufficiently broad
to meet the needs.

Training Opportunities for unskilled
employees are needed.

There is a need for a four year college
and graduate Opportunities in the
community.

 

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58

 

59

 

60

 

 

62

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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63

 

 

 

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

165

A local community television station
should be deveIOped.

Low income housing is needed to attract
the labor force to this area.

Educational Opportunities for women are
adequate.

Moderately priced or free marital and
psychiatric community counseling services
are needed.

There is a need to improve community
building codes, zoning, and use of land.

Consumer education for the poor and dis-
advantaged is needed.

There is a need to coordinate refuse and
sewage disposal services.

Duplication and coordination Of fire
protection services should be studied.

There is a need to build a master develop-
ment plan which includes all the villages.

Law enforcement services need to be up-
graded and increased.

Coordination and communication.among
educational institutions is adequate.

Village need to give up some Of their
autonomy.

There are not adequate means available
to promote change in the community.

There is need to help unskilled workers
find employment in the community.

 

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68

 

69

 

70

 

71

 

72

 

73

 

74

 

 

76

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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77

 

 

 

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Educational Opportunities for the dis-
advantaged are adequate. 78
Additional medical specialists are needed
in the community. 79
The poor or disadvantaged of the community
have adequate access to financial assis-
tance. -80
Redevelopment of declining neighborhoods
is necessary for this community. 81
The tax structure should be changed to
attract more industry. _§g
There is a need to control types of
housing construction (i.e. single,
multiple dwelling, low, moderate, or
high cost housing). 33
There is a need to have common election
dates for local government, park district,
and local school elections. 84
There is adequate coordination between
local industry and local government. 85
There is a need to improve citizen partici-
pation in local government elections. 86
An adequate labor force is a major commun-
ity problem. _ 87

 

 

 

APPENDIX C

CHECK LIST OF INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL

INTERACTION

167

168

CHECK LIST OF ORGANIZATION INTERACTION
Introduction

The purpose of this research is to study interorganizational interaction
in the section of the Community College District which includes the
Villages of_Heights, Buffalo, South, East, West, Lyons and North.
Although your name is essential for coding and statistical processing,
you are unconditionally assured that your name and your reSponses will
be held in strictest confidence by the author.

f
Directions

0n the attached sheet is a list of organizations in the communities
mentioned in the introduction. You are to indicate with which organization
on this list your organization works. For example, suppose the organization
is: .

X 99. Wildwood Parks &
Recreation Commission

As you read the organization name, you will know whether your organization
engages in COOperate projects, programs, or other activities which require
coordination with the organization named, place an.§.by the organization's
name, as in the sample above.

100. Wildwood Chamber of Commerce

If, on the other hand, to your knowledge your organization does not engage
in any COOperative project, programs, or other activities which require
coordination with the organization named, indicate this by leaving the
space by the organization's name blank, as in the sample above.

YOu should be able to complete your responses in about five (5) minutes.

 

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.
ll.
12.
13.

Association of
University‘Women

Heights Lions Club

Heights Plan
Commission

Heights Zoning Board
of Appeals

Heights Board of Local
merovements

Cancer Society Suburban
Branch

Heights Park District

Heights Board of Trustees
&‘Village

Heights Chamber of
Commerce

Buffalo Park.District
Buffalo Plan Commission
Buffalo Village Board

Buffalo Zoning Board
of Appeals

Central Industrial Park
Association

Grove Township Regular

Community Consolidated
School District 95

Community Consolidated
School District 89

Community Consolidated
School District 87

Community Consolidated
School District 85

Community Consolidated
School District 84

169

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.
26.
27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.’

36.

37.

38.
39.

40.'

Community Consolidated
School District 53

Community Consolidated '
School

YMCA

Country Center for the
Handicapped

Grove Community Service
Grove Plan Commission
Grove Township Government

Grove Township Regular
Democratic Organization

 

Grove Township Regular
Republican Organization

Grove Village Board
of Trustees

Grove Village Chamber
Of Commerce

Grove Village Park
District

Grove Village Zoning
Board of Appeals

High School District 896

State Employment Service
Surburban Branch

Center for Community
Education DevelOpment

League of Women Voters
of Heights

East Board of Trustees

East Chamber of Commerce

'EastLions Club

41.
42.
43.

44.

45.
46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.
53.
54.

55.

56.
57.
58.

59.

60.
61.

62.

170

East Park District
East Plan Commission

East Zoning Board of
Appeals

Neighborhood Youth
Corps o

Opportunity Council
Community Hospital

CoOperative Mental Health
Association & Clinic

Opportunity Center

Suburban Council, Boy
Scouts of America

Suburban Council of P.T.A.'s

Suburban Special Education
Organization

Suburban Welfare Council
West Community Council

Township High School
District 899

League of Women Voters
of West

West Park District
West Plan Commission
West Township Government

West Township Regular
Republican Organization

West Chamber of Commerce
West Lions Club

West Township Youth
Committee

63.

64.

65.

66.
67.

68.

69.
70.
71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

77.

78.

75.“

West Village Board of ~

' Trustees

West Zoning Board of
Appeals

South Chamber of
Commerce

South Park District
South Plan Commission

South Village Board
of Trustees

South Zoning Board
Catholic Hospital
North Township Government

North Township Republican
Organization

North Township Republican
Women's Organization

North Township Regular
Democratic Organization

North Planning Commission

North Village Board
Of Trustees

North Zoning Board
of Appeals

Community College

 

APPENDIX D

INTERVIEW GUIDE

ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERS

171

 

I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

VI.

VIII.

172

INTERVIEW FORM

Purpose of study (Dissertation, Interorganization Interaction
and Community Needs).

Organizational Goals
a. Copy of purpose - What is your major purpose?

b. Long term goals?

Assessment of major community problems.
Organizational community studies.

Organizational interaction

a. ‘Within your village what are the most important organizations
'with which you work?

b. Outside your village, what is the most important organization
with which you work?

c. Outside this community, what is the most important organization
with which you work?

- .

What activities do you think should be undertaken to solve major
community problems? ‘

What role to you see for the community college in community
deveIOpment?

APPENDIX E

LETTERS OF INTRODUCTION

AND FOLLOW-UP

173

 

174

With the pervasive growth and change in our complex community,
I am sure you are finding, as am I, increasing difficulty in
maintaining communication with other organizations and agencies
in the northwest suburbs. The time and energy required to
manage growing organizations with demanding constituencies
jeOpardizes the important process of interorganizational
cooperation and coordination.

In the next few weeks, one of our staff members, David A. Groth,
will be studying organizational interaction and community needs
in a portion of the Harper District. I would like to solicit
your cooperation in this important study, which is part of a
Michigan State University doctoral dissertation. Mr. Groth

has a special interest and competence in community development
and I am sure you will find your contact with him stimulating
and his study of potential benefit to our community. HOpe-
fully, it will help us identify opportunities to combine
resources to meet priority community needs.

Mr. Groth will be calling to make an appointment to visit
with you at your convenience, or sending materials which he
would like completed and returned.

Be assured I encourage your assistance in this study.

Sincerely,

RObert E. Lahti
President

REL/nw

 

175

Having recent interaction with a variety of community leaders
and understanding the pervasive demands on your time, it is
with some trepidation that I now respectfully request your
assistance in a project.

Hewever, in pleading my own case, I would invite you to
consider the topic of investigation. I think, by and large,
we would all agree that our rapidly expanding community has
abundant needs. We at Harper College are interested in
making an assessment of community needs to assist in
educational planning.

Enclosed is an instrument to be used to nominate organizations
which you believe could, through active involvement and commit-
ment, provide for various community needs. I respectfully
request your assistance in providing the information requested.

Please return your nominations in the enclosed envelOpe. Be
assured we will hold your responses in strictest confidence.

YOur cooperation is most appreciated. If you have any
questions, please call either 359-4200, extension 301, or
359-5625.

Sincerely,

David A. Groth

DAG/nw

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX F

APPLICATION OF SOCIOMETRIC METHODS
TO INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS

AND CRITIQUE OF METHOD

176

APPENDIX F

APPLICATION OF SOCIOMETRIC METHODS
TO INTER-ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS

AND CRITIQUE OF METHOD

Lindzey and Borgatta described sociometric tech-
niques as being designed to effectively measure "the web
of interpersonal relations, the attractions, the repul-
sions, and indifferences that characterize individuals in
daily interaction, the informal organization of groups,
(and) the social status of individuals" (41:405). This
approach was not applicable to the measurement of organi-
zational relationships; however, Weiss and Jacobson for-
mulated a set of structured concepts in methodology which
demonstrated the feasibility of using sociometric analysis
in the study of complex organizations (85:661-668). Their
efforts helped to promote the use of sociometric tech-
niques in the analysis of complex organizations but they
failed to extend the use of techniques beyond the intra-
organizational level.

An advance in the use of the sociometric approach
in the analysis of inter-organizational relationships was

completed by the Institute for Community Development and

177

178

Services at Michigan State University (2). In this study,
a sociometric measurement which (2:3-4):

Indicated dependency ties among an identified universe
of organizations, as perceived and recorded by respon-
sible organizational members empowered to speak for
their respective organizations. The sociometric
choices are made in terms of particular criteria
(functional items), and the data obtained provided
degree-of-dependency information relating to three
inter-organizational variables: (1) interaction
structures; (2) influence patterns; and (3) status
arrangements.

Moreno reserved the general term, sociometric tech-
niques, to refer to a cluster of devices, including the
spontaneity tests, the various types of role tests and
acquaintence tests in addition to the sociometric tests.
Lindzey and Borgatta focused interest upon a small number
of closely related techniques that may be used to elicit
responses from members of a given group concerning the
positive, neutral and negative relations existing in the
group. They described the sociometric tests as (41:407):

The means of assessing the attractions within a given
group. It usually involves each member of a group
privately specifying a number of other persons in the
group with whom he would like to engage in some partic-

ular activity and, further, a number of persons with
whom he would not like to participate in an activity.

Potential Use of Sociometric
Measures

 

Sociometric measures have potential usefulness to
community workers. Lindzey and Borgatta have cited some
Of the reasons for the sociometric measures' utility (41:

405-406):

 

III . i‘lll'ili .] ‘Il

 

 

179

1. First, it is evident that the variables these
measures represent are about as purely "social" as
it is possible. The fact that these variables
describe quality of interpersonal relationships
within groups makes it clear that they deal with
basic data with which the social psychologists have
been most interested, both conceptually and
imperically.

2. Second, the interdisciplinary popularity in appro—
priateness of these devices makes them of particular
relevance to some disciplines. Consequently, the
sociometric devices seem ideally equipped to func-
tion in a field where there is much interest in
cross disciplinary integration.

3. Third, and this is related to the interdiscipli-
nary popularity of these techniques, is their
capacity to represent individuals in interaction
within a miniature social system . . . the socio—
metric measures provide a means of representing
an important part of the individual's social
environment as it is perceived by the subject.

4. Fourth, ease and speed of administration and the
related lack of expense are important qualities in
an ra where much investigation has become so expen-
sive that only the wealthy or well endowed may
hope to compete successfully. These are devices
that the independent researcher can use effec-
tively without large scale resources.

5. Fifth, increasing emphasis upon action in research,
investigation where the findings have direct impli-
cations for the concrete events under study, gives
further merit to sociometric techniques as they
lend themselves to the introduction of social change
in an efficient and compelling fashion without
seriously adding to the labor of the investigator.

6. Sixth, sociometric measures can be used in such a
way as to provide a much higher degree of interest
and motivation on the part of participant subjects
and is typical Of most sociological measuring
techniques. The possibility that this environment
may be manipulated so as to comply with his wishes
encourages a high degree of interest and cooperation
on the part Of the respondent.

Matrix Analysis and Socio-
____.___I
metric Data

 

Matrix analysis has become a useful tool for

looking at sociometric data. An early approach to

180

manipulating the matrix on which sociometric data are
summarized was developed by Forsyth and Katz (23). In
their method, the n x n table is taken as the raw matrix
with n being equal to the number of members in the study.
The entry in the xth row and the yth column, for example,
represents the xth institution's response regarding the
yth institution. They commented (23:341):

The method of manipulating the matrix consists of
rearranging the rows and columns in a systematic
manner to produce a new matrix which exhibits the
group structure graphically in a standard form. The
order of columns must always remain identical to
that of the rows. The ordering (of rows and columns)
is one of trial and error, in large part, with the
main goal of forcing mutual responses to gravitate
towards each other, or more specifically, to concen-
trate responses along the main diagonal.

Forsyth and Katz feel that their method has the
following advantages (23:346):

1. The investigators will tend to produce the same or
very similar matrixes from the same data.

2. Interpretation in the final matrix is fairly
simple.

3. Grouping together as indicated by the principle
minors of the matrix (i.e., "subgroup structures
are evident in the concentrations along the main
diagonal" (23:413).

4. The study and ensuing results are only applicable
to the number of individuals contained in the
reduced matrix (which results from dropping non-
respondents).

5. The economy and speed with which sociometric
measures can provide information concerning the
personal ties and repulses within relatively large
groups have made them an efficient tool in the
hands of individuals concerned with studying and
facilitating various community functions (23:440).

181

A disadvantage of this method is the cumbersome manipu-
lation of rows and columns. Computer techniques, where
they are available, can minimize this problem.

Reliability of Sociometric
AnalysIs

 

 

The first problem of reliability is the problem
of the extent to which the description of data by a given
investigator, once the data are on hand, can be repeated
by other investigators given the same data. Lindzey and
Borgatta (41:420-421) commented that interpretative reli-
ability may be expected to vary with the particular
technique chosen. Thus, if the data are analyzed in
terms of indexes, the reliability of the procedure is
apt to be very high. It is true that when the data are
analyzed in terms of scores or indices, the picture Of
the group that results may vary depending upon the par-
ticular quantative choices the investigator makes. The
problems of reliability here are similar to any set of
quantative data that permits expression in terms of more
than one set of scores. If the sociometric data are
summarized in terms Of the matrix and arranged according
to procedures such as those suggested by Forsyth and Katz,
there should again be high agreement between two investi-
gators treating the same data independently (23:420-421).

Lindzey and Borgatta believed that test relia-

bility was a more difficult problem than interpretative

182

reliability. They feel that (41:421):
The particular problems encountered vary with the
kind of consistency in which the investigator is
interested. Thus, if we are concerned with the
repeat of reliability of the test, its capacity to
produce consistent results over a period of time,
appraisal of the reliability of the instrument is
made difficult on the one hand by the effect of
memory of original responses and on the other by
the changes that the group may be reasonably
expected to undergo.

In a study similar to the one conducted here,
two factors are involved in reliability: The stability
of the technique of measurements and the stability of the
interactions measured over time. Thus, the techniques
may accurately measure the interactions that exist;
however, these interactions may change and be reflected
by different patterns in the analysis. Thus, as Lindzey
and Borgatta noted (41:421):

We are thus partially opposing test reliability to
test sensitivity. If we accept human groups as more
or less constantly undergoing changes in their
internal composition, only an extensive test could
give us consistent measure from two administrations
widely spaced in time. In such circumstances, changes

and response may be evidence of the sensitivity of
the test.

They further commented that to talk of reliability of
sociometric measures in general is like talking of the
reliability of projective tests, questionnaires, or
rating scales without noticing that the range of relia-
bility coefficience within any one of these techniques
(depending upon the particular variety examined, the

group being studied, the variables used, etc.) is much

183

greater than the difference to attain these techniques

(41:424).

Validity of Sociometric Data

 

A question of whether or not the sociometric test
measures what it purports to measure is also important.
In this study, emphasis was placed on incidence or actual
facts of interaction or cooperation rather than projec-
tive responses as to whether or not an organization liked
or disliked or cooperated or didn't cooperate with another
organization. The organizations were asked to indicate
whether they did cooperate in actual programs or projects
or sharing of resources of other organizations. This did
not rule out, of course, wishful thinking or misinforma-
tion on the part of respondents; however, it did tend to
establish specifically the requirements of criteria
necessary for indicating a working relationship.

Lindzey and Borgatta point out that there is a
question of systematic biases on the part of the subject
which may lead to deception in their responses. For
reasons of dislike, a resentment, Or insecurity the sub-
jects may be motivated to give untruthful pictures of the
organizations they would actually like to interact with
in particular activities (41:223). In these cases such
problems of dislike or insecurity are less likely to

exist or interfere with validity because actual working

184

and planning relationships are being measured rather than
desired interactions. In addition, there is a check upon
systematic biases, since the crucial measure of inter-
action is the mutual agreement by two organizations that
indeed such interaction does exist.

In summation, the concept of sociometry proposed
by Lindzey and Borgatta and the method of data analysis
conceived by Forsyth and Katz form the basis for looking

at the interaction among organizations in this study.

Critique of Method

 

Sociometric Application

 

Damson analyzed the technical problems associated
with the use of the sociometric method as used in this
study (15:64-105). He also addressed himself to the
question of the use of the sociometric approach as applied
to an organizational setting. Golembiewski stated that
there are at least three substantial difficulties con-
cerning the use of sociometric techniques in group study.

First, there is the problem raised of what sociometric

choice conceptually is ; second, there seems to be a
similar difficulty on the operational level concerning
the location of or quantification of sociometric choice.
Finally, the predictive aspect of sociometric choice with

regard to certain group goals is hindered by poor

research design and "conceptual inprecision" (27:110-117).

185

Sociometric choice.—-Damson noted that it has

 

been found that at least two dimensions may be operating
with regard to sociometric choice on a particular vari-
able, as opposed to the previous thoughts (e.g., Lindzey
that sociometric choice merely involves attraction,
repulsion of persons for each other). These two dimen-
sions are "affectional" and "instrumental." Related to
these dimensions are the aspects of public and private
choice, which involves the question of focus of socio-
metric choice. This is to say that private choice would.
reflect sociometric selection on the basis of an inter-
personal type of feeling, whereas public choice would
involve the taking into account of one's recognition of
his role within the relative group or groups. In short,
affectional and instrumental dimensions plus public and
private considerations influence sociometric response.
Damson commented that "recognition of these facts is
necessary not only so that test design may be 'tightened'
but also so that results may be interpreted more ade-
quately" (15:66). The above items deal with the diffi-
culties related to sociometric choice.

Sociometric scoring.--A second difficulty involved

 

in the use of sociometric techniques, as outlined by
Golembiewski, is the lack of refinement at the operational
level (27:110-117). Essentially, the problem at this

level is whether you can sum equally weighted attraction

186

values to arrive at a sociometric rank. The problem
arising here is one of whether the scores given can be
meaningfully combined in view of the variable individual
motivations and degree of choice intensity operating.
Damson also noted the associated difficulty of accounting
for the relative sociometric standing of the choice
makers themselves in the weighing of respective scores
(15:67). In this study, admittedly, there was little in
the scoring procedure to permit any valid discussion of
intensity of sociometric choice. Northway suggested
another difficulty involved with choice intensity in
sociometric scoring (54:14):

The possibility is that the sociometric test itself
will not provide the answer to the problem of per-
sonal intensity in human relations. This will have
to be investigated through other measures. One
attempt to take this factor of different intensity
into account was to give weights Of say 5, 3, l to
a first, second or a third choice. This was criti-
cized as being arbitrary. . . . It must be remembered,
however, that to consider each choice statistically
equivalent, in terms of psychological factors is in
itself an arbitrary decision.

Another point was made by Criswell when she com-
mented that (14:389):

Another scoring problem concerns the possible pre-
dictive usefulness of choices received not only by the
individual himself but by those who choose him.
Possibly it is better to receive six choices from
individuals well chosen than to receive six choices
from isolates. One solution to this problem is the
scoring method recently completed by Leo Katz, in
which individuals status measure takes into account
not only the number of choices he receives but also
the choice status of each individual who chooses him,
the status of each individual who chooses him, the
status of each who chooses these in turn, etc.

187

Predictability of sociometry.--Another problem is
the predictability, concerning the productivity or effec-
tiveness of sociometrically self-chosen groups. Simply
because a group is sociometrically self-selected does not
mean that it will of necessity form a functional effective
unit. The implication is, of course, that reciprocal
sociometric selection means optimal performance in groups,
and this is not necessarily the case. In short, even
though it may appear that if certain sociometric channels
have been identified, there is no reason to believe that
these arrangements will be effective in the intiation and
implementation of development programs. No guarantee
exists that those organizations which are perceived as
having a high degree of interaction would maintain or
permit such relations in a service operation such as the
one implied. It is thus difficult to generalize or
transpose a sociometric pattern to a new situation requir-
ing cooperative relationships on a project. One cannot
say that the sociometric patterns identified will lead
to a viable development program, but one could say that
the sociometric survey could affect or influence the
nature of such a program.

Fixed choice.--Olmstead when he commented that

 

"even when a respondent has a clear opinion, a fixed
alternative question may not give an adequate representa-

tion of it because none of the choices corresponds exactly

188

to his position, or because they do not allow for quali-
fications" (55:95-99). Olmstead commented "this restric-
tion is wonderfully convenient from the point of view of
the investigator but leaves much to be desired as a
method of apprehending the complexities of reality" (55:
98). Selltiz, et al., commented further that (62:262):
The enclosed question has the advantage of focusing
the respondent‘s attention on the dimension of the
problem on which the investigator is interested; by
the same token, it does not provide information about
the respondent's own formulation of the issue, the
frame of reference in which he perceives it, the
factors that are salient for him, the motivations
that underline his opinions.
In essence, the fixed choice situation, although it may
be economically and statistically convenient, does not
provide for in-depth information on dynamic on-going
group process. Ideally then, an open-ended technique of
some kind would be necessary to probe the depth of
relationships.

Sociometric response and administration.--Another
criticism is that the information received may be mis-
leading or incomplete because the respondent deliberately
seeks to conceal or protect actual opinions or attitudes.
In short, organizations may be hesitant to submit to
questioning concerning their relationships with other
organizations. In addition, there is a tendency in the

use of sociometric data to confer undue importance to it

and the data gained. A complete dependence upon

 

189

sociometric data is unwarranted. It should be supple-
mented by other information and, if possible, by Other
testing procedures.

Sociometric transposition: individual to organi-
zation.--A final problem encountered in this technique
is the assumption that the method utilized in small group
situations can be transposed or an organizational milieu.
This transposition to the organizational level assumes
that the respondents do in fact accurately reflect organ-
izational behavior. Thus, many of the merits of such a
system are transferred to the organizational milieu as
well as many of the faults. In this study the effort
was to see that the individuals at the highest level of
the organization would have an opportunity to indicate
which organizations their organization interacted with.
It was felt that personnel above a certain hierarchical
level were in a better position to indicate or reflect
organizational behavior than those incumbents of lower
position. In this study an effort was made in each case
to choose the personnel in the organization who were at
the top of the Operating aspect of the organization in
day-to-day Operations.

The role expectations indigenous to positions
within the organizational hierarchy had a definite
influence in shaping and molding the perspective role Of

the incumbant. In short, the respondent's hierarchical

 

190

position within an organizational structure influences
his perspectives concerning organizational direction.
The extent to which the control of positional variable

has influenced the data is debatable (15:88).

APPENDIX G

INTERVIEWS WITH LEADERS OF

COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS

191

APPENDIX G
INTERVIEWS WITH LEADERS OF

COMMUNITY ORGANIZATIONS

Interviews with Educational
Organizations

 

 

The predominate interaction for educational organ—
izations was the development Of an Educational Coopera-
tive composed of board members of 10 school districts
and a full-time professional staff. One superintendent
referred to the Cooperative as an extra-legal political
cooperative made legally possible through High School
District 896. The nature Of cooperation between school
districts centered around services jointly received
through the cooperative and through articulation of edu-
cational programs between elementary and secondary dis-
tricts.

The specific examples of interaction between
educational organizations and other organizations were
Often cited. One outstanding example was the work of
High School District 896 with local park districts to
build and share facilities. The Heights Park District
held a referendum to build the building to hold a swim—

ming pool with a 20-year agreement for use of the

192

193

facility by the high school for physical education and
swimming teams. In addition, the high school contributed
money to pay for one-half of the construction plus a
prorata cost of operation.

An informal but influential form of interaction
in the educational organizations took place in the regular
meetings of the superintendents of each of the school dis-
tricts. The Educational Cooperative actually grew out Of
this informal interaction when the superintendents came
up with a substantial list of areas where they were will-
ing to try to COOperate.

The educational organizations also indicated
working relationships with the municipal governments in
their districts. The School District 896 mentioned the
use of information from the villages in helping develop
their enrollment projections. District 85 mentioned an
emerging cooperation with the Village of Heights in
development of drug abuse programs, the development of a
cultural commission and in joint planning. Several Of
the school districts mentioned the importance of cooper-
ation with the planning commissions of each of the
villages. One superintendent mentioned that a weak area
of the schools was in working with the governmental
boards to find out what construction was going on in the
village. For some school districts, the problem of artic-
ulating with governing boards is compounded because the

school districts overlap in several different villages.

194

Interviews with Health
OrganizatiOns

 

The health organizations were in the process of
organizing to conduct a health referendum designed to
provide comprehensive mental health services for the
entire area. Several of the individuals interviewed in
mental health organizations referred to the fact that
the organizations were past the point where a small
organization could meet the comprehensive mental health
needs of the Community. They saw their mission as com-
bining resources to provide a comprehensive mental
health service for the entire community. The interest
in the referendum was developed because most of the local
organizations were no longer receiving local tax money
from the area townships. One director of an organization
stated that cooperation depended upon money. If there
wasn't enough to go around, they would have to cooperate.
On the other hand, if two organizations were both able to
provide the services needed, there would be no need for
cooperation.

Both of the hospitals in the community studied
expressed interest in developing comprehensive health
services. One director of the Catholic Hospital men-
tioned that we had a sick system program in the community—-
not a health system. He felt that there was a need to
organize resources better to meet the existing needs. One

way mentioned was to avoid duplication of services in the

 

195

several health institutions. The director of the Commu—
nity Hospital noted that people living in the community
would not tax themselves to provide for health services
so that they in effect push the responsibility up to the
next higher level of government which means more control
from federal money in the health field. He also men-
tioned that the hospitals were being forced to act
cooperatively because of the economics of the situation.
Economics had also prevented the hospitals from taking

a pro-active role in prevention of health problems and
in rehabilitation.

Overall emphasis of the health organization
seemed to be on strengthening cooperation with other
health agencies and, secondarily, the interest was in
developing cooperation with organizations in other

subsystems.

Social Welfare Organizations

 

Social welfare organizations appeared to be tied
closely to their funding sources. The West Youth Com-
mission was dependent upon the West Township Government,
and the Grove Community Service was dependent upon the
Village of Grove. The other social welfare organizations
seemed to indicate a need to extend their cooperative
relationships so as to expand their financial and influ-
ence base. It seemed as though the social welfare organ-

izations were seeking support from other organizations

 

196

but lacked influence because of limited funds, misinfor-
mation about their programs, and a general mistrust of
the purpose of social welfare organizations.

Governing Boards--Village
and Township

 

 

Most of the participants in the study represent- F1
ing village and township governing boards indicated that

there was a tremendous duplication of services among

 

governing boards in equipment, services and other areas. «
One village president mentioned that the relationships :j
between governing boards generally could be reduced to
the relationships between the presidents of the respec-
tive boards. If these two individuals got along, cooper-
ation would follow. He further mentioned existing mutual
aid in fire, police, water, purchasing of salt, and
central dispatching. Four communities had formed a cor-
poration to work on the problem of increasing demands
for water.

A common problem mentioned by the village presi-
dents was that of zoning and building of apartments.
The location and density as well as esthetic and economic
concerns of residents seemed to present many problems for
the village governments. A source of potential conflict
existed between the authority of township government and
the authority of municipal governments. Much of this
conflict centered on the maintenance and jurisdiction over

roads.

197

The village governments often mentioned that
they cooperated with the school districts in negotiating
with developers to donate or set aside land for sites
for school districts. However, some village presidents
indicated that they were not satisfied with the cooper-
ation between school districts and villages. In partic-
ular, a couple of village presidents complained that
they had not been given Opportunities to look over the
plans for schools, and, as a result, some schools were
built on the worst ground in the village.

One mayor talked at length about cooperation
because he was not necessarily happy about the amount
of cooperation between agencies in the community. He
noted that there were great differences between the
governments of the different villages. Some local
governments have a professional administration and others
have a political administration. He stressed that eco-
nomic necessity would eventually bring about cooperation,
and people would have to conform to a common plan because
the state legislature will force them. He said that our
experience showed that the legislature will respond to
six communities but not to one. Thus, the villages will
have to get together.

Relationships between township and village govern-
ments appeared to be minimal; however, townships had more

interaction with the county boards. The townships have

198

worked at developing programs in social services for
youth and also providing for mental health assistance.
This is generally carried out by a committee on youth

and a mental health committee.

Interviews with Park Districts
In this community, the local park districts are n
a separate taxing body with a board which is capable of

conducting referendums to provide for building and

 

Operational funds. This allows the park districts to a
be a self-contained and autonomous organization. The
park district boundaries do not necessarily coincide
with municipal or school district boundaries. The major
sources of cooperation between park districts appeared
to be with school districts in the development of pro-
grams and in the sharing of facilities. To a lesser
degree, the park districts indicated some cooperation
with governing boards, but the extent of this cooperation
was minimal. Generally, park districts were developed
with the assistance of either the local government or
a local school district. Village boards, in some cases,
helped the recreational organizations by insuring that
developers of the community set aside sites for park
districts.

One administrator of a park district was very
concerned that the public agencies (schools, governing

boards and park districts) get together to effectively

199

use their tax dollars to provide the maximum amount of
services. He cautioned that if these agencies didn't
get together, the people would force them. In most cases
the directors of the park districts indicated a desire
to work directly with superintendents of public schools
rather than the principals of the individual buildings.
This appeared to be a desire for status and recognition,
as well as an effort to avoid petty arguments with indi-
viduals they regarded as functionaries.

Interviews with Economic

Organizations

The heads of economic organizations tended to
view the efforts of local governing boards in a negative
way. A comment was made by one head of the Chamber of
Commerce that the peOple running the governing boards were
not business-minded people. Another president of a dif-
ferent Chamber of Commerce commented that the heads of
governing boards were middle or lower-middle management
people lacking executive style.

By and large, the economic organizations were
interested in cooperative relationships with local
villages concerning matters which affected the welfare
of commerce and industry. They were particularly inter-
ested in the layout and maintenance of streets, fire and
police protection, lighting, drainage, and zoning. One

president of an economic organization suggested that

200

organizations of commerce and industry were formed to
get what individual firms are not able to get from the
village. Chambers of Commerce were also concerned about
parking, parking meters and the enforcement problem.

Interviews with the Religious, Family
and Voluntary OrganizatiOns !

 

These interviews were oriented more towards the
problems inherent in the community. In general, COOper—
ative relationships between these organizations and
other subsystems was infrequent.

Interviews with Political
Organizations

The Republican Organizations in the community
appeared to wield the most influence in the area. The
tie between Republican Organizations and township govern-
ment was the strongest with several individuals holding
a township government position and also acting as a
township committeeman or some other politically influ-
ential position. The Democratic Organizations were
striving to extend their influence into the community.

A controversial issue was partisan politics in village
government. While several of the individuals interviewed
indicated that they would like to see Democratic and
Republican politics out of village government, most felt
that it was inevitable that it would be involved. In

some villages, the parties already run slates of

201

candidates for the village trustee positions as well as
other local positions.
Interviews with Planning
and Zoning Boards

In many ways it became evident that the planning
and zoning commissions had a major influence in the
direction of growth in the community. They were charged
with the responsibility of maintenance of zoning ordi-

nances and the development of the plans which incorporate

 

ordinances. In addition, they served at the interface
between developers seeking to build multi-family con-
struction and the desires of the private resident. Many
of the heads of these boards spoke of the lack of
definition of the role of the zoning board vis-a-vis the
planning board. In addition, they noted that the master
plans for the community were often idealistic, out of
date, and lacked the commitment of the village board.
One head of a zoning board noted that the function of
the zoning and planning boards was to keep the community
from being exploited while growing in appropriate ways.
Several mentioned that it was their role to mediate the
opposing demand for a clean, uncluttered and unconcen-
trated community and the need to handle the vast growth.
In terms of cooperation, the planning and zoning
boards interacted directly with the village governments

as an arm of the government, and worked to a lesser

202

degree with educational organizations, park districts,
and specific community groups like homeowners associa-

tions, chambers of commerce, and groups of builders.

 

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