A GUTTMAN FACET ANALYSIS OF THE RACIAE. ATTETUDES 0F REHABEUTAYION CGUNSELOR TRAINEES Thesis fer the Degree of PH“ D. MICHIGAN STATE UNWERSITY ARTHUR EUGENE DELL ORTO ,1970 «mum; 1&qu LIN I in M “1113mm u {NES‘S This is to certify that the thesis entitled A GUTTMAN FACET ANALYSIS OF THE RACIAL ATTITUDES OF REHABILITATION COUNSELOR TRAINEES presented by Arthur Eugene Dell Orto has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree inEducation draw/W qule/ 4/L / Major fliessor Date April 27, 1970 0-169 E, alumna BY nuns & SDNS’ mm mm M. LIBRARY BIND! ‘ a IPIIIGPOIY. ABSTRACT A GUTTMAN FACET ANALYSIS OF THE RACIAL ATTITUDES OF REHABILITATION COUNSELOR TRAINEES BY Arthur Eugene Dell Orto The significance of racial attitudes for the counselor has been expressed by both educators and practitioners. This dissertation1 was an outgrowth of this concern as well as an attempt to investigate di- mensions and components of racial attitudes from the Guttman facet theory approach. Methodolggx, A total of 70 rehabilitation counselor training program coordina- tors were contacted to see whether they were willing to participate in the study. Of these 59 agreed, 8 did not respond, and 3 did not agree. Those who agreed to participate were mailed the general attitude behavior scale (ABS: BW/WN-G) developed by Hamersma and Jordan (1969), which was a facetized scale based on the theory of Guttman (1966). For this study there were two versions of the scale: one for Blacks, ABS: B/W-G, and one for Whites, ABS: W/N-G. These were identical forms of the scale except fOr the term "Black," which was used in the ABS: B/W-G, and the term "Negro," which was used in the ABS: W/N-G. This procedure was followed in order to use a term which designated race in a manner that was acceptable to the respective race. Arthur Eugene Dell Orto Analysis The following analytical procedures were performed on the data: correlational (Pearson r), multivariate analysis of variance, and a simplex approximation test. Results Results of the hypotheses tested by correlational techniques were as follows: 1. 2. Amount of education did not show a strong relationship to favorable attitudes toward members of the opposite race. Age was not related to attitudes for Whites, but it was for Blacks at certain levels of the ABS: B/W-G. Efficacy, which tested man's sense of control over his environment, was related to positive attitudes for Whites at two levels of the ABS: W/N—G, while no relationship for Blacks between efficacy and attitudes was found. Enjoyment of contact was the most significant predictor of favorable attitudes for Whites. Reported prejudice yielded significant results, while urban- ity did not. The multivariate analysis of certain hypotheses had the following results: 1. There was no significant difference on the attitudinal score based on religious or political affiliation. A significant difference was found for race, geographic loca- tion, and sex. Arthur Eugene Dell Orto The limitations of this study and recommendations for further research were also presented.1 1This research is related to a larger cross-cultural study of racial/ethnic attitudes under the direction of John E. Jordan, College of Education, Michigan State University. A GUTTMAN FACET ANALYSIS OF THE RACIAL ATTITUDES OF REHABILITATION COUNSELOR TRAINEES By Arthur Eugene Dell Orto A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Personnel Services and Educational Psychology College of Education 1970 PREFACE This study was one in a series Jointly designed by several investigators (Erb, 1969; Hamersma, 1969; Jordan, 1969; Maierle, 1969) as an example of the project approach to graduate research. A common use of instrumentation and theoretical material, as well as technical and analytical procedures, was both necessary and desirable. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Completion of the doctoral dissertation is a Janus-headed situation; the attainment of the golden fleece and the prospects of new horizons precipitates the termination of old goals and separation from long-standing friendships. The path does not look as rough in retrospect, as it is high- lighted by the buttresses of professors, friends, and family. To my major professor, John E. Jordan, I acknowledge his tremendous support and encouragement during the development and writing of the disserta- tion. The role of Gregory Miller was a most significant one, for it was as his graduate assistant that I was permitted to devote time to this project. I also wish to express my appreciation to Richard E. Johnson, who kept up my morale not only during dissertation but also during doc- toral studies. The roles of Maryellen McSweeney, a wonderful teacher and a dear friend, were many in my life as a student. Her help and guidance in the statistical aspects of this project are deeply appreciated. I wish to thank my friend, Howard Teitelbaum, without whose assistance this thesis could not haye been completed. The freedom Larry Messe per- mitted in the development of this study was a key factor in its comple- tion. "No man is an island," and a dissertation tends to make this poignantly clear. Through the heartache and joy of this study, my iii friends, N. Kenneth La Fleur and David B. Stugart, made the days brighter. No acknowledgement is adequate for the efforts my wife Barbara has made during the past years and throughout the preparation of this thesis. I also wish to thank my parents, Marian and Arthur Dell Orto, whose sacrifices made it possible for me to reach this goal. iv PREFACE . . . TABLE OF CONTENTS Am OWIEDGWN TB 0 O O O O O O C 0 C O C O O O O O O O 0 LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 LIST OF FIGURES 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 Chapter I I INTRODUCTI ON 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 0 Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Need. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of Thesis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . Definitions of Attitudes. . . . . . . . . . . . value of Attitude Research. . . . . . . . . . . Attitudes and the Counselor. . . . . . . Research Related to Major Variables . . . . . Contact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Geographic Location. . . . . . . . . . . . . Urbanity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sex Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Religion . . . . . . . . . . Attitudes of Blacks Toward Whites and Whites Toward Blacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Political Affiliation. . . . . . . . . . I II 0 INS'I'RMNTATI ON C C O C . O O O O O O O O O O O O O Guttman Scaling Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . Guttman Four-Level Facet Attitude Structure . . Jordan's Six-Level Facet Attitude Structure. The Mapping Sentence . . . . . . . . . . V Page ii iii . viii 22 23 2h 26 26 Chapter Page The Attitude Behavior Scale ABS: BW/WN (Blacks Toward.Whites and Whites Toward Negroes) . . . . . . 33 8mm 0 O O O C O C C O C O C O C O O O C O O O O O O 36 IV. DESIGN AND ANALYSIS PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Popflation O O . O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O 0 O O O O 37 Procedllres O O O O O O I O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O 37 Major Research Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Attitudes and Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Attitudes and Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Attitudes and Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Attitudes and Contact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ho Attitudes and Religion . . . . . . . . . . . ho Attitudes and Reported Prejudice. . . . . . . . . . ho Attitudes and Political Affiliation. . . . . . . . . hl Attitudes and Urbanity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hl Attitudes and Race . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hl Attitudes and Geographic Location. . . . . . . . . . hl AttitudesandSex..................1&2 Simplex Approximation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2 Anal-ySis O O O C O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O 0 O O O O [*2 Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A2 Correlational Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . h3 Mbltivariate Analysis of Variance. . . . . . . . . . A3 V.ANALYSISOFDATA..................... “4 Attitudes and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . “A AttitudesandAge...................Mi Attitudes and Efficacy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A7 Attitudes and Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A? Attitudes and Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . AB Attitudes and Reported Prejudice. . . . . . . . . . . AB Attitudes and Political Affiliation . . . . . . . . . . SO Attitudes and Urbanity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SO Attitudes and Race. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SO Attitudes and Geographic Location . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Attitudes and Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Simplex Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 v1. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, AND RECOBMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . . 58 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 AnflySis. . O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I 59 Discussion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Attitudes and Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Attitudes and Age. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 vi Chapter Recommendations . REFERENCES. APPENDICES. Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes Attitudes and Efficaqy . Contact. . Religion . Reported Prejudice . Political Affiliation. Urbanity . Race . . . Geographic Sex. . . . Simplex Approximation. . Nature of Population . . Procedures . Instrumentation. . . . . Recommended Analytical Location. Procedures. Simplex Approximation Test. . . . . . MMltidimensional/Multivariate Statistics. Implications for Practice and Research . Summary. A. Glossary. . . B.l B.2 D. Response Card . . E. Letter of Instruction . . . . F. Follow-up Letter. G. Pilot Study Results . . . . . H. List of Contacted schools . . I. Overview of the Finn Program. J. Basic Variables by IBM Card and Column. K. Results of Multiple Correlation Vii Attitude Behavior Scale: B/W—G . . . . Attitude Behavior Scale: C. Contact Letter. Analysis. Page 62 63 6h 65 66 66 67 68 68 68 70 71 71 72 73 76 82 82 106 126 127 128 129 130 131 136 1&5 1A6 10. ll. 12. 13. 1h. 15. LIST OF TABLES Basic Facets USed to Determine Component Structure of An Attitude universe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Guttman Facet Profiles of An Attitude subuniverse . . Basic Facets USed to Determine Conjoint Struction of An Attitude [hiverse O O O I O O O O O O O I O O O O Conjoint Level, Profile Composition, and Labels for Six Types of Attitude Struction. . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of Guttman and Jordan Facet Designations . Permutations of Five Two-Element Facets . . . . . . . . Permutations of Five Two-Element Facets and Basis of miminatim O O I O 0 O O O O O O O I ,0 O O O O O 0 l Five-Facet Six-Level System.of Attitude Verbalizap tions: Levels, Facet Profiles, and Definitional Statements for Twelve Permutations . . . . . . . . . Responses to Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Correlations and Significance Levels for Blacks and Whites Between Selected Predictor Variables and Levels of ABS: BW/WN. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multivariate Analyses of Variance (MANOVA) Results on Religion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multivariate Analyses of Variance (MANOVA) Results on Political Affiliation . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multivariate Analyses of Variance (MANOVA) Results on Race. 0 O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Multivariate Analyses of Variance (MANOVA) Results on Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multivariate Analyses of Variance (MANOVA) Results on sex 0 C O O C C O C 0 C C C 0 C C C O . C C O C 0 viii Page 2h 25 27 28 28 29 3O 31 38 1&5 A9 51 52 5h 55 Table Page 16. Simplex: Correlations Between Levels of the ABS: BW/WN-G 57 17. Sample Sizes, Means, and Standard Deviations for Blacks and Whites 0n ABS: BW/WNO o o o o o o o c o o o o o o o 61 18. subjects Compared to Reported Population. . . . . . . . . . 7o 19. List of Contacted Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 20. Basic Variables by IBM Card and Column ABS: BW/WN Rehabilitation Trainee Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1h5 ix I i LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. A Mapping Sentence fOr the Facet Analysis of Conjoint and Disjoint Struction of Attitudes Toward Specified Persons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 2. A Mapping Sentence for the Facet Analysis of Conjoint and Disjoint Struction of Blacks' and Whites' Attitudes Toward Each Other. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3h CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The present research examined racial attitudes of a select population; rehabilitation counselor trainees, by a comparatively new analysis method, Guttman facet analysis. Concern about racial atti- tudes and their concommitant effects is expressed by many in both gov- ernment and education. This study was an outgrowth of this concern. Problem Racial attitudes exist in American society which affect the reha- bilitation process. The rehabilitation counselor, a product of society, is a key factor in this process. Ayers (1969) pointed out the signifi- cance of racial attitudes in the rehabilitation process when he stated: Since many rehabilitation workers live in protected and iso— lated environments and.may support the continuation of such racist attitudes, it is incontestable that such attitudes transfer themselves into their professional endeavors (pp- 55-56). A similar thought was expressed by Westman (1968), who stated: Not so apparent, but perhaps even more important, barriers may be found within us, the vocational rehabilitation "pro- fessionals" who attempt to rehabilitate disabled persons-- the barriers we erect by the attitudes and values we adopt and the nature of the assumptions we make about people we serve (p. 23). The present study attempted to examine the dimensions of the reha- bilitation counselor trainees' racial attitudes in order to understand better what these attitudes were and what factors were related to them. P ose The purpose of this study was two-fold: substantive and methodo— logical. The substantive purpose was to investigate relationships between constructs, such as contact, demographic factors, geographic location, and attitudes of rehabilitation counselor trainees. The methodological purpose was to use a particular research method, Guttman facet analysis, in a study of racial attitudes. Need The need for this research had its genesis both in the social cri- sis facing our country today and in the counseling crisis facing rehap bilitation counselors working with the culturally different. The social crisis was presented in Black and White by Brink and Harris (1967): The year 1966 became not the year of deliverance for the Negro, but the year when it dawned on all Americans--B1ack and White- that equality for the Negro was a far greater problem than any- one had imagined, and its solution was probably more remote than ever (pp. 16-17). The counseling crisis regarding racial attitudes was highlighted by Ayers (1969): If rehabilitation workers are going to increase their efforts in rehabilitating the handicapped.b1ack and provide "action" rather than lip service, they are going to have to examine and change some of their attitudes (p. 57). The socially compelling question is whether White middle-class counselors, with negative racial attitudes, can understand and work with racially different clients. As a consequence of this concern, the present study attempted to facilitate the understanding of these racial attitudes and their determinants. gypotheses If one postulates multiple dimensions of racial attitudes as well as multiple predictor variables, it becomes necessary to consider sev- eral hypotheses. The research hypotheses tested in this study are as follows: Attitudes and Education H-l: Amount of education is positively related to favorable atti- tudes toward members of the opposite race. Attitudes and Age H-2: Age is negatively related to favorable attitudes toward meme bers of the opposite race. Attitudes and Efficacy H-3: There is a positive relationship between efficaqy scores and positive attitudes toward members of the opposite race. Attitudes and Contact H—h: Favorable attitudes toward members of the opposite race are related to (a) kind of contact, (b) amount of contact, (c) ease of avoidance of contact, (d) gain from contact, and (e) enjoyment of con- tact. Attitudes and Religion H—S: There is a significant difference between attitude scores of religious groups . Attitudes and Reported Prejudice H-6: There is a positive relationship between reported prejudice and racial attitude scores. Attitudes and Groungembership H-T: There is no difference between political affiliation groups' attitude scores toward the opposite race. Attitudes and Urbanig H-8: Persons from urban areas have more positive attitudes to- ward members of the opposite race than persons from rural areas. Attitudes and Race H—9: There is a difference between the attitudes of racial groups. Attitudes and Geographic Location H-lO: Geographically, there is no difference in the racial atti- tudes of rehabilitation counselor trainees toward members of the oppo- site race. Attitudes and Sex H-ll: There is a difference in the racial attitudes of males and females. Simplex Approximation H-l2: The ABS: BW/WN will form a Guttman Simplex for each of the racial groups. Overview of Thesis The thesis has six chapters, which are organized in the following manner: In Chapter I the problem, purpose, need for the research, and the hypotheses are stated. In Chapter II the review of the literature is presented in sev- eral sections. An introduction describes some of the issues in the study of racial attitudes and is followed by various definitions and comments upon the value of attitude research. The next section deals with the role of attitudes in the life of the counselor and some diffi- culties encountered when working with racially different clients. In the section on research related to major variables, various positions are presented.which relate to contact, age, education, geographic loca- tion, urbanity, sex, efficaqy, self-report of prejudice, religion, race, and political affiliation. In Chapter III an overview of early attitude measurement followed by a section on Guttman facet theory and the development of the Attitude Behavior Scale, ABS: BW/WN-G are presented. In Chapter IV the population, procedures, and research hypotheses, along with the instrumentation and analysis, are stated. This is fol— lowed'by a description of the various analytical procedures used. In Chapter V the results of the analysis of the data are pre- sented. In Chapter VI a summary of the study is presented, and the re- sults of the study are discussed. This is followed by a section which presents recommendations for further research. The limitations of the study and various analytical procedures that may be useful in future studies of this nature are included. The final section of the study contains tables, appendixes, and the instrument used in the study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Attitudes have been considered from various points of view. Some researchers have been concerned with understanding attitudes, while others have examined their modification. Interest in attitude research exists in many fields, such as psychology and sociology. Des- pite this diversity, disciplines examining attitudes tend to agree on the complexity of attitude research and the need for further study. As previously stated, many believe that considerable research has been done in the area of attitudinal measurement and that now the empha- sis must be placed more in the direction of attitude modification rather than understanding attitudes. The difficulty in this approach is that past research has considered attitudes primarily from a unidimensional viewpoint. It is hoped that when the concept of multidimensionality is shown to exist, further research will be developed which will enable modification of attitudes to be founded upon these implications of mul- tidimensionality. An example of the multidimensionality of an attitude is explored in a later section dealing with contact and how it affects racial atti- tudes. It is pointed out that contact may affect a person's cognitive disposition toward an attitude object while not changing his affective disposition. Findings of this nature are significant, for in counsel- ing, premature action based upon faulty attitudinal knowledge may 'I . result in erroneous hypotheses; such as, "to change racial attitude, any kind of contact with the attitude object is sufficient." Definitions of Attitudes Attitudes have been defined in various ways. Allport (1967) pre- sented a list of definitions, some of which are as follows: An attitude is readiness for attention or action of a defi- nite sort (Baldwin, 1901—1905). . . . a tendency to act toward or against something in the environment which becomes thereby a positive or negative value (Bogardus, 1931). . . . a residuum of experience, by which further activity is conditioned and controlled. . . . We may think of atti- tudes as acquired tendencies to act in ways toward objects (Krueger and Reckless, 1931). . . . a mental disposition of the human individual to act for or against a definite object (Droba, 1933). . . . a more or less permanently enduring state of readiness of mental organization which predisposes an individual to re- act in a characteristic way to any object or situation with which it is related (Cantril, l93h). . . . a mental and neural state of readiness organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influ— ence upon the individual's response to all objects and sit- uations with which it is related (Allport, 1967). Mehrens and Lehmann (1969) define attitudes as predispositions to respond overtly to social objects. They also presented the following attitudinal definitions: An attitude is "a syndrome of response consistency with re- gard to social objects (Campbell, 1952)." . . . an enduring system of positive or negative evalua- tion, emotional feeling, and pro or con action tendencies with respect to a social object (Krech, 1962). A common fiber in these definitions is to regard an attitude as a "predisposition" to behavior. This view is one of two primary ones found in the literature. The other view is that of Guttman (1950).‘Wh0 defines an attitude as a "delimited totality of behavior in respect to something (p. 51)." In his approach a racial attitude is not merely a prediSposition to act toward the attitude object, i.e., Black or White man, but also a "delimited" totality of acts that a person has per- formed with respect to that attitude object; i.e., attitude l§.be‘ havior. Guttman considered an attitude to have at least four levels of strength: stereotype, norm, hypothetical interaction, and personal in- teraction. Jordan (1968) expanded these four levels to six: stereo- typic, societal norm, personal moral evaluation, personal hypothetical behavior, personal feelings, and personal action. The concept of levels of attitude strength is a significant de- velopment in attitude research, since it enables the researcher to in- vestigate the multidimensionality of an attitude, which represents the levels of an attitude and reflects at which level attitudes may change. Value of Attitude Research Jordan (1970) stated that before starting to develop new attitudes or to change attitudes, it may first be necessary to try to assess ex- isting attitudes. There is value in the study of attitudes, since such research contributes to our understanding of their determinants and their modification. Yuker (1965) stated: An attitude can be defined as one type of predisposition to- ward behavior. Because this is so, by finding out what a person's attitudes are, we can gain information that will help us both to understand and to predict a person's be- havior (p. 15). Mehrens and Lehmann (1969) stated: Attitudes are learned. Because they are learned, they can be changed, if it is deemed necessary. However, one cannot lO alter, modify, or reinforce something until he knows the status of that something (p. 257). Allport (1966) also commented upon the value of studying atti- tudes: As we have said, the attitude unit has been the primary building stone in the edifice of social psychology. It has, of course, had many critics. Especially in recent years, learning theorists, field theorists, phenomenologists have attempted to dislodge it. But is is questionable whether their combined efforts can do more than refine the concept for future use. After all, social behavior reflects so much organization, recurrent and habitual expectancy, that the doctrine of attitude (or some close equivalent) is neces- sary. Without some such concept, social psychologists could not work in the fields of public opinion, national charac- ter, or institutional behavior-~to mention only a few areas; nor could they characterize the mental organization of so- cial man. The term itself may not be indispensable, but what it stands for is (p. 20). , The emphasis of the present study was upon understanding the di- mensionality and determinants of racial attitudes rather than their modification. Attitudes and the Counselor Researchers have been concerned with the significance of atti- tudes in both the counseling relationship and in the life of the coun- selor (Ayers, 1968; Dell Orto, 1970; Gross, 1969). Anderson (1969), commenting on problems of working with the disadvantaged, quoted Gross as saying: A counselor may deceive himself into believing that although he may not approve of the client's behavior, he still accepts him as a fellow human being who can improve (p. 112). Gross (1969) believed that far from accepting the client, many counselors did not, in spite of their best attempts to do so. Patterson (1966) also commented on the role attitudes play in counsel- ing when he stated: 11 The counselor can act as an important influence in this struggle back to confidence and self-respect by treating the client as an independent worthy of respect, a person deserv- ing of consideration, whose ideas, feelings, and desires are important (p. A9). Is such an attitude possible from a counselor who does not see the racially different client in an egalitarian manner but, rather, as an inferior being who must be dealt with and then avoided? It seems incongruous that White counselors who avoid racially different clients in their social life, living areas, and other activities will suddenly become understanding and interested in the plight of these clients dur- ing an eight-to-five working day. The incongruity of this situation was also highlighted by Anderson (1969): Discussions with counselors in various agencies indicate that white counselors tend to be extremely hampered in discussing race and its implications with their clients. Black counse- lors, on the other hand, can often handle the feelings of their clients in this area very Openly. Even the most ardent civil rights worker may harbor pri- vate feelings that Negro anger, once unleashed, may become uncontrollable and irrational [i.e., directed at him]. Such fears may also belong to the white case worker. With Negroes, however, even the most unbiased white worker does not enjoy the comfort of feeling guiltless for two reasons: (1) as a member of the white community, he must assume guilt for society's wrongs and is only unsure- how much to accept; (2) if he is at all honest with himself, he must sense the reality that in society today, no white person can have escaped becoming imbued with some prejudice and that his individual symptoms may be far more apparent to the client than to himself (p. 11h). Anderson's view emphasizes that the attitudinal disposition of a person is not merely a tangential aspect of his personality but, rather, it is an integral part of his life. It had been learned, performed, and reinforced throughout his life by his peers, family, and strangers. The review of the literature indicated that the area of racial at- titudes is a more comprehensive entity than many care to recognize and 12 that its understanding and alteration are not consequent to forced legislation or integration but in a recognition of the multidimension- ality of attitudes. This recognition deals with the nucleus of the problem instead of the periphery. Attempts have been made to identify the person who can work ef— fectively with a racially different pOpulation (Chifton, 195h; Fey, 1955). McClain (196A) indicated the difficulties and the need for further research in identifying successful counselors when he said: Although a large number of studies that have tried to find measures of personality related to success in counseling have been disappointing, an increasing number of investi- gations have been able to find measurable characteristics associated with counselor effectiveness. Hill and Green (1960) and Carkhuff (1966) have published surveys of this research. These studies have ranged from the use of a single dimension of personality to whole batteries of in- struments. In general, the reports point to the complex- ity of the problem and stress the need for more research that can help educators and employers of counselors iden- tifyhthose candidates who are likely to be successful p. 92 . Turner (196A) suggested that to work with the socially handi- capped, one must first establish a meaningful relationship with the client; this presupposes knowledge of what behavior is common, ac- cepted, approved, and disapproved in the culture of the client. How many White middle-class counselors with negative racial attitudes can understand and work with the racially different client? Anderson (1969), quoting a study done by Philips (1959), indicated that Black counselors had better results when working with Black clients than White counselors did: To white counselors, the deceptive and defensive tech- niques used by the pupils throughout the interview were ef- fective. They did not allow the counselors to penetrate their social barriers, to locate the causes of their behav- ior. The pupils' ability to misdirect and counter-reflect 13 responses and meanings, and their excessive use of gestures and unrelated verbal responses completely lost the counse— lors. In contrast, the Negro counselors did not find it dif- ficult to neutralize the counseling atmosphere during the sessions. They found the pupils relaxed and willing to dis- cuss the whole school situation and other factors which caused their behavior. The social racial barrier did not appear in any of the sessions. The subjects expressed their present problems--the small pressures placed upon them by the principal and teacher--in relation to their future fears concerning their limited role in society (p. 118). The above illustrates how the racially different client can lead and manipulate the White counselor while the same situation is more difficult with the Black counselor. If this situation exists on the basis of color alone, it seems it would be magnified by a counselor who was not only racially different but who had also manifested negative attitudes toward his clients. The need for additional skills in working with the culturally different was indicated by Hamilton (1960): Whatever the setting, no matter how severe the disability or how limited the goals may be, counseling will involve skills in perception, skills in understanding, and skills in the acceptance of subtle psychological cultural relations. Counseling in different settings may, of course, require ad- ditional skills of one type or another (p. 13). With the redefining of the counselor's role and the new functions and approaches he must undertake to work with the culturally different, the attitudes of the counselor toward his client appear to be signifi- cant factors in this role. Ayers (1968) quoted Acker as saying: Racism, the attitudes, and more significantly, the behaviors it implies, is clearly a basic component of the problems of our society and, thus, the populations from which our cli- ents come. We cannot be really effective as practitioners or valid as a profession without both understanding it and becoming actively committed to its exposure and eventual elimination (p. 57). 1h Research Related to Major Variables Contact Two main points of view exist concerning the effect that contact has upon racial attitudes. One position states that contact does af— fect attitudes, the other that it does not. Another consideration is that contact may affect the racial attitudes of a person cognitively but not effectively. This was the finding of Harding and Hogrife (1952), who posited that equal-status contact changed Whites' willing- ness to work with Blacks but this association was not carried over into social activities. An opposing result was that of Lombardi (1963), who found an insignificant relationship between contact and racial atti- tudes. The research of O'Connor (1969) suggests that current approaches to the problem of ensuring civil rights has failed to reach the root of the matter because it does not take into consideration the real and imagined social and economic threats which are important factors in the maintenance of racial prejudice. Consequently, an impasse was created in which stereotypes thrived and.violence brewed. Programs making de- segregation profitable and attractive for the Black and White communi- ties alike are desperately needed. The concept of threat, to both Black and White members of soci- ety, is based in part upon the "nonequality" status of contact which racially different people have in American society today. This condi— tion may also permeate the counseling relationship when racially dif- ferent parties are involved as a result of accentuated racial, per- ceptual, and value differences in such a one-to-one setting. 15 The significance of value change and the dynamics involved therein was presented by Chaffee and Lindner (1969), who replicated earlier findings that a person's evaluation of an object changes as a function of its salience to him, its relationship to other objects, and the reduction of cognitive dissonance. Since these effects often do not carry over to corresponding changes in a person's behavior toward an at- titude object, it was suggested that research limit itself to value change and the cognitive processes that precede it, rather than trying to predict behavioral change directly from value change. This implies that while a person may understand his position regarding a particular attitude object, it may not be sufficient to cause a change in his be- havior toward that object. Other researchers note that contact with an attitude object pro- duces a positive attitude (Brophy, 1961+; Carter'and Mitchell, 1955— 1956). The conflicting results of various studies seem to be attribut— able to the great variation in how attitudes are measured and at what level, i.e., stereotypic or personal action. Some researchers attempted to go beyond amount of contact per se and pointed out that the quality of contact was an important factor in attitude change (Cook and Selltiz, 1955; Allport and Kramer, 19h6; and Kelly, Ferson, Holtzman, 1958). Mere recent research dealing with the relationship between contact and racial attitudes and the quality of interracial contact was that of Jeffres and Ransford (1969) on data collected shortly after the Watts riot: It was found that prior social contact with Negroes is an important determiner of White attitudes toward the disorder. Those lacking contact are more fearful of Negroes, cite more outside agitator explanations, evidence more feeling of in- creased social distance, and voice more punitive responses 16 than those having contact. This study suggests that relatively tolerant peeple who have experienced social contact with Negroes will be more likely to support the recommendations of the President's Commission on Civil Disorder than tolerant peOple lacking social contact p. 312 . The key word in the above quotation was social contact, for this implied an equal relationship rather than a nonequal one, vis-a-vis, master-slave relationship. Investigators have reported positive correlations between amount of social interaction with Negroes and diminished prejudice in White subjects, but there was little information concerning the relative value of specific kinds of social contact with respect to change of at- titudes toward the Negro. Kelly, Ferson, and Holtzman (1958) stated that "social contact per se is not a determining factor of attitudes toward the Negro." The more.the quality of social interaction involved an active, friendly, personal approach to the Negro on the basis of im- plied social equality, the more favorable was the attitude. Allport and Kramer (l9h6) concluded that among college students, considerable contact of any kind with Negroes seemed to be associated with less prejudice against the Negro, but equal-status contacts were particularly favorable to the reduction of prejudice. One reason that may be posited to explain why equal-status con- tact should lessen prejudice is that a person with no knowledge or only casual knowledge of a minority group becomes easy prey to secondhand stereotypes. Age The effects of aging upon racial attitudes are not clear. Allport and.Kramer (l9h6) found that aging results in negative racial 17 attitudes. Similar results were reported by Mussen (1963) and Harris (1969). while Carter and Mitchell (1955-1956) and Holtzman (1956) found that with an increase in age, there was an increase in positive racial attitudes. Education Samelson (19h5) reported that college graduates in all regions of the country customarily gave less prejudiced responses than people with- out college education in the same regions. Holtzman (1956) found that the more advanced the college student was, the more likely he was in favor of abolishing segregation (which may be interpreted as a more positive racial attitude). Consequently, seniors were found to be more tolerant regarding their racial attitudes than freshmen. Allport and Kramer (19h6) stated that college students are disposed to give less prejudiced responses than a more unselected population. This finding was similar to that of Harris (1969), who stated that the more education one has, the less prejudiced he is. So- cial mobility may be posited to explain these findings: with an in- crease in education, a person has upward social mobility, removing him- self from.the Black man, and.is no longer threatened on his job or in his neighborhood by the Black man's presence. Therefore, he can "af- ford" to be less prejudiced and hold a more positive attitude toward a remote attitude object. Geographic Location Caution must be exercised in discussing the racial attitudes of residents of various geographic locations; the reason for this is with 18 the recent population shifts and racial developments, old stereotypes may not hold true. These results point clearly to a new coalition on racial mat- ters in the United States. An all-white opposition to nearly any efforts in behalf of blacks exists among lower-middle in- come, older, and less well—educated whites, particularly those who live in small towns and rural areas. Significantly, the differences between the attitudes of this section of white society in the North and South have now all but been wiped out (Harris, 1969). Considering such recent findings, one has to be aware of general- izations about attitudes based solely on geographic location. While examination of research indicates the South as having more unfavorable racial attitudes than the North, one must also be aware of the various methods and populations used in such research. For example, Kelly, Ferson, and Holtzman (1958) used a,sample of SAT University of Texas undergraduates. Larson, Ahrenholz, and Graziplene (196A) also used un- dergraduates at the University of Alabama. In citing the research of Kelly, Ferson, and Holtzman (1958); Weller (196A); Brink and Harris (196A); Larson, Ahrenholz, and Graziplene (196A); Campbell and Suchman (1968); and the report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (1968), Hamersma (1969) stated that: These studies consistently reveal that the South generally holds a more unfavorable view of the Negro than elsewhere in the United States (p. A2). Research by Weller (196A) and Brink and Harris (1967) also indi- cated that the South had a more negative attitude toward the Black man than other areas of the country. These findings may not be applicable to the unique population of rehabilitation counselor trainees because of their educational level and the homogeneity and social service orientation of the vocational area. l9 Urbanity Holtzman (1956) found no differences in attitudes toward desegre- gation expressed by students from rural areas and urban areas. Holtzman also noted a relationship between intolerance of segregation and the prevalence of the Negro in the respondent's home region; i.e., the more Negroes, the less tolerance. Brink and Harris (1967) also found that rural areas were more negative than urban areas. Sex Differences In a very early study Sims and Patrick (1936) reported that women were significantly more favorable toward the Negro than were men. The limitations of this study were a small sample and different kinds of schools--1arge Northern versus small, private Southern. Allport and Kramer (l9h6), in comparing sex differences, found males to be more prejudiced than females. Pettigrew (1959) reported that women in the South were significantly more prejudiced than men in the South, while no significant difference was found between sexes in the North. Bogardus (1959) reported that women showed more social dis- tance toward the Negro than did men. Efficacy Erb (1969) reviewed the "Life Situations" scale (Appendix B) and its Guttman scale characteristics. Intensity items were added to Wolf's (1967) original nine content items in the ABS: BW/WN. This scale was designed to measure attitudes toward man and his environment. Wolf described the scale in the following quote: The continuum underlying this scale ranged from a view that man is at the mercy of his environment and could only hope to secure some measure of adjustment to forces outside of himself, to a view that man could gain complete mastery of 20 his physical and social environment and use it for his own purposes (p. 109). This variable was labeled "Efficacy" by Jordan (1969), since the scale purports to measure attitudes toward man's effectiveness in rela- tion to his natural environment. Hamersma (1969) found a positive relationship between scores on the efficacy variable and favorable attitudes toward the Opposite ra- cial group. It is interesting to note that Allport and Kramer (l9h6) found those who were nonefficacious had a jungle philosophy of life-- viewing the world as basically evil and dangerous--and were generally prejudiced. Religion Some research has shown that Jews are more tolerant than Catholics and that Catholics are more tolerant than Protestants; that Jewish students are more favorable toward integrated facilities than are Catholic students; and that Catholics are more favorable toward integration than Protestants (Larson, et al., 196A). ’ Holtzman (1956) found Jewish students to be more tolerant of non- segregation that Catholics and Catholics to be more tolerant than Protestants. These results differed from those of Allport and Kramer (19h6) and Rosenblith (19h9), who found anti-Negro prejudice higher among Roman Catholics than among Protestants. Other researchers in this area are Merton (l9h0), who found that Catholics tended to be more prejudiced than Protestants, with Jews and peOple claiming no religious affiliation the least prejudiced of all, and Adorno (1950) and Spoerl (1951), who found little or no differ- ences between Catholics and Protestants. 21 Attitudes of Blacks toward Whites' and Whites toward Blacks Past research has indicated that Blacks are more positive toward Whites than Whites are toward Blacks (Brink and Harris, 196A). Bogardus (1958) also indicated a trend toward more positive racial at- titudes in this country. These general positive racial attitudes may currently be undergoing a change due to the emphasis placed on develop- ing a Black identity and the White community's reaction to this iden- tity search. Political Affiliation Political affiliation may be considered as an indication of the type of attitudes a person may have. Negroes have looked to the Demo- cratic party as having goals similar to their own and the party which would do the most for them. Brink and Harris (1967) stated: Commitment to major parties, by and large, means commitment to the Democratic party. By 1966, Negro registration in the Democratic column totaled 79 per cent, compared with 10 percent Republican, and 5 per cent Independent. The remain- ing 6 per cent failed to express a view in the Newsweek survey. . . . More significant than mere enrollment, how- ever, is the eXpression of faith Negroes give to the Demo- cratic party as the political organization that will help them. . . . The pro-Democratic sentiment is also a reflec- tion of the deep distrust Negroes have for Republicans (pp. 92-93). The above may indicate that Blacks see themselves as having more in common with the Democratic party and its membership than with the Republican party and its following. CHAPTER III INSTRUMENTATION One of the most significant early studies was done by Adorno (1950), who developed the Ethnocentrism Scale (E) and the Facism Scale (F). The purpose of the E scale was to discover any tendency in the individual to be ethnically centered, to be rigid in acceptance of the culturally alike, and to reject the unlike. The F scale was an at- tempt to measure the potentially antidemocratic personality. Erb (1969) stated there were two major criticisms of this study. Shels (195A) and Rokeach (1960) claimed that the researchers did not study general authoritarianism but, in fact, studied only "right" authoritarians and neglected to study those persons who were authori- tarians but held to middle or leftist political views. Shels called for a study of "left" authoritarianism, while Rokeach focused on the general characteristics of all forms of authoritarianism. Secondly, Peabody (1966) stated that the Authoritarianism Scales did not measure what they purported to measure but measured a tendency on the part of the subject to agree with an item regardless of its content. Bettelheim and Janowitz (1950) attempted to relate factors of anti-Semitism to anti-Negro attitudes and found that lack of ego strength was a key factor in prejudiced attitudes. Although these studies produced interesting results, inadequate measuring instruments remained a problem. With the advent of the work of Guttman (Stouffer, 1950), the first major attempt to free attitude 22 23 research from being limited to the stereotypic level was made. This attempt took the form of unidimensional scalogram analysis. Guttman followed the develoPment of scalogram analysis with the new approaches of facet design and nonmetric analyses. His advances in the area of attitude measurement are, apparently, not well known and/or not ac- cepted in many areas of the research world, for Jordan (1968) found in a review of recent literature, that the majority of the studies were based on items from the stereotypic level. Guttman Scaling Procedures While recognizing the contribution of Guttman to the methodology of questionnaire construction and analysis, Selltiz, Jahoda, Deutsch, and Cook (1959) pointed out the following qualifications that should be kept in mind which are related to the use of unidimensional scales: 1. Such a scale may not be the most effective basis either for measuring attitudes toward complex objects or for making predictions about behavior in relation to such objects; 2. A given scale may be unidimensional for one group of individuals but not for another. Commenting on the first reservation, these authors stated that no single scale may give an accurate reflection of an individual's atti- tude toward a complex concept; they further stated that a complex meas— ure may be needed as a basis for predicting complex behavior. Regard- ing the second reservation, these same authors indicated that uni- dimensionality may be a property of a measuring instrument rather than of the patterning of an attitude among a given group of individuals. This second criticism of Guttman scaling does not apply to the present study, since the ABS: BW/WN-G is a six-level multidimensional scale developed by Jordan and Hamersma (1969). 2h Guttman's Four-Level Facet Attitude Structure In facet design, Guttman promulgated a method that examined vari- ous semantic factors, or "facets," that are involved in ordering a par- ticular response to an individual item. Commenting on the work of Bastide and van den Berghe (1957), Guttman (1959) distinguished three "facets" involved in a particular attitude response. Guttman's facets are presented in Table 1. See Appendix A for definitions of facet and other terms. TABLE 1 BASIC FACETS USED TO DETERMINE COMPONENT STRUCTURE OF AN ATTITUDE UNIVERSE (A) (B) (C) Subject's ~ Referent's Intergroup Behavior Referent Behavior al belief bl subject's group cl comparative a2 overt action b2 subject himself c2 interactive Guttman labeled the first of the two options, or "elements," of each facet as the "weaker." A particular item was as strong as the number of strong elements which appeared in it. Any given statement contained one element from each and every facet, and these statements could be grouped into profiles of the attitude universe. Since there were three facets, any statement had the possibility of having none, one, two, or three strong facets--a total of four combinations. Bastide and van den Berghe's research (1957) was facetized by Guttman into the four combinations (or levels) shown in Table 2. 25 TABLE 2 GUTTMAN FACET PROFILES OF ATTITUDE SUBUNIVERSE Subuniverse Profile 1 Stereotype al bl cl 2 Norm al bl c2 3 Hypothetical Interaction al b2 c2 A Personal Interaction a2 b2 c2 A common meaning for the ordering was suggested by Guttman: in each case a progression from a weak to a strong form of behavior of the subject toward the attitude object. The more subscript "2" elements a profile contained, the greater the strength of the attitude. Guttman (1959) proposed that the semantic structure of the atti- tude universe would provide a social-psychological basis for predicting the structure of the empirical intercorrelations matrix of the four levels: One cannot presume to predict the exact size of each correla- tion coefficient from knowledge only of the semantics of uni- verse ABC, but we do propose to predict a pattern or struc- ture for the relative sizes of the statistical coefficients from purely semantic considerations (p. 32%). Guttman expressed this relationship as the "contiguity hypothe- sis," which states: Subuniverses closer to each other in the semantic scale of this definition will also be closer statistically. In other words, the intercorrelations should reveal a simplex ordering, so that the maximum predictability of each level is attainable from its immedi- ate neighbor or neighbors alone. This predicted relationship has been 26 obtained for the ABS: BW/WN (Jordan and Hamersma, 1969; the ABS—MR Scale [Attitude Behavior Scale-Mental Retardation] Jordan, 1969; as well as by Foa, 1958, 1963). Jordan Six-Level Facet Attitude Structure Jordan (1968) suggested an expansion of the object-subject facet. Tables 3 and h indicate the "facets," elements of facets, and levels identified by Jordan and correspond to Tables 1 and 2, which deal with Guttman's paradigm. A comparison of Guttman and Jordan facet designations is in Table 5. As shown by Maierle (1969), other combinations of strong and weak elements are possible (Tables 6, 7). Jordan (1968) identified six com- binations (Table 8) that were postulated to be psychologically rele- vant, potentially capable of instrumentation, and possessing a specific structure between themselves; i.e., a simplex one. Jordan's system of facet analysis was employed in the construc- tion of the ABS—MR and ABS: B/W scales. The scales were given, and in most cases the expected empirical simplex which was predicted from the contiguity hypotheses (Guttman, 1959) was approximated. The Mapping Sentence The mapping sentence is a.means of providing a semantic rela— tional definitional system between the variables of the study. Figure 1 shows how the mapping sentence can be used to depict both facets and elements. Table A indicates how the conjoint levels evolve in strength from weak elements (1's) seen at Level 1, to all strong elements (2's) seen at Level 6. A clearer example of the relationship 27 TABLE 3 BASIC FACETS: USED TO DETERMINE CONJOINT STRUCTION OF AN ATTITUDE UNIVERSE (A) (B) (c) (D) (E) Referent Referent Actor Actor's Inter- Domain of Actor's Behavior group Behavior Behavior al others bl belief cl others dl comparison el symbolic a2 self b2 overt action c2 self d2 interaction e2 Operational 9A3 B qualifies A's behavior, so E qualifies C's behavior. Fre- quently, but not necessarily, A and C are identical. In such cases, B and E must be "consistent," i.e., some combinations seem illogical; B E . It should be noted that sometimes the subject filling out the questionnaire is identical with either referent or actor or both, but not necessarily so; i.e., in Level 1 and 2 referent and actor are identical, the subject is asked to report about them; in Level 3 the subject is identical with the referent, but not with the actor; in Level A, 5, and 6, subject, referent, and actor are identical. bCopjoint Struction: Operationally defined as the ordered sets of these five facets from low to high across all five facets simultan- eously. The more subscript "2" elements a set contains, the greater the "strength" of the attitude. It should also be noted that not all combinations are logical. The selection of a "best" group of sets is still partly a.matter of judgment. Two continua run through the facets:. other-self and verbal-action. Note: Since this thesis was completed, Guttman has suggested a change in terminology to avoid confusion with conjoint measurement. He now suggests the terms "joint" and "lateral" instead of conjoint and dis- joint. '1‘“. ' I” ,rn‘. IT 'Q'V.I-'- 28 TABLE A CONJOINT LEVEL, PROFILE COMPOSITION AND LABELS FOR SIX TYPES OF ATTITUDE STRUCTION Type-Level Struction Profile Descriptive Conjoint Term 1 al bl cl dl el Soc1etal Stereotype 2 a2 bl cl dl el Societal Interactive Norm 3- a2 b2 cl dl e1 Personal Moral Evaluation A a2 b2 c2 dl el Personal Hypothetlcal Behavior 5 a2 b2 c2 d2 el Personal Feelings 6 a2 b2 c2 d2 e2 Personal Behavior TABLE 5 COMPARISON OF GUTTMAN AND JORDAN FACET DESIGNATIONS Facets in Jordan Adaptation Designation A B C D E Referent Referent Actor Actor's Domain of Behavior Intergroup Actor's Behavior Behavior Jordan al others bl belief cl others 6.1 compar- el symbolic lson a self b overt c self d inter- e Operational 2 2 2 2 action action -- Subject's Referent Referent's -- Behavior Intergroup Behavior Guttman -- bl belief cl sub- dl compar- -- ject's ative group b overt c2 sub- d inter- -- action ject active him- self 29 TABLE 6 PERMUTATIONS OF FIVE TWO-ELEMENT FACETSa m Facetab Permutations memmrwNH E3 nlnlhihihandbakanlnlhikan3n3k4k4n>nlkahaunnaturananFJFJnlnlkarl RDRJRJRDRJRDRJRDF‘F‘F‘F‘F’F‘F‘F1RDA)RDADRDHDRJRDFJF’F‘F‘F‘F‘F’F’ nlnlnlnnharakihinan)ulnatikihihinlnananlkihikirananlnznakahar-ki RJFJRJFJRJFJRJFJRDFJRDFJRJFJHJFJRDFJRJFJRJFJ“JFJRJF‘RJFJRDFJRJF‘ ADA)RDRJRJRDRDRDRDRJRDRJRJRDRJRJF‘F‘F‘F’F‘F‘F‘F‘F’F‘F‘F‘F‘F‘F‘F‘ aSubscript "1" indicates weak element; "2" indicates strong element. bSee Table 3 for facets. 30 TABLE 7 PERMUTATIONS OF FIVE TWO-ELEMENT FACET§ AND BASIS OF ELIMINATION A; Facets Basis of Eliminationc Permutationsb p m C U M uaco-aoxuicruinaka F‘F‘F‘F‘ to u) s-z‘c'c—z'c*c*z' wvwwmwmmwmvwwmwwmmmmmmmmmmmmmmmm F’F‘F‘F‘F‘ to w I3 P-l-“OOI-“P'OOP-l-“OOHHOOP‘P-OOH'P-OOH-HooCHI-“00 mammwmmpdddooddommmmmmmmodoadooo P-P-H-H-O o o o H'H'H-H°O o o o H-P-P-H-O o o o P-P-H-H°O o o o Hoop-ow-OH-OH-OHoHoowoowoop-ow-ow-ow-owooHoop-n 3See Table 3 for facets. bNumbering arbitrary, for identification only. cLogical semantic analysis as follows: Basis 1: an "a" in facet B must be preceded and followed by identical elements, both "0" or both "1." Basis 2: a "c" in facet D cannot be preceded by an "a" in facet B. Basis 3: a "c" in facet D cannot be followed by a "p" in facet E. H II Basis h: a p in facet E cannot be preceded by a "b" in facet B. See text for explanation. 31 TABLE 8 FIVE-FACET SIX-LEVEL SYSTI'M OP ATTITUDE VERBALIZATIONS: LEVELS, FACET PROFILE"), AND DEFINITIONAL STATEMENTS FOR TWELVE PERMUTATIONS Facet 2 3 Level Profile No. Definitional Statements Descriptive Name 1 o g 2 g 2 0 Others Oelieve Others gompare gymbolically" " Societal stereotype (group a1 1 1 1 assigned group status) 1 b o c s _I_ believe Others pompare gymbolicallv Personally-assigned group status 0 b o i s 2 alblcleel 1 Others Oelieve Others interact gymbolically" " Societal norm 0 b 1 c 8 Others Oelieve _I_ pompare gymbolicallv Group-assigned personal status 1 b o 1 s I believe others interact symbolically" " Personal moral evaluation (per- a b c d e - - —- - 2 l l 2 1 ceived values) 1 b 1 c s l Oelieve _I_ pompare gymbolically Self-concept (personally-assigned 3 2 personal status) 0 b i i 3 Others Oelieve L _nteract gymbolically Proclaimed laws (group expecta- tions) 0 a o i s (Others pct) Others Oct gymbolically Group identity (actual group feelings) i b i i s u u h °2bl°2d2el 3 i Relieve L i_nteract gymbolically Personal hypothetical action 0 a o i p (Others pct) Others Onteract operationally Actual group behavior 1 a i i s . u u 5 b c e h (3 _ct) L _nteract gymbollcally Personal feeling “2 2 2‘12 1 6 W (1 Oct) L interact operationally" '9 Personal action 2 2 2 2 3 "Permutation used in the ABS: 1100. - number of strong elements BW/WN 2Words in parentheses are part of redundant but consistent statements. 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From a "theory of content" dictated by Figure l, delimited in Figure 2, and structured into six levels or subscales by Table A and Table 8, 1h items were constructed for each of the six levels for each of seven areas: 1. (C) Characteristics 2. (E) Education 3. (H) Housing A. (J) Jobs 5. (L) Law and Order 6. (P) Political Activism—-Racial 7. (w) War and Military In tandem with the 8A attitude questions used by each of the seven attitude content areas, each "content" question was followed by an "intensity" question for a total of 168 items in each of the seven scale areas. Forty—six questions were also constructed by Hamersma (1969) to instrument variables measuring values, contact, demographic factors, religiosity, change proneness, and aid-to-education. Thus, any subject answered a total of 21h questions for any one attitude scale and 8h questions for each additional scale he took. About 70 subjects took all seven scales over an eight-week period--a total of 71% questions. 36 The ABS: BW/WN-G (General) used in this study is a composite of the two best items found in each of the seven above-mentioned scales. Hamersma (l969) describes the development of the ABS: BW/WN and, in addition, presents a comprehensive treatment of Guttman facet analysis and its implications (see Appendices B.l and B.2). Summary A review of the literature indicates that the factors affecting an attitude are many. Since an obtained attitude score is very complex, it is necessary to consider as many factors as possible. The presenta- tion of the instrument used in this study considers the multidimension- ality of attitudes via the Guttman facet theory approach. CHAPTER IV DESIGN AND ANALYSIS PROCEDURES In this chapter the population is described and the procedures used are presented. In addition, the hypotheses, along with the in— strumentation and analysis for each, are stated. The chapter concludes with an explanation of the analyses used in the study. ngulation The p0pulation consisted of rehabilitation counselor trainees in both master's and doctoral degree programs from h? programs. Estimated enrollment in rehabilitation counselor training programs was 1,530 Whites and 199 Blacks. or these 781 responded: 709 were White, 57 Black, and 15 of other racial origins. Procedures On June 16, 1969, 70 rehabilitation counselor training programs were contacted by letter describing the project (Appendix C). Enclosed ' indicating willingness to par- was a card to be checked "yes" or "no,' ticipate. This card had a space for the number of students in the program.(Appendix D). When it was received by the researcher, the num- ber of scales indicated were mailed to the respondent (Appendix E), along with instructions for the administration of the scale. On August 15 a list was made of those schools from which there was no response, and on August 18 a follow-up letter was sent (Appen- dix F). During this time some schools required additional information 37 38 and desired to examine the scales, and such information was mailed to them. Programs which were unwilling to participate were contacted in September 1969 with a personal letter which gave a detailed explanation of the project. In December 1969 a final follow-up letter was mailed to those schools responding negatively to the initial contact. Also in December a list was composed of those schools which had a positive response to the study but had not yet returned the data. These schools were asked to return the answer sheets as soon as possible. With the data available from the Michigan State University group, a pilot study was run in December, the results of which are in Appen- dix G. The purpose of the pilot run was to examine the data of the Michigan State University group, try out the computer programs, and assign a code to all the schools that were listed in the Directory of Vocational Rehabilitation Educators (1968—1969). This code ran from 01 to 75. All programs listed were not rehabilitation counseling pro— grams, so all 75 were not contacted. The initial contact was 70 schools. The responses are presented in Table 9 (also see Appen- dix H): TABLE 9 RESPONSES TO STUDY (N=70) Yes No No Response Data Received Data Not Received 59 3 8 h? 23 39 Major Research Hypotheses Attitudes and Education H-l: Amount of education is positively related to favorable atti- tudes toward members of the Opposite race. Instrumentation.--Amount of education was measured by Question 89, with scores ranging from 1-5, indicating level of graduate training. Attitudes were measured by the six subscales on the ABS: BW/WN. Analysis.--Pearson Product Moment correlations between amount of education and attitude scores. Attitudes and Age H-2: Age is negatively related to favorable attitudes toward mem- bers of the Opposite race. Instrumentation.--Age was measured by Question 86, with scores ranging from 1-5. Attitudes were measured by the six subscales on the ABS: BW/WN. Analysis.-—Pearson Product Moment correlations between age and at- titude scores. Attitudes and Efficacy H—3: There is a positive relationship between a high efficacy score and a positive attitude toward members of the opposite race. Instrumentation.--Efficacy was measured by the content scores from the Life Situation Scale (Wolf, 1967). Scores were from 9 items, with a range of scores from 9-36, items 103 alternating to 119. Attitudes were measured by the six subscales on the ABS: BW/WN. Analysis. Pearson Product Moment correlation between efficacy and attitude scores. ho Attitudes and Contact H-h: Favorable attitudes toward members of the Opposite race are related to (a) kind of contact, (b) amount of contact, (c) ease of avoidance of contact, (d) gain from the contact, and (e) enjoyment of the contact. Instrumentation.——Contact was measured by items 92 (kind), 93 (amount), 9h (avoidance), 95 (gain), and 96 (enjoyment) with a range Of scores from 1-5. Attitudes were measured by the six subscales on the ABS: BW/WN. Analysis.-—Pearson Product Moment correlation between contact and attitude scores. Attitudes and Religion H-5: There is a significant difference between attitude scores Of religious groups. Instrumentation.--Re1igious affiliation was measured by Ques— tion 88. Attitudes were measured by the six subscales of the ABS: BW/WN. Analysis.-—Mu1tivariate analysis of variance. Attitudes and Reported Prejudice H-6: There is a positive relationship between reported prejudice and Obtained racial attitudes. Instrumentation.--Reported prejudice was measured by Question 99, with a range of scores from 1-5. Attitudes were measured by the six subscales on the ABS: BW/WN. Analysis.--Pearson Product Moment correlation between reported prejudice and the attitude scores. Al Attitudes and Political Affiliation H-7: There is no difference between political affiliation groups' attitude scores toward the Opposite race. Instrumentation.--Politica1 affiliation was measured by Item 98. Attitudes were measured by the six subscales on the ABS: BW/WN. Analysis.-—Mu1tivariate analysis of variance. Attitudes and Urbanity H-8: Persons from urban areas have more positive attitudes to- ward members Of the Opposite race than persons from rural areas. Instrumentation.--Urbanity was measured by Item 101. Attitudes were measured by the six subscales on the ABS: BW/WN. Analysis.—-Pearson Product Moment correlation between urbanity and attitudes. Attitudes and Race H-9: There is a difference between the attitudes Of racial groups. Instrumentation.—-Race was measured by Item 100. Attitudes were measured by the six subscales on the ABS: BW/WN. Analysis.—-Multivariate analysis of variance. Attitudes and Geographic Location H-lO: Geographically, there is no difference in racial attitudes of rehabilitation counselor trainees toward members of the Opposite race. Instrumentation.--Geographic location was measured by Item 102. Attitudes were measured by the six subscales on the ABS: BW/WN. A2 Analysis.--Mu1tivariate analysis of variance. Attitudes and Sex H—ll: There is a difference in racial attitude scores of males and females. Instrumentation.--Sex was indicated by Item 85. Attitudes were measured by the six subscales on the ABS: BW/WN. Analysis.--Mu1tivariate analysis of variance. Simplex Approximation H-12: The ABS: BW/WN-G will form a Guttman Simplex for each of the racial groups. Instrumentation. Correlations between the six attitude levels Of the ABS: BW/WN-G. Analysis The Control Data Corporation Computers CDC 3600 and 6500 at Michigan State University were used to analyze the data. Descriptive Statistics Two frequency column count programs (Clark, 196A) designated as FCC-I and FCC—II were used in this study to obtain a frequency distri- bution Of all data. These programs can be used to check the raw data prior to running it in computational programs. In this study a program was develOped by Teitelbaum (1970) for the IBM 1130 tO give a listing of all columns to check for illegal codes in specified columns. A3 Correlational Statistics In this study Pearson Product Moment correlations were used to test the relationships between the variables Of education, age, effi— cacy, change, contact, urbanity, and the attitude levels of the Multivariate Analysis of Variance r1 In the analysis Of several hypotheses, Multivariate Analysis of 5 - Variance (MANOVA) was used. Commenting upon the practical effect of 15" A... multivariate analysis Of variance, Bock and Haggard (1968) state: The practical effect of this development is to make available J to fields of research where many dependent variables must be studied simultaneously, the principle and techniques of experimental design, linear estimation, and tests of hypothe- sis which have proven so successful in univariate applica- tions (p. 100). Ij A complete description Of the MANOVA program, as prepared by Finn (1967), is in Appendix I. CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF DATA In this chapter the research hypotheses and the results from the *3 analysis of the data are presented. _ 1 Attitudes and Education H-l: Amount of education is positively related to favorable at- .3 £9 titudes toward members Of the Opposite race. Table 10 contains the correlations for Blacks and Whites between education and each of the six attitude levels. The .05 level Of sig- nificance was the criterion. On this basis, Level A (hypothetical) and Level 6 (action) were significantly related to amount of education; that is, a significant relationship existed between attitudes at these two levels and amount of education for Whites. For Blacks, education was significantly related to attitudes only at the action level, and highly so at the .009 level. The correlation between attitudes and edu— cation for Blacks at Level 6 (action) was .3h whereas it was .09 for the White sample. Attitudes and Agg H-2: Age is negatively related to favorable attitudes toward members of the Opposite race. The data (Table 10) indicated no significant relationship between attitudes and age for Whites, while a significant relationship did exist between age and positive attitudes of Blacks toward Whites on Levels 2, Ah AS TABLE 10 CORRELATIONS AND SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS FOR BLACKS AND WHITESa BETWEEN SELECTED PREDICTOR VARIABLES AND LEVELS OF ABS: BW/WN Attitude Levels Predictor G Variable roup l 2 3 h 5 6 r -0.069 0.017 0.062 0.090 0.059 0.088 sig 0.068 0.65h 0.098 0.017 0.119 0.020 Education r —0.076 -0.052 0.053 -0.00h -0.098 0.3hl sig 0.571 0.700 0.695 0.975 0.h63 0.009 r -0.025 0.008 -0.007 0.036 0.05h 0.02h Sig 0.h99 0.825 0.853 0.3h1 0.151 0.528 Age r 0.151 0.256 0.337 ‘ 0.31h 0.3h0 0.152 sig 0.25% 0.050 0.009 0.015 0.008 0.251 r -0.028 0.016 0.0h3 0.095 0.099 0.0h6 sig 0.h5h 0.662 0.2h9 0.011 0.008 0.220 Efficacy (Content) r -0.0h2 0.037 0.107 0.1h7 -0.05h 0.186 sig 0.752 0.780 0.h2l 0.267 0.683 0.158 r 0.002 0.063 0.186 0.232 0.126 0.062 Change sig 0.962 0.095 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.101 (Prejudice Compara- tive) r 0.199 0.399 0.589 0.507 0.382 -0.096 sig 0.133 0.002 0.000 0.000 0.003 0.h76 r 0.008 0.101 0.121 0.050 0.158 0.092 ' sig 0.83h 0.007 0.001 0.183 0.000 0.01h Contact: Kind r 0.176 0.126 0.269 0.122 0.352 -0.019 sig 0.181 0.3h1 0.039 0.356 0.006 0.88h A6 TABLE lO--Continued Attitude Levels Predictor Variable Group 1 2 3 h 5 6 w r 0.027 0.133 0.1h9 0.072 0.200 0.197 sig 0.h70 0.000 0.000 0.055 0.000 0.000 Contact: Amount B r 0.13h -0.070 0.035 0.162 0.289 0.251 sig 0.311 0.601 0.795 0.220 0.026 0.055 w r 0.037 0.109 0.186 0.061 0.059 0.0h2 sig 0.326 0.00h 0.000 0.102 0.116 0.260 Contact: Avoidance B r -0.028 -0.169 -0.150 -0.09h —0.0h0 -0.02h sig 0.832 0.200 0.256 0.h78 0.762 0.855 w r 0.0hh 0.087 0.101, 0.058 0.12h 0.15h sig 0.239 0.020 0.007 0.123 0.001 0.000 Contact: Gain B r 0.176 0.155 0.296 0.291 0.186 0.298 sig 0.189 0.2h9 0.026 0.028 0.166 0.025 w r 0.087 0.151 0.259 0.162 0.180 0.132 sis 0.020 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 Contact: Enjoyment B r 0.176 0.155 0.296 0.291 0.186 0.298 sis 0.189 0.2h9 0.026 0.028 0.166 0.025 w r —0.0hl 0.023 -0.017 —0.0h1 —0.0h7 0.013 sig 0.280 0.5h8 0.6h5 0.281 0.209 0.735 Urbanity B r 0.192 0.131 0.165 -0.050 0.006 -0.005 sig 0.150 0.327 0.215 0.708 0.966 0.970 aWhites=709; Blacks=57 “7 3, A, and 5 of the ABS: BW/WN (normative, moral, hypothetical action, and feeling). The hypothesis stated a negative relationship between age and attitudes whereas the data were in direct contradiction to this. In summary, the data showed no relationship between attitude and age for Whites and a rather strong relationship between attitudes and age for Blacks, at certain levels of the ABS: BW/WN. Attitudes and Efficacy H-3: There is a positive relationship between efficacy scores and positive attitudes toward members of the Opposite race. The data (Table 10) indicate a significant relationship between attitudes of Whites toward Blacks and efficacy on Levels h and 5. In other words, efficacy, which tested man's sense of control over his environment, was related to the attitudes of Whites at the hypothetical and feeling level. For Blacks the data indicate no relationship between efficacy and attitudes. Attitudes and Contact H—h: Favorable attitudes toward members of the Opposite race are related tO (a) kind Of contact, (b) amount Of contact, (c) ease of avoidance of contact, (d) gain from contact, and (e) enjoyment of con- tact. The data on this hypothesis are complex and difficult to interpret due to the problem of multicolinearity. The analyses performed on H-h are based on bivariatel correlational interpretation. The contact lAppendix K contains the analysis of H-h by a multiple add pro- gramt h8 variable is divided into five aspects: kind of contact, amount Of contact, avoidance of contact, gain from the contact, and enjoyment of the contact. 0f the 30 correlations possible between the six levels and the five attitude variables, 22 were significant. Enjoyment Of contact was the most significant predictor Of increasing positive at- titudes in that those Whites who stated they enjoyed their contact with Blacks indicated significantly positive attitudes at all six levels. For Whites displaying positive attitudes, amount of contact and kind of contact were next most predictive. The data (Table 10) for Blacks between the contact variables and attitudes are not as clear as the data for Whites. However, perceived and/or reported enjoyment Of contact of Blacks with Whites is still the best predictor. Amount Of contact and perceived gain from the con- tact are next most predictive with "gain" being somewhat higher than "amount." Attitudes and Religion H-5: There is a significant difference between attitude scores of religious groups. The data (Table 11) from the multivariate analysis of variance procedures indicated no differences in attitudes between religious groups. Consequently, the hypothesis was not confirmed. Attitudes and Reported Prejudice H-6: There is a positive relationship between reported prejudice and racial attitude scores. The data (Table 10) indicated a significant relationship between one's self-report of prejudice and positive attitudes at Levels 3, h, A9 TABLE 11 MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (MANOVA) RESULTS 0N RELIGION Cell Means Variables 1 2 3 h 5 6 STEREO NORMAT MORAL HYPOTH FEELING ACTION 1. No 25.08000 26.26667 35.98667 36.98667 33.88000 39.32000 Answer 2. Catholic 2h.825h0 26.3h92l 35.h3386 36.76190 3h.75661 38.h8677 3. Protes- 25.03099 25.9h930 35.5070h 36.70h23 35.12958 38.h2535 tant A. Jewish 2h.3h615 26.65385 35.61538 36.75000 35.19231 38.86538 5. Other 2h.83636 26.01818 36.20909 36.8636h 3h.37273 39.22727 F-Ratio for Multivariate Test Of Equality of Mean Vectors = .9033 D.F. = 2A and 2690 P Less Than 0.598h VARIABLE BETWEEN MEAN SQ UNIVARIATE F P LESS THAN 1. Stereo 6.h596 0.5700 0.68h5 2. Normat 9.h280 0.30h2 0.8752 3. Moral lh.7h37 0.5621 0.6903 A. Hypoth 1.5135 0.0827 0.9878 5. Feeling 32.56h5 2.hh38 0.0h53 6. Action 23.8560 0.3h82 0.8h5h Degrees of Freedom for Hypothesis = h Degrees Of Freedom for Errors = 776 50 and 5. In other words, the degree to which Whites reported their own prejudice was predictive of their positive attitudes on Levels 3, h, and 5 (moral evaluation, hypothetical behavior, and actual feeling levels) which are also self-report types of measures. The data (Table 10) for Blacks on the relationship between self—report of preju- dice and attitudes toward Whites indicate a significant relationship between attitude Levels 2, 3, h, and 5 (normative, moral evaluation, hypothetical behavior, and actual feeling levels). Attitudes and Political Affiliation H-7: There is no difference between political affiliation groups' . attitude scores toward the Opposite race. The data (Table 12) indicate no difference between political affiliation groups for the six attitude levels when analyzed simultane- ously. Therefore, this hypothesis was supported. Attitudes and Urbanity, H-8: Persons from urban areas will have more positive attitudes towards members of the Opposite race than persons from rural areas. The data (Table 10) indicate no relationship between urbanity and attitudes for either Whites or Blacks. Attitudes and Race H-9: There is a difference between the attitudes of racial groups. The data (Table 13) indicated a highly significant relationship (.0001 level) between race and attitudes. In other words, the multi- variate analysis, which considers race as an independent variable with 51 TABLE 12 MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (MANOVA) RESULTS ON POLITICAL AFFILIATION Cell Means Variables 1 2 3 h 5 6 STEREO NORMAT MORAL HYPOTH FEELING ACTION Republi- 23.60625 26.2h375 35.70000 36.35000 3h.98750 36.93750 can Demo- 23.35857 26.27h90 35.82869 37.17928 35.18327 39.2390h cratic Inde- 23.23385 25.97231 35.h9538 36.62h62 3h.538h6 39.03077 pendent Other 23.57778 26.11111 35.hhhuh 37.0uuuu 3h.17778 39.02222 F-Ratio for Multivariate Test of Equality Of Mean Vectors = .2725 D.F. = 18 and 218A P Less Than 0.1957 VARIABLE BETWEEN MEAN SQ UNIVARIATE F P LESS THAN Stereo 5.6h35 0.5888 0.6225 Normat 5.1h3h 0.1660 0.9193 Moral 6.009h 0.2290 0.8763 Hypoth 26.8h26 1.h765 0.2196 Feeling 27.308h 2.0h2h 0.1066 Action 203.1355 2.9980 0.0300 Degrees Of Freedom for Hypothesis = 3 Degrees Of Freedom for Errors = 777 52 TABLE 13 MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (MANOVA) RESULTS ON RACE Cell Means Variables 1 2 3 A 5 6 STEREO NORMAT MORAL HYPOTH FEELING ACTION NO 27.33333 25.72222 36.50000 37.11111 33.22222 37.61111 Answer White 2A.76758 25.95696 35.87088 36.82066 3A.92109 38.A6772 Black 25.7A510 29.01961 32.70588 35.6078A 3h.529A1 A2.21569 Oriental 25.AOOOO 26.60000 36.20000 38.A0000 33.60000 35.80000 Other 26.20000 2A.A0000 32.80000 37.80000 32.50000 37.90000 F-Ratio for Multivariate Test of Equality Of Mean Vectors = A.1918 D. F. = 2A and 2690 P Less Than 0.0001 VARIABLE BETWEEN MEAN SQ UNIVARIATE F P LESS THAN 1. Stereo A3.3115 3.8869 0.00A0 2. Normat 120.1783 3.9511 0.0036 3. Moral 1A2.9372 5.5907 0.0002 A. Hypoth 2A.16A3 1.3290 0.2575 5. Feeling 29.6600 2.2232 0.06A9 6. Action 18A.2A50 2.7223 0.0286 Degrees Of Freedom for Hypothesis = A Degrees Of Freedom for Errors = 776 53 five levels [(1) prefer not to answer, (2) White, (3) Black, (A) Oriental, and (5) Other] and which compares the races simultaneously on six dependent variables (attitudinal levels), showed significant dif- ferences among the races. The multivariate analysis procedure per se does not indicate which race was most positive. Examination of the absolute size of the cell means (Table 13) indicates that Blacks were more positive toward Whites than Whites were to Blacks on Levels 1, 2, f] and 6, which are the stereotypic, normative, and action levels. The C data in Table 13 also indicate that Whites were more positive toward Blacks than Blacks were to Whites at Levels 3, A, and 5 (the moral 'J ‘1 evaluation, hypothetical, and feeling levels). Attitudes and Geographic Location H-lO: Geographically, there is no difference in the racial atti- tudes Of rehabilitation counselor trainees toward members Of the Op- posite race. The data (Table 1A) indicated a significant relationship between geographic location and racial attitudes. In other words, the section of the United States in which one spent the first 21 years Of his life was related to the types of attitudes he expressed. Therefore, the hypothesis was not supported. Attitudes and Sex H-ll: There is a difference in the racial attitude scores for males and females. The data (Table 15) indicated a highly significant relationship between attitudes and sex. Examination of the means in Table 15 sug- gested that females are more positive than males at Levels 2, 3, A, and 5A TABLE 1A MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (MANOVA) RESULTS 0N GEOGRAPHY Cell Means Variables 1 2 3 A 5 6 STEREO NORMAT MORAL HYPOTH FEELING ACTION 1. South 2A.5918A 25.82653 3A.91837 36.22AA9 3A.71A29 38.3622A 2. West 25.A5977 26.39080 35.58621 37.195A0 3A.93103 A0.02299 3. Midwest 25.213AA 26.5A9A1 36.52569 37.61265 3A.9A071 39.130A3 A. East 2A.38889 26.12778 35.33333 36.00000 3A.68889 37.95000 5. North 25.A2188 25.15625 35.26563 36.76563 3A.93750 38.09375 F-Ratio for Multivariate Test of Equality of Mean Vectors = 1.7183 D.F. = 2A and 2687 P Less Than 0.0163 VARIABLE BETWEEN MEAN SQ UNIVARIATE F P LESS THAN 1. Stereo 33.7696 3.0138 0.0176 2. Normat 32.2751 1.0AA9 0.3830 3. Moral 81.670A 3.1522 0.0139 A. Hypoth 90.1032 5.0A87 0.0006 5. Feeling 2.7281 0.2028 0.9369 6. Action 86.A885 1.2686 0.2808 Degrees Of Freedom for Hypothesis = Degrees of Freedom for Errors = 775 55 TABLE 15 MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (MANOVA) RESULTS ON SEX Cell Means Variables 1 2 3 A 5 6 STEREO NORMAT MORAL HYPOTH FEELING ACTION 1. Female 2A.19620 26.39873 36.39873 37.A335A 35.11076 37.623A2 2. Male 2A.3763A 25.95269 35.12688 36.320A3 3A.61720 39.378A9 F-Ratio for Multivariate Test of Equality of Mean Vectors = 6.1098 D.F. = 6 and 77A P Less Than 0.0001 VARIABLE BETWEEN MEAN SQ UNIVARIATE F P LESS THAN 1. Stereo 6.105A 0.6331 0.A265 2. Normat 37.A325 1.2126 0.2712 3. Moral 30A.3A2A 11.7909 0.0007 A. Hypoth 233.11A0 12.9963 0.000A 5. Feeling A5.8311 3.A2A7 0.06A7 6. Action 579.5372 8.5702 0.0036 Degrees of Freedom for Hypothesis = 1 Degrees Of Freedom for Errors = 779 “In “1 W'.’ ‘ 56 5 (normative, moral, hypothetical, and feeling). In other words, it is suggested that females are more positive than males in all levels except 1 and 6 (stereotypic and action levels), at which males are more posi- tive than females. Simplex Approximation H-l2: The ABS: BW/WN will form a Guttman simplex for each Of the racial groups. The data (Table 16) indicated that the simplex was poorly approxi- mated. The contiguity theory Of Guttman specifies that the correla- tional matrix between the six attitude levels should be of a specific nature. The correlations should increase in size in the rows and columns as they progress toward the diagonal with the largest correla- tions being in the diagonal. There presently exists no statistical test to determine whether an obtained simplex approximates the postu- lated one. Previous research by Harrelson (1970) and Hamersma (1969) established a criterion of six reversals as being the maximum that could exist and still permit the simplex tO be regarded as "approxi- mated." O\ 57 TABLE 16 SIMPLEX: CORRELATIONS BETWEEN LEVELS OF THE ABS: BW/WN-G -_ 1 -- .35 -- 2 .22 _- .12 .AA -- 3 .27 .7A -- - 06 .10 A1 -- A .11 .30 .68 -— .12 .29 .25 .06 —- 5 .A0 .A0 .53 .A5 -- -.17 -.A5 -.02 .23 -.22 —— 6 -.1A —.30 -.16 -.02 -.37 -- 1 2 3 A 5 6 White Sample (709a) aCritical value of .07 necessary bCritical value of .22 necessary 1 2 3 A 5 6 Black Sample (57b) for significance at P<.05. for significance at P<.05. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS The significance of racial attitudes for the counselor has been expressed both by educators and practitioners. This dissertation was an outgrowth Of this concern and an attempt to understand better the dimensions and components Of the racial attitudes from the Guttman facet theory approach. MethodolOgy A total Of 70 rehabilitation counselor training program coordina- tors were contacted tO see whether they were willing to participate in the study. Of these 59 agreed, 8 did not respond, and 3 did not agree. Those who agreed to participate were mailed the general attitude behavior scale (ABS: BW/WN-G) developed by Hamersma and Jordan (1969), which was a facetized scale based on the theory of Guttman (1966). For this study there were two versions of the scale: one for Blacks, ABS: B/W-G, and one for Whites, ABS: W/N-G. These were identical forms Of the scale except for the term "Black," which was used in the ABS: B/W-G, and for the term "Negro," which was used in the ABS: W/N-G. This procedure was followed in order to use a term which designated race in a manner that was acceptable to both Blacks and Whites. 58 'r‘-—l‘ iv . '31” w. p “v __‘ . 59 Analysis The following analysis procedures were performed on the data: correlational (Pearson r), multivariate analysis of variance, and a simplex approximation. Discussion In Attitudes and Education H-l: Amount of education is positively related to favorable at- titudes toward members of the Opposite race. For Whites a significant relationship existed at two levels On the A .3} ABS: BW/WN: Level A (hypothetical) and Level 6 (action). For Blacks a significant relationship was found only at Level 6 (action). In considering such correlations, the size Of the number for Whites (709) and that for Blacks (57) may be an important factor. Even though significant correlations were Obtained for Whites at two levels, the question can be raised regarding whether these correlations are meaningful. The only significant correlation for Blacks was at Level 6, which is the action level Of the ABS: BW/WN. A possibly erroneous interpretation of this result may be that education results in favorable attitudes toward Whites and these are manifested in personal action. Such a statement is not necessarily valid, since there are other factors which could have produced this result. One Of these is the possibility that those Blacks who seek higher education may have had more positive racial attitudes in the first place, thus the relation- ship may not result from amount of education per se. 60 Attitudes and Age H-2: Age is negatively related to favorable attitudes toward mem- bers Of the Opposite race. The data indicated no significant relationships between attitudes and age for Whites. For Blacks a strong relationship was found to exist at Levels 2 (normative), 3 (moral), A (hypothetical action), and 5 (feeling). Moreover, while the hypothesis stated a negative relationship between age and attitudes, the data indicated no relationship for Whites and a strong positive relationship for Blacks at certain levels--2, 3, A, and 5. The data suggests that for White rehabilitation counselor train— ees, there is no change in their racial attitudes with an increase in age; while for Blacks, age and positive attitudes toward Whites are related at certain levels: normative, moral, hypothetical action, and feeling. Perhaps Blacks, with age and/or experience, acquire more favorable attitudes toward Whites. Caution must be exercised in such interpretations and emphasis placed on the fact that correlation does not imply causation. Attention must be given to several factors; e.g., the range of ages Of the sub- jects in this study. Table 17, which presented the means and standard deviations for both Blacks and Whites, indicates that on the age vari— able for Whites the mean was 2.355 and for Blacks the mean was 2.596. Both means were computed from coded group data.1 When both the means and the foils presented in the age item (NO. 86) Of the ABS: BW/WN are considered, it indicates that the White 1See Item 86 in Appendix J for the item category codes. 61 TABLE 17 SAMPLE SIZES,a MEANS, AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS FOR BLACKS AND WHITES ON THE ABS: BW/WN Whites Blacks Range Variable of Means Mean S.D. Mean S.D. 1. Stereotype 1A-A2 30.011 12.8A9 30.263 12.5A1 2. Normative lA-A2 31.A72 7.189 30.A91 5.895 Attitude 3. Moral Eval. 1A-A2 36.190 A.822 3A.A39 5.A1A Content A. Hypothetical 1A-A2 35.727 3.92A 33.965 A.9A2 5. Feeling lA-A2 36.955 6.907 39.386 7.905 6. Action 1A—56 30.666 8.758 38.870 9.029 7. Total 8A-266 183.583 16.0A0 180.5AA 20.387 Value 8. Efficacy-Cont. 9-36 2A.190 3.288 23.AOA 3.36A 9. Efficacy-Int. 9-36 28.850 3.369 29.018 3.A67 10. Kind 1—5 2.5A9 0.918 3.086 0.950 11. Amount 1-5 A.228 1.330 A.61A 1.098 Contact 12. Avoidance 1-5 A.083 1.037 3.A21 1.19A 13. Gain 1.5 2.979 1.861 3.A11 1.535 1A. Enjoyment 1-5 A.A79 0.837 A.16A 0.877 Change 15. Child Rearing 1-A 3.017 0.729 3.179 0.606 Orienta- 16. Birth Control 1-A 3.559 0.6A1 3.321 0.66A tion 17. Prejudice-Comp. 1-5 A.268 0.672 3.893 1.090 18. Age 1-5 2.355 0.713 2.596 0.8A2 Demo- 19. Educ. Amount 1—5 1.A77 0.836 1.286 0.A9A graphic 20. Urbanity l-A 2.855 1.0A1 3.30A 1.09A 21. South/North 1.5 2.769 1.261 2.702 1.535 aWhites 709, Blacks 57 “our -, s 62 subjects were younger than the Black subjects. It should also be noted that the spread Of ages of the subjects was not great and that most Of them were in their early twenties. An appropriate question at this point is whether there was no relationship for Whites between age and racial attitude score or whether the instrument or the analysis were not sensitive to pick up the differences in the broad range represented within each of the foils; i.e., 21—30 years. A recommendation for further study on this particular point would be to study a pOpulation with a wider range Of ages and have exact ages instead of coded ranges such as 21-30 years. Attitudes and Efficagy H—3: There is a positive relationship between a high efficacy score and positive attitudes toward members Of the Opposite race. For this hypothesis a significant relationship was Obtained between efficacy and attitudes for Whites at Level A (hypothetical) and Level 5 (feeling) Of the ABS: BW/WN-G. For Blacks, however, there were no significant relationships between efficacy and attitudes. An interpretation of the presence Of some relationship between these variables for Whites and not for Blacks may be that in comparison to Blacks, Whites have reason to be more "efficacious." The White sub- jects' sense of efficacy may have resulted from the positions they hold, money they have, or security they possess. These factors may have permitted Whites to hypothesize that they would act or feel posi- tively toward Blacks while knowing that they would never have to do so. Blacks, however, may be different in regard to efficacy due to situational determinants which have resulted in their having a low sense of control over their environment. 63 Attitudes and Contact H-A: Favorable attitudes toward members Of the Opposite race are related to (a) kind of contact, (b) amount of contact, (c) ease of avoidance of contact, (d) gain from the contact, and (e) enjoyment of the contact. In a bivariate analysis, enjoyment of contact was the most sig- nificant predictor of increasing positive attitudes in that those Whites who stated they enjoyed their contact with Blacks indicated significantly positive attitudes at all six levels. For Whites dis— playing positive attitudes, amount Of contact and kind of contact were next most predictive. The data (Table 10) for Blacks between the contact variables and attitudes were not as clear as the data for Whites. However, perceived and/or reported enjoyment of contact Of Blacks with Whites was still the best predictor Of favorable attitudes. Amount of contact and per- ceived gain from the contact were next most predictive with "gain" being somewhat higher than "amount." This suggested that those Blacks who enjoyed their contact with Whites and felt they "gained" from such contact felt positive toward Whites. Only two Of the contact variables were predictive Of attitudes at the action level for Blacks, enjoyment and amount, with enjoyment being the greater predictor. The many dimensions of this hypothesis does not permit a straight— forward interpretation due to the bivariate correlation used. A more precise analysis would be to use a step-wise multiple regression tech- . 2 nlque. 23cc Appendix K. 6A Attitudes and Religion H—5: There is a significant difference between the attitude scores of religious groups. The results from the analysis did not support this hypothesis. Past research, as mentioned in Chapter II, cited various studies which reported a relationship between religious affiliation and racial atti- tudes. 11 An explanation for the failure to support this hypothesis may be i 3 the homogeneity of the subjects in this study on such factors as age, education, and vocational area. Another explanation could be that J 1T“ those who enter social science and related areas, such as rehabilitation counselor training, may have more positive and similar racial attitudes regardless of religious affiliation. Stephenson (1952) indicated that students in social areas tended to have more favorable racial attitudes than those in other areas, such as engineering. Attitudes and Reported Prejudice H-6: There is a positive relationship between reported prejudice and racial attitude scores. For Whites there was a significant relationship between their self-reports of prejudice and positive attitudes at the moral evalua— tion, hypothetical behavior, and actual feeling levels. This indicates that those Whites who reported they were prejudiced were so at Levels 3, A, and 5 (moral, hypothetical, and feeling) but not at Level 6 (action level). This may indicate a discrepancy between reported prejudice and actual behavior. For Blacks, self-reported prejudice and attitudes on 65 the ABS: BW/WN were related at Levels 2, 3, A, and 5 (normative, moral, hypothetical, and feeling). For Blacks and Whites, therefore, there may be a difference between self-report Of prejudice and actual behavior. Attitudes and Political Affiliation H-7: There is no difference between political affiliation groups' attitude scores toward the Opposite race. The results of the analysis indicated that this hypothesis was supported. An explanation for lack of difference between political affiliation groups may be similar to that posited for H-5, which stated that the occupational homogeneity of the research population may reduce the between group differences. Attitudes and Urbanity H-8: Persons from urban areas have more positive attitudes toward members Of the Opposite race than persons from rural areas. NO significant relationships were found between urbanity and posi- tive attitudes for either Blacks or Whites. Past research has been conflicting, some finding differences between the attitudes of rural and urban subjects, others finding no difference. Previous research also indicated that the percentage Of Blacks in the home region Of Whites was a determinant of intolerance toward Blacks. The difficulty in the interpretation Of this hypothesis is that concentration Of Blacks may not equally affect contact due tO structural boundaries Of suburb versus ghetto or rural estate versus sharecropper. 66 Therefore, this hypothesis is another example of a variable which can- not be analyzed in a univariate manner. Attitudes and Race H-9: There is a difference between the attitudes of racial groups. The results of the analysis indicated a Significant relationship between race and attitudes. Blacks were more positive to Whites on Levels 1, 2, and 6 (stereotypic, normative, and action). Whites were more positive toward Blacks on Levels 3, A, and 5 (moral, hypothetical, and feeling). Blacks see the norms Of society as being better for Whites than for themselves. Moreover, they see themselves having more actual activity with Whites than Whites do with Blacks. On the other hand, Whites see that society should do more for Blacks than it does (moral evaluation level). They also hypothetically feel they ought to inter- act more with Blacks than they do (Level A) and, finally, that Whites think their feelings toward Blacks should be more positive than they actually are. Attitudes and Geographic Location H-lO: Geographically, there is no difference in racial attitudes of rehabilitation counselor trainees toward members of the Opposite race. Analysis Of the data supported this hypothesis. Based on the item and its foils, one interpretation that can be made is that the section Of the United States in which a respondent spent the first 21 years of his life is related to his racial attitudes. In this 67 interpretation the range of the age of the respondents must again be considered because some of them were 30 or A0 years Old. Therefore, since the item asked where the person spent the first 21 years Of his life, it did not account for years after that. Any interpretation of this result for subjects over 21 years Of age should consider this fact. Since the mean age of the subjects was in the early twenties, interpretation is possible only when one is mindful Of the possibility that some peOple may have moved to various parts of the country and have had their racial attitudes affected by different regions. Being aware of these cautions, the following observations are made: An examination of Table 1A indicates that the cell means for the North and South are very similar except at Level 3 (moral evaluation). This fact, in a sense, supports the belief of the researcher who believed the stereotyping of the South as haVing more negative racial attitudes than the North was not justified. An overt manifestation, such as Oe_£gg£2_segregation in a partic- ular region, may be spotlighted as racist while more subtle Oe_j2£e manifestations Of negative racial attitudes, such as restricted neigh- borhoods, may go unnoticed. Attitudes and Sex H-ll: There is a difference in the racial attitude scores Of males and females. This hypothesis was supported, thereby indicating a significant relationship between attitudes and sex. In the examination Of the cell means, it was found that females have more positive racial attitudes than males at all but Level 1 68 (stereotypic) and Level 6 (action) on the ABS: BW/WN. This may imply that while females are more positive than males at the normative, moral, hypothetical, and feeling levels, they are less positive than males at the stereotypic and action levels. Simplex Approximation H-l2: The ABS: BW/WN will form a Guttman Simplex for each of the racial groups. This hypothesis was not supported as it had been in other studies with a different attitude Object. A possible interpretation is that the principle of contiguity, which states that correlations should increase in size in the rows and columns as they progress toward the diagonal, with the largest correla- tions being in the diagonal, may not hold in volatile attitude areas such as racial attitudes. Recommendations In this section the limitations of the study regarding the nature Of the population, procedures, and instrumentation are stated. Also, additional analysis techniques are suggested which would be useful in further analysis of similar data. Nature of the Population The use of rehabilitation counselor trainees in this study must be viewed as only a first step in a series to reach the goal of clearer understanding Of racial attitudes. A more complete study would have been the use Of the rehabilitation counselor trainee and the rehabilita— tion counselor in the field. Perhaps more emphasis in the future should be placed on the racial attitude of those working with the racially 69 different and the effect racial attitudes have on the counseling process. Another direction would be to incorporate the knowledge from this study and use it to study the modification or change of racial attitudes. From this study the complexity Of the contact variable indicated that not only contact per se but "quality of contact" is a Significant factor that should be further researched. Procedures The difficulty of securing 100 per cent response and the smaller number Of Blacks in programs resulted in approximately 1A times as many Whites as Blacks in the study. For future research a pre-established system which places emphasis on a stratified sampling by race would be most important. Since this study was Of the mail-in variety, inherent were the problems Of partial and incomplete returns. A partial return was one in which fewer sheets were returned than had been sent out. Incomplete returns were those in which the person did not answer all items. Future studies should set up in advance the procedures that will deal with these problems. To deal effectively with partial returns, a test to establish equivalency groups should be used; for example, if 10 out Of 15 peeple responded, what would be the response of the remaining 5? This is basically a problem of external validity. With the incomplete answer sheets, two possible approaches could be taken. One is to acknowledge how'many answer sheets were not complete, and the other would be to use a multiple regression formula to predict what a person would have answered on the basis of the items he completed. 70 This study did not provide for the administration of the ABS: BW/WN on one particular date by all participating programs. There- fore, the scales were given at different times. Further research by a similar method should either make arrangements to have all schools administer the scales at the same time or make provisions for a trend analysis. Another problem was the variability of the settings in which the scales were administered and also the variability of the people who gave the instructions prior to taking the scale. Sampling procedures were not Optimal for this because it was done by schools rather than by individuals. Returns represented about A0 per cent Of the total reported enroll— ment of the rehabilitation counselor training programs; this breakdown is presented in Table 18. TABLE 18 SUBJECTS COMPARED TO ESTIMATED POPULATION Subjects Estimated Population 709 White 1,530 White __5_7_ Black fl Black 766 1.729 Since the respondents represent less than half Of the estimated population, this study is greatly limited in its external validity. Instrumentation The problems Of using a paper-and-pencil test of the length Of the ABS: BW/WN were that many factors may affect the answer sheets, such as errors in reading the instructions and, perhaps, in marking the wrong space on the IBM answer sheet; for example, if a person wanted to 71 answer 3 and marked A. For the former, the ABS has been revised to incorporate many of the improvements which resulted from this study. In this revision the instructions were made clearer and ambiguous items were reworked. Regarding the latter problem of marking the wrong num- ber, perhaps an answer sheet should have the same number of spaces as foils; for example, if there are 3 foils, only 3 Spaces should be pro- vided on the answer sheets. This would eliminate the problem of mark- ing the wrong space. Recommended Analytical Procedures Previous studies (Erb, 1969; Hamersma, 1969; and Harrelson, 1970) used correlational analysis and the Kaiser Test (Q2), but this study was the first in this project to use the multivariate analysis Of vari- ance (MANOVA) procedures which gave added dimensions to the past corre- lational analyses. Simplex Approximation Test Kaiser (1962) formulated a procedure for scaling the variables Of a Guttman simplex. His procedure ordered the variables and suggested a measure of the goodness of fit of the scale to the obtained data. The approach develOped by Kaiser may be seen as performing two functions: (a) a "sorting" of virtually all possible arrangements Of data so as to generate the best empirically possible simplex approximation; and (b) an assignment of a descriptive statistic, "Q2," to specified matrices. The index Q? was a descriptive one, with a range of 0.00 to 1.00. A computer program is developed which (a) reordered the level mem- bers of a semantic path, by Kaiser's procedures, so as to generate the 2 best empirically possible simplex approximation; and (b) calculated O 72 for the hypothesized (theoretical) ordering and for the empirically best ordering Of members in a semantic path. There is no significance test available for the values Of the Q? test. Therefore, statistical comparisons that involved significance levels are not made across matrices--i.e., from simplex approximation to simplex approximation. The simplex approximation test could be used to Obtain data which would enable testing of the hypothesis that the Q? of the theoretical ordering would approximate the O? Of the empirically best ordering of level members Of the ABS: BW/WN for each Of the groups. Multidimensional/Multivariate Statistics Until recently only one type of profile analysis had been in gen— eral use; i.e., scalogram analysis (Guttman, 1950). Scalogram analysis has frequently been employed to investigate whether the profiles Of individual subjects from a particular kind Of unidimensional structure. For data which did not render such a scale, an appropriate technique of analysis had been develOped only recently. The program, called the Guttman-Lingoes Multidimensional Scalogram Analysis I—G-L-MSA-I (Guttman and Schlesinger, 1966) renders a space in which subjects are represented as points, variables as partitions, and categories of the variables as regions of the partitions. The program calculates coordi- nates for each point in a space with the smallest possible number Of dimensions. The MSA-I program enables the following kind of questions to be asked: (a) what are theqprofiles of individual subjects with regard to relevant variables and (b) how are these profiles related to each other? ,‘_‘-I’ 73 The MSA-I is a useful tool for describing typologies when there are a great number of variables and profiles. In practice the data usually reveal some deviation from the prdimensional representation given by the MSA-I. The degree Of deviation is indicated by the coeffi- cient Of contiguity (Lingoes, 1966), which may vary in principle from 0 (no fit) to 1 (perfect fit). The investigator faced with a space diagram (see Bloombaum, 1968, VHS—JV and Jordan, 1968, for examples) printed out by the computer is some- times left with some freedom in deciding exactly where to draw the boundary lines, especially where there is no dense collection Of points in the space. There is always the problem of interpreting the space, and for this an a priori facet theory Of content is useful. In the absence of a sharp content theory, MSA-I is a powerful tool for testing certain kinds of hypotheses concerning typologies and their relation- ship to each other. When there is no theory on which such hypotheses can be based beforehand, the MSA is Often suggestive Of new hypotheses and further kinds of analysis. When this technique is implemented on the computer, a more com— plete analysis would be possible. Implications for Practice and Research The assessment Of attitudes in general and racial attitudes in particular were not regarded in this study as an end in itself. Having once understood the components Of an attitude, it becomes necessary to develop ways in which attitudes can be accurately assessed and/or modified. This study has explored the Guttman facet analysis Of racial attitudes with the following implications: 7A First, this analysis has facilitated an understanding Of the dimensions of an attitude as reflected in the six levels at which racial attitudes can be structured. Second, this study demonstrated relationships between such factors as race, contact, and attitude. By isolating these factors and studying the relationship to each, it became possible to conclude that a person's attitudes are not determined by one variable alone. The multivariate determination of attitudes is clearly seen in the contact variable which had several dimensions. Previous considera- tions of attitudinal modification have largely considered the variable without recognizing that there are various types of contact possible with an attitude object. This study considered the contact variable as having five components: kind of contact, amount Of contact, ease Of avoidance Of contact, gain from contact, and enjoyment of contact. In the analysis procedures used it was cOncluded that the bivari- ate correlations did not adequately show the relationship between the contact variable's components and the attitude score due to the problem of multicolinearity which is a relationship among correlated predictor variables. In order to deal with this problem, a "multiple add" type of multiple correlation program was run on the same data, the results of which are in Appendix K. The use Of this particular analysis made it possible to see which combinations of predictor variables were most useful. Summary 1. Amount Of education did not show a strong relationship to favorable attitudes toward members of the Opposite race. 75 2. Age was not related to attitudes for Whites, but it was for Blacks at certain levels Of the ABS: BW. 3. Efficacy, which tests man's sense of control over his environ- ment, was related to positive attitudes for Whites at two levels of the ABS: W/N, while no relationship for Blacks between efficacy and attitudes was found. A. Among the contact variables, "enjoyment of contact" was the most significant predictor of favorable attitudes for Whites toward Blacks. 5. The relationship between reported prejudice and attitudes yielded significant results, while urbanity did not. 6. There was no significant difference Of the attitude scores based on a multivariate analysis Of religious or political affiliation. 7. A significant difference was found for race, geographic loca- tion, and sex via multivariate analysis. This study indicated the complexity of racial attitudes and the difficulties encountered during such research. The study does not purport to answer all Of the many questions that arise in connection with this complex tOpic but, rather, is eXploratory, while at the same time specifying relationships between variables that may be useful for further research. REFERENCES REFERENCES Allport, G. W. Attitudes in the history Of social psychology. In Jahoda, M. and Warren, N. (eds.) Attitudes. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1966. Allport, G. W. Attitudes. In Fishbein, M. (ed.) Readings in attitude theory and measurement. New York: Wiley, 1967. Allport, G. W. and Kramer, B. M. Some roots Of prejudice. Journal of Psychology, 19A6, 22, 9-39. Anderson, Wayne. Rehabilitation and the culturally disadvantaged. 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Definitional statement--Specification of characteristics proper to an item of a given level member, typically stated in phrase or clause form. Definitional system--ordered group of definitional statements or of the corresponding level members; typically either the group consti- tuting a "semantic path" or the complete group Of 12 level mem- bers in the "semantic map." Directionality—-Characteristic of an item, sometimes called positive or negative, determining agreement with the item as indicating favor- ableness or unfavorableness toward the attitude Object. 1See footnote on Table 3. 82 83 2 Disjoint struction--See also "struction," " conjoint struction"--that part of the semantic structure Of attitude items which is directly dependent on specification of situation and object; a more precise term than "content." E1ement--One of two or more ways in which a facet may be expressed; in the present system, all conjoint facets are dichotomous, expressed in one facet-—One Of several semantic units distinguishable in the verbal expression of an attitude; in the present system, five dichoto- mous facets are noted within the conjoint struction. Facet profile-~See "struction profile." Level-—Degree Of attitude strength specified by the number of strong and weak facets in the member(s) of that level; in the present sys- tem, six ordered levels are identified:y Level I is characterized by the unique member having five weak facets; Level II, by mem- bers having four weak and one strong facet . . . Level VI, by the unique member having five strong facets. Level member-0ne of one or more permutation(s) of strong and weak facets which are common to a given level; in the present system, 12 level members have been identified: three on Level II, four on Level III, two on Level IV, and one each on Levels 1, V, and VI. Map-See "semantic map." Member--See "level member." Path--See "semantic path." Profile--See "struction profile." 2See footnote on Table 3. 8A Reversal--Change in a specified order of levels or of correlations, involving only the two indicated levels or correlations. Semantic--Pertaining to or arising from the varying meanings, gram- matical forms, or stylistic emphasis of words, phrases, or clauses. Semantic map--TwO—dimensional representation of hypothesized relation— ships among six levels and among 12 level members. Semantic path-~Ordered set of level members, typically six, such that each member has one more strong facet than the immediately pre- ceding member and one less strong facet than the immediately fol- lowing member. Semantic possibility analysis--Linguistic discussion Of the implications Of the five dichotomous conjoint facets identified in the present system; of 32 permutations, only 12 are considered logically con— sistent. Simplex--Specific form of (correlation) matrix, diagonally dominated and decreasing in magnitude away from the main diagonal; see Table 9 for comparison Of equally spaced and unequally-spaced diagonals. Simplex approximation—-Matrix which approaches more or less perfectly the simplex form; existing tests (Kaiser, 1962; Mukherjee, 1966) reflects both ordering of individual entries and sizes of differ— ences between entries and between diagonals. Strong(er)--Opposite Of weak(er)--term functionally assigned to one of two elements, to a facet expressed by its strong element, or to a level member characterized by more strong facets than another level member; the strong-weak continuum is presently examined as unidimensional. 85 Struction--See also ' 'conjoint struction," "disjoint struction"-- semantic pattern identifiable in any attitude item, or the system of such identifications. Struction profile—-Specification, typically indicated by small letters and numerical subscripts, of the permutation(s) Of weak and strong elements or facets in a level member or a set Of level members; or of permutations Of disjoint elements or facets. Transposition--change in a Specified order Of levels or Of correlations involving a change in position of one level or correlation and the corresponding one-place shift in the position of following or preceding levels or correlations. weak—-0pposite Of "strong" (which see). APPENDIX B.1 ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR SCALE: B/W-G ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR SCALE ' "'6 21mm This booklet contains statements of how people behave in certain situations or feel about certain things. You yourself or other alacg persons often behave in the same way toward _uhy5g_, YOu also have some general ideas about yourself, about other Black persons like you, and about Whites . Some- times you feel or behave the same way toward everyone, and sometimes you feel or behave differently toward Whites. This questionnaire has statements about ideas and about behavior. Each state- ment of this questionnaire is different from every other section, although some of the statements in each section are shmilsr. Your answers in one section, therefore, may be the same as answers in another section, or your answers may differ from section to section. Here is a sample statement: Ssgple l l. Chance of Whites being taller (1) less chance than Blacks 2. about the some 3. more chance than Blacks If other Blacks believe that Whites have less chance than Blacks to be taller, you should circle the number 1 as shown above or if you are using an IBM answer sheet make a heavy dark line on the answer sheet between the two lines after the number as follows: 1. 1 sun-n 2 ::::: 3 ----- 4 ----- S ----- Wmummmmmmmmmm by: Richard J. Hamersma John E. Jordan College of Education Michigan State University Revised by: Arthur E. Dell Orto May, 1969 112270 ABS-I-BW-G Directions: Section 1 This section contains statements about ideas which most other Blacks have about Whites. ‘Qircle or fill in the answer sheet number that indicates how other Blacks compare themselves with Whites. Please answer all questions. cher Blacks believe the following things about Blacks as coammred to Negroes: l. Blacks can be trusted with money 1. more than Whites 2. about the same as Whites 3. less than Whites 2. Blacksfamilies are closely knit l. more often than Whites 2. about as often as Whites 3. less often than Whites 3. Black's intellectual ability is l. more than Whites 2. about the same as Whites 3. less than Whites a. Blacks desire a higher education 1. more often than Whites 2. about as often as Whites 3. less often than Whites 5. Blacks help their neighbors I. more than Whites 2. about the same as Whites 3. less than Whites 6. Black neighborhoods are safe 1 more often than White ones 2. about as often as White ones 3. less often than White ones 112270 -3- ABS-I-BW-G Other Blacks believe the following things about Blacks as compared to Whites: 7. Blacks obey job rules and regulations 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. l. more than Whites 2. about the same as Whites 3. less than Whites Blacks enjoy working with Whites l. more than Whites do with Blacks 2. about the same as Blacks 3. less than Whites do with Blacks Blacks resist arrest 1. less than Whites 2 about the same as Whites 3. more than Whites Blacks are victims of "police brutality" 1. less than Whites 2. about the same as Whites 3. more than Whites Blacks mis-use trial-by-jury 1. less often than Whites 2. about as often as Whites 3. more often than Whites Blacks vote for White candidates for public office 1. more than Whites do for Blacks 2. about the same as Whites 3. less than Whites do for Blacks Black desire draft deferments 1. less often than Whites 2. about as often as Whites 3. more often than Whites Blacks are careful with weapons 1. more often than Whites 2. about as often as Whites 3. less often than Whites 112270 ABS’II’BW'G Directions: Section II This section contains statements about things which other Blgcks like you may believe about Whites. Please choose the aggger that indicates what you think others believe about Whites. Host Blacks generally believe the following about Whites: lS. Blacks believe they can trust Whites with money 1. disagree 2. uncertain 3. agree 16. Blacks believe that White families are as closely knit as their own 1. disagree 2. uncertain 3. agree 1?. Blacks believe their intellectual ability is the same as Whites 1. disagree 2. uncertain 3. agree 18. Blacks desire to share their higher education with Whites 1. disagree 2. uncertain 3. agree l9. Blacks like to help White neighbors I. disagree 2. uncertain 3. agree 20. Blacks believe that White neighborhoods are safe to live in 1. disagree 2. uncertain 3. agree 112270 -5- Host Blacks generally believe the following about Whites: 21. 22. 23. 26. 25. 26. 27. 28. Blacks believe they obey job rules and regulations the same as Whites 1. disagree 2. uncertain 3. agree Blacks believe they enjoy working with Whites 1. disagree 2. uncertain 3. agree Blacks believe in resisting arrest from .White officials 1. agree 2. uncertain 3. disagree Blacks believe they are the victims of "police brutality" from Whites 1. agree 2. uncertain 3. disagree Blacks believe in misuse of trial-by-jury when they deal withnWhites' l. certain 2 uncertain 3. agree Blacks believe in voting with Whites for White candidates for public office 1. disagree 2. uncertain 3. agree Blacks believe in being given draft deferments equal with Whites 1. disagree 2. uncertain 3. agree Blacks believe in being as careful with their weapons as Whites are 1. disagree 2. uncertain 3. agree 112270 -5- ABS-III'DW-G Directions: Section III This section contains statements about ways in which you yourself should act toward Whites. Please choose the answer that indicates how you feel you should act or believe. In respect to Whites, do you yourself believe that it is usually right or usually wrong: 29. To trust Whites with money is 1. usually wrong 2. undecided 3. usually right 30. To expect White families to be as closely knit as Black ones is 1. usually wrong 2. undecided 3. usually right 31. To expect Whites intellectual ability to be the same as Blacks is 1. usually wrong 2. undecided 3. usually right 32. To expect Whites to desire a higher education as much as Blacks ta 1. usually wrong 2. undecided 3. usually right 33. To expect Blacks to help White neighbors is 1. usually wrong 2. undecided 3. usually right 34. To expect Blacks to believe that White neighborhoods are safe for them is . usually wrong 2. undecided . usually right 35. To ”meet Balcks to obey job rules and regulations the “I! 80 Whites usually wrong 1 2. undecided 3. usually right 112270 In respect to Whites do usually wrong: 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. To 1. 2. 3. 112270 expect Blacks to usually wrong undecided usually right expect Blacks to usually right undecided usually wrong expect Blacks to usually right undecided usually wrong expect Blacks to usually right undecided usually wrong expect Blacks to usually wrong undecided usually right expect Blacks to usually wrong undecided usually right expect Blacks to usually wrong undecided usually right -7- ADS-III'BW'G you yourself believe that it is usually ri t or enjoy working with Whites is resist arrest from White officials is be the victims of "police brutality" from Whites is misuse trial-by-jury when they deal with Whites is vote with Whites for White candidates for public office is be given equal draft deferments with Whites. is be as careful with their weapons as Whites are is W ect s: Section IV This section contains statements about W toward Whites. Choose the answer that indicates how you think you would act. In respect to a White person my yg youggefi: 43. 45. 46. 47. 68. 49. 50. I would trust Whites with money 1. no . 2. undecided 3. yes I would want my family to be as closely knit as White families are 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes I would want the same intellectual ability as Whites 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes I would want to have the same desire Whites do for a higher education Is no 2. undecided 3. yes I would help White neighbors I. no 2. undecided 3. yes I would want Black neighborhoods to be as stfe as White ones 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes I would obey job rules and regulations the same as Whites 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes I would enjoy working with Whites 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes 112270 - 93W In respect to a White person W: 51. I would resist arrest if arrested by Whites. 1. yes 2. undecided 3. no 52. I would expect "police brutality" fru Whites 1. yes 2. undecided 3. no 53. I would use trial-by-jury the same when dealing with Whites as with Blacks. 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes Sb. I would vote for a.White candidate for public office.- 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes 55. I would want Whites to be given the sue draft deferments that Blacks get 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes 56. I would want to be as careful with my weapons as I think Whites are. 1. no 2. undecided 3. yes 112270 -10- W Directions: Section V This section concerns actual feelings that Black people may have about Whites. You are asked to indicate hgg you fegl about the following statements. 57. 58. S9. 60. 61. 62. 63. do you actually feel toward Whites: When Blacks trust Whites with money I feel 1. bad 2. indifferent 3. good When Black families are as closely knit as I think White families are I feel 1. bad 2. indifferent 3. good When Blacka' intellectual ability is the same as‘Whites I feel 1. bad 2. indifferent 3. good When Whites desire a higher education as much as Blacks do, I feel 1. bad 2. indifferent 3. good When Blacks help White neighbors, I feel 1. bad 2. indifferent 3. good When Blacks are safe in White neighborhoods, I feel 1. bad 2. indifferent 3. good When Whites obey job rules and regulations with Blacks, I feel 1. dissatisfied 2. indifferent 3. satisfied When Whites enjoy working with Blacks, I feel 1. bad 2. indifferent 3. good 112270 how 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. -11- W do yg; «tally fee; toward Whites: When Whites resist arrest the same as Blacks, I feel 1. discontent 2. indifferent 3. content When Whites use "police brutality" the same as Blacks do, I feel 1. bad 2. indifferent 3. good When trial-by-jury is used the same with .Whites and Blacks, I feel 1. angry 2. indifferent 3. happy When Whites vote for Black candidates for public office, I feel 1. bad 2 . ind ifferent 3 . good When Whites- are given the ace draft deferments as Blacks, I feel 1 . d iscontent 2 . indifferent 3 . content When Blacks are as careful with their weapons as Whites, are, I feel 1. dissatisfied 2. indifferent 3. satisfied 112270 -12- see-11m Directions: Section VI This section concerns actggl emgignces you have had with Whites. Try to answer the following questions from the knowledge of W. aggriences or catacts with m: 71. I have trusted .Whites with money 1. no experience 2. no 3. uncertain 4. yes 72. I have seen that White families are as closely knit as Black ones 1. no experience 2. no 3. uncertain 4. yes 73. My intellectual ability is equal to the mites I know 1. no experience 2. no 3. uncertain 4. yes 74. I have wanted a higher education as much as the Whites I have known 1. no experience 2. no 3. uncertain 4. yes 75. I have helped a White neighbor 1. no experience 2. no 3. uncertain 4. yes 76. I have felt safe when in White neighborhoods 1. no experience 2. no 3. uncertain 4. yes 77. I have seen that Whites obey job rules and regulations when working with 1. no experience 2. no 3. uncertain 4. yes I 1911!! -13- s- - Experiences or contacts with Hhiiflli- 78. I have enjoyed working with Whites 1. no experience 2. no 3. uncertain 4. yes 79. I have resisted arrest by Whites 1. no experience 2. yes 3. uncertain 4. no 80. I have been the victim of "police brutality"froa Whites 1. no experience 2. yes 3. uncertain 4. no 81. I have seen Whites misuse trial-by-jury with Negroes 1. no experience 2. yes 3. uncertain 4. no 82- I have seen that Whites vote for Black candidates for public office 1. no experience 2. no 3. uncertain 4. yes 83. I have seen that Whites are given draft deferments the same a. Blacks 1. no experience 2. no 3. uncertain 4. yes 84. I have seen Whites who were as careful with their weapons as Blacks 1. no experience 2. no 3. uncertain 4. yes 112270 ABS-BH-D ATTITUDE BEHAVIOR SCALE - ABS-