A W»: FACET ANALYSIS 0? THE mm ATRTUDES 0F BLACK AND warm ADULTS TOWARD THE apposms RACE Thesis for the Degree 9? Ph. D. MICHEGAN STATE UMVERSSTY AUBREY WGLEFFE 3.972 1' . my mug W1: W1" um I» mgr JLlflfl ' I 0mm, 14 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A GUTTMAN FACET ANALYSIS OF THE RACIAL ATTITUDES OF BLACK AND WHITE ADULTS TOWARD THE OPPOSITE RACE presented by Aubrey Radcliffe has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PhoDo degree in AdlhifliStratim & Higher Education 143* uh ((510.01; an” /' Majoxfim Date 7/13/72 0-7830 ABSTRACT A GUTTMAN FACET ANALYSIS OF THE RACIAL ATTITUDES OF BLACK AND WHITE ADULTS TOWARD THE OPPOSITE RACE By Aubrey Radcliffe The significance of the racial attitudes of Black and White adults is of utmost concern in our pre- sent society. This dissertation was an outgrowth of this concern as well as an attempt to investigate the dimen- sions of racial attitudes. Purpose of the Study The primary purpose of the study was to pro- vide information about the attitudes of Blacks and Whites toward each other and to investigate the hypothesized re- lationships between these attitudes and certain types of independent-predictor variables. A comparison of the attitudes of Black adults with those of White adults was another purpose of the study.1 1This research is related to a larger cross- cultural study of racial/ethnic attitudes under the direction of John E. Jordan, College of Education, Michigan State University. Aubrey Radcliffe Instrumentation A research instrument based on facet analysis was developed by Jordan and Hamersma (1969) called the Attitude Behavior Scale: Black/White (ABS-BW). Con- struction of the items followed a systematic a priori method rather than by the method of intuition or by the use of judges. Guttman's (1959) facet theory specifies that the attitude universe represented by the item con- tent can be substructumfl.nmo behavioral profiles which are systematically related according to the number of iden- tical conceptual or semantic elements they hold in common. This substructuring of an attitude-behavior enables the prediction of relationships between various profiles of the universe. Jordan expanded Guttman's # attitude levels to form a 6-level paradigm of attitude structure. The concept of levels of attitude strength en- ables the researcher to investigate the multidimensionality of an attitude, which represents the levels of an attitude and reflects at which levels attitudes may change. Design and Analysis Procedure The ABS:BW/WN-E was administered to 179 White adults and #0 Black adults in the evening credit course Aubrey Radcliffe for high school completion in Lansing, Michigan. The determinates of attitudes were represented by 1M independent variables which were intercorrelated with content scores of the criterion (ABS:BW/WN-E) across each level. This facilitated testing eight hypotheses using Multivariate Multiple Regression, Multivariate Analy- sis of Variance, Pearson Product Moment correlations, and the Q2 statistic. Results Results of hypotheses tested by multivariate multiple regression were as follows: 1. Efficacy, which tested man's sense of control over his environment, was not related to positive attitudes for Blacks or Whites. 2. ”Set in ways" and "child rearing" was a significant predictor of attitudes for both Blacks and Whites. 3. Enjoyment of contact was the most signifi- cant predictor of favorable attitudes for Whites. Aubrey Radcliffe The multivariate analysis of certain hypotheses had the following results: 1. There was no significant difference on the attitudinal score based on political affilia- tion and religion. 2. A significant difference was found between atti- tudes and race. Blacks were more positive to- ward Whites at Levels 1 and 2 (stereotypic and normative). Blacks see the images and norms of society as being more positive toward Whites than for Blacks. At Level 5 (feeling) Whites tended to indicate a desire to be more positive in their attitudes toward Blacks. 3. A significant difference was found between sex and attitude. White females were found to be the most positive toward members of the Opposite race at Levels # and 5 (hypothetical and feeling). Black males and females were the least positive toward members of the Opposite race at Level 5 (feeling). At Level 6 (action) Black men and White women were the most positive to the cppo- site race. The results from the two sample groups formed an approximate Guttman Simplex. Recommendations were made to incorporate the present study into a larger cross-cultural study. A GUTTMAN FACET ANALYSIS OF THE RACIAL ATTITUDES OF BLACK AND WHITE ADULTS TOWARD THE OPPOSITE RACE By Aubrey Radcliffe A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education College of Education 1972 Dedicated to my wife Kathy, and Ricky and Debbie ii PREFACE This study was one in a series jointly de- signed by several investigators. The study is an example of the project approach to graduate research. A common use of instrumentation and theoretical material, as well as technical and analytical procedures, was both necessary and desirable. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am deeply indebted to many peOple for their help with this thesis. I owe my greatest gratitude to Dr. John E. Jordan, my dissertation chairman. His con- stant encouragement guided me through the research from its formative stages through its completion. I would like to express deepest appreciation to my major chairman, Dr. Floyd G. Parker. Other mem- bers of my committee, Dr. Marvin Grandstaff, Dr. Walter F. Johnson, and Dr. James B. McKee, were extremely help- ful in this endeavor. My sincere thanks are offered to Mr. James C. Kernen and Mr. Neilsen S. Hansen, directors of Lansing's Continuing Education Program. My good friend and fellow student, Martin G. Brodwin, provided help, criticism and insight. I would like to give thanks to Geoffrey G. Yager for his statistical assistance and advice. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Chapter I 0 INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O C O O O O O O I O 1 Problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Need 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O l 2 Purpose 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C 0 3 scales 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1" HypOtheSeS o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 5 Organization of th Thesis . . . ; . . . . 7 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . 8 Definitions of Attitudes . . . . . . . . . 8 Attitudes and Personality. . . . . . . . . ll Attitudes of Blacks Toward Whites and Whites Toward Blacks. . . . . . 12 Scales Used in Measurement of Racial Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l6 Thurstone Scales. . . . . . . . . . . . l6 Summated scales 0 o o c o o o o o o o o 18 GUt'tman Scales. o o o o o o o a o o o 0 l9 Projective Tests Used in Measuring RaCial Attitudes . O O . Q . O . O O 21 Review of Predictor Variables. . . . . . . 21 contaCt O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 21 Religion. 0 I O O O O O O O O O O C O O 22 Efficacy. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O N Kl) Chapter Change . . Political Affiliation. . sex. 0 O 0 Summary . . . III. METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE. . . Instrumentation . Reliability. Attitude-Behavior Scales Guttman' s Theoretical Structure: A Four-Level Theory . Jordan's Six-Level Adaptation. The Mapping Sentence . . Design of the Study . . . . POpulation . Major Research Hypotheses . Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes and and and and and and and Values . . Change Proneness Contact. . (ABS) Political Affiliation. Sex. 0 o 0 Religion . Race . . . Simplex Approximation. Analysis. . . Multivariate Analysis of Correlational Statistics Multivariate Multiple Regression Simplex Approximation. . Summary . . . IV. ANALYSIS OF THE STUDY. . . . . Attitudes and Efficacy. Attitudes and Change. . Attitudes and Contact . Attitudes and Politics. vi Variance Page Chapter Page AttitUdeS and Sex 0 o o o o o o o o o o e 69 Attitudes and Religion. . . . . . . . . . 72 Attitudes and Race. . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Simplex Approximation . . . . . . . . . . 75 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. o 79 Summary of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . 79 Purpose. 0 o e o o o o o o o o o o o o 79 Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Design and Analysis. . . . . . . . . . 81 DiscuSSionO O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 82 Attitudes and Efficacy . . . . . . . . 82 AttitUdeS and Change a o o o o o o o o 82 Attitudes and Contact. . . . 83 Attitudes and Political Affiliation. . 85 AttitUdeS and 89X. 0 o o o o o o o o o 85 AttitUdeS and Religion 0 o o o o o o o 86 Attitudes and Race 0 o o o o o o c o o 87 Simplex Approximation. . . . . . . . . 87 Recommendations for Further Research. . . 88 Attitude Change Experiment . . . . . . 88 Scale Validation . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Replication. o o o o o o o o o o o o 89 Statistical Analysis . . . . . . . . . 89 LimitatiOnSo o o o o c o o o o o o o o 89 Implications of the Study . . . . . . . . 90 REFERENCES. 0 O O O O C O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O 92 APPENDICE. O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 100 A. Overview of the Finn Program. . . . . . . . 101 B. Basic Variables by IBM Card and Column. . . 111 0.1 Attitude Behavior Scale: B/W—E . . . . . . 113 C.2 Attitude Behavior Scale: W/N-E . . . . . . 128 vii 10. ll. 12. LIST OF TABLES Page Basic Facets Used to Determine Component Structure of an Attitude Universe, , , , , , , 33 Guttman Facet Profiles of Attitude Sub- universes O O O O O O I O O O 0 C O O O O O O O 3“ Jordan's Facets Used to Determine Joint Struction of an Attitude Universe, , , , , , , #0 Joint Level, Profile Composition, and Labels for Six Types of Attitude Struction, , , , , , 41 Comparison of Guttman and Jordan Facet DGSignationSoocooocoooooooooo “'2 Five-Facet Six-Level System of Attitude Verbalizations: Levels, Facet Profiles, and Definitional Statements for Twelve COMbinationS o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 I45 Combinations of Five Two-element Facets and Basis of Elimination , , . , . , , , , , , , , 46 Six Levels and Life Situation, , , , , , , , , , 47 Statistics for Regression Analysis with 10 COvarj-a‘tes O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 58 Multivariate Multiple Regression Efficacy Adding Covariate 10 (Efficacy) to the Regression Equation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Multivariate Multiple Regression Change Prone- ness Adding Covariate 6 (Change 1) through 9 (Change A) to the Regression Equation, , , , 61 Correlations and Significance Levels for Blacks and Whites between Selected Predic- tor Variables and Levels of ABS:BW/WN. , , , , 64 viii Table 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. Multivariate Multiple Regression Contact Variables Adding Covariate 1 (Kind) through 5 (Enjoyment) to the Regression Equation. . . . . . Multivariate Analysis Results of Politics Multivariate Analysis Results on Sex. . . Multivariate Analysis Results of Religion Multivariate Analysis Results of Race . . Analysis of Simplex Correlations of the of Variance (MANOVA) O O O O O COO of Variance of Variance of Variance (MANOVA) (MANOVA) (MANOVA) ABS:BW/WN for the Research Groups . . . . Sample Sized, Means, and Standard Devia- tions for Blacks and Whites on the ABS:BW/WN................ Basic Variables by IBM Card and Column ABS:BW/WN Education . . . . . . . . . . . ix Page 68 7O 71 73 7h 76 77 111 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. A Mapping Sentence for the Facet Analysis of Joint and Lateral Struction of Attitudes Toward Specified Persons . . . . . . . . . . 43 2. A Mapping Sentence for the Facet Analysis of Joint and Lateral Struction of Blacks' and Whites' Attitudes Toward Each Other. . . #4 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The present study examines racial attitudes of adults in the Lansing Public School's continuing educa- tion program in Michigan. At no other time in our his- tory is it more important to understand attitudes between the races. Thus, this study is an outgrowth of this concern. The Problem This study will attempt to analyze sub-sets of attitudes of Blacks and Whites toward each other. The present racial situation in the United States is incredi- bly confusing and disarming. Both Black and White peOple-- in an attempt to reduce the complexity and variety of the relationships between members of the two races--tend to rely upon simple generalities while cOping to exist with one another. At worst such generalities degenerate into a crude form of racism affecting both groups. At the least such attempts neglect to acknowledge the fact that the diversity within each race is far more significant than the differences between races and that no character- istic is held universally within either. 1 Need Previous studies have considered the attitudes of the races toward each other. Society in the United States, as a result of tremendous technology, is under- going dramatic social change. Social scientists today are making a concerted effort to alleviate some of the problems of ethnic prejudice. In order to effect a mean- ingful solution, an understanding of the nature of preju- dice must be achieved. The 1968 Report of the National Advisory Commis- sion on Civil Disorders has documented in detail the racial disorders which occurred in American cities. In summa- rizing what happened and why it happened, it speaks of race prejudice and racism among the White pOpulation and frustration, dissatisfaction, and hostility among Blacks. It called for a program of national action which will re- quire from every American new attitudes, new understand- ing, and new will. The more a society is unable to accommodate mutual expectations and relationships among substantial numbers of its members, the more it has an active social problem which threatens its functioning as an effective social order. Therefore it is a practical necessity for society to deveIOp a new and harmonious order of rela- tionships which will accommodate these new and legiti— mate aspirations. It is this growing necessity which is at the heart of the current ferment about race-related problems. Purpose The purpose of this study is to provide in- formation on the attitudes of groups of Black and White adults in a continuing education program toward each other and to study hypothesized relationships between attitudes and certain types of independent-predictor variables. The methodological framework used is the Guttman facet analysis in the study of racial attitudes. Delimitations: 1. This study will be confined to the Lansing Public School's adult evening program. 2. It will be limited to Black and White adults who participate in the evening credit courses toward high school completion. Definitions: 1. Adult -— any person who has passed the age at which the compulsory school attendance laws apply in the state of Michigan. Adult Education Program -- an evening credit pro- gram toward completion of a high school diploma. Attitude -- "a delimited totality of behavior with respect to something" (Guttman, 1950, p. 51). Jordan (1968) reviewed the literature on atti- tude studies and concluded that four classes of variables seem to be important determinants, correlates, and/or predictors of attitudes: l. 2. Demographic factors such as age, sex, and income. Socio-psychological factors such as one's value orientation. Contact factors such as amount, nature, per- ceived voluntariness, and enjoyment of the contact. The knowledge factor, i.e., the amount of fac- tual information one has about the attitude object. Scales The ABS:BW/WN scales were deveIOped by Jordan and Hamersma (1969). It is concerned with measuring the attitudes of Blacks and Whites toward each other in seven attitude content areas: l. (C) Characteristics - Personal 2. (E) Education 3. (H) Housing A. (J) Jobs 5. (L) Law and Order 6. (P) Political Activism 7. (W) War and Military 8. (G) General The first seven areas of content were identified as of crucial importance for interracial interaction and the eighth area is a composite of the 'best' two items from each of the first seven. The Education (E) scale is the one used in this research (Hamersma, 1969). Hypotheses If one postulates multiple levels and dimensions of racial attitude-behaviors as well as multiple predictor variables, it becomes necessary to consider several I hypotheses. The research hypotheses tested are as follows: Attitudes and Values H-1.--There is a positive relationship between high efficacy scores and positive attitudes toward the Opposite race. Attitudes and Change Proneness H-2.--There is a positive relationship between a high score on change proneness and a high attitude score. Attitudes and Contact H-3.--Favorable attitudes toward members of the Opposite race are related to a) kind of contact: b) amount of contact: c) ease of avoidance of contact: d) gain from contact: and e) enjoyment of contact. Attitudes and Political Affiliation H-4.--There is a significant difference attitude scores of political groups. Attitudes and Sex H-S.--There is a significant difference the attitude scores of males and females. Attitudes and Religion H-6.--There is a significant difference attitude scores of religious groups. Attitudes and Race H-7.--There is a significant difference attitude scores Of racial groups. among between among between Simplex Approximation H-8.-—The ABS:BW/WN—E will form a Guttman Simplex for each of the racial groups. Organization of the Thesis The thesis has five chapters which are organized in the following manner: Chapter I will include the problem, purpose, need for the research, and a general statement of the hypotheses. In Chapter II, a review of literature will con- tain literature related to Black and White attitudes. It will also present literature related to attitude scale deveIOpment. Chapter III contains the design and methodology of the study. A section on Guttman facet analysis and the deve10pment of the Attitude Behavior Scale will be pre- sented. The procedure, pOpulation research hypotheses along with statistical analyses, and rationale are stated. In Chapter IV, the results of the analyses of the data are presented. Chapter V will include a summary of the study and conclusions about the data. Included in this chapter are recommendations and implications for further research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE This chapter contains definitions and a review of attitudinal research which relates to: (a) attitudes of Blacks and Whites toward each other. (b) review of scales used in measurement of racial attitudes. and (c) research related to major variables of the study. The concept of attitude has been in constant use by social psychologists since the early years of the twentieth century. According to Allport (195“). the con- cept emerged from an extensive analysis of the emigra- tion of the Polish peasant. Studies of attitudes toward intergroup relations has been a concern of all of the social sciences. Definitions of Attitudes Various definitions of attitudes have been posited. A few of the definitions are as follows: An attitude is a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, ex- erting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and situations with which it is related (Allport, 1967). An attitude is a relatively stable affective reSponse to an object (Rosenberg, 1956). Attitude is primarily a way of being "set" toward or against certain things (Murphy, Murphy and Newcomb, 1937). Allport's definition implies that attitudes refer to a very general "state of readiness." Murphy, Murphy, and Newcomb restrict the state of readiness or "set" to reactions "toward or against" certain objects. Their phrase "toward or against" implies evaluation, pro or con. An attitude is an implicit reSponse which is both anticipatory and mediating in reference to patterns of overt responses, which is evoked by a variety of stimulus patterns as a result of previous learning or of gradients of generalization and discrimination, which is itself cue-and-drive producing, and which is considered socially sig- nificant in the individual's society (Doob, 19u7). Mehrens and Lehmann (1969) define attitudes as predispositions to attitudinal objects. An attitude is a response consistent with regard to social objects. . . . an enduring system of positive or negative evaluation, emotional feeling, and pro or con action tendencies with respect to a social object. A common fiber in these definitions is to regard an attitude as a "predisposition" to behavior. This view 10 is one of two primary ones found in the literature. The other view is that of Guttman (1950), who defines an attitude as‘a "delimited totality of behavior in respect to something (p. 51)." Harding (1969) describes the three components of attitudes as conative, cognitive,and affective in the following terms: The conative components of an ethnic attitude include beliefs about "what should be done“ with regard to the group in question and action orien- tation of the individual toward specific members of the group: The cogpitive components are the perceptions, be- liefs, and expectations that the individual holds with regard to various ethnic groups: The affective components of an ethnic attitude in- clude both the general favorability or unfavor- ability of the attitude and the specific feelings that give the attitude its affective coloring. On the positive side they include such feelings as admiration, sympathy, and ”closeness" or identification: on the negative side they include contempt, fear, envy, and "distance" or aliena- tion. The concept of levels of attitude strength is significant in research on attitudes, because it enables the researcher to investigate the multidimensionality of an attitude. This represents levels of strength and en- ables the researcher to find out at which levels attitudes may change. ll Attitudes and Personality Adorno (1950) and Christie and Jahoda (1954) were some of the early pioneers in an attempt to explain the roots of prejudice in terms of a specific constellation of personality attributes. Respect for force, intoler- ance of deviance, dominance of subordinates and submis- sion to superiors are characteristic of the authoritarian personality. Individuals who exhibit these traits usually score high on the F scale which measures anti-democratic attitudes and authoritarianism. They are also predisposed to racist attitudes, as reflected by high scores on the E (Ethnocentrism) scale which contains items pertaining to Blacks. The frustration-aggression hypothesis (Dollard, 1939) has also been used to explain prejudicial attitudes. The theory postulates that frustration results in aggres- sive tendencies, which are displaced from a less assail- able or less accessible target to a more vulnerable or more accessible one. A person of the Opposite race could thus become the object of aggressive behavior. Society, itself, may designate certain groups as scapegoats, rationalizing this action by pointing out ”undesirable” characteristics of these ”outgroups" (Allport, l95#). According to Hites and Kellogg (1964), the basic objection to the use of either 12 the E scale or the F scale to measure racial prejudice toward Negroes is that these scales are not a "pure" measure of racial prejudice but rather are measuring the concepts of ethnocentrism and facism respectively and can only indirectly measure racial prejudice. Attitudes of Blacks toward Whites and Whites toward Blacks Noel and Pinkney (l96h) found that Black Americans have been less prejudiced toward Whites than Whites toward Blacks. Proenza and Strickland (1965) found that Black college students exhibited significantly less social distance toward Whites than White students exhibited toward Blacks. Bogardus (1958) indicated a trend toward positive racial attitudes. Due to the recent identity fervor that has engulfed Black peOple, it can be hypothesized that recent research might indicate that Blacks are not as racially positive toward Whites as before. Noel (196%) found that strong group iden- tification was associated with low generalized preju- dice. Kitano (1966) alluded to all who practice dis- crimination. He hypothesized that a person with a "normal” personality discriminated in a passive way by limiting his 13 interaction with the Opposite group. He might verbalize the idea of equality for all men, but in the area of human interaction he would prefer his friends and friends of his children to be of his own reference group. Harding (1969) found that a White child in America becomes sensitive to racial differences and develops racial stereotypes and attitudes during his early years. Schwartz (1967) found that a majority of White Americans approved the l95h decision of the Supreme Court but disliked the idea of sending their children to a school with more than a token number of Blacks. Differences in the racial orientation of Black and White pe0p1e undoubtedly derive from their own life- time experiences and from the social environment in which they now find themselves. White peOple who were reared in the south demonstrate the consequences of socialization within the racial mores of that region. This would also apply to Blacks reared in today's urban large cities. From a religious point on racial attitudes, Jewish peOple differ from Catholics and Protestants in that they tend to reflect their own minority status and the ”liberal” tradition of their own culture. 1h Campbell (1971) states that the reaction to prOposals of interracial contact is a function of the degree of social distance implied. An example is the work situation which is not threatening to White peOple * because it involves only the mere public aspects of the personality. The strong pressure to conform to societal norms has been pointed out by Pettigrew (1961) as a crucial factor in the attitudes of White Southerners towards Blacks: It is the path of least resistance in most Southern circles to favor white supremacy. When an individual's parents and his peers are racially prejudiced, when his limited world accepts racial discrimination as a given way of life, when his deviance means certain ostracism, then his anti- Negro attitudes are not so much expressive as they are socially adjusting (p. 109). Pettigrew advocates research that pays more attention to sociocultural or normative factors, as distinct from personality variables, involved in interracial situations. Viewing discrimination in the context of conformity to prevalent norms, one may well conceive of racism as socio- pathology rather than individual psychopathology. Also influencing the degree of prejudice ex- pressed are the areas of interracial contact, as well as competitive or cooperative task situations (Goldman, 15 Warshay, and Biddle, 1962: Meer and Freedman, 1966: Rice and White, 196a). Stereotypes may play a role in the environmental transmission of prejudice (Ehrlich, 1963, 196h, and Ehrlich and Rinehart, 1965). Prevalent acceptance of negative stereotypes about Blacks augments the probability that diffusion of racist attitudes will ensue even among Whites who had never had any personal contact with Blacks. Such acceptance exhorts the transmission of prejudice to each generation at successively earlier ages before positive attitudes based on real experiences with Blacks can be established. Still another element in the develOpment of inter- racial attitudes is social class membership. Gordon (196h) has prOposed the concept of "ethclass,” a combined member- ship in a particular ethnic group and social class. He‘ maintains that such membership directly affects one's group identity and social and cultural behavior. Of the two com- ponents of the ethclass, social class is seen as dominant to ethnic group membership. Landis, Datwyler, and Dorn (1966) confirmed Gordon's thesis--their findings indicate that regardless of race, the social distance scores of middle-class respondents were lower than those of lower- class respondents, suggesting their relatively stronger 16 inclination to relate socially to other groups. Whites, however, had higher social distance scores than Blacks. Bogardus (1925) was one of the first to systema- tically investigate intergroup attitudes. His paper-and- pencil questionnaire technique is used extensively by many researchers today. Bogardus' seven alternatives represented gradually increasing degrees of social distance ranging from association through kinship by marriage, to associa— tion as a neighbor on the same street, to employment in some occupation, to citizenship in a country, to visitor in a country, and finally to exclusion from a country. "Prejudice," in the present context, refers to a negative bias or distortion in an individual's perception of and beliefs about a particular group and its members (Allport, 1954). Scales Used in Measurement of Racial Attitudes Thurstone Scales Scales that are constructed by the Thurstone technique require judges to scale or sort items into piles (usually eleven piles are used,) ranging on a continuum from "favorable to unfavorable" toward the attitude object under construction. Items are then given weights (medium value) 17 according to which pile they are in using all the judges' ratings. Respondents taking a Thurstone scale are asked to check only those items with which they agree or disagree. Thurstone (1931) developed a 24-item attitude scale toward Blacks and later used it (1932) in his re- search on the effects of movies upon children. The scale consisted of a single form and contained mostly stereo- typic items. Hinckley (1932) develOped a racial attitude scale using Thurstone procedures. This scale as well as Thurstone's original scale are outdated in regard to some of their items such as attitudes on mass lynchings and complete servitude. Thurstone scales have received much criticism regarding the objectivity of the judges. According to Thurstone, the attitudes of the judges used in the ini- tial sorting of the items would not affect their judgment of the items. Sherif’s (1952) study shows results that items are judged quite differently by persons having different attitudes. Judges with extreme attitudes tended to displace neutral statements toward the end of the scale Opposite their own position. Another criticisnrwas with 18 regard to the time and labor involved in the construction and scoring (Jahoda and Warren, 1966). Summated Scales Summated scales are frequently referred to as Likert-type scales. Items are selected by intuition and only those items which are felt to be definitely favorable or definitely unfavorable to the attitude object are em- ployed. Items that are neutral or slightly favorable or unfavorable are excluded from Likert scales. Subjects are asked to respond to each item in terms of several degrees of agreement or disagreement: i.e., 1) strongly agree, 2) agree, 3) undecided, 4) disagree, and 5) strongly disagree. The scales are scored by summing the "number" of the response categories marked by the subjects on each item over all the items on the scale. This results in‘a total score which is interpreted as the individual's position on a scale of favorable-unfavorable attitude to- ward the object in question. Likert (1932) constructed a lS-item attitude scale toward Blacks. Most of the items were of stereotypic nature. The scale did not include items dealing with hypothetical interaction with Blacks. 19 A 16-item Likert type scale was constructed by Steckler (1957) for use with Black samples. This is one of the few scales designed to measure attitudes toward the subject's own reference group. A criticism of the scale is that often the total score of an individual has no clear meaning, since many 3 patterns of response to the various items may produce the same score (Jahoda and Warren, 1966). Guttman Scales The main purpose of Guttman's scalogram analysis was devised to ascertain whether the attitude or universe of content involves a single dimension: i.e.. whether it was unidimensional or not. The scales are composed of a series of items to which the respondent indicates agreement or disagreement. If it is unidimensional, it will yield a perfect or near perfect scale so that it is possible to arrange all the responses of any number of respondents into a particular pattern depending on their score. A true Guttman scale would be required to have a coefficient of .90 or above. This scalability of items is called the coefficient of reproducibility. An example of a perfect Guttman scale would be one concerning weight. If the items read: (a) My wife weighs more than 100 pounds, (b) My wife weighs more than 110 pounds, (c) My 20 wife weighs more than 125 pounds, etc.. and each answer is assigned a weight of l, and when we know a person's total score is 2, then we can reproduce his individual responses and state that he answered "Yes" to items 1 and 2 and "No" to item 3. Guttman's scaling procedures (Guttman and Suchman, 1947) also allows for the establish- ment of a neutral region of the scale by employing an intensity function. The neutral region permits a second method of distinguishing favorable from unfavorable atti- tudes. Kogan and Downey (1956) constructed an eight- item Guttman-type scale involving what peOple do in differ- ent situations involving Blacks. Criticisms (Jahoda and Warren, 1966) have been stated about the Guttman scale because it is unidimensional, and therefore it can- not measure complex attitudes. A scale may be unidimen- sional for one group and not for another. Guttman's recent contribution to scale construction and attitude measurement (i.e., facet design and nonmetric analysis) avoid many of the prior criticisms since these are multi- dimensional in nature and also include an E priori method of item construction. 21 Projective Tests Used in Measuring Racial Attitudes Projective tests and scales have been used in many ways to measure racial attitudes. These tests tend to present an ambiguous stimulus to which the subject is asked to respond. The validity of such indirect measures are usually lower than the more direct paper-and-pencil test. Meier (Campbell, 1950) used doll cut-outs to represent various racial groups. The subjects were asked to respond to what they would do in certain situations illustrated by the doll cut-outs. Many racial attitude instruments that are de- signed for a particular study are restricted in their application and are very seldom replicated. Review of Predictor Variables Contact Pettigrew, (1969) states that when Blacks inter- act, particularly on an equal-status basis, as in integra- ted neighborhoods, the military, and in schools, prejudice and discrimination tend to decrease. Such prolonged con- tact tends to reduce or eliminate stereotypes and makes known each other's true belief system and values. 22 BrOphy (1964) found that contact increases posi- tive attitudes toward members of the Opposite race. Allport and Kramer (1964) indicate that there is a degree of positive relationship between attitudes toward a given racial group and number of personal contacts with members of that group. Carter and Mitchell (1955-56) found that amount of contact was significant. Kelly, Person, and Holtzman (1958) indicated that the more the quality of social interaction involves a friendly and personal approach to racial groups on the basis of implied social equality, the more favorable was the attitude. Jeffries and Ransford (1969) found that Whites lacking contact are fearful of Blacks, thereby dis- playing more feeling of increased social distance and tend- ing to voice more punitive responses than those having contact. This study suggests that those who have expere ienced social contact tend to be more tolerant. Jordan (1968) found that amount of contact per se did not necessarily determine positive attitudes, but was more directly related to attitude intensity. Religion Campbell (1971) relates the little difference in racial attitudes associated with attachment to Protestant 23 or Catholic religious institutions. He claims that since the church serves as a major force of acculturae tion in American society, one must conclude that its con- tribution to racial patterns in the United States has been to preserve the status quo. It is felt that despite the church's inculcation of moral values, its influence to improve racial attitudes has been limited. Merton (1940) found that Catholics tended to be more prejudiced than Protestants, with Jews and peOple claiming no religious affiliation the least prejudiced of all. Allport and Kramer (1946) assert that a reli- gious environment based on church attendance does not induce a person to be tolerant. Effigy Wolf (1967) states there is a relationship between high efficacy scores and attitudinal scores. Wolf states: The continuum underlying this scale ranged from a view that man is at the mercy of his environ- ment and could only hOpe to secure some measure of adjustment to forces outside of himself, to a view that man could gain complete mastery of his physical and social environment, and use it for his own purpose (p. 109). Sexton (1961) found that the disadvantaged suffer feelings of powerlessness due to their environment. 24 Campbell (1971) indicates that we would not expect an individual who sees his world as secure to feel the same about racial issues as a person who feels himself surround- ed by a threatening and unresponsive environment. Change Jordan (1969) indicated that those who have high "change proneness" scores tend to have more positive racial attitudes. Allport (1954) indicates a relationship between rigidity and prejudice. Political Affiliation Political affiliation may be associated with the type of attitudes a person may have. Wilson (1965) and Bailey (1967) indicate that the most significant goals of Black peOple is the need for civil rights, and in lieu of this need many Blacks feel that the Democratic party has demonstrated a liberal atmosphere about goals of primary interest to Blacks. Brink and Harris (1967) stated: Commitment to major parties, by and large, means commitment to the Democratic party. By 1966, Negro registration in the Democratic column totaled 79 per cent, compared with 10 per cent Republican, and 5 per cent Independent. The remaining 6 per cent failed to express a view 25 in the Newsweek survey. . . . More significant than mere enrollment, however, is the expression of faith Negroes give to the Democratic party as the political organization that will help them. . . . The pro-Democratic sentiment is also a reflection of the deep distrust Negroes have for Republicans (pp. 92-93). Sex Montague (1970) indicated that women were significantly more favorable to members of the opposite race due to the life style of women as compared to men. Allport and Kramer (1946) found women to be less pre- judiced than men. Bogardus (1959) reported that White women showed more social distance to Black men than did White men. Pettigrew (1959) reported that southern White women were significantly more prejudiced than White men. The research indicated that women who are the carriers of the culture reflect the mores more directly than men, thus helping to maintain the status quo. Weller (1964) found no significant sex differences in his study. 26 Summary 1 definitions and a review Of In this chapter attitudinal research are reported. Attitudes of Blacks and Whites toward each other, scales used in measurement of racial attitudes, and research related to the major variables of the study are part of this review of the literature. The variables reviewed are considered to be predictors of attitudes toward the Opposite race. 1The reader should be aware of two sources of studies on racial-ethnic attitudes that will soon be available. The Social Science Research Bureau of the University Of Michigan has underway a comprehensive study of Black-White attitudes and the American Jewish Committee in New York has underway a series Of studies on White ethnic groups throughout the United States. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE This research was primarily concerned with the attitudes of White and Black adults toward each other in the evening credit courses toward high school completion. The following sections contain a discussion and theoretical basis of instrumentation, selection of sample, and the hypotheses Of the study. Instrumentation The Atjitude thavior Scalp: Blggk WhiEQZWhifig Negro - Educatipp is a facetized instrument which measures six levels of racial attitude-behaviors. The dependent or criterion variable representing six levels of attitude strength (object-subject relationships) were analyzed in relation to selected independent variables. The indepen- dent variables are instrumented in the Personal Data Questionnaire. Reliability Reliabilityestimates for the six levels were Obtained by the Hoyt (1941, p. 153-160) method described 27 28 by Winer (1962). This method employs analysis of variance to produce a reliability coefficient equivalent to the Kuder-Richardson measure of internal consistency at each of the six levels of attitude measured. Hoyt reliability estimates for the life situation scales were also obtained (Table 8) o Attitude-Behavior Scales ABS The instrument employed in this study is a result of Jordan's attitude-behavior research. Construction of the scales was based on facet theory, and construction of the items followed a systematic g priori method rather than by the method Of intuition or by the use of judges. Guttman's (1959) facet theory specifies that the attitude universe represented by the item content can be substruc- tured into behavioral profiles which are systematically related according to the number of identical conceptual or semantic elements they hold in common. The substructuring of an attitude-behavior universe into facets and elements facilitates a sampling of items within each of the derived profiles, enables the prediction of relationships between various profiles of the universe, and should also provide a set of clearly defined profile areas for cross-cultural comparisons. In constructing the first scale, ABS-MR, Jordan (1970) "postulated that attitudes involve not only object- specificity but situation-specificity and Object-subject 29 relationships" (p. 48). In the case of the MR scale, the Objgct was the mentally retarded: situations included such areas as experiences, education, personal characteristics. and relationships between the Object and the actor (self or others). Guttman (1959) suggests a common semantic mean- ing: a progression from a weak to a strong form of be- havior of the subject vis—a-vis the attitude Object--in this case, the mentally retarded. Examination of Table 3 indicates the rationale Of this ordering system. Facet A - the referent other is weaker than self—- I--in being less personal. Facet B - belief is weaker than experience--overt behavior—-in being passive rather than active. Facet C - referring to the behavior Of one's self rather than that of others--mine/my--is stronger in that it implies personal in- volvement. Facet D - comparative behavior is weaker than interactive behavior. It does not imply social contact, and a comparison is more passive than interaction. Facet E - hypothetical behavior is weaker than operational. It does not imply acting out behavior. The rationale used in the selection Of the item content of the ABS-MR (and Of the other Attitude Behavior Scales that followed) attempted to 'Order' the item content via three principles: 1. Ego involvement: Cognitive-affective. Is the 'attitude Object in situation y' dealt with cognitively or affectively? 3o 2. Social distance: Distant-close. Is the 'attitude Object in situation y' distant or close to one's self? 3. Relevance: Low-high. Is 'situation y' relevant and/or important to the subject? Consistent with the above discussion Of the weak-strong principle develOped in Tables 3 and 6, a posi- tive or stronger attitude would be expressed by a subject who "agreed with or chose" items that dealt with the atti- tude object in "highly important situations that involved the self in close interpersonal action." Two types Of data analysis are indicated: (a) an analysis of the facets across the six levels, i.e.. asks the question whether or not the simplex was Obtained: and (b) an analysis of the scalar nature of the content within each of the six subscales. The first analysis deals with the joint dimension and the second with the lateral dimension (Jordan, 1968). gpipp struction refers to the difference between subscales, or levels, Of Facets A through E of Figures 1 and 2. Six additional facets, F through K, were added to differentiate item content within levels. These additional facets denote ippp content and are labelled lateral struction. The complete mapping sentence for the family of scales constructed, or to be constructed, on this.§ priori basis is given in Figure 1. Every item on every 31 level Of a form of the ABS corresponds to a combination of elements of each and every Facet, A through K. The ordering system for lateral struction, however, has nOt been developed as fully as has the system for joint struction. JOrdan's (1970) research with the ABS-MR set out to test five main substantive questions or purposes. These five purposes (that have essentially been achieved) are as follows: "(a) that the ABS-MR attitude levels do exhibit a simplex structure: (b) that relevant Object- situations were selected: (0) that selected variables are effective predictors of favorable attitudes: (d) that the ABS-MR can differentiate between groups: and (e) that the ABS-MR is acceptably cross-culturally equi- valent and comparable" (pp. 50-51). Guttman's Theoretical Structpre: A Four-Level Theory In facet design, Guttman promulgated a method that examined various semantic facets which were involved in ordering a particular response to an individual item. Guttman's (1959) theory involves a discussion of semantic structure and a statistical analysis of that structure. He felt that it was necessary to relate more abstract conceptions to actual Observations and experience. 32 From research completed by Bastide and van den Berghe (1957), Guttman abstracted definitions for the four subuniverses of attitudes. Because Bastide and van den Berghe's work dealt with interracial attitudes, the defini- tions involve Whites and Negroes. The definitions were reordered by Guttman, and read as follows: 1. Stereotype: Belief Of (a white subject) that his own group (excels-does not excel) in comparison with Negroes on (desirable traits). 2. Norm: Belief Of (a white subject) that his own group (ought-ought not) interact with Negroes in (social ways). 3. Hypothetical Interaction: Belief Of (a white subject) that he himself (will-will not) interact with Negroes in (social ways). 4. Personal Interaction: Overt action of (a white subject) himself (to-not to) interact with Negroes in (social ways). (GUttman, 1959' pt 32) In delimiting the differences in structure in each of the definitions, Guttman notes differences in three facets. "A facet is a semantic unit or factor. Guttman looks at a facet in terms of set theory where a facet is a set containing elements" (Hamersma, 1969, p. 60). "Each definition concerns a type of behavior pf ,g subject vis-a-vis a type of iptergroup behavior Of a type of referent" (Guttman, 1959, p. 320). Each of these 33 three facets in turn has two elements and, therefore, each is dichotomous as depicted in Table 1. TABLE l.--Basic facets used to determine component structure of an attitude universe. (A) (B) (C) Subject's Behavior Referent Referent's Intergroup Behavior a1 belief b1 subject's group Cl comparative a2 overt action b2 subject himself c2 interactive One element from each and every facet must be represented in any given statement, and these statements can be grouped into profiles Of the attitude universe by multiplication of the facets A x B x C, yielding a 2 x 2 x 2 combination of elements or eight semantic pro- files in all: i.e.. (l)alblcl. (2)alblcz"°"(8)a2b292' It can be seen that profiles 1 and 2 have two elements in common (a1 and b1) and one different (cl and c2), whereas, profiles 1 and 8 have no elements in common. According to Foskett (1963, p. 111): Two sets Of facets, A and B, containing elements a , 2...am and bl,b ...b and a set C which is the product Of A an B, Then the elements of C are made up Of pairs Of elements, one from A and one from B: Ca. x bk. If A has m elements and B has n elementsg then C has mn elements. C is a two-faceted set, and A and B are facets of C. 34 The capital letters A, B, and C depict the three facets, while the subscripts denote the respective ele- ments. Thus, alblcl reads: Belief (al) of a subject that his own group (b1) interacts (c1) with a specified attitude Object. Similarly, a2b2c2 reads: Self or Observed reports of a subject‘s overt action (a2) of himself (b2) inter- acting (02) with a Specified attitude Object. The four subuniverses (levels) that Guttman de- rived from Bastide and van den Berghe (1957) have been facetized as shown in Table 2. TABLE 2.--Guttman facet profiles Of attitude subuniverses. W Subuniverse Profile 1. Stereotype a1 b1 c1 2. Norm al bl C2 3. Hypothetical Interaction a1 b2 c2 4. Personal Interaction a2 b2 02 There is a rank ordering of facets present in the design: Guttman refers to it as a progression from a weak to a strong form of the subject's behavior vis-a-vis the attitude Object. The more subscript '2' elements a pro- file contains, the greater the strength Of the attitude. Guttman prOposed that the semantic structure of 35 the attitude universe would provide a social-psychological basis for predicting the structure of the empirical inter- correlation matrix of the four levels. One cannot presume to predict the exact size Of each correlation coefficient from knowledge only Of the semantics of universe ABC, but we do prO- pose to predict a pattern or structure for the relative sizes Of the statistical coefficients from pprely semantic considerations (Guttman, 1959, p. 32 Guttman expressed this prediction as the "con- tiguity hypothesis," which states: Subuniverses closer to each other in the semantic scale of their definitions will also be closer statistically. Thus, the intercorrelations should reveal a simplex ordering, so that the maximum pre- dictability Of each level is attainable from its immediate neighbor or neighbors alone. This predicted relationship has been Obtained for the ABS-B/W Scale by Jordan and Hamersma (1969), the ABS-MR Scale (Attitude Behavior Scale- Mental Retardation) by Jordan (1969), as well as by Foa (1958. 1963). Jordan's Six-Level Adaptation Jordan's five-facet, six-level theory encompasses Guttman's three-facet, four-level design, eXpanding the theory in the affective andmconative dimensions. Speci- fically, Jordan maintains Guttman's four original levels, but adds two new levels toward the lower end Of Guttman's 36 scale. For a visual presentation Of Jordan's six-level theory, see Tables 3 and 4. A comparison Of Guttman and Jordan facet designations is in Table 5. Guttman included four attitude dimension categories: stereotype, norm, hypothetical interaction, and personal interaction (Table 2). According to McGuire (1969), these facets are primar- ily concerned with the cognitive and affective domains Of behavior. Only the last level, personal interaction, in- cludes any conative material. It is at this point that Jordan visualized the need to expand Guttman facet theory. Jordan places more emphasis on the affective and conative elements of attitude-behavior. His theory, while including Guttman's four levels (cognitive and affective elements). extends Guttman into the realm of conative behavior. His two additional levels, personal feelings (level 5) and actual personal action (level 6) extend the theory to 'real', observable behavior. These levels are evaluating the sub- ject's actual feelings and actions, instead of his per- ceived thought, beliefs, and Opinions (as measured in the first four levels). They appear to be the crucial levels at which attitudinal change occurs (see Tables 4 and 5 for a more explicit examination of Jordan's six levels and a com- parison of Guttman and Jordan facet designations). Tables 3 and 4 prOpose a structioned definitional 37 or semantic system for the relationships between the six scale levels. According to Jordan (1971), the Cartesian product of the five two-element/facets of Table 3 yields 32 possible profiles (Table 7). As shown in Table 4, six Of these profiles were chosen as psychologically rele- vant, potentially capable of instrumentation, and possess- ing a specific relationship among themselves (a simplex relationship). It is the intention Of the following definitions and examples to make clear Jordan's six-level progression from cognitive thought through the affective domain, and finally arriving at the cognitive-action level of attitude- behaviors. THE COGNITIVE DIMENSION OF ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR Level 1 Societal Stereotype--what other Whites believe about Whites as compared to what they believe about Negroes.* Eg.: Whites can be trusted with money (1) more than Negroes (2) about the same as Negroes (3) less than Negroes *The definitions and examples of the levels presented here assume that a White person is taking the scale and expressing his attitudes toward Negroes. The words White and Negro can be interchanged to make the scale apprOpriate for a Negro subject. Level 2 38 Societal Interactive Norm--other Whites generally THE AFRECTIVE Level 3 Personal THE AFFECTIVE believe the following...about interacting with Negroes. Eg.: Whites believe they can trust Negroes with money (1) disagree (2) uncertain (3) agree DIMENSION OF ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR Moral Evaluative-~in respect to Negroes, do you yourself believe that it is usually right or usually wrong. Eg.: TO trust Negroes with money is (1) usually wrong (2) undecided (3) usually right AND CONATIVE DIMENSIONS OF ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR* Level 4 Personal Hypothetical Behavior--in respect to a Negro would you yourself Eg.: I would trust Negroes with money (1) no (2) undecided (3) yes *The two levels encompassed under this category (Levels 4 and 5) include both affective and conative elements of attitude-behavior. 39 Level 5 Personal Feelings--how do you actually feel toward Negroes. Eg.: When Whites trust Negroes with money I feel (1) bad (2) indifferent (3) good THE CONATIVE DIMENSION OF ATTITUDE-BEHAVIOR Level 6 Actual Personal Action--experiences or contacts with Negroes. Eg.: I have trusted Negroes with money (1) no experience (2) no (3) uncertain (4) yes The Mapping Sentence A mapping sentence as represented in Figure 1, is used to provide a semantic relational definitional system between the variables of the study. A scale develOper can then proceed to determine which combinations are apprOpriate for the task which he wishes to accomplish with his attitude items. 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H unetz 2>HumHLummo oucmEmumum HmcoHuHcwan A r02 M h mHLmH , mHHHoum H Hw>mH . . CH .02 H . umomm mGOHpmcHLEoo m>Hm39 pow mesmsmvmvm HMCOHchHmoQ cam .mmHHH scum pmomm .mHm>oH m. .mLOHpmNHHmLHm> weappr< Ho Empmzm Hm>mH1me Hmomm m>Hmsu. o mHmLONH 0. When you have been in contact with Whites, how easy for you, in general, would you say it would have been to have avoided being with them? 1. I have had no contact. 2. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts only at great cost or difficulty. 3. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts only with considerable difficulty. 4. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts but with some inconvenience. S. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts without gay difficulty or inconvenience. During your contact with Whites, did.you_gain materially_in any way through these contacts, suchaas.being paid, Bf’gaining academic credit, or some such gain? . No, I have never received money, credit, or any other material gain. Yes, I have been paid for working with Whites. Yes, I have received academic credit or other material gain. . Yes, I have both been paid and received academic credit. $~hahahc O 63. 65. 66, 67, 3972 -10- ABS-BW-D If you have been paid for working with Whites, about what percent of your income was derived from contact with Whites during the acual period when working with them? 1. No work experience 2. Less than 25% 3. Between 26 and 50% 4. Between 51 and 75% 5. More than 76% If you have ever worked with Whites for personal gain or for money. what Opportunities did you have (or do you have) to work at something else instead; that is, something else that was (is) acceptable to you as a job? 1. No such experience 2. No other job available 3. Other jobs available not at all acceptable to me 4. Other jobs available were not guite acceptable to me 5. Other jobs availabe were fully acceptable to me How'have you generally felt about your experiences with Whites? 1. No experience 2. I definitely dislike it 3. I did not like it very much 4, I like it somewhat 5. I definitely enjoyed it Which of the following do you think would have the affect of reducing racial prejudice in.America? Circle only one. . 1. Integration of schools 2. Publicity campaigns to promote integration 3. Fair employment legislation 4. Open housing legislation 5. Direct, personal contact between.membero of various racial groups What is your approximate annual income? 1. Less than $4,000 2. $4,001 to $7,000 3. $7,001 to $9,000 4. $9,001 to $11,000 5. More than $11,000 68. 69. 70. 3972 -11- ABSeBW-D Which political party do you favor the most? 1. Republican 2. Democrat 3. American Independent Party A. Socialist Party 5. Other How would you rate your own racial attitudes as compared to the average person? 1. Very much more prejudiced 2. Somewhat more prejudiced 3. About the same 4. Somewhat leaa prejudiced 5. Very much less prejudiced To which racial group do you belong? l. Prefer not to answer 2. White 3. Black 4. Oriental 5. Other -12- ABS -BW_-:D LIFE 5 ITUAT IONS This section of the booklet deals with how people feel about several aspects of life or life situations. Please indicate how you feel about each situation by circling the answer you choose. 71. It should be possible to eliminate war once and for all strongly disagree disagree agree . strongly agree #‘th-a 72. Success depends to a large part on luck and fate strongly agree agree disagree strongly disagree {>th- 73. Someday most of the mysteries of the world will be revealed by science . strongly disagree . disagree . agree . strongly agree (tutor-0 74. By improving industrial and agricultural methods, poverty can be alim- inated in the world . strongly disagree . disagree . agree . strongly agree DuNt-l 75. With increased medical knowledge, it should be possible to lengthen the average life span to 100 years or more 1. strongly disagree 2. disagree 3. agree 4. strongly agree 76. Someday the deserts will be converted into good farming land by the application of engineering and science 1. strongly disagree 2. disagree 3. agree 4. strongly agree 3972 -13- ABS-BW-D 77. Education can only help peOple develop their natural abilities; it cannot change people in any fundamental way. . strongly agree . agree . disagree . strongly disagree {-‘ri-I 78. With hard work anyone can succeed 1. strongly disagree 2. disagree 3. agree 4. strongly agree 79. Almost every present human problem will be solved in the future 1. strongly disagree 2. disagree 3. agree 4. strongly agree 3972 APPENDIX C . 2 ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR SCALE: W/N-E 128 ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR SCALE-WN-E DIRECTIONS This booklet contains statements of how peOple behave in certain situations or feel about certain things. You, yourself, or other White persons often behave in the same way toward Negroes. You also have some general ideas about yourself, about other White persons like you and about Negroes. Sometimes you feel or behave the same way toward everyone and sometimes you feel or behave differently toward Negroes. This questionnaire has statements about ideas and about behavior. Each statement of this questionnaire is different from every other section, although some of the statements in each section are similar. Your answers in one section, therefore, may be the same as answers in another section, or your answers may differ from section to section. Here is a sample statement: Sample‘g Other Whites believe the following things about Negroes as compared to White: 1. Chance of Negroes being taller <;:> less chance than Whites . about the same 3. more chance than Whites If other Whites believe that Negroes have less chance than Whites to be taller, you should circle the number 1 as shown above. ****************'k DO NOT PUT YOUR NAME ON THE BOOKLET 7':‘.-'.‘:':°kt'c-}:'kt’c******tl.~‘.'°.'..-:; by: John E. Jordan College of Education Michigan State University Aubrey Radcliffe 3972 ABS-I-WN-E Directions: Section I This section contains statements about ideas which other Whites have about Circle 25 fill in the answer sheet number that indicates how other Negroes. es compare Negroes with themselves. Please answer all questions. Whit Other Whites believe the following things about Negroes as compared to Whites: 1. 3972 Negroes' intellectual ability is 1. less than Whites' 2. about the same 3. more than Whites‘ In school Negroes are disciplined 1. less than Whites' 2. about the same as Whites' 3. more than Whites' In school Negroes’ desire to work is 1. less than Whites' 2. about the same as Whites' 3. more than Whites' Negroes desire a higher education 1. less often than Whites 2. about as often as Whites 3. more often than Whites Negroes desire to get their school work done 1. less often than Whites 2. about as often as Whites 3. more often than Whites Negroes' concern for their educational future is 1. less than Whites' 2. about the same as Whites' 3. more than Whites' Negroes believe in public school integration 1. less than Whites 2. about the same as Whites 3. more than Whites The homes that Negro students come from favor education . less than White homes 1 2. about the same as White homes 3. more than White homes 'Fflla. “haflg‘mi': n' 3972 -2- ABS-II-WN-E Directions: Section II This section contains statements about things which most Whites generally believe others would experience when interacting with Negroes. Please choose the answer that indicates what you think most others believe about Negroes. Most Whites generally believe the following about_interacting with Negroes: 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. Whites believe that the intellectual ability of Negroes is equal to theirs 1. disagree 2. undecided 3. agree Whites believe in equal discipline for Negroes and Whites 1. disagree 2. undecided 3. agree Whites believe Negroes want to work as much as they do in school 1. disagree 2. undecided 3. agree Whites believe Negroes desire a higher education as much as they do 1. disagree 2. undecided 3. agree Whites believe they want to do their study or school work with Negroes 1. disagree 2. undecided 3. agree Whites believe that Negroes are concerned about their educational future as much as they are 1. disagree 2. undecided 3. agree Whites usually believe in working with Negroes for public school integration 1. disagree 2. undecided 3. agree Whites believe that Negro homes favor education as much as White homes do 1. disagree 2. undecided 3. agree -3- ABS- III-WN-E Directions: Section III This section contains statements of the right or wrong way of behaving or acting toward Negroes. You are asked to indicate what you yourself believe others think should be done with reapect to Negroes. In reapect to Negroes, what do you, yourself, believe others think is right or wrong: 17. To expect Negroes' intellectual ability to be the same as Whites is 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 3972 1. usually wrong 2. undecided 3. usually right F‘ To expect Negroes to be disciplined the same as Whites is 1. usually wrong 2. undecided , 3. usually right : To expect Negroes to work the same as Whites do in school is 1. usually wrong 2. undecided 3. usually right To expect Negroes to desire a higher education as much as Whites do is 1. usually wrong 2. undecided 3. usually right To expect Whites to do their school work with Negroes is 1. usually wrong 2. undecided 3. usually right To expect Whites to share their concern for their educational future with Negroes is 1. usually wrong 2. undecided 3. usually right To expect Whites to believe in public school integration is . usually wrong . undecided . usually right omes do is . usually wrong . undecided l 2. 3 To expect that the homes of Negro students favor education as much as White h l 2 3 usually right -4- ABS-IV-WN-E Directions: Section IV This section contains statements about how you think you would act toward Negroes. Choose the answer that indicates how you think you would act. In reSpect to a Negro person would you, yourself: 25. I would want my intellectual ability to be the same as that of Negroes 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes 26. I would want to be disciplined in school the way Negroes are . r 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes 27. I would desire to work in school the same as Negroes do 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes 28. I would want to have the same desire Negroes do for a higher education 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes 29. I would want to do my schoolwork as well as Negroes do theirs 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes 30. I would discuss my concern for my educational future with Negroes 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes 31. I would work for public school integration 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes 32. I would want the homes that White students come from to favor education as much as Negroes' homes 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes 3972 -5- ABS-V-WN-E Directions: Section V This section concerns actual feelings that you yourself may have about Negroes. You are asked to indicate how you feel about the following statements. How do you actually feel toward Negroes: 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. When Negroes' intellectual ability is the same as Whites I feel 1. bad 2. indifferent 3. happy When I am or was disciplined in school the same as Negroes I feel or felt 1. bad 2. indifferent 3. content When Whites work as hard in school as Negroes do, I feel 1. discontent 2. indifferent 3. content When Negroes desire a higher education as much as Whites do, I feel 1. bad 2. indifferent 3. good When Negroes desire to do their school work less than Whites do, I feel 1. good 2. indifferent 3. bad When I have the same concern for my educational future as Negroes have for theirs, I feel 1. angry 2. indifferent 3. happy When Negroes work for public school integration, I feel 1. bad 2. indifferent 3. good When the homes that White students come from favor education as much as Negro homes I feel 1. discontent 2. indifferent 3. content -5- ABS-VI-WN-E Directions: Section VI This section concerns actual experiences you have had with Negroes. Try to answer the following questions from the knowledge of your 223 experience. If you have had go experience or contact with Negroes, omit questions 41 - 48 and begin again at question number 49. If you have had any experience 25 contact with Negroes answer all of the following questions. Experiences or contacts with Negroes: 41. The intellectual ability of Negroes is equal to mine 1. no 2. uncertain 3. yes 42. I have been disciplined in school the same as Negroes 1. no 2. uncertain 3. yes 43. The Negroes I know worked as hard in school as I did 1. no 2. uncertain 3. yes 44. The Negroes I know wanted a higher education as much as I did 1. no 2. uncertain 3. yes 45. In school Negroes did their homework as well as I did mine 1. no 2. uncertain 3. yes 46. The concern of Negroes for their educational future is the same as mine 1. no 2. uncertain 3. yes 47. I have supported public school integration 1. no 2. uncertain 3. yes 48. I have seen that the homes that Negro students come from favor education as much as White homes 1. no 2. uncertain yes 3972 -7- ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR SCALE - ABS-WN-D This part of the questionnaire deals with many things. For the purpose of this study, the answers of all persons are important. Part of the questionnaire has to do with personal information about you. Since the questionnaire is completely anonymous and confidential, you may answer all of the questions freely without any concern about being identified. It is important to the study to obtainyyour answer to every questigg, Please respond by circling the answer. 49. Please indicate your sex 1. Female 2. Male 50. Please indicate your age as follows: 1. Under 20 2. 21-30 3. 31-40 4. 41-50 S. Sl-over 51. What is your marital status? 1. Married 2. Single 3. Divorced 4. Widowed S. Separated 52. What is your religion! 1. I prefer not to answer 2. Catholic 3. Protestant 4. Jewish 5. Other 3972 -g- ABS-WN-D 53. Some peOple are more set in their ways than others. How would you rate yourself? 1. I find it very difficult to change 2. I find it slightly difficult to change 3. I find it somewhat easy to change 4. I find it very easy to change 54. Some people feel that in bringing up children, new ways and methods should be tried whenever possible. Others feel that trying out new methods is dangerous. What is your feeling about the following statement? "New methods of raising children should be tried whenever possible." . Strongly disagree . Slightly disagree . Slightly agree . Strongly agree PwNH 55. Family planning on birth control has been discussed by many people. What is your feeling about a married couple practicing birth control? Do you think they are doing something good or bad? If you had to decide, would you say they are doing wrong, or that they are doing right? . It is always wrong . It is usually wrong . It is probably all right . It is always right bump- 56. P3091e have different ideas about what should be done concerning automa- tion and other new ways of doing things. How do you feel about the following statement? "Automation and similar new procedures should be encouraged (in govern~ ment, business, and industry) since it eventually creates new jobs and raises the standard of living." 1. Strongly disagree 2. Slightly disagree 3. Slightly agree 4. Strongly agree 57. In respect to your religion, about what extent do you observe the rules and regulations of your religion? 1. I prefer not to answer 2. I have no religion 3. Sometimes 4. Usually 5. Almost always 3972 58. -9- ABS-WN-D I find it easier to follow rules than to do things on my own. wav-n .0. Agree strongly Agree 8 lightly Disagree slightly Disagree strongly The following questions have to do with the kinds of experiences you have had with Negroes. If more than one experience applies, please choose the answer with the highest number. 59. 61. 62. 3972 Circle the statement which best applies to you. 1. I have read or studied about Negroes through reading, movies, lectures or observation. A friend or relative is a Negro person. I have personally worked with Negroes as a teacher. counselor, volunteer, child care, etc. Close friend or relative is married to a Negro. I am married to a Negro. Considering all of the times you have talked, worked, or in some other way had personal contact‘with Negroes,_about.how much has it been altogether? I. Only a few casual contacts 2. Between one and three months 3. Between three and six months 4. Between six months and one year 5. More than one year of contact When you have been in contact with Negroes, how easy for you, in general, would you say it would have been to have avoided being with thaml l. 2. I have had no contact. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts only at great cost or difficulty. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts only with considerable difficulty. I could generally have avoided these personal contacts but with some inconvenience- I could generally have avoided these personal contacts without gay difficulty or inconvenience. During your contact with Negroes, did you gain materially in any way through these contacts, such as being paid, or gaining academic credit, or some such gain? No, I have never received money, credit, or any other material gain. Yes, I have been paid for working with Negroes. Yes, I have received academic credit or other material gain. Yes, I have both been paid and received academic credit. 63. 65. 66. 67. 3972 - 10.. ABS-WN-D If you have been paid for working with Negroes, about what percent of your income was derived from contact with Negroes during the actual period when working with them? unknown- If No work experience Less than 25% Between 26 and 50% Between 51 and 75% More than 76% you have ever worked with Negroes for personal gain or for money. what Opportunities did you have (or do you have) to work at something else instead; that is, something else that was (is) acceptable to you as a job? uwav-I O n: OW LII-Fun:— No such experience No other job available Other jobs available 22$.2£.Ell acceptable to me Other jobs available were 325 guite acceptable to me Other jobs available were fully acceptable to me have you generally felt about your experiences with Negroes? No experience I definitely dislike it I did not like it very much I like it somewhat I definitely enjoyed it Which of the following do you think would have the effect of reducing racial prejudice in America? Circle only one. VII-‘WNH Integration of schools Publicity campaigns to promote integration Fair employment legislation Open housing legislation Direct, personal contact between members of various racial groups What is your approximate annual income? VII-‘wNv-o Less than $4,000 $4,001 to $7,000 $7,001 to $9,000 $9,001 to $11,000 More than $11,000 -11- ABS-WN-D 68. Which political party do you favor the most? 1. Republican 2. Democrat 3. American Independent Party 4. Socialist Party 5. Other 69. How would you rate your own racial attitudes as compared to the average person? 1. Very much more prejudiced 2. Somewhat more prejudiced 3. About the same ' 4. Somewhat less prejudiced 5. Very much less prejudiced 70. To which racial group do you belong? l. Prefer not to answer 2. White 3. Black 4. Oriental 5. Other 3972 -12- ABS-WN-D LIFE SITUATIONS This section of the booklet deals with how people feel about several napects of life or life situations. Please indicate how you feel about each situation by circling the answer you choose. 71. It should be possible to eliminate war once and for all strongly disagree . disagree agree strongly agree J-‘th-I 72. Success depends to a large part on luck and fate 1. strongly agree 2. agree ' 3. disagree 4 . strongly disagree 73. Someday most of the mysteries of the world will be revealed by science 1. strongly disagree 2. disagree 3. agree 4 . strongly agree 74. By improving industrial and agricultural methods, poverty can be elim- inated in the world 1. strongly disagree 2. disagree 3. agree 4 . strongly agree 75. With increased medical knowledge, it should be possible to lengthen the average life Span to 100 years or more 1. strongly disagree 2. disagree 3. agree 4. strongly agree 76. Someday the deserts will be converted into good farming land by the application of engineering and science 1. strongly disagree 2. disagree 3. agree 4. strongly agree 3972 -13- ABS-WN-D 77. Education can only help peOple develop their natural abilities; it cannot change peOple in any fundamental way. 1. strongly agree 2. agree 3. disagree 4 . strongly disagree 78. With hard work anyone can succeed 1. strongly disagree 2. disagree 3. agree 1. strongly agree 79. Almost every present human problem will be solved in the future strongly disagree disagree agree strongly agree wat—I 3972 "Willi???iii???