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I..\L(£(.~\(L....'..l.‘. 11$: .t(§ .Y", t! £31...) (.I.( 1| 5 T 32:", 34 l " ; 1 1 ' “ , fl; J : u I . ( I" . I 1 (till. I. 71141111.).z. s.{kv()‘r.\t\‘ . .l1 )kll. ((5)1)..13235 i! it}; 1 .1.l .rvtanvflPII)....-v..|!>fan . . l . . . . . ~ 1 Illlllllllglllllllllllllljllllllllllllll THE‘SM: This is to certify that the thesis entitled MEN'S PERCEPTIONS OF SEX ROIE AND DRESS IN PROJECTIVE OCCUPATIONAL STORY-SITUATIONS presented by Karen Walsh Ketch has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M. A. Clothing and Textiles degree in 6. Major professor Date waf— 0‘7639 OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM 0k drop to remove Return to be your record. this checkout from MEN'S PERCEPTIONS OF SEX ROLE AND DRESS IN PROJECTIVE OCCUPATIONAL STORY-SITUATIONS By Karen Walsh Ketch A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Human Environment and Design l979 ABSTRACT MEN'S PERCEPTIONS OF SEX ROLE AND DRESS IN PROJECTIVE OCCUPATIONAL STORY-SITUATIONS By Karen Walsh Ketch The objectives of the study included an examination of males acceptance of females in somewhat traditional male occupational roles and a determination of males reactions toward deviations from clothing and appearance expectations in occupational situations. The sample consisted of 230 married males residing with their wives and at least one school age child. Data were collected as part of an integrated research project on Quality of Life. The instrument, part of a self-administered questionnaire, consisted of five projective occu- pational story-situations. Respondents were asked open-ended questions which became the basis for scale development. Demographics, as well as two clothing attitudinal statements were included in the analysis. Although the null hypotheses, with the exception of one, were not rejected, it was concluded that clothing and appearance is important to occupational situations based on the content of responses. Significant Spearman Rank Order Correlations were revealed for both independent and dependent variables. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS _ The author wishes to express her appreciation to her advisor, Dr. Ann Slocum, for her guidance and encouragement throughout the re- search process; to her committee: Dr. Jean Schlater, Ms. Dawn Pysarchik and Dr. M. Bixby Cooper for their interest and suggestions; to Mr. Leonard Bianchi, for his assistance concerning statistical procedures and analysis; to fellow graduate students associated with the Quality of Life Research Project; and especially to her husband Richard, and son, Christopher, for their support and understanding. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY . Background. . Statement of the Problem Definition of Terms . Hypotheses . Assumptions. Limitations. . Theoretical Framework II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . Sex Role. . . Dress and Communication. III. METHODOLOGY . Introduction . Description of the Instrument. Pretest . The Sample, Design and Selection. Data Collection . . . . Data Coding. . Analysis of the Data. IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Description of Sample . Construction Worker Story- -Situation. Lawyer Story- Situation . . . . Additional Analysis . . Correlations Between Independent and Dependent Variables for the Total Sample . . Correlations Between Independent and Dependent Variables by Set Type . . . . Page ##WWNN-J k0 Page V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Conclusions by Major Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 81 Limitations of the Findings . . . . . . . : . 83 Suggestions for Further Study. . . . . . . . . 84 APPENDICES A. PORTION OF QUALITY OF LIFE QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN THIS STUDY . . . . 86 B. INTERVIENER PROCEDURES AND FORMS USED IN THE FIELD. . . 94 C. SELECTED RESPONSES TO STORY-SITUATIONS. . . . . . . 99 BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IOZ LIST OF TABLES Table Page l. Story-Situations by Set . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2. Comparative Results of Set A and Set B Questionnaire Respondents on Basic Demographic Variables . . . . . 4l 3. Age of Respondents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4. Educational Background of Respondents . . . . . . . 46 5. Employment Status of Respondents . . . . . . . . . 47 6. Dual Career Employment Status . . . . . . . . . . 47 7. l977 Income of Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . 49 8. Positive Negative Feelings in Response to the Question: ”How would you have felt if you were Carol?” . . . . 51 9. Intensity of Feeling Derived from Response to the Question: ”How would you have felt if you were Carol?“. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 l0. Frequency of Mention of Sex-Role, Abilities/Skills and Appearance/Clothing as Reason for Carol Not Being Hired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 ll. Saliency of Clothing/Appearance Scale . . . . . . . 54 l2. Education of Respondent and Sex-Role Given as a Reason Why Carol Was Not Hired . . . . . . . . . . . 55 l3. Analysis of Variance of Response to Sex-Role and Occupational Prestige . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 l4. Approval-Disapproval of Lawyer in Response to the Question: ”What do you think of the lawyer?” . . . . 6T l5. Approval-Disapproval of Lawyer's Appearance and Clothing in Response to the Question: “What do you think of the lawyer?". 52 Table Page l6. Saliency of Clothing/Appearance Scale. . . . . . . . 63 l7. Classification of Statements Made by Respondents About the Clothing and Appearance of the Lawyer . . . . 64 l8. Action Taken by Respondents in Answer to the Question, ”If you were Tom, what would you have done?". . . . 66 l9. Spearman Rank Order Correlations of Independent Variables . 73 20. Spearman Rank Order Correlations of Dependent Variables. . 74 2l. Spearman Rank Order Correlations Between Independent and Dependent Variables Used in Analysis of Lawyer Story—Situation - Total Sample . . . . . . . . . 76 22. Spearman Rank Order Correlations Between Independent and Dependent Variables Used in Analysis of Lawyer Story—Situation — Male and Female Lawyer . . . . . . 78 vi CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Background Although there have been numerable societal changes recently, many would agree that there still remain expected patterns of behavior in our culture. Among these are dress and appearance expectations for various occupations. Many occupations require a uniform. Although a formal uniform may not be required in other occupations, the clothing expectations of employers, fellow workers, and even the public, may be very definite. These expectations include not only the garments worn but subtle appearance characteristics such as the state of repair of the clothing and the general way in which it is worn. There has been a steady increase in the number of women in the work force (U.S. Bureau of the Census, l977). Changes in our society have fostered the growth of women interested in life-long careers as opposed to work primarily to supplement the family's income, or until mar— riage or the advent of children. Slowly, women are branching out into jobs once exclusively filled by men and are also moving into higher man- agement and professional areas. Is there now general acceptance of per- sons in non—traditional occupational sex roles? Research has revealed that impressions are formed, and judgments of competence and other per- sonal characteristics may be made on the basis of clothing and appearance cues (Ryan, l966, pp. 37-38). Are clothing and appearance relied on more I in these judgments when the individual is in a non-traditional sex role? Statement of the Problem With the increase in the number of women in the labor force and in jobs formerly held primarily by men, traditional societal expectations of sex roles are changing. There have also been changes in the range of tolerance for acceptable clothing and appearance for many situations. This study focuses on men‘s reactions to these changes as revealed in their responses to two projective occupational story-situations. The objectives of the study were to: l. Examine male acceptance of females in somewhat traditional male occupational roles. 2. Determine male respondents reactions toward deviations from clothing and appearance norms in occupational situations. Definition of Terms Appearance. The condition of the garments and visual impact of the referent. Clothing. Garments worn by the referent in the story-situations. Deviation. Exceeding or not meeting the normative clothing or appearance expectation for a particular occupational role. Dress, The items worn and their appearance. Saliency of Appearance/Clothing. Determined by whether or not appearance and clothing are conspicuous or prominent in the respondents answers to questions about the referents in the storymsituations. Sanction. Degree of approval or disapproval of the referent or his clothing in the story-situations; positive, negative response. Occupational Prestige. Score which corresponds to the Bureau of Census occupational classifications. Theoretically, it represents the amount of power or influence implied by the activities of the occu- pation and the resources given to the employee. - Hypotheses Sex Role Expectations l. There will be a relationship between the ageJ educational level, income and occupational prestige of the respondents and their reaction to the sex of the referent in the occupational situation, when the description of clothing and appearance is held constant. 2. There will be a relationship between the employment status of the respondents' wives and their reaction to the sex of the referent in occupational situations, when the description of clothing and appear- ance is held constant. Clothing and Appearance Expectations 3. There will be a relationship between the ag_, educational level, income and occupational prestige of the respondents and their reaction to deviations from generally expected occupational clothing and appearance in the story—situations. Assumptions l. Men are aware of the appropriateness of clothing in rela- tion to specific occupational roles. 2. The dress described in the case studies represents a con- ceivable deviation from normative expectations for each occupation. 3. Respondents were motivated to indicate their true feelings. Limitations 1. Due to the fact that responses from three different sampling frames were combined, results cannot be generalized beyond the specific sample under study. 2. The accuracy of the data is limited to how seriously the respondents considered their responsibility to complete the open-ended questions honestly and not rely on socially desirablexanswers. Theoretical Framework Person Perception Since subjects were asked to respond to actors in hypothetical situations, person perception, which focuses on the process by which impressions, opinions or feelings about other persons are formed, was chosen as the theoretical framework. Person perception includes sub- jective judgments and inferences that go beyond one's direct sensory information (Secord and Backman, l964, p. 49). Individuals vary in the way in which they perceive others, and each appears to have his own ”implicit personality theory“ of what others are like. Kelly believes that the perceiver approaches each social sit- uation with an expectation or hypothesis about it and then compares this hypothesis to the reality of the situation. The perceiver's hypotheses are called ”personal constructs,“ by Kelly, and he believes they are interrelated into a consistent scheme. No two sets of personal constructs are ever alike, although they may appear similar among perceivers (Shaver, l975, p. 24). Considering that there are many diverse ways that others may be perceived, Secord and Backman (l964, p. 53) suggest a number of fundamental points about person perception; l. The level of complexity at which persons are per- ceived varies from one perceiver to another. 2. Each perceiver has certain 'central’ traits or characteristics that he emphasizes in describing others. The other person is always sized up with respect to the degree to which he possesses or lacks those traits. 3. The centrality of traits in forming impressions of others is probably a function of the per- ceiver's own personality. 4. Others are often described in 'relational' terms; that is, how the other relates to the per- ceiver and to other persons. The authors define "modes of perception” in terms of complexity of description. Description progresses from simple outward appearances to descriptions of central traits, followed by clusters of congruous traits and finally at the most complex level, description of traits that are inCOHQY‘UOUS- Perceivers often process limited information to prod- uce a more congruous impression, than is implied by the information it- self. Simple cues or bits of information are expanded upon to “round out" the picture or description. On the basis of verbal information alone, people often will make inferences about personality and imagine what one looks like. A study by Bruner, Shapiro and Tagiuri (l958, pp. 277-288) revealed that each bit of information about another person will lead perceivers to make certain inferences about his character. When many bits are presented, perceivers add up the inferences from each of the bits and arrive at a total impression (Secord and Backman, 1964, p. 58). When a perceiver selectively emphasizes certain cue traits, it is a reflection of the social or personal values he attaches to the traits. It is impossible for a perceiver to respond to all aspects of a stimulus person. Therefore, s/he resorts to a classification system 6 which categorizes the information received and places the stimulus per- son in an established category associated with certain personality attributes. Shaver (l975, pp. l3—l4) states that: perception is really best considered an act of categorization: through early experiences the perceiver learns what stimulus elements are reliably associated with each other and becomes » able to combine these into meaningful categories. Further, in making this determination, some aspects of the stimulus per- son are obviously more relevant than others. Categorized attributes may be physical, sexual or racial char- acteristics; they may involve membership in a group, organization or society; or they may even be based on certain distinctive behavior pat— terns (Secord and Backman, l964, p. 67). An important limitation to categorization is the prior entry effect. Early information which con- tributed to the formation of categories will be hard to overrule by later disconfirmations of that information. Partially because of this cognitive prior entry effect, the values and attitudes that are formed during the early establishment of categories by perceivers will be highly resistant to later change (Shaver, l975, p. l5). Because social stimuli is so complex, some degree of categori— zation in person perception is inevitable. The process of categorization can lead to some problems, as those associated with stereotyping. ”A stereotype is a special form of categorical response; membership in a category is sufficient to evoke the judgment that the person possesses all the attributes belonging to the category” (Secord and Backman, l964, p. 67). Perceivers may have personal stereotypes, which characterize their individual opinions and there are also social stereotypes, which represent the consensus of the majority of a given population of judges. Tagiuri (l958, p. xiii) adds that an important facet of per- son perception is the perception of roles: "For in many cases, appro- priate behavior depends not so much upon the idiosyncratic character of the other person, but rather upon his role." Why one is behaving in a certain way may be directly related to behaviors manifested in the per- son‘s role. Perceptions have been shown to vary depending upon whether the action of a stimulus is seen as caused by factors internal to him, over which he has control, or by those lying outside him, over which he may have no control. Attribution Attribution theory, which is based on the actions of persons, and observers perceptions of actions, has developed out of the area of person perception. The first step in the process is the observation of an action. To be attributionally useful, an observed action must be judged by the person perceiving it as intentional. The language of attribution requires that the perceiver make an attribution of "causal- ity,“ either to a dispositional quality of the stimulus person, which is called a personal disposition; or to a factor in the environment, known as an environmental disposition (Shaver, l975, pp. 26-33). The perceiver is making a decision based on his observation or other cognitive proc- esses, as to whether the action of the stimulus person was caused by factors internal to him or by others which are external. The attributional process is considered to terminate when the dispositional attribution has been determined. The process, as in person perception, is affected by the personal characteristics of the perceivers. Their perceptual judgments can be affected by their motivation, and as a perceiver becomes removed from the action or relies on second-hand information, the possibility of misinterpretation becomes much greater. Summar _ Individuals vary in the way in which they perceive others, because their perceptions are influenced by life experiences. In general, the process involves grouping pieces of information into categories that have meaning to the perceiver. These categories develop throughout the lifelong socialization process but because of the early entry effect, once categories are established, they are highly resistant to later change or contradictory information. Categories help perceivers to sim— plify complex stimuli information, but also may result in inaccurate stereotyping by assuming that because a person possesses certain attrib- utes associated with a category, s/he therefore possesses all the attributes of the category. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE The first section of this chapter contains a review of rele- vant research dealing with attitudes and perceptions of sex role espe- cially in relation to occupations. Research reviewed in the latter half of the chapter examines the communicative ability of clothing with special emphasis on its' function in occupational roles. Sex Role Theoretical Constructs Most researchers would agree that sex role definitions are generally linked to the socialization process, which continues through- out life and is especially active each time a person occupies a new position; as when s/he becomes a parent, is promoted in a business organization or becomes a member of a club. Sex roles as well as other roles are learned. According to Kagan (l964, p. 138), this requires learning as “association between certain attributes, behaviors, and attitudes, on the one hand, and the concepts male and female, on the other." When attributes are assigned to others solely on the basis of membership in a class or category such as male or female, the action known as "stereotyping." Albrecht, Bahr and Chadwick (1977, p. 225) summarize as follows: Girls and boys are socialized differently. Girls are taught to be more tractable, obedient, sug- gestible, dependent, and to follow 'feminine' inter- ests, and both sexes seem to acquire a sense that_ girls are less worthwhile than boys. Sanctions are imposed when behavior and attitudes contrary to the culturally prescribed patterns are exhibited, and activities that are defined as inappropriate for one's sex come to be avoided because they bring rejection rather than approval. The development of individual personality traits and of preferences for occupation and life goals are among the more impor- tant outcomes of this sex role socialization. Parsons (l942, pp. 604-6l6) agrees that there is a very close association between sex roles and occupational roles in that sex roles are most stringently enforced or sanctioned during the period of adult- hood when individuals are engaged in their work careers. Harris and Lucas (l975, p. 394) add: Men and women who deviate from traditional sex role stereotypes are likely to suffer from the internal doubts and conflicts arising because of the discrep— ancy between sex-role stereotypes internalized in childhood and their emerging struggle toward androg- enous self definition, and they may suffer as well from the hostile reaction of others. Millman (l97l, p. 774) points out that socialization limits women in the occupational world and this affects their personal identity and social status, since these are generally assigned on the basis of individual achievement and talent in one's occupation. Millman states further that . in a society which values identity through occupational achievement, that women are largely excluded from the entire system and its judgements because a woman's primary occupation is homemaking. A woman's identity and status in ppt_assigned on the basis of individual achievement, as the domi— nant American value would prescribe, but on the basis of ascribed characteristics: her sex, ll physical attributes, and her kinship ties (or more specifically, her marriage and husband's identity). This manner of assigning identity, then, is directly opposed to the dominant conscious value of the American Society. (p. 775) Research on Sex Role In the past research has supported much of the theory. How- ever, our society has undergone many rapid changes in the past two dec- ades. The feminist movement is no longer a new idea, and one wonders if and how traditional sex roles are changing in it's wake. The studies reviewed in the beginning of this section show that while there have been some changes in personality characteristics believed appropriate for each sex, many stereotypes remain. Kammeyer (l964) was interested in studying the attitudes of college girls to the two female roles determined to exist by Komarovsky (1946) almost twenty years earlier. ”The traditional role" stood for a common core of attributes defining proper attitudes toward men and a set of personality traits which had been part of the traditional role for women. In contrast, "the modern role" was in a sense not a sex role, as it eliminated the differences between the sexes. Kammeyer developed two attitudinal dimensions for these polar roles. These scales distin- guished between girls that had traditional and modern attitudes about "female personality traits" and ”feminine role behavior." Results revealed that approximately two-thirds of the sample of 209 college females had consistent attitudes, being either traditional or modern on both scales. Attitudes were most consistent for those females having the most college friends, the most dates and the most frequent parental contact. In other words, communication feedback was determined to be the "interpretive link" between frequency of interaction and attitude l2 consistency about the feminine sex role. More recently, Lao, Upchurch, Corwin and Grossnickle (l975) studied unconscious negative stereotyped attitudes toward females. The sample, consisting of both male and female undergraduate coliege students, was shown videotapes in which two males and two females in turn, played high, medium and low assertive roles. After viewing the tapes, the subjects rated the actors on intelligence and likeability. Lao et al., hypothesized that generally males would be judged as being more intel- ligent and likeable than females. The results supported the hypotheses. Interestingly enough, the biased attitude was equally prevalent with females as with males. Medium assertiveness proved desirable for both sexes, whereas high assertiveness was much more ”debilitating“ for females than for males. The researchers further suggest that since these attributes are important for many types of occupations, females may be restricted from opportunities that require high assertiveness, intel- ligence and likeability. Sex role identity has been recognized as having a significant effect upon both attribution and person perception. In examining dif- ferences in causal attributions made by male and female subjects for successful or unsuccessful performance by either a male or female target, Feldman-Summers and Kiesler (l974) observed that a female's performance was attributed to different causes than a males. Both female and male subjects attributed greater motivation to a female who was successful than to a successful male. While male subjects perceived the success- ful female target as being less able and having an easier task to perform than the male target, the female subjects perceived the female target as having a harder task than the male target. Coie, Pennington and Buckley (l974) observed that gender played a significant part in person l3 perception. Both male and female subjects attributed significantly more psychopathology to a female target than to her male counterpart who en- gaged in identical behavior, and mental health services were seen as more appropriate for the female. The significant effect of gender upon causal attributions and person perception can be explained as a product of societal perceptions of masculinity and femininity. In a comparative study, Roper and LaBeff (1974) examined inter- generational attitudes toward feminism with results obtained forty years earlier by Kirkpatrick (1936). For both studies, the sample consisted of college students and their parents. In the forty year span between studies, a general trend had developed toward more egalitarian attitudes toward sex roles. Both males and females in both generations seemed to be more favorable toward feminist issues regarding women in occupations and their political and legal rights. However, they appeared to be less favorable toward the isSues regarding women's domestic responsibilities including the division of labor in the household, feminine conduct, morality and dress. Level of education proved to be an important variable in relation to attitudes toward feminism in the comparative as well as earlier study. The higher the level of education for both the parents and the students, the more favorable were their attitudes toward feminism. Research by Harris and Lucas (1975), involving university social work students, lends support to the premise that sex role stereo- types are changing. However, the males and females sampled have dif- ferent expectations of what a healthy, socially competent, adult woman is like. This could result in relational difficulties between the sexes at both the personal and professional levels. l4 Pleck's (1978) findings revealed that hostile, negative, anti- egalitarian attitudes are now minority positions. The research directed at men's perceptions and attitudes about women involved a representative national sample. The attitudinal statement regarding women not working as hard in their employment as men was rejected. Pleck, however, reports that other kinds of traditional beliefs about women's needs and motiva- tions which have important constraining effects on women, such as the belief that women are happiest in the domestic role, and the belief that women are not discriminated against, are still supported by males. With regard to demographic data, it is the older and less educated respondents who more often adhered to the traditional beliefs that women's role is as a homemaker and that women were not discriminated against. Older respondents also believe that women don't work as hard as men and they disapprove of the women's liberation. Studies have also examined views toward occupations that are appropriate for each sex. While presumably stereotypical attitudes are changing, a recent study (Garrett, Ein and Tremaine, 1977) revealed that occupational choices of first, third and fifth grade school children from a middle class school reflect society's stereotypic standards of gender—appropriate roles. Choices by males were primarily adventurous, traditionally masculine, while females chose those that were nurturing and traditionally feminine. Additionally, many more vocational prefer- ences were mentioned for the males than for females. The grade school children in the study were also asked to rate forty adult occupations as male, female or neutral, in terms of their feelings as to which sex has the ability to do the job. The results indicated that the older children tended to have less gender stereotypes 15 toward occupations than the younger ones. Within the neutral and male job classifications, males rated the jobs as more male oriented than the females. The researchers conclude that although older children are exposed to more sex stereotyping, they are at a more sophisticated cog- nitive level than the younger children. A similar study, using older subjects was performed by Panek, Rush and Greenawalt (1977). The purpose was again to investigate sex role occupational stereotypes. A list of twenty-five occupations was given to male and female college students and they were asked to rate each according to the sex of employees usually associated with each occupation. A neutral classification was established for those occupa- tions that subjects felt were equally represented by both sexes. The results revealed that of the twenty-five occupations listed, eight were significantly perceived as male occupations and six as female. Analysis also revealed that in only one of the occupations given was there any significant difference in the ratings of the male and female subjects. The researchers believe that these results suggest that, even though attempts have been made to change social attitudes by the femi- nist movement, traditional sex stereotypes still exist with regard to many occupations. Furthermore, since the population under study was from a university, it would be expected to be more progressive in atti- tudes toward sex stereotyping of occupations than the general population. In another study, using college students as subjects, Lunnen- borg and Gerry (1977) compared vocational interests of the students on the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory, with those indicated for "women in general" and “men in general." Contrary to the researchers hypoth- eses, women differed little from "women in general" with regard to l6 vocational aspirations. College males, however, were significantly more interested in artistic forms of work and significantly less interested in realistic and enterprising areas than were "men in general." In comparison to the research presented above using counselees as subjects, Mitchack (1978) sought to determine occupational sex role stereotypes among counselor trainees. Reviewers of the literature on career counseling have concluded that sex bias frequently occurs and appears to be evident in both male and female counselors. Subjects were asked to describe four occupations in terms of personality characteristics that had been empirically linked with specific sex roles. This method is in contrast to other studies dealing with sex role stereotypes that have simply asked subjects to designate occupations as more appropriate for males or females. The results indicated that males do not differ from females in the degree of sex role stereotyping of occupations, but occupations differ in the degree of stereotyping elicited. A study done by Garland and Price (1977) determined attitudes toward females in management positions. The sample, consisting of under— graduate males were asked to read descriptions of a female manager. Half the sample read that she was successful and the other half read that she was unsuccessful. They were asked to make causal attributions for this success or failure. In addition, attitudes toward women in management were measured. The results provided strong support for the contention that causal interpretations of a female manager's success are strongly related to an individual's general attitude toward females in management positions. It was revealed that internal attributions (i.e., ability and hard work) for success were associated with more positive attitudes toward women in management. External attributions (i.e., good luck, 17 easy job) were associated with the more negative attitudes toward females in management positions. Attitudes about women in management were not affected by whether the female manager was described as success- ful or a failure. ‘ An assessment of adults' attitudes about the desirability of occupational roles and personality characteristics for males and females was the purpose of a study conducted by Albrecht et a1. (1977). A random sample of Utah residents were asked in a mail questionnaire, the desirability of a number of personality traits and the suitability of a number of occupations for males and females. Although some of the per- sonality traits were identified as distinctly characteristic of one sex or the other, the majority of the nineteen characteristics were identified by both male and female respondents as being equally desirable for both sexes. This finding contrasts markedly with respondents views re- garding occupational stereotypes. Of the fifteen listed occupations, only five were described by over half of the sample as being equally suitable for both men and women. Three occupations, that of housekeeper, secretary and nurse were identified by more than half of the sample as being primarily for women. Age was found to be positively related to sex stereotyping of both personality traits and occupations. The re- searchers note that it is possible that Utah residents may tend to be a bit more conservative than the general population. One might expect attitudes such as those reviewed about sex role and occupations to have an effect on attitudes toward occupational choice and sanctions applied to it. An often cited study of college seniors done by Komarovsky (1946) reveals the dilemma faced by young women of the forties. Caught between the ideal of homemaker and that of 18 career girl, they were encouraged to study hard to get good grades in school in order to get a good job, yet not to appear too bright as to be in competition with male classmates. After all, they were more inter- ested in a nice appearance and finding a prospective bride, than being possibly shown up by a female. More recently, Horner (1969) found that women were still hesitant to risk the possibility of being considered too academically or career oriented for fear that they might be rejected. Apparently by limiting their aspirations there was a greater chance of not standing out as being different. This finding was based on the negative responses elicited from female college students reacting to a hypothetical case of a female finishing at the head of her medical class. Conceivably attitudes toward occupational choices may have changed in the past nine years but research documenting the fact was not located. However, data on actual occupational choices are available. In examining the data, one first notes the steady increase of females in occupational roles outside the home, particularly since 1940. As late as 1940, only 30 percent of the working women were married and living with their husbands, whereas approximately 60 percent are in this category today (Sawhill, 1974, p. 90). Although the ratio of women to men in the labor force has increased markedly, one to 4.5 men in 1960 and one to 1.8 men in 1967 (Gross, 1968, p. 198), most writers question whether there has been an actual shift in the occupational structure toward a more egalitarian composite. An often cited study in this area was performed by Gross (1968). He sought to determine whether the sexual structure of occupations had changed over time. The period studied was 1900 to 1960. The procedure 19 included taking the detailed occupations provided by the census for this time period, and calculating an index of segregation for the approxi- mately three hundred to four hundred occupations listed each year. He concluded that there was as much sexual segregation in 1960 as there was in 1900. The figures yielded over the years were very close to each other which seems to indicate that many of the societal changes which occurred during the period, including wars and depression, have not appeared to have made a change in the pattern. This finding supports other evidence that the great expansion in female employment has been in occupations that were already heavily female, through the emergence of new positions that were female from their beginnings, and less by females taking over in occupations previously held by males. Wolf and Rosenfeld (1978) have examined the sex structure of occupations and job mobility by occupational characteristics specifical- ly. Given the sex stability of the labor market, women tend to be highly concentrated in a relatively small number of predominately female occu- pations. Specifically women are disproportionally employed in clerical, semi-professional and service occupations. These occupations seem to have relatively high occupational prestige, require fairly high levels of education and training be brought to the job, demand little career continuity and commitment of those occupying them and offer comparatively low monetary reward and chance for advancement (p. 825). Wolf and Rosenfeld contend that it is a requirement that gen- eral training be brought to the job, rather than participation in "on- the" job training, and that these skills are therefore easily trans- ferable to different jobs and require little commitment by either employer or employee. This situation results in the lack of upward 20 mobility and advancement in occupations.. In contrast, occupations that are predominately held by men tend to require more on-the-job training . and specialized skills. Men tend to increase their occupational prestige as they move through a series of progressively better jobs, whereas women tend to remain at the same level of prestige throughout their lives. A research finding by Featherman and Hauser (1976) adds to the distinctions already observed between the occupational involvement of females and males. Equality of economic opportunity for women has not followed from working women's opportunities for schooling and occupational status. The process of earnings attainment is sharply different for the sexes, with men deriving greater benefits from their social origins, educations and occupational standings, even among persons of statistically equivalent work experience and levels of current participation. While the net returns to education have improved more noticeably for women than men between 1962 and 1973, the intertemporal increases in returns to occupational status have benefited only men. (Pw 481) They continue that if women had enjoyed the same "rates" of return as men to their stocks of human capital, the sexual gap in earning would have been significantly reduced. The earning differential reflects discrimination more than the compositional difference between the sexes. Discrimination accounts for 85 percent of the earnings gap between males and females in 1962 and 84 percent in 1973 (p. 481). Recently studies by sociologists have considered the process of status attainment of males and females. This review has already pre- sented several findings with regard to occupational status or prestige of the sexes. Treiman and Terrell (1975) discount the claim that a woman's status is determined by that of her husband's, as being no longer true at a time when nearly half of all adult American women are in the 21 labor force. While it still may be that the very highest status positions are closed to women, or at least difficult to advance in, these restric- tions cannot be generalized to other levels of the occupational hierarchy. Their research revealed that women and men are actually engaged in jobs that, on the average, have equal prestige. This is partially due to the fact that the large concentration of female workers are in clerical, professional and service work and men are concentrated in managerial, craft and laboring work, with about an equal amount of both sexes in- volved in sales and operative work. Additionally, it must be noted that prestige or status does not mean equal earnings. Although the process and level of educational and occupational attainment is almost identical for both sexes, women earn far less that men even when work experience and hours of work are taken into account (p. 174). Findings by McClendon (1976) support this status equality among the sexes. He found that the most important difference between the distribution of the sexes in occupations, is that there is a greater concentration of males at both the upper and lower ends of the distri- butions. His research also revealed that full-time workers and married women have higher status than part—time workers and unmarried women. Summary Most of the research reviewed in this chapter is relatively recent. Considering that the subjects in many of the studies are college students who are considered to be younger, more liberal and better educated than the general public, it is interesting to note that the majority still adhere to traditional attitudes toward sex role. Most of these subjects have grown up in an era when the emphasis on the women's movement and equality was also on the rise. Therefore, one would assume 22 that samples of college students of the Seventies would be favorable toward change to more egalitarian sex roles than results have shown. Dress and Communication Theoretical Statements Horn (1975, p. 100) likens dress to language. Both, she believes ”function to compose images, and both employ a complex system of symbols to convey messages." She continues that people make unique and varied statements through their use of dress, but unlike other forms of communication which can be restrained if one chooses not to communi- cate, messages communicated through dress and appearance cannot be avoided. These messages are particularly important when the status of a person is unknown. Linton (1936, p. 416) states that ”clothing makes it possible for a stranger to determine at once the social category to which the wearer belongs and thus avoids acts or attitudes toward him which would be social errors." James Morgan (1955, p. 312) contributes ”You may discover that in a world where a person's abilities are hard to assess, he is sometimes judged by what he wears.“ Goffman (1963) asserted that the form of dress is a factor in the meaning of the appearance as projected by the individual, and the appropriateness of the form of dress changes with the situation. Stone (1965, pp. 216-245) provides more detail about the messages that are projected by clothing and appearance. He believes that appearance in- cluding gestures, clothing and grooming is non—verbal communication. Further appearance helps establish identity including universal catego- ries such as age and sex, interpersonal relations, including names and 23 nicknames, structural relations such as occupational and marital titles; and "relational categories,” as social relations that may be anonymously entered. Identity is further qualified by mood and value also communi— cated by dress. In situations involving minimal information-those non- verbal appearance cues may be used to form impressions and make judgments of other persons. He further believes that how others perceive one also influences how one sees himself. Clothingyin Occupational Situations The importance of appearance in helping people get ahead and hold jobs, was emphasized as early as 1918, by Dearborn. Currently popular are the books on prescriptive dressing for males and females that want to gain access to or get ahead in management positions (Molloy, 1975 and 1977). The importance of clothing and appearance in the initial judg- ment of a job applicant was investigated by Godfrey (1965). She analysed the criteria used by hiring agents in judging job applicants for a secre- tarial position. The study was based on the premise that culturally defined standards of dress exist for various occupations and that hiring agents use these standards in evaluation job applicants. Although the findings revealed that female and male hiring agents differ in their evaluation of what appearance factors are important, external personal qualities, including clothing, were found to have some significance as influential factors in an employment interview. More recently, hiring agents‘ perceptions of appearance norms for female job applicants for white collar positions in business were studied by Jones (1972). During interviews, the hiring agents were shown pictures of various outfits that could be worn for an interview. 24 The outfits that were neat and conservative, along with a skirt and blouse in clashing colors were considered appropriate for an interview. Those that were judged inappropriate included: slack outfits, and out- fits that were extreme in length, bold print, revealing, overly acces- sorized and unkempt. The majority of agents revealed that they considered an applicant's skills, job experience, personality and appearance in an interview. Aspects of appearance considered included judgments of clothing form, neatness, grooming and specific clothing features such as length, properiety, neatness and conservatism. A majority of agents also considered hairstyle and makeup of applicants. Hiring agents used most of the above criteria to evaluate the organizations employees in the daily work situation. Emphasis was placed on adherence to expected appearance norms as a factor in employment retention and as a basis for promotion. Few studies have dealt with occupational clothing for males. The study by Form and Stone (1955) on the social significance of occu- pational clothing, performed in a small midwestern town, was an exception. A sample, consisting of married men representing the full range of the occupational structure, was interviewed with four separate schedules regarding clothing. The schedule that focused on the importance of clothing in the work situation revealed that the meaning that clothing held for the different occupational groups varied with the occupational types. White collar workers realized the capability of clothing to influence others. More than one-third dressed up in order to make an impression on hiring agents when applying for their first employment. Manual workers and workers employed in relatively lower prestige occup- tions attached less importance to clothing and were relatively unaware 25 that others may judge them on the basis of their dress. They felt less freedom to manipulate their clothing which was due partially to the fact that more of their clothing was prescribed or required of them. In what they felt to be "an indirect but perhaps more realistic way," Form and Stone used a modified projective technique to elicit responses with regard to occupational dress. The story-situations they presented were based on actual occurrences and represented problem situations involving clothing in different occupations. They contained deviations from established clothing norms, clothing use and occupational mobility. One situation deals with a man in need of legal counsel. He made an appointment with a lawyer recommended to him by a friend, as competent and with an established reputation of winning legal cases. When he arrived at the lawyer's office, he was surprised to find the lawyer "casually dressed in a faded sport shirt that hung out over an unpressed pair of pants." The respondents were asked to take the role of the client. Approximately two-fifths approved of the lawyer, although two- thirds disapproved of his clothing. Roughly equal proportions of the sample would: refuse to use the lawyer's services, try to learn more about him, make certain reservations before deciding to employ him or hire him despite the poor impression he makes. Reasons given for disapproving generally fell into two categories: inference of disapprov- al of personal traits, as incompetence, and violation of public expec- tations of how a professional man should dress. Since respondents reacted differently to this situation than to another one dealing with clothing norm violations, the researchers 26 deduced that: the clothes a person wears are evaluated in the con- text of the situation. The symbolic value of clothes is then a function of the social definition of the situation, and not a function of the inherent char- acter of clothing or how the person dressed in ‘ general. (p. 44) Two occupational categories, homemaker and other employment, were used by Musa (1973) in her investigation of family role attitudes concerning female roles and attitudes concerning appearance. The stratified random sample consisted of married women and men from a large midwest capital and college town. After a telephone interview with the wives, sets of questionnaires were mailed to the couples. The instrument consisted of attitudinal scales reflecting the variables under study, demographic information questions and several open-ended questions. A significant relationship was found between attitudes con- cerning the female role and attitudes concerning appearance for both husbands and wives. Age was also significantly linked with attitudes concerning female occupations and family roles. and attitudes concerning feminine and masculine appearance, for the wives in the sample. Husbands' attitudes concerning feminine and masculine appearance were also signi- ficantly related to age, and attitudes regarding female personal attri- butes were significantly associated with social position. However, the researcher concluded that the hypothesis that family role enactment of the wife is related to attitudes concerning appearance could not be supported in the basis of the data received from this study. Addition- ally, it was found that traditional homemakers did tend to hold more traditional attitudes concerning family and occupational roles than did wives who were employed outside the home. 27 Summary Clothing and appearance studies have yielded results which reinforce the theories presented by Stone, Goffman and others. Clothing is a form of communication and messages are derived whether or not they are intended. Impressions are formed, and judgments are made of others based on the way they appear. In occupational situations, the clothing and appearance of workers and prospective workers plays an instrumental role. Hiring agents considered it to be an indicator as to whether or not an applicant was appropriate for a job. Employers, workers and the public appear to have certain expectations with regard to occupational dress. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Introduction This study is part of an integrated research effort on Quality of Life conducted by faculty in the College of Human Ecology at Michigan State University. Co-directors of the research are Dr. Ann Slocum, Department of Human Environment and Design, and Dr. Margaret Bubolz, Department of Family and Child Science. The research is funded by the Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station and the University of Minnesota.1 The objectives of this study include an examination of male respondents reactions to deviations in clothing and appearance of char— acters in projective occupational situations and determination of male acceptance of females in somewhat traditional male occupational roles. Description of the Instrument Case Studies The data collection instrument was a self-administered ques- tionnaire. Five, short, story-situations, each followed by several open- ended questions, were the major consideration for this study. The 1Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Project #1249 “Cloth- ing Use and Quality of Life in Rural and Urban Communities," Project #3151 "Families in Evolving Rural Communities," M.S.U. 0RD Grant #21347. 28 29 stories dealt with sex roles and occupational dress. Referents in the stories were portrayed in occupations not traditionally held by their sex, and also, in some of the situations, the clothing or appearance of the referent was atypical or non-conforming. Three of the five story- situations are adaptations of those used by Form and Stone (1955, pp. 39-53) in their research on clothing and occupational life. In the original form, the referent in each story was either male or female and this remained the same for all respondents in the sample. The adapta- tion involved changing the sex of the actor in the story-situation for half of the respondents, e.g. half of the respondents received stories in which the referent was male and the other half received the same story, but with a female actor as shown in Table 1. Table l. Story-situations by Set ‘— Occupation of Referent Set A Set B Description of Dress Applicant for Carol Carol skirt and blouse Construction Work Lawyer Mr. Drake Ms. Drake casually dressed, faded sport shirt hanging out over unpressed pants (slacks) Typist Ann Bob good, new clothes best dressed in office Foreman promoted John Sue foreman’s work clothes; to Division Head associates wore business suits Teachera Nancy revealing, braless tops Paul shirts open to the waist, tightly fitting slacks adeveloped by the researcher 30 The other adaptations involved changing one of the actors names to one that is in more common usage today, and describing the appearance slightly differently for male and females in the three new stories in order to provide a more realistic referent. For example, the original situation had Mr. Drake casually dressed in a faded sport shirt that hung out over an unpressed pair of pants; when the situation was presented with Ms. Drake, she was casually dressed in a faded shirt that hung out over an unpressed pair of slacks. TWO additional story- situations were added by the researcher. In one, the sex of the refer- ent remained the same for the entire sample, in the other, the sex dif- fered, as in the three previously described. Attitudinal Questions In another section of the questionnaire respondents indicated strength of agreement or disagreement with thirty attitudinal state- ments. The response was given by circling a number from one to five. Two statements in this section that dealt specifically with clothing worn on the job were included in the analysis in Appendix A. These statements were also adapted from the Form and Stone Study. Demographic Variables The demographic variables to be considered in conjunction with the five story-situations include: age, education, employment sta- tus of both husband and wife, occupational prestige and family income. It is believed that these variables may have an effect on the way in which the respondents react to the variables in the stories. The demographic variables, as shown in Appendix A, were measured as follows: Agg, The respondents age in years. 31 Education. The highest level of formal education achieved, as derived from the eleven categories. Occupational Prestige. A score from nine to seventy-eight developed by Hodge,Siege1 and Rossi(l966, pp. 322-334) which corre- sponds to the three-digit occupational classification of the United States Bureau of the Census. The determinants of occupational prestige as described by Hodge, Siegel and Rossi (1966, p. 322) include: the way in which it is articulated into the division of labor, . . . the amount of power and influence implied in the activities of the occupation, . the characteristics of incumbents, and . . . the amount of resources society places at the dispos— al of incumbents. Husband's Income. As indicated by checking one of seventeen categories. This figure may include money from wages, salaries, prop- erty, stocks and bonds, interest, child support from a previous mar- riage, welfare and any other additional income. Employment Status. Determined by whether or not the respon- dent and his wife were employed twenty hours or more per week. Pretest In October, 1977, the instrument was pretested in Ingham and Oakland Counties. The pretest sample was chosen to simulate, as well as possible, the larger sample planned for the research project. Streets were randomly selected from designated areas. Par- ticipants were husband and wife couples, living together, with at least one child aged five to eighteen residing in the household. The inter- viewers, graduate students working on the research team, contacted pro- spective households, explained the project and determined whether or not the household met the eligibility criteria. If they met the crite- ria, the couple was asked to sign a consent form indicating that they 32 both agreed to participate in the research project. Separate question- naires for the husband and wife were left at the household. Couples were asked to complete the questionnaires completely. TWenty sets of questionnaires were placed and eighteen completed sets were picked up by the interviewers at a later time. A short evaluation of the instru- ment was administered at the time the questionnaires were collected. A remuneration of ten dollars was paid to the couples for a completed set of questionnaires. Three of the open-ended story-situations were included in the pretest questionnaire. Three additional story-situations were pretested separately by the researcher to determine plausibility of usage in the final instrument. Eleven people participated in this separate test. They were required to read stories and answer the accompanying questions. They did not complete the entire pretest. Changes in the instrument due to the pretests which affected this study included dropping one of the alternately tested stories thus setting the number at five open-ended story—situations for the final questionnaire. Respondents mentioned in their evaluations that, in general, they enjoyed the open-ended questions as a change of pace from the lengthy objective sections of the questionnaire. Due to this, the open-ended stories were moved from close to the end of the instrument, to the middle. In addition, to allow for privacy of response between husbands and wives, and decrease the possibility of collusion, it was decided to provide manilla envelopes with each questionnaire so that respondents could seal their responses upon completion. 33 The Sample, Design and Selection The diverse needs of the researchers required that data be obtained from families, and that the sample be relatively rural and include minority groups. A relatively high income level was also desired as a rough indicator of ability to complete the questionnaire. A nationally known research agency was hired to draw the sample and place the questionnaires in eligible households. The sample was drawn from three census tract frames in Oakland County, intended to represent the relatively rural portion of the county, a high concentration of minority residents and the urban-suburban portion of the county. All census tracts that met the criteria of $12,000 median income in 1970 were listed within the three geographic areas and were ordered by number of occupied dwelling units. In one area the income criteria had to be lowered below $12,000 to guarantee enough participants. Seventy-five sampling points were systematically chosen from the list of occupied household dwelling units. Contiguous blocks were added to provide a large enough area to yield the desired four households per cluster. A randomly designated dwelling was selected and every fifth one from it was to be contacted, making substitutes to the left and the right as necessary and using a systematic walk pattern (Appendix B). To be eligible for placement of questionnaires, the household had to consist of a husband and wife, living together, with at least one child between the ages of five and eighteen residing with them. The first designated household was contacted up to three times, if necessary, to determine eligibility for placement. If a household did not meet the requirements, or if the interviewer was unable to contact the husband or wife, a substitution was made of the household to the right. If the 34 household to the right did not meet the placement criteria or if no contact was made, a further substitution was made with the household to the left of the one originally selected. This pattern was followed throughout the cluster area until four sets were placed. An‘important factor for this study is that within clusters, Set A and Set B question- naires were placed alternately, and husbands and wives always received the same set. In some areas, it was necessary to alter the original random selection of households because of the low proportion of residents meeting the research criteria. Households chosen were still required to meet the original eligibility criteria for placement. Data Collection Before the actual field work began, the interviewers were trained by the field supervisor from the research agency and the Quality of Life Project Directors. The purpose of the questionnaire was explained to them as well as the procedures to be followed in the field. Inter— viewers were responsible for screening the chosen households to deter- mine eligibility for placement as outlined above. At the time of place- ment, the signature of husband or wife was obtained on the consent form. Both signatures were required at the time the questionnaires were picked up. Couples were assured by the interviewers and in writing that their responses and their participation in the research project would remain confidential. A ten dollar remuneration was promised as well as a summary of research findings in exchange for completion of the ques- tionnaire sets by the couple. The questionnaires were left with the family to be self-administered by the husband and wife and sealed in the envelopes provided. They were collected by the interviewers several days later. 35 Due to time constraints and difficulties in completing the field work, data collection was halted in March 1978, about four months after it began. The number of usable questionnaires obtained was 237. Data Coding The primary development of codes for the stOry-situations was done by Dr. Gloria Williams of the University of Minnesota. Re- sponses for ninety cases, typed on cards were analyzed to determine the range of responses, and facilitate code development. Complete responses were considered in the coding process and comments that did not fit the codes were recorded on separate cards along with identification numbers. Comments believed to be similar were grouped together and appropriate codes were developed for each category. A collusion variable was developed to help guarantee authen- ticity of response. Responses from husbands and wives were compared. Based on similarity of wording and similarity of handwriting, a code indicating no evidence of collusion, possible or probable collusion was assigned. For the first case the actual coding was performed by three graduate students; two from Michigan State University and one from the University of Minnesota. An initial meeting including all coders, Dr. Williams and Dr. Slocum was held in which the first ten questionnaires were coded together to establish reliability among coders. Thereafter, coders were check-coded every fifth case for the first thirty cases each and following that any problem cases were check-coded. For the second case, the coding was performed by two graduate students from Michigan State University, a graduate student from the 36 University of Vermont and a staff member of the Department of Human Environment and Design. Coders worked together closely and met fre- quently to ensure reliability. *The second case proved to be a bit more difficult to code, therefore, check-coding averaged approximately one case per four coded. The demographic data, with the exception of two items, was coded by graduate students and two work-study students involved in the project. The first five questions were check-coded. A 90% reliability was required. After this, every fifth case was checked. Two Sociology graduate students were employed to code occupational class and occupa- tional prestige. They check-coded each other. Development of Scales Several scales were developed to measure the respondents re- actions to sex role and clothing and appearance in the story-situations. Positive-Negative Feelings Dimension. Used in analysis of the first story-situation, responses to the question ”How would you have felt if you were Carol?" were classified into five on—scale categories. In coding responses, a qualified category was used to represent answers for which the respondent imposed a condition or qualification. Another distinction that should be noted is the one between responses that were categorized as mixed and those classified neutral. The mixed category represents a response containing both positive and negative feelings, whereas a neutral response was one that was impossible to classify as either positive or negative. Intensityyof Feeling. Responses to the first question ”How would you have felt if you were Carol?" were also coded as to strength 37 or intensity of the feeling expressed by the respondent. The five on- scale categories ranged from most negative to most positive. Whether a negative or positive response was classified into the "most" category at each end of the scale was determined by the strength of the wording used and the use of modifiers as: very, really, etc. Sex Role and Clothing/Appearance. In response to the question "Why do you think that she was not hired?" responses were categorized by whether or not sex role or clothing and appearance were mentioned. Saliengy_of Clothingiandeppearance Dimension. Responses to the question "Why do you think that she was not hired?" that mentioned clothing or appearance were further classified along a five point saliency scale. If clothing was mentioned as important in this situation, then it was classified as salient; whereas, if mentioned, but as unim- portant, it was considered as not salient. Mixed or ambivalent mid— scale codes were given to those responses containing both salient and not salient feelings about clothing in the situation. Qualified re— sponses represent a condition or qualification imposed by the respondent. Approval-Disapproval Dimension. A seven point scale was developed to code responses to the question "What do you think of the lawyer?" in the second story-situation. It ranged from unqualified approval to unqualified disapproval and each contained codes for qual- ified and implied approval or disapproval. Qualified answers were deter- mined to be those in which a condition was imposed by the respondent. Implied reponses were based on the action the respondent indicated he would take. The same scale and coding procedure were used for measuring 38 the respondents approval or disapproval of the lawyer's clothing. Saliency of Clothing_and Appearance Dimension. Answers to the "Why?" question which asked respondents the reason for their feelings about the lawyer were further coded on a five point clothing saliency dimension if clothing or appearance was mentioned. If clothing was mentioned as important to this situation, then it was classified as salient, whereas if mentioned but as unimportant, it was coded not salient. Mixed or ambivalent mid-scale codes were given to those re- sponses containing both salient and not salient feelings about clothing to this situation. Qualified responses were distinguished as those in which the respondent imposed a condition. Sanction Continuum. Responses to the question "If you were Tom, what would you have done?“ were categorized along a five point action dimension which ranged from positive to negative sanction. The action indicated by the respondent was considered to be a positive sanc- tion if he indicated he would continue his appointment with the lawyer; whereas, negative sanction meant the respondent indicated he would with- draw from the situation. Qualified answers, either positive or negative were coded on scale but separately from unqualified. 39 Analysis of the Data Comparison of Respondents by Set Type Since the investigator wanted to use demographic variables to explain variations in response to the sex of the actor and the dress deviations in the story-situations, it was necessary to determine whether respondents to Set A were similar with regard to demographic variables to respondents to Set B. The two groups were compared on the variables of: age, education, race, income, occupational prestige and employment status of their wives. Set A and Set B respondents were determined to be very similar on the basic demographic variables except for employment status of wives, and it was concluded that there is no reason to believe that they represent different populations. Table 2 contains a comparison of the demographic variables by set type. From the results presented in the table, it was concluded that different reactions to the sex of the referent or the referent's clothing most likely would not be attributed to dissimilarity in basic demographics between the two groups. Independent Variables Used in Analysis The demographic variables: age, education, income and employ- ment status of respondents' wives are shown in Table 2 by the categories used for Chi Square analysis. Occupational prestige which was also used in analysis was treated as a linear scale. The means for the two sets on occupational prestige are presented in Table 2. For the Spearman Rank Order Correlation, the variables were used as originally coded. Dependent Variables Used in Analysis The following variables were derived from the previously described scales for the purpose of analysis, Story-Situation l: 40 Clothing Saliency, Sex Role, Clothing and Appearance; Story-Situation 2: Approval-Disapproval of the Lawyer, Approval—Disapproval of the Lawyer's Clothing and Appearance, Saliency of Clothing, Positive—Negative Sanction. Use of Seales in Analysis For the purpose of analysis, the following adjustments were made in the scales: positive-negative scales were collapsed into three categories representing the range of responses, the approval-disapproval dimensions were collapsed into three categories which represented the range of responses, the saliency of clothing and appearance dimension was collapsed in four categories and the sanction continuum was collapsed into three categories representing the positive, negative and mixed re- sponses. Hypotheses Testing The Chi Square and Analysis of Variance were selected to test the hypotheses. Additional analysis was performed using Spearman Rank Order Coorelatioh. The level of significance was set at .05. Further Limitation of the Study Due to delays in code development and time constraints, it was decided to limit the number of cases analyzed for this thesis to the first two story-situations presented in the questionnaires. 41 TABLE 2.--Comparative Results of Set A and Set 8 Questionnaire Respondents ' _on Basic Demographic Variables SET A SET B N % N % -x2 Responding Responding Ase Under 35 36 30.7 31 27.7 35 - 44 48 41.0 47 42.0 {3: 1.242 45 and over 33 28.3 34 30.3 df = 3 Missing Data __;L .41; p = .7431 TOTAL 118 100.0 112 100.0 Education Less than 12 years 17 14.5 27 24.3 high school Completed high school 36 30.8 27 24.3 1 - 3 years college 30 25.6 24 21.7 *3: 6.066 Bachelor's degree, post 18 15.4 23 20.7 df = 4 bachelor's course work p = .1943 Master's, Ph.D., Ed.D., 16 13.7 10 9.0 or other professional degree as M.D., D.O., J.D., D.D.S. Missing Data .__1 ._;1 TOTAL 118 100.0 112 100.0 Race White 96 81.4 97 86.6 23: .82 Black/Negro/African _22_ 18.6 _15_ 13.4 df = 1 American p = .366 TOTAL 118 100.0 112 100.0 42 TABLE 2 (cont'd.) SET A SET B N % N 70 x2 Responding Responding - Employment Status of Respondent's Wife Wife employed 20 hours 66 56.9 81 73.0 k3= 5.738 per week or more df = 1 Wife does not work or 50 43.1 30 27.0 works less than 20 p = .016 hours per week Missing Data __j; ___1 TOTAL 118 100.0 112 100.0 Occupational Prestige r-test, r=-.20 Mean 48.3033 48.7589 p = .844 Income N % N % x_2 Under $3,000 1 .8 4 3.6 f3= 16.552 $4,000 - 4,999 0 0.0 1 .9 df = 14 $5,000 - 5,999 2 1.7 2 1.8 p = .2808 $6,000 - 6,999 1 .8 o 0.0 $7,000 - 7,999 0 0.0 l 9 $8,000 - 9,999 2 1.7 5 4.5 $10,000 - 11,999 2 1.7 7 6.3 $12,000 - 14,999 8 6.8 8 7.1 $15,000 - 19,999 26 22.0 24 21.4 $20,000 - 24,999 30 25.4 21 18,7 $25,000 - 29,999 24 20.3 12 10.7 $30,000 - 34,999 8 6.8 12 10.7 TABLE 2 (cont'd) 43 Income (cont'd) $35,000 - 49,999 $50,000 - 74,999 Not Applicable Missing TOTAL SET A SET B N % N % 8 6.8 8 7.1 2 1.7 5 4.5 2 1.7 2 1.8 2 1.7 -— --- —- 118 99.9a 112 100 0 aTotal does not equal 100 percent due to rounding CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Included in this chapter is a description of the sample and a discussion of the hypotheses and analysis by story-situation. The hypo- theseSdealt with men's perceptions of the appropriateness of the sex of the referent in the occupational situations and also their reactions to the clothing and appearance of each referent. Description of Sample The original sample consisted of 237 husbands and wives with at least one child between the ages of five and eighteen living with them. Only responses of the husbands are analysed. A comparison of husband's and wive's responses, based on similarity of wording, ideas and handwriting, yielded evidence of probable collusion for seven respon- dents and these were dropped from the sample. Therefore, for the pur- pose of analysis the sample consisted of 230 males. Ass The sample ranged in age from twenty-four to sixty-three years. Respondents were primarily middle-aged with a mean age of 40.2. The age distribution of the sample is categorically presented in Table 3. 44 45 TABLE 3.-—Age of Respondents Age N % 30 and younger 30 13.0 31 - 35 44 19.1 36 - 4O 54 23.5 41 - 45 40 17.4 46 - 55 50 21.7 Over 55 11 4.8 Missing data __;L ___51 TOTAL 230 99.9a aDoes not equal one hundred due to rounding Education The sample was generally well educated. Five categories, which ranged from less than a high school diploma, to achievement of a master's or other advanced degree, were established. Of the sample, 19 percent had less than a high school diploma, whereas 28 percent had finished high school, but had gone no further. Twenty-nine percent had achieved a bachelor's degree or greater. Table 4 contains the break- down of the sample in the educational categories. 46 TABLE 4.--Educational Background of Respondents N % Less than 12 years of high school 44 19.1 Completed high school 63 27.4 1 to 3 years of college 54 23.5 Bachelor's degree and post 41 18.0 bachelor's course work Master's, Ph.D., Ed.D., or other 26 11.3 professional degree as M.D., D.O. J.D., D.D.S. Missing Data __33 .8 TOTAL 230 100.1a aDoes not equal 100 percent due to rounding Employment Status Table 5 shows the employment status of the men who participated in the study. As one would expect, the majority of males were employed away from home. 47 TABLE 5.--Employment Status of Respondents _ N % House husband not employed or 1 .4 looking for work Employed away from home 213a 92.6 Unemployed, looking for work, on 9 3.9 strike, or on sick leave Retired or disabled 1,. (A) 0 TOTAL 230 99.9 aIncludes three employed students bDoes not equal 100 percent due to rounding Employment status of a couple was divided into two categories: one in which both husband and wife were working at least twenty hours or more per week and another for those couples in which they did not work or worked less than twenty hours per week. As Table 6 indicates, the sample consists of eighty employed males whose wives also work twenty hours or more and 147 in which only the husband was employed. TABLE 6.--Dual Career Employment Status N % Both husband and wife employed 80 35.2 20 hours per week or more Wife does not work or works less 147 64.8 than 20 hours per week ____ TOTAL 227a 100.0 aDoes not include three who are retired, disabled. 48 OcCupational Prestige The Occupational Prestige scores for the sample ranged from twelve to seventy-eight. For the purpose of analysis the scores were not collapsed into categories; occupational prestige was treated as a linear scale. The sample mean was 48.53, and variance was equal to 309.9. Income The income of the sample was coded in two ways: the total income for the family and the amount of family income earned specifically by each spouse. Often these two figures were the same due to the fact that a large portion of the sample of males were the sole wage earners in the family. Table 7 shows total family income broken into four cate- gories. The family income category in which the largest number of respondents fell was of $20,000 to $29,999 followed closely by the category of $30,000 to $39,999. Over two-thirds of the sample reported family income as over $20,000. Also revealed in Table 7 is the amount of family income earned specifically by the male respondents. The income category in which the largest number of males fell was, again, of $20,000 to $29,999. 49 TABLE 7.--1977 Income of Respondents Total Amount of Income Family Income Earned by Husband _N__ _:/o_ .3. ‘ :2 Under $10,000 18 7.8 19 8.2 $10,000 - $19,999 47 20.4 75 32.6 $20,000 - $29,999 90 39.1 87 37.8 $30,000 and above 73 31.7 43 18.7 Missing Data __j;_ ___;9 __§L_ _g;g§ TOTAL 230 99.9b 230 99.9b aIncluding wages, property, stocks, interest, welfare, Aid to Families with Dependent Children, child support from a previous mar- riage, and any other money income received by all family members living in the household. bDoes not add to 100 percent due to rounding Construction Worker Story—Situation This study examined the responses from two projective story- situations. The first story, responded to by the entire sample, deals with a female applying for a non-traditional position as a construction worker. Of particular interest is that she is described as having previous experience in construction work and that she is dressed for the interview in non-work clothing. The situation presented to respondents is as follows: Carol read that a local company was hiring workers for their construction crews. Since she had sev- eral years experience, she felt that she would get a job. After making an appointment for an interview, she arrived at the personnel office wearing a skirt and blouse and was surprised to see that she was the only female in the roomful of appli- cants. Carol felt that her interview with the 50 personnel director had gone well and was certain that she would be hired. The following day she received a phone call and was told that all the posi- tions on the construction crews had been filled. Respondents were asked the following open-ended questions: "How would you have felt if you were Carol?" ”Why do you think that she was not hired?“ "Other comments.” Results Response to the first question, ”How would you have felt if you were Carol?" was primarily negative. Given the description of someone feeling qualified and confident, and then being rejected, it is not surprising that 75 percent of the sample gave a negative response. Due to the lack of variation further analysis was not performed on the results to this item. Table 8 consists of the distribution of responses to this question. 51 TABLE 8.--Positive Negative Feelings in Response to the Question: "How would you have felt if you were Carol?" Relative Adjusted Dimension N Frequency -Frequency Positive 4 1.7 1.8 Qualified Positive 2 .9 .9 Mixed-Ambivalent 1 4 .5 Qualified Negative 26 11.3 11.8 Negative 148 64.3 67.0 Neutral 10 4.3 4.5 Other Orientationa 7 3.0 3.2 Don't Know 6 2.6 2.7 Not Applicable 17 7.4 7.7 Missing __j1_ __§;9_ —-- TOTAL 230 100.0 100.0 adid not take the role of Carol Responses were analysed as to the intensity of feeling as implied by the wording used by respondents. Since the majority of the sample had replied negatively to the first question, the Intensity of Feeling Scale based on this response was also predominately negative. Therefore, further analysis was not performed. Table 9 contains the sample distribution on the Intensity of Feeling Scale. 52 TABLE 9.--Intensity of Feeling Derived from Response to the Question: "How would you have felt if you were Carol?" Relative Adjusted Dimension Example N Frequency _Frequency Most Negative awful, very bad 45 19.6 20.4 Negative disappointed, troubled 124 53.9 56.1 Neutral, Mixed indifferent, surprised 4 1.7 1.8 Positive relieved, pleased 6 2.6 2.7 Most Positive used very as a modifier 0 Not Applicable did not take the role of 42 18.3 19.0 Carol Missing '__9 __;3£1 __;:;_ TOTAL 230 100.0 100.0 When asked ”Why do you think that she was not hired?“ the majority of responses included references to sex role, appearance and clothing and abilities and skills as the reason. Many mentioned more than one of these and some respondents included all three. Those that referred to sex role, often said that women didn't belong in construction jobs, would be a disruptive element, or should remain in traditional women's occupations. Carol's skirt and blouse was considered inappropriate attire for an interview for construction work by males and some added that it is important to dress for an interview as you would for the job. Carol's abilities and skills were also questioned and were often mentioned as the reason that she was not hired; although it must be remembered that in the story-situation Carol was described as having had "several years experience." Selected responses to this question are included in 53 Appendix C. Table 10 shows the frequency with which sex role, appear- ance and clothing and abilities and skills were mentioned. TABLE lO.--Frequency of Mention of Sex-Role, Abilities/Skills and Appearance/Clothing as Reason for Carol Not Being'Hired. Mentioned Not Mentioned Response N % N % Total Sex-Role 127a 55.2 103 44.8 230 Appearance/Clothing 45a 19.6 185 80.4 230 Abilities/Skills 82a 35.7 148 64.3 230 arespondents could have answered more than one category The mention of appearance and clothing was further examined to determine how important or salient it was to the situation. The majority of respondents did not refer to the clothing cues as given in the story. Approximately 20 percent of the sample mentioned clothing or appearance; of those mentioning it, over 95 percent indicated that cloth- ing was salient in this situation. Table 11 contains the Clothing Saliency Dimension. 54 TABLE 11.--Sa1iency of Clothing/Appearance Scale Reaction to Relative Adjusted Clothing/Appearance N Frequency Frequency Salient 24 10.4 53.3 Salient, Qualified 19 8.3 42.2 Not Salient 2 .9 4.4 Not Salient, Qualified O 0.0 0.0 ' "" ééiiéfiéffiliéfiéiéfi """"" lémmmié'é """""""" 5535'" léé’léiilSSééw’""""""ié§"""'""363 """""""" 3333"" Don't Know, NO Opinion 7 3.0 ---- Not Applicable 6 2.6 ---- Missing __9_ __3;g_ ---- TOTAL 230 100.00 6Does not equal 100 percent due to rounding Testing of Sex Role Hypotheses The null hypotheses dealing with age, education, income and employment status of the wives and their reaction to a female in a non- traditional occupational situation were not rejected because the proba- bility from the Chi Square test was larger than .05, the level of significance set by the researcher. Hypothesis 1 H0: There will be no relationship between the age of the respon- dents and their reaction to a female in a non-traditional occupational situation, when the description of clothing and appearance is held constant. H]: There will be a relationship between the age of the respondents 55 and their reaction to a female in a non-traditional occupa- tional situation, when the description of clothing and appearance is held constant. No significant relationship was found between age and mention or non— mention of sex role (x? = 1.47, df = 2. p = hypothesis cannot be rejected. Hypothesis 2 n.s.), therefore-the null H0: There will be no relationship between the educational level achieved by respondents and their reaction to a female in a non-traditional occupational situation, when the description of clothing and appearance is held constant. 1: There will be a relationship between the educational level achieved by respondents and their reaction to a female in a non-traditional occupational situation, when the description of clothing and appearance is held constant. Although no significance was found (*3 = 4.88, df = 4, p = n.s.), one can see from Table 12 the continual decrease in percentage mentioning sex role as the level of education increases. TABLE 12.--Education of Respondent and Sex-Role Given as a Reason Why Carol Was Not Hired Bachelor's Master's Less than Completed 1-3 yrs. or or other Response High School High School College Some post advanced Total degree Sex role given 28 a 39 29 20 11 127 as reason (63.6) (61.9) (53.7) (48.8) (42.3) Sex role not 16 24 25 21 15 101 mentioned (36.4) (38.1) (46.3) (51.2) (57.7) Total 44 63 54 41 26 228 (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) (100.0) abracketed numbers are column percentages 56 Hypothesis13 H0: There will be no relationship between the income earned by respondents and their reaction to a female in a non-tradi- ional occupational situation, when the description of cloth- ing and appearance is held constant. p 1: There will be a relationship between the income earned by respondents and their reaction to a female in a non tradi- tional occupational situation, when the description of cloth- ing and appearance is held constant. NO significant relationship was found (f1 = 14.502, df = 14, p = n.5,) therefore the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Hypothesis 4 HO: There will be no relationship between the occupational prestige of the respondents and their reaction to a female in a non- traditional occupational situation, when the description of clothing and appearance is held constant. H]: There will be a relationship between the occupational prestige of the respondents and their reaction to a female in a non- traditional occupational situation, when the description of clothing and appearance is held constant. An Analysis of Variance test showed a significant difference between groups on occupational prestige. Those who mentioned the sex of referent as a reason she was not hired for a construction job had a lower occupa— tion prestige score than those who did not mention sex. A significant F value was found and therefore the null hypothesis must be rejected. Table 13 contains the results of the statistical test on sex role and occupa- tional prestige. One can assume that people in lower prestige occupa- tions are less accepting of women in non-traditional occupations. 57 TABLE 13.--Analysis of Variance of Response to Sex-Role and Occupational Prestige' . Sum of Degrees of Mean Squares Freedom Square - F Between Groups 3001.915 1 3001.915 10.07a Within Groups 67966.368 228 298.098 Total 70968.283 229 3p < .05 Hypothesis 5 HO: There will be no relationship between the employment status of the respondents' wives and their reaction to a female in a non-traditional occupational situation, when the description of clothing and appearance is held constant. H]: There will be a relationship between the employment status of the respondents' wives and their reaction to a female in a non-traditional occupational situation, when the description of clothing and appearance is held constant. No significant relationship was found (f3= 3.24, df = 1, p = n.s.), there- fore the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Testing of Appearance and Clothing Hypotheses The hypotheses testing age, educational level, income and occu- pational prestige of respondents and their reactions to deviation from generally expected occupational clothing and appearance, were not signif- icant at the .05 levels. Hypothesis 6 H0: There will be no relationship between the age of the respondents and their reaction to deviations from generally expected occupa- tional clothing and appearance. H]: There will be a relationship between the age of the respondents 58 and their reaction to deviations from generally expected occu- pational clothing and appearance. No significant relationship was found between age and mention or non- mention of clothing and appearance (i3= 1.07, df = 2, p = n.s.), there- fore the null hypothesis cannot rejected. Hypothesis 7 HO: There will be no relationship between the educational level achieved by respondents and their reaction to deviations from generally expected occupational clothing and appearance. H]: There will be a relationship between the educational level achieved by respondents and their reaction to deviations from generally expected occupational clothing and appearance. No significant relationship was found between education and mention or non-mention of clothing and appearance (£Z= 7.30, df = 4, p = n.s.), therefore the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Hypothesis 8 H0: There will be no relationship between the income earned by respondents and their reaction to deviations from generally expected occupational clothing and appearance. H]: There will be a relationship between the income earned by respondents and their reaction to deviations from generally expected occupational clothing and appearance. No significant relationship was found (f3= 8.70, df = 14, p = n,s.), there- fore the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Hypothesis 9 HO: There will be no relationship between the occupational prestige of the respondents and their reaction to deviations from gen— erally expected occupational clothing and appearance. 1: There will be a relationship between the occupational prestige of the respondents and their reaction to deviations from gen- erally expected occupational clothing and appearance. No significant relationship was found (i3: 5.0, df = 6, p = n.s.), 59 therefore the null hypothesis cannot be rejected. Lawyer Story-Situation The second story differs from the first in several-ways. The referent in the story is a lawyer. For approximately half of the sample the lawyer is a male and for the other half, a female. In the story, a person in need of legal counsel, makes an appointment to see a lawyer who was recommended as having a successful reputation in legal matters. Upon arrival at the lawyer's office, the prospective client is sur- prised to find the lawyer dressed in a rather atypical manner. The situation presented to the respondents is as follows: Tom needed a lawyer's advice for the first time in his life. He asked his neighbor to recommend some— body. The neighbor advised him to see Mr. Drake, a competent lawyer who had handled several legal mat- ters in town with great success. After making an appointment with Mr. Drake, Tom arrived at the lawyer's office and was surprised to find him casually dressed in a faded shirt hung out over an unpressed pair of slacks." Respondents were asked the following open-ended questions: "What do you think of the lawyer?" ”Why?" ”If you were Tom, what would you have done?” "Other comments.“ Results Responses to the first question, “What do you think of the lawyer?” were analysed along two approval-disapproval dimensions: one dealing with the lawyer and the other with the lawyer's clothing and appearance. Often responses contained both a reaction to the lawyer and to his/her dress, and in such cases they were recorded on both 60 dimensions. Table 14 contains the distribution of responses to this quese tion for both the group that had a male lawyer, and for the group that had a female. Table 15 shows the distribution of responses that mentioned clothing or appearance for both groups. These dimensions were used re- spectively for testing the hypotheses which dealt with sex role, and clothing and appearance expectations. An examination of Table 14 shows that almost one-third of the total respondents disapproved of the lawyers whereas approximately one- fifth approved and 10 percent were neutral. The distribution of re- sponses to the male and female lawyer were very similar. In contrast, almost half of those responding disapproved of the clothing and ap- pearance of the lawyers, 12 percent approved and over 16 percent were neutral. When responses to the male and female lawyer are compared, it is interesting to note that if implied disapproval is combined with the other disapproval categories, the percentages are equal. Excluding the implied category, almost twice as many respondents approved of the dress of the male lawyer than approved of the dress of the female lawyer. An additional way of examining the reaction to clothing was in terms of its saliency (e.g., if clothing and appearance was prominent or mentioned in answers to any of the questions, whether or not the re— spondent made a positive or negative comment about it). Table 16 reports the frequency distribution for this scale. Clothing or appearance was included in over three-fourths of the responses, and for approximately half of the total sample, clothing was a salient aSpect of the situation. 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Year of death: [ 1 Divorce ——————{;>Year of divorce: - [ ] Annulment -———-{;>Year of annulment: 13.7a What is the highest level of formal schooling that you have completed? CHECK ONE. [ ] Less than 8 grades of elementary school ] 8 grades of elementary school ] 1-3 years of high school ] Completed high school and received diploma or passed high school equivalency exam ] 1-3 years of college ] College graduate. bachelor's degree ] Post bachelor's course work ] Post master's course work I I I [ ] Master's degree I [ ] PhD, EdD I ] Other professional degree (such as MO, 00, JD. DOS): (please specify) 13.7b Are you Ngfl_attending or enrolled in one of the programs listed above? I 1 YES -———-—€;> 13.7c If YES, is that full-time or part-time? [ ] NO [ ] Full-time student [ ] Part-time student 13.7d Please specify in which one of the above programs you are now enrolled (such as high school. college, master's program). Type of school or program 91 l3.8a IN THE PAST, have you been enrolled in any type of educational program other than high school or college, such as vocational school? [ ] YES :> l3.8b If YES, please specify your field of training (such as bus1ness, office work. practical E ] NO nursing, beautician. mechanic. electrician). Field of training l3.8c Did you complete the training program? [ ] YES I 1N0 [ 1 DOES NOT APPLY l3.8d Are you NON enrolled in any type of educational progran other than high school. EETlege or graduate school, such as vocational training program. arts and crafts classes, or religion classes? [ ] YES --—€5> l3.8e If YES, what type of educational program is it? E 1 NO Field of training or type of progrmn 13.9a Are you presently employed. unemployed, retired. or what? CHECK AS MANY AS APPLY TO YOU. [ ] Housewife or househusband E ] Student GO TO QUESTION l3.lOa ON PAGE 38. [ 1 Permanently disabled (unless you also check one of the categories below in which [ ] Retired case)go to l3.9b on the next page . [ ] Unemployed (that is, previously employed for pay and/OR presently looking for a job) [ ] Temporarily laid off OR on strike OR on sick leave GO TO QUESTION l3.9b ON THE NEXT PAGE. [ ] Working now 92 l3.9b If you are working now OR are temporarily laid off OR on strike OR on sick leave, what kind of work do you do? what is your main occupation called? (If you have two Jobs, your main occupation is the job on which you spend the most time. If you spend an equal amount of time on two jobs. it is the one which provides the most income.) Main occupation l3.9c what do you actually do in that job? What are some of your main duties? Duties l3.9d What kind of business, industry or organization is your job in? What do they do or make at the place where you work? Kind of business. industry or organization What they make or do l3.9e About how many hours a week do you do this work? CHECK ONE. ] Less than 20 hours per week ] 20 hours per week ] 21-39 hours per week I I I [ ] 40 hours per week [ J 4l-SO hours per week [ ] 5l-60 hours per week [ ] More than 60 hours per week l3.9f Do you do this work inside your home, outside your home but on your own property, or away from your home and property? CHECK THE ONE PLACE IN WHICH YOU 90 MOST OF THIS WORK. I ] Inside my home I ] Outside my home but on my property [ ] Away from my home and property l3.9g Are you an hourly wage worker. salaried, on connfission, self-employed, or what? CHECK ONE. [ ] Hourly wage worker [ ] Salaried [ ] Hork on corrmission, tips [ ] Self-employed in own business, professional practice. or farm I ] Hork without pay in family business or farm 93 l3.lla What do you estimate will be your total family income before taxes in l977? Please include income from all’sources before taxes, ’ including income from wages, prOperty, stocks, interest, welfare, Aid to Families with Dependent Children, child support from a previous marriage, and any other money income received by you and all family members who live with you. ESTIMATED TOTAL FAMILY YEARLY INCOME, l977 [ ] Under $3,000 [ ] $12,000 - $14,999 [ ] $3,000 - $3.999 [ 1 $15,000 - $19,999 [ ] $4,000 - $4,999 [ 1 $20,000 - $24,999 [ ] $5,000 - $5,999 [ 1 $25,000 - $29,999 [ ] $6,000 - $6,999 [ 1 $30,000 - $34,999 [ 1 $7,000 - $7,999 [ ] $35,000 - $49,999 [ ] $8,000 - $9,999 [ ] $50,000 - $74,999 I 1 $10,000 - $11,999 [ ] $75,000 and over l3.llb About how much of this total family yearly income do you estimate that Y9U_will earn in l977? ESTIMATED PORTION OF TOTAL FAMILY INCOME, 1977, EARNED BY YOURSELF [ ] Does not apply, not employed in l977 [ ] Under $3,000 [ ] $12,000 - $14,999 [ ] $3,000 - $3,999 [ ] $15,000 - $19,999 [ ] $4,000 - $4,999 [ ] $20,000 - $24,999 [ ] $5,000 - $5,999 [ 1 $25,000 - $29,999 [ J $6,000 - $6,999 [ ] $30,000 - $34,999 [ ] $7,000 - $7,999 [ ] $35,000 - $49,999 [ 1 $8,000 - $9,999 [ ] $50,000 - $74,999 I 1 $10,000 - $11,999 I ] $75,000 and over l3.l2 In the coming year, would you say your financial situation will get worse, stay about the same, or get better? CHECK ONE. [ ] Get worse [ ] Stay about the same [ ] Get better APPENDIX B INTERVIEWER PROCEDURES AND FORMS USED IN THE FIELD November, 1977 OAKLAND COUNTY LIFESTYLE Interviewer Instructions TYPE OF INTERVIEHING TECHNIQUE For this study you will not be doing any actual interviewing with a resoondent. You will. however, screen households within each area to determine eligibility for placement of questionnaires, and you will be required to return to those households to pick up and verify completion of those questionnaires. ELIGIBLE RESPONDENT/HOUSEHOLD In order for a household to be eligible for placement of questicnraires, the following criteria must be met: I.) The household must be occupied by a married couple. 2. The couple must have one or more children from five years of age through 18 years of age. 3.) The husband and wife must both consent to filling out a questionnaire. In order for a household to be considered complete, BOTH questionnaires are to be completely filled out and must be accompanied by a signed consent form. RESPONDENT INCENTIVE In order to show their appreciation for respondent's co-operation, Michigan State University will issue a $10.00 check to each family who participates in this study. These checks will be mailed directly to the household approximately four to six weeks after they have completed the questionnaires. Additionally. a summary report of the findings of this research project will be mailed to the~ participating households upon completion (this will be a couple of months after receipt of the check.) QUOTA Each area has a quota of four completed households. This means that four husband/wife sets and consent forms will be completed for a total of eight questionnaires per area. SAMPLING PROCEDURE Standard sampling procedure is to be used for this study. Proceed to the corner indicated by a red X on your area mapsheet. Begin at the household indicated in the bottom right-hand corner of your mapsheet, this becomes your first designated household and should be written in on your first call record. If you are unable 94 95 Oakland County Lifestyle Interviewer Instructions to place the questionnaires at the designated household, you will substitute by going to the residence to the right. then to the left, then by skipping four households from your designated one, and continuing this pattern until you have placed them with an eligible household. Please look at the following example: 19.“ Deals . naniggaawgeahgaaa This is the pattern that you will follow in covering your blocks to determine eligibility for placement. CALLBACKS There are three callbacks required on the first household attempted for each set of questionnaires to be completed. Let's examine some possible field situations, Since you can only place your questionnaires in households meeting certain criteria it would be futile to make three callbacks on a household containing a widow over 65. Hhen you begin work in an area and run into a no answer at one of your designated households. check with the residence to the right, explain the purpose of your visit and ask if their neighbor meets the eligibility requirements. If they do. you should continue to call on that household; if not. ask the person you are speaking to if they meet the requirements and attempt placement. In other words, screen your neighborhood efficiently for eligible households before attempting callbacks and you will minimize the number of trips made to an area considerably. INTERVIEHING HINTS * Hake sure that at least one (either husband or wife) has signed the consent form and is certain that the other sp0use will do so before leaving the questionnaires. * Stress confidentiality. * Remind respondents that the $10. 00 and the summary report will only be sent to households who successfully complete both questionnaires and sign the consent form. ' State a specific date and time for pick-up of questionnaires and arrange for both spouses to be present if possible. ' Call your respondents before you return to your area to pick-up the questionnaires. MII‘V 0' LIFE PROJECT. PM. I977 llOi [GU STAT! Mitt”! TY STA" 96 II‘I'EIVIM FLU OM * ‘ I 3 CO”!“‘ ‘0th BUN-So" (niece (code 0 Terminate intrane- em_, call raced Iniiifi son tags: Rate cutest with husband ans/or Ii 0 lam self Iriefiy eaaiain purposes of study an incentive pays-ent slim!” in: i. Harriet? Y 2. wave a time ago 3 35330;: is Currently living in household? 3- Husband and wife currently living together in household? L78. ELIGIILE rIs spouse also none? I '0 (Delete call record1 (m7.a.swioif——‘ - Tor-that. inter-vicefiI M. i comma call race-1' (code i) .' Give further animation to soon spous- mtain written cmsent frue both spouses? Toninate inter-vie- Ya i Coeelete call . record (coca a to not leave , Wei-:Tonneiresi with spouses : rGive questionnaire and envelous to sponses Canola: front (code 1) and back , of call record: alan pics up data and tile Taae signed consent fan with you anus oeper clip to call recore [ Y Phone to aeteNine if tech are co-letee and ready for pics up Plan another ‘5'” pic! on date , ane tiee "'—‘)’, learn to out -.a questionnaires lo»- a' n 1:- anveioces and edit ”ENE"! folio- recur-ace :rocadures' if one or ootn questionnaires are partially or totally incomplete. Transfer ouestionnaires to "F a U1 envelope; in"?! canoiatee cell i recon-.1 and consent ‘one in sam large envelope. J “at! ’Iut".tl':i.n.iir~ Miami i ind tvaiuatim Tutti-tau mn'. '- Liar" tn 4r" ' a” "I" "—1 Give further explanation to one spouse I mtain consent free one spouse? YB r Paper clip consent ion! to inside} of front cover of :uestionnaire or spouse who is not hole. Place inside 9‘ 1 l2' envelope. Do notl seal. Sire spouse who is onesent his! her esestionnain and envelope. I Col-elete front {code I) and each l——-—)l "one so seteaine if of call «cord; plan pick up es and time Lu ".3 Terminate interview ‘___;, Carolate tail recore ; {code a) ' 0e _n_o_t_ leave mest'oa1 naires with spouse , 39:113. CDHSML‘O I I "one later to deter-tine if both are cuneietea and ready for pics ue I3... ." U“ Return to pick up nestionnaires Ooen 8' I 32' envelopes an edit Questionnaires I Choc! 'or both signatures cu consent ism Follow Peta-ended procedures. i' t l on. or pout mast-emu”: aortiall, or totally viewer-ate i Paper clip consent : NICCQ Ca” retard . tron-Jar theta: inn 2 Mire-v. to M" a l:‘ row-in. Plan another pic! up date W Y6 V 0" ”JP and tan-- '.3'3¢'."" me I.“ l.|":l'". i L Zilw‘fe: J Is ""4!“ Pi. 'ii-h, im- 1. ] ‘ ouestionluires If one sooesa nos con- oletee ouestioenain. !be sure to come Ms.- Eer consent lecte call recon ; and oaoer else 2: con- ; sent for- if sic-ad Ina; use suestioni-sirns ‘ . again if no mares :e [or inside the-P. 2' are is canolete. return toes. I to lane envelope -~tn ' unseat foe- and ca'l I i record , Pica ae incmoletee 1 ..— '— P-- .- 97 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF HUMAN WY EAST LANSING ' MICHIGAN ' aasu November 15, l977 This is to introduce an interviewer from (name of market research agency). interviewer is asking your participation in a study of the quality of life of families in Oakland County, Michigan. The research project and questionnaire have been developed by the Departments of Family and Child Sciences and Human Environment and Design, College of Human Ecology at Michigan State University. I The project has been funded by the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. You and your spouse's cooperation in granting a short interview and in completing self-administered questionnaires will be sincerely appreciated, and your names will in no way be linked to your responses. Sincerely, (M. flat] ’ Hargar I H. Bubolz, Professor Family and Child Sciences am a. 414...... Ann C. Slocum, Assistant Professor Human Environment and Design 98 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF HUMAN ICOLWY EMT LANSING ' MICHIGAN ' «I. Fall l977 CONSENT FORM He, the undersigned, willingly consent to participate in a study about the quality of life of Michigan families. We do so with the understanding that our responses will contribute to the goals of the research project being conducted by the College of Human Ecology at Michigan State University and the Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. The purposes of the study have been explained to us, and they are repeated in the letter attached to the questionnaire. Thus, we have knowledge of the aspects of the study. He agree to complete the questionnaires as accurately and completely as we are able. He further understand that our names will in no way be linked to the answers we have given, and we reserve the right to withdraw fran the study at any time. He desire to participate in this research and consent and agree. PLEASE SIGN YOUR FIRST AND LAST NAMES. wife‘s Signature Date Husband's Signature Date Street Address City/Town, State Zip Code We, the undersigned, guarantee canplete anonymity to the persons whose signatures are above. Their names will in no way be linked to the responses given. we further agree to pay the abovesigned family an amount of Sl0.00 upon receipt of the two completed questionnaires. He will be happy to answer any questions they might have about conpleting the questionnaires. Please call Sl7-3S3-5389 or Sl7-3SS-1895. / ‘ . I / .’. 7 / 4 Dr. Margaret M. Bubolz, Professor Or. Ann C. Slocum, Assistant Professor Family and Child Sciences Human Environment and Design APPENDIX C SELECTED RESPONSES TO OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONS Construction Worker Story—Situation 1. HOW WOULD YOU HAVE FELT IF YOU WERE CAROL? "Disappointed, because she had the experience." ”Discriminated against, but it's my opinion that women don't belong on construction crews." "I wouldn't have been surprised being a woman.“ "Being a man, I feel that a woman is out of place on such a job. If women would do the duty of women, there wouldn't be unemployment in the country.’I WHY DO YOU THINK THAT SHE WAS NOT HIRED? "Personnel probably feared a single female in a group of males as a probable source of disruption." ”Because she was a woman and out of place." ”The employer felt that he needed men, as this is heavy work and not suitable for women." ”Women are not usually suitable for construction work, possible disruptive influence." ”The obvious is that the employer was biased in his assessment of Carol, as her appearance was feminine.” ”God may not have wanted her to work with a construction crew." ”Because she was dressed in a skirt and blouse." ”Women can't handle hard work and dirt of construction crews.” "She didn't have any place on a construction crew as she wouldn't be able to do her share of the work." 99 100 "I would suspect, it would require physical work and Carol appearing in a shirt and blouse didn't come across as filling that need." OTHER COMMENTS. ”Carol did not wear clothes appropriate for this job. As a woman, she has to compete with men generally physically stronger, why dress to accent the physical difference?" "Equal pay and opportunities for equally qualified people,” "This bias is not proper, but is still dominant, especially in the industry named." "Carol may be able to do the work, but try to think of some guy who won't mind callouses on her hands." "I don't believe in the direction of our society toward one sex, no matter what the situation." "The only chance she would have in such a situation, would be to fill their legal quota or have a skill that a male applicant could not approximate." ''A woman's place is in the home, cooking and having children and doing other such jobs as nursing and restaurant work. Because the Bible says that a woman should be a man's helper, stay home, have children and make a home for her mate." Lawyer_§tory-Situation 1. WHAT DO YOU THINK OF THE LAWYER? "She must not have very many cases." "I would have expected to see a person in his position be well dressed." 101 ”She was just being herself and that's no crime.” ”You can't judge a lawyer by the way he dresses." "Not enough information to form an opinion." "Have doubt of competence." ”Ms. Drake needs to get up earlier in the morning." WHY? ”If sloppy in clothes, then she is in law.” "Appearances are deceiving." ”A girl should be a sharp dresser." "Past history, first impressions are extremely important, however the record speaks for itself.” ”Success should also be worn and shown in competence and appearance. ”She may have been painting her office or playing football with her child." If YOU WERE TOM, WHAT WOULD YOU HAVE DONE? ”I probably would have had second thoughts about this funny dressed lawyer." “Tell her my problem, I want someone who is competent not necessarily neat." ”I would have got up and left.” ”Hired him.” "Reserved judgement until I heard what she had to say." BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Albrecht, Stan L.; Bahr, Howard M.; and Chadwick, Bruce A. “Public Stereoptyping of Sex Roles, Personality Characteristics, and Occupations." SociOlogy and Social Research 6l (January l977): 223—40. II II Bruner, J.S.; Shapiro, D.; and Tagiuri, R. In Person Perception and Interpersonal Behavior, pp. 277-88. Edited by R. Tagiuri and L. Petrullo. California: Stanford University Press, 1958. Coie, J.D.; Pennington, B.F.; and Buckley, H.H. "Effects of Situational Stress and Sex Roles on the Attribution of Psychological Disorder.” Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 42 (l974): 559-68. Featherman, David L., and Hauser, Robert M. ”Sexual Inequalities and Socio-economic Achievement in the U.S., l962-l973." American Sociological Review 4l (June l976): 462-83. Feldman—Summers, S., and Kiesler, S.B. ”Those Who Are Number Two Try Harder: The Effect of Sex on Attribution of Causality.” Journal of Personal and Social Psychology 30 (1974): 846-55. Form, W.H., and Stone, G.P. "The Social Significance of Clothing in Occupational Life.” Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Bulletin, 247, East Lansing, Michigan, 1955. Garland, Howard, and Price, Kenneth H. "Attitudes Toward Women in Management and Attributions for Their Success and Failure in a Managerial Position." Journal of Appljed Psychology 62 (l977): 29-33. ,, Garrett, C.S.; Tremaine, P.L.; and Ein, L. "The Development of Gender Stereotyping of Adult Occupations in Elementary School Children.” Child Development 48 (June l977): 507-l2. Godfrey, Lina Rowe. ”The Importance of Clothing and Appearance As Influential Factors in an Interviewing Situation for a Secretarial Position." unpublished Master's Problem, Michigan State University, l965. Goffman, Erving. Behavior in Public Places. New York: Free Press of Glencoe, l963. l02 103 Gross, Edward. "Plus Ca Change . . . ? The Sexual Structure of Occupations Over Time." Social Problems I6 (Fall I968): I98-209. 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