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ABSTRACT

ADULT LEARNERS' PEDAGOGICAL EXPECTATIONS ABOUT
LEVEL OF FORMALITY AND TYPE OF LEARNING EXPERIENCE

By

Rodney Byron McKean

Adult education is a major contributor to development efforts
around the world. In essence, development is a process of liberating
people from those obstacles that limit them from achieving their full
potential as human beings. Current thrusts in adult education focus
heavily on self-directed learning in an attempt to be more liberating.
However, sometimes adult learners react negatively to attempts to
involve them in self-directed learning. Such reactions are evidence
of a potential discrepancy between activities of self-directed
learning and pedagogical expectations.

Pedagogical expectations are culturally influenced ideas people
have about the kinds of activities that provide meaningful learning.
The literature on ethnopedagogy suggests that for the most meaningful
learning, educators need to provide educational activities that are
recognizable to the students as valid learning activities. The purpose
of this study was to explore adult learners' pedagogical expectations
about level of formality and type of learning experience of an
instructional activity. These were selected because of their
relatedness to self—directed learning. The study looked into the
relationship between these pedagogical expectations and the subjects'
amount of formal schooling.

In the spring of 1977, 225 adults from various adult education

programs in southern lower Michigan responded to a research instrument

Rodney Byron McKean

designed to measure degree of expectation of learning for various
instructional settings. The subjects responded to photograph and tape
recording representations of nine instructional activities by answering
the question, "Do you think these people are learning something
important?" The question was answered by marking a five-point Likert-
type scale ranging from "no" to "yes." Each of the nine pictures in
the instrument represented a combination of one of three levels of
formality (Low, Medium, High) and one of the three types of learning
experiences (Input, Self-Awareness, Sharing). The subjects of the
study ranged in age from fifteen to 72 with the mean age being 38, most
had at least a high school education, half were from Protestant
churches, and most were white.

The results of the analysis of variance of the data showed
two major main effects and some significant interactions. It was
found that the subjects considered Low and Medium formality settings
more valid that High formality settings. It was also found that the
subjects considered Sharing and Self-Awareness experiences more valid
than Input experiences. An interaction was found between amount of
formal schooling and expectations about level of formality. There
was an apparent trend away from High formality settings for those who
had more schooling. It was also found that the subjects' expectations
about type of learning experience was related to their expectations
about level of formality. In Low formality settings all three
types of learning experiences were considered approximately equally
valid. In Medium formality settings, Sharing experiences were
considered most valid. In High formality settings, Input was considered

least valid.

Rodney Byron McKean

It is concluded that for adapting instructional procedures
to pedagogical expectations, activities should lean away from High
formality settings and Input experiences. It is also suggested that
when certain levels of formality or types of learning experiences are
absolutely necessary, apprOpriate accompanying levels of formality
or types of learning experiences could be identified and used. It
is suggested that further research could look more closely at the
quality and type of formal schooling experience of adult learners,

rather than merely the amount of schooling.

ADULT LEARNERS' PEDAGOGICAL EXPECTATIONS ABOUT

LEVEL OF FORMALITY AND TYPE OF LEARNING EXPERIENCE

BY

Rodney Byron McKean

A DISSERTATION
Submitted to
Michigan State University

in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1977

This dissertation is dedicated to two groups of important people:

To my family who continually encouraged and supported me,
even when they really didn't understand what I was doing——

Mr. & Mrs. K. R. Peaslee

Mr. & Mrs. Byron McKean

Mr. & Mrs. A. M. Ison

Mr. & Mrs. Robert D. Hulvey

and my faithful wife, Carolyn

And to my special mentors who helped me learn how to make my
way on the journey to this milestone--

Alice Naumoff

Len Wallmark

Don Joy

and Ted Ward

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Many people have helped to make this research project possible.
I hope to again express personal thanks to each of them, but I would
also like to include their names and contributions here so that others
may know of their generosity.

I want to thank the members of my guidance committee, Ben
Bohnhorst, Walter Scott, and John Useem. They each made unique
contributions and some common ones. They were all very helpful in
formulating the project and making the most of the findings and
reporting the project.

Grateful thanks go to those who assisted in arranging for
data collection: Dr. Larry Standridge, John Wesley College, Owosso,
Michigan; Dr. Duane Moore, Adult Education Center, Lansing, Michigan;
Chuck Paquette, Taylor Free Methodist Church, Taylor, Michigan; and
Ed Seely, Fifth Reformed Church, Grand Rapids, Michigan.

Those in the office and the members of "the gang" have always
been supporting and helpful. They have made the last few days and weeks
and years enjoyable and stimulating. Nothing will ever be the same
as we go our separate ways. Their particular encouragement and help
in the last few weeks and days of this project will always be

iii

remembered and appreciated. Thank you Geneva Speas, Fran Fowler,

Pat Cairo, Kathy (Graham) Wilson, Bob Drovdahl, Steve Hoke, Jim McCue,
Dick Crespo, Frances O'Gorman, Andy Dunbar, Cathy Stonehouse, Valerie
Janesick, Chuck B. and so many more. (Chuck 3.?)

A big hug and thanks goes to my dear wife and typist, Carolyn.
She had to put up with so much to get this far, then to have to
work so hard at the end as she was finishing her own degree, took
special dedication.

My special mentors were mentioned in the dedication. I could
say much about each, but Ted Ward, my academic advisor, committee
chairman, dissertation director, boss, and friend deserves special
recognition. I will always appreciate his service and ministry above
and beyond the call of duty. It all began one winter in Kentucky, and
he has consistently encouraged me and given me significant opportunities
to grow and to develop expertise, and has unselfishly given of himself
and his resources, climaxing in an all-night darkroom session and a
hectic schedule prior to a long overseas assignment. Few others would
have or could have done it. I have been very fortunate to have had,
and to continue to have, such a special friend and advisor. He is a

rare combination of Paul and Barnabas. Thanks, Ted!

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page
1. IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Generalizability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Research Questions and Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Definition of Important Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l9
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Characteristics of Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Cultural Influence on Pedagogical Expectations . . . . . . 27
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Other Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u . . . . . . . . . 31
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Description of Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Research Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Validity Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

Chapter
3.

Reliability Concerns .

Field Procedures and Data Collection .

Data Analysis

Methodological Assumptions .

Limitations
Summary
4. FINDINGS . . . . .
Hypothesis Testing .
Question lA . . . . .
Question 1B
Question 2A
Question ZB . .
Question 3
Question 4 . .
Informal Observations
Effects of Age . . . . .
Highest Means
LoweSt Means .
Entire Sample . . .
Interaction Effects
Summary . . . . . . . . .
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Summary

Discussion of Findings . .

vi

Page

41

42

43

45

46

48

51

51

52

54

56

58

61

63

66

66

66

67

68

68

68

7O

7O

73

Chapter Page

5.
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
APPENDIX A IDENTIFICATION OF DATA COLLECTION SITES . . . . . . . 88

APPENDIX B PICTURES AND TEXT OF TAPE RECORDED TEACHER INSTRUCTIONS
USED IN RESEARCH INSTRUMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

APPENDIX C RESEARCH INSTRUMENT RESPONSE SHEET . . . . . . . . . 93

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
4.1 Grand Means for Levels of Formality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2 Grand Means for Types of Learning Experiences . . . . . . . . 56

4.3 Means for Level of Formality by Amount of Schooling . . . . . 57

4.4 Means for Type of Learning Experience by Levels of
Amount of Schooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

4.5 Level of Formality x Type of Learning Experience . . . . . . 63
4.6 Final Analysis of Variance Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

4.7 Amount of Schooling x Level of Formality x Type of
Learning Experience. Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
3.1 3x3 Matrix of Factors Represented by Research Instrument . . 39
4.1 Breakdown of Independent Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.2 Three-Way 7x3x3 Factorial Analysis of Variance . . . . . . . 53
4.3 Amount of Schooling x Level of Formality: Interaction . . . . 59

4.4 Level of Formality x Type of Learning Experience . . . . . . 62

ix

Chapter 1
IDENTIFYING THE PROBLEM

Adult education is currently a major thrust in world development.
Though various agencies, institutions, and governments focus on
development in different ways, in all development efforts there seems to
be a common element which consists of helping people grow beyond the
various sorts of limitations they have to realizing their full potential.
Thus, development is in essence a process of liberation. As a tool for
development, adult education must help liberate people.

In adult education there has been an emphasis for the past few
decades on a form of instructional practices that builds upon the freedom
from dependence which sets adult learners apart from children, and that
encourages and leads to more freedom from the dependencies which limit
development. However, some of these more "developmental" approaches to
adult education have received cool and sometimes negative responses from
adult learners who are used to being dependent upon educational
authorities. This study will look into the nature of adult learner's
expectations about what valid learning experiences are in an attempt to
overcome some of the barriers that work to limit the full development of

adult learners.

Purpose

Specifically, this study inquires into the relationship between
learner characteristics and the expectations adult learners have about

‘ 1

2
what are valid instructional activities and learning experiences. It
tests some hypotheses about the relationship between the amount of formal
schooling an adult learner has, and the level of formality he or she
expects of valid instructional activities. It also tests some
hypotheses about what various adult learners consider to be valid
learning experiences in terms of the type of experience and activity the

learner is engaged in.

Importance

 

One needs to be only casually aware of current events in America

and the world to know that development is a major concern among social

 

and physical scientists and policy makers worldwide. Adult educators
are as concerned and involved as other professional groups. This study
is a link in answering some questions that will aid in bringing about
more "developmental" adult education.

Though many people are concerned for development, there is not a
cOnsensus among those people about what ought to be done. Some people
focus on economic policy and transactions, others focus on literacy, some
focus on community involvement, and others focus on self-actualization.

Two ranges are involved in these foci. One range involves human needs.

 

8.

There are human needs that are material, such as food, clothing, and
shelter; and there are human needs that are non-material, suéfi\as

\
communication, decision making, and ego-strength. A second range involves

the human context. Sometimes programs try to affect change for an entire

 

group of people, whether it be 1”village, community, or nation. Other V/’
programs focus on development needs of individuals. It is possible that
a program for development may focus on one kind of need or context, while

working against development in another area. An example of this would be

3
a program where, through policy decisions, a government provided needed
material resources for a community, but at the same time reinforced the
community's dependency upon the central government to solve its problems.
There is a need for approaches to development that can simultaneously
promote freedom from the limitations represented by all of the major foci
of development. In adult education, some people are promoting ideas that
can help meet this need.

Kidd, Knowles, and Houle are among the leaders in adult education
who have promoted the ideas that adult education should serve to liberate!
people from the limitations to their growth, and that adults are active
as learners. Adult education should, therefore, involve learners
actively in the process of discovering and understanding their own needs,
and discovering‘and applying resources which meet those needs. Kidd,
Knowles, and Houle have each insisted that adult education ought not to
treat adult learners as children learners are typically treated, but that
the greater degree of independence and ability to be self-directed of the
adult learner ought to be honored and fostered.

Knowles, who is one of the major proponents of adult self-directed
learning, says, "Inherent in the concept of adult education is the
process of liberation." He says further that we should

define our aim as helping individuals to liberate themselves from

whatever shackles and deficiencies prevent them from fulfilling
themselves . . . This conception of the common aim of adult education
as being liberal--in the sense of liberating--provides a meaningful
context for all types of learning activities . . . To the extent that
any learning activity--whether vocational or humanist-~1eaves an
adult with as much or more dependency upon external direction, to
that extent it is failing to contribute to the inherent aim of adult
education. (Knowles, 1958, pp.85-86)

Kidd draws a parallel with medicine in talking about learning involving

freeing a person from some limitations, and the learner's active role in

the process:

4

Yet the most profound fact about the living body is that it is
health seeking--that its forces reach out toward health and healing.
The art of medicine is not so much doing things to the body but
inhibiting destructive influences and enabling the body to achieve
healing. It seems to be very much the same with learning. Human
beings seem to seek after learning; learning seems to be a condition
of a healthy organism. (Kidd, 1959, p.16)

Knowles' newest book, Self—Directed Learning, is aimed at helping

 

adult education practitioners identify instructional techniques for
involving adults in self-directed learning. Houle's understanding of the
self direction of adult learners is reflected in the title of a book of

his about adult learners: it is called, The Inquiring Mind.

 

The ideas of Kidd, Knowles, and Houle are not new. Many people
recognize the flavor of John Dewey (1938), Jean Piaget (1970), and
Carl Rogers (1951, 1969) in the ideas. Dewey was a great contributor to
understanding the learner in an active role in solving his problems. He
is widely known for his ideas of learning by doing and the importance of
direct, purposeful experience. He suggested that learning was the result
of the scientific method in which each learner recognized a problem,
suggested a hypothesis, tested the hypothesis through experience, and
reformulated the hypothesis based on the consequences of the experience.
The reformulation of the hypothesis constituted the new knowledge, or
learning. Dewey suggested that the hypothesis testing process of
learning was equally true for both children and adults.

Though the ideas of Jean Piaget have been almost exclusively
associated with understanding the development of children, he also gives
many insights into the human learning process which apply to adult
learning. The process as he describes it involves "reconstruction" and
"adaptation." Piaget suggests that each person's knowledge is constructed.

Through interaction with the surrounding people and environment, knowledge

5
is constructed through adaptation. Through adaptation, adapting thinking
to fit with reality or adapting perceptions of reality to fit with present
thinking, a person's existing ideas are either confirmed or reconstructed
to result in new knowledge. This process applies to adult learning and
is very similar to Dewey's ideas.

Rogers developed his ideas about self-directed learning in the
context of a therapist and client. He suggested that the role of the
therapist was to facilitate the discovery on the part of the client of
limitations and resources for overcoming the limitations. He later
translated his ideas into the context of.teaching and learning. Those
ideas are very similar to the ideas expressed by Kidd, Knowles, and Houle.

Freire also addresses adult education as well as other

professions concerned with development. In his book, Pedagogy of the

 

Oppressed, he is concerned about an approach to education that can help
liberate people from oppression. For Freire, oppression includes
keeping people from learning and developing natural intellectual
abilities.” Freire describes learning as involving what he calls the
"praxis." That is, that people learn about the world through acting
upon the world. It is through this active, self-directed process that
the person learns about his or her place in the world and develops the
intellectual abilities that are necessary for true liberation. In
talking about learning and changing, Freire states the role of active
learning when he says:

I cannot think for others or without others, nor can others
think for me. Even if the people's thinking is superstitious or
naive, it is only as they rethink their assumptions in action that
they can change. Producing and acting upon their own ideas--not

consuming those of others--must constitute that process.‘ (Freire,
1970, p.100)

6

People in Western culture and Western education are not accustomed
to the ideas of learning mentioned above. In Western culture and Western
education learning is usually understood to be the process of acquiring
knowledge that exists external to the learner. Western education is built
upon a Greek rationalistic model of knowledge and learning, and the Greek
institutionalization of education.

The rationalistic nature of Greek ideas about learning and
education can be seen in the works of Plato as well as Aristotle. In

The Republic much emphasis is placed on the existence of external

 

knowledge and an external, objective "good". The role of the educational
system was to promote and maintain a class and hierarchical authority
system by training some of the people in "the good" and the knowledge
that was necessary to carry out various roles in society.

Though the Socratic method employs "drawing out" knowledge from
individuals, the knowledge is still seen as objective, and it is still
assumed that knowledge leads directly to action. As time progressed and
education became institutionalized, such objective conceptions of knowledge
and a conception of "top-down" authority easily led to other-than-
Socratic teaching.

Often in the rationalistic approach to schooling the role of the
learner is passively to receive knowledge from the teacher who is skilled
in transmitting knowledge. The teacher is often seen as one in a
position of authority. This involves knowing the right answers, and
knowing what is good for the student.

Though many modern educators would say that the representation
of the Greek model, above, does not reflect their own ideas, the model
does maintain a subtle influence on much that is done in modern education.

Some educators do not want to see the teacher in a position of authority

7
or possession of the truth, but they still see the goals of learning
as rationalistic understanding. For example, the assumption that when

people can clarify and better understand their own values, they will

 

in turn act in more rational and consistent ways, reflects the Greek
thinking which eventually leads to the statement, "To know is to do."

western educators often seem to think that if a person can understand

 

something, then the person can_dg something. Bradford shows how the
rationalistic Greek model has influenced his and other people's thinking

about a philosophy for adult education. He says, "Man needs to understand

 

and, so far as possible, to control [the] dynamic forces in his individual
and social world in a process of orderly balancing and rebalancing . . .

Adult education should help the individual to understand and control . . ."

 

(Bradford, 1958, p.41) (emphasis added) He seems to imply that if one
can gain understanding, one can gain control.

The very structure of European and American formal schooling, and
thus formal schooling around the world (which is often modeled on
European and American schooling), is built upon the rationalistic Greek
model of epistemology and schooling. It is thus understandable that
adults, whose previous educational experience has been with a teacher—
directed, rationalistic model of learning and schooling, may think that
the self-directed approach to adult education, as suggested by Knowles
and others, is inappropriate for real learning. Knowles and Houle both
notice the kinds of responses often given to self-directed learning.
Knowles says:

. . . when adult students are first exposed to a learning

environment in which they . . . are involved in mutual inquiry with
the teacher, and are given responsibility for their own learning,

the initial reaction is usually one of shock and disorganization.
Adults typically are not prepared for self-directed learning; they

8

need to go through a process of reorientation to learning as
adults--to learn new ways of learning. (Knowles, 1970, p.40)

Houle speaks to the same issue while discussing a learning experience
within a church. He says:

The churchmen may feel frustrated if they seek instruction

from their pastor but find that he constantly throws them back
on their own resources. Learning is hampered until the difference
in viewpoint has been resolved. (Houle, 1972, p.46)

Burger has been attempting to understand how cultural viewpoints
and backgrounds influence the kinds of educational experiences that are
meaningful to learners. His work has been primarily with American
Indian and Mexican-American children in the Southwest. He has developed
the concept of "ethnopedagogy" to talk about teaching techniques for
accomodating cultural differences between learners, or between the
learners and teacher.

Ward and his associates built upon the concept of ethnopedagogy
as developed by Burger and have suggested the importance of "pedagogical
expectations."1 (Ward, Herzog,_g£;al., 1974; Ward, 1973) One of the
ethnopedagogical issues Ward identified is the learners' "acceptance
and expectations of instructional procedures." (1973) He explains this

by saying:

 

1It is currently not in fashion with some people to use the

word "pedagogy" and its derivatives when discussing adult education.
Malcolm Knowles has promoted the use of the word "andragogy" for
referring to helping adults learn. Knowles' argument rests upon the
Greek words from which the word "pedagogy" is based. It is claimed
that the word in the Greek refers to the instruction of children.
However, as an English word, "pedagogy" has not had such an exclusive
meaning. Thus, it has been used widely in the field of education to
refer to the instructional context and issues related to that context.
It is with the intention of using the word "pedagogy" in its generalized
meaning that Burger used the word in "ethnopedagogy," and it is with
the same intention that it is used here to refer to expectations
adults have about the instructional context.

9

The most concrete evidence of the imposition of culture on the

learning potentialities of people is their expectations of what
constitutes a valid learning experience. What is accepted as a
valid learning experience in one culture may be rejected in
another. The wisdom of the elders, transmitted as legends and
proverbs, may be profoundly respected as a learning experience
or totally rejected as having no place in an educational system.
A person may be culturally conditioned to accept the pedantic ways
of the lecturing teacher in a formal classroom as a valid learning
experience, tending to make him suspicious of discussion groups or
instructional motion pictures. (Ward, 1973, pp.2-3)

The purpose of the ethnopedagogy studies of Burger, and of Ward
and his associates, was to discover how to tune instructional activities
to cultural expectations and practice. The emphasis has been primarily
on adapting instructional activities to pedagogical expectations. Ward
(1974) says that for effective learning, education should utilize
instructional procedures that are recognizable to the learners as being
learning experiences.

In informal conversation it has been suggested that it is not L////
necessary to adapt instructional activities to learner pedagogical
expectations, but that learners could possibly learn something
meaningful in an activity in which they did not expect to learn
something. Probably the strength of a person's expectations would
have a bearing upon this situation. If an instructional activity were

not in line with a strongly held expectation, in other words, if a‘

“HM-a- r...

person were absolutely sure that he or she would not learn something

~— " HM_- M n—

 

0‘ v—m- 4.-

meaningful, then it is unlikely that meaningful learning would take
place. If an activity were not in line with a lightly held expectation,
7the consequences may not be negative.

With pedagogical expectations, the degree of congruency is
a more important consideration than absolute congruence between

expectations and instructional activities. It would probably be

lO
impossible to have absolute congruence between every element of an
instructional activity and all of a learner's expectations. The
important point is that the higher the degree of congruency, the more
meaningful the learning experience is likely to be for the learner.

It also has been suggested that often meaningful learning occurs
when there is some dissonance present. Both Dewey and Piaget suggest
that meaningful learning occurs when there is disequilibrium, or when
"something is the matter." Thus, it may not be harmful, in fact it may
be helpful, to have some dissonance caused by a mis-match between
instructional activities and learner pedagogical expectations. However,
the type of disequilibrium Dewey and Piaget talk about concerns the
content, or the subject matter of a learning experience and not
necessarily the medium of that experience. Thus it would not necessarily
mean that there ought to be a mis—match between instructional activities
and pedagogical expectations.

As was noted, the purpose of considering pedagogical expectations
is to make instructional activities more in line with cultural
expectations of the learners. It has also been stated that the important
point of consideration is the degree of congruence between expectations
and instructional activities. Another way to talk about the lack of
congruency is to talk about the degree of discrepancy. It would be
helpful to know of the kinds and degree of discrepancies that exist in
adult education.

There is a potential discrepancy in the earlier quotation from
Houle. There was evidence of pedagogical expectations on the part of
the churchmen which were not consistent with the experiences that were

provided. As mentioned earlier, adults in America and other places have

11

a rationalistic, formal schooling cultural background in education.

Most of their formal educational experiences were when they were
children. Thus, when they move into an educational setting they go back
in their thinking and pedagogical expectations to child-like, formal

teacher-directed schooling. Knowles has identified this situation:

In the case of some adults the remembrance of the classroom as
a place where one is treated with disrespect is so strong that it
serves as a serious barrier to their becoming involved in adult-
education activities at all. But even adults who overcome this
barrier typically enter an educational activity expecting to be
treated like children, and this Expectation is frequently so
strong that adult students often put pressure on their teachers to
behave toward them in this way. (Knowles, 1970, p.40) (Emphasis
added)

 

There is a potential discrepancy between the kindfof educational
experiences deemed desirable by adult educators for adult learners, and
the pedagogical expectations of some adult learners. Thus, it is
important for adult education and development efforts around the world
that the nature of adult learners' expectations be explored and that
suggestions be made for working with pedagogical expectations.

Two courses of action can be taken in working to increase the
degree of congruency between learner pedagogical expectations and
instructional activities. The most obvious would be to adapt instruc—
tional practices to the expectations of the learners. There may be
situations, though, in which the learners' expectations limit them
from profitting from a poqfidtially meaningful learning experience. In
such a circumstance it could be said that the learners' expectations
actually limit their development. It would seem desirable then that
the learners' expectations be different.

When the teacher perceives the student's expectations to be

12

limiting, the teacher can provide experiences through which the
student can enlarge his expectations. The word "enlarge" is used rather
than "change" for a very specific reason. Enlarging expectations
involves increasing the number of alternative expectations, not exchanging
one type of expectation for another. Given that pedagogical expect-
ations are a student's ideas about the kinds of instructional activities
that provide meaningful learning, the teacher's intentions in influencing
a student's expectations should not be to get the student to cease
considering a particular kind of activity as valid, but to begin to
see additional kinds of activities as also valid. Thus the student's
expectations are increased or enlarged.

Modifying the discrepancy between instructional activities
and pedagogical expectations by suggesting activities that may enlarge
pedagogical expectations is necessarily the second step in a two-step
process. The first step is identifying and describing the discrepancy.
It was already noted from the literature on adult education that there
is a potential discrepancy between adult learners' cultural background
and the activities of self—directed learning. ‘Identifying and describing
the discrepancy would also involve knowing for whom it is most severe
and what the factors are which contribute to and maintain the discrepancy.
Once potential discrepancies are better understood, hypotheses can be
tested concerning potentially beneficial instructional activities to be
employed by adult educators. Thus, the two-step process is: 1) Identify
and describe the discrepancy; and 2) Modify the discrepancy.

This study is important because it focuses on the first step
of the process. It attempts to begin building a basis for suggesting

ways to modify discrepancies between self-directed learning and adult

l3
learners' pedagogical expectations. It will do this by inquiring into
the relationship between certain adult learner characteristics and
pedagogical expectations.

Several studies (which will be examined in the next chapter) have
looked at the characteristics of participants in adult education and have
revealed that people's amount of formal schooling has the most influence
on when and how they participate in adult education. This study
investigates the relationship between amount of formal schooling and adult
learner pedagogical expectations.

Ward has suggested a model for effective learning that is based
on the same commitments about learning that many adult education theorists
have. (Ward, 1974b) Ward suggests that learners need to be involved in
three types of experience to insure effective learning. The three types
of experience are: inppp, receiving or coming into contact with new

information or ways of seeing things; self-awareness, reflecting upon

 

and getting a clearer picture of one's current situation including
current knowledge, feelings, abilities, needs, and limitations; and
sharing, putting a new idea into one's own words, or acting upon new
ideas to test them. This study looks at pedagogical expectations about
these three types of learning experiences.

The level of formality of an instructional activity is often
easily changed. Many of the newer ideas about adult learning and adult
education suggest that by changing the level of formality of an instruc-
tional activity, it will be easier to involve the learners in more
self-directed learning. This study looks at adult learners' pedagogical
expectations about the level of formality of instructional activities.

Thus, this study explores adult learners' pedagogical expectations

14
by looking at the relationship between adult learners' amount of formal
schooling and their pedagogical expectations about the level of formality
of learning activities and the types of learning experiences provided by
the activities.

This study is important because of its place in the two-step
process mentioned above. It is also important because of its filling a
gap in needed research in adult education.

Kreitlow concluded that the research needs in adult education
fit into three categories of application: (a) the adult as an individual
and a learner; (b) the adult's response to sociocultural phenomena; and
(c) the adult education enterprise. He says further,'Tprrime concern
is the contribution of the sociologist and anthropologist to knowledge
of the adult's response to sociocultural phenomena." (Kreitlow, 1965,
p.240) This study is looking at the adult's response to sociocultural
phenomena as that response relates to educational programs.

After studying the effectiveness of culturally attuned
instructional procedures in Brazil, McKinney suggested that more studies
need to be done of the effects of "extent of schooling." She suggested
that there is a need to better understand the effects of schooling on
learners' expectations. '(McKinney, 1973) This study also begins to
fill the need that McKinney mentions.

In summagy, this study is important because of the step it takes

 

in helping to make adult education programs more effective for the goal
of liberating people from the limitations to reaching their full potential.
Its importance also lies in its response to some of the current gaps and

needs in adult education research.

15

Generalizability

 

The subjects in this study are learners in selected adult
education programs. Thus the findings of this study cannot be
generalized to the general adult population, nor even to all adult
education programs. The programs selected allow for a sample with a
wide range of amount of formal schooling which should be representative
of the range within the general population. The findings of this study
are suggestive of what may be found in similar samples.

The research approach and methodology has the most generaliza-
bility. If this approach does help identify some pedagogical expectations
of different adult learners, then it can be used with larger and more

general populations.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The purpose of this study is to inquire into the relationship
between the amount of formal schooling an adult learner has, and the
adult learner's pedagogical expectations about the level of formality
of an instructional activity and the type of learning experience provided.
Since the study is looking into the relationship between a person's
amount of formal schooling and certain pedagogical expectations, the
pedagogical expectations will need to be identified first, and then
their relationships to amount of formal schooling can be identified.
Answering the following sets of research questions will accomplish the
desired identifications. The study attempts to answer the following
sets of research questions.

First, the pedagogical expectations of the entire sample toward

level of formality and type of learning experience will be identified.

16

1A. Do adult learners expect any one level of formality to
provide more important learning than the other levels?

1B. Do adult learners expect any one type of learning experience
to provide more important learning than the other types of learning
experiences?

Second, the relationship between amount of formal schooling
and the expectations identified by questions 1A and 1B will be identified.

2A., Is an adult learner's amount of formal schooling related
to his or her expectations about the level of formality of an
instructional activity?

2B. Is an adult learner's amount of formal schooling related
to his or her expectations about the type of learning experience
provided by an instructional activity?

Third, an attempt will be made to identify how the entire
sample's expectations about level of formality and type of learning
experience are related to each other. That is, whether or not one
type of learning experience is considered more valid for a given level
of formality than other types of experience. For example, it might be

that input experiences are considered more valid in high formality

 

settings than in low formality settings.

 

3. Is an adult learner's expectations about the level of
formality of an instructional activity related to his or her expectations
about the type of learning experience provided by that activity?

Fourth, an attempt will be made to identify whether or not a
person's amount of formal schooling is related to the relationship
between expectations as identified in question 3.

4. Is there a relationship among an adult learner's amount of

l7

formal schooling, expectations about the level of formality of an
instructional activity, and expectations about the type of learning
experience provided by that activity? J I

Answers for most of the research questions are sought by
testing null hypotheses. However, the following two research hypotheses
are suggested.
1. Adult learners with more formal schooling will expect higher levels
of formality in instructional activities than those learners with less
formal schooling.
2. Learners who expect higher levels of formality will expect more input

experiences than the other two types of experiences.

Assumptions

 

There are two main assumptions which guide this study. The first
is that it is important to identify and understand pedagogical expectations
in designing and implementing adult education programs. It is assumed
that a discrepancy between adult learners' pedagogical expectations and
the activities provided by an adult education program will limit the
effectiveness of the program in contributing to the growth and development
of adults.

A'second assumption is that the current literature on adult
learning correctly suggests that the adult should be an active contributor
in identifying his or her own needs and judging the effectiveness of
various ideas and/or skills in meeting those needs. It is assumed that
for their own maximum growth, adult learners ought to be involved in
self-directed learning. Similarly it is assumed that the three types
of learning experiences suggested by the Ward model of effective learning

are necessary for meaningful adult learning.

18

Limitations

 

There are several limitations of the study. The limitations
are a result of and reason for the exploratory nature of the study.
First, as was mentioned earlier, the sample is limited, thus the
findings are not necessarily widely generalizable.

Second, the study does not attempt to identify absolute cause
and effect relationships. This is an exploratory study. The theoretical
base suggests a cause and previous research suggests a relationship.

But more experimental-type studies will need to be undertaken to
positively establish cause and effect relationships. In essence, this
study will only compare different groups of learners and expectations.

Third, the study uses a new instrument designed specifically for
the study. As the instrument continues to be used it will be refined
and one can have more confidence in its findings. At this point it-can
be relied upon only to explore trends and possible relationships.

Fourth, this study is not able to prove what should be done about
pedagogical expectations in educational planning and design. A two-step
process has been identified earlier. This study focuses on the first
step and is able only to suggest studies that can focus on the second step.
Studies which do focus on the second step should have direct implications

for planning and design of adult education programs.

Definition of Important Terms

 

The brief definitions which follow should help further explain
some of the terms and phrases used in this study.

Ethnopedagogy is a concept that combines an anthrOpological

 

concern for cultural differences with a concern for educational practice.

It refers to the need to adapt teaching activities to the cultural

l9
viewpoints and experiences of the learners.
Pedagogical expectations are what a learner expects to be the
sociology (roles of teacher and learners), content, and procedures of
an educational activity. The idea is based on the work in ethnopedagogy.
It is believed that pedagogical expectations are cultural phenomena.

Self—directed learning is a term used to describe educational

 

procedures in which the learner is the major identifier of learning

needs, desirable objectives, and beneficial applications. In self-directed
learning, teachers and learners are involved in co-exploring the solutions
to needs.

Level of formality refers to how formal, structured, or

 

ritualized an instructional setting is perceived to be. Instruments in
this study will use pictures of instructional activities that represent
three broad levels of formality. One level will be very informal, one

will be very formal, the other will be in between the extremes. For sake
of clarity, they will be labelled Low, Medium, and High levels of fofmality.

Amounts of formal schooling will refer to the number of years of

 

formal schooling of the subjects of the study.

Types of learning experiences refers to experiences the learner

 

is engaged in. Based on Ward's model, three types of learning experiences
will be represented in the instrumentation: input; self-awareness; and
sharing. It is believed that all three types of experiences are necessary

for effective learning.

Overvieg
In this chapter a research problem was stated, and a rationale
for engaging in the study was presented. The basic research design and

guiding questions were also identified.

20

Literature reporting studies that are relevant to this study
will be reviewed in Chapter 2. These studies focus on characteristics
of participants and cultural influences on learning styles and
participation. These studies help give some background into research
that has focused on the major variables of this study.

Chapperfi3¥contains a description of the research methodology.
The sample of subjects and the research instrument are discussed in
detail. Also included are the steps in the development and validation
of the research instrument. Field procedures and data collection
procedures are discussed, concluding with a description of the kinds of
statistical procedures used to analyze the data. The rationale for the
use of the selected statistical procedures is also presented.

In Chapter 4 the findings of the study are presented. The research
hypotheses are re-stated along with the statistical hypotheses. Results
of the tests of the hypotheses are reported along with their statistical
significance. Some descriptive statistics are reported which indicate
some trends that were not discovered through the hypothesis testing.

Conclusions and implications are the major focus of Chapter 5.
The findings are interpreted and suggestions are made for practice in
adult education as well as for further research.

Over all the study looks at adult learner characteristics as
they relate to certain types of pedagogical expectations. It is
therefore important to understand what is known about participants in
adult education, and about how socio-cultural phenomena influence
learning styles and pedagogical expectations. These issues are examined.

in the following chapter as a foundation is set for the study.

Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The purpose of the present study is to look into the nature
of adult learner expectations about various types of instructional
activities and learning experiences. A limited attempt will also be
made to identify background characteristics that account for expecta—
tions of different adult learners. The most closely related research
literature focuses on background characteristics of participants in
adult education. Such studies have been referred to by Knox (1965)
as "Clientele Analysis." The main thrust of such studies is to identify
differences between participants and nonparticipants, and to identify
differences between participants of different adult education programs.
Research on participation will be reviewed in this section because of
the inference that can be made that when adult learners participate in
a particular kind of program, it is probably because there is something
about that program that meets with their approval, thus it is at least
partially consistent with their pedagogical expectations.

The independent variable for the present study, amount of formal
schooling, was selected because of the belief in cultural influence on
pedagogical expectations, and the fact that the cultural background of
most adult learners' intentional educational experiences consists
almost exclusively of formal schooling experiences. Few studies have
looked at pedagogical expectations, but studies have looked at cultural
influences on the style of learning. Some of these studies will be

21

22
briefly reviewed because they emerge from some of the same ethno—
pedagogical issues as the present study.
A few studies which do not fit either of the above two
categories will be reviewed because they are related to miscellaneous

elements of the present study.

Characteristics of Participants

The strongest finding of studies looking at participant
characteristics is that there is a very high relationship between amount
of formal schooling and amount of adult education participation.
(Brunner, 1959; Verner, 1959; Johnstone and Rivera, 1965; Knox, 1965;
Carp, Peterson, and Roelfs, 1972, 1974; Okes, 1974)

The Johnstone and Rivera study (1965) is the landmark study
on participant characteristics. It consisted of "a national survey of
the educational activities of the adult population, based on a survey
of the activities of members of some 12,000 American households."
(p.xxviii) They comment on the strong relationship between amount of
formal schooling and participation. "By far the most persistent finding
in our investigation was that formal educational attainment plays a
highly crucial role in determining whether or not one enters the ranks
of adult students." (p.21) They found that whereas only six percent
of people with only a grade school education participated in adult
education activities, twenty percent of those with a high school and
38 percent of those with a college education participated. (p.97)

Knox (1965) summarizes the findings of three studies, including
the Johnstone and Rivera study, showing their similarities. The

percentages in the following table represent the percent of the sample

of that educational level who were participants in adult education.

23

 

 

Johnstone London, Wenkert, Knox and
Education and Rivera and Hagstrom Videback
8 years or less 6 5 6
9-11 years 15 8 8
12 years 24 10 11
13-15 years 36 21 l7
16 years 39 ' 23 30
17 or more years 47 -- 35

(Knox, 1965, p.234)

Knox reported that there was a positive relationship between,
adult education participation and level of occupation, income, and
education in all three studies, but that the highest degree of
association was with the level of formal education. (p.233)

Carp, Peterson, and Roelfs also surveyed a random sample of the
general U.S. adult population. They reported that in the year
immediately preceding their survey, 31 percent of the population was
engaged in some form of adult learning, and another 46 percent
expressed a desire to do so. Their study showed that only five
percent of the adult education participants had only a grade school
education while 21 percent of the participants were college graduates. k
However, the highest percentage of the participants were high school
graduates with no college education, they were 38 percent of the
participants.

Douglah and Moss summarize the major findings of research on
participation with the following description of the differences

between those who participate and those who dorung (Douglah and Moss,

1968)

24

The familiar portrait of the typical participant describes

him or her as being young, well-educated, a full-time worker in
a white-collar occupation, above average in income, married with
children and an urban resident. Conversely the non-participant
is described as being older, having less than a high school
education, of low socio-economic status, and a rural resident.
(p.247)

Some of the studies on characteristics of participants looked
closer at the amount of formal schooling to see what it might be related
to. Reviews of such studies follow.

Brunner (1959), in a major review of adult education research,
reported that the "highest grade reached" correlated significantly at
about .70 with the Army General Classification Test in World War II.
(pp.l9-20) He also reported that the educational status of adults is
the best single index of what is measured as intelligence by conventional
tests .

In terms of the relationship between amount of schooling and
use of certain kinds of instructional approaches, Brunner reports some
research by Crile in which she found that the percentage of persons
listing meetings as "the most helpful method of adult education"
increased with the educational level of the participants. Brunner
also states, in summarizing various other studies, that the lower the
educational status of the participants in a program, the greater their
desire for demonstrations or case materials in teaching, regardless of \//
the topic. (p.146)

In looking at how participants varied by the method of study
they chose, Johnstone and Rivera (1965) show little variation in the
educational level of persons using different methods of study. (p.84)

But when asking people's preference of method for learning something

new (a foreign language) some differences were found. Adults in

25
higher socio-economic positions were more likely to mention both formal
and informal methods of learning. Persons in the middle socio-economic
category were the most likely to prefer the formal classroom, while
persons in low socio-economic status were least likely to prefer formal
methods. (p.208-212)

The study looked at the preferences for formal methods again,
but without mentioning any specific subject matter. Again, socio-
economic position made a difference, along with age. Johnstone and
Rivera found that "Older adults and adults of lower socio-economic
status are considerably less likely to prefer the classroom for
learning." (p.214)

Carp, Peterson, and Roelfs (1972) attempted to identify the j
relationship between amount of schooling and methods of learning \J
preferred or used. They found that use of classes and lectures
increased with educational level, with twenty percent of Learners with
only elementary school using lectures and classes but 41 percent of
the college graduates doing so. College graduates rated on-the-job
training less than most of the sample, and those with only elementary
schooling rated discussion groups lower than most of the sample.
Preference for lecture and classes by Would-be Learners followed a
similar distribution as the Learners. (pp.70-72)

In looking at location of learning, Carp, et.al., found that
for both Would-be Learners and Learners, the use of the school system
increased with educational level. (PP.79—8l) They also found that the
lower the level of schooling, the more people who weren't involved in
adult education felt that "low grades in the past" and "don't enjoy

studying" were barriers to their participation.

26

Cross and Valley noted in the Carp study that only a fourth
of the people who say they would like to learn prefer lectures, and
they are the better educated people in the upper socio—economic levels.
(Cross and Valley, 1974)

In a nationwide study of the general adult population, Okes
(1974) identified the sponsors and/or administrators of all adult educa—
tion programs. She also identified the amount of formal schooling of
all adult education participants. She found that one's amount of formal
schooling was not related to one's choice of participation among formal
schooling, community organization or informal types of adult education
programs. She found that the level of participation in each type of
program followed the normal distribution of the population as a whole
in terms of amount of formal schooling.

Dickinson and Verner (1967) found in a British Columbia study
that "years of schooling completed" did not differentiate between
dropouts and persistent attenders, unless the length of the course was
considered. They found that people with less schooling were more
likely to drop out of the longer courses.

Douglah and MOSS (1968) wanted to understand the difference
between education levels in terms of participation. They did a survey
of a general population in Wisconsin and controlled for education. They
found that such things as age, employment status, income, and family
status accounted for some differentiation within levels of formal schooling.
They concluded that amount of schooling was not an exclusive determinant

of amount of participation.

27

Discussion

 

The studies reviewed above were selected for review because
they dealt with the relationship between amount of formal schooling
and participation in certain kinds of adult educational experiences,
which is a major interest of the present study. The studies looked
at both actual participants and people who do not participate, and
seemed to show a general relationship between amount of formal schooling
and participation in formal educational activities.
It was also indicated that those with less schooling shy
away from participation because of their lack of success and confidence
in formal schooling situations. Johnstone and Rivera comment on this
situation. (Johnstone and Rivera, 1965, p.209)
There is probably good reason to think that persons low
in socio-economic status are more favorably oriented than those
of high socio-economic status to the more informal methods
of learning. Since persons of low socio-economic status have
for the most part had very abbreviated experiences in the

school system we might expect them to be considerably more wary
about engaging in formal learning activities;

Cultural Influence on Pedagogical Expectations

 

The studies one could list here would be too numerous to
review. Nearly every study in anthropology that has touched on the
subject of education could be included. However, a few selected
studies will be reviewed because they deal with the variable of
amount of formal schooling and ability in, or preference for, formal
educational experiences.

Cohen's work was with children, but will be reviewed here
because Cawley, Miller, and Milligan used it as a foundation for

studies with adults. Cohen (1969) was interested in conceptual styles.

28
She identified "analytic" and "relational" conceptual styles and
social environments. She found that children with a majority of
experience in relational social environments developed relational
conceptual styles. She said that what some people call "cultural
deprivation" or "cultural differences" may be a "cultural conflict."
She gives an example from the findings of her study.
The school was defined as a highly analytic environment

in all its salient characteristics and requirements. Many

children, however, demonstrate a relational approach to reality

organization. One approach to reality organization could affect

its carrier's ability to participate effectively in the alternate

kind of group process or to deal directly with its cognitive

requirements. Children socialized in shared-function environments

could not participate effectively in any aspect of the formal

school environment.

Cawley, Miller, and Milligan (1976) built upon the ideas and
research of Cohen. They investigated relational and analytic
cognitive styles among adult learners. Their definitions of "relational"
and "analytic" were compatable with Witkin's "global" and "articulate,"
and they used some of the Witkin instruments. A global cognitive
style is one in which a person perceives and attempts to understand
an entire setting or problem with all of the elements related. In an
articulate cognitive style, a person attempts to understand something
by separating all of the elements and analyzing each of them.

Cawley, Miller, and Milligan found that adults with a more
relational cognitive style preferred a more informal learning
environment, and adults with a more analytic cognitive style preferred
a more formal learning environment. Their study had a limited sample
and they could not differentiate backgrounds to show what background

factors might relate to cognitive style.

Both Ward (1973) and Hovey (1971) looked at cognitive style

29
of adult learners in Africa, as it related to Witkin's descriptions
of "global" and "articulate." Hovey identified characteristics of
fourteen African cultures that seemed to be concominant with cognitive
.
style.

McKinney (1974) built upon the work of Burger in ethnopedagogy.
Burger's work was with children trying to find out how to make
instruction culturally meaningful. McKinney attempted to make some
instructional programs more "culturally attuned" for adult learners
in Brazil by changing the formality of the experiences. She found
that adaptation in the direction of group and discovery methods

rather than individualized or expository methods were relatively more

productive for traditional learners than for modern learners.

Discussion

 

The above studies seem to indicate that cultural experience
can influence a person's success in, and preference for, educational
experiences with a given amount of formality. It appears that one of
the contributors to ability in high formality is a large amount of

cultural experience in learning environments of high formality.

Other Studies

 

There is much written in social psychological literature about
"expectations" (Berger, 1974) But most of it in relation to education
deals with expectations about achievement. There are two sides to
this issue. Some studies look at expectations the teachers have about
student achievement, other studies look at student expectations about
their own achievement. Most of the studies reveal a relationship between

expectations and achievement that is a "self-fulfilling prophecy" kind

30
of relationship. Kennedy has one of the few studies in this area
that relates to adult learners. (Kennedy, 1975) He found that
adult students who expected higher grades, rated their professors
higher and actually earned higher grades than those who expected
lower grades. There have been no studies with adults that investigated
what kinds of expectations they had about what they would find in an
educational experience. However, some findings of Davis lean in
the direction of expectations.

Davis (1966) was looking at why people dropped-out of adult
education activities. He wondered if something happened in the first
class that those who eventually dropped out might have reacted to.

He found that two events occured more frequently in classes having

low drop-out rates than classes having high drop-out rates. Those

two events were: 1) the participants had an opportunity to introduce
themselves; and 2) the instructor talked to the participants as equals.
Apparently, these two events were linked to something the participants
thought about how the class should be.

Humphrey (1974) looked at adult learners' preferences for
control of in-class learning activities. He found that there were
different preferences. But, he did not compare the adult learners
with different preferences by level of education.

Most of the research investigating various instructional
methods in adult education have looked at effectiveness of the methods,
and have dealt with instructional methods on a different scale than
the present study. The studies reviewed by Brunner (1959) and Verner
(1959) all deal with gross methods such as lectures, films, discussions,

case studies, and demonstrations. Their effectiveness has been

31
measured by amount of adoption of some desired behavior. No
research has investigated expectations for the learning experiences

of input, self-awareness, and sharing.

Summary

In this chapter previous research was reviewed concerning
characteristics of participants in adult education, cultural influence
on pedagogical expectations, and other studies which looked at
expectations, adult drop-outs, and preferences. The studies concerning
characteristics of participants showed that people with higher amounts
of formal schooling tend to be more involved in adult education programs.
However, some of the studies show that amount of formal schooling has
only a partial influence on participation.

Some studies were reviewed that look at cultural influences on
educational activity. In particular, several studies that looked at
cognitive style were reviewed. These reported that one's sociocultural
environment and experience had a major influence on cognitive style, and
thus on participation and success in formal educational settings. One
of the types of cultural experiences that would tend to lead to
participation and success in formal education settings would be formal
educational experiences.

Other studies reviewed looked at expectations and preferences.
Most studies that have focused on expectations have looked at teacher
expectations. However, one study reported that adults tend to drop-out
more when certain things do or do not happen. Apparently the adult
learners consider some activities more appropriate than others and
gauge their participation in those activities accordingly. Studies that

have looked at adults' preferences for certain instructional activities

32
were mentioned but found to have limited application to the current
study because of their focus on adoption of prescribed behavior

rather than learner evaluations of the activities.

Chapter 3

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In this chapter the research methodology of the study is
outlined. The research design including variables and research
hypotheses is looked at. The instrumentation and procedures used in
data collection are also outlined as is the statistical analysis

employed.

Description of Methodology

 

This is a causal-comparative study which identified pedagogical
expectations of a sample of adult education students concerning level
of formality and type of learning experience. The study then compared
those expectations with the amount of formal schooling of the adults
in the sample. Isaac and Michael (1971) say that the principal
characteristic of causal—comparative research is that it is "ex post
facto" in nature. That means that data are collected afpgg the
important events have occurred. The researcher collects data on some
reffects (dependent variable) and then looks back in time for possible

causes or relationships. (p.22)

Research Design

 

In design terms, this study is most nearly like a "one—shot case
study." The instrument was administered only one time to each subject,
then responses to the instrument were analyzed. This study measured,
through a questionnaire using pictures and a Likert-type response scale,

33

34

adult learners' pedagogical expectations about the level of formality of

 

an instructional activity, and the gype of learning experience the

 

activity provides. The questionnaire also collected background
demographic information from the subjects. The most important background

data for this study was years of formal schooling. Information was also

 

collected on age, sex, marital status, type of schooling background,
and type of current adult education activity.

Level of formality of an instructional activity refers to how

 

structured, unflexible, and authority-oriented and controlled a learning
activity is. Formality was measured in three levels: Activities that
are very formal; activities that are very informal; and activities

which have a level of formality in between the two extreme levels. For
ease of analysis and reporting, the three levels of formality have been
labelled Low (very informal), Medium (in between), and High (very formal).

Type of learning experience provided by an instructional activity

 

refers to the experience the learner is engaged in. Three types of
learning experiences have been identified: input--the learner is involved
in receiving or coming into contact with some new information;

self-awareness--the learner is involved in reflecting upon his or her

 

current situation including abilities, interests, feelings, knowledge,
and limitations; and sharing--the learner is involved in "putting into
his or her own words" or acting upon some new information or ideas.

Level of formality and type of learning experience are factors

 

 

of the dependent variable. The dependent variable is the subject's
score on the questionnaire instrument. The score is called degree of
expectation of learning. The responses were on a Likert-type response

scale, and each response was given a value from one to five. The dependent

35

variable is thus a continuous variable.

The independent variable in the study 2h; amount of formal

 

schooling. Other demographic data could have been used as independent

variables. Some were, however, used only in "eyeball" analysis of the

data.

were

The following null hypotheses identify the relationships that

tested for among the independent and dependent variables mentioned

above.

1A.

1B.

2A.

2B.

There will be no differences for the entire sample in degree of
expectation among the three levels of formality.
There will be no differences for the entire sample in degree of

expectation among the three types of learning experience.

There will be no interaction between amount of formal schooling
and expectations about level of formality.
There will be no interaction between amount of formal schooling

and expectations about type of learning experience.

There will be no interaction between expectations about level of

formality and expectations about type of learning experience.

There will be no interaction among amount of formal schooling,
expectations about level of formality and expectations about type
of learning experience.

Relationships between the independent and dependent variables,

and other demographic information were examined but not tested for

significance as part of the research design.

36
Sample

The sample for this study was a convenience sample of adults
currently participating in adult education. Several different kinds of
programs were selected to participate in the study. The range of
programs selected was intended to yield the maximum range on the
independent variable of amount of formal schooling. Thus, participants
in adult basic education as well as participants and graduates of
advanced university graduate programs were selected.

The programs selected for participation in the study were:
church groups, college continuing education, university extension,
regular university graduate program, and adult basic education and high
school completion. The sample was identified and data collected in the
Spring of 1977. The sample was located in Southern Lower Michigan in the
areas of and near Detroit, Lansing, Battle Creek, and Grand Rapids.
(Data collection sites are further identified in Appendix A).

The final sample ranged in amount of formal schooling from four
years to twenty years. The average amount of formal schooling was almost
14 years, with almost 60% of the subjects having had some college. Six
percent of the participants had eight years or less of formal schooling.
Fourteen percent had started high school but had not completed it. The
age range of the sample was from fifteen to 72 years. The average age
was over 38 years. Two percent of the sample (5 cases) were under
eighteen years of age. They were people who had dropped out of school
- but were re-entering through the adult high school completion program.

Sixty-one percent of the sample were women, thirty-nine percent
were men. Seventy-three percent were married. Fifty percent of the

sample were from adult church groups. All of the churches were

37
Protestant churches. By program, 25% were from adult basic education and
high school completion programs. Fourteen percent were enrolled in
graduate university extension courses, while six percent were in regular
university graduate programs. Four percent were enrolled in college
continuing education.

The programs selected for participation in the study provided a
cross-section of adult learners, except for adults who have graduated
from college but not enrolled in any post—graduate work. Only seven
percent of the sample fit this category.

Though not documented, it is estimated that nearly 60% of the
sample could be classified middle class and 25% classified lower class.
The remainder would probably be in between. The sample was overwhelmingly
white, at least 95%.

/"

The subjects were contacted through the organizers and leaders
of the programs they were participating in. They were not volunteers in
the strictest sense of that word. Some groups did decide as a group
whether or not to be part of the study. Groups were selected that were
known to the researcher and whose leaders expressed some interest in the
study. No group was selected on the basis of randomization. Most groups

were sought out to provide certain types of adult learners in terms of

the independent variable and other demographic characteristics.

Instrumentation

 

The study used a single instrument which was designed specifically
for the study. It is a kind of a questionnaire instrument with a Likert-
type response scale. It consists of a set of nine pictures, nine tape
recorded picture captions (one for each picture), and the response scale

answer sheet. (The pictures and text of the tape recorded teacher

38
instructions are presented in Appendix B.)

The purpose of the instrument was to measure, along certain
factors, what adult learners considered to be valid ways to learn. The
pictures and tape recorded captions were each selected and designed to
represent teachers and students in various educational activities. The
instrument represents teachers and students in instructional activities
of three different levels of formality, and three different types of
learning experiences within each level of formality.

The pictures represent the activity of the students, their
relationship to each other and the teacher, and the instructional setting.
But from those clues alone it is difficult to determine what the students
are actually doing. Thus it was decided to provide the teacher's
instructions for the activity shown in the picture. For example, if a
picture showed people sitting at desks, individually writing, one could
not tell if they were writing poetry, taking a test, or practicing
arithmetic. If one could know that the teacher's instructions for the
activity were to write poetry, then one could be more confident about
judging the validity of what was happening.

It was decided to use a tape-recording of simulated teacher's
instructions in order to prevent a subject's ability to respond to the
instrument from depending upon his or her ability to read. This concern
was necessary because of the importance of having subjects of low amounts
of schooling, and thus probably lower than normal reading abilities. The
tape recorded captions were separated by fifteen seconds dead air on the
tape, giving subjects time to respond to the picture.

The focus of the pictures and the tape recorded teacher instruc-

tions can best be described with a 3x3 matrix with "level of formality"

39
on one axis, and "type of learning experience" on the other axis.
Figure 3.1 shows the nine cells of the 3x3 matrix. Each cell is
represented by one picture and set of tape recorded instructions. In the
instrument the pictures are presented to the subject in a scrambled order

to avoid encouraging a response-set bias on the part of the subject.

Figure 3.1 3x3 Matrix of Factors Represented
By Research Instrument

 

 

Level of Formality

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Medium High
00
,fi Input L-I MEI H-I
a 3
m a
o o -
~41: self L-SA M—SA H—SA
(H o Awareness
° E‘
min
5 Sharing L-S M—S H-S

 

 

The instrument asked the subject a question for each of the nine
pictures. The question was the same for each picture: "Do you think
these people are learning something important?" The question was arrived
at through consultation with other researchers, professional educators,
and some trial uses. The final question was selected because of three
main components. First, it specifically focuses on the participants'
personal viewpoints. Second, asking if people are learning is believed
to be, and has been used in other ethnopedagogy studies, to determine if
people consider the activity to be a valid learning activity. Third, the
word "important" focuses away from ancillary, or negative learning (such
as learning to dislike math) and focuses on intentional goals and

objectives.

40
On a Likert-type response scale, the subject had five possible

choices, ranging from "yes" to "no." The choices are: "yes, probably

are, some are, some aren't," "

" and "no." Five choices

probably not,
were finally selected because they gave the greatest variance with the
least amount of ambiguity in choices.

The response sheet is shown in Appendix C. On the front side of
the sheet is the instrument's question, instructions for marking the
sheet, and the response scale for each picture. A packet of the nine
pictures was stapled to the front of the sheet. The pictures were on
strips of photographic paper so that the left edge of the picture was
adjacent to the response scale for that picture. The packet was stapled
to the sheet at the right edge of the sheet. After a picture was responded
to, the subject folded up and to the right, revealing the picture
underneath. Each picture was 1/4" shorter than the one above it, so that
its left edge would be adjacent to its response scale. To insure proper
matching of picture and response scale, each picture was numbered in the
upper left corner. The pictures were then positioned on the response
sheet so that the number on the picture was next to the number on the
sheet.

On the back side of the response sheet are five questions,
recording demographic information. Options for Question #1, Amount of
Schooling, were selected because of conventional grade systems and
attendance patterns. They would also provide the greatest flexibility in
forming groups for statistical analysis after the data had been collected.

Validity concerns. A panel of educational professionals served

 

to establish the validity of the research instrument. The main validity

concerns involved whether or not the pictures represented what the

41
researcher says they represent. This dealt with both the level of

formality and the type of learning experience provided. Each person was

 

shown three sets of three pictures used in the instrument and asked to
rank them from most formal to least formal. Each person was then given
the pictures in the order they were presented on the tape recording. The
person then looked at the picture and listened to the recording and made
a judgement about which of three types of learning experience the picture
represented. The panel of validity judges agreed almost 100% with the
researcherEsintentions for each picture. Thus, content validity of the
instrument is rated "very good."

Construct validity was not a major concern. It may be said that
for construct validity the instrument has "face validity." It was not:
designed to measure a construct, but to measure people's responses to the
pictures represented.

Reliability concerns. Typical reliability coefficients could not

 

be computed for this instrument. Most instruments have several questions
that test for the same knowledge, attitude, or skill. In this instrument
the same question was used about nine different pictures. Thus the
instrument was looking for basically different responses. However, an
attempt was made to make each picture different from the others only on
important characteristics. Thus, the type of dress worn by the adults

is about the same across pictures, the ages of adults are about the same,
every setting is indoors, and all represent about the same size of a group.
This was to prevent people from responding differently to the pictures for

reasons other than level of formality and/or gype of learningfiexperience.

 

On the other hand, it could be said that the instrument is actually

nine separate one-item tests. In that case, there is some question about

42

its established reliability. The question can be asked, "How can you be
sure that your one item is a reliable measure of the subject's expectations
about a particular combination of formality and type of experience?"
This issue is partly addressed in the above discussion of construct
validity. But it does demand that the claims for the findings of the
instrument be tempered in light of this potential reliability problem.

Another type of reliability, also known as "stability," was
tested for. This is also known as "test—retest" reliability. It attempts
to see if the instrument elicits the same response over time, or if the
instrument is vulnerable to changes in learner's mood, situation, or
environment. In three separate groups, the instrument was given to
thirty-two subjects. A few hours later, in the same setting, but after
activities not at all related to the instrument, they were given the
instrument again. An analysis was performed comparing individual's
scores on the first test with their scores on the second. It was found

that the scores, over the 32 subjects, has a correlation of .87. Thus it

was concluded that the test was stable, and in that sense, reliable.

Field Procedures and Data Collection

 

Because this is a one-measurement type of design, the field
procedures are minimal. They consist mainly of arranging to administer
the instrument, then doing the administering of the instrument. In this
way the field procedures and data collection are all one operation.

For this study, arrangements were made with administrators of
various adult education programs. The study and data gathering
procedures were explained. Usually an appointment was made to show and

explain the research instrument and procedures for administering the

43
instrument. Almost all contacts were made with administrators who in
turn contacted the instructors involved. On a few occasions, contact
was made directly with the instructor.

In the group, the administering of the instrument took approxi-
mately ten minutes. The researcher, or on one occasion, an assistant,
briefly explained the intent of the instrument as trying to find out what
the subjects considered to be valid ways to learn. The subjects were
then told how the pictures, tape recording, and answer sheet worked
together. The picture-answer sheet packets were then distributed. The
subjects were given approximately one minute to become familiar with
them. The subjects were then shown how to fold over the pictures, and
where to mark, then they were given an opportunity to ask questions.

They were told that the tape would give the number of the next caption,
which should correspond to the answer sheet column and picture number.
They were also told that there were fifteen seconds between captions on
the tape. A final opportunity for asking questions about the instructions
was given before the tape began.

After the ninth caption on the tape, the tape recorder was
stopped and the subjects were asked to turn their response sheets over
and complete the informational questions on the back. After everyone was
done, the picture-answer sheet packets were collected. The data

collection in the group was finished.

Data Analysis

 

Two main types of data analysis were employed. One was a
multivariate analysis of variance to test for the main effects and
interaction effects mentioned in the research hypotheses. Analysis of

variance was used because the study is most interested in identifying

44
any differences between groups with different amounts of formal
schooling, rather than attempting to identify all of the factors which
will account for all of the variance in subject scores as in a
correlation. It is assumed that so many factors are related to formal
schooling that such a study would be practically unmanageable. Analysis
of variance also provides information about interaction of factors that
can be useful in suggesting implications for educational planning and
design.

Analysis of variance was also used to look into the effect and
interaction of age. Age was not one of the original independent variables.
But "eye-balling" the data as it came in suggested that it might have
some relationship. Thus additional programs were generated and used to
test for various effects of age. No analysis was done of SES. Informal
observations indicated that any categorizing on the basis of SES would
be nearly identical to the amount of formal schooling groups. Thus, it
was assumed that differences based on SES would be very similar to those
based on amount of schooling.

The computer program used for this analysis was the Finn
Multivariance program. The Finn Multivariance program was required
because of the nature of the sample and the research instrument.

When the sample was divided into groups on amount of formal
schooling, the result was unequal cell sizes. Basic ANOVA procedures
cannot handle unequal cell sizes. Because of the nature of the research
instrument and factors of the dependent variable, a program was needed
that could handle repeated measures. Each subject was measured on each
of three levels of both of the factors of the dependent variable. The

Finn Multivariance program can accomodate both unequal cell sizes and

45
repeated measures.

F-ratios with a statistical significance of alpha= .05 were
accepted as significant for this study. For those F—ratios which show
statistical significance, the Finn program computed univariate analyses
of variance to help isolate the significant differences. Again an alpha
level of alpha= .05 was used for judging significance.

A second type of data analysis involved descriptive statistics.
These were computed to attempt to identify trends and possible relation-
ships that might not be significant enough to show up in the analysis of
variance. This is an exploratory study, and one of its purposes is to
identify possible foci for further study and thinking. The descriptive

statistics used were computed through the SPSS computer program.

Methodological Assumptions

 

There are several methodological assumptions which underlie the
design and execution of this study. One of the assumptions is that the
subject's response to the question on the research instrument indicates
the extent to which the subject considers the activity represented by
the picture to be a valid way to learn.

It was assumed that certain aspects of the formality of‘a
learning activity can be represented through pictures of people in
educational activities. It was also assumed that to some extent students'
involvement in input, self-awareness, or sharing experiences could be
represented through pictures. It was felt, however, that certain verbal
cues were also necessary in order to represent the type of learning
experience.

It was assumed that the audio-pictorial nature of the research

46
instrument would keep a subject's lack of ability to read from preventing

him or her from understanding and responding to the instrument.

Limitations

 

There are some limitations of the study which affect its
generalizability. Some of the limitations are related to the sample of
subjects. The subjects of the study were not randomly selected from the
general adult population, nor were they randomly selected to represent
any given subpopulation of adults. For the kinds of analysis used,the
sample of 225 is adequate for an exploratory study, but too small for
high confidence in findings or widespread generalizations.

In order to obtain a sample that represented the various levels
of amount of formal schooling, subjects were selected who vary a great
deal from each other in other areas. It may be that differences found by
the study are attributable to other psychological or sociological
differences other than amount of formal schooling. The mixture of so
many types of people, without controlling for demographic differences
might obscure some real variance that is due to amount of formal schooling.
Because of the convenience nature of the sample, and the exploratory
nature of the study, all of the demographic differences could not be
controlled for.

Some of the limitations of the study relate to the research
instrument. Findings in a study for which a new instrument is designed
and used are at best only suggestive. Though the instrument went through
several steps of development and validity and reliability testing, it
still is a basically unused instrument. The best validity and reli—
ability testing of an instrument is its repeated use over an extended

period of time.

47

The reliability problem, mentioned earlier, of the instrument
may turn out to be a limitation. The instrument is essentially nine
one-item tests. One-item tests are usually not considered very good
measures. They increase the chance of not discovering differences that
really do exist. Other than the development and validity testing
procedures of the instrument, this weakness is not controlled for.

The five-point scale on the instrument provides for detection of
only gross differences. Again, differences may exist that this study
may not identify.

Another limitation is that findings concerning level of formality

 

and type of learning experience are limited to how they are represented

 

in the research instrument. There are other elements to an educational
activity that contribute to its level of formality and/or type of
experience provided. Such elements are planning, grading, design and
administration procedures, and the instructor's personality, to name only
a few. These elements, of course, could not be represented in the
photographs. Efforts were made to find and depict the essential

elements of each factor. Thus the findings can be highly suggestive of
real expectations and differences. However, wide spread generalizability
is not assured.

In sum, this study is exploratory in nature. It is a beginning
step in identifying adult learners' pedagogical expectations, and the
relationships between various expectations and learner characteristics.
Though its findings can not be specifically generalized, the findings
can be suggestive of what expectations are like, and what relationships

would provide fruitful grounds for further study.

48
Summary

This chapter has identified the research methodology of the study
and discussed some of the issues related to methodology. The chapter
began by mentioning that this study is a causal-comparative study. It
is an exploratory study, attempting to be a first step in identifying
and better understanding adult pedagogical expectations.

The research design was then described as being somewhat like a
"one-shot case study" design. It employs a single measure of a dependent
variable. Information is collected about the subjects'background. Then
relationships between background and the dependent variable are explored.

The dependent variable was identified as the subjects' responses
to a research instrument. The dependent variable has two factors; lgygl

of formality and type of learning experience. Each factor has three

 

 

levels, and each subject is measured on all three levels of both factors.

The major independent variable is amount of formal schooling. Other

 

demographic characteristics could be used as independent variables, but
were not included in the research design as major variables. They were
left to be used in informal analysis of the data.

The sample for the study was then briefly described. The sample
was not randomly selected from the general adult population or any
specific adult subpopulation. It was a convenience sample, selected to
provide adequate representation for a wide range of amount of formal
schooling. Because of this, the sample lacks a high degree of homogeneity.
Thus, some actual variance on the dependent variable due to the indepen-
dent variable may be overshadowed due to other differences in the
subjects.

Several characteristics of the sample were briefly outlined,

49
showing the distribution of age, sex, amount of formal schooling and
type of current adult education activity. The types of adult education
programs selected for participation in the study were identified.

The characteristics and development of the research instrument
was then described. The instrument was designed specifically for
this study. It was based on some ideas used in other ethnopedagogical
studies. The instrument consists of a set of nine pictures of
adults engaged in educational activities; a tape recorded caption for
each picture, simulating the teacher's instructions for the activity
represented in the picture; and a five-choice Likert-type response scale
consisting of one question per picture. The purpose of the instrument
is to measure the extent to which the subjects consider the educational
activities represented in the pictures to be valid ways to learn.

With the help of a panel of validity judges, it was determined
that the content validity of the instrument is very good. Construct
validity is not a mjor issue with this instrument. Through test-retest
reliability procedures with 32 subjects it was determined that the
"stability" reliability was .87. The limitation of the instrument being
essentially nine one—item tests was also discussed.

Procedures for administering the instrument in an adult education
group were identified. Particular attention was given to the instructions
given to the subjects for completing the instrument. The amount of time
needed to administer the instrument was indicated to be about ten
minutes. A sequence of events for administering the instrument was
briefly outlined.

Data analysis procedures were then discussed. An analysis of

variance was selected to look for differences in groups. A

50
multivariance analysis of variance program was required because of
unequal cell sizes and repeated measures. Descriptive statistics
were computed for informal analysis of trends that may not show
statistical significance.

The methodological assumptions and limitations of the study
were then discussed. The assumptions were mostly concerned with
the research instrument. The limitations of the study relate to
both the instrument and the sample characteristics. Threats to

validity were identified for which there may not be adequate control.

Chapter 4
FINDINGS

In this chapter the data collected through the research
instrument are reported and analyzed. Statistical hypotheses intended
to help answer the research questions have been tested and the results
are reported here. Data that is not involved in the statistical test-
ing of the hypotheses, yet which may serve the exploratory nature of

the study are also reported. Finally the major findings are summarized.

Hypothesis Testing

 

Six research hypotheses which guided this study have been
identified earlier. To test the hypotheses, an analysis of variance
procedure was used. A multivariance analysis was used because of the
unequal cell sizes and the repeated measures. The dependent variable

was divided into two main factors: level of formality and type of

 

learning experience. Each factor had three levels with each of the

 

three levels of the type of learning experience factor being a sub-

 

category of each level of the level of formality factor. Thus, each

 

subject was measured on the dependent variable nine times. The

independent variable in the design was amount of formal schooling. It

 

was divided into seven groups. The seven groups corresponded to
conventional divisions of amount of formal schooling. Figure 4.1 shows
the breakdown of the independent variable into seven groups.

51

52

 

 

Figure 4.1 Breakdown of Independent Variable
Group No. Grades Number of Subjects
in Group
1 0-8 14
2 9-11 33
3 12 48
4 Some College 13+ 40
5 College Graduation 16 16
6 Graduate Work 17+ 42
7 Advanced Degree 20+ 32

The main research questions focused on the differences between
levels of formal schooling on expectations about level of formality and
type of experience. The analysis of variance was used because it
created cells and looked for differences. The final design was a
7 x 3 x 3 Factorial Analysis of Variance. Figure 4.2 graphically
represents the design.

_Qgestion 1A. The over all effect of the level of formality of

 

 

the educational activities represented in the instrument was the focus
of Question 1A. The null hypothesis that was tested states: There
will be no differences for the entire sample in degree of expectation
among the three levels of formality. The statistical hypotheses are
given below.

Question 1A

0 l 2 3
H1: mBl# mB2# mB3
a = .05

To test the null hypothesis, the grand means for all subjects

were computed for each of the three levels of formality. The responses

53

 

 

 

Amcfiumsm u no .mmocoum3<lwamm u No .usaaH u HOV mooaofiummxo wcficumoa mo moaku ooHLH n mo
Aswan n mm .aaaemz u mm .soo u Hmv Auaamauom co mam>ma mouse u mm

Aoopwom omoom>o< u m< .Hoosom unmovouw u o< .muooomuu owoaaou n m< .oonHou oaom u q<
..mu% NH u m< ..mu% Halm u ~< ..mu% wlo u H<V wcHHoosom Hmauow mo uczoe< u 54
mummn< Nummn< Hummm< mo~m~< mommn< Hommm< moamm< Noamn< Hoamm<
mommo< Nummo< Hommo< mummo< NUNmo< Hommo< muamom Nuamo< Huamo<
mommm< Nommm< Hommm< mommm< Nummm< Hommm< moamm< Noamm< Huamm<
mommq< Nummq< Hommqm mummq< mommq< Hummq< moamq< Noamq< Hoamq<
mommm< Nommm< Hummm< mommm< mommm< Hommm< moamm< Noamm< Hoamm<
mummm< Nummm< Hommm< mo~m~< NUNmN< Hommm< moamm< Nuamm< Hoamm<
mumma< mommam Homma< mommH< NUNmH¢ HUNmH< muama< Noamam HUHmH<

mo No am no No Ho mo No Ho
mm mm Hm

 

 

moaofium> mo mammamo< Hmwuouomm mxmxm %o3noou£H

N.s gunman

54

for each picture that represented high formality were averaged; the same

 

procedure was also used for the other two levels of formality. The

result was three grand means. The means are displayed in Table 4.1.

The null hypothesis states that the three means in Table 4.1 are all the
same. The test determined if the means were all the same or significantly

different.

Table 4.1 Grand Means for Levels of Formality (Question 1A)

 

 

Level of Formality

 

 

Low Medium High
B1 32 B3
Grand 3.88 3.91 l 3.57 J
Means _ ,

 

The result of the analysis of variance was an F-ratio = 25.8082
with a significance of p=.0001. The null hypothesis was confidently
rejected. Thus it was found that over all the subjects did consider one
or more levels of formality to be more valid than other levels.

An informal analysis of the means displayed in Table 4.1 showed
that the means for the Low and Medium levels of formality are similar,
but both are greater than the mean for the High level of formality.

Thus, testing of the null hypothesis showed that in general, the subjects
of the study considered Low and Medium formality activities to be more
valid learning experiences than High formality activities.

Question 1B. Question 1B focused on the over-all main effect

 

of the Type of Learning Experience. It asked, "Do adult learners expect

 

any one type of learning experience to provide more important learning

55
than the other types of learning experiences?" The null hypothesis
that was tested states that there will be no main effect among the
different types of learning experiences. The statistical hypotheses

are presented below, using the notation from Figure 4.2.

Question 13

H : mC =mC = mC

O 1 2 3
H1: mC1#mCZ¢ mC3
a = .05

To test the null hypothesis, the grand means for all subjects
were computed for each of the three types of learning experiences. The
means are displayed in Table 4.2. The null hypothesis states that the
means in Table 4.2 are statistically the same. By analysis of variance
the means were compared to determine if they were statistically the
same. The F—ratio resulting from the analysis of variance was 12.5087
with a p= .0001 level of significance. The null hypothesis was rejected.
Testing hypothesis 1B showed that the adults in the sample do expect
one or more types of learning experiences to provide more important
learning than other types.

An informal analysis of Table 4.2 shows that the mean for
Self-Awareness is greater than the mean for Self-Awareness is
greater than the mean for Input. It also shows that the mean for
Sharing is greater than either of the other two means. Therefore,
it was found that the research subjects considered Sharing type
learning experiences to be the most valid type of learning experience
represented in the instrument. It was also found that Self-Awareness
type learning experiences are considered to be more valid than Input

type learning experiences.

56

Table 4.2 Grand Means for Types of Learning Experiences (Question 1B)

 

Type of Learning Experience

 

Input Self-Awareness Sharing
C1 C2 C3
Grand ‘ —
Means 3.63 3.77 3.95

 

Question 2A. The focus of Question 2A was on an interaction
between a subject's amount of formal schooling and the subject's
expectations about level of formality. The null hypothesis was stated:
There will be no interaction between amount of schooling and expectations
about level of formality. Using the notation from Figure 4.2 the

statistical hypotheses follow.

Question 2A

H : mA B = mA B = mA B = mA B = mA B = mA B = . . mA B = mA B

0 11 12 13 21 22 23 ° 72 73
H1: mA131# mA1B2# mA1B3# mA2B1# mA232# mAZB3# . . . mA7Bz# mA7B3
a = .05

To test the null hypothesis, means for each level of formality
were computed for each level of amount of schooling. The means are
displayed in Table 4.3. The analysis of variance compared the means
to determine if they were statistically signficantly different from
each other. The test procedure yielded and F-ratio = 1.7863. This was
significant at the a = .05 level. The null hypothesis was rejected.
Thus, testing the hypothesis showed that a subject's amount of formal
schooling influences whether or not the subject considered any one of

the levels of formality more valid than other levels.

57

Table 4.3 Means for Level of Formality by
Amount of Schooling (Question 2A)

 

 

Level of Formality

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Low Medium High

Bl B2 B3

A1 (0-8 yrs.) 4.27 4.02 3.90

A2 (9-11 yrs.) 3.61 4.14 3.64

39:33 (12 yrs.) 3.87 3.83 3.74

S .

O
O
'8

”34‘ (Some Coll.) 3.94 4.00 3.67
‘8
u
‘3

5A5 (Coll. Grad.) 3.96 4.06 3.42

A6 (Grad.Sch.) 3.82 3.67 3.45

A7 (Adv. De8-) 4.00 3.82 3.54

 

 

 

 

 

The interaction pattern between amount of schooling and level
of formality is illustrated in Figure 4.3. The points on the graph
indicate the means in Table 4.3. The lines connecting the points
serve only to help identify differences for each level of formality
between each level of amount of schooling. The lines are not intended
to represent contiuous values between the levels of amount of schooling.
They are drawn to help identify the relationship between amount of
schooling and degree of expectation of learning for each level of

formality. Kerlinger (1973) explains the chart by saying, "The slope

58
of the lines roughly indicates the extent of the relation . . . . The
nearer the line comes to being diagonal, the higher the relation."(P.226)

However, the slope shows only the relationship between amount
of schooling and the degree of expectation of learning. Interaction
exists when the relationship between amount of schooling (x-axis) and
degree of expectation of learning (y-axis) depends upon the level of
formality. To the extent that lines in the graph make different
angles with each other (are not parallel), to this extent there is
interaction present.

It can be seen in Figure 4.3 that there is interaction between
amount of formal schooling and level of formality. The interaction
involves all three levels of formality.

The findings from testing the hypothesis are that there is an
interaction between amount of schooling and expectations about level of
formality. That is, one's expectations about level of formality are
partially dependent upon one's amount of formal schooling.

Question 2B. Question 2B focused on the interaction between a

 

subject's amount of formal schooling and expectations about type of
learning experience. The null hypothesis states that there will be no
amount of schooling by type of learning experience interaction effect.
Using the notation from Figure 4.2 the statistical hypothesis is stated
below.
Question 2B

H : mA C = mA C = mA C = mA C = mA C = mA C = . . . mA C = mA C

O 1 1 l 2 1 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 7 2 7 3

H1: mA1Cl# mAlC2# mAlC3# mA2C1# mA2C2# mAzc3# . . . mA7cz# mA7C3

a = .05

59

Figure 4.3 Amount of Schooling x Level of Formality: Interaction
(Question 2A)

 

 

 

 

 

 

4.3
4.2
4.1
60
a
-H
E 4.0
m
o
.4
‘3 3.9
o
o
'3
m 3.8
U
o
o
E”
m 3.7 6»
'3 \r 63
g 3.6 «‘5
4 ”a
00 Q
o v;
Q 6
3.5 ~5
3.4
3.3
A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7
0-8 9-11 12 Some Coll. Grad. Adv.
yrs. yrs. yrs. Coll. Grad. School Degree

Amount of Schooling

 

F-ratio = 1.7863 df = 12,420 p= .05

60

To test the hypothesis, means for each type of learning
experience were computed for each level of amount of schooling. The
means are displayed in Table 4.4. The analysis of variance compared
the means to determine if they were statistically different from each
other. The test procedure yielded an F-ratio = .7879 with a p less
than .6632. This was not significant at the a = .05 level. Thus,
the null hypothesis was not rejected. No interaction was found
between one's amount of schooling and expectations about type of

learning experience.

Table 4.4 Means for Type of Learning Experience (Question 2B)
by Levels of Amount of Schooling

 

 

Type of Learning Experience

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Input Self-Awareness Sharing

Cl Cz Ca

A1 (0-8 yrs.) 3.76 4.12 4.33

on A3 (12 yrs.) 3.56 3.74 3.92
.5
'3

g 44 (Some 0011.) 3.70 3.84 4.07
:2
'44

° A5 (0611. Grad.) 3.79 3.58 4.07
‘6
8

53 A6 (Grad. Sch.) 3.58 3.54 3.82

A7 (Adv. Deg.) 3.64 3.84 3.89

 

 

 

 

 

61

Question 3. Question 3 focused on the interaction between

 

level of formality and type of learning experience. It was stated,

 

 

"Is an adult learner's expectations about the level of formality of an
instructional activity related to his or her expectations about the
type of learning experience provided by that activity?" The null

hypothesis states that there will be no level of formality by type of

 

learning experience interaction effect. Using the notation from

 

Figure 4.2 the statistical hypothesis is stated below.

Question 3

H : mB C = mB C = mB C = mB C . . . mB C

0 11 12 13 21 33
H1: mBlcl# m8102# mBlc3# mBZCl. . . mB3C3
a = .05

To test the hypothesis, entire-sample grand means were computed
for each of the nine items on the instrument. The means are arranged in
the 3x3 Level of Formality by Type of Learning Experience matrix as in
Figure 3.1. The means are displayed in Table 4.5. The analysis of
variance computed the nine means to determine if they were statistically
different from each other.

The test of the hypothesis yielded an F-ratio = 11.8949 with
a p less than .0001. The null hypothesis was rejected. Thus it was

. A...

found that there is an interaction between level of formality and type

 

of learning experience. Figure 4.4 graphs the interaction. The ..

 

explanation of the symbols in the graph are the same as given in the
discussion of Question ZB. An examination of Figure 4.4 shows interaction

involving all three types of learning experiences.

Figure 4.

62

Level of Formality x Type of Learning Experience
(Question 3)

 

 

Degree of Expectation of Learning

 

 

Self—Awareness

____-

 

B1 B7.

Low Medium

Level of Formality

 

F—ratio = 11.8948 df = 4, 208 p = .0001

High

63
The finding from testing the hypothesis related to Question 3

was that the subjects' expectations about level of formalitywere related

 

to their expectations about type of learningyexperience. For example,

 

one's expectations about High formality partially depended upon his or

her expectations about Input learning experiences.

Table 4.5 Level of Formality x Type of Learning Experience
(Question 3)

 

 

Level of Formality

 

 

 

 

 

8 Low Medium High

8 Bl 32 B3

*1

8

g. Input

a: C 3.86 3.76 3.28
1

od

.‘3

a Self-

H

3 Awareness

A C2 3.95 3.68 3.69

04.1

o

31 Sharing

in G3 3.84 4.28 3.74

 

 

 

 

 

Question 4. Question 4 focused on the three-way interaction

 

among amount of schooling, level of formality, and type of learning

 

 

experience. It was stated, "Is there a relationship among an adult

 

learner's amount of formal schooling, expectations about the level of
formality of an instructional activity, and expectations about the type
of learning experience provided by that activity?" The null hypothesis
states that there will be no amount of schooling by level of formality
by type of learning experience interaction effect. The null statistical
hypothesis would place p11 of the means in Figure 4.2 equal to each

other. The alternate hypothesis (H1) would state that the means are not

64

all equal to each other. The level of significance is set at a= .05.
To test the null hypothesis the means for each cell of the
3 x 3, Level of Formality by Type of Learning Experience matrix
(Figure 3.1) were computed for each of the seven levels of amount of
formal schooling. The means are displayed in Table 4.7. The analysis
of variance then tested the relationship between the means to see
if they are statistically different.
The analysis of variance yielded an F-ratio = 1.4831 with
p less than .0645. The null hypothesis was not rejected. The three-
way interaction was not found to be significant at the alpha level = .05.
No relationship was found among a person's amount of schooling,
expectations about level of formality and expectations about type of
learning experience. Table 4.6 summarizes the tests through analysis

of variance for the six research questions.

 

 

 

Table 4.6 Final Analysis of Variance Table
Question Source df F Significance
No. Level, p-

lA Main Effect:

Level of Formality 2; 210 25.8082 .0001
1B Main Effect: -

Type of Learning Experience 2; 210 12.5087 .0001
2A Interaction:

Amount of Schooling x

Level of Formality 12; 420 1.7863 .05
2B Interaction:

Amount of Schooling x

Type of Learning Experience 12; 420 .7879 n.s.
3 Interaction:

Level of Formality x

Type of Learning Experience 4; 208 11.8948 .0001
4 Interaction: Amount of Schooling x

Level of Formality x
Type of Learning Experience 24; 727 1.4831 n.s.

65

n

 

 

 

oo.m mm.m NN.m oo.c wn.m mo.m qw.m oo.¢ 00.6 < .mma .>w¢
mm.m mm.m mm.m no.6 «H.m Hw.m um.m mm.m mm.m o< Hoozom wmuu
mm.m Hm.m om.m mo.¢ mm.m Hm.q mH.q mH.q cm.m m< wmuw .HHoo
ww.m mn.m mm.m wq.s mo.m ww.m om.m mo.s mm.m s< Haoo maom
mo.m om.m mm.m mm.< mm.m mm.m Hw.m «m.m mw.m m< .mum NH
mo.m Hm.m mm.m om.q q~.¢ ww.m co.m co.m mm.m N< .mum Hana
oo.q qa.¢ mm.m mm.q no.q Nq.m mq.q ca.q ow.q H< .muz wlo
*mo «No *Ho «mo «No «Ho «mo *Nu «Ho
m <m H m «m H m <m H
moamauomxm mocofiuomww moamwuomxm
wawcumoq mo waxy maficumoq mo mm%a wnwaumog mo mahe
m H
m mm m
swam 533: 33

 

mufiamsuom mo Ho>mq

 

 

Aaamo comm mom mamma muoHUV As aowummndv sowuomuoucH
"moamfiumnxm wcfiaumoq mo ou>y x zuaamshom mo Ho>mq x mafiaoonom mo unsoa< m.q canoe

66

Informal Observations

 

The statistical hypotheses were tested with the use of an
analysis of variance design. The analysis of variance design basically
tests only the significant differences between a number of different
means. However, informal observations of descriptive statistics
can often reveal trends that, though are not statistically significant,
appear to be fairly consistent. If such trends can be identified,

they could become points of focus for other studies.

Effects of Age. Though not a part of the primary research

 

design, age was built into the analysis of variance. The sample was
divided into seven categories of age, each category representing a
lO-year period such as 30—39 years of age. In threeadifferent tests

J

age/didanotshow to have a significant effect as an independent variable.

Highest means. In Table 4.6 each row represents the means for

 

one of the levels of amount of formal schooling. For each level, the
highest mean of the nine was in the Medium formality-Sharing learning
experience cell. This cell was also consistently rated over 4.00.
Under the three broad level of formality columns, the highest
mean for the Low level was evenly distributed among the three types
of learning experiences. For the Medium formality level, the highest
mean was for the Sharing type of learning experience. For the High
level of formality, the highest mean was evenly distributed between
Self-Awareness and Sharing types of learning experiences, except once
Input was rated highest under the High level of formality.
Under the three types of learning experiences, the highest mean

for Input experiences was divided between the Low level and Medium

67
formality level of formality. Four times Low was rated highest, two
times Medium formality was rated highest. For Input types of learning
experiences, the High formality level was never rated the highest.
For Self-Awareness types of learning experiences, the Low level of
formality was rated highest five times out of seven. Once the Medium
formality level was rated highest, and once there was a tie between the
Low level and the High formality level. For Sharing types of learning
experiences, the Medium formality level was always rated highest.

For over-all means on level of formality for each level of
amount of schooling, the Low level of formality was rated highest four
times, the Medium formality was rated highest three times. The
High level of formality was never rated highest over-all for any of
the seven levels of amount of schooling. For over-all means on type
of learning experience for each level of amount of schooling, Sharing
types of experiences were rated higher six times. One time Self-Awareness
types of experiences were rated higher. Input experiences were never
rated highest.

Over-all, Input types of experiences and the High level of
formality were never rated highest by the subjects of any one of the

seven levels of amount of schooling.

Lowest means. For each of the seven levels of amount of

 

schooling for the nine cells, High formality-Input was rated lowest
five times. One time Medium formality-Input was rated lowest. One

time Medium formality-Self-Awareness was rated lowest. For six of the
seven levels of amount of schooling the High level of formality was
rated lowest over-all for Level of formality. Five times Input types of

learning experiences were rated lowest over-all for types of learning

68

experiences.

Entire sample. For the entire sample, the highest-rated

 

individual cell was Medium formality-Self-Awareness. The lowest—

rated individual cell for the entire sample was High formality-Input.

Interaction effects. In Figure 4.3 the interaction effect of

 

amount of schooling by level of formality was illustrated. The figure
shows the relative position of the High and Medium levels of formality.
The Medium level of formality is consistently rated higher than the
High level of formality. The figure also shows that though there is a
slight reversal in position between the High level of formality and the
Low level of formality, the High level is always, except for one of the
levels of amount of schooling, rated the lowest of the three levels of

formality.

Summary

In this chapter the results of the study were presented and
analyzed to test hypotheses related to the research questions. Trends
in the data which were not part of the statistical design were also
reported.

Analysis of variance was used to test six statistical
hypotheses. Two main effects were tested for. A level of formality
main effect had an F-ratio = 25.8082 with a level of significance of
p = .0001. The type of learning experience main effect was also
significant at p = .0001 with an F-ratio = 12.5087. Two interaction
effects were discovered to be significant. The amount of schooling

by level of formality interaction effect was significant at p = .05. It

69
had an F-ratio = 1.7863. The level of formality by type of learning
experience interaction effect was also significant. It had an F-ratio
of 11.8948 with a level of significance p = .0001. The three—way
interaction was not significant at the alpha level = .05.

It was shown in this chapter that over-all,Input types of
learning experiences and High level of formality educational activities
were consistently rated lowest in terms of providing for important
learning. When Input was combined with High formality, it was the
lowest-rated of all combinations. For some of the levels of amount of
schooling, Input might be rated the highest within one of the levels of
formality other than the High level.

Sharing types of learning experiences and activities with Low
or Medium levels of formality were consistently rated highest in terms
of providing for important learning. When Sharing was combined with
Medium formality it was always the highest-rated combination.

It was reported that when the subjects were categorized by
age into seven different groups, age had no relationship to the degree

of expectations.

Chapter 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

In this chapter a summary is given of the research project.
Following the summary, the findings are discussed and some conclusions
are stated. Based on the findings and conlcusions, suggestions are
made about implications for practice in adult education and for further

research.

Summary

This study has inquired into the nature of adult learners'
pedagogical expectations. Pedagogical expectations are the culturally
influenced expectations that people have of what constitutes a valid
learning experience. It is important to better understand adult learners'
pedagogical expectations as adult education strives to involve adults
in more "developmental" approaches to education. It will be helpful to
know what kinds of activities are most consistent with adult learners'
pedagogical expectations.

Since pedagogical expectations are culturally influenced, and
since a major part of American culture's education is in formal schooling,
it was deemed important to inquire into the relationship between amount
of formal schooling and expectations. Expectations of two sorts were

looked at: level of formality and type of learning experience. Level of

 

formality was selected because it was been a major focus of practitioners
in adult education, and because it is an element of an educational

7O

71
program that is often easily changed, even if only slightly. Three
types of learning experiences were selected for study because of the
belief in their importance in providing "developmental" adult education.

Studies were reviewed which looked at the relationship between
amount of formal schooling and various elements of participation in
adult education. It was found that the more schooling people had, the
more they participated in adult education. It was also found that the
more schooling people had, the more they participated in the more
formal, or structured, programs. Studies were also reviewed which
demonstrated the relationship between cultural experiences and learning
styles. Studies that looked at expectations and preferences were also
briefly reviewed.

To inquire into the relationship between amount of schooling
and pedagogical expectations, and instrument was designed which
represented nine different educational activities. Each picture
represented one of the three levels of formality and one of the three
types of learning experiences. Every combination of the two factors
was represented once in the nine pictures. Adults in various adult
education programs were asked to respond to each picture and indicate
if they thought the people in the picture were learning something
important. They responded to a five-point Likert-type scale ranging
from "No" to "Yes" with labelled choices in between. Selecting
participants from various types of adult education programs was deemed
desirable because of the need to have a wide range of amount of
schooling adequately represented in the sample. The sample was
gathered on a "convenience" basis, trying to get a wide range of amount

of schooling. The sample size was 225.

72
After the data were collected they were analyzed through a
multivariance analysis of variance procedure. The analysis of
variance procedure tested six null hypotheses. Testing the hypotheses
would enable the answering of the initial research questions. An
alpha level, a = .05 was selected for determining the significance of
the hypothesis tests. The results of the hypothesis tests are stated

below.

Question 1A. The subjects of the study considered Low and

 

Medium formality activities to be more valid learning activities
than High formality activities.

Question 13. The research subjects considered Sharing

 

type learning experiences to be the most valid type of learning
experience of those represented in the research instrument.

Question 2A. A subject's amount of formal schooling influences

 

whether or not the subject considered any one of the levels of
formality more valid than other levels.

Question 2B. No interaction was found between one's amount

 

of schooling and expectations about type of learning experiences.

Question 3. The subjects' expectations about level of formality

 

is related to their expectations about type of learning experience.

Question 4. No relationship was found among a person's amount

 

of formal schooling, expectations about level of formality, and
expectations about type of learning experience.

After findings for each hypothesis were presented, some general
observations were made about certain trends. The Low formality-Sharing
combination was rated highest by every group. The High formality—Input

combination was rated lowest in five of the seven groups.

73

Discussion of Findings

 

In Chapter 4 of this dissertation findings were presented
which related to a number of statistical hypotheses. Each hypothesis
was designed to help answer a major research question. In this section
an attempt will be made to interpret those findings.

Question lA. "Do adult learners expect any one level of

 

formality to provide more important learning than the other levels?"
The data indicate that the subjects of the study do distinguish
between levels of formality in considering educational activities

to be valid learning activities. It was found that activities of a
Low or Medium level of formality were considered to be more valid than
High formality activities.

The rationale for this study suggested that people develop
pedagogical expectations largely as a part of cultural experience.

In American culture, most adults have had a high degree of formal
schooling experience. In the sample for this study nearly 80% of the
people had at least 12 years of formal schooling experience. Yet
educational activities of a high level of formality, which most of this
study's sample probably experienced in school, were consistently rated
lowest on the degree to which people expected them to provide

important learning.

However, it is often said that some of the most important
learnings in a person's life occur outside of school settings. It may
be that the subjects of this study were reflecting this latter kind of
experience when they rated High formality lowest in providing important
learning. A re-examination of the rationale of the study reveals that
many formal schooling experiences in America are far less rigid than

formal schooling experiences in other cultures. Studies in various

74
cultures would be helpful in determining the relationship between
cultural practices and pedagogical expectations.

Question lB. "Do adult learners expect any one type of learning

 

experience to provide more important learning than other types of
learning experiences?" The answer to this question is that the subjects
of this study, over—all and consistently by groups based on amount of
schooling, considered Sharing experiences to provide the most important
learning. They also considered Input experiences to be the least valid
type of learning experience.

With the vast amount of background adult learners have with
Input experiences, it would have been understandable to find Input
learning experiences high in people's expectations. To find the opposite
to be true suggests that though many adults have taken part in, and
continue to take part in Input type learning experiences, they consider
those experiences not to be providing important learning as well as
other types of experiences could.

This is not to suggest that on the whole the subjects considered
Input learning experiences to be invalid ways to learn something important.
Over-all, Input learning experiences were rated 3.63. Though 3.63 is
lower than the grand mean for the entire study (3.8) it is still
closer to the "Probably are" response on the instrument than to the
"Some are, some aren't." The meaning of the findings is that the other
two types of learning experiences represented were considered to be even
more valid ways of learning something important.

Question 2A. "Is an adult learner's amount of formal schooling

 

related to his or her expectations about the level of formality of an
instructional activity?" There are two ways to answer this question, but

they both mean a partial, "Yes." There is an interaction between amount

75
of schooling and expectations about formality. This means that for the
different groups of schooling levels, the order of, and differences
between the three levels of formality were not the same.

Thus, those who had finished high school but had not gone on
to college considered High formality least valid and Low most valid,
but with a range of only 0.13. Whereas college graduates considered
High formality least valid and Medium formality most valid with a
range of 0.64. The range of 0.64 between scores was the widest range
in the entire sample.

The question can be ansered, "Yes;'also because the subjects
from no two levels of schooling considered any given level of formality
to be the same. Each group rated the High level of formality different
from the other groups. However, there is no clear pattern of why the
ratings or rank orders change. It may be that although there is a
significant interaction between amount of schooling and expectations
about level of formality, amount of schooling may not account for all
of the change: there may be other factors that interact with expec-
tations about level of formality.

The question can be partially answered, "No" because regardless
of amount of schooling, Medium formality was always rated higher than
High formality.

Question 2B. "Is an adult learner's amount of formal schooling

 

related to his or her expectations about the type of learning
experience provided by an instructional activity?f The data fail to
indicate that there is such a relationship. Formal schooling tends to
provide many Input experiences. Again, the subjects apparently did not

make their responses to the instrument on the basis of the amount of their

76
formal schooling experiences.

,Question 3. "Is an adult learner's expectations about the level

 

of formality of an instructional activity related to his or her
expectations about the type of learning experience provided by that
activity?" The data indicate that such a relationship does exist. The
subjects did rate the different types of experiences differently,
depending upon level of formality.

The sample considered all three types of learning experiences
to be approximately equally valid in Low formality settings. Both
Input experiences and Self-Awareness experiences are considered a
little less valid in Medium formality settings,while Sharing experiences
are considered distinctly more valid.

In the High level of formality, Sharing experiences lose some
of the high rating of the Medium level of formality. In the High level
of formality, Self-Awareness and Sharing are considered approximately
similarly valid, while Input is considered far less valid than the other
two types of learning experiences.

It is interesting that the subjects' rating of Input experiences
was highest for the Low level of formality while they rated Input
lowest for the High level of formality. This again appears to be
inconsistent with the background experience of the people. Most of
them probably have had the majority of their input experiences in
educational activities of a high level of formality.

Question 4. "Is there a relationship among an adult learner's

 

amount of formal schooling, expectations about the level of formality of

an instructional activity, and expectations about the type of learning

77
experience provided by that activity?" The data do not indicate that
such a relationship exists. It was already established in the study

that there was a relationship between amount of schooling and

 

expectations about level of formality. A relationship was also

 

established between level of formality and type of learning experience.

 

 

No relationship was discovered between amount of schooling and

 

expectations about type of learning experience. However, when the

 

three-way interaction is tested for, the combination of the other effects
hints at a three-way interaction effect, but it was not statistically
significant at the alpha = .05 level.

A re-examination of the means shows that the subjects of some
levels of amount of formal schooling rate Input highest in Low
formality activities while other groups rate Input highest in the Medium
level of formality. Again, there is apparently no direct linear or
curvilinear relationship.

Research hypotheses. Two research hypotheses were spelled out

 

in Chapter 1. Both were based on the idea that if cultural experiences
influenced pedagogical expectations, then people with greater amounts of
schooling experiences would have higher expectations about those kinds of
experiences.

The first hypothesis was stated. "Adult learners with more
formal schooling will expect higher levels of formality in instructional
activities than those learners with less formal schooling." The
hypothesis was not supported. No direct relationship was found between

amount of schooling and expectations about level of formality. In

 

 

Figure 4.3 the relationship between amount of schooling and level of

formality is illustrated. It appears that if a line were drawn down

78
the middle of a graph, separating the schooling groups into only
two groups, the rating scores of High formality for the groups with
more schooling would all be lower than for the groups with less schooling.
This seems to be inconsistent with the basis upon which the
research hypothesis was made. It does not mean that pedagogical
expectations are not largely influenced by cultural experiences; it

may mean that the amount of formal schooling is not as important as

 

other characteristics of those schooling experiences and other learning
experiences. It may also mean that some judgement errors were made in
formulating the research hypotheses. As was indicated earlier, it may

be that though American schooling is very formalized, it does not consist
of as much High formality-Input experiences as was thought, or as exists
in other cultures.

A second research hypothesis was stated, "Learners who expect
higher levels of formality will expect more input experiences than the
other two types of experiences." This hypothesis also was not supported.
The data seem to indicate nearly the opposite. To the extent that people
considered High formality activities to be valid learning activities,
they rated Input to be the least valid High formality learning
experience. Again, some more careful hypothesis formulation may have
been called for. In the sample used, 80% had more schooling than 12
years. It may be that in this more highly educated subpopulation, Input
experiences have lost credibility because they have been more associated

with meaningless learning.

Conclusions

 

Based upon the findings of the study and the answers to the

research questions, the following conclusions can be drawn.

79

l. Pedagogical expectations can be identified in terms of

 

level of formality and type of learning experience. Though there are

 

many aspects of level of formality, and Input, Self-Awareness, and

Sharing learning experiences that could not be captured in the

current research instrument, still the instrument did show differences

in expectations. More refined instruments ought to be able to identify
even more explicit differences in expectations. Knowing that expectations
about level of formality and type of learning experience exist, should lead
adult education practitioners to select methods and media not merely

as personal preferences, but because those methods and media would be

most meaningful for the learners involved.

2. A person's amount of formal schooling_is related to his or

 

her expectations about level of formality. Though the data show a

 

relationship, no direct linear relationship is indicated. It was

expected that, to a certain degree, people who had more experience in
formal schooling would have higher expectations about learning in
activities of High formality. This prediction was based on the idea that
pedagogical expectations are culturally influenced, and cultural

experience would lead adults, especially those with more schooling, to
expect_fligh formality. It may still be true that pedagogical expectations
are largely influenced by cultural experience, but that in a sample

with as much schooling as the research sample, people often associate

"irrelevancy,' and "busy-work" with High formality educational
activities. Thus, it can be suggested that merely because people have had
a large amount of experience with a certain kind of educational activity,

it does not mean they necessarily consider it to be a valid way to learn.

The prediction of the positive relationship between amount of

80

schooling and expectations about level of formality was based partly
on the research reviewed which focused on characteristics of partic-
ipants. Those studies showed that the more schooling a person had, the
more likely he was to be involved in more formal, structured educational
programs. It was assumed at that point that the higher level of
participation was at least indicative of a congruency between what the
program offered and the person's pedagogical expectations. It may be,
however, that formal adult educational programs are the only ones most
people are aware of, or were the only kinds of programs upon which
information was collected in the studies.

Though there is a significant interaction between amount of
formal schooling and expectations about level of formality, and a
possible three-way interaction with amount of schooling, the inter-
actions do not follow any kind of predictable pattern. The differences
between a series of levels of amount of formal schooling seem to be
almost random. Thus,it is concluded that though amount of schooling is
related to expectations, there is no indication of any direct linear
relationship. It may be that one's experience in formal schooling is
an important influence on pedagogical expectations but that the
important variable is "quality" or "nature" of those experiences and
one's response to one's success in those experiences rather than
merely the "amount" of those experiences.

3. Adult learners consider educational activities that have a

 

high level of formality and/or provide input experiences to be less

 

valid than other activities. This was a recurring pattern no matter

 

how the data were analyzed. Many adult education programs are currently
shifting away from a focus on High formality and Input experiences.

Apparently such shifts are in line with what the adult learners in this

81

study consider to be valid ways to learn. The literature on adult
learning, cited in Chapter 1, suggests that most meangingful learning
occurs in activities that are not characterized by high formality and
input experiences. The findings of this study appear to be congruent
with the ,literature on adult learning. The adult learners appear to
know hpw_they learn best and are able not to confuse it with what they
have had a lot of background in.

4. Adult learners consider educational activities that have a

 

Low level of formality and/or provide Sharing experiences to be more

 

valid than other activities. This conclusion was consistently supported

 

by the data, through several different analyses. Activities that
combine a Low level of formality and Sharing experiences are considered
to be most valid of all. This conclusion too is consistent with the
literature on adult learning. As learners, adult have a greater wealth
of experiences than children learners do. Adults more often need to,
and are, capable of learning from their own experiences. There is a
strong pragmatic element in adult learning. Thus, it makes sense that
the kinds of activities they consider to provide the most important
learning are those activities where they can share with, and learn from,
each other.

5. One's expectations about level of formality is related to

 

one's expectations about type of learning experience. Input experiences

 

are found to be considered more valid when they are in Low or Medium
formality settings than when they are in High formality settings.

Sharing experiences are considered more valid in Medium formality

settings than in Low settings. In other words, this conclusion states
that no one type of learning experience is considered bad in itself. Each

type of learning experience can be used meaningfully by using it in

82

activity of the appropriate level of formality.

Implications

 

Based upon the above conclusions, some implications can be
suggested for both practice in adult education and further research.

Implications for practice in adult education. As was suggested

 

in Chapter 1, the major purpose for considering pedagogical expectations
is to work for a high degree of congruency between provided educational
activities and learner pedagogical expectations. The way this has most
frequently been focused upon in the field of ethnopedagogy is to adapt
instructional practices to learner pedagogical expectations.

In adapting instructional practices to pedagogical expectations,
the findings from this study suggest that for learner groups similar
to the research sample, activities should have a Low or Medium level of
formality more than a High level of formality. Formality was represented
in the study by seating structure, focus of attention, and relative
position of the teacher. High formality was represented with students
in fixed rows, paying attention to the teacher, who was isolated from
the students, in front of them and either standing up (while the
students were seated), seated behind a desk, or standing behind a desk.
Thus, those kinds of settings should be avoided for general activities.
There seem to be special situations where such a setting is often deemed
desirable, such as when a prominent person comes to speak about a topic
of high interest to a particular group, but that kind of condition was
not built into the research instrument and study.

The study also suggests that learning activities ought to involve
Self—Awareness and Sharing experiences rather than concentrating

primarily on Input experiences. In the research instrument, Input

83
experiences were those in which the teacher was telling something to
the students, and for the most part, it was what the teacher thought
was important for the students to know. In Self-Awareness and Sharing
experiences the focus of attention and activity was with the students,
giving attention to what they (the students) considered to be important.
Thus, for adult learners of the type in this research sample to
recognize an activity as providing potentially meaningful learning, it
ought to be an activity that focuses upon what they consider to be
important, and that gives to the students some of the activity of
learning what is important to them.

The findings concerning the interaction between expectations about
type of learning experience also suggest some implications. Over-all,
the subject's expectations about type of learning experience varied with
the level of formality. It will be recalled that in Low formality
settings all three types of learning experiences were considered
approximately equally valid. Then, for example, in Medium formality
settings Input experiences maintained about the same rating but were
then considered far less valid in High formality settings. Thus, if a
practitioner deems a particular type of experience to be necessary,
such as an Input experience, the practitioner will find it more helpful
to provide the experience in an appropriate level of activity, such as a
Low or Medium level of formality for Input experiences. This course of
action is suggested instead of other actions such as putting on a high-
pressure or flashy promotion to get people to come to the input
experiences or continuing with the less meaningful activity because
"it's important" or "good for them even though they don't know it," or
else abandoning a potentially valuable Input experience because it does

not fit easily with the learners' expectations.

84

One of the assumptions stated at the beginning of this study was
that all three types of learning experiences mentioned throughout the
study are important and necessary. It is not deemed desirable that any
one of them should be abandoned. Adult education practitioners need to
find ways of engaging people in the different types of learning
experiences, and to find ways to modify the level of formality. There
have been times when an activity has been considered "good adult
education" merely because a slide projector and tape recorder were
providing the input rather than a warm, live,human being. What makes
adult education "good" is not who or what is doing the input, or how
informal an input session can be arranged, but that all three types of
learning experiences are provided within settings that accomodate the
learners expectations.

No statements can be made on the basis of this study about what
any one adult learner's pedagogical expectations are. It can be said

that they exist, and that they involve level of formality and type of

 

learning experience. A trend can be suggested away from considering

 

High formality Input experiences as most valid, to considering Low
formality sharing experiences as most valid. It is the responsibility
of each individual adult educator to become aware of pedagogical
expectations of the adults whom he or she serves.

Sometimes it may be correctly concluded that a particular person's
pedagogical expectations limit that person from experiences that could
result in meaningful growth. The adult practitioner's role in this
situation, in line with the earlier suggestions, would be to involve the
person in activities that would provide experiences that might enlarge
his or her expectations. If some people considered High formality

activities and Input experiences most valid, while the practitioner felt

85
the people would benefit more from informal activities, the practitioner
could design some input experiences that were slightly less formal
than usual. Pedagogical expectations are shaped by one's perceptions
of his or her experiences. If people could be involved in meaningful
experiences (in the above case, input) in a slightly different
setting, then they would likely begin to accept the new setting as
more valid.

This study has shown that the different types of experiences
can meaningfully exist at three different levels of formality, so the
adult education practitioner has several options open in providing
enlarging experiences for the people whom he or she serves.

Implications for further research. As a result of trying to

 

understand the meaning of some of the findings of this study, some
potential areas for exploration have been identified.

It was expected that amount of formal schooling would be
related to expectations, particularly expectations about level of
formality. Though an interaction was discovered, no identifiable
relationship was found. Pedagogical expectations are influenced by
experience. It may be that most people's formal schooling experience,
though widespread in terms of amount of formal schooling, may have been
of such a nature or quality that the people have developed pedagogical
expectations that lead them to consider High formality and Input
experiences to be less valid than other kinds of activities. It would
seem useful for research to explore the relationship between the quality
or nature of formal schooling rather than the amount of formal schooling.
It seems that if a person considered current experiences to be less than
meaningful, the more they received, the less valid they would consider

them to be.

86

This study looked into what a selection of adults consider to
be valid ways to learn, and then looked for a relationship between
their expectations and their amount of formal schooling. People of all
different levels of schooling had various different expectations.

It may be that learning experiences other than those that occur at
school have their influence on pedagogical expectations. One's view of
oneself as a learner may have an influence on pedagogical expectations.

It would seem useful to have research that explored the various
kinds of learnings that people have been engaged in to see how they
relate to current expectations. This study looked only at formalized
intentional educational involvement. But it may be that a peron's
various daily activities through which he or she makes new discoveries
and seeks out new information, may have a greater effect on pedagogical
expectations.

One's cultural experience and background also has a major effect
on one's personality. Thus, personality and pedagogical expectations
may be related. Studies could be undertaken that would explore the
relationship between personality and pedagogical expectations.

It may be that one's expectations about learning through input
experiences might be related to one's attitude towards authority, or
one's level of dogmatism. Expectations about level of formality might
be related to introvertness-extrovertness, or feelings of security.
Possibly a low expectation of learning through Sharing might be related
to poor self-esteem. These relationships would be fertile ground for
exploration.

The above suggestions for further research could continue to
help bridge gaps between adult education programs and the expectations

of adult learners. If adult education programs are going to serve truly

87
developmental goals, every opportunity possible needs to be explored
for providing adults with meaningful experiences for losing the
limitations to realizing their full potential as human beings. If
an adult does not expect to learn something important form a given
experience, he or she probably will not. Adult education as a field
needs to better understand pedagogical expectations, and begin to do
research into how to accomodate pedagogical expectations, and/or
provide people with experiences which can allow them to enlarge their
pedagogical expectations. Failure to take these steps will lead to
further floundering with promotions and gimmicks in attempts to keep
people involved and interested. At that point, adult education

ceases to serve development.

APPENDICES

88

APPENDIX A

IDENTIFICATION OF DATA COLLECTION SITES

The following list identifies the groups from which research
subjects were selected. The three-digit numbers are subject numbers
used in data compilation. They could be used to isolate subjects by

groups for further data analysis.

001-009

Michigan State University Extension course

Ed. 823 Instructional Games & Simulations
Public school elementary and secondary teachers
Battle Creek, Michigan

010-021, 225

Charlotte Free Methodist Church
Charlotte, Michigan

Adult class

022-047 .

Taylor Free Methodist Church
Taylor, Michigan

Adult class

048-057

John Wesley College Continuing Education Center
Owosso, Michigan

Weekend college

058-070

Michigan State University Extension course
Ed. 882 Values Development Education
Birmingham, Michigan ‘

071-088

East Lansing Trinity Church
East Lansing, Michigan
Adult class

89

089-098

Michigan State University Extension course
Ed. 882 Values Development Education

Bay City, Michigan

099-148; 219-224

Adult Education Center

Lansing Public Schools

Lansing, Michigan

Adult Basic Education, and High School Completion

149-204

Fifth Reformed Church
Grand Rapids, Michigan
Adult class

205-218

Michigan State University
College of Education

Seminar in Curriculum Evaluation

90

APPENDIX B

I

PICTURES AND TEXT OF TAPE RECORDED TEACHER

INSTRUCTIONS USED IN RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

Picture #1

High Formality--
Self-Awareness

Caption:"Class, I would
like you to make a list of
twenty things that are
important to you concern-
ing this topic."

Picture #2

High Formality--
Sharing

Caption:"Pair up with the
person across the aisle
from you and tell each
other your answers for the
reading assignment."

Picture #3

Low Formality--
Self-Awareness

Caption:"During our break
tonight, look through your
notes and see if there are
any areas that are still
confusing to you.

 

Picture #4

High Formality—-
Input

Caption:"lf you will look
at page 54 in your book,
you can see better what I
am talking about."

Picture #5

Low Formality—-
Sharing

Caption: "After class 1 9 '
tonight, talk with some W ' x57) -
'other people about two 3 W 3 fi'"
helpful things you
learned tonight."

Picture #6

Medium Formality--
Sharing

Caption: "Give each person
in your group a chance to
explain how he or she

would answer the question."

 

Picture #7

Low Formality—-
Input

Caption: "Fred, if you get
the chance, I w0uld like to
meet you for lunch some day
this week and I can

explain this better."

Picture #8

Medium Formality—-
Self—Awareness

Caption: "Make a list of
about ten things you feel
we should talk about in
this class."

Picture #9

Medium Formality—-
Input

Caption: "What I am going
to say today will be very
helpful for your exams,

so you should take notes."

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(Back)

RESEARCH INSTRUMENT RESPONSE SHEET

94

 

Please fill in the following information.

 

 

1) Number of years of school: (check the correct space)

 

 

9 10 ll 12

 

some college graduate advanced
college graduate work degree

If college, what was your major?

 

2) Have you had any vocational training?
yes no
number of years

what field?

 

3) Sex:

4) Married?

5) Age:

 

 

 

APPENDIX C (Cont.)

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

95

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bradford, Leland P. "Toward a philosophy of adult education,"
Adult Education. Vol. 7, No. 2, pp.83-92, Winter 1957.

 

Brunner, Edmund deS., David S. Wilder, and Corinne Kirchner. Ag
Overview of Adult Education Research. Chicago: Adult Education
Association of the U.S.A., 1959.

Burger, Henry G. Ethno-Pedagogy: A Manual in Cultural Sensitivity.
Albuquerque, N.M.: Southwestern Cooperative Educational Laboratory,
1971.

 

Carp, Abraham, Richard Peterson, and Pamela Roelfs. "Learning Interests
and Experiences of Adult Americans," Berkeley, Calif.:
Educational Testing Service, 1972, available as ERIC Microfiche
#ED 097 421.

. "Adult Learning Interests and Experiences," in Cross, K.
Patricia, John R. Valley, and associates (Eds.). Planning Non-
Traditional Programs. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1974.

 

 

Cawley, Richard W., Sheila A. Miller, and James N. Milligan. "Cognitive
styles and the adult learner," Adult Education. Vol. 26, No.2,
pp.lOl-ll6, 1976.

 

Cohen, Rosalie. "The relation between socio—cultural styles and
orientation to school requirements," Sociology of Education.
Vol. 41, No.2, pp.201—220, Spring 1968.

 

Cornford, Francis Macdonald (Trans.). The Republic of Plato. London:
Oxford University Press, 1941.

 

Cross, K. Patricia, John R. Valley, and Associates. PlanningyNon— Af/
Traditional Programs. San Fransico: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1974.

 

 

Dewey, John. Experience and Education. New York: The Macmillan
Company, 1938.

 

Dickinson, Gary and Coolie Verner. "Attendance patterns and dropouts
in adult night school classes," Adult Education. Vol. 19, No.1,
pp.24-33, 1967.

 

Douglah, Mohammad, and Gwenna Moss. "Differential Participation Patterns
of Adults of Low and High Educational Attainment," Adult Education.
Vol. 18, No.4, pp.247-259, 1968.

 

Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Qppressed. New York: The Seabury Press,
1970.

 

96

Houle, Cyril 0. The Design of Education. San Francisco: Jossey—Bass
Publishers, 1973.

 

Hovey, Richard L. "Cognitive Style in African Cultures: The Global-
Articulated Dimension" (unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Michigan State University, 1971).

Humphrey, F. Charles. "A Study of Adult's Preferences for Control of
Molar Learning Activities," Paper presented at the Adult Education
Research Conference (Chicago, Illinois, April 1974). Available
as ERIC Microfiche #ED 094 103.

Isaac, Stephen, and William B. Michael. Handbook in Research and
Evaluation. San Diego: Edits Publishers, 1971.

 

 

 

Johnstone, John W.C., and Ramon J. Rivera. Volunteers for Learning. ,///
Chicago: Aldine Publishing Company, 1965.

Kennedy, W. Robert. "Grades Expected and Grades Received--Their
Relationship to Students' Evaluations of Faculty Performance,"
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Feb. 1975.

Kerlinger, Frederick Nichols. Foundations of Behavioral Research.
New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1973.

 

Kidd, J. Roby. How Adults Learn. New York: Association Press, 1959.

 

Knox, Alan B. "Clientele Analysis," Review of Education Research.
Vol. 35, No. 3, pp.23l-239, June 1965.

 

Knowles, Malcolm S. "Philosophical Issues that Confront Adult
Educators," Adult Education. Vol.7, No.4, pp.234-240, 1957.

 

. The MOdern Practice of Adult Education. New York" Association
Press, 1970.

 

 

. Self-Directed Learning. New York: Association Press, 1975.

 

 

Kreitlow, Burton W. "Needed Research," Review of Educational Research.
Vol. 25, No. 3, pp.240-245, June 1965.

 

McKinney, Lois, "Cultural Attunement of Programmed Instruction:
Individualized—Group and Expository-Discovery Dimensions"
(unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1973).

Okes, Imogene, E. "Participation in Adult Education: Final Report,
1969" National Center for Educational Statistics (DHEW/DE)
Washington, D.C.: 1974.

Piaget, Jean. Science of Education and the Psychology of the Child.
New York: Grossman Publishers, 1970.

 

97

Rogers, Carl R. Client Centered Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951.

 

Freedom to Learn. Columbus: Charles E. Merrill Publishing V/x
Company, 1969.

 

Verner, Coolie. "Instructional Methods in Adult Education," Review
of Educational Research. Vol.29, No. 3, pp.262-268, June 1959.

 

Ward, Ted. "Cognitive Processes and Learning," Comparative Education
Review. Vol. 17, No.1, pp.l-lO, February 1973.

Ward, Ted, and William J. Herzog Jr. Effective Learning in Non-Formal
Education. East Lansing, Mich.: Program of Studies in Non-Formal
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Ward, Ted "Staley Foundation Distinguished Scholar Lecture Series"
Asbury Theological Seminary, Wilmore, Kentucky. February 1974b.

 

 

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