A STUDY OF THE ENGLISH TEACHER ROLE IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL AS PERCEIVED BY STUDENT TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH Thesss for the Degree 'of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSIT‘? W GLADYS MAY BECKWITH ‘ 1968 .'*' TH E506 LIB R A R Y Michigan ‘Etttte University ”J O tttttttth\\l\t\1t\lz\t§tt\\Lttttttt This is to certify fthatzthe _ thesis entitled -- -‘ ‘ A STUDY OF THE ENGLISH TEACHER ROLE IN t THE SECONDARY SCHOOL AS RERCEIVED BY STUDENT TEACHERS AND SUPERVISoRY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH presented by ' Gladys May Beckwah “ has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for __P_h. D. __ degree in_____ Edilcqtipn 't A “(r ,. . . /_- A) f.) r 0'! Major professor 0-169 t‘ smoma ay HMS & SUNS' BOOK nTNIJEAY INC 1 LIBF Ry Rmogns 3" IIUCN'SI. ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE ENGLISH TEACHER ROLE IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL AS PERCEIVED BY STUDENT TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH by Gladys May Beckwith This study had two major concerns: (1) to ascer- tain the kinds and amounts of agreement and disagreement existing between experienced English teachers and students preparing to become English teachers about the role of the English teacher in the secondary school, and (2) to find out if the role of the English teacher is perceived dif- ferently by males and females. Two hypotheses were tested. H1: That in areas relating to the classroom perfor- mance aspects of the English teacher role, stu- dent expectations of the role will exhibit a greater degree of agreement with the expectations of experienced teachers than will student expec- tations which relate to out-of-classroom perfor- mance aspects of the role. H : That because of the influence of the latent sex role, the expectations of the English teacher role held by men and women teachers of English and my men and women students preparing to become teach- ers of English will be differentiated. An original instrument, the English Teacher Role Inventory, was developed for the study, making use of the model instrument employed by Gross, Mason and McEachern Gladys May Beckwith in their study of the school superintendency role. The definition of teacher role adopted by the National Commis- sion on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, com- monly referred to as the "California definition," was used as a framework for the instrument. This definition lists six dimensions of the teacher role: (1) Director of Learning, (2) Counselor and Guidance Worker, (3) Mediator of the Culture, (4) Link with the Community, (5) Member of a Faculty, and (6) Member of a Profession. The English Teacher Role Inventory consisted of a total of ninety-six items. Each of the six role dimensions identified by the "California definition" of the teacher role was represented by sixteen items. Responses were solicited by means of a five-step scale, ranging from a positive position of "absolutely must" to a negative posi- tion of "absolutely must not." The ninety-six items of the inventory were also grouped into three parts: Part I described behaviors of the high school English teacher; Part II described beliefs or values of the high school English teacher, and Part III described expectations of duties, functions and working conditions of high school English teachers. A fourth part of the instrument asked respondents to rank-order the six dimensions of role in order of perceived importance. The questionnaire which was developed, containing the inventory described was sent to a sample composed of Gladys May Beckwith the 81 teachers (27 men and 54 women) who were serving as supervising teachers of English for Michigan State Univer- sity during Winter Term of 1966 and to 72 students (10 men and 62 women) who were completing their programs of preparation as English teachers at Michigan State Univer- sity in the Spring Term of 1966. Returns were received from a total of 52 teachers (17 men and 35 women) or 64% of the original group, and 49 students (8 men and 41 women) or 80% of the original group. To check the reliability of the instrument and gain additional information about individual perceptions of the teacher role interviews were also conducted with 31 students or 63% of the total student group. Information obtained from the interview schedule was used to determine the average co-efficient of reliabil- ity of the instrument. The estimate of reliability was developed by standard test-retest procedures, the results of which produced an average item-response correlation of r = .96 for the subjects tested. Responses of 101 individuals to the ninety-six item English Teacher Role Inventory were tabulated and subjected to analysis of variance tests to determine the degree of difference in the responses of supervisory teach- ers and students and of males and females. The F statistic was used as a means of testing for levels of significant differences in between group variance. The standard p = .05 was employed as the level of significance. Gladys May Beckwith Because the extent of agreement within each group was also a concern some attention was given to those items about which both students and teachers, and males and females, showed consensus. Consideration was also given to those items possessing a mean response score falling within the neutral range of 3.00 - 3.99 since such means appeared to indicate strong lack of consensus in most instances. Data analysis revealed that twenty-two items showed significant differences in responses of teachers and stu- dents at levels equal to or greater than .05. Fourteen of these items related to out-of-class dimensions of the English teacher role; eight to classroom dimensions. In addition, correlation analysis revealed a significant cor- relation by subject status (teacher status or student status) for these same out-of-class dimensions. Link with the Community ranking by subjects correlated with status at a level of r = .362, Member of a Faculty at a level of r = .332, and Member of a Profession at a level of r = .350. Each of these correlations was significant at a level equal to or greater than p = .01. Subject ranking of the within- Class dimensions of the teacher role did not reveal any significant correlation with status. Interview data also suggested that many of the insights experienced by individuals during their student teaching had to do with the out-of-class functions of the Gladys May Beckwith English teacher. Sufficient evidence was acquired by both means to support the first hypothesis of the study. Other results of the study indicated that although teachers and students agreed about many of the in-class functions of the English teacher role, they showed signif- icant disagreement about some of these functions. Students, for example, evidenced a greater concern with contemporary social problems, an enhanced awareness of the individual, and a greater willingness to utilize new instructional materials than did the supervisory teachers. Furthermore, although greater disagreement existed between groups about out-of—class aspects of the role, both groups showed much more disagreement among themselves about these same aspects. For example, 11 of the 16 items about which both teachers and students showed lack of consensus had to do with these dimensions; 9 of the 12 neutral items also pertained to these dimensions. These findings suggested that out-of-class behav- iors are vaguely defined for practicing teachers as well as for student teachers. Analysis of data indicated, with reference to the second hypothesis, that 18 items showed significant dif- ferences in the responses of males and females at levels equal to or greater than p = .05. ‘Although all dimensions contained at least one item Showing significant differences in responses between these groups, two dimensions, Link Gladys May Beckwith with the Community and the Counselor and Guidance Worker accounted for 50% of these item differences. Correlation analysis of the results of subject ranking of the six dimensions of role revealed further that ranking order correlated with sex for the Counselor and Guidance Worker at a level of r = -.298, which was significant at the .01 level. It was apparent that male subjects ranked this particular dimension of role much lower than female sub- jects. The study, then, offered some evidence to support .the second hypothesis that men view the role of the English teacher differently than women. The pattern of responses to the questionnaire projected a view of the male English teacher as being more resentful of external constraints than the female, less aware of students and more cognizant of subject matter concerns. A STUDY OF THE ENGLISH TEACHER ROLE IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL AS PERCEIVED BY STUDENT TEACHERS AND SUPERVISORY TEACHERS OF ENGLISH BY Gladys May Beckwith A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1968 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study is the result of the help and consider- ation of many individuals. The writer wishes first to ac- knowledge the assistance of the Guidance Committee. She is especially grateful to the Chairman of the Committee, Dr. Elizabeth Rusk, who offered encouragement and advice through all stages of the project. The writer is also grateful to Dr. Louise Sause for her many helpful sugges- tions and continued interest in the study. Appreciation is extended to Dr. Walter Johnson and to Dr. Russell Nye for assistance and advice offered at various stages of the project. Special appreciation is extended to The Humanities Teaching Center and to its staff for help in preparation and distribution of study questionnaires and to Dr. Henry Kennedy, Director of the Student Teaching Office for his co-operation in the study. Finally the writer wishes to thank the many stu- dents and teachers who gave freely of their time to make the study possible. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS O O O O O O O I 0 LIST OF TABLES C O O O O O O O 0 LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . CHAPTER I. II. III. IV. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . Review of the Literature Need for the Study . . . Rationale and Statement of Definition of Concepts . The Concept of the Teacher Limitations of the Study Hypotheses Role DEVELOPMENT OF THE INSTRUMENTS OF THE SAMPLE . . . . . Item Construction . . . The Interview Schedule . Sampling Procedures . . Sample Description . . . ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . Role Dimension Correlations The Focused Interview . Analysis of Variance . . CONCLUSIONS Hypothesis I . . . . . . Summary: Hypothesis I . Hypothesis II . . . . . Summary: Hypothesis II Implications of the Study Implications for Further Research iii DESCRIPTION Page ii vii 18 19 27 29 33 36 37 39 42 44 6O 62 64 65 114 114 129 130 137 138 147 Page APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O 150 BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 19 0 iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Community Sizes Represented in Sample of Supervising Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 2. Grade Levels Taught by Supervising Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3. Years of Teaching Experiences of Super- vising Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 4. Reasons Cited by Supervising Teachers for Choosing English Teaching as a Profession . 51 5. Educational Background of Supervising TeaCherS O O I O O O I O O O I O O O O O O 0 S3 6. Communities in Which Students Did Student TeaChing O O O O O O I O O O C O O O O O O O 54 7. Grade Levels Taught by Student Teachers . . . 56 8. Intercorrelation of Rank-Order Preference of Teacher Role Dimension with Subject Status and sex 0 O O O O O O O O O O I O O I I O O 63 9. Items of Significance Related to the Director of Learning Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Status Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 10. Items of Significance Related to the Director of Learning Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Sex Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 11. Items of Significance Related to the Counselor and Guidance Worker Dimension of the English Teacher as Determined by Status Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 12. Items of SignifiCance Related to Counselor and Guidance Worker Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Sex Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Table Page 13. Items of Significance Related to the Mediator of the Culture Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Status Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 14. Items of Significance Related to the Mediator of the Culture Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Sex Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 15. Items of Significance Related to the Link With the Community Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Status Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 16. Items of Significance Related to the Link With the Community Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Sex Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 17. Items of Significance Relating to the Member of the Faculty Dimension of the English Teacher as Determined by Status Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 18. Items of Significance Relating to the Member of the Faculty Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Sex Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 19. Items of Significance Relating to the Member of a Profession Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Status Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 20. Items of Significance Relating to the Member of a Profession Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Sex Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 21. Summary of Item Test Results as Related to Status Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 22. Summary of Item Test Results as Related to Sex Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 vi Appendix A. Participation Request Forms . . . . . . B. Study Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . C. Student Interview Schedule . . . . . . D. Distribution of Rank Order Responses to Six Dimensions of Role by Status . . . . E. Distribution of Rank Order Responses to Six Dimensions of Role by Sex . . . . . . F. Results of Analysis of Variance Tests of Items LIST OF APPENDICES Categorized by Role Dimension . . . . 1. Items Relating to Director of Learning: Status Group Differentiation . 2. Items Relating to Counselor and Guidance Worker: Status Groups Differentiation . . . . . . . 3. Items Relating to Mediator of the Culture: Status Group Differentiation . . . . . . 4. Items Relating to Link with the Commu- nity: Status Group Differentiation . . . . . . . . 5. Items Relating to Member of the Faculty: Status Group Differentiation . 6. Items Relating to Member of a Pro- fession: Status Group Differentiation . . . . . . . . 7. Items Relating to Director of Learning: Sex Group Differentiation . . . 8. Items Relating to Counselor and Guidance Worker: Sex Group Differentiation . . . . . . . . 9. Items Relating to Mediator of the Culture: Sex Group Differentiation . . . . . . . . 10. Items Relating to Link with the Commu- nity: Sex Group Differentiation . . . . . . . . vii Page 151 156 167 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 Appendix Page 11. Items Relating to Member of a Faculty Sex Group Differentiation . . . . . . 184 12. Items Relating to Member of a Pro- fession: Sex Group Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . 185 G. California Teacher Role Definition . . . . . . 186 viii I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Recent years have witnessed a widespread national concern with the teaching of English. In 1961, for example, the Committee on National Interest asserted that "if the teaching of English is to be improved throughout the coun- try bold action must be undertaken on a national scale."1 Recognition has been given to the fact that changes in society and in modes of communication have made the task of the English teacher increasingly difficult.‘ Attempts have been made to clarify the subject matter of English and even a cursory glance through recent professional pub- lications makes clear the concern among educators to develop and disseminate better methods of instruction in English. Most publications and studies concerned with the teaching of English, however, have concentrated upon the classroom competencies of the English teacher. Few have concerned themselves with the total role of the English teacher as it exists in the contemporary secondary schoOl. This is so in spite of the fact that the English teacher role is in some ways quite different from the role of other " 1Committee on National Interest, The National Inter— est and the Teaching of English (Champaign, 111.: National Council of Teachers of English, 1961), p. 3. secondary teachers, a condition noted as early as 1932 by Willard Waller in his classic sociological analysis of the public schools. Waller felt that the English teacher had special problems and developed Special adjustments to them. He maintained, for example, that the teacher of English found it more difficult to take leave of his role than did teachers.of other subjects and that the identification of "English teacher" followed an individual into the community in a way that association with other fields of study did not.2 Westwood, in a recent review of the literature dealing with role, observes that a fruitful approach to the study of the behavior of both pupils and teachers lies in the study of the school as a social system and that the concept of role is one tool frequently used by sociologists in the study of such systems.3 Boy and Pine compare a teacher without a role description to an automobile with- out a steering wheel to emphasize their contention that a clearly defined role is essential to effective teaching.4 2Willard Waller, The Sociology of Teaching (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1932), p. 413. 3L. J. Westwood, "The Role of the Teacher," Educa- tional Research (February, 1967), p. 123. 4Angelo V. Boy and Gerald J. Pine, "Needed for Teachers: A Role Description," Clearing House, XXXVIII (September, 1963), pp. 7-12. Taking a somewhat stronger position, Bossone relates the blurred quality of the definition of the teacher's role and image to problems of teacher effectiveness. It is his feeling that the failure of at least teacher education institutions and administrators if not of the general pub- lic as a whole to agree on the teacher's role affects seriously the beginning teacher's commitment to education.5 In spite of these expressions of concern, however, few investigations have concerned themselves with the pro- cess of role learning in an educational setting. Little attention has been given to the means by which students in general acquire the skill and insight required for effec- tive teaching; almost no study has been made of the diverse expectations held of the English teacher role by the many students preparing to teach English in the secondary schools of the nation. It is unfortunate that so little attention has been given to the expectations of role held by students in a training situation since research indicates that an early acquisition of a set of realistic expectations may be a basic determiner of a student's success or failure in the profession. Such a conclusion is suggested by Neal Gross in a recent survey of the field of educational sociology.6 5Richard M. Bossone, "The Teacher's Dilemma," Pea- body Journal of Education, XXXXI (September, 1963), pp. 9-14. 6Neal Gross, "The Sociology of Education," Sociol- ogeroday: Problems and Prospects, R. K. Merton, L. Broom and L. Cottrell (eds.), (New York: The Basic Books, 1959), pp. 128-152. Robert Kahn takes a Similar position when he maintains that for a person to conform to a role he must know the expecta~ tions held by his role set; that is, he must know something about the rights, duties and responsibilities of his office.7 Sarbin makes a stronger claim in his assertion that a per- son cannot enact a role for which he lacks necessary role expeCtations. Some of these, he goes on to explain, are acquired through intentional instruction and others through incidental learning.8 It may be supposed, then, that students preparing to teach English have certain expectations of their future careers, some of which are based upon prior experiences as students and others upon instruction received during their training program. How realistic these expectations are in terms of the role as it exists in actuality may be ques- tioned. Loban, Ryan and Squire, widely know authorities in the teaching of English, feel that the conception of role possessed by most students preparing to teach English is quite unrealistic. "No greater challenge," they state, 7Robert Kahn, Donald Wolfe, Robert P. Quinn, 35. 31., Organizational Stress: Studies in Role Conflict and Ambiguity (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1964), pp. 22-23. 8Theodore R. Sarbin, "Role Theory," Handbook of Social Psychology, Vol. I, ed. Gardner Lindzey (Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1954), pp. 223-258. "faces the beginning teacher than the task of testing and modifying his theoretical model."9 A distorted image of the type described is likely to occur because students base their model of teaching at least partially upon their own perceptions as students of the teaching act. These perceptions are incomplete at best since they cannot encompass the teacher's views and under- standings and are inexact at worst since they are likely to be distorted by the very act of recollection. This study, then, proposes to examine the role expectations held by students preparing to teach English in the secondary school and to compare these expectations with those formed and maintained by practicing teachers of English. The chief purpose of the study will be to deter- mine the agreement or disagreement which may exist between these two sets of expectations. A secondary purpose will be to investigate in some detail the perceptions of role held by students preparing to teach English after they have completed student teaching, but before they have embarked upon their own professional careers. 9Walter Loban, Margaret Ryan and James R. Squire, Teaching Language and Literature (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, Inc., 1961), p. 2. Review of the Literature The study of role as an aspect of membership in a social system has been a fruitful field of study. Reviews of the concept of role and its relation to the social sys- tem are many. However, the most significant treatments 10 Sarbin,ll Gross, 13 have been those of Neiman and Hughes, 12 Mason and McEachern, and Biddle and Rosencranz. Excellent reviews of the work in role theory relating spe- cifically to the educational system have also been done 14 15 by Brim and by Charters. Perhaps the most recent sur- vey of the field is that of Westwood, a British sociologist who has surveyed the major works up to 1967.16 However, since the present study is concerned with a specialized 10L. J. Neiman and J. W. Hughes, "The Problem of the Concept of Role: A Re-survey of the Literature," Social Forces, XXX (December, 1951), pp. 141-149. llSarbin, op. cit., pp. 223-258. 12Neal Gross, Ward Mason and Alexander McEachern, Explorations in Role Analysis: Studies of the School Super- intendency Role, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1958). 13Bruce J. Biddle, Howard A. Rosencranz and Earl F. Rankin, Jr., Studies in the Role of the Public School Teacher, Vol. 1-5 (Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri, Social Psychological Laboratory, 1961). l4Orville Brim, Sociology and the Field of Education (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1958). 15W. W. Charters, "The Social Background of Teaching," Handbook of Research on Teaching, ed. N. L. Gage (Chicago: Rand McNally & Company, 1963), pp. 715-814. 16 Westwood, Op. cit. treatment of role, namely that of the secondary teacher of English, it seemsopertinent here to consider only those works which bear specifically upon the role of the teacher in the secondary school. Some significant studies of the teacher role have been undertaken in the past. Charters in the Commonwealth Training Study conducted a thorough-going analysis of the 17 Although this particular general position of the teacher. study is somewhat dated, it remains one of the most compre- hensive considerations of its type. Waller's The Sociology of Teaching is also a monumental work in many important respects.18 However, since it was completed in the early thirties, many of the problems it discusses no longer seem relevant to teacher education programs. For example, Wal- ler's description of community controls appears unbelievably stringent in today's world. Although it does not deal specifically with the role of the teacher, perhaps one of the most valuable treatments of role from the viewpoint of the educator is that of Gross, Mason and McEachern who in their classic study of the role of the school superintendent not only unearthed valuable information about this position but also developed a terminology and a procedure for the study of role which has had far reaching implications.19 17W. W. Charters and Douglas Waples, The Commonwealth Teacher TraininggStudy (Chicago, 111.: University of ChiCago Press, 1929). 18Waller, op. cit. 9Gross, Mason, McEachern, op. cit. More recently, Biddle and his associates at the University of Missouri have engaged in detailed investiga- tions of teacher attitudes and expectations with reference to factors of teacher behavior and settings for behavior. These individuals are also working to develop a unified terminology for the study of role.20 A somewhat different approach to the study of teacher role is examplified in the work of Ryans.21 Ryans has concerned himself with identifying, analyzing and describing patterns of classroom behavior and with comparing characteristics of teachers according to such varying fac- tors as age, sex and size of school. Using factor analy- sis as a research technique, he has been able to identify several independent patterns of behavior. Of particular interest insofar as the present study is concerned is the fact that Ryans has been able to establish that differences t in orientations to teaching exist between English teachers and other secondary teachers and between male teachers and female teachers. Several significant studies have been made of the classroom role of the teacher. Wayne Gordon studied the role of the teacher within the larger framework of the 20Biddle, op. cit. 21 . David Ryans, Characteristics of Teachers (Washing- ton, D.C.: American Council on Education, 19607? 22 social system of the school. Brookover was concerned with factors of teaching ability and student achievement as they related to the social background of the teacher,23 24 and Gronlund.25 Musgrove as, to some extent, were Becker and Taylor, British sociologists, focused their attention upon the perceptions of role held by teachers of grammar, junior and infant schools in Britain.26 They found that all teachers tended to conceive of the teacher role in intellectual terms with the middle class teacher holding a more restricted role conception than that held by teachers coming from other social classes. Taking a somewhat dif- fering view of the classroom role of the teacher, Jean Grambs analyzed the role attributes of teachers to conclude 22Wayne C. Gordon, Tpe Spgial System of the High School (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1957). 23Wilbur B. Brookover, "The Social Roles of Teachers and Pupil Achievement," American Sociological Review, VIII (1943), pp. 389-393 and Wilbur B. Brookover, "The Relation of Social Factors to Teaching Ability," Jgprnal of Experi- mental Education, XIII (1945), pp. 451-465. 24Howard S. Becker, "Social Class Variations in the Teacher-Pupil Relationship," Journal of Educational Sociol- ogy, XXV (1952), pp. 451-465. 25Norman E. Gronlund, "Relationship Between the Socio-Metric Status of Pupils and Teachers' Preferences for or Against Having Them in Class," Sociometgy, XVI (1953) pp. 142-150. 26F. Musgrove and Philip H. Taylor, "Teachers' and Parents' Conception of the Teacher's Role," British Journal of Educational Psychology, XXXV, 2, (1965), 171-179. 10 , that the successful teacher is likely to be one who has had opportunities to participate in many activities involv- ing young people.27 Relations of the teacher to the community have also received the attention of several investigators. The posi- tion of the teacher in the community was extensively stud- 28 Cook used ied by Cook and his students in the 1930's. survey techniques to collect extensive information about the participation of teachers in community life. His con- clusion that the teacher's role in the community was that of a stranger, a person in the community but not of it, was similar to that of Waller who was working at approxi- mately the same time. More recent studies, however, such as those of Hines and Curran provide some evidence that 29 community restriants appear to be lessening. Robert's finding that participation in the community was a factor 27Jean Grambs, "The Sociology of the Born Teacher," Journal of Educational Sociology, XXV (1952), pp. 532-54. 28L. A. Cook, Community Backgrounds of Education (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1938); L. A. Cook and R. B. Almack, '"The Community Participation of 2,870 Ohio Teachers," Egg: cational Administration and Supervision, XXV (1939) pp. 107-119; L. A. Cook and Florence Greenhoe, "Community Con- tacts of 9,122 Teachers," Social Forces, XIX (1940), pp. 63-72; L. A. Cook, R. B. Almack and Florence Greenhoe, "Teacher and Community Relations," American Sociological Review, III (1938), pp. 167-174; Florence Greenhoe, Commu- nity Contacts and Participation of Teachers (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Public Affairs, 1941). 29Vynce A. Hines and Robert L. Curran, "The School and Community Forces," Review of Education Research, XXV (1955). pp. 48-60. 11 which tended to expand the role of the teacher provides additional evidence that teachers are no longer barred from a meaningful community life.30 Taking a somewhat different approach to the study of the teacher in the community, Jenkins and Lippett focused on teacher-parent, teacher-student and parent-student rela- 31 Their tionships in a Massachusetts junior high school. study provided some evidence that many teachers apparently perceived parents inaccurately as making demands upon them which were difficult for them to fulfill. Manwiller attempted to ascertain the extent of agreement existing between teachers and boards of education about what constitutes acceptable and unacceptable teacher behavior.32 A significant finding here was that many pat— terns of behavior of school boards are determined by mem- bers' perceptions of how their communities think. Drobice found that social position related to the ability to perceive 30Charles T. Roberts, "Elements Which Have Extended the Role of the Teacher and the Influence of These Elements on Teacher Duties in One School System," (unpublished doc- toral dissertation, University of Texas, 1960). 31David H. Jenkins and Ronald Lippett, Interpersonal Perceptions of Teachers, Students and Parents (Washington, D.C.: NaEional Education Association, Division of Adult Education Service, 1951). 32L. V. Manwiller, NExpectations Regarding Teachers," Journal of Experimental Education, XXVII (1958), pp. 315-354. 12 accurately the role of the teacher and that teachers fre- quently tended to accept the norms of the community.33 The preceding summary provides some evidence that certain areas exist in the study of role about which we have little information. We have, for example, little research conducted on the teacher education process from the framework of role theory. In an article on the sociol- ogy of education, Gross asserts that "we have little knowl- edge of the mechanisms involved in a student's acquisition of professional educational shifts and values."34 In a similar vein Brim writes, "very much needed are comparable studies of the ways in which educators or teachers acquire 35 Westwood writ- knowledge of the roles they are to play." ing in 1967 makes a related claim when he states that few studies have been done on role learning and most of those which have been done relate to the medical profession.36 Another aspect of role which needs further inves- tigation is that of the agreement or disagreement which exists between teachers who are engaged in teaching and students who are participating in programs of teacher training. 33Lawrence Drobice_ "Perceptions of the Public School Teacher's Role as a Correlate of Social Position," (unpub- 1ished doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1960). 34Gross, "The Sociology of Education," p. 149. 35Brim, Op. cit., p. 54. 36Westwood, 0p. cit., p. 123. 13 Brookover writing in 1955 noted that few studies have been concerned with role expectations and that "we have no sat- isfactory studies of factors relating to divergence between role expectation and the teacher's definition [of role]."37 Since that time some studies have been conducted in this area, however. Finlayson and Cohen, for example, studied role expectations of female students and head teachers in 38 They primary and secondary schools of Great Britain. 'were concerned with four sectors of the teacher role: organization, general aims, motivation and classroom man- agement. They found widespread disparity in expectations between teachers and students in all four areas. Head teachers, for example, appeared much more likely than stu- dents to believe in the value of grouping children by aca- demic attainment, more inclined to believe in the importance of discipline and generally more disposed to stress the importance of conformity to social norms. Fishburn in his analysis of the ways in which administrators and teachers of varying levels of experience perceived the teacher role was concerned with differential perceptions of role although his study did not focus specifically upon the teacher- 37Wilbur B. Brookover, "Research on Teacher and Administrator Roles," Journal of Educational Sociology, XXIX (1958), p. 11. 38D. L. Finlayson and L. Cohen, "Teacher's Role-- A Comparative Study of the Conceptions of College of Edu- cation Students and Head Teachers," British Journal of Edu- cation Psychology, XXXVII'(February,71967), 22-31. 14 student relationship. Fishburn was also able to conclude that age and length of professional experience appeared most related to differences in role perception and that teaching assignments and socio-economic level appeared least related.39 In spite of these studies, however, the study of agreement and disagreement in role expectations remains limited. It is significant,_too, particularly for the pur- poses of the present study that most of the work done on teacher role has concentrated upon the more general aspects of role or those which, theoretically at least, all teachers may be said to share. For example, few studies have con- cerned themselves with the influence of sex upon the ori- entation of the teacher. Mason, Dressel and McBain have discussed their perceptions of the sex role orientation 40 They have con- in relationship to beginning teachers. cluded that for many women teaching becomes a contingent role rather than a dominant one and that men differ from women in tending more frequently to see teaching not as a career in itself but as a stepping stone to other Oppor- tunities. Ryans' study of teacher characteristics is, 39C. E. Fishburn, "Teacher's Role Perception in the Secondary School," Journal of Teacher Education, XIII (March, 1962), pp. 55-59. 40Ward Mason, Robert Dressel and Robert Bain, "Sex Role and the Career Orientations of Beginning Teachers," Readings in the Social Psychology of Education, ed. W. W. Charters, Jr. and N. L. Gage (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1963), 278-287. 15 perhaps, the most outstanding work at the present time to take cognizance of the influence of the sex role upon teachers although it should be remembered that Ryans was concerned with the characteristics of teachers rather than with the study of the teacher role.41 Little investigation has been made of the special- ized roles of teachers of different subjects in the secon- dary school. Study of the English teacher role is espe- cially limited, for a survey of the literature reveals that although books and articles concerned with the teaching of English abound in discussion of what various authorities feel is the role of the English teacher, only two empirical studies concern themselves with the role as it appears to exist. In 1949 Baker surveyed the literature in an attempt to ascertain the role of the English teacher as it was por- trayed in the literature relating to the teaching of English and to indicate the frequency with which various responsi- bilities were approved in professional publications.42 He also attempted by means of a questionnaire to determine the reactions of one hundred practicing teachers of English to 26 responsibilities given high saliency in the literature 41Ryans, op. cit. 42Harold Stewart Baker, The High School English Teacher: Cpncept of Professional Responsibility and Role (Torento: The Ryerson Press, 1939). l6 relating to the teaching of English. His survey of the literature allowed him to identify some sixteen separate roles entailing a formidable number of responsibilities. He concluded from the findings of his questionnaire that the kind of training an individual receives is perhaps more important than either length of training or years of teaching experience in determining perception of teaching responsi— bilities. Thus, professional educational preparation pro- duces a greater awareness of the importance of listening, usage, media of communication and vocational guidance to effective English teaching. Training in the liberal arts contributes to the development in English teachers of a sense of the importance of reading, listening, thinking and being aware of the literary heritage. The major lim- itation of Baker's study is that it is based upon a survey and interpretation of the literature available in 1949. It has historical significance but little relevance for today's teacher. Moreover, although Baker concerned him- self with the perceptions of experienced teachers, he did not address himself specifically to the problems of teacher education. The second study was conducted by Shafer at Teacher's College, Columbia. Shafer studied the role expectations of nineteen students preparing to teach English and 17 participating in the fifth year of a five year teacher education program.43 He was concerned with investigating (1) how each individual perceived his role as teacher, (2) how consonant these perceptions of role were with the actual definition and (3) how practice in the role affected perception and acquisition of role concepts. His findings indicated that these nineteen subjects tended to see the English teacher role in terms of classroom behaviors and that perceptions of other aspects of role came as a result of experience. Shafer concluded from his findings that students need early in their careers a statement of role and that they also need a wide range of experiences in pub- lic school programs if their assessments of their future careers are to be accurate. A serious limitation of Shafer's study, of course, lies in the small number of individuals making up his sample. In addition, since all members of the sample were graduates participating in a fifth year training program, it becomes difficult to generalize from his findings to programs of undergraduate training. Finally Shafer did not attempt to compare student role expectations with those of practicing teachers. 43Robert Shafer, "Concepts of Role in Prospective Teachers of English: A Type C Project," (unpublished doc- toral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1958). 18 Need for the Study The preceding summary indicates that certain gaps exist in the investigation of role. For example, few stu- dies have been made of the role expectations held by expe- rienced teachers or by students who are engaged in programs of teacher education. .Study of the agreement or disagree- ment in role expectations existing between those who occupy a teaching position and those who are preparing to occupy a teaching position is particularly limited. Lacking, too, is study of specialized teacher roles in general and study of the English teacher role in particular. The present study, then, concerned as it is with assessing the agree— ment or disagreement in role expectations existing between those already teaching English and those preparing to teach English should provide some much needed information. A study of the kind proposed should also prove par- ticularly useful to prospective teachers, to institutions concerned with teacher training and to administrators and senior teachers in high schools. For example, the fore- going discussion has indicated that it is the opinion of some authorities that a clearly defined set of role expec- tations facilitates the performance of a role. If students preparing to teach English understand the full scope of the English teacher role, they are less likely to feel shock at unexpected demands when they assume their profes- sional poSitions. Knowledge of areas of agreement and l9 disagreement existing between students and teachers about role functions should provide teacher preparation institu- tions with some satisfactions in areas where agreement between groups exists and some suggestions for program modification in areas where differences show themselves. Finally, such knowledge should help administrators and pub- lic school personnel provide better guidance for beginning teachers. It should provide, for example, some information about kinds of in-service programs which might be most valuable in socializing new teachers into unfamiliar dimen- sions of the English teacher role. For all of these rea- sons, then, assessment of areas of conflict or divergence in expectations of the English teacher role should make for better English teaching in the public schools. Rationale and Statement of Hypotheses One of the basic theoretic postulates in the study of role is George Herbert Mead's concept of the development of the self. Mead maintained that the self is a social structure developed by internalizing the reactions of others through a process of socialization. This process occurs in two stages: during the first stage, the individual self is formed by an organization of attitudes of other indi- viduals toward him; during the second stage, the self is formed not only by an organization of attitudes of partic— ular individuals but also by a similar organization of 20 attitudes of the social group to which the individual belongs.44 Since role to Mead is an aspect of self devel- oped through a series of self-other contacts, role learning becomes the process of taking on the role of the other through the process of socialization described. Mead's concept applied to the teacher role implies that the student will learn about the role of teacher through the associations and experiences he has with teachers who are fulfilling their teaching roles. This learning is not an immediate process, of course, since it involves many years of exposure to a variety of teachers in a variety of situations. Nor is it likely to be an easy process since the transition from student to teacher involves what Roland Warren has called an almost complete role reversal as the student moves from the relatively free and easy sociability of the student environment to the responsible and perhaps somewhat isolated environment of the teacher.45 This tran- sition is also likely to be further complicated because most students see not the whole but only a portion of the role of the teacher. 44George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self and Sociepy Chicago, 111.: University of Chicago Press, 1934). 45Roland L. Warren in an unpublished manuscript cited by W. W. Charters in "The Social Background of Teaching," Handbook of Research in Teachin , ed. N. L. Gage (Chicago, 111.: Rand McNally & Company, 1963), p. 752. 21 Irving Goffman in his recent book, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, presents a description of role particularly relevant to the teacher training situation.46 Goffman feels that most roles have two regions, a front region and a back region. The front region of any role as Goffman describes it, is that part of the role which is visible to a general observor. Behaviors performed in this region serve to define the position for those who serve in it and, hence, are somewhat prescribed and formal. They may also require a certain setting, manner or appearance for their adequate fulfillment. For example, a doctor in his consulting room talking with a patient or a lawyer in the court room defending a client are both demonstrating behaviors belonging to the front regions of their roles. Unlike the front region, the back region of a role is bounded by barriers to perception and is, therefore, much less visible. Behavior in this region is likely to be quite informal as it serves as a place for the prepara- tion of performances which are later enacted in the front region. Thus the lawyer preparing his case and the doctor developing his diagnosis are enacting "back region" aspects of their roles. If this two region description is applied to the role of the teacher, the classroom then becomes the place #4. 46Irving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Every- day Life (New York: Doubleday & Company, 1959). 22 where front region dimensions of role are enacted. Here the behavior of the teacher as he interacts with students and colleagues is, to some extent, prescribed and formal. It may be quite different from the behavior of the same teacher as he participates in a faculty meeting or talks with other teachers in the faculty lounge. It is the class- room behavior, however, that is most frequently observed by students and that is most likely to serve as the basis for their conceptions of what teachers do or of what teach- ing is. Back regions of the teacher role include such "behind the scenes? aspects of the teacher behavior as relationships with administrators, with other teachers, with professional organizations and with parents and other members of the community. The teacher's own private life is also a part of this back region of role. Opportunity for students to observe goings on in this region before they enter the profession is, of course, limited. This fact is emphasized by Jean Grambs in her study of teacher attributes. Grambs maintains that although everyone knows the teacher, few know the teaching process. This situation develops at least partially she feels because certain areas important to teaching, particularly the private life of the teacher, are hidden from the student.47 47Grambs, op. cit., pp. 532-534. 23 If the assumption that roles are acquired through a process of socialization holds true, it would seem that students having only limited experiences with the role of the English teacher would also develop limited and perhaps inaccurate conceptions of this role as it is defined and practiced by experienced teachers of English. It may also be speculated that since students have had more opportuni- ties to observe the classroom behaviors of English teachers than to observe other behaviors related to such teaching, their expectations of the classroom aspects of the English teacher role will be more closely aligned with reality than will their expectations of dimensions of role which they have had little opportunity to observe. The first hypoth- esis of this study is based on this reasoning. It reads as follows: That in areas relating to the classroom performance aspects of the English teacher role, student expecta- tions of the role will exhibit a greater degree of agreement with expectations of experienced teachers than will student expectations which relate to out of classroom performance aspects of the same role. Because of differences in individual perceptions, modes of socialization and other individual considerations, differences exist between roles as they are defined by expectations and roles as they are actually performed. That the role expectations associated with a given position may also vary to some extent was clearly illustrated in the' study of the role of the school superintendent conducted by Gross, Mason and McEachern. 24 One of the sources of these differences in expec- tations is the sex role of the individuals concerned, a role which has:received little attention by social scien- tists. Alvin Gouldner comments upon this lack of study in his article devoted to a discussion of manifest and latent roles. He writes: Even in a world on which Freudian theory has made its impact many sociologists give little indication of the fact that the people they study in offices, factories, schools or hospitals are also men and women. The soci- ologist's assumption often seems to be that the latent indentities and roles are as irrelevant as the people whom they are studying conventionally pretend.4 Gouldner defines a manifest role as one which is generally regarded by members of a group as being relevant and impor- tant to a given situation; the occupational role of an indi- vidual is, for example, a manifest role. A latent role he considers one that is generally regarded by members of a group as being less relevant to the situation; age and sex are both latent roles. Although these latent roles are frequently overlooked in the study of behavior, Gouldner feels that their influence may be great. In fact, he main- tains, these roles may well account for some of the dif- ferences in behavior and beliefs observed among those 49 occupying the same manifest role. This assumption applied 48Alvin W. Gouldner, "Cosmopolitan and Locals: Toward an Analysis of Latent Social Roles-I," Administra- tive Science Quarterly, II (December, 1957), p. 285. 49 Ibid. 25 to the present study suggests that the behavior of the teacher enacting the teaching role (the manifest role) may be influenced by differences in sex (the latent role). Although few investigations of the teacher role have taken sex differences into consideration, those which have concerned themselves with this variable provide sup- port for the contention that differences in sex may account for certain differences in teacher behavior. Ryans found, for example, that pronounced and fairly general differences existed between the sexes in the secondary school. The w0men in his sample generally scored higher than men on scales measuring understanding and friendly behavior, stim- ulating and imaginative classroom behavior, favorable atti- tudes toward pupils and permissive educational viewpoints. The men teachers whom he studied scored higher than women 50 Fishburn in on scales measuring emotional stability. his study of perceptions of role held by administrators and various groups found that the men in his sample viewed the counseling and guidance function of the teacher role as being significantly more important than the women did,51 a finding which seems somewhat contradictory to that of Ryans since it appears to indicate a greater awareness by 50Ryans, Op. cit., p. 391. 51Fishburn, op. cit., p. 56. 26 men of the importance of human relations in teaching than Ryans' investigations demonstrated. Allport, Vernon and Lindzey in their study of values held by men and women liberal arts students found sex related differences in value structures. Men, for example, appeared to give pri- ority to theoretical, economic and political orientations; women gave emphasis to aesthetic, social and religious con- siderations.52 These studies offer some support to the contention that men and women are likely to perceive situations dif- ferently and to behave differently in similar situations. They also provide reason to believe that men and women who are teachers of English and men and women who are preparing to become teachers of English will hold differing expecta- tions of the English teacher role and that these differences are at least partially the result of differences in sex. This supposition constitutes the second hypothesis of the Study: That because of the influence of the latent sex role, expectations of the EngliSh teacher role held by men and women teachers of English and by men and women students preparing to become teachers will be differ- entiated. 52Gordon W. Allport, Philip E. Vernon and Gardner Lindzey, Study of Values: A Scale for Measuring the Domi- nant Interests in Personality, Manual TBoston: Houghton, Mifflin Company, 1961), p. II. 27 Definition of Concepts A review of the literature reveals that few con- cepts have been so widely used or so generally accepted in theory as has that of role. However, it is also apparent that various writers have used the terms normally associated with the concept in quite different manners. Moreover, others have used different terms for essentially the same concepts. The existence of this kind of confusion makes a clear definition of the terms employed in this study espe- cially necessary. For the purposes of the present investigation the language for role analysis prescribed by Gross, Mason and McEachern is utilized as much as possible. According to their definition, a role is "a set of expectations, or in terms of expectations, it is a set of evaluative standards applied to an incumbent of a particular position."53 Several elements are employed in this definition which need further explanation since each of them is basic to the concerns of the present investigation. The term expectation, defined as a set of "evaluative standards," implies the generally accepted notion that roles are nor- mally defined in terms of what others expect of the posi- tion occupant. The term incumbent refers simply to the person occupying the designated position. Position is 53Gross, Mason and McEachern, op. cit., p. 60. 28 employed to indicate a given social location, a physical place located in a defined social system. The expectations associated with a role and usually termed role expectations, are not, as Gross, Mason and McEachern point out, "simply a random collection but are themselves organized.54 The organization of expectations involves the problem of role segmentation, that is, the categorization or classification of sets of expectations that individuals may hold for an incumbent of a specified position. "The first categorization differentiates among role sectors, the second between rights and obligations and the third between behaviors and attributes."55 A role sector is defined as a set of expectations applied to the relationship of a focal position to a single counter position. Rights of the incumbent of a focal position are defined as expectations which are applied to an incumbent of a counter position. Obligations of the incumbent of a focal position are defined as expectations which are applied to the incumbent of the focal position. A role behavior is an actual performance of an incumbent of a position which can be referred to an expectation for an incumbent of that position. A role attribute is an actual quality of an incumbent of a position which can be referred to an expectation for an incumbent of that position. These concepts may be related to the present study in the following ways. The study will be concerned with an investigation of the English teacher role. English teachers are presumed to occupy a particular position in 54 55 Ibid., p. 61. Ibid., pp. 61-62. 29 the school system. This position may be referred to as the focal position. The role sectors of the English teacher involve the teacher's relations with his students, with principals and other administrators, with professional col- leagues, with parents and with others located in the com- munity. The expectations related to the role also involve considerations of both the role behaviors of the English teacher and the teacher's role attributes. The Concept of the Teacher Role Gross, Mason and McEachern maintain that although a collection of expectations provides substantive infor- mation about a role, such a collection does not allow any more detailed analysis of that role than its simple descrip- 56 This study, then, in addition to making an attempt tion. to categorize the defined expectations in the ways suggested by Gross, Mason and McEachern also attempts to provide the role with a structural pattern of organization by using as a framework the definition of teacher role adopted by the National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards at the so-called Albany Conference held in 1954. This definition is frequently referred to as the "California definition" because of its initial development by the 56Ibid., p. 61. 30 California Teachers Association. It was originally pre- sented ianeasure of a Good Teacher as a statement developed by a special committee of the California Council on Teacher 57 Education. It was refined in Teacher Competence: Its 58 Nature and chpe and presented along with examples for its use in practical situations in Six Areas of Teacher Competence.59 The California definition has been used success- fully as the basis for several studies of teacher role. It served as the framework for the studies of Fishburn and Shafer which have been described earlier. It was also employed by the Commission on the English—Curriculum of the National Council of Teachers of English in their pub- lication, The Education of Teachers of English.60 This definition divides the teacher role into six dimensions: Director of Learning, Counselor and Guidance Worker, Mediator of the Culture, Link with the Community, Member of the Staff and Member of the Profession. As a 57Measure of a Good Teacher (Burlingame, Cal.: California Teachers Association, I952). 58Teacher Competence: Its Nature and Scope (Burl- ingame, Cal.: California Teachers AssociaEion, 1957). 59Six Areas of Teacher Competence (Burlingame, Cal.: California Teachers Association, 1963). 60The Commission on the English Curriculum of the National Council of Teachers of English, The Education of Teachers of Epglish, (ed.) Alfred H. Grommon (New York: Appleton, Century-Crofts, 1963). 31 director of learning the teacher adopts principles of child growth and development to learning activities, plans teaching- 1earning situations in accord with acceptable principles of learning and maintains an effective balance of freedom and security in the classroom. As a counselor and guidance worker the teacher utilizes effective procedures for col- lecting information about students, employs effective diag- nostic and remedial procedures and attempts to help the pupil understand himself. As a mediator of the culture the teacher works to help his students see significant social applications of classroom learning and attempts to develop the attitudes and Skills necessary for living in a democratic society. As a link with the community the teacher draws upon the resources of the community for classroom uses, works with parents to secure their co-operation in school activities, assists community groups in understanding education and participates in the solution of community problems. As a member of the staff, a teacher works with others to develop a school program, participates in school activities and co-operates to define the aims of the school. As a member of the profession a teacher demonstrates in his life and conduct an awareness of the social importance of the teaching profession, participates in professional orga- nizations and takes a personal responsibility for his pro- fessional growth.61 61Six Areas of Teacher Competence, Op.cit., pp. 18-26. 32 This description indicates that the first three of these dimensions are concerned primarily with teacher- student relationships or with the classroom functions of the teacher. These dimension, then, relate explicitly to those aspects of role previously defined as the "front regions" of the role. The second three of these dimensions have to do primarily with out of class behaviors or with these aSpectS of role previously defined as the "back regions" of role. For the purposes of this study the "classroom" dimensions of the English teacher role referred to in the first hypothesis will be defined as those which pertain to the functions of Director of Learning, Counselor and Guid- ance Worker and Mediator of the Culture as described in the California definition. The "out-of-class" role dimensions, on the other hand, will be defined as those which refer to the teacher as a Link with the Community, a Member of the Staff and as a Member of the Profession. This first hypoth- esis may be restated as follows: That student expectations of Director of Learning, Counselor and Guidance Worker and Mediator of the Cul- ture dimensions of the English teacher role will exhibit greater agreement with expectations of practicing English teachers than will student expectations of Link with the Community, Member of a Faculty, and Member of a Profes- sion dimensions of the same role. The second hypothesis of the study may also be restated in a similar fashion: 33 That because of the influence of the latent sex role, expectations of the six dimensions of the English teacher role held by men and women teachers of English and by men and women students preparing to become teachers will be differentiated. Limitations of the Study The present study is limited in several respects. First, it concerns itself only with study of the English teacher role as it exists in grades 7-12. Second, the study is concerned primarily with role definition as Opposed to role performance or with the way the English teacher sees the role and not with the way he necessarily performs the role. Third, the study will emphasize the general or so called nomothetic dimensions of role. It is based upon the assumption that the school is a social system composed of a variety of roles which do not change when the incumbent changes. Although role perceptions are mediated by certain considerations closely related to the personal needs of the individuals enacting the role, these are not the focus of attention of this study. It must be recognized, however, that behaviors of individuals occupying a given position and fulfilling the accompanying role are a product of both these dimensions. Unfortunately, to investigate the per- ceptions of all the persons involved in this study would require a psychological investigation far beyond the scope of this project. 34 Fourth, the study is concerned with a single point in time or with how experienced teachers and student teachers define the English teacher role at the time of the study. Definitions of role are likely to change over time, but because of the limitations of time it is not possible for the present study to investigate these changes. Finally, the study is concerned only with a partic- ular group of students and of teachers. Only these students who did their student teaching at Michigan State University during Winter Term of 1967 are included in the student sample, and only those teachers who served as supervising teachers of English for Michigan State University during the same time period are included in the study. Members of the two groups, however, were not paired; that is, no necessary correlation therefore exists between supervising teachers and student teachers. A random sample of Michigan teachers of English would have been desirable, but the lack of a list of names of such individuals made the obtaining of this kind of group impossible. It then seemed best to select a group of English teachers who were serving as supervising teachers, for these individuals might be assumed to be experienced and hence more reliable in their responses. However, because of the nature of the sample the results of the study lend themselves to only tentative generalizations about the general population. In spite of this limitation, the study should provide useful information about the 35 particular groups of people concerned and should suggest directions for further useful and productive research. II. DEVELOPMENT OF THE INSTRUMENTS AND DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLE Two instruments were developed to acquire the data necessary for the completion of the study: (1) a question- naire to be completed by both the critic teachers and the students and (2) a schedule to be used as the basis of a .45 minute interview conducted with a group of students.62 Although the complete questionnaire has five parts, the first three of these produced the major part of the data upon which the conclusions of the study are based. Part I contains thirty-six items describing the functions and duties of the secondary English teacher; Part II, thirty items describing the values and beliefs of the sec- ondary English teacher, and Part III, thirty items stating expectations for employment situations in the teaching of English in secondary schools. Each part contains an equal number of items relating to each of the six dimensions of 63 These three the California definition of teacher role. sections together were designed to acquire as complete a conception as possible of the respondents! views of the 62COpies of the study questionnaire and interview schedule are appended. 63A list of items by role dimension is appended. 36 37 role of the English teacher: his behavior inside the class- room as he works with students and outside of it as he interacts with colleagues and members of the community; the beliefs and values which tend to motivate these actions and the expectations which he holds for his present and future employment situations. The items were, of course, selected for their representativeness and do not constitute either a complete or an exhaustive listing of all possible items or combinations of items. Item Construction The items contained in the three major sections of the questionnaire have three sources: (1) a review of the literature relating to the role of the English teacher, (2) interviews with practicing English teachers, and (3) the intuitive judgment of the investigator, based upon sixteen years of professional experience. Particularly useful in the review of the literature were the publications of the National Council of Teachers of English, certain textbooks designed for use in English methods courses and 64 65 the studies made by Baker and Shafer of the role of the English teacher. 64Baker, op. cit. 65Shafer, op. cit. 38 The form of the items follows that used by Gross, Mason and McEachern in their study of the role of the school 66 This form makes use of a five point superintendent. scale: responses of one or two indicate positive feelings toward the item; a response of three indicates a neutral reaction and a response of four or five expresses a negative feeling. Kerlinger states that developing clear, unambiguous items each of which is related to the research question posed is the major task of questionnaire construction.67 To eliminate possible ambiguous items from the final form of the questionnaire some pre-testing of items was done with students enrolled in one section of Education 327D (Methods of Teaching Secondary English) at Michigan State University during Winter Term of 1967. The interview also provided some Opportunity to discuss in depth those items which might retain some elements of ambiguity.- Since each item is related to a dimension of the California definition of the teacher role, the likelihood of items being unrelated to the research questions is somewhat diminished. However, to check the extent to which items accurately represented 66Neal‘Gross, Ward Mason and Alexander McEachern, Exploretions in Role Analysis, (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1958). 67Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavipral Research, (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., T196 , p. 473. 39 each of the categories specified in the definition a group of subjects were asked to perform a card sort. Items were placed on cards in random order; professional colleagues then sorted the items into the six categories according to descriptions provided. This procedure made it possible to eliminate from the completed instrument items which might fit into any one of several dimensions of role. The three parts of the questionnaire containing role items, as described, constituted the primary aspects of the English Teacher Role Inventory. Part IV of the questionnaire consists of a description of the six dimen- sions of teacher role as they are specified in the Califor- nia definition. Individuals completing the questionnaire were asked to rank these dimensions in the order of their perceived importance. Part V of the questionnaire was designed to provide the factual information needed for an interpretation of the English Teacher Role Inventory as well as to acquire additional background information which might prove useful in the further development of the study. The Interview Schedule Because, as many research authorities have pointed out,68 a mailed questionnaire used alone as a research tool has certain disadvantages, an interview schedule was employed 68Kerlinger, op. cit., p. 476. 40 with a portion of the student sample to obtain some indi- cation of item reliability and to probe in greater depth the role perceptions of students after they had completed student teaching, but before they had commenced their pro— fessional careers. The interview situation lent itself best to the use of a semi-standardized schedule; that is, with the exception of Parts I, II and III, the questions served as guideposts to areas to be covered in the inter- view; they were not necessarily presented in the same form and order to each individual. This kind of schedule seemed best suited to the research situation since it provided some framework for the interview and yet made possible a certain amount of freedom in selection or order of topics discussed. Parts I, II and III of the-schedule consist of nine items chosen at random from the first three parts of the inventory. Each individual interviewed was asked to respond again to each of these items; a comparison of these responses with those these people had made originally made it possible to determine a co-efficient of reliability for the items concerned. Part IV of the schedule contains nine questions designed to elicit more information about the questionnaire and about the student teaching experience of individuals participating in the study. Question number one made an intensive investigation of three items, one selected from 41 each of the first three parts of the questionnaire. This question provided an opening for a discussion of the areas covered by each of the three sections of the questionnaire. Question number two gave the interviewees an opportunity to reconsider their original ranking of the six aspects of role identified and made it possible to gather some infor- mation about why respondents ranked these particular role aspects as they did. Question number three was designed to indicate whether or not students' perceptions of role were influenced by the kinds of activities in which they had participated while they were student teaching. Ques- tion number four elicited some information about the kinds of extra-curricular activities student teachers had engaged in while doing their student teaching; question number five dealt with the way students perceived their roles during this same period. Question number six provided some infor- mation about which aspects of the school situation appeared at this time to have the greatest importance to individuals preparing to enter teaching; question seven was included to determine those influences which individuals considered most important in determining their decisions to become English teachers. Question number eight was employed to find out if students felt that the expectations they had of English teaching before student teaching had been real- istic ones. Question nine was included to determine if the individuals in the study were satisfied with their choice of career. 42 Not all of these question, of course, related specifically to the two hypotheses being tested in the study. They were used to obtain as much information as possible abOut students' perceptions of their future roles and about factors in their student teaching experiences which might have influenced these perceptions. Sampling Procedures General Procedures Two groups made up the sample studied: (1) fifty- two experienced teachers who had served as supervisors of Michigan State University students doing their student teaching in English during the Winter Term of 1967 and (2) forty-nine Michigan State University English Majors who had done their student teaching in English during the Win- ter Term of 1967. Specific Procedures Teacher Sample: On May 3, 1967, questionnaire con- taining the English Teacher Role Inventory with accompanying letters were sent to eighty-one individuals who had served as supervising teachers of English for Michigan State Uni- versity students during the Winter Term of 1967. Twenty- seven of these individuals were men; fifty-four were women. Dr. Henry Kennedy, Director of the Student Teaching Office of Michigan State University, had previously written 43 co-ordinators in various teaching centers advising them of the nature of the study and asking their co-operation in its completion. A follow-up letter was sent on May 22, 1967, and by June 15, 1967, returns were considered complete. Completed questionnaires were received from fifty-two teachers (seventeen men and thirty-five women) or a total 69 of sixty-four percent of the original group. Student Sample: All those students who had done their student teaching in English during the Winter Term of 1967 made up the sample chosen for study. On May 5, 1967, letters and questionnaires were sent to thirty-six individuals, two men and thirty-four women. Questionnaires were distributed personally to another twenty-six students, eight men and eighteen women, who were enrolled in Education 450, the last course in the sequence of courses required for certification at Michigan State University. Forty-nine completed questionnaires were returned, eight from men and forty-one from women. This represented a return of eighty percent of the original group. Interviews were also conducted with certain of the students to check the reliability of the instrument and to probe in greater depth the responses of individuals. The twenty-six peOple who were enrolled in Education 450 were 69Kerlinger notes that for mailed questionnaires, returns of 40 percent to 50 percent are common and that higher percentages are rare. (Kerlinger, op. cit., p. 276.) 44 contacted personally and scheduled for an interview appoint- ment. The remaining thirty-six who were not enrolled in this course but who were on campus as students were reached by telephone. In all, thirty-one students, seven men and twenty-four women, or sixty-three percent of the total group who returned questionnaires were interviewed during a three week period. Sample Description As indicated previously, Part V of the study ques- tionnaire requested the respondent to provide certain items of information which might be used as a basis for inter- preting the results obtained from the English Teacher Role Inventory. Included were questions relating to experience, size of school, size of community, level of instruction, teaching load, age, sex, marital status, and so forth. In this section of the chapter an effort will be made to provide a description of the sample, in certain essential respects, based upon the information obtained from the responses of the subjects to this part of the questionnaire. It must also be emphasized that information of the type requested was mainly applicable to the experienced teacher sample; the student sample was unable to reply to this section of the questionnaire. However, to the extent pos- sible, similar items of information were obtained by inter- view with students as they related to the student teaching situation. 45 As Table 1 demonstrates, communities of all sizes are generally represented in the sample of supervising teachers. The greatest number of questionnaires, however, were returned from those teachers employed in medium sized communities. This compares to a total of some thirty- eight percent of student returns, as shown in Table 4. The returns from both groups, then, were, to this extent, quite comparable. Of special interest, too, is the fact that the greatest discrepancy between numbers of distributed ques- tionnaires and numbers of completed returns was observed in communities of small size. Twenty-seven percent of the questionnaires distributed (N = 22) were sent to teachers located in communities of 15,000 population or less, while only fifteen percent of completed questionnaires (N = 8) were returned from teachers located in communities of this size. The reasons for the limited return of questionnaires from teachers located in small communities may only be speculated about. One teacher from such a community, how- ever, did return an unanswered questionnaire with an accom- panying letter in which She stated that she felt unqualified to participate in the study. Feelings of this type, if generally prevalent among teachers located in small commu- nities, might to some extent account for the limited reSponse indicated. It may be, too, that teachers located in small 46 TABLE 1.--Community Sizes Represented in Sample of Super- vising Teachers. Size of Community Sample* Males Females Total Percentage 15,000 or Less R 2 6 8 15% Q 6 16 22 27% 16,000 - 50,000 R 3 6 9 17% Q 3 10 13 16% 51,000 - 100,000 R 3 9 12 23% Q 3 12 15 19% 101,000 - 200,000 R 5 4 9 17% Q 7 4 ll 14% 201,000 - 500,000 R 1 6 7 14% Q 3 7 10 12% 501,000 or More R 3 4 7 14% Q 5 5 10 12% Totals R 17 35 52 100% Q 27 54 81 100% Percent of Totals 63% 65% 64% at- :6 ll Returns 0 I - Distributed Questionnaires 47 communities are simply too overburdened with crowded sched- ules and paperwork to take the time to participate in stu- dies of this type. It is also possible that small commu- nity English teachers are less concerned with the problems and issues raised in the English Teacher Role Inventory than are teachers in other sized communities. In this regard they may simply be more locally-oriented and less committed to the broader implications of professionalism. The supervising teachers represented in the sample also were drawn from all levels of secondary teaching, from the seventh to the twelfth grades inclusive. The largest number, however, as indicated in Table 2 identified themselves as senior high teachers having responsibility primarily for eleventh and twelfth grade English classes. TABLE 2.--Grade Levels Taught by Supervising Teachers. Grade Level Males Females Total Percent Grades 7 - 8 2 9 ll 20% Grades 9 - 10 l 3 4 8% Grades 11 - 12 10 16 26 50% Grades 7 - 10 2 4 6 12% Grades 9 - 12 l 1 2 4% Totals 17 35 52 100% 48 The fact that fifty percent of the supervising teachers sample taught classes primarily at the eleventh and twelfth grade level while only eight percent taught classes mainly at the ninth and tenth grade level may raise some questions concerning the overall representativeness of the sample in this respect. As previously indicated, proportionately fewer teachers from small sized communities participated in the study. This, of course, tended to skew 'the returns in the direction of the medium and large sized communities, locations of large school systems. In such schools, moreover, teachers usually have the opportunity of develoPing greater degrees of specialization. Thus it would be possible for greater numbers of respondents to be identified with senior high classes only. The fact that the sample of teachers used for the study was drawn from a pOpulation of supervising teachers also resulted in responses from teachers with greater experience than might otherwise have been expected, or so it is assumed. Tradi- tionally, teachers with the greatest experience are usually assigned the more prestigious classes in the secondary schools. For teachers of English, of course, this would mean classes in literature taught mainly at the eleventh and twelfth grade levels. The two factors of size of school and experience of teacher might, then, account for the rel- atively large proportion of senior high teachers represented in the sample. 49 The range of experience indicated by the supervising teachers who responded to the questionnaire supports this explanation. All of the respondents reported having had at least three years of teaching experience. A total of thirty-four percent reported having had more than ten years experience. This is indicated in Table 3. TABLE 3.--Years of Teaching Experience of Supervising Teachers. . 7 ‘ Experience Males Perct. Females Perct. Total “Perct.. l - 2 Years 0 o o 0 o o 0 o o 3 - .5 Years 3 18% ll 31% 14 27% 6 - 10 Years 12 71% 8 23% 20 38% ll - 20 Years 2 12%‘ 5 14% 7 13% 21 - Or More Years 0 . . ll 31% ll 21% Totals 17 100% 35 100% 52 99%* *Difference due to rounding. With reference to Table 3, it is also of interest to observe that a considerable contrast existed between male and female respondents in terms of levels of experience. Whereas thirty-one percent of female teachers reported from three to five years experience, only eighteen percent of male teachers reported a similar level of experience. On the other hand, seventy-one percent of male respondents 50 reported from six to ten years experience, compared to twenty-three percent of the female respondents. No male teacher reported twenty or more years of experience. Thirty-one percent of the females, however, indicated having had at least twenty years experience. Career selectionmotivation was also considered as a means of characterizing the sample drawn for the present study. In this regard it is significant that the largest percentage of teachers included in the sample stated that they were initially drawn to English teaching because of a liking for the subject itself. Sixty-three percent of the teachers who responded to this question indicated motivations of this type. Only thirteen percent of the respondents stated that an interest in people was motivating so far as career selection was concerned. An even smaller percentage expressed economic considerations as a reason for selecting English teacher as a career. In response to an item concerning career satisfac- tion, thirty-nine of the supervising teachers who completed questionnaires (75%) eXpressed full satisfaction with their career choice; two teachers (4%) failed to respond to this item and eleven (21%) stated that they were dissatisfied and would not make the same choice a second time. The eleven dissatisfied teachers offered a variety of reasons for their negative feelings; two cited administrative inter- ference as a cause of discontent; two felt that the English 51 TABLE 4.--Reasons Cited by Supervising Teachers for Choosing English Teaching as a Profession. Reason Cited for . Career Selection Males Females Total Percent Liking for Subject Particularly Literature 7 26 33 63% 2 Interest in People 3 4 7 13% Economic Considerations 0 3 3 6% Entered Profession by Accident 1 2 3 6% Influenced by Other People 2 0 2 4% Found Teaching Suited to Temperament. 2 0 2 4% Good Grades in English 2 0 2 4% Totals 17 35 52 100% teacher role was too demanding; two preferred a subject such as foreign language which appealed only to a select group of students; three acquired other interests since entering the profession which they felt would have been more rewarding; and two felt that lack of suitable salaries made teaching a poor career choice. Overall, the starting salary expectations held by the responding teachers tended to be conservative. Thirty- two of the teachers indicated that a teacher should expect to receive a starting salary of between $5,100 and $6,000; 52 ten indicated expectations falling within the $6,100 to $6,500 range and five stated that they felt a beginning teacher should expect a salary of between $6,600 and $7,000. Three individuals failed to respond to this question and two felt that a teacher should anticipate beginning his career at a salary of $5,000 or less. For purposes of comparison it is interesting to note that the Michigan classroom teacher in 1966-67 was earning an average salary of $7,402, which is almost $2,000 above the mean salary expectations for beginning teachers maintained by the super- vising teachers sampled.70 The educational qualifications of the supervising teachers sampled, on the other hand, were quite in keeping with the established Michigan pattern. As indicated in Table 5, the percentage of teachers who took their under- graduate work in Michigan institutions was 69.3%. This 71 Most of the compares to the state average of 77.8%. respondents also indicated that they had completed some graduate work, a large number of them at Michigan State University. 70Michigan Department of Education, 1966-67 Status Report: Certificated Personnel in Michigen Public SchoolS, (Lansifig: Michigan Department of Education, 1967), p. 3. 7lIbid., p. 1. 53 TABLE 5.--Educational Background of Supervising Teachers. Undergraduate Percent Graduate Percent Michigan State Univ. 7 13.5% 20 38.5% Other Michigan Institutions 29 55.8% 23 42.3% Out of State Institutions 15 28.9% 6 11.5% No Response 1 1.9% 3 5.8% Totals 52 99.1% 52 98.1% The large percentage of supervising teachers who indicated having done graduate work at Michigan State Uni- versity is indicative, more or less, of a level of conti- nuity in the teacher education program in that many student teachers might expect to be supervised by teachers who had themselves completed work at the student's own institution. However, this also provides support for the view that both the student sample and the experienced teacher sample were drawn largely from the same population, which, if true, could result in a washing out of any major differences that might otherwise exist between the groups and exaggerate the appearance of similarities between groups. The Student Sample The student sample was, as could be expected, a homogenous group in most essential respects. Ninety-two 54 percent of those surveyed were between the ages of twenty and twenty-two; ninety percent were single and all were candidates for the degree of Bachelor of Arts at Michigan State University. Table 6 demonstrates, however, that they did their student teaching in a variety of situations. TABLE 6.--Communities in Which Students Did Student Teaching. Size of Community Males Females Total Percentage 15,000 or Less 3 4 7 14.3% 16,000 - 50,000 2 10 12 24.4% 51,000 - 100,000 1 8 9 18.3% 100,000 - 200,000 1 9 10 20.4% 200,000 - 500,000 0 4 8.2% 500,000 or More 1 4 10.2% No Response 0 2 4.0% Totals 8 41 49 99.8% A comparison of Table 6 with Table 1 indicates that in terms of size of community the student sample is quite similar to the teacher sample. Nearly forty percent of each group represent communities ranging in size from 51,000 to 200,000, for example. Such similarities, of course, make comparisons drawn between the two groups some- what more meaningful than would have been the case had wide diversity in experience situations existed between the groups. The largest discrepancy between the groups with 55 respect to size of community appears in terms of communities of sizes in excess of 200,000. Just over eighteen percent of the responding students gained experience in such com- munities compared to twenty-eight percent of the teachers. In terms of population proportions, however, it is appar- ent that both groups are in fact under-represented in this respect. Certain discrepancies between the groups also occur relative to grade level experience. Although all levels of secondary teaching are more or less represented in the student sample, a condition which was true also of the teacher sample, thirty-two percent of the students gained experience at the ninth and tenth grade levels compared to eight percent of the teachers. Only twenty-four percent of the students gained experience at the eleventh and twelfth grade level, on the other hand, compared to a full fifty percent of the teachers. Several reasons may exist for this wide difference. It may be, for example, that certain of the teachers of eleventh and twelfth grade classes also had responsibility for ninth and tenth grade classes and that student teachers were exposed primarily to the one level as opposed to the other. It is also pos- sible that supervisors and student teacher coordinators are of the opinion, simply, that the one level of instruc- tion offers the new teacher the widest possible range of experience, considering the many activities for which the 56 English teacher is responsible. On the other hand, if student teachers are perceived as teaching assistants, as is possible under certain conditions, then it may be that the ninth and tenth grade levels represent areas of greatest need for assistance and therefore the most logical place- ment for the student teacher. This pattern tends also to correspond to the traditional placement of the "new teacher." TABLE 7.—-Grade Levels Taught by Student Teachers. Grade Level Males Females Total Percent Grades 7 - 8 0 9 9 26% Grades 9 - 10 1 10 ll 32% Grades 11 - 12 3 5 8 24% Grades 7 - 10 0 3% Grades 9 - 12 3 2 5 14% Totals* 7 27 34 99% *(Totals reflect only numbers of students actually interviewed and not numbers of students responding to the study question- naire.) An unusual pattern of student teacher placement by sex is also apparent from an analysis of Table 7. It can be observed, for example, that whereas seventy-four percent of female students were placed exclusively in grades seven to ten and only eighteen percent in grades eleven and twelve, just fourteen percent of the male students were 57 assigned exclusively to classes on this level. Although the numbers of students involved in this compilation makes it impossible to draw any firm conclusion from this obser- vation, it is interesting to note that this pattern of placement tends to be reflected in the placement of male and female teachers as well, though not quite to the same extent. Another aspect of comparison between the student sample and the sample of experienced teachers concerns that of career selection motivation. Of the thirty-one students who responded to this question (the interview group), twenty cited a liking for the subject matter and particularly for literature as a reason for choosing English teaching as a career. The pr0portion of the student sample who responded in this vein compares favorably to the reSponse pattern set by the sample of experienced teachers as shown in Table 4. Interestingly, too, all males in the student sample who replied to the question on motivation cited a fondness for the subject as a determining factor in their career choice. This compares to forty-one percent of the experienced male teachers. Eight of the students also reported being influenced by other pe0ple in their choice, either by family members or by teachers whom they had known; two students (both women) were impressed by the economic security that teaching appeared to offer and one chose teaching as a career "because it seemed the only thing to do." 58 Of the student group studied, only three individuals, two of them men, were planning not to teach. Two of these students indicated that they had acquired other interests and one could give no definite reason for his decision except a general "dislike" for teaching. Other than this no basis exists for comparing the level of student satis- faction with career choice with that of the experienced teachers. The question of salary expectations provides a final basis of comparison between the student sample and the sample of experienced teachers. In this respect, too, the two groups appear quite similar in their responses. Of the forty-nine students surveyed, forty-three reported holding expectations of a starting salary of between $5,100 and $6,000; three students expected to receive offers ranging from $6,100 to $6,500 and two students indicated expectations of $7,000 or more. The average responses of students to this question, then, were generally in keeping with those of experienced teachers and were equally con- servative in terms of current salary ranges in the field. In summary, it appears as if the two groups sur- veyed were fairly evenly matched in most essential respects but one, that of experience. The similarities described, as mentioned earlier, may well then, produce agreements between groups which might not otherwise exist. However, it is equally true that this would likely make any apparent 59 differences in the role-expectations of students and teachers that much more significant. III. ANALYSIS OF DATA The responses of one hundred and one individuals to the ni‘netyes'ix item English Teacher Role Inventory were tabulated and subjected to analysis for the purpose of determining the degree of difference in the response pat- terns of teachers and students and of males and females. The F-statistic was used to test for between group variance with a significance level of p = .05, which is the level 1 The most frequently employed in social science research. English Teacher Role Inventory items, related according to role dimension, are listed in Appendix C. The level of significance attained by each item is also indicated in terms of both status differences and sex differences. In addition to concentrating upon between group variance, some attention was given to those items about which both teachers and students and both males and females Showed some degree of consensus. For the purposes of this study, consensus was assumed to exist for a given item if the standard deviation for that item did not exceed 1.0 for either group. A variance this small, of course, does not indicate perfect agreement about an item. However, as 72Kerlinger, op. cit., p. 124. 60 61 Charters has observed, this kind of perfect agreement may be expected to occur only in rare or in trivial cases.73 If the standard deviation for both teachers and students or for both males and females exceeded 1.0, a lack of con- sensus about the item was assumed to exist. Some consideration was also given to those items possessing a mean response of 3.00 to 3.99. This was defined as a neutral range. A neutral range mean can be taken to indicate one of two things: either the individual responses were evenly distributed across the item scale, and hence evidenced a strong lack of consensus, or the responses were clustered around the center of the scale and thereby evidenced general agreement concerning the relative lack of importance of the item as a role indicator. Both of the procedures identified, that relating to the definition of consensus and that relating to the definition of neutrality, follow very closely the proce- dures used by Finlayson and Cohen in their study of the teacher role.' These writers also computed mean response scores and measures of relative consensus in their analysis of twenty two statements of teacher role expectations.74 73Charters, "The Social Background of Teaching," op. cit., p. 795. 74Finlayson and Cohen, op. cit., pp. 22-31. 62 For the sake of convenience and continuity, dis— cussion of the results of the data analysis is made in terms of the six theoretic dimensions of role previously described; however, both the discussion and the conclusions are based primarily upon the content of the items themselves. Role Dimension Correlations In Part IV of the study questionnaire respondents were asked to rank definitions of the six dimensions of 75 Tables of role in terms of their relative importance. responses for students and teachers and for males and females were compiled for each of the six role dimensions and mean scores were computed for each group. These tables are located in the appendix. In addition, the six role dimensions ranked accord- ing to status and sex, were subjected to analysis employing the Pearson product-moment coefficient of correlation.76 The results obtained from this analysis are shown on the next page. 75It should be remembered that because a respondent gives a low ranking to a role dimension, he does not nec- essarily consider that dimension unimportant- ‘He may only consider it less important than other dimensions. 76J. P. Guilford, Fundamentel»Statistie§in Psy- chology apd Educatigp (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1956): Pp. 138-151. 63 TABLE 8.--Intercorre1ation of Rank-Order Preferences of Teacher Role Dimensions with Subject Status and Sex. Role Dimensions Status Sex I Director of Learning .085 - .182 Member of the Profession .350** .045 Counselor and Guidance Worker .056 - .298** Mediator of the Culture .105 .104 Member of a Faculty .332** .098 Link with the Community .362** .086 **p = <.01 As indicated, the pattern of ranking of the various role dimensions correlated significantly with status on three of the six dimensions while the pattern Of ranking correlated significantly with sex in only one instance. This implies that the degree of importance assigned to the role dimensions identified tends to vary with the status or the sex of the respondent to the extent specified. Although correlation analysis does not provide a basis-for indicating the direction of the differences identified, the results of the rank ordering appended appear to indicate that teachers tend to rank Member of a Faculty, Member of a Profession and Link with the Com- munity dimensions of role higher than do students. This indicates that the teachers sampled ascribe greater importance 64 to these aspects of the English teacher role than the stu- dents. Male respondents, in addition, tend to rank the Counselor and Guidance Worker dimension of the role much lower than the female respondents, which indicates that male teachers and male student teachers perceive this aspect of the English teacher role as being of significantly less importance than do female teachers and female student teachers. The high correlation between the pattern of ranking of the six role dimensions and the factors of status and sex, as shown, appear more or less supportive of the prin- .cipal study hypotheses described in Chapter I. The extent of this agreement will be further clarified in the discus- sion that will follow. The Focused Interview Information obtained from student interviews was used in two ways. First, responses from Parts I, II and III of the inventory were used to obtain an average co- efficient of reliability of the instrument. Employing a test re-test procedure the reliability of the instrument was set at r = .96, which is indicative of considerable stability in the pattern of obtained responses to partic- ular items. Second, student responses were analyzed with reference to the six dimensions of role. This was done for the purpose of providing as thorough an understanding 65 as possible of the students' perceptions of the behaviors, beliefs and expectations associated with the role of the English teacher. The findings resulting from the student interviews are reported in connection with the detailed discussion of items which is contained in the following section. Analysis of Variance Standard analysis of variance techniques were used to compute means and standard deviations for items con- tained on the English Teacher Role Inventory and for com- puting differences between the response patterns of groups of practicing teachers and student teachers and between males and females. Because of the small number of males in the student sample, however, (n = 8) no attempt was made to separate students from teachers in the consider- ation of sex related differences in the perception of the English teacher role. Differences in the responses made by teachers and students and by males and females were then compared for significance by use of the F test. Twenty-two items showed significant differences in the responses of teachers and students at a level equal to or greater than p = .05; seven of these reached a level of significance equal to or greater than p = .01. An additional seven items approached significance at the required level of p = .05, having 66 reached a level equal to or greater than p = .10. These items will also be reported, in keeping with the usual practice, but only for descriptive purposes. Eighteen items showed significant differences in the responses of males and females at levels equal to or greater than p = .05; ten of these were significant at levels equal to or greater than p = .01. No additional items can be reported as approaching significance. Students and practicing teachers Showed consensus in responding to a total of 63 items; lack of consensus upon the part of both groups existed on 16 items. Either students or teachers showed a lack of consensus among themselves on 17 items. Males and females showed consensus in responding to 66 of the 96 items included in the questionnaire; lack of consensus for both of these groups occurred on 15 items and either males or females showed lack of consensus among themselves in responding to 15 items. Twelve items elicited a neutral response by teach- ers and students; ten items showed a similar response pat- tern by males and females. The following section contains a detailed discussion of these items, arranged in terms of role dimension. 67 Role Dimension I: Director of Learning Most of the students and teachers in the sample gave primary emphasis to the Director of Learning dimen- sion of role. Twenty-five of the forty-two teachers (59.5%) who responded to Part IV of the questionnaire ranked Director of Learning first; thirty-one of the forty- nine students (63.2%) gave it a similar ranking. State- ments made by students during the interviews tended to confirm this order of importance. For example, one young woman stated, "Teaching is what you do in the classroom." Another maintained, "That's what all our training has been about." Such comments as, "English teachers teach English" and "The most important function of an English teacher is to help students understand the material" provided further evidence that, for some students at least, the Director of Learning function carries great weight. Both teachers and students showed much agreement about the behaviors, beliefs and expectations described by the sixteen items in this dimension. Only two items Showed significant differences between groups at the required level of p = .05; these were items twenty-one and fifty-seven. Two other items approached significance at levels p = .10 (items fifty-eight and thirty-nine). Both groups, too, were in agreement concerning most of the items in the Director of Learning dimension of role. No single item had a standard deviation greater than 1.0 68 for the teacher group and the student group although item number thirty-one approached this with a standard deviation of 1.13 for teachers and a standard deviation of 1.0 for students. The reaction of teachers and students was pos- itive to most of the items in the Director of Learning dimension as well; the only exceptions to this occurred with reference to items fifty-seven and sixty-one. TABLE 9.--Items of Significance Related to the Director of Learning Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Status Differences. Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 21 Make wide class par- T 1.53 .50 4.93 .03 ticipation possible by developing diver- S 1.30 .54 sified learning expe- riences. 39* That the study of T 1.96 .90 2.97 .09 mass media is as important a part of S 1.28 .86 the English curric- ulum as the study of literature. 57 Enrichment programs T 3.19 1.03 4.51 .04 are, in general, of greater value than S 3.61 .95 .SPecial remedial pro- grams. 58* Literature should be T 2.13 .82 3.56 .06 chosen to provide insight into today's S 1.86 .65 social problems. *Item approaches significance at level equal to or greater than p = .10. 69 An analysis of the content of the items contained in the Director of Learning dimension leads to the tenta- tive generalization that both teachers and students agreed in feeling that the English teacher should employ democratic practices in the classroom, strive toward developing indi- vidual initiative and attempt to create an awareness of other cultures. Responses to those items showing signif- icant differences between groups indicated that students were somewhat more committed to the necessity of meeting the needs of every individual and of relating the study of English to the problems of society than were the practicing English teachers included in this sample. For example, students responded more positively than teachers to the practice of making wide class participation possible by developing a variety of learning activities, a procedure sanctioned in modern educational theory (item number twenty- one). Students responded less positively than teachers to the belief that enrichment programs are more valuable than remedial programs indicating that students might be more willing than teachers to consider the needs of the slow learner as well as those of the "gifted child" (item num- ber fifty-seven). It should be noted, however, that both groups tended toward the neutral position in their replies to this particular item (Mt = 3.19; M8 = 3.61) and that teachers showed a lack of consensus in their responses to the item (SDt = 1.03). 70 Students also responded more positively than teach- ers to the beliefs that literature should be chosen to pro— vide insight into today's social problems and that the study of mass media is as important a part of the English curriculum as is the study of literature (items number fifty-eight and fifty-nine). Although differences in responses to these items did not attain significance at levels p = .05, they did approach significance. These responses, then, indicate that students are somewhat more willing than teachers to use contemporary materials in the classroom. Both teachers and students were Opposed to the belief that covering the material described in the course outline is one of the teacher's most important objectives (item sixty-one). Students, however, reacted more negatively than teachers to this item (MS = 4.04; Mt = 3.78) thus lending some support to the contention that students appear somewhat more aware of the individual in the classroom than do teachers. This, of course, may also be interpreted as a consequence of the student's pre- sent status and the fact that he has not yet fully inter— nalized the role of the teacher. Three items in the Director of Learning dimension of role showed significant differences between males and females. All three items related to aspects of the role Specifically concerned with inter-personal relations (items twenty-one, thirty-one and seventy-eight). 71 Responses indicated that males in the sample reacted sig- nificantly less positively than females to the necessity for facilitating wide class participation by developing class activities and to the concealing of dislike for par- ticular students (items twenty-one and thirty-one). The differences in responses to this latter item were very significant, reaching a level p = .0005; however, a stan- dard deviation of 1.54 indicates a lack of consensus among the males responding to the item. Males in this group were also less likely than females to expect to report a student's progress in terms of attitudes and social behavior although, again, they showed a lack of consensus in respond- ing to the item. Both groups gave positive responses to the remaining items contained in this dimension with the exception of items fifty-seven and sixty-seven. Responses of both males and females tended to the neutral position for the belief that enrichment programs are of greater value than remedial programs (item fifty-seven). Both groups reacted negatively to the belief that covering the material is one of the teacher's most important objectives (item sixty-one). However, in this instance, responses of males were somewhat more negative than were those of females, a position different from that taken in the items showing significant differences between status groups. Although both sex groups ranked the Director of Learning dimension of role high in order of importance, 72 females ranked it somewhat higher than males (Mf = 1.39; Mm = 1.78). This ranking appears, then, to add some sup- port for the hypothesis that the English teacher role will be defined somewhat differently by groups as a partial con- sequence of differences in the latent role of sex. TABLE 10.--Items of Significance Related to the Director of Learning Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Sex Differences. Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 21 Make wide class par- M 1.68 .56 8.01 .01 ticipation possible by developing diver- F 1.34 .54 sified learning activ- ities. 31 Take care to conceal M 2.24 1.54 17.49 .01 personal dislike for a student. F 1.29 .72 78 Expect to be required M 2.20 1.04 12.84 .01 to report student's progress to parents F 1.55 .68 in terms of attitudes and social behavior as well as in terms of growth in knowledge and skills. Role Dimension II: Counselor and Guidance Worker The rank ordering of role dimensions revealed that both teachers and students perceived the Counselor and Guidance Worker dimension of the English teacher role as of less importance than the Director of Learning dimension 73 of the role. Teacher ranking showed a mean response of 3.33 and student ranking showed a mean response of 3.08. Responses to items indicated that teachers and students agreed about most of the behaviors, beliefs and expectations represented by the items in this dimenSion. Only three items showed significant differences between groups (items forty-nine, eighty-three and ninty-five) and only one item showed a standard deviation of greater than 1.0 for both groups (item thirty-eight). Both teachers and students responded positively to all but two of the items contained in the dimension. These were items number six and fifty-four. TABLE ll.--Items of Significance Related to the Counselor and Guidance Worker Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Status Differences. Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 49 That the best clir T 2.07 1.02 7.58 .01 mate for learning is one in which students S 1.59 .70 feel completely free to express themselves on any tOpic. 83 Expect to be asked to T 2.52 1.06 12.82 .01 provide information about vocational S 1.87 .70 opportunities and careers in English. 95 Expect to be required T 2.69 1.23 3.97 .05 to keep personal record files for each S 2.27 .89 of his students. 74 Analysis of the items showing significant differ- ences between status groups indicated that students were more likely than teachers to believe that the best climate for learning is one in which students feel free to express themselves on any topic (item forty-nine). Responses to this item continued the trend begun in the previous dimen- sion for students to feel more positive about the value of '“a permissive classroom atmosphere than teachers. Students also responded more positively than teachers to the expec- tations of being asked to provide information about voca— tional Opportunities in English and of being required to keep personal record files for each student (items eighty- three and ninety-five). The positive responses of students to the expec- tation of providing vocational information about careers in English may be compared to the finding of Baker that relatively inexperienced teachers of English tend to stress vocational guidance as a significant part of classroom 77 These kinds of responses may be-the results activity. of the status of these two groups; that is, student teach- ers and beginning teachers being closer to their own career decisions may also be more sensitized to the importance of vocational information than are teachers who are more firmly established in their careers. That teachers were less 77Baker, op. cit., p. 47. 75 likely than students to feel that the keeping of personal records for students is a legitimate part of the English teacher role may be a part of the present trend to eliminate as many as possible of the record keeping functions from the professional responsibilities of teachers and transfer them to clerical workers. Responses to this item may also indicate that students are somewhat more likely than teach- ers to View keeping records as a professional obligation. An analysis of items which showed no significant differences between groups reveal that both teachers and students in this sample felt that the English teacher per- forming the counselor part of the teaching role should strive to understand his students, choose material for classroom study which will help adolescents understand themselves and be sufficiently aware of emotional disorders to seek professional counseling services for those of his students who might require them (items four, eighteen, twelve, twenty-six, thirty-three). Responses to item six indicated that both groups felt some question about the advisibility of using grades as a source of motivation although teachers in this group were somewhat more likely to consider this a desirable practice than were students. Both students and teachers reacted negatively to the con- cept that standardized tests provide the best measure of student achievement (item fifty-four). However, both groups responded positively to the expectation of being 76 asked to adminster such tests although teachers did indi- cate a lack of consensus concerning this practice (item seventy-five). The study indicated that many teachers and students felt that the kind of counseling that involved participating in the solution of a student's personal problems or assist? ing him in the making of vocational choices was the respon- sibility of a professional counselor. Many students said when being interviewed that they had no reason to counsel students while they were doing their student teaching because the school already had a professional counseling service. A similar comment was written in by teachers in response to Part IV of the questionnaire. Exceptions to this position were students who had done their student teaching in an inner-city school. Almost without exception they had also had a variety of experiences during student teaching which involved counseling activities. Four items in the Counselor and Guidance Worker dimension of the English teacher role showed significant differences between sex groups. These were items, eight, twenty-Six, forty-three and ninety-five. Both males and females showed consensus in making positive responses to most of the items contained in this dimension. The only items eliciting neutral or negative responses were items six and fifty-four; the only items showing a lack of con- sensus in response were items thirty-eight, seventy-five and ninety—five. TABLE 12.-~Items of Significance Related to the Counselor and Guidance Worker Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Sex Differences. 77 Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 8 Use diagnostic tests M 2.28 .74 5.02 .03 as a basis for plan- ning a program de-’ .F 1.91 .71 signed to improve language skills. 26 Provide an oppor- M 1.52 .65 10.93 .01 tunity for all pu- pils to experience F 1.16 .40 success in some form in the classroom sit- uation. 43 An effective teacher M 1.64 .57 7.63 .01 must possess the ability to relate F 1.30 .52 to his students in a warm, humane fashion. 95 Expect to be required M 2.88 1.13 4.50 .04 to keep personal re- cord files for each F 2.35 1.05 of his students. All four items showing Significant differences between sex groups had to do in some way with the student- teacher relationship. Responses to these items followed the trend established in the Director of Learning dimension of role. That is, males tended to view warm, interpersonal relationships in the teaching situation as being of less importance than did females. less positively than females to the thought of providing For example, males reacted 78 Opportunities for all students to experience success in some form in the classroom situation and to the belief that an effective teacher must possess the ability to relate to his students in a warm, humane fashion (items twenty-six and forty-three). They also responded less positively than females to the expectation of being required to keep personal record files for students and to the use of diag- nostic tests as a basis for planning (items ninety-five and eight). Responses to the former item showed a wide variance, however. This trend was reinforced by responses to certain other items although responses to these items did not attain significance. For example, males responded less positively than did females to the belief that a teacher must know as much as possible about his students if he wishes to do an effective job of teaching (item fifty-six). Although both groups disagreed with the practice of using competition for grades as a source of motivation, the responses of males were less positive than those of females (item six). Items having to do with testing practices elicited some conflicting responses. Both sex groups responded negatively to the belief that standardized tests provide the best measure of student achievement (item fifty-four). However, both males and females reacted positively to the expectation of being asked to adminster such tests (item 79 seventy-five). Again, both sex groups showed a wide range of responses to the latter item. Correlation analysis of results of Part IV indi- cated that a Significant negative correlation exists between sex and the manner in which the Counselor and Guidance Worker dimension of the English teacher role was ranked. Males tended to rank this dimension lower on the average than females, the mean reSponse of females being 3.04 and that of males being 4.22. Interviews with male students provided further evidence that this dimension of the English teacher role was viewed unfavorably by some. One young man, for example, had decided to pursue a career other than teaching and cited these counseling aspects of teaching as reason for his making another career choice. "I'm not a counselor," he said, "but I do believe a good teacher has to be." Widespread feelings of this kind might account for the low rankings received by this dimension of the English teacher role; however, further investigations must be conducted before any definite conclusions of this sort can be reached. Role Dimension III: Mediator of the Culture The Mediator of the Culture dimension of the English teacher role was given a position by both teachers and stu- dents second in importance only to that of Director of Learning. Analysis of the results of rank ordering of role 80 dimensions revealed that twenty-five of the forty-two teach- ers responding to this section (59.8%) ranked Mediator of the Culture as either first or second; twenty-nine of the forty-nine students (59.3%) gave it a similar ranking. Comments from student interviews gave indications of why some respondents considered this dimension important. For example, one individual stated, "English teachers instill the idea that you are a member of society." Another said, "An English teacher is more concerned with values than other teachers." Still another apparently thinking along similar lines maintained, "This ranking holds particularly true for the English teacher; an English teacher should act to change values." These statements were typical of a posi- tion held by many students: that English teachers are con- cerned with patterns of life and society in a way in which other teachers are not. Analysis of variance revealed few differences between groups in responses made to items contained in this dimension. Three items showed differences in responses which were significant at levels equal to or greater than p = .05. These were items thirty-two, eighty-four and ninety-two. One other item approached significance at a level. greater than p = .10 (item five). Only four items showed a lack of consensus by both teachers and students, a fact which indicated high levels of agreement within each group about most of the behaviors, beliefs and 81 expectations contained in this dimension (items forty-one, forty-six, fifty-nine and ninety-six). Both teachers and students reacted positively to the items contained in this dimension; however, the position of students was somewhat more emphatic than that of teachers. Only one item (item sixty-five) elicited a neutral response by both groups. The image of the role of the English teacher projected by this pattern of responses is that of one who is aware of the world around him, involved in social problems and con- cerned with helping students develop the skills needed by their society. An analysis of items showing significant differ- ences between students and teachers indicated that students felt a greater need for active participation in certain of these areas than did teachers. For example, students responded more positively than teachers to the expectation of relating subject matter considerations to non-classroom aspects of student life and to the expectation that the curriculum vfiJJ. contribute to the development of the stu- dents character and social conscience. Students also reacted more positively than teachers to the practice of employing small groups in the classroom so that students might learn to work together in a democratic fashion although differences in response to this item (item number five) only approached significance. 82 TABLE 13.--Items of Significance Related to the Mediator of the Culture Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Status Differences. Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 5* Employ small groups T 2.23 .61 3.39 .07 in the classroom so that students may S 2.00 .65 learn to work togeth- er in a democratic fasions. 32 Stress that students T 2.01 .99 4.23 .04 must acquire the abil- ity to speak and S 2.42 1.00 write acceptably so that they may attain social acceptance. 84 Expect to relate T 1.77 .85 9.41 .01 subject consider- ations to non- S 1.32 .55 classroom aSpects of student life. 92 Expect that the T 1.75 .71 5.90 .02 English curriculum will be designed to S 1.43 .61 contribute to the development of the student's character and social conscience. *Item approaches significance. Responses to these items were very like those made to Similar items contained in the Director of Learning dimension. Again students seemed more aware than teachers of the expectation of relating to individual students and of extending the English curriculum to include materials 83 of present day significance. Responses to item thirty-two were somewhat different, however. Student responses to this item were more negative than were those of teachers. This may be partially accounted for by the statements of students in interviews that the words "social acceptance" carried negative connotations for them and caused them to react negatively to the item. Three of the four items that showed no significant differences in responses between groups but did indicate a lack of consensus within each group were related in some way to the value structures of the individuals responding (items forty-one, forty-six and fifty-nine). Item forty-' one stated the belief that study of the humanities will be of most value to the college student; item forty-six, the belief that teaching is the highest possible calling an individual can assume and item fifty-nine the belief that English teachers are more concerned with the development of values and standards of judgment than other teachers. The wide variation in responses to these items may indi- cate that individuals respond to these statements in terms of their own belief systems and past experiences rather than in terms of the expectations of the role. The fourth item which showed significant differences between groups but did demonstrate a lack of consensus within each group pertained to the expectation that there will be no restric- tions placed upon a teacher's personal life in the community. 84 Interview data provided some reason for the wide variations in response to this item, at least upon the part of students. Many students said that it was difficult for them to respond to this statement since they resented the idea of restric- tions being imposed and yet at the same time they sensed that the teacher did not have quite the same kinds of free- dom accorded other citizens. Others said that any restric- tions existing should be self imposed. Implicit in their statements was the feeling that the teacher was somehow different from other individuals and should sense this difference and behave accordingly without the necessity of having boundaries of conduct defined by others. Sen- timents like these may have produced the lack of consensus in teachers' responses but data is not available to sup- port this conclusion. Analysis of the results of Part IV also indicated that males tended to ascribe slightly greater importance to this aspect of the English teacher role than did the females included in the sample. Males Showed a mean response of 2.13 in ranking the dimension of Mediator of the Culture while females showed a mean response of 2.52 Males and females were, however, very much alike in their reactions to the items contained in this dimen- sion. Only two items showed significant differences in responses between the two groups. Interestingly enough both of these items were significant at levels equal to 85 or greater than p = .01 (items five and sixty-five). Males accorded a positive response to all items within the dimen- sion; females, however, tended toward the neutral position in response to the beliefs that an English teacher is more concerned with values than other teachers (item fifty-nine) and that teaching the classics to new generations is one of the primary functions of English teachers (item sixty- five). The responses of females to the other items in the dimension were generally positive. Only two items showed a lack of consensus in response for both sex groups. These were items number fifty-nine and ninety-six. Item ninety-six states the expectation that an English teacher should expect no restriction on his personal life in the community. Students said in inter- views that they felt that a teacher should not expect unlimited freedom in his conduct, but they resented the idea of external constraints. This kind of thinking may have produced the differing responses reported. Responses to items showing Significant differences between sex groups indicated that males were somewhat less likely than females to react positively to the use of small groups in the classroom, a response in keeping with the trend established earlier for males to be less aware of interpersonal relationships in the teaching situation. Males also responded significantly more positively than 86 females to the belief that the teaching of the classics to new generations of students is one of the chief functions of the English teacher. TABLE 14.--Items of Significance Related to the Mediator of the Culture Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Sex Differences. Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 5 Employ small groups M 2.40 .65 6.85 .01 in the classroom so that students may F 2.03 .61 learn to work to- gether in a democratic fashion. 65 Teaching the classics M 2.72 .98 11.80 .01 to new generations of students is one of F 3.42 .85 the primary functions of the English teach- er. The pattern of reSponses on the items associated with the Mediator of the Culture dimension of the English teacher role, particularly items number five and sixty- five, might lead to the conclusion that males are more content centered and less people centered than females in their consideration of the English teacher role. In view of the smallness of the sample, however, and the small number of items considered, such a conclusion would hardly be justified. Nonetheless there is sufficient evidence 87 for the suggestion to warrant additional investigation and this is certainly recommended. Role Dimension IV: Link with the Community The analysis of Part IV of the study questionnaire revealed a significant correlation (r = .362) between the respondent's status, whether student or teacher, and the ranking of relative importance of the Link with the Commu- nity aspect of the English teacher role. This aspect of role also contained more items showing significant differ- ences in response patterns than any other. Five items showed differences at levels equal to or greater than p = .05 while an additional two items approached significance at levels equal to or greater than p = .10. Lack of con- sensus within both groups occurred in only one item (num- ber eighty-nine). Responses to items in this dimension of role were less positive, however, than was the case in other dimensions discussed; seven items evoked a neutral or a negative reaction by both teachers and students (items one, twenty-seven, forty-four, forty-eight, sixty-two, eighty-nine, and ninety-four). This dimension also received the lowest ranking of all six dimensions of the English teacher role (M = 5.33; MS = 5.37). t Analysis of significant items in the Link with the Community dimension of the English teacher role showed a conflict in student responses. In some instances, students 88 TABLE 15.--Items of Significance Related to the Link with the Community Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Status Differences. Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 45 62 70 91 94 44* A teacher Should seek T to develop the co- Operation of parents S when creating pro- grams of independent study for students. The most desirable T positions as teach- ers of English are S usually found in those communities which provide the highest level of economic support for their schools. Expect to be required T to participate in projects designed to S improve the nature of the community. Expect to be re- T quired to hold parent-teacher con- S ferences regularly. Expect to be asked T to review books for local civic orga- S nizations. Members of the com- T munity hold final authority in deter- S mining the nature and content of the school curriculum. 2.25 1.98 3.21 2.84 .65 .60 1.00 .87 1.09 .92 4.72 13.28 4.02 .03 <.0005 .05 <.01 .05 .07 89 TABLE 15.--Continued. Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 48* An English teacher T 3.53 1.03 3.46 .07 should not assign reading selections S 3.89 .89 which develOp ideas or themes unacceptable to significant segments of the community. *Items approach significance. appeared more aware of relating actively to the community than did teachers; in others, they appeared to see the English teacher as independent of the community. For example, students responded more positively than teachers to the idea of develOping parental co-operation when creat- ing new programs of study (item forty-five). They also responded more positively than teachers to the expectations of being required or asked to participate in projects designed to improve the nature of the community, to hold parent-teacher conferences regularly and to review books for local civic organizations (items seventy, ninety-one and ninety-four). It should be noted, however, that responses of teachers were lacking in consensus in item number ninety-one and that responses of both teachers and students fell within the neutral range in item ninety-four. 90 Responses to the belief that there is a relation- ship between the economic level of the community and the desirability of teaching positions available in that com- munity followed a different pattern (item sixty-two). Stu- dents were less likely than teachers to believe this rela- tionship existed. Responses to this item offered the begin- nings of an indication that students tended to believe in a greater amount of independence in respect to the commu- nity than did the teachers included in the sample. Further evidence for this position was afforded by those items which approached significance. For example, students responded less positively than teachers to the beliefs that members of the community hold final authority in determining the nature and content of the school curriculum and that an English teacher should not assign reading selec- tions which develop ideas unacceptable to significant seg- ments of the community (items forty-four and forty-eight). Students also responded less positively than teachers to the practice of co-operating with a local organization sponsoring an essay contest (item twenty-seven). It should be noted, however, that responses to this particular item fell within the neutral range and that no significant dif- ference existed between groups. On the basis of the responses to the items just discussed, then, it might be speculated that students in this group tended to believe that English teachers should be independent of community controls but 91 should expect some community demands. The apparent incon- sistency of student expectations in this respect, moreover, may well be indicative of a general lack of clarity in the definition of the Link with the Community dimension of the English teacher role. This in itself is supportive of one of the principal study hypotheses described earlier. An analysis of items showing no significant dif- ferences between groups indicated that both teachers and students showed consensus in the view that an English teacher should discuss a curriculum innovation at meetings of a local group (item seven), prepare programs for the P.T.A. (item fourteen), and draw upon the community as a resource for speakers (item ten). They also agreed that it is the responsibility of the English teacher to attempt to improve the level of taste of the community (item forty- two). Both teachers and students took a neutral position in response to the practice of circulating a petition for someone running for political office and to the expectation of being asked to review a book for a local organization (items number one and ninety-four). The expectation of P.T.A. attendance being compulsory also elicited a neutral response by both groups (item eighty-nine). Interestingly enough, although teachers tended toward the neutral posi- tion in regard to preparing a special radio prOgram for a local radio station, students were more inclined to feel 92 that this activity was a legitimate behavior of the English teacher (item thirty-four). Interview data indicated that this particular dimension was a blurred one for many students. Few reported any community contacts during their student teaching and those who did indicated that they were limited to the P.T.A. meeting or to a parent-teacher conference. Some individuals expressed a desire to be completely free as a teacher of any kind of responsibilities to the community. One young lady said, "The community exists to be of service to the school; the teacher is not a public relations person." Another, apparently holding a similar belief, maintained, "The teacher has no right to concern herself with what goes on in the community." Some believed that relations with the community were a legitimate concern of administrators, but not of teachers. Others felt that the community was important but only in terms of its desirability as a place to live. They felt no sense of obligation toward it and little feeling of relationship with it. Five items in the Link with the Community dimen- sion of the English teacher role showed significant dif- ferences between sex groups; two of these were significant at the very significant level (p,= <.01). These were items number sixty-two and seventy. Three were significant at levels equal to or greater than p = .05 (items forty-two, forty-four and ninety-one). A standard deviation greater 93 than 1.0 for both male and female groups existed in only one item (number eighty-nine) although the standard devia- tion for males alone exceeded 1.0 on items forty-four and ninety-one as well. Seven items showed mean responses in the neutral range for bOth groups. These were items num- ber one, twenty-seven, thirty-four, forty-four, forty- eight, ninety-four and eighty-nine. Rank ordering of dimen- sions indicated that both groups perceived this dimension of role to be less important than any of the preceding three. The mean response for males was 5.31; for females it was 5.43. Analysis of items with significant differences between groups showed that the males in the sample responded more positively than the females to the beliefs that an English teacher has the responsibility of working to improve the level of taste of his community (item forty-two) and that members of the community hold final authority in deter- mining the nature and content of the school curriculum (item forty-four). Males showed a lack of consensus in responding to this last item, however, and the responses fell within the neutral range. Males also responded sig- nificantly more positively than females to the belief that a relationship exists between level of economic support and quality of school (item sixty-two). These responses seemed to indicate that the males in the sample felt more strongly than the females that a relationship exists 94 between the English teacher and the community, that the teacher has some responsibilities toward the community and that the community will exert some controls over the teacher. TABLE l6.--Items of Significance Related to the Link with the Community Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Sex Differences. Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 42 An English teacher M 1.92 .70 4.95 .03 has the responsibility of working to improve F 2.36 .89 the level of taste and literary appreci- ation of the community in which he finds him- self. 44 Members of the com- M 3.44 1.16 4.08 .05 munity hold final authority in deter- F 3.92 .99 mining the nature and content of the school curriculum. 62 The most desirable M 2.92 .81 15.69 <.01 positions as teach- ers of English are F 3.78 .97 usually found in those communities which provide the highest level of econ- omic support for their schools. 70 Expect to be required M 3.48 .92 7.92 <.01 to participate in pro- jects designed to F 2.88 .92 improve the nature of the community. 91 Expect to be required M 2.64 1.15 5.08 .03 to hold parent teach- ; er conferences reg- F 2.10 .99 ularly. 95 Males, however, also tended to respond less favor- ably than females to the expectation of being required to participate in projects designed to improve the community (item seventy). This appeared to contradict the position taken in item forty-two. This contradiction might stem from a conflict between beliefs about what an English teacher should do as a part of his role and expectations for actually performing the action. It might be, too, that the term "taste" in item forty-two qualified this item and made it more in keeping with what is construed as the English teacher role. One young man asserted during an interview, for example, that he thought English teachers should concern themselves with school affairs but that they should leave other community problems alone. If this feeling were widespread. it might account for the position taken by many men in responding to this particular item. Males also responded less positively than females to the expectation of being required to hold parent-teacher con- ferences (item ninety-one). However, a standard deviation of 1.15 on this item indicates that males also tend to disagree in their thinking about this practice. Responses to non-significant items indicated that both sex groups responded positively to those items which depicted the English teacher as interpreting teaching practices to the community or utilizing the community as a resource (items seven, ten, fourteen, and forty-five). 96 Both groups took a neutral position in those items relating to actions of the English teacher within the community which were not specifically related to the classroom role (items one, thirty-four and ninety-four). Males and females took a neutral position in regard to the belief that an EngliSh teacher should not assign reading material unaccept- able to the community although males were somewhat more likely to disagree with the position than were females. Both sex groups also gave neutral responses to the expec- tation that P.T.A. attendance should be compulsory, although here, too, males tended to react somewhat more negatively than females to this position, a response pattern quite similar to that identified with item ninety-one. Role Dimension V: Member of a Faculty Teachers tended to ascribe more importance to the Member of a Faculty dimension of the English teacher role than did students. Teachers gave the dimension a mean ranking of 3.73 while students gave it a mean ranking of 4.34. Correlation analysis of the results of Part IV of the questionnaire also indicated a very significant status relation with the rankings of this dimension of role (r = .332). Five items showed significant differences between status groups at levels equal to or greater than .05 (items thirteen, fifty-two, sixty-three, seventy-four 97 and eighty). Only two items indicated a lack of consensus in the response patterns of both teachers and students (items seventy-three and ninety). Both students and teach- ers responded positively to the majority of items contained in this dimension however; only two items resulted in mean responses falling in the neutral range (items eighteen and thirty-seven). Two of the items showing significant differences in responses between groups had to do with relationships with other faculty members; the remaining three items related to administrative relationships. Responses to the two items having to do with faculty relationships indicated that the students in the sample were more concerned than teachers with the idea of relating the teaching of English to other subjects in the school curriculum. Thus, student responses to the practice of working with other faculty members to develOp a unified writing program and to the belief that English should be integrated with other sub- jects in the curriculum were significantly more positive than were those of the teachers in the sample. Students also responded more positively than teachers to the belief that the best kind of curriculum results from co-operative planning although the difference in response to this item was not significant (item sixty-four). Many students also stated during interviews that the presence of a school atmosphere that permitted teachers to work together and 98 that encouraged innovativeness on the part of teachers would be, in their estimation, an important consideration in choosing a new job. Responses to other items having to do with faculty relationships had both status groups reacting positively to the need for faculty co-Operation and participation in the affairs of the school (items twenty-five, thirty-six, and fifty-three). TABLE l7.--Items of Significance Relating to the Member of the Faculty Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Status Differences. Item No. Content , Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 13 Work with other mem— T 1.88 .54 6.09 .02 bers of the faculty to develop an aware- S 1.60 .64 ness of the need to teach writing to all classes. 52 The teaching of En- T 2.15 .91 4.94 .03 lish is most effec- tive when it is inte- S 1.80 .67 grated with other subjects in the cur- riculum. 63 The attitude of the T 2.00 .84 5.46 .02 principal frequently determines the gen- S 2.43 1.00 eral climate of the school. 74 Expect that the high T 1.60 .67 4.94 .03 school principal will support the teacher S 2.00 1.11 in all matters re- lating to student discipline. 99 TABLE l7.--Continued. Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 80 Expect to have grade T 1.98 .78 6.65 .01 level preference given careful consid- S 1.59 .73 eration by the school administration in making teaching assignments. Analysis of the three significant items having to do with administrative relationships indicated that students were somewhat less likely than teachers to look to the principal as a source of support and guidance although they were more likely to feel that the administrative structure of the school should consider the needs of individual teachers. For example, responses to items sixty-three and seventy-four indicated that students were less likely than teachers to believe that the attitude of the principal determines the general climate of the school or to expect that the principal will support the teacher in all matters relating to discipline. However, responses to the latter item tended to vary within the group. On the other hand, students were more likely than teachers to feel that the expectation of having grade level preference given careful consideration by the school administration was a legitimate one (item eighty). 100 Responses to non-significant items tended to sub- stantiate these same trends. For example, student responses to the practice of consulting with the principal or depart- ment head either before inviting an outside speaker into the classroom or before making a change in the course of study were less positive than were those of teachers (items three and fifteen). Students also responded more positively than teachers to the expectation that the school adminis- tration will consider their opinion of the value of an educational innovation before introducing it (item sixty- seven). On the other hand, they reacted less positively than teachers to the expectation that new teachers will be assigned less demanding schedules (item seventy-three). However, responses of both teachers and students to this item were less positive than they were in the preceding two items and both groups showed a lack of consensus in their responses. One teacher wrote on her questionnaire in regard to this item that this practice should be the case but that actually it is not. Conflicts between what individuals feel "should be" and what "actually is" may. produce the lack of consensus observed in this instance. Responses to these items taken together, then, indicate that students were somewhat more independent in their conception of the role of the English teacher as it relates to the administrative structure of the school than were teachers. 101 Both students and teachers took a neutral position in regard to the statement that the English teacher should serve as an advisor for student groups and to the belief that programs of language and literature should have a higher order or priority in matters of budget consideration than programs of vocational education (items eighteen and thirty-seven). The neutral response to item eighteen may be partially accounted for by the fact that few students had any experience with extra-curricular activities during their student teaching and only slightly over half of the critic teachers included in the sample were involved with such activities at the time the questionnaire was circulated. The response to item thirty-seven that a program of language and literature should have a higher order of priority so far as the school budget is concerned than vocational edu- cation programs was very like that made to item fifty- seven which states a belief that enrichment programs are of greater value than special remedial programs. In both of these items not only did both groups take a neutral position but teachers also showed a lack of consensus. It might be speculated, of course, that since both of these items relate to the needs of individual students, responses would have to be made in terms of specific cases. It might also be that students particularly, were ignorant of the cost of vocational training programs and hence could not accurately respond to the first item. 102 Interview data indicated that the students had little experience with the kinds of activities described by the items in this dimension. Most had attended a faculty meeting but had participated only as observors. Only one student had any opportunity to participate in any kind of curriculum study; the majority lacked any opportunities to observe the kinds of decision referred to by some of the items. For the most part contacts with administrators were also limited. "I met the principal the first day of student teaching and didn't see him again" described a situation more frequently the rule than the exception. Males ranked the Member of a Faculty dimension of the English teacher role higher in level of importance than did females. The mean response for males was 3.83 while the mean response for females was 4.32. However, responses to the items contained in this dimension were very similar. Only one item showed significant differences between sex groups. This was item ninety. Only one item elicited a neutral response by both groups (item eighteen), and only three items showed standard deviations greater than 1.0 (items thirty-seven, seventy-three and ninety). Males responded significantly less positively than females to the expectation of being required to monitor study halls and perform other non-instructional duties (item ninety). However, a standard deviation of greater than 1.0 for both males and females on this item indicated 103 TABLE 18.--Items of Significance Relating to the Member of the Faculty Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Sex Differences Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 90 Expect to be required M 3.40 1.04 5.08 .03 to monitor study halls and perform other non- F 2.79 1.21 instructional duties. a wide range of individual responses. Both groups took a neutral position in response to the belief that an English teacher should serve as an advisor to student groups even if this requires taking time away from other teaching duties (item eighteen). That few students had any experi- ence with extra-curricular activities during their student teaching and that only a few teachers were serving as advi- sors to such activities might account partially for this kind of response. Both males and females also gave neutral responses to the belief that programs of language and lit- erature should have a higher order of budget priority than programs of vocational education (item thirty-seven) although the size of the standard deviations on this item indicated a lack of consensus within each sex group. Responses to other items within this dimension indicated that both males and females included in the sample viewed positively those aspects of the English teacher role which 104 required working with other members of a faculty to develOp programs of instruction and that they expected consideration by the administration of their views in matters pertaining to the teaching situation. Although both males and females responded positively to the expectation that new teachers will be assigned less demanding schedules, both evidenced a wide range of responses to the item in question. Certain teachers wrote on their questionnaires that this should be the case but that actu- ally it is not. If this sentiment is widespread it would provide further evidence of the conflict already noted between what should be and what is, at least as reflected in the contrasting responses of status groups. Role Dimension VI: Member of a Profession The Member of a Profession dimension of the English teacher role was given a higher ranking by teachers than it was by students (Mt = 3.90; M8 = 4.30). Again, corre- lation analysis of rank ordering by status groups produced the same significant results noted in the discussion of the two previous dimensions. Here, too, the correlation was found to be very significant (r = .350) at a level greater than .01. The Member of a Profession dimension also contained many differences between groups. Four items showed sig- nificant differences in the response patterns of teachers 105 and students at levels equal to or greater than p = .05 (items nineteen, twenty, forty-seven and fifty-five). Two items also approached significance at levels equal to or greater than p = .10 (items forty and seventy-six). Eight items showed standard deviations of at least 1.0 for both status groups, which indicates a lack of consen- sus in response to those items (items eleven, thirty, forty, sixty, sixty-six, sixty-eight, seventy-six and seventy- nine). Responses to items in this dimension were also, for the most part, positive; only one item had a mean response falling in the neutral range (item thirty). An analysis of responses to items showing signifi- cant differences between status groups revealed that stu- dents reacted less positively than teachers to many of the beliefs, behaviors and expectations described by the items contained in the Member of a Profession dimension of the English teacher role. For instance, students responded much less positively than did teachers to the idea of influencing young people to enter the profession as English teachers and to the belief that teachers should have the right to determine requirements governing entry into the profession (items nineteen and fifty-five). If the recruit- ment of new personnel is taken as a function of the role 78 of the professional, as it frequently is, then this lack 78Commission on the English Curriculum of the Nation- al Council of Teachers of English, The Education of Teach- ers of English for American Schools and Colleges, ed. Alfred Grommon (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1963), p. 9. 106 TABLE l9.--Items of Significance Relating to the Member of a Profession Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Status Differences. Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F—Statistic Sig. 19 20 40* 47 55 76* Endeavor to influ- ence qualified young people to enter the teaching profession as English teachers. Contribute an article to a professional ’ journal explaining a teaching technique that has been espe— cially successful. That a teacher's per- sonal life should serve as a model for the young people whom he teaches. Duty to one's profes- sion rs a higher order.of responsi- bility than duty to one's employer. Teachers should have the right to deter- mine requirements governing entry into the profession. Expect to have week- ends and holidays free of all school responsibilities. T S 2.15 2.75 1.96 2.35 .66 16.77 <.01 .80 .50 .04 .58 1.10 .09 1.03 .92 .05 1.04 .76 .03 1.01 1.18 .07 1.21 *Items approach significance. 107 of a sense of obligation on the part of students may be taken as one evidence of a limited sense of what constitutes professional behavior. The fact that teachers do not at the present time have the means of controlling entry into teaching is one of the factors which sets teaching apart from other professions like law and medicine. Student reactions to this item may, then, be interpreted as further evidence of a lack of a professional sense; however, the lack of consensus in student responses indicates a present lack of agreement about this particular item. An analysis of items showing no significant dif- ferences between status groups revealed a similar tendency by students to give a less positive response to certain items. For example, students responded less positively than teachers to the possibility of publicly opposing a school board decision to reduce the size of the budget for the school library (item eleven) and the need for resisting community pressure which might interfere with a teacher's choice of classroom reading matter (item twenty-four). They also responded less positively than teachers to the belief that teaching is a profession in the same sense as law and medicine (item sixty-six) and they were less likely than teachers to feel that the expectation of being required to participate in programs of in-service training was a reasonable one (item eighty-one). 108 Interview data may provide some understanding of responses to this last item. Some students, for example, reacted against the idea of being required to participate in such programs although they felt that no one should object if the decision were left up to the individuals. Others felt that in-service training programs were not worthwhile. One young woman, for example, in what might be termed a rather sweeping generalization, said, "All courses held by schools for teachers are a waste of time." Unfortunately, she was able to provide no sound reasoning for her position, but reactions such as these may account for some of the negative responses to the item indicated. Students responded more positively than teachers to the expectation that attendance at regional and state meetings should be voluntary (item sixty-eight) and both groups took a neutral position in response to the practice of withholding services to negotiate a higher salary (item thirty), although students appeared somewhat more opposed to this practice than did teachers. The controversial nature of this practice may account for the neutral responses to this item since it appears that decisions are still made in terms of the individual situation. On the basis of the preceding discussion it might be possible to hazard the generalization that students were less professionally oriented than were teachers. The lack of agreement about many items evidenced by both status 109 groups is, of course, a limitation to this position. Another limitation stems from the fact that certain student responses indicated a much stronger sense of professional awareness than that evidenced by teachers. For example, they responded significantly more positively than teachers to the practice of contributing an article to a professional journal explaining a technique of teaching (item twenty). They were also more positive than teachers in their belief that it is necessary to read professional journals to keep abreast of professional trends although teachers, too, generally agreed that this was a beneficial practice (item two). Students made a similar response to the belief that duty to one's profession is a higher order of responsibil- ity than duty to one's employer (item forty-seven). They also responded significantly less positively than teachers to the concept that a teacher's personal life should serve as a model for young people. In a recent publication, J. N. Hook, a widely accepted authority in the teaching of English made the statement that the English teacher should accept the fact that he is a model for youth.79 However, if individuals must accept the constraints upon their per- sonal lives resulting from this View, then their profes- sional independence is bound to be limited. Responses to 79J. N. Hook, The Teaching of High School English, Third Edition (New York: The Ronald Press, 1965), p. 453. 110 this item, then, may indicate that students are moving more quickly than teachers from the rather traditional viewpoint expressed by the item in question. Students also responded less positively than teachers to the expectation of having weekends and holidays free of all school responsibilities, thus affording some evidence that they considered teaching an on going concern and not a job to be put aside at three o'clock. Perhaps a better conclusion is that this aspect of the English teacher role is less clearly defined by teach— ers and students participating in the study. That this is so for many students is supported by interview findings. For example, some students did not fully understand the meaning of the term professional. One girl said, "The principal was always talking about being professional, but I never did understand what he meant." Others equated "professional" with belonging to professional organizations. Certain of these individuals reacted strongly against such groups and so rejected the whole concept of the teacher as a professional person. The general feeling seemed to be that these organizations waste time, are status conscious and are in no way necessary to effective teaching. The feeling expressed by one individual that "a professional society is just something more to pay dues to" was indica- tive of a sentiment implicit in many student remarks. Another concept of English teaching held by many students 111 was that "teaching is what you do in the classroom." To these young people English teaching appeared to consist of an in-class dimension and an out-of—class dimension. Those aspects of role which did not make themselves apparent in the teaching situation became of secondary importance. The variation in responses made by teachers to items included in this dimension coupled with such recent events as teacher strikes and demands for increased auton- omy indicate that this area of role is for many teachers in such a state of flux that responses are often made in terms of individual situations rather than in terms of consensually validated behaviors. Males ranked the Member of a Profession dimension of the English teacher role higher in importance than did females. The mean response for males was 3.86; the mean response for females was 4.16. Three items showed signifi— cant differences between groups at levels equal to or greater than .05 (items thirty, sixty and seventy-six). This dimension contained no items eliciting a neutral response by both groups although females showed such a response to item thirty. However, substantial disagreement existed within each sex group for many of the items con- tained in this dimension. A standard deviation of greater than 1.0 for both males and females occurred in a total of eight items (items eleven, thirty, forty, forty-seven, sixty, sixty-six, sixty-eight and seventy-six). 112 TABLE 20.--Items of Significance Relating to the Member of a Profession Dimension of the English Teacher Role as Determined by Sex Differences. Item No. Content Group Mean S.D. F-Statistic Sig. 30 Withhold professional M 2.60 1.32 11.20 .01 services for purposes of negotiating higher F 3.47 1.06 salary. 60 A teacher's salary M 2.20 1.11 3.96 .05 should reflect the quality of his F 2.75 1.22 teaching. 76 Expect to have week- M 2.20 1.04 4.02 .05 ends and holidays free of all school F 2.75 1.23 responsibilities. An analysis of items showing significant differences between sex groups revealed that males responded more posi- tively than females to the practice of withholding profes- sional services for the purpose of negotiating a higher salary (item thirty). Differences in responses to this item were significant at the p = .01 level although both groups showed wide variation in responses. Males also responded more positively than females to the belief that a teacher's salary should reflect the quality of his teach- ing and to the expectation of having weekends and holidays free of all school responsibilities (items sixty and seventy-six). Responses to these items indicated that the 113 males included in the sample were somewhat more independent than females in their relationships to the school. This conclusion is supported to an extent by the responses made to items which showed no significant dif- ferences between sex groups. For example, males responded somewhat more positively than females to the practice of opposing a school board decision to reduce the size of the school library budget and to the beliefs that attendance at regional meetings will be voluntary and that standard procedures will be available for handling grievances (items two, sixty-eight and eighty-two). Males also responded more positively than females to those items which related to English teaching as a profession (items forty—seven and sixty-six). IV. CONCLUSIONS Hypothesis I The first hypothesis of this study read as follows: That in areas relating to the classroom performance aspects of the English teacher role, student expectations will exhibit greater agreement with the expectations of prac- ticing teachers of English than will student expectations which relate to out of classroom aspects of teacher behav- ior. In accordance with the California definition of teacher role, "classroom performance aspects" of the English teacher role were defined as Director of Learning, Coun- selor and Guidance Worker and Mediator of the Culture. "Out of Classroom" aspects, on the other hand, were defined as Link with the Community, Member of a Faculty and Member of a Profession dimensions of the role. Hypothesis I restated in terms of the California definition then read as follows: That student expectations of Director of Learning, Counselor and Guidance Worker and Mediator of the Cul- ture dimensions of the English teacher role will exhibit greater agreement with the expectations of practicing English teachers than will student expecta- tions of the Link with the Community, Member of a Faculty and Member of a Profession dimensions of this role. 114 115 Table 21 which summarizes the item analysis results, indicates that the study provides tentative support for this first hypothesis. Much agreement existed between teachers and students about many of the items drawn from the first three dimensions describing classroom aspects of the English teacher role; only eight of the items showing significant differences between groups related to these dimensions (36%). Fourteen were concerned with the last three dimensions or with "out of class" aspects of the role (64%). Both students and teachers, too, tended to show greater agreement among themselves about these first three dimensions of role than they did about the last three. Lack of consensus for both groups existed for only five items (31%); seven items demonstrated a lack of consensus by one group (41%). Only three items elicited neutral responses by both groups (25%). As the discussion of the preceding chapter has pointed out, responses to certain of the items contained in these first three dimensions suggested that both teach- ers and students held a humanistic view of English teaching. For example, responses indicated that both groups felt that English teachers should employ democratic procedures in the classroom, work to develop individual initiative and strive to foster an awareness of other cultures in their students. They shared a concern for students' devel- oping the ability to think clearly and critically. And both 116 TABLE 21.--Summary of Item Test Results as Related to Status Dif- ferences. Number of Number of Signif— umber of Non- Neutral Role Dimension icant Items onsensus Items2 Items3 <.01 <.05 Total oth Either H .,2 Director of $3 Learning 0 2 2 0 3 l = ngounselor & gqjgsuidance Worke} 2 l 3 1 4 l to on: . 8 :1) Mediator of £146, the Culture 1 2 3 ‘ 4 0 1 H m = o. Sub-Totals (3) (5) (8) (5) (7) (3) I g H Link with the = 2 Community 2 3 5 l 3 6 :33 Member of a .9, mFaculty 1 4 5 2 3 2 ci’u-m‘gMember of a “$30 Profession 1 3 4 8 4 1 m *g’g Sub-Totals (4) (10) (14) (11) (10) (9) = a: Grand Totals4 7 15 22 16 17 12 1The groups differentiated by status are teachers and students. 2A non-consensus item is defined as an item for which the standard deviation for both groups is greater than 1.0. The num- bers shown in the column headed "both" represent non-consensus items by this definition. The numbers shown in the column headed "either" represent totals of items for which one or the other of the groups, but not both, showed a lack of agreement, as indicated by standard deviations greater than 1.0. 4‘ 3A neutral item is defined as one in which the mean response falls between 3.0 and 3.9 for both groups. 4The totals shown do not equal the total number of items con- tained on the study questionnaire. "Agreement" items are not represented. ' 117 groups appeared to believe that a teacher should relate warmly to his or her students and should be concerned with their acquiring an understanding of themselves and their society. These kinds of agreements are not unexpected since concern for the individual and society not only is an accepted part of modern educational theory but also is in some ways a particular concern of the English teacher. For example, The National Council of Teachers of English holds the position that becoming articulate and literate is fundamental to man's attainment of human dignity and that through the study of literature man comes to under- stand himself and others.80 Responses to other items showing agreement between groups indicated that both teachers and students expected that school systems will provide the needed resources and services for effective teaching and that they as teachers will be given time and opportunity to develop and imple- ment new techniques of teaching. Both groups, then, appar- ently felt that good teaching requires "back up" support from the community and from the school administration. The emphasis upon the need for the freedom to test new classroom techniques projects an image of the teacher as a trained professional concerned with applying his knowl- edge and skills to developing the best means of instruction possible. 80The National Interest and the Teaching of English, op. cit., p. 15: 118 However, in spite of the agreement existing about these first three dimensions of the English teacher role, responses to those items drawn from these dimensions which showed significant differences between groups indicated that students and teachers differed about certain of these classroom behaviors. Teachers in some ways appeared more conservative or at least more likely to respond in terms of the conventional middle class value system. For exam- ple, teachers seemed somewhat more concerned than students with helping pupils attain social acceptance. In a similar fashion, they tended to see enrichment programs or programs that are frequently designed to benefit the gifted or supe- rior student as of somewhat greater potential worth than remedial programs. Students, on the other hand, showed a greater con- cern than teachers with social problems and with relating what happens in the classroom to the outside world. They also felt it more important than did teachers that what is studied in English contribute to the development of the student's social conscience. These sentiments may be a manifestation of the enhanced social awareness and desire to participate meaningfully in the solution of contemporary social problems that is a characteristic of many of the present college generation. On the other hand, they may simply be a demonstration of youthful idealism. Whatever their origin, however, these concerns are apparently 119 causing many of these students to think in terms of an English curriculum extended to include much contemporary literature so that the insights afforded by this literature could be explored in meaningful confrontations in the class- room. Since little contemporary literature is usually con- tained in anthologies, this kind of thinking on the part of students preparing to teach may provide some impetus to the trend noted in a recent study for teachers to move from sole reliance on a single anthology to a consideration of a few significant books read in their entirety.81 In a similar vein, students were more likely than teachers to feel that the study of the mass media should be as important a part of the English curriculum as the study of literature. This kind of response, of course, may be a result of the generation gap existing between teachers and students; that is, students may ascribe greater importance to the mass media simply because they have been exposed to them for a greater prOportion of their lives. It may be, too, that students are more aware than teachers of the importance of media in general and of television and film in particular to teenagers because they are them- selves closer in age to this group. If students continue to hold these same views after a few years of teaching, 81James R. Squire, "Evaluating High School Programs,‘ English Journal LV (1966), pp. 247-254. 120 however, the English classroom may well become a place where the visual image is accorded equal importance with the word as a legitimate object of study. Students, too, differed from teachers in demonstra- ting a greater concern with classroom procedures which emphasize the importance of the individual student. For example, they viewed more positively than teachers the need to develop diversified learning activities to facil- itate individual participation; they responded more posi- tively than teachers to the belief that the best climate for learning is one in which students feel completely free to express themselves on any topic and they appeared more convinced than teachers of the\worth of small group pro- cedures as a mean of achieving these goals. Why students should respond in these ways is impos- sible to say with certainty, but a few conjectures may be made. Since a concern for participation and involvement as well as freedom for self expression is a frequently cited characteristic of today's college generation, stu- dent responses may well reflect their own preferences for classroom situations. It may be, too, that students being closer than teachers to the formal academic situation may have responded in terms of the theories they had been taught during their program of preparation. Whatever the reasons, if the views of some authorities in the teaching of English are accepted, many of the students in the sample 121 appeared somewhat more advanced in their thinking than some of the teachers. For example, a recent report growing from the Dartmouth Conference dealing with the teaching of English makes the point that if the teaching of English is to be alive and meaningful, a new kind of classroom will be needed, ". . . a classroom in which the lecture is "82 If replaced by the dialogue of teacher and student. this kind of learning situation is accepted as a desirable goal, tflmnx it appears that some of the students are a little closer to achieving the kind of thinking necessary to its attainment than are some of the teachers. Support for the second part of the first hypothesis that less agreement will exist between teachers and stu- dents about out of class performance aspects of the English teacher was provided by the results of the correlation analysis of Part IV of the questionnaire. Results of this analysis which were discussed in the preceding chapter showed a significant correlation by status at levels p = <.01 for the three out of class dimension of the English teacher role: Link with the Community, Member of a Fac- ulty and Member of a Profession. 82John Dixon, Growth Through English: A Report Based on the Dartmouth Seminar (Reading, England: National Association for the Teaching of English, 1967), p. 34. 122 That much less agreement existed between groups about the items relating to these last three dimensions affords additional support to the second part of this hypothesis. Fourteen (64%) of the items showing signifi- cant differences between groups had to do with these dimen- sions. Five of these items related to the role of the English teacher as a member of the community; five had to do with the teacher as a member of a faculty and four per- tained to the role of the teacher as a member of a profes- sion. Responses to certain of the items pertaining to the Link with the Community dimension continued the same trend demonstrated in earlier dimensions for teachers to be somewhat more conservative or at least more traditional than the students contained in the sample chosen for study. For example, teachers were significantly more positive than students in their responses to the statement that a relationship exists between economic level of the community and the desirability of teaching positions available in that community. Students, on the other hand, appeared more responsive to the demands of the community. For instance, students were more likely than teachers to feel that demands made upon them by the community to review books or to participate in projects designed to improve the community were legitimate. Students, too, viewed more favorably than teachers the expectation of being 123 required to hold parent teacher conferences regularly and the need for developing the co-operation of parents when creating programs of independent study for pupils. Again it is impossible to say with certainty why these differences between groups exist. Differences in experiences may well be a determining factor in that teach- ers may be more aware of the demands teaching makes upon the teacher's time and energy and hence may be more cogni- zant of the difficulties of participating in community affairs. Teachers may also be more sensitive than students to the difficulties involved in securing parent co-operation no matter how desirable this co-operation may be. In this respect it may be remembered from the discussion of Chapter III that few students had any community contacts or any Opportunities to work with parents while they were doing their student teaching. Their responses would then prob- ably be the result of preconceived notions of what the role should be rather than the result of experiences of what it actually is. If this is the case, it may be that in a few years these same students' responses may be much closer to those made by experienced teachers. On the other hand, students may again be demonstrating the same feeling of the importance to the school of the broader society evidenced in their responses to other items dis- cussed earlier. If this is so, these future teachers may continue to develOp that "readiness to go outside classroom 124 walls, meet people and observe and work with them" that was projected by the Dartmouth Conference as a desirable behavior for English teachers.83 Both of these possible conclusions are, of course, only conjectures. Only a later study of these same students could provide the nec- essary evidence that would make a firm conclusion possible. Responses to those items concerned with faculty relations revealed that teachers were more aware than stu- dents of the principal as a leader in the school system and at the same time they tended to expect more of him in terms of support. As the discussion of Chapter III has pointed out, these responses were part of a pattern which suggested that students felt some resistance to the admin- istrative structure of the school. This feeling may simply beta result of that resentment of authority which is fre- quently a characteristic of young people. On the other hand, it may be a result of inexperience since as the dis- cussion of the preceding chapter has demonstrated, most students interviewed reported having only the most cursory kind of experiences with principals during their ten weeks of student teaching. If this is the case, student responses add support to the basic contention of this study that understandings of role are acquired primarily through experience. 83Ibid., p. 54. 125 Responses to other items concerned with faculty relations indicated that although both students and teach- ers agreed that the best curricula are developed when faculty work together to develop programs of instruction, students appeared to view more positively than teachers the need for the English teacher to work with other mem- ,bers of a school faculty to develop an awareness of the necessity for stressing language skills in all classes. In a recent text devoted to the teaching of English, J. N. Hook makes the assertion, "Since English over-laps all other fields to some extent, working with other teachers will pay large dividends to any English instructor."84 He continues that the English teacher hopes that all teach- ers in the school will constantly illustrate the attitude 85 If these statements are that good English is important. considered as goals for the English teaching profession, then this study provides some evidence that students are perhaps closer to attaining this way of thinking than teachers. Less agreement existed about items having to do with the Member of a Profession dimension of the English teacher role than about any of the other dimensions. 84Hook, 0p. cit., p. 452. BSIbid. 126 Agreement between and among groups existed about only two items: both groups felt that keeping abreast of profes- sional developments by regularly reading professional journ- als is a desirable practice and that the expectation of having standard procedures for handling personal or profes- sional grievances against a school system is a legitimate one. The first of these practices is advocated by author- ities concerned with the training of English teachers since if an individual is to continue his professional develop- ment, he must be aware of new research findings in his field of competency. Independent reading of professional journals is, of course, one means of gaining access to such information. Responses to the second of these items may well be a reflection of the present trend to standard- ize as many as possible of the employment conditions of teachers. Responses to items in this dimension showing significant differences between groups revealed conflicting ideas between teachers and students; teachers in some cases revealed evidences of a stronger professional sense than students; in other instances the trend was reversed with students taking a more advanced position. The discussion of the preceding chapter has pointed out that this kind of conflict makes it difficult to draw any generalizations about this particular dimension of the English teacher role. 127 Interview data also supported this first hypothesis to some extent in that the majority of insights which stu- dents reported experiencing during student teaching had to do with these out of class functions of teaching. For example, most students who were interviewed felt that English teachers performing in the classroom "did about what was expected." Many students, however, expressed dismay at the hours required to prepare lessons and cor- rect papers. "I felt drained with only one preparation. How will I ever manage four?", lamented one student. Others were shocked by what they considered callous remarks made by teachers about students in the teachers' lounge. A major source of disillusionment for many stemmed from the differential treatment accorded the general student in many school systems. In this respect, it should be remem- bered that for most of these students, college educated as they are, student teaching provided the first associa- tion with students other than those they had known in col- lege preparatory classes. All of these insights relate in some way to behaviors that are not generally visible to the student as he sits in the classroom; many of them, too, are not dealt with in any formal program of prepara- tion. An additional finding of the study not specifically related to the first hypothesis but significant in its implications for further research was that not only did students and teachers show the greatest disagreement about 128 out of class dimensions of the English teacher role, but also both teachers and students failed to agree among them- selves about many of the behaviors, beliefs and expectations pertaining to these dimensions. For example, eight (50%) of the items about which both these groups showed a lack of consensus among themselves related to the professional behaviors of English teachers. Trump and Baynham in Guide to Better Schools make the assertion that the image of the teacher as a professional is blurred in the minds of the public and in the minds of teachers themselves. It is their feeling that if the public is to hold an image of the teacher as a professional person showing knowledge, skill and pride in what he does, such an image must first 86 Results of exist in the minds of teachers themselves. this study indicate that for these teachers and students this clarification of image has not yet occurred. Adding further support to the contention that out of class dimensions of role are less clearly defined by both groups is the fact that six (50%) of the items show- ing a neutral response related in some way to the behavior of the English teachers in the community. In a recent text devoted to a discussion of the teaching of English Hans Guth observes that the teacher of English faces the 86J. Lloyd Trump and Dorsey Baynham, Guide to Bet- ter Schools (Chicago, Ill.: Rand, McNally, 1962), p. 55. 129 difficulty of effectively defining his role in society. This definition is, of course, a task of all teachers, but Guth feels it is more difficult for the teacher of English who finds himself concerned with long range and often,intangible aims in a society whose understanding of such aims is frequently limited.87 The prevalence of neu- tral responses made to items dealing with community rela- tions may indicate that both teachers and students included in the present sample are experiencing this difficulty. Summary: Hypothesis I The preceding discussion, then, provides evidence to support the first hypothesis of the study. This group of teachers and students did show greater agreement about in class aspects of the English teacher role than they did about out of class aspects. In addition, correlation analysis revealed a significant correlation by status for these out of class dimensions and interview data suggested that many of the insights experienced by individuals during their student teaching had to do with these out of class functions of the English teacher role. Other results of the study, however, indicated that the support given to this hypothesis must be somewhat qualified. For example, although teachers and students 87Hans Guth, English Today and Tomorrow: A Guide for Teachers of English (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1961), p. 421. 130 did agree about many of the in class functions of the English, they also showed significant disagreement about certain of these same functions. Furthermore, although greater disagreement existed between these groups about out of class performance aspects of the role, both groups also showed much more disagreement among themselves about these same aspects thus suggesting that out of class behav- iors are vaguely defined for practicing teachers as well as for student teachers. An additional qualification also exists because of the homogeneous nature of the sample employed in the study, a limitation which has been discussed in earlier chapters. It is, for example, possible that some of the agreements existing between and among groups are products of the similarity of the groups themselves. If this is the case, however, it suggests that those disagreements that do exist are even more significant and suggests that even more instances of disagreement might be found were a more heterogeneous sample employed. Such questions can be resolved, of course, only after further research which the findings of this study seem suggestive enough to war- rant. Hypothesis II The second hypothesis of the study stated that since expectations of the role of English teacher are 131 partially the result of latent sex role influences, men and women will hold differential expectations of this role. Results of this study provided some evidence that this differential perception of at least certain aspects of the role did occur among the men and women included in the sample chosen for study. For example, correlation analysis of the results of the rank ordering of various dimensions of role revealed that ranking correlated significantly with sex for the Counselor and Guidance Worker dimension of role. Results of rank ordering also demonstrated that the men included in this study ranked this dimension of role lower than did the women indicating that these men apparently considered this part of the English teacher role to be less important than did the women included in the sample. Results of interviews included in the discus- sion of Chapter III also support this finding. Analysis of responses to items also indicated that some significant differences existed between the responses of men and women. Table 22 depicts the distribution of these significant items across the six dimensions of role. Although all dimensions contained at least one item show- ing significant differences in responses between groups, two dimensions, Link with the Community and Counselor and Guidance Worker accounted for 50% of these items (nine items). The Director of Learning and Member of a Profes- sion dimensions accounted for another 34% (six items). 132 'PABLE 22.--Summary of Item Test Results as Related to Sex Differ- ences. Number of Number of Signif- Number of Non- Neutral Role Dimension icant Items Consensus Items1 Items2 <.01 <.05 Total Both Either 3 Director of 5'8 Learning 3 0 3 0 3 1 ft: 8 Counselor & '0, 5,9. Guidance Worker 2 2 4 3 l l U) ‘H 0 g 0 a: Mediator of L13 the Culture 2 0 2 3 2 0 l C: O :‘8. Sub-Totals (7) (2) (9) (6) (6) (2) I Link with the 2 3 Community 2 3 5 l 3 7 m'g Member of a E 32 Faculty 0 l l 3 ' 0 l u E 0 Member of a ”3‘3 a: Profession l 2 3 5 6 0 4:133 Sub-Totals '(3) (6) (9) (9) (9) (8) c>m = a. Grand Totals3 10 8 18 15 15 1o lA non-consensus item is defined as an item for which the standard deviation for both groups (male and female) is greater than 1.0. The numbers shown in the column headed "both" represent non-consensus items by this definition. The numbers shown in the column headed "either" represent totals of items for which one or the other of the two groups, but not both, showed lack of agree- ment, as indicated by standard deviations greater than 1.0. 2A neutral item is defined as one in which the mean response falls between 3.0 and 3.9 for both groups. 3The totals shown do not equal the total number of items contained on the study questionnaire. "Agreement" items are not represented. 133 Fewest significant differences in responses occurred in Mediator of the Culture (11% or two items) and Member of a Faculty dimensions (5% or one item). Responses to items having to do with community relations indicated a tendency on the part of the men included in this sample to be somewhat more aware than women of community obligations while at the same time being more resentful of obligations imposed by the community. Items relating to the Member of a Profession dimension indicated that men were somewhat more inclined than women to be concerned with matters of salary and to be more resentful of school responsibilities that extended beyond the regular school day. In this respect they evidenced the same dislike of obligations not specifically related to teaching revealed in the Link with the Community dimen- sion. Interestingly, the one item having to do with fac- ulty relations continued this same trend; men responded less positively than women to the expectation of being asked to monitor study halls. Men generally, then, dem- onstrated a tendency to be somewhat more independent in their conception of the English teacher role than women. This conclusion can be held only tentatively, however, for two reasons. First, as Table 22 indicates, Link with the Community and Member of a Profession dimensions contained many items which either elicited neutral responses or demonstrated such a wide variation in responses as to 134 indicate a general lack of consensus. Second, the small number of men (n.25) included in the sample makes it impos- sible to draw any but the most tentative of conclusions. Responses to those items drawn from the Counselor and Guidance Worker dimension of the English teacher role revealed less concern upon the part of the men included in this sample for learning as much as possible about stu- dents and for relating to them warmly. This same tendency for men to be less aware of interpersonal relationships in the teaching situation was demonstrated in responses to items showing significant differences drawn from the Direc- of Learning and Mediator of the Culture dimensions. Men, for example, were less likely than women to feel it neces- sary to employ methods which would insure that all students experienced success in some form in the classroom; they seemed also to feel it less important to conceal feelings of dislike for students. In addition, men demonstrated a slight tendency to be more "subject centered" than did many of the women in the study. For example, it may be remembered from the discussion of Chapter III that men responded more positively than women to the need for the study of the classics as a part of the English curriculum. These kinds of responses lend some support to the differ- ential ranking of the Counselor and Guidance Worker dimen— sion and make possible the tentative generalization that the men in this sample were less "peOple centered" or less 135 aware of the interpersonal relationship aspects of teaching than were the women. Such a conclusion is, to an extent, supported by other research studies. Cohen, for example, found that women more frequently than men cited relation- ships with pupils and the satisfactions gained from these 88 The studies relationships as a major career benefit. of Ryans89 and of Allport, Vernon and Lindzey90 in their conclusions that women are generally more aware than men of social relationships are also supportive of this gener- alization. In a recent article lBernbaunu a British sociolo- gist, notes that in Britain not only is the greatest wast- age among teachers among men but also it is difficult to draw the best qualified men into teaching. He also cites some evidence that in Britain the best qualified students tend to define the role of the English teacher in terms of 91 That a lack of men exists among students subject matter. preparing to teach English is a condition attested to by many individuals concerned with the training of such teach- ers. The small number of men in the present study is, for 88Elizabeth Cohen, "Status of Teachers," Review of Educational Research, XXXVIII 3 (June, 1967), p. 284. 89 Ryans, op. cit. 90Allport, et. al., op. cit. 91G. Bernbaum, "Educational Expansion and the Teach- er's Role," Universipy Quarterly, XXI (March, 1967), p. 162. 136 example, fairly typical of the imbalance in the profession. Figures having to do with the certification of teachers also point up this lack, for while 12,989 women graduated were in the United States between September 1, 1965, and August 31, 1966, with qualifications for teaching certifi- cates in English only 3,819 men were graduated with the same certificate during the same time period.92 Reasons such as lack of career opportunities or insufficient economic incentives are frequently cited as causes for the small number of men who enter English teach- ing. The present study, however, presents some reason for suggesting that men do not enter this profession simply because many of them lack the people centered orientation which produces one of the major satisfactions of teaching. This generalization can, of course, be held only tentatively because of the small number of men included in the sample of the present study. In addition, some contradictory evidence also exists in the study of Fishburn who, using the same California definition of role, found that men ascribed more importance to the Counselor and Guidance 93 Worker dimension of role than did women. Fishburn, how- ever, was studying practicing teachers or those who had 92Teacher Supply and Demand in Public Schools, 1967 (Washington, D.C.: Research Division National Edu- cation Association, 1967), p. 24. 93Fishburn, 0p. cit. 137 remained in the profession for a period of time; no students were included in his sample. It is possible, then that the men teachers who did not view this function as important simply failed to continue in the profession and, hence, were not included in his study. However, because this generalization can be held only tentatively since the number of men teachers and men student teachers represented in this study is small and since some contradictory evidence exists, perhaps the most salient implication of that part of the study relating to the second hypothesis is an expression of need for further detailed research in the area of sex related differential perceptions of the English teacher role. Further studies of the nature of those conducted by Ryans on the traits and characteristics of those engaged in teaching with par- ticular emphasis upon differences existing among teachers of different subjects may prove in the long run to be most productive of the kind of information needed before any firm conclusions can be reached. Summary: Hypothesis II The present study offers some evidence in support of the second hypothesis that men View the role of the English teacher differently from women. The pattern of responses to the questionnaire employed in the study proj- ects a View of the male English as being more resentful of 138 external constraints than the female, less aware of students and more aware of subject matter concerns. Although these generalizations can be projected as only tentative conclu- sions, results of the study do suggest that further research should be conducted employing larger numbers than were included in the present study and separating male and female students from male and female teachers for cross comparison purposes. Implications of the Study This study provides some evidence that students preparing to teach English and experienced teachers of English hold similar expectations of the many classroom performance. aspects of the English teacher role. This similarity is to be expected if Mead's theory of role learning as a process of socialization is accepted since students have had more experience with classroom situations and more opportunities to observe teachers in these situ- ations. In addition, the frequency in the interview situ- ation of such student comments as "this [classroom perfor- mance] is what all our training has been about" leads to the conclusion that a large part of the preparation pro- gram as the student perceives it has centered around pre- paration for the assumption of these dimensions of teacher role. If, then, it is assumed that developing a realistic set of expectations of the role to be performed is one of 139 the chief objectives of a program of professional prepar- ation, results of this study indicate that for most of these students this objective is being achieved insofar as many of the classroom functions of the English teacher are concerned. Those who are concerned with teacher training may also take some satisfaction from the finding of the study that in many of those instances in which students and teach- ers differed significantly about classroom behaviors, stu- dents appeared more advanced in their thinking than teach- ers. Determining why these differences existed is not a function of this study although some speculations about possible causes have been made earlier in the chapter. However, that they did exist has certain implications for the training of English teachers which is a legitimate concern of the study. For example, that students appeared in some instances more progressive than teachers has particular relevance for those concerned specifically with programs of student teach— ing since differences in vieWpoints between student teach- ers who are progressive in their thinking and superVising teachers who are more traditional provide frequent sources of conflict in the student teaching situation. In many instances the student teacher caught in such a conflict may be in a position to offer some leadership for change within a school system if he or she is given proper 140 support and guidance by university personnel concerned with student teacher programs. Unfortunately, if this support is not given, the neophyte teacher is all too likely to discard his ideas as being impractical and idealistic and adopt the more conservative teaching techniques which he observes about him. The preceding discussion has also pointed out that students and teachers did not show the same kind of agree- ment about the out of class dimensions of English teacher role as they did about the in class dimensions. Again, Mead's theory of role learning may account in part at least for these differences since interviews revealed that most students included in the study had had few opportuni- ties at any time during their program of teacher prepara- tion to participate in any meaningful fashion in these out of class functions of the English teacher role. Those few who did have these Opportunities, however, acquired a con- cept of teacher role which extended beyond classroom func- tions. Shafer reached a similar conclusion about the stu- dents whom he studied. These students, all of whom were engaged in the fifth year of a five year program of teacher education initially conceived of the teacher role in terms of in class functions only. During the course of their study, however, as they participated in the varying duties 141 of the English teacher, they enlarged their concepts of this role to include out of class performance aspects.94 The preceding discussion leads to what is perhaps the most important implication of the present study: that if students are to develop a realistic conception of all parts of the English teacher role, then these students must be provided with Opportunities not only to observe all these functions but also to participate meaningfully in them. The need for this kind of participation has been noted by others concerned with teacher training. For exam- ple, in an article in The Journal of Teacher Education Miller asserts that what is involved in the teacher role cannot be acquired by reading or observation alone. He contends that student teachers must have the opportunity to encounter reality in the form Of participation in sit- uations in which they have some responsibility.95 It was, of course, as the discussion Of the previous chapter indi- cated, the lack of the opportunity to participate in such activities as faculty meetings, curriculum study projects or professional organizations that was lacking from the program of preparation of most of the students represented in the study. 94Shafer, Op. cit., p. 125. 95Henry Miller, "Role Awareness as an Objective Of Group Work in Teacher Education," The Journal of Teacher Education, VI (June, 1955), pp. 128-133. 142 To determine the means by which this more complete understanding by students of the role of the English teacher is to be achieved is again not a responsibility of the present study. However, a few speculations about possible courses of action can perhaps be made. The study first of all suggests that if roles are acquired primarily through participation, small classes in which individuals have opportunities for participation and meaningful interaction will be most useful in programs of teacher preparation since it goes without saying that the large lecture provides little Opportunity for these kinds of activities. The small class also lends itself to group work within the class, a learning procedure which many students found particularly desirable. Much research in small group processes indicates that attitudes are most readily changed in situations involving close personal con- tacts.96 The differences apparent within the student sam- ple suggest that such a situation would make it easier for students to share opinions and learn from each other pro- vided that students in small groups are provided an oppor- tunity to meaningfully interact with experienced teachers who might serve as role models. 96Kurt Lewin, "Group Decision and Social Change," Readings in Social Psychology, ed. Theodore Newcomb and Eugene L. Hartley: (New York? Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1947), pp. 340-344. 143 The study also demonstrates the need for programs of teacher preparation to include a wider range of experi- ences than those that presently exist in many institutions. In this respect it may be recalled that although many stu- dents tended to consider counseling a specialized profes- sional function, those who had Opportunities to participate in a variety of experiences involving counseling activities developed a conception of the counseling function as a vital part of the English teacher role. This need for additional experiences is particularly evident in the pro- fessional dimensions of the English teacher role. Here the ambiguity existing in the minds of many students and many teachers indicates the necessity of a closer liaison between teacher educators and professional organizations than has existed in the past. It also suggests the need for beginning earlier in preparation programs to develop the concept of the teacher as a professional person. This may require making Opportunities available for realistic participation in school situations earlier than these now occur. It may also require a closer liaison between English departments and education departments so that at least some of the student's work in English is specifically related to his future role as a teacher. In addition to these implications which emerge from the over-all results of the study responses to certain individual items also have some significance for 144 teacher educators. For example, that students felt that being allowed to teach grade levels of their preference a realistic expectation while teachers considered it unreal- istic indicates that if beginning teachers are to be spared initial disappointment and disillusionment, they need to acquire more understanding of the realities of a school 'system which places experienced teachers at higher grade levels and beginning teachers at lower. The nature of the teacher sample of this study with its preponderance of eleventh and twelfth grade experienced teachers Offers some evidence that this practice is perhaps all too prev- alent. The lack of understanding of the role of the prin- cipal evidenced by responses to certain items already dis- cussed points up the need for clarifying the functions of various individuals in the administrative and supervisory structure of the secondary school if individuals are to make as smooth a transition as possible from the role of student teacher to the role of practicing professional. The confusion, too, which some students felt about the value or worth of inservice programs indicates that more effort needs to be spent convincing students of the neo- essity for continuing their education after graduation. Finally the shock that many students felt at their initial encounters with the "general" students could perhaps be lessened by programs of preparation which paid some atten- tion to the characteristics of these particular students. 145 Here periods of Observation in the school situation might prove helpful if students receive some guidance in what to look for and if observations are followed by class ses- sions devoted to discussions of how to deal with particular problems which sometimes present themselves in the teach- ing of these kinds of students. The implementation of many of these suggestions requires additions to an undergraduate curriculum which is already perhaps too full. In fact, as numbers of students increase and as the amount of knowledge required for suc- cessful fulfillment of the teaching role also grows larger, traditional four year programs of teacher preparation may prove inadequate; five year programs may prove necessary. Some institutions are, in fact, already maintaining such programs. For example, Shafer's study mentioned earlier in this chapter was conducted with students participating in such a program all of whom reported gaining significant insights into teaching as a result of a year devoted to intensive training in teaching. However, it should be emphasized that such programs in themselves are not likely to be effective unless they provide the experiences neces- sary for students to develOp the desired understandings of the teacher role. It may be also that too much is being asked of programs of teacher education and of institutions and departments concerned with such programs. Perhaps more 146 responsibility for socializing beginning teachers into the teacher role must rest with the public school system itself and with the administrators and teachers who staff that system. In fact, certain of the findings of this study lend support to this particular position. For example, the limited understanding of the value of inservice pro- grams indicates the need to emphasize the importance of these programs to beginning teachers. The confusion existing in the minds of many students and teachers in the study about the professional dimensions of the teacher role calls for teachers to exert some leadership both in defining this role and in introducing new teachers to it, for if teachers themselves are unclear about what constitutes pro- fessional behavior, it becomes difficult for teacher edu- cators to provide experiences to develOp clear concepts of that behavior. If the preparation period of teachers is extended beyong the time spent on college campuses to encompass the early years of an individual's teaching experience, then some changes will probably need to be made by school sys- tems and by teacher preparation institutions. It may be, for example, that the first few years of teaching should be considered apprentice years during which the novice teacher does not immediately assume all the responsibilities of the English teacher role. If this were the case, the school system and particularly senior teachers would be 147 responsible for providing support and guidance to the neophyte teacher as he gradually assumes full teaching responsibilities. Greater care would have to be taken in~ the placement of beginning teachers than is now the case and greater responsibility for the induction of new members into the profession would have to be assumed by experienced teachers. This assumption of responsibility for the induc- tion process.isitself a professional responsibility which might well strengthen the image of the teacher as a profes- sional person. Teacher preparation institutions would be responsible for assisting with the placement process and with providing on going programs of in service training. All these projections exist at the present time, for the most part, only in the realm Of speculation; how- ever, this study and others like it seem to make clear the need for close co-Operation between institutions of prepar- ation and public school systems in the training of the best possible English teachers. Implications for Further Research The limitations of this study imposed by the homog- eneous nature of the sample chosen for study have been dis- cussed in an earlier chapter. Such a sample, of course, limits to some extent the generalizations that can be drawn about the general population of English teacher and of students who are preparing to become such teachers. 148 However, the findings of the present study appear suffi- ciently suggestive to warrant research of a similar nature using a larger and more heterogeneous sample drawn from the general population of English teachers and of students preparing to become such teachers. The questionnaire also has some limitations as a data gathering instrument; limited responses to items and the possibility of misinterpretation of items are two of these. The interviews conducted with the student sample as a part of the present study lessened the likelihood of misinterpretation and made it possible for these indi- viduals to respond more fully at least to some items than otherwise would have been the case. This procedure, then made it possible to place more confidence in the responses of these people. Had it been possible to have interviewed at least a sample of supervising teachers a much more com- plete picture of the role as it is defined by practicing teachers might have been obtained. Although this procedure was not possible in the present study, it seems a worth- while procedure for future studies concerned with the English teacher role. The study also suggests that further testing of the California definition of teacher role might prove worthwhile. The studies which have made use of this defini- tion, that of Fishburn in particular, suggest that six independent dimension of the role exist. The present study 149 provides some reason for supposing that these six dimen- sions may well collapse to two: an in class dimension and an out of class dimension. This kind of division seemed particularly likely in the case of teachers and students although it was not so strongly suggested in the case of males and females. However, since this particular defi- nition has been so widely adopted, further study involving empirical test of the theoretic concepts of the definition seems particularly worthy. APPENDICES 150 APPENDIX A PARTICIPATION REQUEST FORMS 151 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY am LANSING - MICHIGAN 43323 THE HUMANITIES TEACHING INSTITUTE - ERICKSON HALL May 3, 1967 Dear Teacher: The Humanities Teaching Institute at Michigan State Univer- sity is now engaged in a study of what our prospective teach- ers of English expect of their future teaching role. We are asking all of our June graduates to complete an English Teacher Role Inventory. In addition, many of these students will be asked to COOperate in detailed follow-up interviews. However, in order to make our study fully effective, we also need to secure the cooperation of a number of experi- enced teachers of English who may be in a position to pro- vide us with specific information concerning the nature of the English teacher role as it presently exists in our secondary schools. We feel that you and other supervising teachers can provide us with such information. We hope, therefore, that you will be willing to complete the enclosed questionnaire and inventory. By doing so, you will provide us with a reliable yeadstick by which we might judge how realistic our prospective teachers are in their approach to the role they will assume as new teachers. Since we are interested only in acquiring an understanding of what beginning teachers of English should expect, we are asking you not to sign the form unless you care to do so. A stamped addressed envelOpe is enclosed for your con- venience. We know that this questionnaire is coming to you at a busy time of year and that its completion will require some of your time. Your reward, we hope, will be the opportunity to participate in a program which should have beneficial consequences for teacher education. Dr. Henry Kennedy, Director Of Student Teaching, and Dr. Elizabeth H. Rusk, Director of the Humanities Teaching Institute, join me in thanking you for your cooperation. Sincerely, Gladys Beckwith Project Director GB:vw May 3, 1967 TO: Michigan State University Co-ordinators of Student Teaching FROM} Gladys Beckwith, Project Director The Humanities Teaching Institute at Michigan State University is now engaged in a study of what prospective teachers of English expect of their future role as teachers. Since you may be receiving certain questions regarding this project from some of your supervising teachers, we believe it is important that you know something about our plans. We are asking all of our June graduates to complete an English Teacher Role Inventory and questionnaire which was recently constructed for this purpose. In addition, many of these students will be asked to cOOperate further in detailed follow-up interviews. To make the information obtained by these methods more meaningful, however, we feel the need of having a reliable yardstick which may be used as the basis for evaluation of the students' perceptions of their role. For this reason we are also asking a select sample of experienced teachers of English to complete the same inventory and questionnaire. ‘Many of those selected for this purpose served as supervising teachers during the Winter Term and may currently be serving in the same capacity. A cOpy of the letter which these teachers will soon be receiving is enclosed for your information. COpies of the English Teacher Role In- ventory and questionnaire are also available for your examination. Dr. Henry Kennedy and Dr. Elizabeth Rusk join me in asking for your personal cOOperation in this project. If, for example, you are asked by any of your supervising teachers for advice regarding the inventory and questionnaire, we would appreciate it very much if you would simply inform them of the fact that this is a university approved study which could well result in improved programs of instruction in English education. Thank you for your assistance in this important matter. If you have any questions regarding the project itself, please let me know. We wish to keep you informed of our progress. Gladys Beckwith GBng Enclosure MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EAST LANSING - MICHIGAN 48323 THE HUMANITIES TEACHING INSTITUTE - BRICKSON HALL May S, 1967 TO: Former Students of Education 327D The Humanities Teaching Institute is now engaged in a study of what our prospective teachers of English expect of their future teaching role. To obtain some of the information required we are asking a select sample of our former students of English methods to complete the attached role inventory and questionnaire. We hope that you will be able to help us in this important study by completing this instrument as quickly as possible and returning it to Erickson Hall. A stamped envelope is enclosed for your conve- nience. We know that this request may come to you at a busy time, but we trust that the opportunity to participate in a study which should have some beneficial consequences for teacher education at Michigan State will be enough to compensate you for your time and effort. If you have any questions concerning this project or the role inventory you are being asked to complete, I will be happy to talk with you in my office 257 Erickson Hall. Dr. Elizabeth H. Rusk, Director of the Humanities Teaching Institute, joins with me in thanking you for your cOOperation. Sincerely, Gladys Beckwith Project Director GB:vw Enclosure MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY aAsr LANSING- MICHIGAN 43323 THE HUMANITIES TEACHING INSTITUTE o ERICKSON HALL May 22, 1967 Dear As a supervising teacher in the Michigan State University student-teacher preparation program, you were recently asked to assist in a study conducted by the Humanities Teaching Institute. We need your help in evaluating how realistic are the expectations of our prospective teachers of English. We are asking you to serve as a kind of confidential yardstick against which we may measure the expectations of our June graduates in English. Since we cannot be sure which teachers have returned the role-inventory sent to all supervising teachers several weeks ago, we are sending reminders to all except those who signed their names on the form. If you have not yet mailed the inventory, we hope you will soon. If you did not receive it or if you have mislaid it, we hope you will let us know at once so we may send you a replacement. Sincerely, Gladys Beckwith GB:vw APPENDIX B STUDY QUESTIONNAIRE 156 English Teacher Role Inventory Form A HUMANITIES TEACHING INSTITUTE College of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan Educational Publication Services College of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan April 1967 ENGLISH TEACHER ROLE INVENTORY Part I Listed in this section are a number of statements which have been used from: time to time to describe the behavior Of the typical high school English teacher. We are not here concerned with the behavior Of the teacher in unusual or exceptional situations. Our concern is rather with the behavior of the teacher in situations which approximate the norm or the average. Please judge your reaction to each statement presented accordingly. Remember, there are no right or wrong answers. This is not a test and it is expected that individuals will differ in their Opinions on most of the items. We are simply interested in learning more about your picture Of the English teacher, based upon your personal experience and knowledge. Use the scale to the right of each statement for your reSponses. Mark each scale presented and do not mark any scale more than once. Scale Interpretation 1 = Represents something that the English teacher absolutely must g3. . 2 = Represents something that the English teacher preferably should d3. 3 = Represents something that the English teacher mg 35 gay ‘ggglgg. It is a matter of individual discretion. 4 = Represents something that the English teacher preferably should not £3. 5 = Represents something that the English teacher absolutely must not 512. 1 2 3 4 5 1. Circulate a petition for someone who is running for the school board. 2. Keep abreast of professional trends by regularly reading the professional journals. 3. Consult with principal or department head before inviting outside speakers into the classroom. 4. Seek professional counseling help for a persistently unruly child who shows signs of personality disturbance. Part I 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Employ small groups in the classroom so that students may learn to work together in a democratic fashion. Use competition for grades as a source of student motivation. Discuss a curriculum innovation at a meeting of a local civic group. Use diagnostic tests as a basis for planning a program designed to improve language skills. Develop some classroom goals co-Opera- tively with students. Invite a local author of some renown to speak to his classes. Publicly Oppose a school board decision. to reduce school library budget. Develop some writing assignments which will provide teacher with insight into a student's personal problems. Work with other members of the faculty to develOp awareness of the need to teach writing to all classes. Prepare a special program for a meeting of the PTA if asked to do so. Consult with the department head or with the principal before making a major change in the established course of study. Study the literature of other nations so that students may gain an understanding of cultures different from their own. Provide Opportunities for students to compare effective pieces of writing with ineffective pieces. Serve as adviser for a student group even if this activity may require taking time away from regular teaching duties. Part I 19. Endeavor to influence qualified young peOple to enter the teaching profession as English teachers. 20. Contribute an article to a professional journal explaining a technique of teach- ing that has proven eSpecially successful. 21. Make wide class participation possible by developing diversified learning activities. 22. DevelOp the ability to think critically by providing students with the Opportu- nity to make meaningful decisions. 23. Discuss how to read a newspaper intelli- gently. 24. Resist any community pressure which would tend to interfere with a teacher's choice of classroom reading matter. 25. Participate in a pilot project which is attempting to test the value of an educa- tional innovation even though his first reaction is that the innovation is of little value. 26. Provide an Opportunity for all pupils to experience success in some form in the classroom situation. 27. Co-Operate with a local organization sponsoring an essay contest even if the teacher disagrees with the philOSOphy of the organization. 28. Develop procedures which will enable : : : students to evaluate their own writing. 29. Require a theme dealing with some con- troversial tOpic which will require students to analyze their own thinking. 30. Withhold professional services for pur- pose of negotiating higher salary. 31. Take care to conceal personal dislike Q. for a student. Part I 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. Stress that students must acquire the ability to Speak and write acceptably so that they may attain social accept- ance. Select for study some literature that will help adolescents understand theme selves. Prepare a Special program for local radio station on a continuing basis if asked to do so by the station manager. Substitute the study of a piece of adolescent literature -- such as John Carson's Hotshot -- for Dickens' Great Expectations or some similar classic in a general English class made up of students with limited reading ability. Participate in weekly meetings of a curriculum study project designed to consider new develOpments in the teaching of English. ENGLISH TEACHER ROLE INVENTORY Part II In this section you will find listed a number of statements which have been used to describe the beliefs or values of the typical high school English teacher. You are asked to indicate the degree to which each statement presented must or must not be a part of the belief or value system of the teacher. As with Part I, use the scale to the right of each statement for your responses. Scale Interpretation 1 = The English teacher absolutely_must believe or value this. 2 = The English teacher preferably should believe or value this. 3 = The English teacher may 25 may not believe or value this. It really makes no difference. 4 = The English teacher preferably should not believe or value this. 5 = The English teacher absolutely must not believe or value this. 37. That a program of language and litera- ture study should have a higher order or priority than programs of vocational training, so far as the school budget is concerned. 38. That all students really want to learn. 39. That the study of mass media is as im- portant a part of the English curriculum as is the study Of literature. 40. That a teacher's personal life should serve as a model for the young peOple whom he teaches. 41. That Special programs dealing with the study of the humanities will be of most value to the college preparatory student. Part II 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. That an English teacher has the reSpon- sibility of working to improve the level of taste and literary appreciation Of the community in which he finds himself. That an effective teacher must possess the ability to relate to his students in a warm, humane fashion. That members of the community hold final authority in determining the nature and content of the school curriculum. That a teacher should seek to deve10p the co-operation of parents when creat- ing programs of independent study for students. That teaching is the highest possible calling that an individual can assume. That duty to one's profession is a higher order of responsibility than duty to one's employer. That an English teacher should not assign reading selections which develOp ideas or themes unacceptable to signi- ficant segments Of the community. That the best climate for learning is one in which students feel completely free to express themselves on any tOpic. That the most important reason for teaching literature is to develOp a sense of human dignity and personal worth. That if learning is to occur, there must be some times when confusion in the classroom is to be expected. That the teaching of English is most effective when it is integrated with other subjects in the curriculum. That activities such as the school newspaper, the yearbook, dramatics, public Speaking and debating are natural extensions of the regular English program. Part II 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. That standardized tests in English will provide a teacher with the best measure of student achievement. That teachers should have the right to determine the requirements governing entry into the profession. That if a teacher is to do an effective job of teaching, he must know as much as possible about each of his students. That enrichment programs are, in general, of greater value than special remedial programs. That literature should be chosen to pro- : vide insight into today's social problems. That of all the teachers in the high school the English teacher is the one most concerned with the develOpment of values and standards of judgment. That a teacher's salary should reflect the quality of his teaching. That covering the material described in the course outline is one of the teacher's most important Objectives. That the most desirable positions as teachers of English are usually found in those communities which provide the highest level of economic support for their schools. That the attitude of the principal of a school frequently determines the general "climate" of the school. That the best kind of curriculum is likely to be develOped when teachers are able to plan together to achieve desired ends. That teaching the classics to new gen- erations of students is one of the pri- mary functions of the English teacher. That teaching is a profession in the same sense as law and medicine. -g- ENGLISH TEACHER ROLE INVENTORY Part III During the next few weeks or months a number of persons will be seeking to enter the field of education as teachers of English. For their benefit and our own, we are interested in learning something about how they should view their new profession. We refer in particular to the expectations they may hold regarding the duties, functions and working conditions of the typical high school English teacher. Listed in this section are a number of statements which may or may not reflect the kinds Of expectations held by the teacher. Please respond to each statement presented in terms of how reasonable, legitimate or valid it may sound to you personally as an aSpect of employment. Use the following scale as the measure of your reSponses. Scale Interpretation l = The English teacher would have 3 perfect right to expect this as an aSpect of his employment. 2 = The English teacher would have 3 somewhat reasonable right to expect this as an aSpect of his employment. 3 = The English teacher might g3 might not expect this as an aSpect of employment.) It makes little or no difference. 4 = It would be somewhat unreasonable for the English teacher to expect this as an aSpect of his employment. 5 = The English teacher would have absolutely pp right to expect this as an aspect Of his employment. 1 2 3 4 5 67. Expect that the school administration will consider teacher's views Of an innovation such as programmed learning before it is adopted. 68. Expect that attendance at regional and state educational meetings will be completely voluntary. 69. Expect that school will provide pro- : : : : : : fessional counselors who will deal with students who have Special emotional problems. Part III 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. Expect to be required to participate in projects designed to improve the nature of the community. Expect that there will be no restric- tions placed on the part time jobs a teacher might take to supplement his income. Expect to have well supplied school library available for use by English classes. Expect that new teachers in the system will be assigned less demanding sched- ules and classes which are somewhat easier to handle. Expect that the high school principal will support the teacher in all matters relating to student discipline. Expect to be asked to administer Stan- dardized tests as a part of an all school evaluation program. Expect to have weekends and holidays free of all school responsibilities. Expect to be viewed as an agent of social change in a fast develOping new society. Expect to be required to report stu- dent's progress to parents in terms of attitudes and social behavior as well as in terms of growth in knowledge and skills. Expect that salary schedule for all teachers will be based upon Objective measures of preparation and experience. Expect to have grade level preference given careful consideration by the school administration in making teach- ing assignments. Expect to be required to participate in an in-service training program at least once every two years. Part III -10- 82. Expect to have standard procedures for handling personal or professional grievances against the school adminis- tration. 83. Expect to be asked to provide informa- tion about vocational Opportunities and careers in English to his students. 84. Expect to relate subject matter consid- erations to non-classroom aspects of student life. 85. Expect school to provide teacher with an : adequate budget for audio-visual resources. 86. Expect that teacher will be given free time during school day for lesson planning. 87. Expect that the school system will pro- vide classes in remedial reading and Speech correction for those students in need of such Special help. 88. Expect to make direct application of his subject matter to the solution of significant local problems. 89. Expect that local PTA attendance will be compulsory. 90. Expect to be required to monitor study halls and perform other non-instructional duties. 91. Expect to be required to regularly hold parent-teacher conferences. 92. Expect that the English curriculum will be designed to contribute to the develOpment of the student's character and social conscience. 93. Expect to be given freedom to test new teaching techniques which appear promising. 94. Expect to be asked to review books for : : : : : : local civic organizations. Part III 95. 96. Expect to be required to keep personal record files for each of his students. Expect that there will be no restric- tions on a teacher's personal life in the community. -11.. -12- ENGLISH TEACHER ROLE INVENTORY Part IV Listed below are six descriptions of the various aSpects of the high school teacher role as it has been defined by several national study commissions. For the sake of convenience each is here identified by a brief title. We are interested in knowing which of these various "role aspects" is, accord- ing to your definition, most important, which is of secondary importance, and so forth. IN THE SPACE PROVIDED RANK EACH DESCRIPTION IN ORDER OF IMPORTANCE. (l,MOST IMPORTANT, 2,LESS IMPORTANT - ETC.) 97. Director pf Learning: In this aspect of the role the teacher is said to adopt principles Of child growth and development to the planning of learning activities, to use principles of learning to develOp effective instructional and evaluation procedures and to maintain an effective balance of freedom and security in the classroom situation. 98. Member pf the Profession: In this aSpect of the role the teacher is said to demonstrate an appreciation of the social importance of his profession, to contribute to the develOpment of profes- sional standards, participate in professional organizations and to take a personal responsibility for his own professional growth. 99. Counselor and Guidance Worker: In this aSpect of the role the teacher is said to collect information about his students by a variety of procedures, to use diagnostic and remedial procedures to accommodate individual differences and to work to help each student understand his own strengths and weaknesses. lOO. Mediator g£_the Culture: In this aSpect of the role the teacher is said to utilize his field of subject matter in the solution of social and ethical problems, to direct his pupils in learning to use those materials from which they will continue to learn after leaving school and to work to help students acquire the values of democracy and to develop the attitudes and skills necessary for participation in a changing society. 101. Member 3f.§ Faculty: In this aSpect of the role the teacher is said to contribute to the definition of the objectives of the school and to work to develop a school program sufficient to achieve these stated objectives. Part IV 102. -13- Link with the Community: In this aSpect of the role the teacher is said to make use of the available educational resources of the community in the classroom,to secure the c00peration of parents in organizing school activities, to assist various lay groups in understanding modern education and to participate in the solution of significant community problems relating to education. ____*_” -14- ENGLISH TEACHER ROLE INVENTORY Part V To enable us to better interpret your reSponses to the English Teacher Role Inventory which you have just completed, it will be necessary for us to gain F* some additional information from you. Please answer each of the questions that follow fully and accurately. Remember, the information gained from this section of the questionnaire will be used by our staff for statistical REE? - poses only. L4; Section A: Name 103. How many years have you been teaching? If you are not now teaching or if you have never taught in the secondary schools (disregarding your student teaching, if any) skip this section and turn immediately to Section B. 104. In what size school do you now teach? In responding to this item, please indicate the approximate number of full-time students attending classes in your building, not the number of students in the system as a whole. 105. In what size community is your present school located? Is this community considered a suburban area? Yes No 106. What level of instruction do you teach most frequently? If your time is evenly divided between several levels of instruction, please in- dicate by marking the appropriate levels. Junior High School (Grades 7-8) Middle Grades (Grades 9-10) Senior High School (Grades ll-lZ) 107. How many classes do you normally teach each semester? 108. How many different class preparations do you have normally? Part V 109. -15- Do you usually teach any classes other than English? Yes No If "yes", please indicate in the Space below the classes other than English which you regularly teach and the approximate number of such classes which you usually teach in a given year. 110. 111. What is your average class size at present? Do you normally advise or direct any major school activities or student projects? Yes No If ”yes,‘ please give particulars in the Space provided below. 112. Briefly, what made you select English as your teaching field over all other possible subjects? 113. If you had it to do over again, knowing what you now know about your profession, would you still enter the field of education as a teacher of English? Yes No If not, why not? Part V -l6- Section B: 114. An English teacher's professional life is recognized to be a busy one. Listed below are a number of school-related activities which may take up part of the teacher's normal work-week, either in-school or out. If you are now teaching, please indicate in the space provided by each listed activity the approximate number of hours you now spend weekly performing the activity described. If you are not now teaching, in- dicate in the space provided the approximate number of hours you think the average English teacher should expect £2 devote to the activity in question. a. Reading student themes b. Planning lessons c. Correcting tests d. Attending faculty meetings or school conferences e. Conferring with parents f. Reading various professional journals g. Individual student counseling h. Non-instructional duties, such as monitoring study- halls, playground supervision, lunchroom supervision, hall duty, etc. i. Student record-keeping j. Directing extra-curricular activities k. Participating, in professional capacity, in the activities of local clubs and organizations 1. Reading novels, short stories, plays, etc. m. Watching television n. Reading newspapers and magazines 0. Attending extension classes, or participating in other in-service training activities p. Classroom instruction q. Independent study and research Part V -17- r. Attending school functions 3. Other (Please specify) 115. Please rate each of the named organizations which are listed below in terms of the following scale. 1. The English teacher must belong to this particular organization if he or she is to remain abreast of professional develOpments. 2. The English teacher should belong to this organization if at all possible. 3. It makes little or no difference in terms of professional develOpment if the English teacher is a member of this organization or not. .____ National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) National Education Association (NBA) Michigan Education Association (MEA) _____Michigan Council of Teachers of English (MCTE) National Society for the Study of Communication (NSSC) Modern Language Association (MLA) American Federation of Teachers (AFT) Conference on College Composition and Communication (CCC) Association for Education in Journalism (AEJ) American Educational Theatre Association (AETA) ____ Speech Association of America (SAA) _____ Michigan Federation of Teachers (MFT) American Studies Association (ASA) ____ College English Association (CEA) Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) Part V -18- Section B (Cont.): 116. Other (Please Specify) What salary would you expect a beginning teacher in English to earn, based upon existing schedules? Section C: 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. In what college or university did you do your undergraduate work? Graduate work, if any? What is your present age? Marital Status? Number of children, if married? Sex? Male Female What is the occupation of your father? Are any members of your family members of the teaching profession? Yes No If "yes," explain relation. Section D: 125. Briefly, in your own words, describe those qualities or attributes which to you seem to most distinguish the English teacher from other teachers? Part V -19- Section D (Cont.): 126. Briefly, in your own words, describe those aspects of behavior --- what the teacher does --- which to you most distinguish the English teacher from other teachers? 127. Briefly, in your own words, describe those elements of belief, or value, which to you most distinguish the English teacher from other teachers? When completed, please return £2: Gladys Beckwith Humanities Teaching Institute 253 Erickson Hall Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 48823 APPENDIX C STUDENT INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 167 168 English Teacher STUDENT Date: Role Analysis: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE Time: Study Project 1. Subject Name: 2. First of all, as a check on the reliability of the inventory which you recently completed, I would like to have you respond a second time to just a few of the inventory items. (REPEAT DIRECTIONS) The items are as follows: Response PT I Orig. Intv. #12. Develop some writing assignments which will provide teacher with in- sight into a student's personal problems. #26. Provide an Opportunity for all pupils to experience success in some form in the classroom sit- uation. #33. Select for study some literature that will help adolescents.under- stand themselves. . PT II #48 That an English teacher should not assign reading selections which develop ideas or themes unaccep- table to significant segments of the community. #61. That covering the material de- scribed in the course outline is one of the teacher's most impor- tant objectives. #65. That teaching the classics to new generations of students is one of the primary functions of the English teacher. PT III #81. Expect to be required to partic- ipate in an in-service training program at least once every two years. c‘Ll F4 169 Response Orig. Intv. #91. Expect to be required to regularly hold parent-teacher conferences. #96. Expect that there will be no re- strictions on a teacher's per- sonal life in the community. Probe items 12, 48 and 96: For Example, "What would be the purpose of a teacher's developing writing assignments of this nature?" "Would you expect com lete freedom with reference to theme development in the materials assigned?" "Can you conceive of no 'style of life' or 'manner of living' which might be unsuitable for the teacher role in the community and to which the community might 'rea- sonably' object?" - Now let us look at this aspect of the questionnaire-- that which lists the six definitions of teacher role as- pects. You were asked to rank these aspects in the order of their importance to you. Do you still agree with the rank order of these aspects as you have them here? Why did you rank over that of ? What types of ac- tivities, or impressions do each of these aspects bring immediately to mind? That is, without referring to the definition now, what picture comes to your mind when I use the expression "director of learning" as a function of the teacher? ETC. Again, considering the six aspects of role as described . . . which of these aspects were you exposed to during your student teaching? Were any of them given more emphasis than others? Which? Did you have an opportunity to counsel students? To attend faculty meetings? To participate in the con- ducting of extra-class activities? To assist in, or actually handle, a parent-teacher conference? To involve oneself in the community as teacher? What were your responses as a student-teacher? Did you feel more like a student than a teacher? Like a teach- er's aid? Or What? In other words, what kind of a relationship did you have with the faculty and admin- istration of the school to which you were assigned? Would you like to have your first job in a school such as that to which you were assigned as a student-teacher? If not, why? What kind of a school situation would you prefer? 170 What factors attracted you to English teaching? Were the expectations you had of the profession more or less confirmed by your experiences as a student-teacher? Explain. Having gone through the entire program of teacher edu- cation now (virtually), do you have any misgivings about the future? Would you still enter training for this profession if you had it to do over again? If not, why? What else might you do? What had you planned on doing prior to entering the program? 171 APPENDIX D DISTRIBUTION OF RANK ORDER RESPONSES TO SIX DIMENSIONS OF ROLE BY STATUS Role Dimension Group1 Rank Position Mean 1 2 3 4 5 6 I. Director of Learning T 25 12 3 2 0 0 1.57 II. Counselor & Guidance Worker T 0 10 12 8 9 3 3.33 S 3 13 21 5 3 4 3.08 III. Mediator of Culture T 15 10 7 4 4 2 2.48 S 12 17 12 4 3 l 2.43 IV. Link with Community T 0 0 3 4 ll 24 5.33 S 0 0 0 8 14 26 5.37 V. Member of a Faculty T 3 2 7 16 9 5 3.73 S O 2 7 17 18 5 4 34 VI. Member of a Profession T O 7 12 7 10 6 3.90 S 2 2 7 16 10 12 4 3O *3 II Teachers (N 42). (D II Students (N 49) 172 APPENDIX E DISTRIBUTION OF RANK ORDER RESPONSES TO SIX DIMENSIONS OF ROLE BY SEX Role Dimension Groupl Rank Position Mean 1 2 3 4 5 6 I. Director of Learning M 11 8 2 2 0 0 1.78 F 46 17 5 0 O O 1.39 II. Counselor & Guidance Worker M 1 1 8 3 6 4 4.04 F 3 22 24 10 6 3 3.04 III. Mediator of Culture M 7 10 3 2 l 0 2.13 F 16 15 17 6 6 3 2.52 IV. Link with Community M 0 O O 4 7 11 5.31 F 0 0 2 8 17 41 5.43 V. Member of a Faculty M 7 10 3 2 l 0 2.13 F 16 15 17 6 6 3 2.52 VI. Member of a Profession M l 3 6 5 3 5 3.86 F 2 6 ll 18 22 9 4.16 3 ll Males (N = 25) "121 || Females (N = 76) APPENDIX F RESULTS OF ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TESTS OF ITEMS CATEGORIZED BY ROLE DIMENSIONS 173 174 Table 1 Items Relating to Director of Learning: Status Group Differentiation Item Group Mean S.D. F Statistic Level of Significance 9 T 1.96 .68 2.60 .11 S 1.76 .59 17 T 1.61 .66 .55 .46 S 1.71 .68 21 T 1.53 .50 4.93 .03 S 1.30 .54 28 T 1.57 .60 .93 .34 S 1.46 .50 31 T 1.59 1.13 .48 .49 S 1.45 1.00 35 T 2.21 .95 .76 .39 S 2.39 1.08 39 T 1.96 .90 2.97 .09 S 1.28 .86 51 T 1.78 .77 1.58 .21 S 2.00 .91 57 T 3.19 1.03 4.51 .04 S 3.61 .95 58 T 2.13 .82 3.56 .06 S 1.86 .65 61 T 3.78 .84 2.19 .14 S 4.04 .86 72 T 1.54 .78 .04 .85 S 1.50 .71 78 T 1.60 .83 .07 .80 S 1.73 .83 85 T 1.88 .86 .99 .32 S 1.73 .64 86 T 1.31 .54 1.38 .24 S 1.47 .82 93 T 1.60 .63 2.03 .16 S 1.42 .54 175 Table 2 Items Relating to Counselor and Guidance Worker: Status Group Differentiation Item Group Mean S.D. F Statistic Level of Significance 4 T 1.60 .79 1.36 .25 S 1.46 .62 6 T 3.55 .80 1.49 .23 S 3.73 .63 8 ‘ T 1.88 .73 2.69 .10 S 2.12 .73 12 T 2.36 .74 1.74 .19 S 2.16 .80 26 T 1.29 .57 .72 .40 S 1.20 .40 33 T 1.44 .57 1.35 .25 S 1.57 .54 38 T 2.28 1.24 .41 .52 S 2.45 1.28 43 T 1.32 .55 1.26 .27 S 1.45 .54 49 T 2.07 1.02 7.58 <.01 S 1.59 .70 54 T 3.80 .99 2.69 .10‘ S 4.10 .78 56 T 1.80 .79 .74 .39 S 1.67 .77 69 T 1.57 .67 .78 .38 S 1.47 .54 75 T 2.69 1.25 2.26 .14 S 2.36 .88 83 T 2.52 1.06 12.82 <.Ol S 1.87 .70 87 T 1.59 .77 .35 .56 S 1.51 .68 95 T 2.61 1.23 3.97 .05 S 2.27 .89 r —_—‘ 176 Table 3 Items Relating to Mediator of the Culture: Status Group Differentiation - Item Group Mean S.D. F Statistic : j Level of Significance 5 16 22 23 29 32 41 46 50 59 65 77 84 88 92 96 (DI-3 (DH (DH (Di-3 (DE (DE (DH 2.23 2.00 1.90 1.98 1.38 1.28 1.94 1.95 1.76 1.71 2.01 2.42 2.41 2.76 2.51 2.73 .61 .65 .66 .66 .49 .54 .63 .79 .61 .65 .99 1.00 1.16 1.06 1.05 1.15 .94 .76 3.39 .33 .93 .01 .27 .20 .48 .07 .57 .34 .91 .66 .04 .16 .61 .66 .49 .54 .88 .01 .93 .02 .72 177 Table 4 Items Relating to Link with the Community: Status Group Differentiation Item Group Mean S.D. F Statistic Level of Significance 1 T 3.26 .88 .01 .92 S 3.28 .70 7 T 2.76 .83 .58 .45 S 2.65 .70 10 T 2.50 .54 .07 .80 S 2.46 .62 14 T 2.21 .80 .05 .83 S 2.24 .70 27 T 3.19 .90 1.79 .19 S 3.42 .87 34 T 3.11 .54 2.24 .14 S 2.96 .50 42 T 2.26 .76 .07 .80 S 2.23 .96 44 T 3.61 1.14 3.48 .07 S 4.00 .91 45 T 2.25 .65 4.72 .03 S 1.98 .60 48 T 3.53 1.03 3.46 .07 S 3.89 .89 62 T 3.23 1.00 13.28 <.01 S 3.92 .86 70 T 3.21 1.00 4.02 .05 S 2.84 .87 71 T 2.65 1.00 25 .61 S 2.83 .83 89 T 3.27 1.20 .01 .92 S 3.24 1.20 91 T 2.52 1.09 8.27 <.01 S 1.93 .92 94 T 3.46 .87 3.96 .05 S 3.10 .94 178 Table 5 . Items Relating to Member of the Faculty: Status Group Differentiation w Item Group Mean S.D. F Statistic Level of Significance 3 T 1.80 .84 .10 .75 S 1.89 .77 13 T 1.88 .54 6.09 .02 S 1.60 .64 15 T 1.38 .69 1.20 .28 S 1.53 .65 18 T 3.01 .69 .51 .48 S 3.14 1.02 25 T 2.61 .79 .95 .33 S 2.76 .63 36 T 2.23 .61 .25 .62 S 2.16 .75 37 T 3.00 1.18 .37 .85 S 3.04 .93 52 T 2.15 .91 4.94 .03 S 1.80 .67 53 T 1.94 .77 .18 .67 S 1.88 .76 63 T 2.00 .84 5.46 .02 S 2.43 1.00 64 T 1.61 .72 .21 .65 S 1.67 .55 67 T 1.48 70 .44 .51 S 1.38 .70 73 T 2.83 1.22 .04 .85 S 2.91 1.21 74 T 1.60 .67 4.94 .03 S 2.00 1.11 80 T 1.98 .78 6.65 .01 S 1.59 73 90 T 2.96 1.27 03 .86 179 Table 6 Items Relating to Member of a Profession: Status Group Differentiation F Statistic Item Group Mean S.D. Level of Significance 2 T 1.65 .55 2.40 .13 S 1.48 .50 11 T 2.75 1.26 .14 .71 S 2.84 1.09 19 T 2.15 .66 16.77 .01 S 2.75 .80 20 T 2.51 .50 4.70 .04 S 2.28 .58 24 T 2.36 1.02 .11 .74 S 2.42 .89 30 T 3.13 1.29 1.15 .24 S 3.38 1.05 40 T 2.03 1.10 3.00 .09 S 2.41 1.03 47 T 2.23 .92 3.88 .05 S 1.84 1.03 55 T 1.96 .76 4.69 .03 S 2.35 1.01 60 T 2.51 1.20 .65 .42 S 2.71 1.24 66 T 2.08 1.33 .07 .80 S 2.14 1.14 68 T 2.55 1.09 1.87 .18 S 2.26 1.05 76 T 2.40 1.18 3.31 .07 S 2.84 1.21 79 T 1.75 1.01 1.05 .31 S 1.95 1.13 81 T 2.21 .96 .34 .56 S 2.32 1.03 82 T 1.46 .64 1.58 .21 S 1.63 .72 180 . Table 7 . Items Relating to Director of Learning: Sex Group Differentiation Item Group Mean S.D. F Statistic Level of Significance 9 M 1.88 .78 .03 .88 F 1.85 .60 17 M 1.56 .65 .80 .38 F 1.69 .67 21 M 1.68 .56 8.01 <.Ol F 1.34 .54 28 M 1.64 .57 1.42 .24 F 1.48 .55 31 M 2.24 1.54 17.49 <.01 F 1.29 .72 35 M 2.28 .79 .01 .92 F 2.30 .68 39 M 2.00 .76 .49 .49 F 2.14 .93 51 M 1.88 .79 .01 .94 F 1.89 .87 57 M 3.32 .85 .19 .67 F 3.42 1.06 58 M 2.08 .95 .38 .54 F 1.97 .67 61 M 4.08 .90 1.28 .26 F 3.85 .84 72 M 1.48 .56 .12 .73 F 1.54 .79 78 M 2.20 1.04 12.84 .01 F 1.55 .68 85 M 1.60 .58 2.64 .11 F 1.88 .80 86 M 1.36 .57 .05 .83 F 1.39 .74 93 M 1.48 .50 .11 .74 F 1.52 .62 181 Table 8 Items Relating to Counselor and Guidance Worker: Sex Group Differentiation Item Group Mean S.D. F Statistic Level of Significance 4 M 1.72 .68 1.80 .18 F 1.50 .72 6 M 3.44 .71 2.63 .11 F 3.71 .73 8 M 2.28 .74 5.02 .03 F 1.91 .71 12 M 2.36 .64 .47 .49 F 2.23 .81 26 M 1.52 .65 10.93 <.01 F 1.16 .40 33 M 1.44 .58 .45 .51 F 1.52 .55 38 M 2.32 1.28 .05 .83 F 2.36 1.25 43 M 1.64 .57 7.63 <.01 F 1.30 .52 49 M 1.72 .90 .59 .45 F 1.88 .92 54 M 4.00 1.00 .10 .76 F 3.93 .88 56 M 1.84 .69 .51 .48 F 1.71 .81 69 M 1.44 .50 .64 .43 F 1.55 .64 75 M 2.80 1.04 1.98 .16 F 2.45 1.10 83 M 2.08 1.08 .60 .44 F 2.25 .91 87 M 1.48 .59 .34 .56 F 1.57 .77 95 M 2.88 1.13 4.50 .04 F 2.35 1.05 182 Table 9 Items Relating to Mediator of the Culture: Sex Group Differentiation Item Group Mean S.D. F Statistic Level of Significance 5 M 2.40 .65 6.85 .01 F 2.03 .61 16 M 1.88 .67 .28 .60 F 1.96 .66 22 M 1.40 .50 .50 .48 F 1.31 .52 23 M 1.92 .70 .60 .81 F 1.96 .72 29 M 1.64 .57 .89 .35 F 1.77 .64 32 M 2.24 .83 .02 .90 F 2.21 1.07 '41 M 2.56 1.38 .03 .86 F 2.60 1.02 46 M 2.60 .96 .02 .89 F 2.01 1.15 50 M 2.12 .73 .29 .59 F 2.01 .90 59 M 2.76 1.36 .70 .41 F 3.01 1.30 65 M 2.72 .98 11.80 .01 F 3.42 .85 77 M 2.36 .70 1.06 .31 F 2.14 .96 84 M 1.52 .65 .07 .80 F 1.56 .79 88 M 2.72 .79 .33 .57 F 2.59 1.00 92 M 1.76 .78 1.99 .16 F 2.73 .64 96 M 2.52 1.23 .48 .49 F 2.73 1.39 183 Table 10 Items Relating to Link with the Community: Sex Group Differentiation Item Group Mean S.D. F Statistic Level of Significance 1 M 3.28 .68 .00 .98 F 3.27 .84 7 M 2.88 .73 1.59 .21 F 2.65 .77 10 M 2.52 .59 .12 .73 F 2.47 .58 14 M 2.16 .90 .27 .60 F 2.25 .69 27 M 3.16 .90 .90 .35 F 3.36 .89 34 M 3.12 .53 .77 .38 F 3.01 .53 42 M 1.92 .70 4.95 .03 F 2.36 .89 44 M 3.44 1.16 4.08 .05 F 3.92 .99 45 M 2.12 .78 .00 .10 F 2.12 .59 48 M 3.88 .93 .96 .33 F 3.66 1.00 70 M 3.43 .92 7.92 <.Ol F 2.88 .92 94 M 3.16 .75 .63 .43 F 3.32 .97 71 M 3.48 .92 .29 .60 F 2.88 .92 89 M 3.52 1.19 1.63 .21 F 3.17 1.18 91 M 2.64 1.15 5.08 .03 F 2.10 .99 184 Table 11 Items Relating to Member of a Faculty: Sex Group Differentiation Item Group Mean S.D. F Statistic Level of Significance 3 M 1.96 .73 .40 .54 F 1.84 .84 13 M 1.84 .69 .84 .36 F 1.71 .58 15 M 1.44 .71 .02 .90 F 1.46 .66 18 M 3.00 .91 .27 .60 F 3.10 .86 25 M 2.84 .63 1.58 .21 F 2.63 .75 36 M 2.24 .66 .13 .72 F 2.18 .68 37 M 3.28 1.02 1.99 .16 F 2.93 1.07 52 M 2.12 .97 .96 .33 F 1.93 .77 53 M 2.08 .91 1.64 .20 F 1.86 .95 63 M 2.08 .91 .61 .44 F 2.25 .95 64 M 1.64 .70 .00 .98 F 1.63 .63 67 M 1.48 .71 .13 .72 F 1.42 .70 73 M 2.64 1.22 1.20 .27 F 2.94 1.20 74 M 1.76 .93 .04 .84 F 1.80 .94 80 M 1.76 .79 .06 .81 F 1.80 .79 90 M 3.40 1.04 5.08 .03 F 2.79 1.21 185 Table 12 Items Relating to Member of a Profession: Sex Group Differentiation Item Group Mean S.D. F Statistic Level of Significance 2 M 1.68 .56 1.30 .26 F 1.53 .53 11 M 2.76 1.01 .02 .88 F 2.80 1.23 19 M 2.52 .96 .29 .60 F 2.42 .74 20 M 2.40 .58 .00 .95 F 2.40 .55 24 M 2.52 1.05 .55 .46 F 2.36 .93 30 M 2.60 1.32 11.20 <.01 F 3.47 1.06 40 M 2.16 1.31 .09 .76 F 2.23 1.00 47 M 2.00 1.00 .05 .82 F 2.05 1.03 55 M 2.00 .91 .88 .34 F 2.19 .90 60 M 2.20 1.11 3.96 .05 F 2.75 1.22 66 M 1.92 1.18 78 .38 F 2.17 1.25 68 M 2.40 1.00 .01 .93 F 2.42 1.11 76 M 2.20 1.04 4.02 .05 F 2.75 1.23 79 M 1.64 .86 1.42 .24 F 1.92 1.07 81 M 2.52 1.12 2.20 .14 F 2.18 .93 82 M 1.40 .70 1.48 .23 F 1.59 .68 APPENDIX G CALIFORNIA TEACHER ROLE DEFINITION 187 Roles of the Teacher in Promoting Pupil Growth Role 1: 1.1 Role 2: 2.1 Director of Learning Adapts principles of child growth and development to planning of learning activities. Plans teaching-learning situations in accord with acceptable principles of learning. Demonstrates effective instructional procedures. Utilizes adequate evaluation procedures. Maintains an effective balance of freedom and security in the classroom. Counselor and Guidance WOrker Utilizes effective procedures for collecting infor- mation about each pupil. Uses diagnostic and remedial procedures effectively. Helps the pupil to understand himself. Works effectively with the specialized counseling services. Liaison Roles of the Teacher Role 3: 3.1 Mediator of the Culture Draws on a scholarly background to enrich cultural growth of pupils. Directs individuals and groups to appropriate sig- nificant life application of classroom learning. Role 4: 4.1 188 Designs classroom activities to deve10p pupil ability and motivation , . . Directs pupils in learning to use those materials from which they will continue to learn after leaving school. Develops pupil-attitudes and skills necessary for effective participation in a changing democratic society. Helps his students acquire the values realized as ideals of democracy- Link with the Community Utilizes available education resources of community in classroom procedures. Secures cooperation of parents in school activities. Assists lay groups in understanding modern edu- cation. Participates in definition and solution of commu- nity problems relating to education. Program-Building Roles Role 5: 5.1 Member of the Staff Contributes to the definition of the over-all aims of the school. Contributes to the development of a school program to achieve its objectives. 5.3 5.4 Role 6: 6.1 189 Contributes to the effectiveness of over-all school activities. COOperates effectively in the evaluation of the school program. A Member of the Profession Demonstrates an appreciation of the social impor- tance of the profession. Contributes to the development of professional standards. Contributes to the profession through its orga- nizations. 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