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ABSTRACT

SELF-CONCEPT OF ABILITY AND SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT
IN LEBANON

BY

Ahmad Sidawi

PROBLEM

The growing need for high-level manpower and the rising
demand for education brought to the fore the questions of
better learning and achievement for all. Progress toward
these ends was greatly impeded by the unfounded belief sys-
tem entrenched in our educational practices which put various
artificial limitations on the develOpment of human abilityo
The traditional "search for talent" through testing and
tracking could not meet the economic needs and the democratic

developments of contemporaneous society°

APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY
In reaponse to such acute need for learning and achieve-
ment enhancement, we proposed a self-concept of academic
ability approach based on a behavioral symbolic interaction-
ist theoretical framework developed by W. B. Brookover and

associates and influenced by the works of : G° H. Mead,

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Ahmad Sidawi

C. H. Cooley, H. S. Sullivan, A. W. Combs, D. Snygg and
others.

-A Self-Concept of Academic Ability Scale and Perceived
Students' Evaluations by Significant Others Scales were
translated into Arabic, and were adapted from the "Michigan
State General Self Concept of Academic Ability Scale" and
related instruments.

These scales and other instruments were pre—tested,
revised and group administered to 574 students in all (ten)
Public Complementary Schools for Boys in Beirut, Lebanon.
These schools offer a four-year terminal cycle running
parallel to grades six through nine in the United States.
There were 526 students in the second year or seventh grade
and 248 in the fourth year or ninth grade. This sample
represents approximately 76% of the total seventh and ninth
grades student population in Beirut and 6.5% of the total of
the same student population in Lebanon.

Data were coded and punched on IBM cards, subsequent
analyses being performed mainly by the CDC 3600 and the CDC

6500 at the Michigan State University Computer Laboratory.

MAJOR FINDINGS

 

1. Using Hoyt's method, the internal reliabilities of these
scales were as follows: .86 for Self Concept, .92 for
total Perceived Evaluations and .94 for all of these com-
bined.

2. Reproducibility coefficients for the Self Concept Scale
was .49.

 

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Ahmad Sidawi

Self concept of academic ability is significantly related
to school achievement of seventh and ninth grade boys
(N=574) in the Beirut Public Complementary Schools.
Correlations ranged from .57 to .54 for the whole scale
and a part thereof (comparing self with classmates).

Coefficients of correlation, between self concept of
ability and school achievement for seventh and ninth
graders remained nearly the same with or without having
one or more other1 major variables (such as the Father's
Occupational Level) partialled out or controlled.

High achieving groups in seventh and ninth grades have
significantly higher mean self concept of ability scores
than middle and low achieving groups.

Perceived evaluations by signigicant others: parents,
friends and teachers are significantly related to self
concept of academic ability of seventh and ninth graders.
Correlations ranged from .66 to .85 for the whole scales
and parts thereof. '

Coefficients of correlation between perceived evaluations
by parents, friends and teachers and self concept of
ability remained nearly the same with or without school
achievement partialled out.

High achieving groups in seventh and ninth grades have
significantly higher mean "perceived evaluations" scores
than middle and low achieving groups.

Association between perceived evaluations by others and
self concept of academic ability is greater in magnitude
than association between self-concept of academic ability
and school achievement.

Correlations between the first pair of these variables
ranged from .66 to .85, and between the second pair from
.57 to .58 for the whole self concept scale and from .47
to .54 for one item of that scale (comparing self with
classmates).

Comparability across schools showed significant differ-
ences in mean self concept scores and in mean scores on
other major variables.

The father's occupational level showed as a significant
contributor to partial correlation between self concept
of academic ability and school achievement as well as to
partial correlation between self concept and perceived
evaluations by others.

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Ahmad Sidawi

12. Students with high father's occupational level have sig-
nificantly higher mean self concept scores than those with
middle or low FOL.

15. Parents were more often named (85%) than any other persons
as important in the lives of seventh and ninth grade stu-
dents.

14. Teachers were more often named (55%) than any other persons
as concerned with how well seventh and ninth graders do in
school.

15. Parent's were more often named (85%) than peers (54%) as
important in the lives of seventh and ninth graders.

16. Teachers (64%) and parents (55%) were more often named
than peers (24%) as concerned with how well seventh and
ninth graders do in school.

17. Although related to self concept of academic ability and
to school achievement, the "Perceived Cost" involved in
delaying gratification for the sake of continuing one's
education seems to be measuring a different variable than
self concept, and to be more appropriate to be used with
upper secondary and college student pOpulation.

18. 88.6% of seventh grade students, participating in this

study, were over regular seventh grade age and 95.5%vof
ninth grade students were over regular ninth grade age.

CONCLUSION

 

The results of this study2 confirmed the various hypothe-
sized relationships among self concept, perceived evaluations
by others and school achievement. Our primary focus on self
concept of academic ability as a crucial factor in limiting
the level of academic achievement attempted by the learner is,
therefore, warranted.

Research is needed in order to uncover how the various
variables studied interact and to reveal the causal relation-

ships that may exist among them.

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Ahmad Sidawi

Furthermore, there is rationale and evidence that aca-
demic achievement may be enhanced by self concept enhancement
through significant others and appropriate social and environ-
mental organization. Potential significant others such as
parents, teachers and counselors may play an important role
in inducing change in students' self concepts and may thereby
influence their educational plans, academic achievement and
many other aSpects of their behavior. This conclusion has

far-reaching implications for education and development.

 

1Except for "perceived evaluations by others."

280me of our results were compared with findings of
similar investigations in the United States.

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SELF-CONCEPT OF ABILITY AND SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT

IN LEBANON

BY

Ahmad Sidawi

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education
Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1970

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Gratitude is sincerely acknowledged to Dr. Wilbur B.
Brookover, the author's thesis advisor, to Dr. Carl H. Gross,
the author's academic advisor, and to Dr. Cole 5. Brembeck,
Dr. Marvin Grandstaff, and Dr. Fauzi M. Najjar the other
members of the author's guidance committee.

In addition, appreciation for their help and criticism
is expressed to: Mr. Joseph Antoun (Deputy Director, Region-
al Center for Educational Planning, Beirut), Dr. Fauzi El-
Hajj (Faculty, American University of Beirut), Dr. Abdel
Aziz El-Koussy (Director, Regional Center for Educational
Planning, Beirut), Dr. Mohammed El-Masri (Faculty, College
of Letters, Lebanese University), Mr. Hassan Ibrahim (Faculty,
Social Science Institute, Lebanese University), Dr. Gale Edw.
Jensen (Faculty, the University of Michigan), Mr. John
Schweitzer (Faculty, Center for Urban Affairs and Research
Consultant, Michigan State University).

And I would like to take this opportunity to thank the
Lebanese University, the American University of Beirut, the
UNESCO Regional Center for Educational Planning in Beirut,
with their various departments and libraries, and also
principals, supervisors, teachers and students who made this
study possible.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER

I.

II.

III.

INTRODUCTION. . . . .

THE PROBLEM . . . . .

Interdisciplinary Research .
Limitations on Learning:

A Timely Problem,

At the Turn of the Twentieth Century. .
Objectives: A Self-concept of Ability

Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Major Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

THEORETICAL FRAME OF REFERENCE. . . . . . . .

Quest for Achievement. . . . . . . . . . .
Self Concept: .A Behavioral Symbolic
Interactionist Approach . . . . . . . .
Brookover's Self-Concept vs. Others' Self-
Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-Concept: An Intervening Variable
and a Threshold Variable. . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

REVIEW OF LITEMTURE O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O

Educability. . . . . . . . . . . .
Terminology and Self Antecedents .
Self-Concept: Inferred or Stated.
Self-Concept: Real or Ideal . . .
Self-Concept: Other Related Studies . . .
Brookover's Propositions and Findings: An

Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iii

Page

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16
18

19
19
22
25

29
50

52

52
59
42
45
46

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TABLE OF CONTENTS--continued

CHAPTER

IV. THE LEBANESE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT . . .

Sumry. O O O O O O O

V. THE LEBANESE EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT.

VI. RES

VII.

VIII.

Public Education vs. Private

Educational Structure.
Curriculum . . . . . .
Special Problems . . .
Summary and Conclusion

EARCH METHODOLOGY. . .

Site of Research . . .
Population and Sample.
Instrumentation. . . .
Major Variables. . . .
The Perceived Cost:

Education

Introducing

the Con-

cept of a New Intervening Variable.
Data Collection and Analysis Procedures.

RESEARCH FINDINGS . . . .

Validity, Reliability and Reproducibility.
Self Concept and Academic Achievement:

Testing the First Hypothesis

Testing the Second Hypothesis.
Testing the Third Hypothesis

Other Relevant Results
Summary of Results . .

CONCLUSION. . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY..........

APPENDICES

Appendix A - Self-Concept of Ability

Appendix B - Perceived Evaluations of Student's
Academic Ability by Others Scales

Scale

APpendix C - Questionnaires to Identify "Significant

Others. . . . . . .

iv

Page

60
7O
75
76
81
88
108
114
119
119
.121
125
128

151
155

157
157
.140
146
155
.154
165
166
171
179

179

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187

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TABLE OF

Appendix

Appendix

Appendix
Appendix
Appendix

' Appendix

CONTENTSv-continued

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Annex Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . .

Selections from: The Try-Out Question-
naires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Socio-economic Status Categories . . .
General Average and Age Categories . .
Abbreviations O C O O O O C O O O O O 0

'Correlation Matrix for Major Variables

Page

190

195
.199
201
205
205

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TABLE

II.

III.

IV.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Evolution of the Budget of the Ministry of
Education in Relationship to the General State
Budget, 1955-1968. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

(a) Number of Schools; (b) Number of Teachers;
(c) Number of Students, 1958-1968. . . . . . . 72

(a) Distribution of Lebanese University Stu-

dents by Sex, 1962-1968; (b) Distribution of

Students by Type of Vocational Schools, 1957-

1968; (c) Distribution of Vocational Schools'
Graduates by Type of Specialization, 1957-

1968 . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

(a) Results of Official Examinations (Baccal-

auréat II, Mathematics), 1956-1968; (b) Re-

sults of Official Examinations (Baccalauréat

II, PhilosoPhy), 1956-1968 . . . . . . . . . . 96

(a) Results of Official Examinations (Baccal-

auréat I, Scientific), 1956-1968; (b) Results

of Official Examinations (Baccalauréat I.

Literary), 1956-1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

(a) Results of Official Examinations (Baccal-

auréat I, Ancient Languages), 1956-1968;

(b) Results of Official Examinations (Brevet),
1956‘1968. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Results of Official Examinations (Certificat),
1956-1968. 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 106

Percentage of Failure in Official Lebanese
Examinations 1967-1968 . . . . . . . . . . . . .109

Reliabilities of Self Concept of Ability Scale,
Perceived Evaluations by Parents Scale, by

Friends Scale, by Teachers Scale, and Per~

ceived Evaluations by Parents, Friends, and

Teachers Scale (N5574, 7th and 9th grades) . . .159

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LIST OF TABLES--Continued

TABLE

X.

XI.

XII.

XIII.

XIV.

XVI.

XVII.

Correlation Between Self Concept of Ability
(SCA) and General Average (GA) and Between
Comparing Self with Class (SWC) and General
Average (GA) at Different Grade Levels. . . . .

Partial Correlation: Between Self Concept of
AbilitySTSCA) and General Average (GA); and
Multiple Correlation: Among Sets of Three
Variables (N=574, 7th and 9th Grades) . . . . .

Partial Correlation: Between Self Concept of
AbilityTSCA) and Some Variables, All Other
Major Variables Being Controlled (7th and 9th
Grades Combined N=574). . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mean Self Concept of Ability Scores of High,
Middle and Low Achievement Groups, with Sig-
nificance of Difference Among Groups (7th and
9th Grades, N=574). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Correlation Between Self Concept of Ability
(SCA) and Perceived Evaluations by Parents,

I Friends and Teachers Combined (PEC); and

Between General Average (GA) and Perceived
Evaluations Combined (PEC) at Different Grade
Levels C O O O C O C C C O O O O O C C O O C O 0

Correlation Between Self Concept of Ability
(SCA) and Perceived Evaluations by Parents
(PPE), by Friends (PFE), by Teachers (PTE), and
by Parents-Friends-Teachers Combined (PEC), at
Different Grade Levels. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Partial Correlation: Between Self Conce t of
Ability (SCA) and Perceived Evaluations of
Parents, Friends and Teachers Combined (PEC):
and Partial Correlation: Between PEC and
General Average (GA); and Multiple Correlation:
Among Sets of Three Variables (N=574, 7th and
9th Grades) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Partial Correlation: Between Self Concept of
Ability (SCA) and Some Variables, All Other
Major Variables Being Controlled (7th and 9th
Grades, N=574). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

Page

145

145

144

144

147

147

149

149

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LIST OF TABLES—-continued

TABLE

XVIII.

XIX .

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXVI.

Mean (Perceived Evaluations by Parents,
Friends and Teachers Combined) (PEC) Scores
of High, Middle and Low Achievement Groups,
with Significance of Difference Among Groups
(7th and 9th Grades, N=574). . . . . . . . . .

_Mean Perceived Evaluations by Parents, Friends

and Teachers Scores (PPE, PFE, PTE) of High,
Middle and Low Achievement Groups with Sig-
nificance of Difference Among Groups (7th and
9th Grades, N=574) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Intercorrelations Among Perceived Evaluations
by Parents, Friends, and Teachers (PPE, PFE,
PTE) (7th and 9th Grades, N=574) . . . . . . .

Correlation Between Self Concept (SCA) and
Perceived Evaluations by Parents, Friends, and
Teachers (PEC), and Between Self Concept (SCA)
and General Average (GA) at Different Grade
Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Mean Self Concept of Ability (SCA) Scores of

Nine Public Complementary Schools for Boys in
Beirut, with Significance of Difference Among
Them 0 O O O C O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O C

General Mean Score on Certain Variables of
Nine Public Complementary Schools in Beirut,
with Significance of Difference Among Them for
Each Variable (7th and 9th Grades, N=574). . .

Percentage of Students in Every Father's Occu-
pational Level (FOL) and Father's Educational
Level (FEL) Categories . . . . . . . . . . . .

.Percentage of Students Naming at Least One

Person from Each of the Following Categories
as Being "Important in Their Lives." (7th and
9th Grades, N=574; 7th N=526: 9th N=248) . . .

Percentage of Students Naming at Least One
Person From Each of the Following Categories
as Being Concerned with "How Well They Do In
School." (7th and 9th Grades N=574; 7th
N=526; 9th N=248). . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

viii

Page

151

151

152

152

.155

157

159

160

160

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE

1. Map of Lebanon: Physical Characteristics. . .
2. Determinants of School Selection in Lebanon. .
5. (a) Number of Public Schools 1958-1968;
(b) Number of Students in Public Schools
1958‘19680 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

4. Structure of the Educational System in Lebanon
1967-19680 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

5. Distribution of Normal School Graduates. . . .

6. Results of Official Examinations (Baccalauréat
II, Mathematics) 1955-1968 . . . . . . . . . .

7. Results of Official Examinations (Baccalauréat
II, Philosophy) 1955-1968. . . . . . . . . . .

8. Results of Official Examinations (Baccalauréat
I, Scientific) 1955-1968 . . . . . . . . . . .

9. Results of Officials Examinations (Baccalauréat
I, Literary) 1955-1968 . . . . . . . . . . . .

10. Results of Official Examinations (Brevet)
1955-1968. c o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

11. Results of Official Examinations (Certificat)
1955-1968. . C C C . O O C . O O C O O 0 C O O

12. Results of Official Examinations (Certificat)
1956-1968. c o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o

15. Percentage of Students in Public, Pre-primary,
Primary, and Complementary Schools . . . . . .

ix

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INTRODUCTION

In this study, we propose to test empirically some
twpotheses and to answer some questions related to self con-
cmpt of academic ability and related variables, with Special
reference to comparable investigations carried out in the
United States.

Our primary focus will be on self concept of ability and
school achievement in response to the economic need for high-
level manpower and to the democratic trend for meeting rising
educational aspirations. And our approach stems from the
theoretical foundations laid by the behavioral symbolic inter—
actionist and the phenomenological schools of thought.

Subsequent emphasis on the socio-cultural factors that
shape self concept and other aspects of behavior does not
Preclude, in any sense, the continuous interaction between
these factors and man's biological legacy. It underscores,
however, man's plasticity, perfectibility and capability for
always attaining higher levels of learning and achievement,

and stresses the need for interdisciplinary research.

 

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CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Interdisciplinary Research

It seems that during the first half of the twentieth
century, research workers in education and related fields
have laid more emphasis on the psychological variables
affecting learning and teaching. In a subsequent chapter, we
are going to deal with some of the factors that, we think,
have led to such an emphasis.

Whereas, during the second half of the twentieth century,
there seems to be a growing concern, not only about socio-
logical variables influencing learning and teaching, but also
about the interaction among all these variables. This is
being done on a macro and micro-educational level.1

In a recent review of literature, Mitchell Jr. crowned
this trend in educational research by making the following

Statement:

. . . contemporary events seem to suggest most forceful-
ly . . . that the determinants of behavior need to be
sought more often in the characteristics of the environ-
mental context and the interaction of these characteris-
tics with individual traits and abilities, and that a

" lsee for instance: J. R. Campbell, and C. W. Barnes,
Interaction Analysis-2A Breakthrough?" Phi Delta Kappan
V01. L. No. 10, pp. 587-590, June, 1969.

search fc:
only to P:
The procel
with the
processes
values, t
Faced wit
sccial a:
to accept
underSta:
lesson t:
is that s
c “tain 1
or may i:
impact tt
any analy
We a
Sullivan
- . ., N-
(1363) he
GXphasize
determin;
and Chara

 

 

Nowadavs
‘

stepertaini:

 

 

search for individual characteristics ip_vacuo can lead
only to partial understanding or no understanding at all.
The process used by the individual to 'come to terms
with the environment,‘ as Goldstein (1959) wrote, are
processes that have much to say about that individual's
values, traits, and characteristic modes of functioning.
Faced with the almost cataclysmic impact of contemporary
social and political events, it should not be difficult
to accept the importance of this interaction for an
understanding of human behavior. At least part of the
lesson to be learned from these events, it would seem,
is that social forces and environmental contexts may in
certain instances be prepotent over individual tnaits
or may in any event have such immense implications and
impact that they cannot be ignored without penalty in
any analysis of individual behavior.

We are not without warning in this reSpect.
Sullivan (1955, 1956), Lewin (1955, 1956), Fromm (1941 1955)
. . ., Murray and Kluckholm (1955), and Getzels and Thelen
(1960) have all presented theoretical points of view that
emphasized the importance of environmental and social
determinants and their interactions with individual needs
and characteristics.2

Nowadays, it is a common trend in the research litera-

ture pertaining to methodology, to designate the various

 

2James V. Mitchell, Jr., "Education's Challenge to Psy-
chology: The Prediction of Behavior from Person-Environment
Interactions," Review of Educational Research, Vol. 59, No. 5,
1969, p. 696. See also: Kurt Goldstein, The Organism,
New York: American Book Co., 1959: Harry S. Sullivan, The_
Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry, N. Y.: Norton, 1955;
Harry S. Sullivan, Clinical Studies in Psychiatpy, N. Y.:
Norton, 1956; Kurt A. Lewin, A Dynamic Theory of Personality,
N. Y.: McGraw, 1955; Kurt A. Lewin, Principles of T0pological
Psyphology, N. Y.: McGraw, 1956; Erich Fromm, Escape from
Freedom, N..Y.: Rinehart, 1941; Erich Fromm, The Sage Society,
N. Y.: Rinehart, 1955; Henry A. Murray and Clyde Kluckholm,
"Outline of a Conception of Personality," in Personality in
Nature, Society and Culture (edited by Clyde Kluckholm,
Henry A. Murray and.David M. Schneider), N. Y.: Knapp. 1955,
Chapter I; and Jacob W. Getzels and Herbert A. Thelen, "The
Classroom GrOUp as a Unique Social System," in The Dynamics
of Instructional Groups (edited by Nelson B. Henry), Fifty-
rfinth‘Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Educa-
tion, Part II, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960,
Chapter 4, pp. 55-82.

 

 

 

 

 

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behavioral phenomena as psycho-sociological of sociopsycho-
logical.3

The research tradition that focused on the individual
learner appears unable to account for the variations in learn-
ing that may be due to the social environment, and to the
perennial interactions between the individual learner and his
cultural environment. It is evident that we need to come to
a fresh understanding of the two learning poles: the indi—
vidual and his environment, and to a more comprehensive out-
look of the learning process in interaction.

In this proposed perspective, no one behavioral science
would claim hegemony. An interdisciplinary approach would
be the supreme guide in investigating human phenomena. Brim,
Chairman of the National Science Foundation's Special Commis-
sion on the Social Sciences, stated: "In particular, it is
important to bring together in a problem-oriented setting
engineering technology, social science theory, legal skills,
and political skills.4 The perceived importance of the inter-
disciplinary approach to providing a comprehensive attack on
problem solving is illustrated in a major recommendation made

recently by the National Science Board‘s Special Commission

 

3Gale Edw. Jensen, Educational Sociology: An Approach to
Its Deveigpment as a Practical Field of Stud , New York: The
Center for Applied Research in Education, 1965, pp. 27-41.

sRoger W. Russell, "Psychology: Noun or Adjective,"
Tpe American Psyphologist, 25:5, p. 215, March, 1970.

 

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on the Social Sciences (National Science Foundation, 1969)
that a nationwide network of mission-oriented research centers
be established. These would constitute a system of relatively
autonomous research agencies, located throughout the country
near universities and government centers but independent of
both, each analyzing and seeking solutions to a single area of
interrelated social problems. The interdisciplinary and
interprofessional centers would combine teaching, pure and
applied research, and application."5

.And in studying educational phenomena, a particular
science would be called upon to contribute to the investiga-
tion in terms of its relevancy to the problem and its actual
state of development. The ideal research team would include
specialists in education and in the various social and other
sciences, whose fields of specialization are relevant to the
particular investigation involved.6

Furthermore, in education and social science and especial-V<
ly in comparative studies, researchers have recognized cul-
tural and subcultural influences on the process of learning
and social change. They are now trying to develop adequate

research designs to study these differences in learning, with

 

5Ibid., p. 217.

6See: .A. Perlbert and G. Shaal, "La Rechercbe Interdis-
ciplinaire Appliquée a un Probleme de Planification et de
Developpement de la Main d'Oeuvre," Revue Internationale du
Travail, 99: 4 pp. 405-426, Avril 1969. See also: W. K.
Medlin, F. Carpenter and W. M. Cave,.Education and Social
Change: A Study of the Role of the School in a Technically
Developing Society in Central Asia, Cooperative Research
Projects Nos. 1414 and 2620, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan,
December 1965.

F

. l ,i-

 

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sniying Iran
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a better-delimited theoretical framework.7 "Traditional pro-
grams may no longer be adequate-" Russell admits, “One ap-
proach to examining potential needs for change involves
studying man's relations to his environment as a 'system,‘ a
man-environment system. The initial question for such a sys-
tem analysis is not how to improve and enlarge present
programs, but rather: What will be required to provide the
services community 'X' will need in the future? Such analyses
are underway."8

On the other hand, cross-cultural and international
studies are growing at an unprecedented rate.9

This overview shows a definite need to investigate the 4.

various processes whereby differences in social and cultural

environments affect the learning of students and their

 

7e. g., D..F. Swift, "Educational Psychology, Sociology
and the Environment: A Controversy at Cross-Purposes,"
British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 16, pp. 554-550, 1965.

8Russell, pp, cit., p. 215.

9See for example: W. Wiersima, "A Cross-National Com-
parison of the Academic Achievement of Prospective Secondary
School Teachers," Compgpative Education Review, 15: 2, pp.
209-212, June 1969; W. I. Grams, Jr., "A Multivariate Analy-
sis of the Correlates of Educational Effort by Nations,"
Comparative Education Review, 12: 5, pp. 281-299, 1968:'
N. Trowbridge, "Cross Cultural Study of Creative Ideas in
Children," Comparative Education Review, 12: 1, pp. 80-85,
February 1968; and T. Husen (ed.), International Study of
Achievement in Mathematics-eA Comparison of Twelve Countries,
2.Vols., New York: John Wiley, 1967. Although cross-cultural
data may be considered as weak, they are valuable because of
their weaknesses: see Roger Holmes, "The Transient and the
Subsumed: Some Epistemological Implications of Cross Cultural
Research," Comp. Ed. Rev., 141, February 1970, p. 60.

 

 

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achievement. And it is well understood that such a trend
requires the sciences of man to work collaboratively with
greater breadth of vision to bring about new formulas for

social change and development.

Limitations on Learning: A Timely Problem,.
At the Turn of the Twentieth Century

As social scientists were in permanent pursuit of the
determinants of social change, as an encompassing aim of their
various disciplines,1° educationists and allied social scien-
tists concentrated on an equally overarching aim in seeking
the determinants of learning which is, in fact, a major
aspect of social change. And emphasis shifted from the time- x
honored notion of education as a product to education as a

11 in order to find out what processes in education

process,
would lead to what products.

Since the beginning of the twentieth century, the learn-
ing process has been the major concern of the more developed
social sciences. Psychology for one, considers learning as a F
common denominator among its various branches, as attested for

by the number of research studies devoted to learning and

carried out in the psychological laboratories and elsewhere.

 

1°C. A. 0. Van Nieuwenhuijze, Social Scientists in Pur-
suit of Social Change, The Hague: Mouton, 1966.

11Cole 8. Brembeck, Social Foundations of Education:
A Cross-Cultural Approach, New York: ‘Wiley, pp. 12-51, 1966.

 

Research

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Research studies set out to investigate psychological
variables in situations that would lend themselves better to
experimental manipulation. They excelled in studying scien-
tifically some phases of human behavior and in revealing
crucial clues about how learning takes place in certain
situations.

In many of the psychological research studies, especially V/
those concerned with mental ability, there was a tendency to
explain learning in terms of alleged bio-physiological limi-
tations. This was done in the absence of conclusive evidence
about the inheritance of human mental ability, as we are going
to show while discussing this topic in our review of litera-
ture.

Such a tendency in psychological thinking and acting was
tolerated because of the prevailing socio-cultural and
economic situation in the world. The educational system,v/
being the creature of society, allied itself to the belief
norms and acted mainly as an elitist system for sorting and
selecting without much regard to the potentialities of the
majority of the learners.12 May be education for all was
never the aim nor the belief of any society, neither the

American nor Western societies.13

 

12R. E. Herriott, "Some Determinants of Educational
Aspiration," Harvard Educational Review, 55: 2, 1965, p. 157.

13See Milton Schwebel, Who Can Be Educated, New York:
Grove Press, 1969, for a review of the comparative educability
of mankind, and the inner workings of the American educational

and social systems.

  
  
 

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In this reSpect, it may be worthwhile to ask a few
pertinent questions:

Is the ability of man irrevocably bound by a certain V
determinism? Can't more than 15-25 percent of the high school
pOpulation benefit from higher education?14 Are the Russians
wrong in holding that theoretically 99 percent of the
secondary school students can make it?15 To what extent do
cultural differences influence learning? Are the current
psychological theories of learning fit to analyze the school
situation in teaching and learning?16

Hunt suggests that much evidence has been rejected be-
cause it did not fit the American belief system about fixed
mental abilities and the established practices in testing
classifying and tracking in education. .And so does Swift

from a modern British point of view.17 ‘Although some

 

14James B. Conant, The American High School Today,
New York: McGraw Hill, 1959, p. 20.

lsH.Chauncey, "Some Observations on Soviet Education,"
Proceedipgs of the 1968 Invitational Conference on Testing
Problems, Princeton, N. J.: Educational Testing Service,
1959, pp. 71-79, in Wilbur B. Brookover, Ann Paterson and
Shailer Thomas, Self-Concept of Abilipy and School Achieve-
ment, I, U. S. Office of Education, C00perative Research
Project No. 845, East Lansing, Mich.: Office of Research
and Publications, Michigan State University, 1952, p. 2.

 

16Ernest R. Hilgard, “A Perspective on the Relationship
Between Learning Theory and Educational Practice," in Theories
of Learning and Instruction, Ernest R. Hilgard (ed.), Chicago:
The National Society for the Study of Education, 1964.

17J. McV. Hunt, Intelligence and Experience, New York:
Harcourt, Brace and World, 1962; D. F. Swift, 1970, pp, cit.,
p. 554.

 

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.10

limitations may exist, we do not have at the present time ways
and means to identify the limits of most students' learning
potential.18

Carroll, Bloom and Sanders hold also that measured
aptitudes are predictive of rate of learning rather than its
level or complexity. They express the view that given suf-
ficient time and appropriate help, 95 percent of students can
learn a subject up to a high level of mastery.19

The student of education and social science who is in-
clined to a multidisciplinary approach, is overwhelmed by the
great amount of research studies that emphasize psychological
factors in learning. These studies do not shed much light on”
how learning takes place in school and in society, which make;
the natural habitat of the human being. .It is unfortunate
that little consideration has been given to other determinants
of the learning complex, namely the processes of interaction

between the individual learner and his sociocultural environ-

ment. Isn't it within the context of the overall ecology of

 

J'9Wilbur B. Brookover, Edsel L. Erickson, and Lee M.
Joiner, Self-Concept of Ability and School Achievement III,
Report of Cooperative Research Project No. 2851, U. S. Office
of Education, entitled "Relationship of Self-Concept to
Achievement in High School," East Lansing, Mich.: Educational
Publication Services, Michigan State University, 1967, p. 5.

19John B. Carroll, “A Mbdel of School Learning,” Teachers
College Record, 64 (May 1965), p. 729; Benjamin S. Bloom,
”Learning for Mastery," Evaluation Comment, 1 (May 1968), and
Donald P. Sanders, "Toward a Theory of Educational Development"
Comparative Education Review, 15: 5, October 1969, p. 285.

 

”2.1:; organl S.”-

.0

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:ztles of many
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11

living organisms that psychological considerations attain the
greatest maturity of meaning?20

waever, the prOSpeCt of psychology should not actually
be described in pessimistic terms. Present trends in psychol-
ogy indicate that the traditional boundaries of the existing
discipline would give way to much more interaction with
related areas of knowledge. The very theme of the 1969 Con-
vention, "Psychology and the Problems of Society," and the
titles of many of the papers presented therein are suggestive
for integrating the behavioral with other properties of living
biological systems in understanding their adjustments.21
Moreover, Russell states that: "It would present a very biased
picture if we were to consider only interactions involving
living organisms and their physical environments. Gregarious- /
ness as an empirical characteristic of many animal species,
including man, points to the importance of sociocultural
environmental factors in adaptive behavior.”2
1 Over the ages that have elapsed, man has clearly shownv'
his prodigious perfectibility, and this seems to be an on-
going process. Able people are constantly emerging and prov-
ing themselves, contrary to the prophecy of the prognastic

indices used. "There is, in fact, great plasticity within the

organism. The characteristics of this plasticity are

 

2°Russell, pp, cit., p. 217.
21Ibid., p. 211.

22Ibid., p. 215.

 

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12

illustrated clearly in experimental programs designed to
contrast behavioral, neurochemical, and neuroanatomical
characteristics of subjects exposed to enriched and impover-'
ished environments (e.g., Bennett, Diamond, Krech, &
Rosenzweig & Leiman, 1968). . . . The major thrust of all /’
these data is that environmental conditions can be manipu-
lated to alter significantly those characteristics of behavior
that are essential in an organism‘s adjustment to changes in

"23 Isn‘t it much more advantageous for most

its environment.
purposes to maintain that there are no limitations on the
ability of the human being except those that have been
definitely proven to be so?v/

Thus, the crucial question that educators should ask

becomes: What kind of social organization do we need for

what kind or purposes in education?24

 

231bid., pp. 214-215. See also E. L. Bennett, M. c.
Diamond, D. Krech & M. R. Rosenzweig, "Chemical and Anatomical
Plasticity of Brain," Science, 1964, 146, pp. 610-619; D.
Krech, M. R. Rosenzweig & E. L. Bennett, "Relations Between
Brain Chemistry and Problem-Solving among Rats Raised in En-
riched and Improverished Environments," Journaippf Comparative
and Physiolpgical Psychology, 1962, 55, pp. 801-807; M. R.
Rosenzweig, "Environmental Complexity, Cerebral Change, and
Behavior," American Psychologist, 1966, 21, pp. 521-552; and
M. R. Rosenzweig &-A. L. Leiman, “Brain Functions," Annual
Review of Psycholpgy, 1968, 19, pp. 55-98.

24Or, as Veuillet puts it: "De mgme qu 'il ne s‘agit
plus de contempler le monde mais de le transformer, il ne
8' agit plus, scolairement parlant, d'étudier le milieu local
mais de 1' exploiter. Et c 'est pourquoi il est urgent d' agir
afin de remettre egalement, la pédagogie sur pieds". See J.
Veuillet. La Notion de Milieu en Pedagpgie, Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France, 1962, p. 252.

 

 

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15

The aforementioned socio-educational development that
characterized educational systems in the world as being
elitist and selective has served well the aims of allocating
people to various fields of study and occupations. ,The ques-
tion now is whether such a development is still appropriate
to meet the needs of a post industrial society on one hand,
and an overall developing world on the other?

How are we going to meet the rising demand for highly
educated people? How are we going to fill in the shortageltr
in high-level manpower?2s What alternatives do we have to.
the time-honored search for “talent"?26

And what about the status of the disadvantaged in
developed countries and the burgeoning dreams of democratic
ideals in the underdeveloped countries? "Aren't they going
to be crystallized in some kind of pressure for educational
opportunity? Don't we already have a clear evidence of rising
demands for education27 at least for its instrumental value,

in the develOping countries?

 

25Pierre Jaccard, Sociologie de 1' Education, Paris:
Payot 1962, Chapter 2, "L' Europe manque de savants et
d'Ingenieursfl: pp. 25-55, and Chapter 5, Penurie Dans les
Carrieres Liberales," pp. 62-75.

26Not to mention anything about student unrest all over
the world.

27See UNESCO, Educational Plannin : A Survey of Problpms
and Prospects, Paris: UNESCO, International Conference on
Educational Planning, 6-14 August 1968, p. 14; John W. Hanson
and Cole S. Brembeck, Education and the DevelOpment of Nations,
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966. PP. 14-27; Cole
S. Brembeck, Risipg Educational ASpirations and School Learn-
ipg, East Lansing, Mich.: Institute for International Studies

 

Objecti'

 

During th

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14

How long our belief system, built on the basis of alleged
limitations on learning, can still hold, in the face of our
contemporaneous needs? ‘What other options have we got left?
A self-concept approach may provide a partial answer to some

of these questions.

Objectives: A Self-concept of Ability Approppp_
During the past several decades of social science
inquiry, new and promising ways of viewing and understanding
human behavior have been presented for scientific investiga-

tion. Many scientists tackled virgin psycho-sociological
variables, devised new theoretical constructs and earnestly
tried to operationalize them through testable hypotheses.
Among these the self-concept and its related constructs
occupied a place of eminence. There has been an upsurge of
interest in the nature of self-attitudes, self-perception,
self-image, self-esteem, and a host of other similar or even
overlapping concepts. .And it is taken for granted that many
of them need more clarity and sharpening, but it is also
apparent that they have a great potential for improving our
predictive efficacy in education and social science. We are
finally discovering that the most important ideas which affect

people's behavior are those ideas which they have about

 

in Education, Michigan State University, 1965 (mimeo); and
C. Arnold Anderson, "Le Role des Facteurs Sociologiques dans
la Demande de l'Education," in OCDE, Objectifs Socipux et
Planification de l‘Enseignement, 1969, p. 55.

t .‘Y 'u'IJ

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15

themselves. This is referred to as the self concepts?a

At least, the fields of psychiatry, psychology and
sociology experienced such a keen interest in self-concept.
"The fact," says Rosenberg, "that these three fields should
come to share an interest in this aSpect of personality
bespeaks, perhaps, the power of this concept to intrude it-
self upon established ways of thought and procedure.
Though each field bears with it the inert weight of its
distinctive tradition, all have feund the idea of the self-
image relevant to their concerns."29

The ways of theorizing about and studying the self-
concept aroused much controversy. They ranged from theo-
retical considerations to methodological problems. In a
later chapter, we are going to deal with some of these
issues.

A unique approach to study self-concept was conceived by

so He concentrated on one aSpect of self-

W. B. Brookover.
concept, namely, the "self-concept of academic ability" and
sought with his associates to determine the theoretical and
empirical usefulness of this construct. They used a self-

report Guttman type scale coupled with other instruments.

 

29Arthur W. Combs, "Seeing is Behaving," Educational
Leadership, 16: 1, October 1958, p. 22.

29Morris Rosenberg, Societyppnd the Adolescent Self-Image,
Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1965, p. 5.

30W. B. Brookover and associates, pp, cit., 1962, and
1967.

 

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16

Their work was done on American adolescents in the framework
of a social-psychological theory of learning, derived
primarily from the symbolic interactionist tradition of
George Herbert Mead and the phenomenological schools of
thought.

One major purpose of this study is to determine the use-
fulness of the Michigan State self-concept of a academic
ability as related to school achievement in a noneAmerican
situation, namely in Lebanon. This replication necessitated
to keep as close as possible to the original instruments
used by Brookover and his collaborators, in the process of
adaptation.

.Another objective of this study is to examine other
possible constellations of intervening variables between self
concept of ability and school achievement. The author pro—
poses the "perceived cost“ concept as a major link in this
connection. This line of thinking could be crucial at this
stage for develOping theoretical propositions.

Furthermore, the writer aSpires to explore some aspects
of the educational systems in developing countries that may
be viewed as micro-cultural determinants of self concept.

The examination system and foreign language learning are among

the aspects considered.

Major Hypotheses

1. Self-concept of academic ability is associated with
academic achievement at each grade level.

J52. .1

 

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acader
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other.L
greate
of ac:

 

 

Lebane

To “(he
tion 5
Conce;

2.

17

Student perceptions of the evaluations of their
academic ability by others: parents, friends, and
teachers, are associated with self-concept of
academic ability at each grade level.

The associations between perceived evaluations by
others and self-concept of academic ability are
greater than the associations between self-concept
of academic ability and achievement.

Several other questions are also being asked, involving

competing variables, explanations and miscellaneous factors

related

1.

10.

to self-concept and school achievement, such as:

To what extent, do differences in socio-economic
status account for associations between self-concept
of ability and general average?

To what extent, do differences in socio-economic
status account for associations between perceived
evaluations by others and self-concept of academic
ability?

Who are the general significant others for
Lebanese adolescents?

Who are the academic significant others for
Lebanese adolescents?

To what extent, student perceptions of the examina-
tion system in Lebanon are associated with self-
concept of ability?

To what extent, student perceptions of the difficulty
of major external examinations (e.g., the Brevet
Examination), are associated with self-concept of
ability?

To what extent, self-concept of ability is associated
with achievement in the foreign language (French)?

To what extent, student perceptions of the difficulty
of the foreign language are associated with self-
concept of ability?

To what extent, student perceptions of the difficulty
of the foreign language/are associated with their
actual achievement in that language?

To what extent, the "Perceived Cost" of delaying
gratification for the sake of continuing one's
education is associated with achievement?

Iii

 

In this
5:;ys conce
is first pose
:xeezphasis
tesccio-cul
he scne balan
rumbles but
.22: all Othe
"3392: need f

59C0nd,
tatishs 0n le
:Lzsive evide
SCI ta18nt 31".
£529: of the :
ail'yar‘tsGed in
hreducation

Third, i«
5:: assess-lng
.;a:iables rel;
has Singled o
aEssie achie

Finally,
Sig

‘qestions

asilit
Y aPPrCE

5: .
110911 ng

 

18

Summary

In this chapter, we tried to set forth a series of propo-
sitions concerning the problem and some of its antecedents.
We first posed the question on what variables should we lay
more emphasis in educational research, the psychological or
the socio—cultural? We suggested that, not only there should
be some balance between the psychological and sociological
variables but also they should be studied in interaction along
with all other pertinent variables. This led us to note the
urgent need for interdisciplinary research.

Second, we came to question the tradition whereby limi—
tations on learning are being exerted on the basis of incon-
clusive evidence. We tied it up with the problem of search
for talent and high level manpower as well as with the other
facet of the same phenomenon namely the problem of the dis-
advantaged in the developed countries and the rising demand
for education in the developing world.

Third, it was suggested to resort to new ways and means
for assessing human achievement and for studying the host of
variables related to it. .Among these variables, self-concept
was singled out as having great potential for predicting
academic achievement and for adjustment in general.

Finally, we overviewed our objectives, major hypotheses
and questions in the light of our self-concept of academic
ability approach whose theoretical framework is sketched in

the following chapter.

.. k.

 

Man may '
:reature. He
;‘:ysical envi.
:zaieqtacies .
accczplished .
Irwculd, the

atle develcprr.

this striving

Etilcmc deve.

 

 

CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL FRAME OF REFERENCE

Qpest for Achievement

Man may be viewed throughout the ages as a striving
creature. .He first faced the problem of adjusting to his
physical environment and gradually tried to surmount his
inadequacies. Henceforth, he has gone a long way and has
accomplished spectacular advances in science and technology.
It would, then, seem legitimate to expect from him a compar-
able development in the realm of social organization. It is
this striving feature in human activity that made socio-
economic development a reality in some parts of the world.
And in this endeavor, man has been influenced not only by the
cumulative and supraindividual quality of his cultural heri-
tage but also by his prodigious capability of perceiving new
ways of being and becoming. On these and other grounds many
a scholar described modern societies as learning societies

or achieving societies.1

 

1D. C. McClelland, The Achieving Sociepy, New York:
VanNOstrand, 1961; and D. C. McClelland, Mbtivatinngconomic
Achievement, New York: Free Press, 1969.

 

19

 

Particul

tecsre better

 

are have cons
::ward how we
rent. Respor.
runs in de':
:rierachieverh
shences, inc

1?. the pr oble

 

nations var i a
achievement .
es revivi fie
:Lcns.
Farquhar
lezs involved

‘fieu'fl

«1.1.

.V3 of .CH‘
“V.

fiA, “

 

20

Particularly during the past few decades, citizens have
become better aware of the function of education in society
and have consequently evolved keen sensitiveness eSpecially
toward how well their children do in school and in employ-
ment. .Responsible people in education have similarly been
active in devising plans to meet the contemporary issue of
underachievement.2 .Concurrently, researchers in the social
sciences, including education, have become more interested
in the problems involved and have set out to deal with the
various variables related to economic, social and academic
achievement. .The perennial problem of achievement motivation
was revivified and became one of their predominant preoccupa-
tions.

Farquhar gave us an idea of the complexity of the prob-
lems involved in describing motivation as "an evasive octopus
which as an ever expanding Spiral envelOps the whole field of
learning.“3 .And he defined academic motivation as "a combi-
nation of forces which initiate, direct and sustain behavior

toward a scholarly goal."4

 

2Note the successful or unsuccessful attempt to overcome
underachievement in a recent item entitled: "Private Firm
Hired to Ruanlementary School," State News (Michigan State
University), 65: 25, July 24, 1970, p. 4.

3W. W, Farquhar, Motivation Factors Related to Academic
Achievement, East Lansing: Cooperative Research Project No.
846, Office of Res. and Pub., Michigan State University, 1965,
p. 169.

 

4Ibid., p. 169.

 

Many res«

 

theories of ai
. a

know. andi

related to ac

Eierce, 9 Pros

 

50. C. M
Igpletcn-Cent
sn. 3
23:35., 1

 

 

 

23:17 signif
Jeliberative
s::.col achiex,
3:310:13 c
5150 5:34.], a.
1. “1 II
““9: aCinlts

 

21

Many researchers tried to develop propositions and
theories of achievement motivation such as: McClelland,s
,Maslow,° and-Atkinson.7 Others studied miscellaneous factors
a

related to achievement, for example: Edwards and Wilson,

Pierce,9 Frost,1°.Mukherjee,11 and Arnold.12 Some dealt even

 

5D..C. McClelland, The Achievement Motive, New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1955.

6A. H. Maslow, Motivation and Personplity,.N.Y.: Harper
& Bros., 1954.

7J. W. Atkinson and N. T. Feather, A.Theopy of Achieve-
ment Motivation, New York: John Wiley, 1966.

8T. B. Edwards and A. B. Wilson, A Study_of Some Social
and Psychological Factors Influencing Educational Achievement,
HEW Project No. 7787, Dept. of Ed., University of California,
1961. Significant among their findings were the following:
"Deliberative orientations are strong positive influence upon
school achievement". . . . ". . . Children study to realize
vocational aspirations having educational prerequisites, they
also study in return for approval by parents, teachers and
other adults." p. 112.

aJ. V. Pierce, The Educational Motivation Patterns of‘
Superior Students Who Do Not Achieve in High School, HEW
Project, Chicago: University of Chicago, 1959. Among the
findings: "High achieving boys and girls named significantly
more fathers as having been important influences in their
lives than did their low achieving peers" and they "have
parents who hold high aSpirations for them" p. 57. Other
studies by Pierce include: Non-Intellectua;_Factors Relpted
to Achievement in Above Averagp_Abilipy High School Students,
U. of Chicago, 1960; Sex Differences in Achievement Motiva~
tion of Able High.School Students, Coop. Res. Project No.
1097, U. of Chicago, 1961.

(1°B. P. Frost, “Some Conditions of Scholastic Achievement
Motivation," Canadian Education Research Digest 6: 8-12,
March, '6.

11B.N. Mukherjee, "Achievement Motivation and Goal-Setting
Behavior,“ British_Journal of Educational Psychology, 55: 286-
295, November,‘1965.

12Magda E. Arnold, St r Se ence' sis, N. Y.: .
Columbia Univ. Press, 1962. According to the author: Positive

r .111-

'v‘fl' “I l 34/

mm

 

 

with more a‘”

l
:thers caplté
316 of the E

. . 14 .
Seriowltl c

this topic w;

[IA

In this
:5 researcher

C
“Van

,...lems inva

 

The Sel
E753 oveI-lapf
Pertance and

:13: 0f thEo

22

with more ambiguous factors: e.g., Sanders.13 And some
others capitalized on the educational implications and the
role of the parents and teachers toward achievement, e.g.,
Berkowitz14 and Ellsworth.15 ,Elaboration of some aspects of

this tOpic will be dealt with in our review of literature.

Self Concept: A Behavioral Symbolic
InteractioniSt Approach

In this quest for learning and achievement, a new breed
of researchers have been trying to take another look at the
problems involved and to devise new ways and means to solve
them.

The Self-Concept, along with a multitude of related and
even overlapping constructs, have achieved increasing im-
portance and have led to much theorizing and operationaliza-
tion of theoretical propositions, as we said earlier. Modern
social scientists have ascribed to the self-concept complex
a key role in the integration of personality, in influencing
behavior and in achieving social and mental health. .And it
has been generally recognized as a hitherto unnoticed factor

in learning that has vast implications for education.

 

stories that are freely told by the individual promote vigor-
ous and constructive action, p. 222.

13D. C. Sanders, Building Enthusiasm for Learnipg in
Casis-Dill Elementary Schools, Austin: U. of Texas, 1961.

1‘L. Berkowitz, The Development of Motives and Values in
the Child, N. Y.: Basic Books, 1964.

1SS. G. Ellsworth, "Building the Child's Self-Concept,"
N. E. A.:g9urnal, 56: No. 2, pp. 54-56, February, 1967.

*5.“

2.1:“! hypot A:

 

In this 5

 

u.

~:‘ self-conce?

1:231 limits

.1- an en‘- erg:

nv“

2:.eloped by

:1; State Cni'
The theo:
:5 prize arily

and Charles Hc

 

tear. of Geo
3313’ by Job:

\—

. ‘G'Wilb:;r
31 Classruovn

3‘57: W B

: " Da.1d Got
"f“e Donal
. -:'_')‘C CnCeDt

""eritIVe R

:' I"titled
.:.£6pt En

 

23

In this study we are going to be dealing with proposi-
tions, hypotheses and findings devoted to a Specific construct
of self-concept considered a major variable in setting func-
tional limits on school achievement. This approach derives
from an emerging social psychological theory of learning
developed by Wilbur B. Brookover and his associates at Michi—
gan State University between 1959 and the present time.16

The theory and research of Brookover and his associates
are primarily based on the theories of George Herbbert Mead17
and Charles Horton Cooley.18 The symbolic interactionist

theory of George Mead was later refined and restated by others,

namely by John W. Kinch and Arnold M. Rose.19 Other theoretical

 

16Wilbur B. Brookover, "A Social Psychological Conception
of Classroom Learning," Schgg; and Society, LXXXVII, 1959. PP.
84-87; W. B. Brookover §£_al,, 92, 913,, 1962; W. B. Brookover
and David Gottlieb, Sociology of Education, N. Y.: American
Book Company, 1964, Chap. 2, pp. 51-57; W. B. Brookover, Jean
LePere, Donald Hamachek, Shailer Thomas and Edsel Erickson,
gelf-Concept of Ability and School Achievement II, Report of
Cooperative Research Project No. 1656, U. S. Office of Educa-
tion entitled, "Improving Academic Achievement through Self-
Concept Enhancement,“ East Lansing, Michigan,Bureau of Educa-
tional Services, College of Education, Michigan State University
1965; W. B. Brookover §£_§l,, gp, gi£,, 1967.

17George Herbert Mead, Mind Self and Society, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1934.

18Charles H. Cooley, Social Organization, N. Y.: Charles
Scribners Sons, 1909.

19J. W. Kinch, "A Formalized Theory of the Self Concept,"
The American Journa;_of Sociology, 68: 481-486, 1965; A. M.
Rose, "A Systematic Summary of Symbolic Interaction Theory,"
in A. M. Rose (ed.), Human Behavior and Social Processes,
Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1962, pp. 5-19.

‘1

 

izfltences 1:.
.‘-.':‘::r Combs

Theorem
mid also be
:frcie anal}-

From the
1’. is not the
25::ines an i
353533 MEad a
;::’3?f€tat1¢
5228 of Other

 

 

 

13the faCts

a“
u

:u"
.H

E'Jior Cf p
.1 failure t
52:32:10}: is c
azi faunre i
kept acts,

”his

.al’ v

Lli'v? o
I. 14‘anl Q
“:5.” Alarc
: . am

24

influences include the works of: Harry S. Sullivan and
Arthur Combs and DonaldSnygg.2O

Theoretical formulations most relevant to these studies
would also be located in the literature under the headings
of role analysis, and reference group theory.21

From the point of view of Brookover and his associates,
it is not the actual behavior of others which directly de-
termines an individual‘s actions, as in the tradition of
Dewey, Mead and other thinkers, rather it is the individual's
interpretation and internalization of the expectations and
acts of others which most influences his behavior.22
Perceptually, this means that "people do not behave according
to the facts as others see them; they behave in terms of
what seems to them to be so. . . . In order to understand the
behavior of people we must understand how things seem to them.
Our failure to understand this simple and obvious fact about
behavior is one of the most potent causes of misunderstanding
and failure in dealing with human problems."23 "The self-
concept acts," Combs explains, "very much like a quota for an

individual, what a person believes about himself establishes

 

20W. B. Brookover, 1967, 92, 933,, pp. 6-7; Harry S.
Sullivan, Conceptions of Mbdern Psychiatry, Washington, D. C.:
‘William Alanson White Psychiatric Foundation, 1947; Arthur W.
Combs and Donald Snygg, Individual Behavior, N. Y.: Harpers,
2nd Edition, 1959.

21Brookover gg_§l,, 1967, pp, cit., p. 5.
221bid., pp. 5 and 11.

23A.‘W. Combs, 1958, 9p, cit., p. 21.

 

 

:ieir assumpt
;::urn, have
s::;ety."25
his the
zine: context I'
xteract cont
:fsccial str
2;. npsyc

QII A V
:,_.:.acn are

 

”33193 inclu
=IEpI—enS, and
From the

Siam}.
-51. on the

 

25

what he can and will do."24 "People act on the basis of
their assumptions of what they are like, and these actions,
in turn, have characteristic consequences for their lives in
society."25
,This theoretical shift of emphasis to the perceived self-
other context in which psychological and social variables
interact contributes to a wider understanding of the effects
of social strata and other socio-cultural variables on learn-
ing. In psychological studies, most pertinent to this
approach are those theories stressing voluntary behaviors and
the importance of the individual's perception of the learning

process.26

Brookover's Self-Concept vs. Others' Self-Concepts

Most recent reviews and critiques of "self-concept"
studies include those by Ruth Wylie, D. D. Crowne and M, W.
Stephens, and Sarane S.Boocock.27

From these and other reviews, it is apparent that re-

search on the self-concept is one of the most active areas of

 

24Ibid., p. 25.
25Rosenberg, 1968, gp, cit., p. 187.
25A. W. Combs, 1958, 92, cit., p. 6.

27Ruth Wylie, The Self-Concept: A Critical Survey of
Pertinent Research Literature, Lincoln: The University of
Nebraska Press, 1961; D. D. Crowne and MW'W. Stephens, "Self-
‘Acceptance and Self-Evaluative Behavior: A Critique of Meth-
odology," Psychological Bulletin, LVIII, 1961, pp. 104-121;
Sarane S. Boocock, "Toward a Sociology of Learning: a SeleCtive
Review of Existing Research," Sociology of Education, XXXIX,
Winter 1966, pp. 1-45.

___j

 

:xrent PSYC‘r-
nthe litera
:zcept resea
7313115 reas:
:e;::alizatic
self-concept

care prefere
azzerpt to q:

real self and

Brookove.

32:99: is de

 

annuiates a

:: behavior 1:

"“"’a‘~91y) hi:

. .
...,
I. " AL},

, ... unners e

 

26

current psychological study.28 Hundreds of reported studies
in the literature do not share much beyond the label of self-
concept research. .Few of these can be replicated because of
various reasons including poor methodology or unclear con-
ceptualizations or both.29 And many sociometric measures of
self-concept try to assess a general affective self—concept
where preference for certain people is the major subject or
attempt to quantify the discrepancy between an.actual or a
real self and an ideal self, or to draw an inferred self-
concept.30

Brookover defines his constructs as follows: "Self-
concept is defined as symbolic behavior in which the individual
articulates a program of action for himself as an object in
relation to others. Self-concept of academic ability refers
to behavior in which one indicates to himself (publicly or
privately) his ability to achieve in academic tasks as compared
with others engaged in the same task."31 "Language behaviors
which refer to one‘s ability in academic tasks are therefore

classified as self-concept of academic ability behavior."32

 

28Arthur W. Combs and Daniel W. Soper, The Relationship
of Child Perceptions to Achievement and Behavior in the Early
School Years, COOperative Research Project No. 814, Gaines-
ville: University of Florida, 1965, p. 6.

29Brookover §£_§l,, 1967, gp, cit., p. 20.

3°Ibid., p.21 and p. 10 reapectively.

311bid., p. a.

321bid., p. 9.

 

$5.5 it is well :-
icut themselves
:iecrists.“
Evidently,
ifreny concepts
areas Cf behavi:

azademic abilitl
:: .ime, but in;
:I'eir self‘COncg

reflexic abi 1i t

entity, or a PM
arstence apart
behavior and as
Stantly in a pr:

\—

33 L P Li
:oR Elationshi:
Child D;|

 

27

And it is well known that verbalizations that people make
about themselves have long been of interest to personality
theorists.33

.Evidently, self-concept of academic ability is just one
of many concepts of self.34 Other concepts of self refer to
areas of behavior other than school achievement. On the other
hand, a person may hold more than one self-concept35 of
academic ability from one situation to another, and from time
to time, but individuals tend to be relatively stable in
their self-concept reSponses.36 Furthermore, self-concept of
academic ability does not mean a personality trait, or an
entity, or a phenomenological phenomenon, or that it has an
existence apart from behavior. It strictly refers to symbolic
behavior and as such, to empirical events,37 which are con-

stantly in a process of construction and reconstruction.

 

33L. p. Lipsitt, "A Self-Concept Scale for Children and
Its Relationship to the Children's Form of the Manifest Anxiety
Scale," Child Devolopment, 29: 4, December 1958, p. 465.

34In children, Wattenberg differentiates between two
distinct aspects of self-concept, one of them is competence.
See W; W. Wattenberg and C. Clifford, "Relation of Self-Concepts
to Beginning Achievement in Reading," Child Development, 55:
June, 1964, p. 466.

35W. James pointed out a long time ago that the individual
has many selves. See W. James, Principles of Psychology,
Vol. 1, N. Y.: Holt, 1890.

36This is taken as a sign of adjustment. See John J.
Brownfain, “Stability of the Self-Concept as a Dimension of
Personality," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psyohology, 47:
1952. p. 606.

37Brookover §E_al,, 1967, op, cit., pp. 8-9.

::::ess rather ‘

 

From this I

:: an adjective
Iitzcize this

aaiztaihed that

 
 
   

errata in rep
;:i;'.'idual's de.
Sza‘te General 5.

'35 “help .
. UQJU; Vver an\

 

sears to hold Pi
;:s:~:‘amehts . ‘0
Sttclastic Apti
:czsistent pred
5:5,. 41

-V
‘0

Th6re is

ti" 1
.-;5 aneut him

3: "~ E
, 33! ‘3:“

L: l . U I C
”hfiberlvat '
”ulflfiy, .
t\.J“'“ 15:

P's-abet}, "The

28

From this Meadian point of view, self is a behavioral
process rather than a thing, a verb rather than a noun"8
or an adjective. And although Combs, Snygg and others39
criticize this approach as being only a self report, it is
maintained that whether an individual is accurate or in-
accurate in reporting his self-concept, the effect on the
individual‘s decision is tremendous. Besides, the Michigan
State General Self-Concept of Ability Scale of 1962 devised
by Brookover and his associates and which is a self-report
seems to hold promise for use much more than many other
instruments.‘° It proved to be, not only better than the
Scholastic Aptitude Test, but also the most effective and
consistent predictor of academic achievement in a recent
study.41

There is also some evidence showing that what a subject

says about himself in an interview corresponds highly with

 

331bid., p. 25.

39Combs and Soper, 1965, op, olo,, pp. 10-12; Combs and
Snygg, 1959, op, ol£,; A. W. Combs and D. W. Soper, "The Self,
Its Derivate Terms and Research," Journal of Individual Psy-
chology, 15: 154-145, 1957; A. W. Combs, D. W. Soper and C. C.
Courson, "The Measurement of Self Concept and Self-Report,"
Educational and Psychological Measurement, 25: 495-500, 1965.

40D.-A. Biggs and D. J. Tinsly, "Student-Made Academic
Predictions," The Journal of Educational Research, 65: 5,
January, 1970, p. 197.

‘lLaurabeth Grieneeks, "Measures of Self-Perception as
Predictors of Scholastic Achievement," The Journal of Educa-
tional Resoorch, 65: 5, January 1970, p. 205.

I: q

 

:he ratings 9i“

0n the 0th
speedy and a 1e
theLr various 6

43
:esearchers .

Self

 

Brookover '
:nstruct is e:-:

In this cc
between t‘r.
the role e
one hand,
other. We
others to
havior, t';
Person's c:
the releva
our intere
SEIf as it
We POStula
0f the ot‘r.
learner of
COUStitute
that he is

 

 

29

the ratings given himself on some personality instruments.42
On the other hand, the self-concept report is consistent,

Speedy and a less costly way of measuring self-concepts in

their various dimensions, as is urgently pleaded for by modern

researchers.“3

Self-Concept: An Intervening Variable
and a Threshold Variable

Brookover‘s conception of self-concept as an intervening
construct is expounded in the following excerpt:

In this context, the self is the intervening variable
between the normative patterns of the social group or

the role expectations held by significant others, on

one hand, and the learning of the individual, on the
other. We hypothesize that for the expectations of
others to be functional in a particular individual's be-
havior, they must be internalized and become part of the
person's conception of himself. ,Although we recognize
the relevance of self in all aSpects of human behavior,
our interest at this point is in a particular aSpect of
self as it functions in the school learning situations.
We postulate that the child acquires, by taking the role
of the other, a perception of his own ability as a
learner of the various types of skills and subjects which
constitute the school curriculum. If the child perceives
that he is unable to learn mathematics or some other area

42R.1E. Bills, "Acceptance of Self as Measured by Inter-
views and the Index of Adjustment and Values," gournal of Con-
sultipg Psychology, 18: 1, 1954, p. 22; W. B. Walsh, "Validity
of Self-Report,“ Journal of Counseling Psychology, 14: 1,
January 1967, p. 22; and W. B. Walsh, "Validity of Self Report:
Another Look," Journal of Counselipg Psychology, 15: 2, March
1968, p. 186.

 

43W. J. Schlicht, Jr., H. J. Carlson, D. R. Skeen, and
M. A. Skurdal,"Screening Procedures: A Comparison of Self
Report and Projective Measures," Educational and Psychological
Measurement, 28: Summer 1968, p. 527; W. W. Wattenberg op_ol,,
1964, op, olp,, p. 467. See also W. W. Wattenberg op ol,,
1964, op, olp,, p. 466 for predictive efficiency of measures

of self-concept in a Specific subject like reading, as early
as kindergarten.

 

of behaviC
the functi'
ment. 'F‘v‘L
that we ar
learning 13'
appropriat
to learn.

actually C
determinir.
behavior 1
Other impl

able and as a t

The rising
153'91 manpower
earning and ac

In reSpons
tists SEt out C
Ielated to achi

Our main C
a-.'~‘PIO<3tc:h de
IhEov.

“Y deVelOpe
be.
““351“ State

In

turn, E

.. prcpositions

Cooley a
a. Combs and Del
\l

“Brookove;

453 I
rOOkOVe;

 

 

 

50

of behavior, this self concept of his ability becomes
the functionally limiting factor of his school achieve-
ment. ‘Functional limit“ is the term used to emphasize
that we are speaking not of genetic organic limits on
learning but rather of those perceptions, of what is
apprOpriate, desirable, and possible for the individual
to learn. We postulate the latter as the limits that
actually operate, within broader organic limits, in
determining the nature or extent of the particular
behavior learned.“

Other implications of self-concept as intervening vari-

able and as a threshold variable are develOped elsewhere.45

Summary

The rising demand for education and the need for high
level manpower culminated into a set of problems related to
learning and achievement.

In response to the urgency of the problems posed, scien-
tists set out on a hard quest for achievement. Variables
related to achievement came to the foreground in theory and
research. Outstanding among these variables was self concept.

Our main concern is self concept of academic ability and
our approach derives from an emerging socio-psychological
theory deve10ped by W. B. Brookover and his associates at
Michigan State University between 1959 and the present time.

In turn, Brookover's theory stems from the integration
of propositions advanced by George Herbert Mead and Charles
Horton Cooley and others such as Harry Stack Sullivan, Arthur

W. Combs and Donald Snygg.

 

4‘Brookover and Gottlieb, 1964, op, cit., p. 469.

45Brookover op_ol,, 1967, op, cit., pp. 11-15 and 56~38.

m-

 

In this c:
between the no:
tale expectati:
3:1 the learnir

At this p:
33:39: and by r

research litera

 

31

In this context, the self is the intervening variable
between the normative patterns of the social group or the
role expectations held by significant others, on one hand,
and the learning of the individual on the other.

.At this point we shall supplement this theoretical
background by reviewing selected examples from pertinent

research literature.

 

We raised
bit-physiologic
,3: the issues
this subtopic 6
general self -cc
tincept Of acaci
hi since it ha
IESEaICh studie
then by W, B.

355‘- relevant 1:

The most I

 

 

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Educability_

We raised earlier some crucial questions about alleged
bio-physiological limitations on learning and we touched
upon the issues of mental ability and educability. Although
this subtopic does not necessarily make an integral part of
general self-concept studies, it is closely related to self-
concept of academic ability, which is here our major concern.
And since it has not been covered distinctively in the various
research studies related to the major research project under—
taken by W. B. Brookover, we propose here to overview the
most relevant highlights of this issue.

.The most recent attack on the problem of mental ability
was made bqurthur R. Jensen through a controversial article,1
in which he argued that I.Q. is determined much more by
genetic than environmental influences, and that the most im-
portant environmental influences affecting intelligence occur
prenatally and during the first year of life.; He also tried

to analyze the so-called failure of many preschool and

 

1A. R. Jensen, "How Much Can we Boost I.Q. and Scholastic
Achievement,” gorvard Educational Review, 59: 1, 1-125, Winter
1969.

52

 

xnpensatory p
lazy discussic
The rajority c
t: the Harvard
with his posit
Hunt3 for
:5 intelligenc
alternative hy
between the p}:
Ethfi'v’ior Of t}.
pest-natal 8x1:
fixes,”
Operating
Sf J. MCV Hunt
iztelligenCe i
cronbach,‘

l‘nplied by Jen

 

 

\" 59‘ 2. s
.. 3J. MCV.
..Been Ame“. i
Jw Spring A A
‘~«h‘,
Q'I p
:igq‘llgenCe ll
ezbid'l p
7 f
a“ L. J
”hCy, P Cr

 

55

conpensatory programs to achieve significant changes in I.Q.
Many discussions followed the publication of this article.2
The majority of the discussants whose views were solicited

by the Hopyard EducatiopollReview tended to be in disagreement
with his position.

Hunt3 found Jensen's claims about the high heritability
of intelligence unsubstantiated. Thereupon, he offered an
alternative hypothesis: “Given the necessary relationship
between the physical structure of the nervous system and the
behavior of the system (as in I.Q.), we must provide rich
post-natal experience in order to develop the inherent struc-
tures.”‘

Operating from quite different assumptions than those
of J. McV Hunt, Elkind5 also finds reason to believe that
intelligence is developed in experience.8

Cronbach,7 disagreeing with the educational policy

implied by Jensen's recommendations for education, poses a

 

'ZHarvard Educational Review “Discussion," Harvard Educ.
Rev., 59: 2, Spring 1969, p. 273.

3J. McV. Hunt, "Has Compensatory Education Failed? Has
It Been Attempted?" Harvard Educational Review, 59: 2, 278-
500, Spring 1969.

‘Ibid., p. 278.

5D. Elkind, "Piagetian and Psychometric Conceptions of
Intelligence," Harvard Educational Review, 59: 2, 519-557,
1969.

°Ibid., p. 519.

7L. J. Cronbach, "Heredity, Environment and Educational
Policy," Harvard Educ. Rev., 59: 2, 558-548, Spring 1969.

 

33:9 crucial Q
:E the compatl

‘Mg range cha

.pu

Structure . " 8

Pore forc
hypothesis is
:5: .11 with
2: social cond

:: produce suc'

 

2:2'ironments, 1
car. account fo:
the proportion
:atare. Thus
single social
3:” a different
:espcndents de
In their
Elected the ox

54

more crucial question: "Intelligence for what?--a question
of the compatibility of current social aims of schooling with
long range changes in the American social and technological
structure."8
More forcefully, Light and Smith9 argued that Jensen's
hypothesis is not substantiated by his own data.10 Stinch-
com'be,11 with a profound insight, pointed out that "cultures
or social conditions must operate consistently and sequentially
to produce successively higher levels of cognitive functioning.
Environments, he argued, are cumulative, and until researchers
can account for the complexity of environment, statements about
the proportional effects of heredity and environment are pre-
mature. AThus extrapolations from twin studies limited to a
single social group to estimates of the genetic capabilities
of a different group are particularly suSpect.“12 Other
respondents dealt with other aspects of the issue.
In their classical inventory, Berelson and Steiner, re-

flected the overwhelming psychologically oriented research

literature in holding that: "Large differences in intelligence

 

8Ibid., p. 558.
9J. Light and P. V. Smith, "Social Allocation Mbdels of
Intelligence: A Methodological Inquiry," Harvard Educ. Rev.,
59: 5, 484-510, Summer 1969.
10Ibid., p. 484.
11A. L. Stinchcombe, "Environment: The Cumulation of Ef-
fects Is Yet to be Understood," Horvard.Educ..Rev., 59: 5,
511-522, Summer 1969.

laIbid., p. 511.

 

;::of of the e:

$5: national c

35 meaSUIEd 17;"
ge due princi
:rcnbach who C
:ztested inte
351?}, environ
Brown,15
smiles on ani
:nhunans, inc
:1:sion that "”
;czer.tial."17

In turn,

wher enviro:

554135. held t;-

   
 

 

55

as measured by the standard intelligence tests
are due principally to heredity."13 And quoting
Cronbach who cited Shuttleworth, they attributed variation
in tested intelligence among school children to heredity
(75%), environment (21%) and accidental factors (4%).1‘
Brown,15 after reviewing critically pertinent research
studies on animal Species16 and various other investigations
on humans, including the Genevan Program, came to the con-
clusion that "There is no direct access to innate intellectual
potential."17
In turn, Vernon,18 who published strong evidence of
greater environmental effects on intelligence tests among
adults, held that "our present tests cannot provide direct
proof of the existence of genetic family differences . . .
most national or racial comparisons are entirely illegiti-
mate."19 Then he added: "If it were possible to devise

tests which really measured innate potentiality, they would

 

13B. Berelson and G. A. Steiner, Human Behavior: An In—
ventory of Scientllic Findings, New York: Harcourt, Brace
and World, 1964, p. 217.

1‘Ibid., p, 217. Compare with A. L. Stinchcombe, 1969.
op, cit., p. 511.

15R. Brown, §ocial Psychology, N. Y.: Free Press, 1965.
laIbid., pp. 5-5.
1"'Ibid” p. 186.

18P. E. Vernon, "Use of Intelligence Tests in Population
Studies," Eugenics_gparterly, 1: 4, 221-224, December 1954.

191bid., p. 222.

 

actually give
;resent ."20

In a pene.
_:syc‘aometric n
xnc‘emned mass
:56 of intelli
311:5 is true e
entrance exam
izc' England dz
EZCl “eleven p1
isccntinued t,

0hr PIECQ

 

talent tend to

M to be a Sr.

:0 be IuediOcre

36

actually give poorer predictions than those we employ at

present."20

In a penetrating article, Banesh Hoffman labeled the

"21

psychometric movement as “Psychometric Scientism and

condemned mass testing. There seems to be a decline in the
use of intelligence tests, namely grOUp intelligence tests.22
This is true eSpecially for selection purposes and for school

23 France

entrance examinations and similar competitions.
and England drOpped almost completely their "sixth grade"
and "eleven plus" competitive examinations. New York City
discontinued the use of group intelligence tests.2‘
Our preconceptions about the correlates of scientific
talent tend to be erroneous. We do not know what leads one

man to be a great scientist or even a good one, and another

to be mediocre.25

 

20Ibid., p. 223.

21B. Hoffman, "Psychometric Scientism," Phi Delta Kappan,
XLVIII: 8, 381-386, April 1967; see also: B. Hoffman, The
Tyranny of Testing, N.Y.: Collier Book, 1964.

22J. O. Loretan, "The Decline and Fall of Group Intelli-
gence Testing," Teachers College Record, 67: 1, 10-17.
October 1965.

23Loretan cites R. L. Ebel of Michigan State University
who warned us about the danger associated with the use of a
single test or a test battery in selective admission pro-
cedures and in awards of scholarships. See Loretan, 1965,
op. go, p. 13.

24Loretan, op, cit., p. 10.

25L. Hudson, ”Academic Sheep and Research Goats," New
Society, No. 108, 22 October 1964, p. 11.

On the ot'|I
seativity is 1|
hilford and JI
'abilities con:
I
fink of origi:
the skill of 61
arteristically

Geneticis

it; the changii

    
  
   
 

a German a:

:SCth‘ESlS to t

 

3-5 EDIE likEly ‘

lzteractiOn has

 

:eeied in mode:
Patterns of ad—

5553:»

Juan SYST

\

Ee
Berelsm

37

On the other hand, Berelson and Steiner admitted that
creativity is not actually a matter of intelligence.25 J. P.
Guilford and J..Getzels provided evidence to the effect that
"abilities commonly measured do not include the ability to
think of original scientific solutions, nor do they include
the skill of divergent thinking which creative people char-
acteristically possess."27

Geneticist D. Dubinin advanced a new hypothesis concern-
ing the changing of the hereditary properties of the cell.28
And a German anthropologist tried to show that a counter
hypothesis to the genotypical patterning of ability seem to
be more likely. She suggested that "every mode of social
interaction has certain biological effects. The urbanization
of country life, the promotion of certain occupational groups
needed in modern industries, new educational systems, or new

patterns of admission to professional careers, change the

assortment systems and it is highly probable that they change

 

26Berelson and Steiner, 1964, op, cit., p. 227.
27In: Loreton, 1965, op, cit., p. 13.

28The carrier of hereditary information is known as
desoscyribonucleic acid (DNA); and it is found in the cell's
chromosomes. There was a widespread opinion among geneticists
that certain chemical compounds lead to disturbances in the
chromosomes, pass on to all subsequent generations and con-
tinue: their fatal work. N. Dubinin and his associates put up
an experiment which precluded this supposition and showed that
mutagene interference will make the hereditary apparatus un-
stable and diaposed toward mutations. See: Eugenicsguarterl ,
"A New Soviet Hypothesis Concerning Heredity," (Brief Reports),
Eugenics Quarterly,13: 1, 1966, p. 65.

 

also mcro-evc‘

I
:c a similar Cl
:ltaracteristiC

rated againSt 1
J

will be a funC
We ..30
In “93133“c

Sizdies which E

adequacy 0f 1

 

 

 

Ether—child 1
less intensive
5;:larly, Verl
;:actices the l
titan intellec
ranges in mat

Wrens and su

hm
«extant , but

38

also micro-evolutionary processes.”9 Bajema also, hinted
to a similar concern in stating: “whether a given human
characteristic, such as intelligence, is favored or discrimi-
nated against in terms of reproductive performance may very
well be a function of the social practices prevailing at the
time."30

In responding to Jensen's article,.Kagan31 cited new
studies which suggest that part of the perceived intellectual
inadequacy of lower class children may derive from a style of
mother-child interaction that gives the lower class child
less intensive exposure to maternal intervention.32
Similarly, Vernon considers adult values and child rearing
practices the major barriers to the fuller realization of
human intellectual potential33 and he concludes: ". . .
changes in material conditions, which the more favoured

nations and subcultures are in a position to facilitate, are

important, but not the whole answer. Even more important and

 

29Ilse Schwidetzky, "Assortment and Selection," Social
Research, 36: 4, Winter 1969, p. 547.

a°C..J. Bajema, "Estimation of the Direction and Intens-
ity of Natural Selection in Relation to Human Intelligence by
Means of the Intrinsic Rate of Natural Increase," Eogenics
Qparterly, 10: 4, December 1965, p. 175.

31J. S. Kagan, "Inadequate Evidence and Illogical Conclu-
sions," Harvard Educational Review, 2: 274-277, Spring 1969.

32Ibid., p. 274.

33F. E. Vernon, Intelligence and Cultural Environment,
London: Methuen, 1969, p. 232.

vastly more d1
353's of life.
bring about in
Europe, took p
sczrces of tec
trained people

ever before .

 

 

 

31::zeties and

3335 are stil

 

It is 111:;

about human at

i ieiea-tist attj
hrt‘ner Study

F.2d UDtil We .

a
PA...
at“)?

.18 Of GUI.

5313‘;le 01' y

e have
M 0:1qu1
34‘

In .

59

vastly more difficult are changes in people's attitudes and
ways of life. DevelOping nations often seem to be trying to
bring about in a matter of years developments which, in
EurOpe, took place over centuries. There are far more re-
sources of technology, of communication, of intelligent and
trained people anxious to help, in the world of today than
ever before. But our knowledge of human individuals and
societies and our control over our own predjudices and emo-
tions are still so rudimentary. . . ."34
It is high time to admit that we do not yet know enough
about human ability. This should not, however, reflect a
defeatist attitude, but should rather be an instigator for
further study and research in every possible direction.
And until we advance appreciably in our discovery, we should
beware of our opinions-attitudes, of the genesis and conse-
quences of the belief system entrenched in us and that, con-
sciously or unconsciously, directs our action. The limits of
intellectual functioning look far from.being established for
human beings, taken as a group or taken singly. Thus, it is
scientific, logical and just to maintain educability as an

openqended process.

Terminology and Self Antecedents
We have already alluded to the fact that there has been

much confusion in terminology about self-concept and related

 

34Ibid., p. 255.

 

35
.~-:trUCts '
w-"' I

 

establiSh 3 tr
ZE'I' breed of ;
:‘efinitions a?
:cssible and M

esoeciallY 1f

Early W171

 

ably.” Other
the "self as m
a;pr:priate tc
apical cormc
:iating betwee
:5 self. He‘
;;es‘:ion conc'

Scientis

SELf.

But th

u..s A
ft. >

.n's self

as .
p 8' Ml!
"A'Thesis
as ..
ID\ld.,
1-40A° .
.“*1Ca+'

4O

constructs.35 It surely is vital for a young science to
establish a tradition for itself and to incorporate in it a
new breed of ideas and conceptualizations. .However, loose
definitions and designs would make replicative studies im-
possible and would hinder the advancement of any science,
esPecially if it were a social science.

Early writers used the terms "ego" and "self" interchange-
ably.36 Others combined Mead‘s use of the "self as I" and
the "self as me."37 In some cultural settings it might be
appropriate to wean the self concept from a pure philo-
sophical connotation. In 1958, Mirza38 dwelled on differen-
tiating between self concept and what he called the concept
of self. He viewed the latter as a metaphysical ontological
question concerned with the existence of self.39

Scientists hold different views about the originof
self. But they generally tend to admit that although each

person's self is individual, it is social in origin.‘°

 

35Supra, pp. 14 and 22.

36A. S. Phillips, "Self-Concepts in Children," Education-
al Research (England), 6: 2, February 1964, p. 104.

37A. W. Combs, D. W. SOper, C. C. Courson, "The Measure-
ment of Self-Concept and Self Report," Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 25: 5, Ant., 1965, p. 494.

398. Mdrza, Self-Concept and Achievement, Beirut, Lebanon:
M. A. Thesis, Dept. of Ed.” American Univ. of Beirut, 1958..

391bid., pp. 2-3.

‘°A. T. Jersild, In Search of Self, N. Y.: Bureau of
Publication, Teachers' College, Columbia University, 1952, in
'A. S. Phillips, 1964, pp, gi£,, p. 106; see also: M. Rosen-
berg, 92, gi£,, 1965, p. 13.

 

ste authors t
ace.“ For G.
:::::ess of soc

1 . |
:ztamng the .
as sharply br
szuiies COHdLlC‘
.Vsai's behavic.

self conscious:

 

 

 

 

re most pertix
I

Hilgard hi-

:i interperson,
that the self,
"75-“ expressed

Slzed the Soci

titty Stack Su

41

Some authors traced the development of self-image to infant
age.‘1 For G. H. Mead, the self arises in the symbolic
process of social interaction from reflected appraisals based
on taking the role of the other. This distinctive aSpect

was sharply brought to the fore by the series of research

studies conducted by W. B. Brookover and associates.42

Head's behavioristic use of: "self reflexive, self attitude,

self consciousness, self communication, and self as object“

are most pertinent to our theoretical orientation.‘3

Hilgard himself states that "The self is thus a product
of interpersonal influences. . . . I am inclined to believe

that the self, as a social product, has full meaning only

"44

when exPressed in social interaction. ~Authors who empha-

sized the social origin of the self include Karen Horney and

Harry Stack Sullivan."'s

41Dixon found that infants reacted earliest to the mirror
image of mother, then they developed to the point of relating
to self-image at about seven months. J. C. Dixon, "Development
of Self-Recognition,” g;_of Genetic Ps ., 91: 251-256, December
1957: in: J. J. Gordon, and A. W. Combs, "The Learner: Self
and Perception," Regiew'of Educational Research, 28: 5,
December 1958, p. 453.

‘gFor a concise review of this topic, see Brookover
§£ go; 1967’ op. cit., pp. 15-17.

43Brookover §£_al,, 1967, op, cit., p. 7.

44E. R. Hilgard, "Human Motives and the Concept of Self,"
American Psychologist, 4: 9, September 1949, p. 579.

45Karen Horney, Self Analysis, N. Y.: Norton 1942;
H. S. Sullivan, 1947, 1953, 1956, op, cit.

 

The cumul

 

:3 bear on “*1

'2'- way of his

 

:zMeéian teri

interactional
the individual
secialization
iii. at the san
:r. primarily l
spbclizes . v

:‘.‘r environmel

Many p5}:
fiezeptive me:
We in indf
Cilduct may ‘
as threateni

:v-i
“‘

‘1’ tIUQ

9a

research wox

42

The cumulative social and cultural influences are brought
to bear on the growing child and to fashion his self-concept
by way of his experiences at home, school and community.

In Median terms, the individual imports within himself the
interactional social process. But this does not mean that
the individual is rather passive. On the contrary, this
socialization which enmeshes the individual in society frees
him at the same time from society. Our conduct is carried
on primarily by perceiving what the situation in which we act
symbolizes. We share one another behavior and we "carve out"

our environment.‘°

Self-Concept: Inferred or Stated

Many psychologists emphasized self defensive and self
deceptive mechanisms that are apparent through denial or dis-
guise in individual adjustment.47 This event in human
conduct may occur in situations perceived by the individual
as threatening to himself, but it does not seem to be neces-
sarily true in other situations. Anyway, what is of concern
to us in this respect is that this orientation led many
research workers, who discarded the intrOSpective method, to

eSpouse another approach to self concept in inferring a self

 

46B..N. Meltzer, The Social Psychologyof George Herbert
Mead, Kalamazoo, Mich.: Division of Field Services, Western
Michigan University, 1959, PP. 50-51.

‘7E. R. Hilgard, 1947, op, cit., p. 576. Berelson and
Steiner, 1964, QB, cit., pp. 663-664.

It!

I;
[‘3

 

from data ope:
aself which C’
lithough the 1

 

illowing exte
based on the El
;-,.~:ient1YI suj
need to Show 1:
gatterning of

accurately or

 

phenotypical 0
axiomsl In
:::fusion bet"
self concept 52
3f constructs
nary well be C3
Innis of ratir
\_\
48’Hilgarc‘
49
22:1," Ed”

l“'
liter 1;, ’T “

45

from data Open to an external observer, i.e., "to construct

a self which gives coherent account of motivated behavior."48
Although the use of inference as research data may be dis-
tressing to psychologists,49 this has not deterred them from
following extensively this line of inquiry, which is generally
based on the assumption of genotypical patterning of motives.so
Evidently, such assertions do not constitute evidence. We
need to show by proof that predictions based on genetypical
patterning of motives will account for behavior either more
accurately or more economically than predictions based on
phenotypical or overt or stated manifestations of motivated
action.51 In this per3pective, Combs' bemoaning about the
confusion between self concept report and authentic inferred
self conceptsz does not seem to be warranted. These two types
of constructs along with their reSpective instruments may

very well be different (average correlation between these two

kinds of rating was found to be .11)53 and they may not furnish

‘BHilgard, 1947, 92, cit., p. 577.

49C. C. Courson, "The Use of Inference As a Research
Tool," Educational_gnd Psychological Measurement, 25: 4,
Winter 1965, p. 1029.

5°Hilgard, 1949, 92, cit., p. 379.

51Ibid., p. 579.

52A. W. Combs, D. W. SOper and C. C. Courson, "The
Measurement of Self Concept and Self Report,” Educational and
Psychological Measurement, 25: 5, Aut. 1965, p. 495.

5‘3Ibid., p. 499.

<5

1815;:—

the same inSi:

 

agile to rep”:
at leaSt in t6

The basic
rate for the
behavior. Par
_:::7ed also tC

.-:.:' Combs acce

 

:ybe used f0
that questionn
flavices have 1:
:ave projectiv

At this ;
new of this ;

Lie adequacy c

3:»
..e General

44

the same insight as Parker,S4 Combs and his associates are
agile to report. Perhaps they ought to be differentiated,
at least in terms of conceptualization.

The basic question is which type would be more appro-
priate for the purpose of predicting and understanding human
behavior. Parker's study shows that the self-report measures
proved also to be consistent under varying conditions.55
And Combs accepts self-report as one class of behaviors which
may be used for making inferences.56 It is true, however,
that questionnaires, self—report instruments and self-rating
devices have been the subject of much criticism57 and so
have projective techniques.58

At this point, we refer the reader to our previous re-
view of this problem59 and we note the mounting evidence on

the adequacy of self-report instruments such as the Michigan

State General Self-Concept of Ability Scale.6° Finally, we

 

54J. Parker, "The Relationship of Self Report to Inferred
Self Concept," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 26:
5, Aut. 1966, p. 699. Note that Parker's subjects were young
(sixth graders).

55Parker, 1966, 92, cit., p. 700.

56Combs, Soper, and Courson, 1965, 92, cit., p. 494.

57Cronbach (1960) and Ellis (1946) in: w. J. Schlicht,
Jr., H. J. Carlson, D. R. Skeen, and M, A. Skurdal, "Screen-
ing Procedures: A Comparison of Self-Report and Projective

Measures," Educational and PsychologicalMeasurement, 28:
Summer 1968, p. 525.

58Sarason (1954), Zubin, Eron and Schumer(1965)ixn W. J.
Schlicht §£_al,, 1968, ibid., p. 525.

59See supra, pp. 42-44.

6°Supra, p. 28.

 

9.1211159 that

the validity

 

I
well as the Pa
scoring. there

1r.struments 15

Studies c

 

':eal self-ide
:ent in the I
Clinical com:
5615 are pur51
5339 reScarch
Zimer'S stud
between SEIf

M—;1

w...‘ict . 63

On 1091c

45

conclude that: considering the accumulating evidence about
the validity and reliability of self-report instruments as
well as the practical advantages in their administration and
scoring, there may be situations in which the use of these

instruments is to be preferred.61

Self Concept: Reallor Ideal.

Studies on incongruities between "self-ideal self" or
"real self-ideal self," whether stated or inferred are fre-
quent in the literature. This trend generally reflects a
clinical concern. Discrepancies between these constructs of
self are pursued as indicators of conflict and maladjustment.62
Some researchers showed that this is not necessarily the case.
Zimmer's study supported the contention that discrepancies
between self concept of ideal self are not indicative of
conflict.63

On logical grounds, such discrepancies might stir strong
motivational forces not aroused otherwise. For children,
real-ideal differentials may be a natural manifestation of

growth and deve10pment6‘ through which we may detect the

 

elsee W. J. Schlicht _£__l,,1968, gp, cit., p. 527 for
a similar conclusion.

62Berelson and Steiner, 1964, QB, cit., p. 291.

63H. Zimmer, "Self—Acceptance and Its Relation to Con-
flict," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 18: 6, 1954, p. 449.

64H. V. Perkins, "Factors Influencing Change in Children's
Self-Concepts," Child Development, 29: 2, June 1958, p. 250.

influence of
commity ex;
ss-called rea
self for that
sccial discou

Ultimate I
fected by thel
related to aci

that: "In Spi

 

Stbject, no or

s:hool achieve

 

else is a con

Ewes“ St ate

 

46

influence of multiple others in the context of school and
community experiences. In our theoretical framework, the
so-called real self or ideal self or any other observable
self for that matter, are all behaviors which emerge in
social discourse.65
Ultimately, actual performance seems to be hardly af-
fected by these measured discrepancies.66 And they are not
related to academic achievement.67 In fact Brookover asserts
that: "In Spite of the long tradition of research on this
subject, no one has demonstrated conclusively that poorer
school achievement, poorer mental health, or poorer anything
else is a consequence or even a concomitant of a discrepancy

between stated 'real' and stated 'ideal' self concepts."68

Self Concept: Other Related Studies
The primary focus on the individual in educational re-
search had then to be shifted to the social context in which

69

he interacts symbolically with his fellow men. We can

detect such a trend pretty early after the turn of the present

century, although not much well-designed research has been

 

65W.B.Brookover §p_§l,, 1967, pp, cit., p. 26.

56M. Moses and R. Duvall, "Depreciation and the Self Con-
cept," ggurnal of Clinical Psychology, 16: 4, October 1960,
p. 588.

67F. M. Jervis, "The Meaning of a Passive Self-Concept,"
Journalof Clinical Psychology, 15: 4, October 1959, p. 572.

68W. B. Brookover gp_§l,, 1967, pp, cit., p. 26.

89See supra, p. 25.

 

   
  

me along H”
In the P-

=;:'..s of this

early fifties
research, Tor
gating self-cc
Icngitudinal s
studying the <
cert as well
1: this re5pe
irected towa
:cxcepts in ;
Pfsfitable ij
establishing‘
:15 would i!

1.2: their p8]

4 -
‘

5y Othe;

P‘EEIS . "7 1

I’ll

1
h s

 

47

done along this line, as it was previously mentioned.

In the psychological tradition itself there were many
signs of this growing trend. One forerunner of this kind of
deve10pment, and peculiarly related to the Brookover studies
of the sixties, would be found in a dissertation done in the
early fifties by Torrance.7o Under suggestions for further
research, Torrance clearly indicates the need for investi-
gating self-concept as a behavioral process in careful
longitudinal studies. He also indicates the importance of
studying the child's perception of himself and his environ-
ment as well as the perceptions of the child held by others.
In this respect he says: ”Scant attention seems to have been
directed toward an understanding of the deve10pment of self-
concepts in process. This would seem to be eSpecially
profitable if personality is viewed as the dynamic process of
establishing, maintaining and defending one's private world.
This would involve detailed longitudinal studies of children
and their perception of themselves and their environment.

It would also involve a study of the perceptions of the child
held by others in his environment--his parents, siblings and

peers."71

 

7°E. P. Torrance, Sglf-Concepts and Their Significance
in the Learning and Adjustment of College Freshmen, Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan, doctoral dissertation, Microfilm No.
2662, 1951.

71Torrance, 1951, pp, cit., p. 279.

 

Later: T3

 

I“:
3;:cept enhanC

52:} some there
fcl in bring”-
;f changing 56
:j'u', it has be
;; psychothera
32th adjustmen
azill not been
;:aiicate wheth
13515 has any
Seit‘ner is the
approach of tl
:‘zzs change. "7
Principle in t
fixation of c<
55"91‘013 Posit:
Another :

Eel: '
* 15 learn.

““931 inter;

 

48

Later, Torrance refers to the possibility of self-
concept enhancement and points out that psychological tests
and some therapeutic approaches did not prove to be success-
ful in bringing about change in self-concepts: “The process
of changing self-concepts also needs to be studied. Until
now, it has been demonstrated that there is a relationship
in psychotherapy between perception of self and of others
with adjustment; the nature of the process, however, has
still not been made very clear. There is little evidence to
indicate whether or not objective evidence from psychological
tests has any real value in bringing about this change.
Neither is the evidence very clear that the client-centered
approach of the Rogerians is most effective in bringing about

"72 Furthermore, Torrance uncovers a neglected

this change.
principle in the counseling process, by stressing a primary
function of counseling and guidance in helping students
develop positive self-concepts.73
Another study by Bledsoe and Garrison74 holds that the
self is learned75 and that the self-concept is achieved

through interaction with the others: "The pupil's self-concept

 

72Torrance, 1951, pp, cit., p. 380.
731bid., p. ii.

74J. C. Bledsoe and K. C. Garrison, The Self-Concepts of
Elgmentary School Children in Relation to Their Academic
AchievementL Intelligence, Interests, and Manifest Anxiepy,
Athens, Georgia: U, of Georgia College of Ed., 1962.

75Ibid., p. 171.

 

 

15 an OUtgrOW
trough conta
is dependent
associated."7 =
5:11:31 as beil
:‘esirable edu:
rating studenl

rzt." And 1

 

the student 5
LI-oortant bear

In the B
'5 most relev
analyses appe

The firs
Cizcept IESea
nth SEIf and
ttEre was not
:ientifiCatiC
533301 achier
:f

SQlf to 01

3.93:; was Wa i:

49

is an outgrowth of his experiences; it is largely achieved
through contact with others. Thus the pupil's self-concept
is dependent upon the quality of peOple with whom he has
associated."76 Then the authors describe the task of the
school as being the creation of conditions conducive to
desirable educational growth rather than that of simply moti-
vating students by any means available toward better achieve-
ment.77 And the crucial role of the teacher would be to help
the student structure his perceptual field because this has
important bearing on future structure.78

In the Brookover theoretical frame of reference, which
is most relevant to our purposes, several reviews and critical
analyses appeared between 1962 and 1967.

The first review79 indicated that interest in self-
concept research was growing: and that although the concern
with self and self percention had a long history in psychology,
there was not any known research Specifically devoted to the
identification of students' self-concept in relation to their
school achievement. .Reported studies dealt with the relation
of self to other aspects of behavior. ,Most relevant among

80

them was Waisenan's. Some other studies used general

 

7°;plp,, p. 168.
77;plp,, p. 170.
789331., p. 169.
79Brookover e 1., 1962, pp, plp,, pp. 7-12.

8°Frederick B. Waisenan, "Social Determinants of Levels

 

Personality t
relation to :
scze evidence
affect his pe
gested that c
are cormensu:
people signi:
fondly inflt

The secc
relationship
self~concept
It emphasizec

atce, relatix

 

 

 

One imp
COECept as a
hit by Severe
53mg thESe \

‘L.’
....S Would SL

SM' 8 Of thE
5‘?“ icall
. 3. And ‘
Bl
BrOokr
82
Ib'
\ld‘t
53

50

personality traits to determine self—concept or had no direct
relation to classroom 1earning.81 Further research82 showed
some evidence to the effect that one's self-concept can
affect his performance and behavior. Furthermore, they sug-
gested that changes in levels of performance or in behavior
are commensurate with changes in self-concept, and that
people significant or important to another person can pro-
foundly influence his self-concept.

The second review83 singled out the establishment of
relationship between self-concept and behavior, and between
self-concept and perceived evaluations by significant others.
It emphasized the possibility of change in school perform-
ance, relative to the concept the individual holds of himself.

One important aSpect here was that change in self-
concept as a response to failure is influenced not by one,
but by several variables, although the interrelationships
among these variables are only indicated by correlations.

This would suggest that change in self-concept as a response
to success is more likely to be influenced by several variables,

as we are going to stress later on.

 

of Aspiration: Replication and Extension," Abstracts of
Papers of the Fifty-Third Annual Meetingpof The American
Sociological Society, Washington, D. C.: The Society, 1958;
p. 99. .And see Brookover, ibid., p. 8.

 

81Brookover, 1962, pp, cit., pp. 8-9.
Balbido’ pp. 9-120

a3Brookover pp_pl,, 1965, pp, cit., pp. 16-28.

 

Related
15 necessarY
:f self-conce

The gene
research was
for inducing
:f the indivi
significant 0
iate that att
nth referenc
z"Significant:

The thir

 

lcllecting in

Student learn

:Lse StUdent h
PSYCthogy . u 8

Llcnal leVe l i

.
.ha

”Cteristi

Variables . L

‘EVElOpment O

51

Related to this point was the recommendation that it
is necessary to use adequate control groups in any treatment
of self-concept, in order to reach reliable conclusions.

The general conclusion reached that superseded previous
research was that "There is substantial theoretical rationale
fOr inducing changes in the self-concept and the performance
of the individual through the modification expectations of
significant others."84 And there is no reported study to
date that attempted to enhance self-concept of the individual
with reference to school achievement through working with
"significant others."85

The third review86 emphasized "an emerging concern for
collecting information on the social context within which the
student learns rather than the characteristics or traits of
the student himself as has been the case in educational
psychology."87 Father's occupational level, father's educa-
tional level, amount of income and other social background
characteristics are the most sought-after of the socio-economic
variables. .Little attention, however, has been given to "the
development of propositions about how these social background
factors become translated into differential actions in the

a4Brookover, 1965, pp, plp,, p. 28.

55313113., p. 27.

86Brookover, 1967, pp, plp,, pp. 17-45.

°7Ibid., p. 18.

 

as
classroom.
cszrcnll’ advc
according to

;;‘tle concer

 

theoretical p
are hypothese
Sounder the-
economic stat
are much bett
:itions given
:5 a large pa
verbally redu

AS regar

52

33 _Likewise, social psychologies of learning

classroom.
commonly advocated that “the actor organizes his behavior
according to his definition of the social context,"89 but
little concern was given to translate these assumptions into
theoretical propositions and educational research, and seldom
are hypotheses tested concerning the influence of others.
.No wonder then that academic achievement, I.Q., and social-
economic status yielded better research results since they
are much better defined and homogeneous than the loose defi-
nitions given to self-concept. "Perhaps the best description
of a large part of the self-concept literature is that it is
verbally redundant or synonymous but not replicative."90

.As regards prediction of school achievement, the re-
viewers hold that specific academic self-concepts are superior
to general self-perception.91 And that sociometric tech-
niques, assessing a general self-concept may not be adequate
for this purpose.

Research studies on incongruities between a "real" self
and an ”ideal self failed to consider the normative source

of self and its social interactional antecedents.92 Self-

concept studies, Brookover asserts, should always be considered

 

ealplp,, p. 18.
39lplp,, p. 19.
9°lplp,, p. 20.
91;plp,, p. 23.
9agplg,, p. 30.

 

in their soc:

 

erce gICUPS V

Researc‘r

 

seers pr omisz

of a power ful

The majc

continually n

:radequacies

their theore-t
:‘eveloping cc
if. array of \
their theorel

integrated o:

55

in their social context, with pertinent information on refer-
ence groups.“3

Research on inducing change in self-concept by others
seems promising, and "a necessary condition for the exertion
of a powerful influence by particular others is that they be
continually taken into account by the actor."94

The major emphasis in this 1967 review is placed on the
inadequacies of previous research studies of self-concept in
their theoretical and methodological aSpects. Instead of
developing concise testable hypotheses, researchers analyze
an array of variables without paying enough attention to

their theoretical intricacies. The result would then be non-

integrated or non-significant studies.95

Brookover's Propositions ppd Findings:
An Overview

The basic propositions of Brookover's theory assert that
"a student's self-concept of academic ability results from
his perceptions of the evaluations significant others hold of
his ability. The student's self-concept of academic ability
in turn functions to limit the level of academic achievement

attempted. Self-concept of academic ability is therefore

 

93;§i§,. p. 30. See also supra, pp. 24-25.
'9‘Ibid., p. 41.

95Ibid., p. 45. In predicting academic success, see
for instance: V. M, Cashen, "Students Parents, and Counsel-
ors' Prediction of Academic Success," Journal of Educational_
Research, 60: No. 5, pp. 212-214, January 1967.

 

:Ewthesized
2:325 and eve
aziievement -
figflficant 0
:ecessary and
perzeived eva
i: self-conce
ability to ac
thesized as a
the occurreho
Contrary
::‘:.e:s are mm

,.
_uv-

. . x
....s during t
17:33: of fri
1::reases in

Esp-s
Wmcuary SchQ

'35:“
, “TY affect?

:: Sn

“Cio‘econ

 

54

hypothesized as an intervening variable between the expecta-
tions and evaluations of significant others and school
achievement. The relationship of perceived evaluations of
significant others to self-concept is conceptualized as a
necessary and sufficient condition, i.e., a change in the
perceived evaluations of others will be reflected in a change
in self-concept. The relationship of self-concept of academic
ability to academic achievement, on the other hand, is hypo-
thesized as a necessary but not a sufficient condition for
the occurrence of a particular level of academic performance."96
Contrary to many assumptions, parents more than any
others are more likely to be "Significant others" for adoles-
cents during the junior and senior high school years.97 The
impact of friends' evaluations on self-concept of ability

increases in later years.9 There is no evidence that

teachers are important others for the major portion of the
secondary school group in this study.99
"The relationships supporting the social psychological
theory of school learning presented here are not therefore
greatly affected by variations in either measured intelligence

or socio-economdc status. .Rather the evidence indicates that

much of the correlations between these variables and school

 

96Brookover, 1967, pp, plp,, p. 140.
97lplp,, p. 141.
98lplp,, p. 142.
99lplp,, p. 141.

 

achievement 2

 

 

.,~ “100
ablsltY'

t: be a more
general self
sf c‘zool ac?
fathers are
The gend

research has

 

geychological
as been prod
The soci
{-791 Supports
Studies.
Erickso;
i§5Ct on ac
Parents and
3939‘ his fi

smeiuanCE

 

55

achievement is accounted for by variation in self-concept of
ability."1°° And the self-concept of academic ability appears
to be a more relevant variable in school performance than a
general self-concept.“1 It contributes to the explanation
of school achievement as a means through which the evaluations
of others are translated into school achievement behavior.”2

The general conclusion is that this line of extensive
research has not provided any basis for rejecting the social
psychological theory advocated. "Rather, substantial support
has been produced."103

The social psychological theory advocated here was fur-
ther supported in its multiple dimensions by various research
studies.

Erickson104 developed a strategy for determining the
impact on achievement of grade expectations (norms) held by
parents and friends under certain conditions. Outstanding
among his findings is the fact that without importance and

surveillance attached to high academic expectations, the

expectation are not likely to result in higher levels of

 

100M” p. 145.

1019313., pp. 145-146.

1°2lplg,, p. 144.

1°3lplp,, p. 146.

104Edsel Erickson, A Study of the Normative Influence of
Parents and Friends Upon Academic Achievement, Unpublished

Doctoraerissertation, Nflchigan State University, East
Lansing, Michigan, 1965.

 

achievement .
tion of inte:
::hers. He .-
:L'.e influenca
portant than
achievement .:

Several
the Bookover

research stu

In this
are on Self
An overv
cated that th
in being es
It a non‘limi

~lCna1 belie?

 

 

56

achievement.105 This sustains our position about the condi-
tion of internalizing the expectations held by significant
others. He also challenged the Coleman position,106 that
the influence on achievement of the peer group is more im-
portant than that of the parents in the area of academic
achievement.107

Several research studies having varying relevance to
the Bookover theory may be found in summary form.108 Other

research studies are in progress.”9

Summary

In this chapter, we reviewed pertinent research litera-
ture on self concept and closely related subtopics.

An overview of recent literature on mental ability indi-
cated that the limits of intellectual functioning look far
from being established, and that people are generally educable
to a non-limited extent under proper conditions. The tradi—

tional belief system that human ability is rather fixed is

 

1°51bid., p. 88.

1°6James 5. Coleman, "The Adolescent Subculture and
Academic Achievement," Journal of Sociology, 65: 341-547, 1960.

107E. Erickson, 1965, op. cit., pp. 50, 51: 55: 39: and
90. ~

108W. Brookover pp_pl,, 1967, pp, plp,, pp. 151-316.
These research studies were carried out by: A. Paterson, L.
M. Joiner, E. Erickson, R. Rose, D. L. Haarer, K. A. Harding,
C. A. Sandeen, R. C. Towne, N. Sproull and others.

l09Further elaboration of some topics like significant
others, perceived evaluations and other intervening variables
will be dealt with later.

 

based on inc
:rfl‘aence 0.“:
"rats on 16
Self CC
. I
a: research.
aieqracy in

here is an ‘

 

 

 

syntheses, {
:ative studiq|

A detin
behavior, na
and between
:iiicant otl
evidence of
Certain con.
Performance
itself, I
it is neces
Ieach ralia

AS {9;
Siademc St
sCCior-etri,

“,A. 1

59 ads.

57

based on inconclusive evidence and it acts as a crippling
influence on self concept which in turn sets functional
limits on learning.

Self concept seems to be one of the most active fields
of research. H0wever, this line of research shows much in-
adequacy in its theoretical and methodological aSpects.

There is an urgent need for develOping concise, testable
hypotheses, including well-defined constructs, so that repli-
cative studies could take place.

A definite relationship between self concept and
behavior, namely academic achievement, has been established,
and between self concept and perceived evaluations by sig-
nificant others. And there is ample rationale for and some
evidence of the possibility of change in self concept under
certain conditions and the prediction of change-in school
performance, relative to the concept the individual holds of
himself. In experimental studies of self concept treatment,
it is necessary to use adequate control groups in order to
reach reliable conclusions.

As regards prediction of school achievement, Specific
academic self concepts loom superior to general self concept.
Sociometric techniques assessing a general self concept may
not be adequate for this purpose. And projective techniques
have to prove their validity. *

Research studies on incongruitives between a "real" self

and an ”ideal" self do not seem to be associated neither with

ccnflict nor
to consider
actional ant

Self re
me of thes
Concept Scal
and reliable
neat. Noreo
adninistrati'

Now, be

this researck

those of t‘:

h

tons in whiz

 

58

conflict nor with academic achievement. They failed generally
to consider the normative source of self and its social inter-
actional antecedents.

Self report instruments were subject to some criticism.
Some of these measures, such as the Michigan State Self—
Concept Scale show accumulating evidence that they are valid
and reliable at least for the prediction of academic achieve-
ment. Moreover, they meet a practical need in their ease of
administration and scoring.

Now, before describing the methodological aspects of
this research, it may be useful for the reader to get a
glimpse of the Lebanese socio-economic and educational con-

texts in which this study was done.

 

 

..r I

.l |'

   

’7.) I\
~\/ 7 r . .2

    

I
TILL‘gALAKfio' -'
"M"? VJ- ABIR’L '

   

   

  
  
   

 

 

 

WWW- - ,~ , - 5) j I LAC'DE
W a—q ’ ' , (,I (WMOUNE
W , '7‘“ , a , , , .
W /
, ae-f'agcx

._. .4 , . ,V

.7 / / e ) 1’ 9‘77""

r ' , / I..' /'////U

{I ' 7 '1 /,'
lv * ‘ " 'r— I 5
W is / j / :1 71//\_A.o° Z‘/
W =~ --- ' . . / ('y 5". / y
W ' , . , '/ ,
MW ‘ , " ’ . . ~ " ’
PM ~ We» . , . ,, _ ' ZAI-u. ‘3 (Vi \ ’-. x”
W Emmy, ' ,9 «r ’2 , own. , '3 ’
MW 99‘ . .- . r t» ,1! . s , s-l‘anu u’. , s°°
W x . ' , u ‘ é) 4, ;. .J , » y / m ,1 a
:WEW ,1 ,4 ,, .K s .’ ‘ ‘ ‘u‘ , / ”a, I» / / .1’ '
3:2: ‘ ”““””‘ , / ' o a .- r / / / (a
' I

 

«magma
lIBAN
CARACTERISTIOUES

3‘s o

a..." rumours

‘ _ untrue lflMM-uc
Sburce‘: Ministers du Plan (Liban) ,
Récueil Statisti ues Lib naises
Beyijouth, tEiban: Min. du Plan, Vol. 4,

Annpn ’I 98R r

 

  

 

square kilon
surrounded f
south by Pal
Lebanon
10 more than
about 30—40
saple3 with
\
Recreiifigis:
\
2M”

3Ibia,
Wm \ I
IT‘M' becat~
NS IQViSed
“Tonal Act

 

CHAPTER IV

THE LEBANESE SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONTEXT

Located between 550 and 54°40 north latitude, and 550
and 56°40 east longitude, Lebanon occupies at the center of
the Mediterranean oriental coast a length of 210 kilometers
with a width of only 50 kilometers and an area of 10,400
square kilometers (approximately 4,000 square miles). It is
surrounded from the north and the east by Syria and from the

south by Palestine.l

Lebanon is predominantly a country of mountains2 rising
to more than 10,000 feet, with an average yearly rainfall of
about 50-40 inches. It is populated by nearly two million

people3 with a remarkably high density of 250 persons per

 

1Ministére du Plan (Direction Centrale de Statistique),
Recueil de Statistiques Libanaises, Vol. 4, Annee 1968, p. 11.

2Ibid., p. 11.

3Ibid., p. 11; "The Lebanese population is not precisely
known, because the last national census was held in 1952 and
Was revised in 1942," ibid., p. 50: In a sampling study, the
Regional Activities Service of the LebaneseMinistry of Plan-
ning estimated the Lebanese population to be 2,179,654 persons
on December 51, 1964, with a probable error beyond 8%; This
figure includes some 590,000 foreigners residing in Lebanon.
If we also include the Lebanese immigrants who kept their
Lebanese identity the estimate would be 2,567,141; ibid., p.

50.

60

 

 

mare ki 1011‘

Ire rate of ‘

   
  

last CONStit.
1925, the ti.
gevised SEVE?
January 21,
physica
scenery and i
sing, make L
2: work.
Along w
crporated i
:ecognized.7
:1:e communal

\

‘ 4a: IR
1e Develcn e
Lihan Face a
7:315 figure
fie Ministry
flaf‘aESe pop
see Ibid'

see; A. A. I
El-Ilm Lil-M

s.|
Lebane.

 

 

 

 

 

61

square kilometer (approximately 500 persons per square mile).
The rate of population yearly increases amounts to 2.7%3*"The
last constitution which was elaborated on the 25rd of May,
1926, the time when Lebanon was under the French mandate, was
revised several times. The most recent revision goes back to
January 21, 1947."5

Physical aspects such as a temperate climate, mountain
_scenery and beaches, spOrt activities like skiing and swim-
ming, make Lebanon an attractive place in which to live and
to work.

Along with the rest of the Arab world, Lebanon was in-

6 and its feudal lords were

corporated in the Ottoman Empire,
recognized.7 This gave the country a special position until

the communal uprisings of the mid-nineteenth century put an

 

4a: IRFED Mission to Lebanon, Besoins et Possibilités
de Developpement du Liban, Beyrouth, 1960-61. b: IRFED, lg.
Liban Face 3 son Developpement, Beyrouth, 1965 (2 V018.).
This figure is estimated to average 40.2% between 1960-65, by
the Ministry of Planning, see Ibid., p. 51-52. Anyway, the
Lebanese population is rather young, with 51.4%;of it under
20, see Ibid., p. 52. The same is true for most Arab countries,
see: A. A. Dayem, Educatioppl Planning, Beirut, Lebanon:
El-Ilm Lil-Malayeen Editors, 1966, p. 127 (in Arabic).

sLebanese Ministry of Education, Rpport on the Educational
Movement in 1967-1968, Beirut: Ministry of Education, 1968,
p. 57.

6Philip K. Hitti, History of Syria, New YOrk: Macmillan,
1951, p. 665.

 

7Ibid., p. 665.

end to a two-and
Princedom-a Ott
Ehen, Lebanon ca
L545, when it W5
row a member Of
It may be 5
career in consti
it a unicameral
frage. The dept
agpoints the mir.
In a geogra
:ature, a crossr
:s an expression

:cntext of a dynl

is an integral p

 

 

62

end to a two-and-half-century career of Lebanon as a feudal
princedom.8 Ottoman rule continued until first world war.
Then, Lebanon came under French mandate until November 22,
1945, when it was declared an independent Republic.9 It is
now a member of the Arab League and the United Nations.

It may be stated that Lebanon enjoyed a relatively stable
career in constitutional life.lo Legislative power is vested
in a unicameral Chamber of Deptuties elected by universal suf-
frage. The deputies elect the president and the president
appoints the ministers who are reSponsible to the Chamber.

In a geographical sense, Lebanon, is an expression of
nature, a crossroads of civilizations. In a human sense, it
is an expression of history11 within the overall interactional

12

context of a dynamic Arab culture. In a regional sense, it

is an integral part of the Arab world13 or the Arab East.14

 

8P. K. Hitti, A Short History of Lebanon, London:
Macmillan, 1965, p. 224.

9Educational Movement, 1968, op. cit., p. 57.

1°Kamal S. Salibi, The Modern History of lebanon,
New YOrk: F. A. Praeger, 1965, p. 204.

11Arnold Toynbee, "Le Libang Expression de l'Histoire,"
Beyrouth: Les Conferences du Cenacle (Beirut), 11: 6, Juin,
1957, p. 225.

12Fouad S. Haddad, A Critical Study of History Curriculum
in Lebanon (mimeo.), Beirut: American University of Beirut,
Asa. Dept., 1970, p. 12.

 

13Matta'Akrawi, "The Arab WOrld," in: G. B. Jeffery pp_
pl,.(eds.), The Yearbook of Education, London: Evans Bros.,
.1949, p. 422; Habib A. Kurani, "Lebanon," in ibid., p. 448.

14p. K. Hitti, "The Near East: In RetrOSpect and

Prospect," in W. Sands (ed.), Mlgglg_Ea§t_RepQ;L (Washington,
D. C.), March 9‘10, 1959, p. 41.

ltd it has alwal'
Syria and palest
113-5665 of the 3‘
met modern of t
been to interwea

As a near I
ceived by some 2:
African and Eur:
Beepite the trac
East, Hitti stat
neither near nor

is farther than

Q
h
aep

arates it frc

 

 

65

And it has always been naturally linked with neighboring
Syria and Palestine.15 Berque describes Lebanon as the
Ulysses of the Arab world.16 And Lerner considers it as the
most modern of the Arab Lands whose distinctive mark has
been to interweave modernism.with westernism.l7
As a near Near-Eastern country, Lebanon is also per-
ceived by some as having the peculiarity of being Asian,
African and European18 and eSpecially Mediterranean.19
Despite the traditional alienation between Europe and the Near
East, Hitti states: "The so-called Near or Middle East is
neither near nor middle nor east. From the United States it
is farther than the Far East. The geographical line that
separates it from Europe is more arbitrary than real. 80 is

the historical line."2°

 

15In March, 1950, the Lebanese-Syrian Customs Union was
severed. See W. Persen, "Lebanese Economic Development,"
Middle Epst Journal, 12: Summer, 1958, p. 277; see also:
Amin AL-Hafez, "Lebanese Economics," Conferences du Cénacle
(Beirut), 19: 4-5, 1965, p. 74 (in Arabic),

16Jacques Berque, “Probleme de la Culture Arabe Con-
temporaine," Conferences du Cénacle (Beirut), 19: 1, 1965,
p. 55.

17Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society:
Modernizing the Middle East, Glencoe, 111.: Free Press,
1958.

18Michel Chiha, "Lebanon in the WOrld: Future and
Prospects,” Conférences du Cenacle (Beirut), 20: 9~10, 1966,
pp. 155-154.

191bid.. pp. 155-154; Hitti, 1959, 92, cit., p. 59.

2°Hitti, 1959, pp, cit., p. 59.

,.
H.

vii

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64

In an international sense, at the time of liquidation
of colonialism,21Lebanon and the Arab States are members of
the United Nations' family. They have the central problem
of integrating themselves with other nations in their quest
for a better future, and to achieve integration among them-
selves.22

Economically, Lebanon does not have rich natural re-
sources such as petroleum or mines23 and has not established
large agricultural or industrial projects except the recent
large exploitation of hydraulic power. It draws its main
income from the mobility of Arab capitals, tourism, "triangular"
commerce, transit commerce, other third sector activities and
contributions of Lebanese immigrants.24

DesPite a chronical adverse trade position in which im-
ports outweigh exports creating an unfavorable trade balance,
Lebanese economy has eXperienced remarkable growth, namely

prior to 1958.25 United Nations statistics show that from

1950-1956 the national income of Lebanon rose by more than

 

21Georges Gurvitch in: Sociologie de la 'Construction
Nationale' dans les Nouveaux Etats, Bruxelles: Université
Libre de Bruxelles, 1965, p. 575.

22Berque, 1965, pp, cit., p. 57.

23Centre D'Etudes et de Documentation.Economiques ‘
Financiénes et Sociales, “L‘Age d'Or de Beyrouth, Est-i1 a
Son Declin," L'Economie et les Finances des Pays Arpbes
(Beirut), Vol. 12: 12, December, 1969, p. 11.

24Ibid., p. 11.

25Persen, 1958, pp, cit., p. 277.

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65

50 percent.26 In the sixties the growth of national income
is estimated to be about 2.5%.27

An AUB (American University of Beirut) study estimated
that per capita income rose from $250 in 1950 to $550 in
1962.28 .This, however, still keeps Lebanon as an under-
deve10ped country.29 On the other hand, national income is
unevenly distributed among the different strata of the popu-
lation and the various geographical areas.30 Valin reports
analyses based on the IRFED studies, that were solicited by
the government, that 4%Iof the population get two-thirds of
the national income, 46% have limited economic resources,
and 50% are poor and do not get more than 18%aof the national

1 At any rate, whatever increase there is in national

income.3
income and regardless of how it is distributed, it is un-
stable32 and it is always threatened by outside factors and

by socio-political and economic change. Such developments

 

26United Nations Statistical Yearbook, In: Persen, 1958,
pp, cit., p. 277.

27Khattar Shibli, "Economic Institutions in the Public
Sector," Conferences du Céhacle (Beirut), 20: 6, 1966, p. 17.

23A. AL-Hafez, 1965, pp, cit., p. 72.
29K. Shibli, 1966. 99.. cit., p. 16.
30Ibid., pp. 12 and 17.

31E. J. P. Valin, Le Pluralisme Socio-Scolaire au Liban,
Beyrouth: Dar El-Machreq-Librairie Orientale, 1969, p. 15.

32K. Shibli, 1966, pp, cit., p. 17.

SEE

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66

seem hard to influence or to control.33 A twofold consider-
ation may explain this uneven economic growth, i.e.,
political and economical.

First, Lebanon has been thought of as relatively stable34
in an area of political and social instability. This meant
the maintenance of an orderly government with a consistent
policy of rare infringement upon individual economic rights
and with an international policy of neutralityas between any
forces that might be in opposition, even between Arab States.

A powerful political coalition of businessmen and their
associates wanted to maintain this picture of Lebanon and
thereby, to enhance their position. They expounded, much
more than any others, the concept of Lebanan as 'the Switzer-
land of the Middle East,‘ as a bridge between the west and the
Arab-East,36 as a meeting point for the whole Middle East.

Merchants and their allies endeavored to establish a low
tariff and tax policy,stable currency, confidentiality of bank
accounts. They wanted all the manufactured products of the
world available at competitive prices, so that Beirut would
be ideal for all organizations interested in the region to

supply bases, marketing, repair offices and other services.

 

33M, Attallah, ”Econpmic Institutions in the Private
Sector," Conferences du Cenacle (Beyrouth), 20: 6, 1966, p. 56.

34Persen, 1958, pp, cit., p. 279.

35See‘Manuel Ybunis, “Lebanese Neutrality, What Neutral-
ity?" Conferences duCe’nacle (Beirut), 17: 8, 9-54, 1965 (Arabic).

 

36Persen, 1958, pp, cit., p. 278.

E

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...

 

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‘51

 

67

They tried to keep at a minimum the interference of govern-

nent with the workings of the price mechanisms and with the

economy as a whole.37
Have all these factors of economic success changed

since the 1966 Intra Bank crack? The political situation has

been ambiguous and social demands are growing. Acute govern-

38 which

mental crises took place such as the 1969 crisis,
was related to the advent of the Palestinian Commandos.

Israel has always been the main source of friction between the
Western WOrld and the Arab World,39 including Lebanon. The
1967 Israeli aggression and other major incidents left
deleterious effects on the socio-economic set-up. Other
features of change include: relative lack of confidence in
banking, currency weakness, public finance deterioration, low
mobility of Arab capitals, and slow tempo of internal market.
All these developments added to the traditional hypertrophy
of the third or service sector at the expense of the basic
agricultural and industrial sectors, indicate pressing probr

lems for the Lebanese economy and may suggest that the golden

age of Beirut is declining.40

 

37Persen, 1958, pp, p13,, p. 295.

35"L'Age d'Or de Beyrouth,“ 1969, pp, p33,, p. 11.

39Hitti, 1959, pp. 313;” p. 41.

4°“L'Age d‘Or de Beyrouth," 1969, pp, pip,, p. 12. Note,
for instance, that some foreign establishments, such as the

First National City Bank of Nevaork, are moving their head
offices to "Bahrein."

SEC].

10"

fl

6...”

y

 

I»).
n.1,.

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68

Socially, Lebanon appears as a small but complex plural-
istic society, made up of diverse sub-cultures or micro-
societies. Valin, as a foreign observer, states that every
Lebanese social fact is characterized by being p1ura1istic.4l
Basically, there are the well-rooted religious communities
which represent ethnosectarian cultural groups that may be
more powerful in Lebanese life than political parties.42
Lines between these sectarian groups seem to be hardening
after 1958. Sectarianism became an economic institution with
tangible material and non-material rewards for the tradi-
tional elites. "Confessional equilibrium" amounted to the
maintenance of the status quo"'3 with all its contradictions;
and the perSpective of a secular state seems remote.

In a recent study, the socio-political structure of the
Labanese society has been described as a system of hierchical
relations in authority with sharp social differentiation among
population strata.4‘

Family and social-sectarian class loyalties are empha—
sized as well as inherited rather than achieved social-

political status. This creates a slow rate of social mobility

and prevents any rational socio-economic policy to emerge.

 

41Valin, 1969, pp, p35,, p. x.

42Valin, 1969, pp, pip,, p. 14.

43Valin, 1969, pp, pip,, p. 14.

4‘Toufic Beydoun, The Free Economic Systemtpnd the

Lebanese Consumer, Lebanese University, Beirut: Social Science
Institute, 1968, p. 52 (in Arabic).

 

69

Détcrminanu du choix dc la premiere 6001c

Prlvée étrangére Prlvée national:

    
  
 

CONFESSION

--— Eflct sign“. I P -—x .0!
Eh: slum. l P u .05
.......... Elm non signifiatil
g Ualsom suppouu In:
In “Music" a I. an.

 

Figure 2.

Source: E. J.-P. Valin, Le Pluralisme Socio-Scolaire au
Liban, Beyrouth: Dar El-Machreg Editeurs--
Librairie Orientale, 1969, p. 96.

70

This social structure resulted from the interplay of
several factors, Beydoun explains, foremost among them is
the fact that Lebanon was under foreign occupation or manipu-
lation for the past five centuries, and that the Lebanese who
took over after 1945 tended to sacrifice public interest and
to strengthen their particular status, which is in fact a
resultant of this social structure.45

This socio-economic situation has a direct impact on
education. Valin, using a multivariate analysis, found that
‘the most important factor in choosing a school is the socio—

economic status"6 of the Lebanese students. .Elaboration of

some of these intricacies are dealt with in the next chapter.

Summary

Physical aSpects, temperate climate, ease of internal
and external tranSport and communication, hotels and enter-
tainment facilities make Lebanon an attractive place in which
to live and to work.

As a crossroads of civilizations, Lebanon has been ex-
posed to different cultural influences, has develOped an
international outlook.and has become more modernized than any

other Arab country. It occupied a distinguished status in

‘5Ibid., p. 52.

46Valin, 1969, pp, cit., p. 90 and p. 174. See illus-
tration of the influence of various factors in choosing a
school on p. 69. (Valin, 1969, pp, cit., p. 96.) ’

71

Table I

01-11" “551.41..“ kw“. W: i‘ 3:313" 3:13: ‘35": :1”
Evolution du bud get du ministéro de l’éducation

nationale par rapport on budget général

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

$231311 ”51.6133?

- - - - Budget de

We 3...... 4..-, 13:13;ng I w 1..“

LL. L.L. taux %

1955 137,500,000 17,382,407 12,64 1 1 o o
1956 145,500,000 18,684,361 12,84 1 1 01
1957 170,000,000 22,330,999 13.13 1 1 01/
1958 194,165,000 27,484,747 14.15 11 0A
1959 206,000,000 30,994,222 15,04 1 1 o 1
1960 222,235,000 30,839,218 13,87 1 11 .
1961 273,800,000 37,893,300 13,84 1 1'1 1
1962 375,000,000 50,315,400 13.41 1 1'1 1'
1963 425,400,000 56,223,900 13,21 1 1 11'
1964 476,400,000 63,399,100 13.30 1 1‘1!
1965 514,790,000 74,233,600 14,42 1 11a
1966 590,735,000 88,393,200 14.96 1 111
1967 632,881,000 97,322,400 15,37 1 11V
1968 648,500,000 101,502,500 15.65 1 11A

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Source : Bureau de comptabmte, minister-e de l’éducatlon nationale
Source: Ministry of Education-~Ministry of Planning
(Lebanon), Primary and Complementary Education,
Beirut, Lebanon: June, 1969.

 

 

HERE

E!!n

ENSEIGNEMENT

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

72
Table II
111074333 o'ecouss (1) do 1953 3 1933 1113911 1334 04(1),,91411 w
(a)
Gum 9'3:qu 1953 1959 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1933 1933 1961 1.1.11 .
1939 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1933 1933 1937 1939 0'3 C"
Ecoles
3171:1311” ‘9'" "’ ,1411
Primaim 1.033 1.033 990 993 1.013 1.043 941 932 946 907 1:3‘31‘1'
Comp. 93 _
mandalros 74 91 134 195 213 225 257 237 311 386 4313b 9:82“
7033' 1.107 1.127 1.174 1.193 1.231 1.273 1.199 1.219 1.257 1.293 ”an
fimhnmflwu lmknuqun
Primal"! 1.031 1.073 1.030 1.151 1.193 1.240 1.337 932 900 1.031 133“?“
Comp.ot
ucondaim 121 155 130 192 210 213 205 435 393 403 1.5111“: 9:3”
73:51 1.132 1.233 1.230 1.343 1.403 1.433 1.372 1.417 1.293 1.437 63‘!“
(I) Nombre d-écoles qui on! présenté des 31911911470433 au Ministe‘re . 1.219)) 1,4,1“ 3’15, ,3] l‘:|.L..-l c.2343 ‘51) 091.111 9.19 (\
de I'Education Nationale. ' '
HOMBRE o'ms'rrrursuns do 1933 3 1933 (b) 1314 J1 11°00- 39-2-1114“
1939 1939 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1933 1937 .
w I 1 1
6°". m ” 1939 1930 l 1931 1932 1933 1934 1933 1933 I 1937 l 1933 ”U .11 C!
Ecol-soflicI-Ilu 4335 5.001 5.411 3300 7.724 3329 3.797 10.535 11.097 11.733 1141,11 W141!
Ecoluprlvhsfl) 4.443 5.545 3.025 3.400 3.737 7.237 10329 11.343 13.911 14.702 (”Mild-.1411
13:51 9.930 10.543 11.433 12.700 14.311 13.033 19.423 22.333 25.003 23.433 ”.911
(1) Non Compris les religieux enseignant dens ces établissemenls. . 01"“ 1.3)") if Lit-041‘ “5):. (1
111074333. D'ELEVES do 1953 3 1933 (c) 1111101)) \«oAaa-lrfl‘ w
Genre «331.. 1939 1939 1930 1991 1932 1933 1934 1935 1933 1937 ”0‘ .111 C};
1939 1930 1931 1932 1993 1934 1935 1933 1937 1993
anus
mflddhs *”w"w“‘
Primalm 35.492 92.351 107.023 113.433 121.500 134.951 143.953 149.240 139.045 173.202 1:3'411‘1'
Comp. 93 . . _
«madam: 3.352 13.572 14.734 13.450 20.104 21.303 23.074 31.945 34.539 44.753 1:21-11; 19:81
Tm! 93.344 103.923 121.907 129.933 141.304 133.339 173.027 131.193 203.334 222933 39-911
330193 [93111699 LAN! 9.51.111
Primains 132.214 142.989 156.168 165.300 170.200 175.660 194.530 211.197 274.813 314.914 1:314:01)
Comp. 93 . . - -
«whim 24.792 27.792 30.373 33.320 33.413 39.030 43.173 50.123 31.392 35.011 3:21-11; «9:81
733.1 137.003 170.731 199.941 199.320 203.313 214.930 240.739 231.323 333.705 379.923 any”

 

 

 

 

Source: Minister: dc I'Educah’on Nationale - Bureau dcs Sfafisfiques.

Ministére du Plan (Liban).
Beyrouth, Liban:

Source:

Min. du

, Annee

i . . . .
a 60'. i $968.

P an,

7 5
Unllé : Inn 63013

 

 

100° - \va‘sx-Aya...)091u1w -

NOMBRE D'ECOLES OFFICIELLES DE 195. I I“.

 

 

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1200 — ’

 

 

 

 

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200- 11MJ13M¢§~JI,,L01¢1,.9:11» _
noun: D'ELEVES 0414s LES scams OFFICIELLES _
1” ‘ DE 1939 3 1993 ..—

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 5

Source: Ministere du Plan (Liban), Recueil de Stppi 5:1}. gait: Mam '
Beyrouth, Liban: Min. du Plan, 0 nn e .

 

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U "‘

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HEX:

74

the Arab World, of which it is a part, and played a pioneer-
ing role in Arab culture.

The Lebanese miniature Republic enjoyed a relatively
stable career in constitutional life. It is characterized
as a pluralistic society, consisting of multi-ethno-sectarian
groups who compose a mosaic of micro-societies, undergoing a
process of self-integration. Lines, among social classes are
apparent, and family and sectarian loyalties prevail.

Economically, Lebanon relies heavily on third sector
activities, i.e., commerce and related services, as a main
source of national income, and endeavors to develop other
sectors and to exploit its limited natural resources. It has
known remarkable economic growth and it is constantly threat-
ened by socio-political and economic instability.

This socio-economic picture has a definite impact on
education and related issues as we are going to see in the

next chapter.

. . ...3. ,3 . e C n... .3 v. 4.4». ~ my. fin?“ 3H:

 

CHAPTER V

THE LEBANESE EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT

Some earlier studies that handled this tOpic dealt
mostly with saleable myths and wishful thinking rather than
with actual perceptions and facts about the Lebanese educa-
tional system as well as the larger socio-political and
economic context.

In this analysis, we intend to highlight what we per-
ceive as distinctive aSpects of Lebanese education in its
complex relationships with the wider socio-economic context.
Special attention will be given to those features closely or
remotely related to self-concept of ability.1

Educational authority in Lebanon is vested with the

Lebanese Ministry of National Education2 (hereafter referred

 

lMore embracing accounts of Lebanese education may be
consulted elsewhere. See: Ministry of Education, Report on
the Educationalprvement in 1967-1968, Beirut: Ministry of
Education, 1968; MinisEére du Plan, L'Enseignment au Liban:
Situption et Perspectives, Beirut: Ministere du Plan, 1965.

 

2Educational Movement, pp, p33,, 1968, p. 57. However,
the Ministries of Agriculture, Justice, Defense and Public
Works run some training institutions (Ibid., p. 57): see also:
Ministry of Education, Panorama de L'Enseignement Technigpe,
Aout, 1968, pp. 40-55.

75

 

 

69

.9

 

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V l

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e 7. s

I .

 

76

to as Ministry of Education) and related public institutions
such as the Lebanese University.

The Lebanese educational system, like any other is one
manifestation of the underlying cultural—economic forces that
have prevailed in the country, as will be pointed throughout

this account.

Public Education vs. Private Education

One salient feature of Lebanese education, that is closely
related to the socio-economic system" is the pluralistic char—
acter3 and the traditional predominance of private education
over public education which may be considered as a French man-
date legacy.‘

It is no easy task to characterize Lebanese education,
whose most striking feature is the coexistence of several
separate systems reflecting the influence of widely differing

5

civilizations. These are: (a) the Latin system, as followed

by the Catholic University of Saint Joseph, which is a French

 

3E. J. P. Valin, Le Pluralism Socio-Scolaire au Liban,
Beyrouth: Dar El-Machreq-Librairie Orientale, 1969, p. 171.

4Habib A. Kurani, "Lebanon," in: G. B. Jeffery pp_p;,
(eds.), The Yearbook of Education, London: Evans Bros., 1949,
p. 449. For an overview of French education, see: I. N. Thut
p§_pl,, EducationaipPatterns in Contemporary Societies, New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1964, pp. 110-158: W. R. Frazer, Education
and Society in Mbdern France, New York: Humanities Press,
1965; Antoine Prost, Histoire de 1'Enseignement en France,
1800-1967, Paris: Armand Colin, 1968.

5UNESCO, World Surveygof Education III, New York: Columbia
University Press, 1961, p. 785.

77

institution and a number of associated schools: (b) the Anglo-
Saxon system, that of the American University of Beirut6 and

a group of Protestant institutions such as Beirut College for
Women: (c) the Arab system, a newcomer represented by the Arab
University established in 1960 (related to the University of
Alexandria), and a multitude of private schools preparing
youth to sit for final secondary school examinations in other
‘Arab countries such as Egypt and.Syria; (d) the deve10ping
National system.of Lebanon, created in 1924 and culminating

in the Lebanese University established in 1951.

The existence of private education is overemphasized7 as
approved by the Constitution which states in Article 10:
"Education shallbe. free in so far as it is not contrary to
public order and morals and does not affect the dignity of
any of the religions or creeds. There shall be no violation
of the right of religious communities to have their own schools,
provided they follow the general rules issued by the state
regulating public instruction."8

Although the Constitution provides for the establishment
of private education, the Ministry of National Education regu-

lates, in principle, all educational matters in the private

6Ibid., p. 785.
71bid.

8B. Aridi and N. Khayrallah (Department of Political
Science, American University of Beirut), The Lebanese Constitu-
tlon, Beirut: Khayats, 1960, p. 6 (A Reference Edition in
English»Translation).

78

educational sector. .Actually, the Ministry's authority does
not go much beyond authorizing the opening of new schools
and the organization of official external examinations.

This dualistic tradition may be explained in terms of
the sectarian mosaic referred to earlier9 and "the efforts
made by different countries in the field of education and
culture.“LO France, the United Kingdom, the United States,
the United Arab Republic, the Federal Republic of Germany and
Italy, all are active in various ways, in subsidizing certain
schools, in lending teachers to others or in running study
centers and other agencies.

Hitti outlined a perspective for foreign educational
institutions and pointed out that "educational imperialism
can be no less offensive than political imperialism."ll He
forecast that the continuation of Operation of a foreign
educational institution is contingent upon its continued
acceptability. Ultimately, its outer shell, such as the
foreign name, might disappear, but the essence of universal-

ly human values would remain.12

 

9Supra, p. 68; see also E. J. P. Valin, Panoram§_de
1'Enseignement au Liban, Part I (mimeo.), Beirut: Ministry
of Education Research Center, 1965, p. 41.

1°Wor1d Survey of Education III, 1961, pp, cit., p. 785.

11Philip K. Hitti, “Is There a Place for American Educa-
tion in a Nationalist Middle East,“ in: W. Sands (ed.),
Middle East Reporp, March 20-21, 1959, p. 50.

121bid.. pp. 49-50.

79

In some reSpects, the public educational sector may have
not come to match the private foreign and private national
sectors.13 This, however, does not necessarily mean that
education provided for in the private sector is any better
than that in the public sector, since they do not seem to be
comparable.14 And public education on the secondary level is
quite different from public education on the primary and
complimentary levels in many ways, especially as regards the
teaching staff.

As early as 1949 the National Government was aware that
". . . the great diversity of private schools, their rivalry,
the lack of control or supervision over their activities,
undermine national solidarity."ls There is no evidence of
what has been done since then to resolve this conflict.

In a recent article, Bashshur16 interpreted this state
of affairs as creating major inequalities in educational
opportunities, hindering social mobility and preventing inte-

gration among different social strata.l7

 

13Ministere du Plan, Recueilde Statistiques Libanaises,
Vol. 4, Année1968, p. 208.

l4Valin, 1969, pp, cit., p. 64.

15Kurani, 1949, pp, cit., p. 457.

18M. Bashshur, ”Education and Teaching in Lebanon: For
Getting into the Modernized World," Mawakif (Beirut), 2: 7,
86-118, Jan.-Feb., 1970 (in Arabic).

1711513., pp. 92 and 95.

80

In terms of total student population in Lebanon, the
size of the student body educated in private schools amounts
to:

58% on the primary level

68% on the complementary and lower secondary

75% on the upper secondary.18
.Average ratio of students educated in private schools on all
educational levels may reach 65% of the total school popula-
tion.19 In 1967, the picture is not much different.20

School aid goes mostly to the so-called "Free-Payment
Private Schools" which generally lack basic conditions for
schooling in personnel, physical facilities and in many other
aspects.21 Expenditure on overall school equipment in the
public educational system throughout Lebanon did not exceed
22% of such lavish school aid in 1967.22

Many private schools, mostly owned by individuals tend

to be money-raising institutions23 at the expense of minimum

 

18Ministére du Plan, L'Enseignement an Libpp: Situation
et Perspective, Beyrouth: Mdnistére du Plan, 1964, pp. 24-27.

 

‘19Bashshur, 1970, pp, cit., p. 91.
20See Table II, page 72.

ZISubsidies given to “Free-Payment Private Schools in 1967
amounted to 7,500,000 L.L. (approximately $2,500,000), see
Educational Movement, 1968, op. cit., p. 45. In 1970, such aid
mmst have reached $4,000,000.

22Bashshur, 1970, pp, cit., p. 95.
231bid., p. 95.

81

4 {They compare favorably with many

quality in education.2
other lucrative enterprises. Furthermore their tuition,
fees, and regulations generate socio-economic stratifica-

tion25

and subject parents and students to an undue and un-
bearable strain.

The Lebanese Ministry of Education has still a long way
to go in order to remedy the present cumulative educational
deficit, to face the dramatic demographic changesae with

their ever-increasing demand27 for education, and to prevent

exploiting entrepreneurs from entering the educational field.

Educational Structure

28 of the Lebanese educational ladder in-

The structure
cludes two main streams or tracks: The academic and the

vocational.

 

24Compare the reinforcement of these "illegal educational
entrepreneurships" with American efforts for achievement
betterment. See supra, p. 20, footnote 2.

25Valin, 1969, pp, cit., p. 175.

26See ambiguity of the rate of population yearly increase
in Lebanon, estimated by the Ministry of Planning to reach
40.2% between 1960—1965: supra p. 61.

27Our 1969 pretest showed definite h0pes for continuing
education in the middle and lower social strata. Even in
vocational education there are eight applicants for each avail-
able place, see: Panorama de l'Enseignement Technique, 1968,

pp, cit., p. 4.

28See Figure 5, page 82: for a clearer picture, see thesis
pocket: Organigramme I, prepared along with the other six
organigrammes by Hakib Harb, Sami Lakiss,.Mustapha Zaatari, and
Chafik Mouallem at the Regional Center for Educational Planning
and Administration, Beirut, Lebanon: August, 1969.

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85

The academic track consists of three main stages with
some channels branching thereof at different points. At the
end of every stage, it is crowned by a state external examin-
ation called “official examination." Diplomas conferred on
the basis of such official examinations are the only ones
accepted for government employment.

The academic track may be briefly described as follows:

1. Five Years of Primary29 Education from age (5-6) to
age 11, leading to the "Certificat Diploma." This diploma
enables the student to apply for admission either to the
next stage of the academic track, i.e., the complementary or
the lower secondary, or to the lower vocational track.

At this point, it should be noted that education in
Lebanon is not yet compulsory at any stage. Compulsory
education exists in nine of the sixteen Arab States.30

2. Egpr years of either Complimentarysl Education or

Lower Secondary EducationLifrom 11 to (14-15), leading to the

 

29"Pre-primary education" is almost completely handled
by the private sector. .The same applies to "Special educa-
tion: for exceptional children which is subsidized by the
Ministry of Work and Social Affairs. For private vocational
education, see: .Ministere de l'Education, Eanorama de
lLEnseignement Technique, Beyrouth: Ministere de l‘Education,
1968, pp. 56-58.

3°UNESCO, Comparative Statistical Datgron Education in
the Arab States, Beirut: Regional Center for Educatnanal
Planning and Administration, 1970, p. 12.

31Called also "UpperqPrimary" or "Upper Elementary."
For full description of the public complementary schools, see
infra, p.119. This stage, however, has been officially re-
placed by a Middle-School stage effective 1970-1971.

84

"Brevet Diploma." This diploma offers at least three outlets:
a. Primary teacher training
b. Upper vocational education
c. Upper secondary education.

5. Three years of gpper Secondary Educationy from (14-15)
§2_;§, leading to the "Baccalauréat Diploma First and Second
Parts," consecutively. There are two channels within the two-
year program of the first part of the Baccalaureat: Literary
and Scientific. Channels within the one-year program of the
second part of the Baccalaureat are: Philosophy, Elementary
Mathematics, Experimental Sciences and Ancient Languages.32
The Baccalauréat Part II gives direct access to higher educa-
tion. In some institutions a competitive entrance examination
is required.

3 complete and continuous vocational track34

The new3
Spreads on a period of ten years. Every two years, it is also
crowned by one of the following diplomas:35

C.A.P.: Certificat d'aptitude professionelle (Certifi-
cate of Vocational Aptitude)

B.P.: Brevet Professional (VOcational Brevet)

B.T.I.: Baccalauréat technique 1e. partie (Technical
Baccalaureat, Part One)

 

32Educational Movement, 1968, op, cit., pp. 45-46.
33Decree No. 7880, July 25, 1967, ibid., p. 2.

3‘See Table III, page 85. .For a clearer picture, see
thesis pocket: Organigramme II.

35Educational Movement, 1968, 92, cit., p. 46.

85

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87
B.T.2.: Baccalauréat technique, 2e. partie
(Technical Baccalaureat, Part Two)
T.S.: Technicien Supérieur (Higher Technician)

In 1959, there were only 945 students in all public
vocational schools throughout Lebanon. In 1967 their number
attained 1,851.36 Taking into consideration that the number
of private vocational schools is rather small, if we compare
these figures with 109,767 students in all complementary and
secondary schools37 in Lebanon (44,756 in the public and
65,011 in the private) we realize the striking imbalance in
favor of the academic track.

Lebanon seems to build up his educational structure in
a reverse chronological order in relationship to the hier-
archial occupational structure.38

Other aspects of the organizational structure of educa-
tion in Lebanon include: Higher education,39 teacher educa-

tion,‘° and adult education especially in evening schools.41

 

36$ee Table III, pp. 85-86.
37Ibid.
38Panorama de l'enseignement Technique, 92, cit., p. 5.

39See Table III; in the thesis pocket, see: organigramme
III, IV, V, VI, and VII. See also: Jean-Jacques Waardenburg,
Les Universités dans le Monde Arabe Actuel (Documentation et
Essai d'Interpretation), Vols. I and II, Paris, La Haye:
Mouton and Company, 1966.

‘°See Fig. 5; andahuthesis pocket, see organigramme IV;
see also E. J. P. Valin, Les Institeurs Publics et leur
Formation dans les Ecoles Normales, Beyrouth: Ministére de
l'Education, Centre de Recherches, 1965 (mimeo).

‘1See: Mona Kamar Mourad, Les Ecoles du Soir, Beyrouth:
Institut des Sciences Sociales, Université Libanaise, 1967.

 

88

Curriculum

The traditional character of the academic curriculum of
1946 is criticized by the Ministry of Education itself, as
theoretical and overloaded with useless information.42
Although the 1968 curriculum43 hardly differs from its pre-
decessor,44 it is being hailed as a step in the process of
modernization.“5 ,Furthermore, teaching46 and-the use of
instructional media reflect the same general trend for ver-
balization.47

Atiyeh48 explains that "education in Lebanon is controlled
not through direct interference with the internal management
of schools but through the enforcement of a uniform curricur

lum u 49

 

42Educational Movement, 1968, gp, cit., p.’47; see also:
Joseph Zaarour, "Unity Through Education," Conferences du
Cenacle (Beyrouth), 21: 5, 1967, p. 19 (in Arabic).

43Decrees Nos. 9099, 9100, 9101, January 8, 1968.

‘4Bashshur, 1970, 92, gi£,, pp. 105-108. Mona Ourfali,
Development of Public Secondary Schog; Curriculum in Lebanon,
Beirut: CAPES Thesis, College of Education, Lebanese Univer-
Sity, 1969, p. 108 (in Arabic).

45Educationa1 Movement, 1968, pp, cit., p. 47.

‘eHanna Ghalib, "Are You a Listenercn: a Teacher," Edu-
cational Review (Ministry of Education, Beirut), December,
1963, p. 1 (in Arabic).

47Bashshur, 1970, 92, cit., p. 109.

‘aNaim Atiyeh, "The DeveloPment of.Education in Lebanon,"
in: Beirut, College for WCmen, Cultural Resources in Lebanon,
Beirut: Librairie du Liban, Lebanon Bookshop, 1969, Vol. I,
pp..198-215.

‘9;§;Q,, p. 47 (in the mimeo. edition).

89

Recent studies are inclined to criticize the Lebanese
curriculum sharply, especially as regards educational and
cultural content.so Many committees have been organized
since 1944 with no avail, because they were always confined
to the academic type borderline.51

Much more is required to democratize and to modernize
the Lebanese curriculum, in terms of its synchronization with
developments that have taken place in the Lebanese socio-
economic life52 and as regards flexibility53 and varied offer-
ings on the secondary level for all incoming students.
El-Loussy54 recommended to Arab Ministers of Education at the
1970 Marakesh Conference that “when education branches off
at the secondary level, there should be equal accessibility

to any type and from any type55 of education. "The resistance

 

soBashshur, 1970, 92, gi£,, pp. 107-108; Fouad S. Haddad,
A Criticalk§tudy of History Curriculum in Lebanon (mimeo.).
Beirut: American University of Beirut, Department of Educa-
tion, 1970, p. 21 (in Arabic).

51M. Ourfali, 1969, gp, cit., p. 108.

5asee Joseph Maroun, "What Man Are We Preparing," Educa-
tional Review (Ministry of Education, Beirut), 8: 2, 6-8,
December, 1969 (in Arabic). See also: Ahmad Sidawi, "L'Etude
du Milieu," Revue Pedagogique (Beyrouth, Ministére de l'Educa-
tion), October, 1962 (in Arabic).

53OCDE, L'Enseignement Secondgire: Evolution et Tendances,
Paris: OCDE, 1969, pp. 199-200.

5""A. H. El-Koussy, Education in the Arab Countries:
Progress and Future Developments (Restricted document prepared
for the 1970 Marakesh Conference of Arab Ministers of Educa-
tion), Beirut: Regional Center for Educational Planning and
.Admdnistration in Arab Countries, 1969.

55Ibid., p. 34.

90

to manual and technical activities must be broken and such
activities must become attractive and appreciated. Convincing
enlightenment of public opinion based on research must be
done."56
The prospective Middle School considered by an official
statement as a "turntable of all the school system,"57 was
recommended a long time ago by Lebanese educators and foreign
experts.58 It will replace the existing complementary and
lower secondary stages. It deserves every reservation59 if
it is not conceived as a guidance cycle,60 and as a first step
for comprehensive schooling. It should have flexible channels
located in the same public middle-school buildings, and should

keep a caliber of teaching staff comparable to that of the

actual lower secondary cycle.

 

551bid., p. 54.
57Educational Movement, 1968, pp, cit., p. 45.

58E. J. P. Valin, Panorama de l'Enseignement au Liban:
Part II Education et SociEte, Beirut: Ministry of Education,
Research Center, 1965, p. 42 (mimeo.). *

59Note that the guidance objectives for the prOSpective
middle school stated in 1968 (Educational Movement, gp, git,,
p. 45) do not differ in essence from those stated in 1946 for
the complementary school (Ministry of Education, Curriculum,
Beirut: Ministry of Education, 1946, p. 82, decree No. 6999,
dated October 1, 1946). Nevertheless, they have been there
for 24 years without implementation.

so
See E. J. P. Valin, Du Certificat D'Etudes Primgires a

l'Ecgle Secondaire Officielle: Etude du Premier Palier
d'Orientation, Beyrough: Miniétére de l'Education, Centre de
Recherches,'I958 (mimeo); see also: Ahmad Sidawi, "Guidance
in Lebanon,“ Educational Review (Beirut: Ministry of Educa-
tion), 5, May, 1968 (in ArabiC).

 

91

We are emphasizing the secondary school cycle because

1 with all other cycles of education.

of its interdependence6
Any reform on the secondary level is likely to be reflected
on all other phases of education, namely on higher education
which, in turn, might be called upon to provide technical
assistance to schools and to supervise curricula and examina-
tions.62 This highlights the future role of the Lebanese
University in the Lebanese educational life.

The crucial role of the teacher in the educational
process is expounded by Bashshur who comments that deSpite
the improvement in teacher education in the past thirteen
years, more than two-thirds of all school children in Lebanon
are being taught by teachers without training background who

"53 This suggests the strategic

hold only the "Brevet Diploma.
position of teacher education in bringing about any desired
changes.

.All this amounts to an urgent need for planning based

upon elements such as the following: overall socio-economic

 

61OCDE, l‘Enseignement Secondaire, 1969, 92, 213,, p..16;
see also: Joseph Zaarour, ”Educational Planning and The
Development of Manpower," Conferences du Cenacle (Beyrouth),
22: 11-12, 1968, p. 17 (in Arabic).

 

 

82NaimrAtiyeh, "Examinations: Trends and ProsPects" in}
J. A. Laureys ande. G. Scanlon (eds.), The World Yearbook of
Education, London: Harcourt, Brace and WOrld, 1969, p. 390.

63Bashshur, 1970, gp, cit., p. 102.

92

  

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93

planning, clear educational philosophy, defined behavioral
objectives, educational research,64 an efficient machinery
for collecting and analyzing needed data and financing.

This, however, does not seem feasible for the time
being, as attested for by the Director General of the Ministry
of Education because there is no overall socio-economic plan-
ning.65

We postulate that in order to understand Lebanese educa-
tion, one has to go beyond the official picture and the
.recorded documents. There is a discrepancy between stated

<goals and actual behavior because of an underlying informal

power structure. A study of these informal workings may reveal

'the underlying forces that are shaping for Lebanon this un-

Zbalanced.educational portrait.66

e4See Admad Sidawi, "Educational Research in Lebanon,"

§%§!l£3§tional Review (Ministry of Education, Beirut), September,
961 (in Arabic).

65Zaarour, Educational Planning, 1968, gp, cit., p. 17.

p ‘25 66See for instance: J. J. Waadenburg. 1955. 923 cit.,
. 2.

94

 

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108

A §pecial Problems

Besides the public-private education imbalance and the
intricate problems related to curriculum, to educational
planning and the democratization of education, two other
a3pects are of particular interest to the present study,
namely the examination system and the foreign language status°

The Lebanese examination system is a state-enforced
external examination network handled centrally and completely
by the "Department of Examinations" at the Central Directorate
of the Lebanese Ministry of Education in Beirut. The right
to certification is the exclusive privilege of the state at
the pre-University level. ~And as referred to earlier, private
school diplomas are not officially recognized. "Internal
examinations are only valid for the placement of students and
their promotion from one class to another. Thus, the public
external examination in Lebanon assumes greater importance
than it does in American or other progressive school systems."67
This emphasis gives the educational system a salient feature
of high selectivity.

If we study the recent results of school examinations
for 1967-1968,68 and we compute the average ratio of failure

in the June and October sessions we get the following table:

 

67N..Atiyeh, 1969, op, cit. (p. 47 in mimeo.).

eaSee Tables III, pp. 85-86; IV, pp. 96-97; v, pp. 100-
101; VI. pp. 105-104; VII, p. 106.

109

Table VIII. Percentage of Failure in Official Lebanese
Examinations 1967-1968

 

 

 

Level Percentage
Certificat (single session) 24.4
Brevet 72.6

Baccalaureat First Part
(Literary and Scientific Channels) 65.8

Baccalaureat Second Part
(Mathematics Section) 66.25*

Baccalaureat Second Part
(Philosophy Section) 67.98*

 

*
66.25 and 67.98%‘of those who already passed the first
part.

This means that not more than ten students out of one hundred
can go through the double barrier of the baccalaureat.

Note also the sharp drop in student population when they
move from the primary to the complimentary and secondary
school levels:69

--Fr m 178,202 to 44.756 in public schools

—-—'From 514,914 to 65,011 in private schools.

This provides further evidence of the selectivity of the
system. "It is estimated, after all allowances are made,

that approximately one student out of eighteen who enter the

69See Table II, page 72.

110

first grade finally graduates with the Baccalaureat Second
Part."7°
This selectivity is certainly not only based on scholas-
tic factors. Research on the relation between social-class
status and school enrollment in certain Lebanese villages
show that while in the primary school there are no significant
differences in enrollment from one social class to another the
dropout rate increases as social class status decreases.71
Internal examinations in schools are modeled after the
external pattern, to the extent that, periodically, school
personnel organizes simulated external examinations in schools
and communities. This biased picture in favor of external
examinations makes it difficult to combine the advantages of
internal and external assessment of school performance and
has a deleterious influence on teaching and learning.
Official diplomas, rather than healthy individual deve10pment
became the ultimate target for learner and parent. What has

72 about the misuse of mental ability

been reported earlier
testing in developed countries applies in essence here to many
aspects of Lebanese examinations. Ponder the potential effect

of such artificially created social pressure on self-concept

of ability.

 

7QAtiyeh, 1969, 9p, cit. (pp. 48-49 in mimeo.).
71F'ouad Khuri, Education and Social Class, Beirut:
M, A. Thesis, American University, Department of Education,
1961.

72See supra, pp. 55-36.

111

Goslin and Glass underlined the sociological implica-
tions of test use and pointed out that a low score may have
significant impact when it reinforces an already low self-
estimate derived from other sources.73

In a recent article, Hansen74 cited.Valin who decried
Lebanese school competitions75 which arbitrarily decide what
is to be the school and life of many young peOple. He fur-
ther supported Valin76 in linking such Lebanese problems with
those found elsewhere namely in Eur0pe and Specifically in
France,77 where educators have long been concerned with the
misuse of examinations.78

American educators, a long time ago, realized that the
problem of examinations "strikes at the very roots of the
"79

whole meaning and significance of education in society.

"It inevitably brings up the problem of the social and

 

73D. A. Goslin and D. C. Glass, "The Social Effects of
Standardized Testing in American Elementary and Secondary
Schools," Sociology of Education, 40: 2, Spring.1967, p..131.

74H. R. Hansen, "Day-of~Judgement Examination," Phi
Delta Kappan, 51: 2, 81-84; October, 1969.

75E. J. P. Valin, The Value of Examinations, Paris:
UNESCO Educational Studies and Documents, No. 40, 1961.

76H. R. Hansen, 1969, op, cit., p. 85.

77The French Baccalaureat may represent a typical
traditional examination, see Atiyeh, 1969, gp,cit., p. 585.

78See Henri Piéron, Examens et Docimologie, Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France,.1965, p. 175.

791. L. Kandel, Examinations, and their Substitutes in
the United States, New York: Carnegie Found., 1956, p. 151.

112

economic distribution of individuals in society and the
danger to social stability which may result from educational
and vocational maladjustment."8°
Fortunately, “the tide now is towards subordinating
examinations to educational objectives and integrating them,
like any other educational practice to the context of edu-
cation as a whole."81 Non-cognitive aSpects of learning such
as character, emotional deve10pment, social maturity, may
receive greater attention than before.82
Educational evaluation is broadening in scope and is

83 Experts

truly becoming an activity concerned with value.
in docimology84 or any other field do not necessarily possess
superior moral values. "They must remain reaponsible to the
ultimate source of all legitimate authority in a democracy--
the people."85

,The foreign language issue is another aSpect of the

present difficulties in Lebanese education. The curriculum

gives official freedom for teaching mathematics and science

 

80Ibid., p. 151.
BlAtiyeh, 1969, pp, cit., p. 589.
82Ibid.

83D. D. Sjogren, "Measurement Techniques in Evaluation,"
Review of Educational Research, 40: 2, April, 1970, p. 514.

e4Atiyeh predicted greater concern for a deeper under-
standing of the technical nature of examinations. See Atiyeh,
1969, pp, cit., p. 589.

85H. Berlak, "Public Policy and Educational Evaluation,"
Review of Educational Research, 40: 2, April, 1970, p. 277.

115

on the secondary level intArabic, French or English. In fact,
these two major subjects are being taught in a foreign
language namely in French.86 ~The Ministry was not able to
take the necessary steps for the “Arabization” or "Lebaniza-
tion" of this part of the curriculum.

The public capitalizes on the issue as a struggle87
between communities. Some insist on the importance of the
native official language, others consider a foreign language
is more appropriate, at least for the time being, in order to
enable students to continue their higher education in foreign
countries.

Basically, this phenomenon may be interpreted in terms
of the frame of reference of various segments of the popula-
tion: Those who identified themselves with Arab reference
groups and those who were alienated from Arab culture to
western or French culture for different reasons, foremost
among them is the sectarian discrimination that took place
under Ottoman rule. This situation led some to Speak of a
wishful bilingualism in Lebanon.88 What is of significance

for our study, is the resulting alienation from the Lebanese

 

861195 Lebanese schools adopted French as a foreign
language or 95% of the total. 96 schools adopted English.
See Ministry of Education—Ministry of Planning, Primary and
Complementary Education, Beirut, June 1969, p. 12.

8"World Survey of Education, 1961, pp, cit., p. 785.

88S. Abou, Le Bilinguisme Franco;Arabe au Liban, Paris:
Presses Universitaires de France, 1962.

114

educational system of large groups of students who sought in
other Arab countries a substitute for the Lebanese Bacca-
laureat. Had it not been for the sole factor of coping with
the foreign language,89 they would have settled for upper
secondary education at home. .The Ministry of Education is
trying hard to keep the Lebanese Baccalaureat as the only
acceptable secondary school diploma for native Lebanese
residing in Lebanon without bringing about concurrent changes
in the curriculum.

We postulate that foreign language teaching and learn-
ing in such situations put much stress on the learners and

affect their self concepts.

Summary and Conclusion

In general, Lebanese education seems to be still heavily
oriented toward an old French-European style that does not
loom to fit anymore the tide of times. DesPite the changing
demographic and social outlook, the Lebanese Ministry of
Education is still trying, through a traditional academic cur-
riculum, to have an incoming mass~education movement fit into
an obsolete elitist educational structure.90 This reflects
major inequality in educational opportunity and results in a
Steady rate of failure and acute frustration for large seg-

ments of student population that resort to various mechanisms

89Note that the use of foreign language in private edu-
cation starts in kindergarten when children have not yet
mastered their mother tongue.

9°Valin, 1969, pp. cit., p. 176.

115

in order to avoid encounters with the national Lebanese
educational system on secondary and higher education levels.
Special problems such as heavy emphasis on diploma-getting,
state external examinations and foreign language are essen—
tial ailments in the situation, and have significance for
self-concept of ability.

There is an urgent need for educational planning, co-
ordinated with overall socio-economic planning, based on
well-defined objectives and geared to gradual democratization
of education. This implies reconsideration of the whole
educational establishment, eSpecially as regards the sharp
imbalance between public and private education. It is high
time to put an end to lip service in educational policy.
Stated educational objectives should be sincerely and con-
cretely implemented through systematic and efficient services
including educational and vocational guidance as well as
research activities.

According to the proposition of unequal development, we
wonder whether our traditional education91 has not been dys-

functional to social and political integration.92 Valin

 

91T. Balogh and P. P. Streeten, "The Coefficient of
Ignorance," Bull. of Oxford Univ. Institute of Economics and
Statistics, 25:2, 99-107,1965, reproduced in J. Hanson and
C. S. Brembech, Education and the Development of Nations,
N. Y.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966, p. 145.

~ 92F. Foster, ”Ethnicity and the Schools in Ghana,“
Co ogparative Education Review, 4: Oct. 1962, p. 128 cited by:
James S. Coleman, Education_pnd Political Development,
Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 1965, p. 50:
J. Vaizey, Education in the Modern World, London: WOrld
University Library, 1967, p. 71.

116

concludes that Lebanese education, with its present pluralis-
tic laissez-faire character is favoring socio-economic
anomie and a counter-development trend.93 The Lebanese in-
dividual student appears predestined94 to go to a certain
school in the educational mosaic according to his socio-
economic characteristics,95 and is not having a chance for
osmotic school mobility.96

This portrait of Lebanese education may compare unfavor-
ably with that of more deve10ped countries because of tenaci-
ous resistance to planninge7 and unwillingness to change,
but it surely represents an initial gigantic advance relative
to less developed countries. It only awaits further improve-

ment and synchronization with socio-economic development.98

 

93Valin, 1969, pp, cit., p. 178.

94Valin, 1969, pp, pip,, p. 175 and p. 195; see also
very penetrative accounts of the role of the educational sys-
tem in legitimizing inequal educational and social opportuni-
ties in France: Pierre Bourdieu, "L'Ecole Conservatrice:
Les Inegalities Devant L'Ecole et Devant la Culture," Revue
Francaise de Sociologie, 7: 5, 525-547, 1966; P. Bourdieu et
J. C. Passeron, Les Heritiers, Paris: Editions de Minuit,
1964.

 

95Valin, 1969, pp, cit., p. 90.
9°Ibid.. pp. 174-175.

97Louis Joseph Lebret, "Le Liban au Tournant," Confer-
gpces du Cenacle (Beyrouth), 18: 1, 1964, p. 42.

98Efforts are being made along these lines by study
groups at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan,
by Professors Gale Edw. Jensen, W. K. Medlin and others.
In particular, Dr. G. E. Jensen is undertaking a study en-
titled: An Educational Economic Study of Lebanese National

Development.

117

E L E V E S

L E S

u»
6
5
3.
I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Prr'paroloin

mm
-

Pmnain

Compliment“.

Figure 15

Ministry of Education-Ministry of Planning,

(Lebanon), Primar

Education,

and Co lementar
1969.

June,

Beirut, Lebanon,

Source:

118

"The progress we are making is little compared to our needs."99
The magnitude of socio-economic problems with which we
are contending in Lebanon are leading us toward a state of
instability. To the extent that the expansion of Lebanese
education tends to be non-rational and unplanned for,“0 it
will contribute more to this instability; and as long as the
ministry of National Education is unable to develop education,
education itself will ultimately generate stronger demands
which will be harder to meet. Adequate provision of educa-
tion at all levels is a necessary condition for stability.101
Only a public democratically educated to his responsibilities

can participate with understanding in the task of country-

building.

99A. El-Koussy, 1970, pp. cit., p. 54.
looLebret, 1964, pp, cit., p. 41.
101D. Abernethy and T. Coombe, "Education and Politics

in Developing Countries," Harvard Educational Review, 55:
5. 1965. PP. 501-502.

CHAPTER VI

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Site of Research

This study was done in Beirut, Lebanon and was confined
to Public Complementary Schoolsl which run parallel to.
grades six through nine in the United States. These compli-
mentary schools were set up, as their name indicates, to
complement or supplement the five-year primary or elementary
education cycle2 with four more years of schooling leading
to the "Brevet Diploma"; and they were meant to be a
"practical"3 terminal stage for those students who do not
join the long seven-year complete secondary cycle4 which
leads to the "Baccalaureat Diploma," and ultimately to college.

In fact, except for better qualified personnel and
status these complimentary schools have been, in their func-

tioning, almost identical to the first four grades of the

J"I'hey are also called "upper-primary" or "upper-
elementary" schools. Maybe the latter is more appropriate.

2Figure 5, see supra, p. 75..

3Ministry of Education, Curriculum, Beirut: Min. of Ed.,
1946, p. 82.

4'Figure 5, see supra, p. 75.

119

120

long seven-year secondary cycle with which they overlap.
So, they are comparable in terms of years of schooling to
the American junior high schools with the sixth grade
annexed to them.

Administratively,S they are controlled by the Director-
ate of Primary and Complementary Education, which makes one
major "Service“ or department of the Ministry of Education
Central Directorate.

Their personnel includes teachers trained in Normal
schools and many more without such training and holding the
Brevet Diploma or upper secondary school qualifications.6
Compared with public secondary schools, they show many in-
adequacies. Differences between conditions in these public
complimentary schools and those of other schools of the same
level indicate clear discrepancies in educational opportun-
ities.7

The total student population in public complimentary
schools for boys and girls in Lebanon reached 41,2928

(representing 17.92% of total public school enrollment in the

primary and complimentary),9 with 69% heavily concentrated

 

5See'George G. Murr, Educationpl Planning for the Develope
ment of Human Resources in Lebanon, Unpublished Ph. D. Thesis,
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, 1966, p.
47.

6See Bashshur, 1970, pp, cit., p. 102.
7Murr, 1966, pp, cit., p. 47.

8Ministry of Education-Ministry of Planning, Primagy and
Complementary Education, Beirut: June, 1969. PF- 21, 25 and 29.

9Ibid., p. 21.

121

in the sixth and seventh grades. Class size averages in
cities 27.5 students housed usually in small classrooms of
apartment buildings rented by the Ministry of Education.10
During the past two years, there have been an increas-
ing demand for this type of schooling.11 Significant among
the various factors generating this demand, is the internal
migration of individual students or whole families to large

cities or "caza" seats.12

Populppion and Sample

Since this is the first study we know of dealing with
such operationalized constructs, i.e., self concept of aca—
demic ability and related variables, in the Neareastern Arab
countries, we chose the public complementary school popula-
tion in Lebanon on the assumption that these adolescents
would have undergone the minimum effect of selective pro-
cedures in the educational system.

We concentrated on the Smaller Beirut Metropolitan
Schools on a further assumption they represent fairly well
and in many reSpects, other public complementary schools in
the country. This assumption is based on a demographic

feature related to periodic migration into the Capital and

 

1°Ibid., p. 21.

11Primary and Complementary Education, 1969, pp, cit.,
p. 21.

 

12Primary and Complementary Education, pp, cit., p. 21.

122

other "caza" seats of a multitude of village families or
individual learners.13 These families are mainly households
of unskilled and semiskilled workers14 whose children do not
usually have access to other types of schools after complet-
ing successfully the primary cycle. Other characteristics
of this student population, namely their overaging in terms
of regular grade age, will be presented and discussed later.15
With such varied background of the chosen student popu-
lation in terms of city-village initial residence and to
insure better representativeness, we included in the sample
all16 public complementary schools for boys in Beirut, which
offer a full four-year program. A couple of newly established
schools not yet offering the full complementary program and
the single coeducational school in which the pre-test was
administered, were the only ones excluded from the sample.
We concentrated on a male population assuming that, in
a develOping country such as Lebanon, the male-figure may

still be predominant as a cultural aspect of a society in

transition.

 

13Primary and Complementary Education, pp, cit.,
p. 21.

l‘See infra p.2158 about the father's socio-economic
status.

J‘5_See infra p. 165.
16In "Primary and Complementary Education," 1969,

pp, cit., p. 5, statistics show only 11 public complementary
schools for boys in Beirut.

125

The sample, then, is composed of 574 students present,
in ten17 public complementary schools for boys in Beirut,
on the days18 of administration of the scales: 526 in the
seventh grade (second complementary year) and 248 in the
ninth grade (fourth complementary year).19

The total number of students enrolled for 1968-1969 in,
public complementary schools for boys was 1,852 in Beirut:20
472 in the seventh grade and 280 in the ninth grade (752 in
7th and 9th grades) and 24,750 in Lebanon: 5,591 in the 7th
grade and 5,711 in the 9th grade (9,502 in 7th and 9th grades).21

Our sample would then represent approximately 76%Iof
total Beirut (7th and 9th grades) and 6.5%'of total Lebanon

(7th and 9th grades).

Instrumentation

 

The following instruments were used:

1. The Michigan State General Self Concept of Academic
Ability Scale (Abbreviated as: SCAS).22

2. The Perceived Evaluations of Students' Academic

Abilitypby Others Scales (Abbreviated as PPES, PFES, PTES).23

 

 

17One small school (N=10 in 7th grade and N=5 in 9th
grade was combined with another to make school number 7
totaling (N=27 in 7th grade and N=25 in 9th grade).

leApril 28,1970, to May 11,1970.

19Only one single student did not fill in the question-
naire and he was omitted from the sample.

2°Primary and Complementary Education, pp, cit., p. 25.
21Ibid., p. 25.

22See Appendix A, p. 179; see also: Brookover, 1967,
pp, cit., pp. 557-558, and 1962, pp, cit., pp. 16-17.

23See Appendix B, p. 185.

124

5. Two Qpestionnaires to Identify Significant Others
(Abbreviated as 8.0.0.).24

4. An "AnnexQuestionnaire"(Abbreviated as A.Q.).25
(Including Miscellaneous Items related to Self Concept.)

The first three instruments were translated into Arabic
and adapted with minor changes accounted for later. The
Arabic terminology was checked against that developed by the
Educational Research Center at the Lebanese Ministry of Edu-
cation and.was improved on the basis of consultation and the
try-out or the pre-test.

The pre-test26 was administered on May 51,.1969, in one
coeducational public complementary school, which was later
excluded from the sample for the major administration of
1970. Group administration of the pre-test was followed by
informal discussions and individual interviews with students
who volunteered to tell about their experience in taking the
questionnaires. The number of subjects for the pre-test was

55, distributed as follows:

 

 

Grade Boys Girls Total
9th 8 14 = 22
7th 18 15 = 51

Total E f

 

24See Appendix C, p. 187.
assee Appendix D, p. 190.

26See Appendix E, p. 195.

125

No systematic analysis was attempted for the pre-test.
The main objective was the improvement of the semantics of
the instruments. Expressions such as "probably" were ex-
cluded on the grounds that many seventh grades did not
clearly grasp them.27

The major difference between instruments used in the
1969 pretest and the 1970 major administration concerns the
fourth instrument called "Annex Questionnaire," and includ—
ing various items related to self concept.28 (Reference will
be made later to their content and to other data resulting
from the pre-test administration.

The Michigan_State Self Concppt of Ability Scale:29
hereafter referred to as "SCAS" is originally made of eight
multiple choice items. Our adopted form of this scale in-
cludes two more items (Item 4 and Item 5, Appendix A, p. 180)
which we thought were necessary to be included on the grounds
that the complementary cycle and the upper secondary cycle
are not necessarily on a continuum. Each item on the SCAS
scale is scored from 5 to 1 with the higher self concept

alternatives receiving the higher scores. The SCAS scale may

be scored two ways: Guttman scale type score determined for

 

27Compare the 1969 Self Concept Scale, Appendix E, p. 195
and that of 1970, Appendix A, p. 1790

23Compare the 1969 Annex Questionnaire, Appendix E,
‘p. 195 and that of 1970, Appendix D, p. 190.

29$ee Appendix A, pp. 180-182.

126

each individual and a conventional total score for the ten
items. .The latter is the sum of the values 1 to 5 assigned
to the responses for each item. Total self concept of
ability scores were used in our analysis because little
diSparity was found between these two types for scoring on
the original scale.3° Each item asks the student to compare
himself with others in the social system on the dimension of
academic ability.31

Perceived Evaluations of Student's Academic Abilitypby
Others Scales:32 would make three cluster-scales of five
multiple choice items each. They are designated as follows:

,Perceived Parental Evaluations of Ability (PPES)

Perceived Friends' Evaluations of Ability (PFES)

Perceived Teachers' Evaluations of Ability (PTES)

They are coded and scored like SCAS, i.e., 5 to 1, from
the most favorable to the most unfavorable. Each item asks
the student how his parents, friends and teachers would com-
pare him with others in the social system on the dimension of
academic ability.

Questionnaires to Identify Significant Others:33 The

student was asked to name the people "who were important in

 

30Brookover, 1962, pp, cit., p. 15.

31This description is taken from: Brookover, 1962,
pp, cit., pp. 14-18, and 1967, pp, cit., pp. 59—60: consult
these references for fuller description and comment.

325ee Appendix B, pp. 184-186.

33See Appendix C, p. 187.

127

his life," and these people were considered general sig-
nificant others for him. And the student was also asked
to name the people who were concerned about "how well he does
in school" and these people were considered his academic sig-
nificant others.

.Responses were categorized as follows: Parents, School
Personnel, Adult Relatives, Age Mate Relatives, Other Adults,
and Peers.

The Annex Questionnaire:34 includes 21 items related to

 

the following major sub-topics:

a. Delayed gratification for continuing one‘s education
and this was considered the "Perceived Cost" variable on
which we shall elaborate later.

b. Factors preventing students from continuing their
education.

0. Likelihood of getting a job.

d. Foreign language difficulty.

e. Subjects most liked.

f. Socio-economic status of his family.

Further description of the nature of these and other Annex
Questionnaire items will be developed in the following

chapter.

 

34See Appendix D, p. 190. Compare these with the 1969
Annex Questionnaire, Appendix E, p. 195.

128

Major Variables

Major variables include the following: Self concept of
Academic Ability, Perceived Evaluations of Student's Ability
by Parents, Friends and Teachers, Academic Achievement, Per-
ceived Cost, Father's Occupational Level, Father's Educational
Level.

I.Q. or other measures of ability or aptitude are not
. readily available from school records in Lebanon. And we
were not able to administer any for the purpose of comparing
their predictive efficiency with that of self concept.

as One index was available from

Adademic Achievement:
school records for determining achievement:. the "yearly aver-
age" which is usually taken as ultimate criterion for pro-
motion from one grade to another. This average is calculated
on the basis of: (a) first semester average based on daily-
monthly marks and mid-year examination; (b) second semester
average based on daily-monthly marks; (c) final yearly exami-
nation.

We tried to get students' averages for previous academic
years, and were only successful in obtaining last-year average
i.e., 1968-1969 average for all participating schools.

Note, that Brookover and his associates in their origi-

nal study used a multiple index for calculating general point

average.36

 

asFor a description of self concept and perceived evalua—
tions, see instruments, supra pp.:125-126.

1., 1962, loc. cit., p. 19.

36Brookover et

129

For some analyses referred to later, combined categories
were devised for those who fell at each end of individual cate-
gories span, and the remainder constituted the Middle General

Average, hereafter referred to as GA, thus:

 

Individual Categories37 Combined Categories

 

Lower GA 1, 2 and 5 = 1
Mid-GA 4 and 5 = 2
Upper GA 6, 7, 8 and 9 = 5

 

Socio-Economic Status: The students were asked to give

 

information about their father's occupation and education on
one hand and to estimate their family economic level. We
could not have another access to information that might be
helpful in determining the socio-economic level of the subjects.
The categories of SES Index used in this study38 are
similar to those used by Brookover and associates.39 This
rough classification was resorted to after consulting the
International Standard Classification of Occupations developed

by the International Labor Office at Geneva Switzerland.40

 

37See Appendix G, p. 202.

38See Appendix F, p. 200.

asBrookover, 1962, lpp, p£p,, p. 105.

4°Bureau International de Travail, Classification Inter—

nationale Type des Professions, Geneve: BIT, 1958 (1962
edition).

150

For some analyses, referred to later, combined cate-
gories were devised for those who fell at each end of indi-
vidual categories Span and the remainder constituted the

Middle FOL and FEL, thus:

 

 

Individual Categories Combined Categories
Lower FOL 5 and 4 = 1
Mid-FOL 5, 6 and 7 = 2
Upper FOL 8 and 9 = 5
Lower FEL 1 and 2 = 1
Mid-FEL 5, 4, 5, 6 and 7 = 2
Upper FEL 8 and 9 = 5

 

These levels, however, do not correspond to Brookover's,41

since the context and the designation of occupations and
levels are different.

-Agp: For some analyses referred to later, combined cate-
gories were devised for those who fell at each end of individual

categories span for AGE, thus:

 

 

Individual Categories42 Combined Categories

7th 9th 7th 9th
Regular Age 1 & 2 4 & Below = 1 1
Over-Age 5 & Above 5 & Above = 2 2

 

 

41Brookover, 1962, loc. cit., p. 21.

4asee Appendix G, p.

151
The Perceived Cost: Introducing the Concept
of a New Intervenipg Variab;p_

In evaluating and suggesting future research, Brookover
concludes: "Much remains to be done before the general
theory is substantiated satisfactorily. For example, we
have contributed little to our knowledge about how the
social norms or the expectations of significant others affect
school achievement. Our research indicates that others' eval-
uations affect the student's conception of his academic
ability and thus sets limits on his school achievement; but
many students who have high self-concepts of ability do not
have commensurate achievement. The analysis of the social
psychological process by which those who conceive of them-
selves as able to learn are motivated or stimulated to do so
remains to be investigated."43

It seems that there are a multitude of intervening
variables between the major variables, and eSpecially between
the perceived expectations of significant others and self-
concept of ability on one hand and achievement on the other.
Among these we would single out a crucial set of variables
that could be labeled the “Cost-Benefit” set or the cost-
benefit formula. School achievement could be very attractive
to students, and they may have high self-concept of their
ability but they would still refrain from achieving in school.

especially in advanced studies, because of the cost that is

 

43Brookover, 1967, loc. cit., pp. 146-147.

 

152

involved in the process of investing in school learning.

In the context of achievement, the concept of cost appears

to be a multiple variable including many dimensions such as:
the loss of affection or the loss of recognition of signifi-
cant others, the loss of security or power or prestige or
privileges, physical and mental hardships, fear, threat of the
unknown, etc. . . . .Conversely, the idea of cost could also )fg
work in the reverse direction and make a student compelled to
achieve in order not to lose the significant others‘ affec-

tion, etc. . . .

 

.The concept of cost is borrowed from political science
economics, and other behavioral sciences. The boundaries of
the concept are not well delimited; it is shared with manage-
ment, engineering, financial accounting and with operations
research.‘4

“In cost accounting the primary objective is to measure
and report actual sacrifice--effort exerted in terms of cost--
and projecting acceptable standards of sacrifice for accom-
plishing Specific goals. The consumer who is deciding to
allocate more of his limited resources for tranSportation and
less for Shelter is comparing benefit in terms of sacrifice.
Similarly, the worker who compares additional leisure obtained
by working fewer hours with the probable decrease in income

is utilizing cost accounting techniques."45 .Perhaps more

 

44Carl Thomas Devine, "Cost Accounting," Encyclppedia
Britannica, Chicago; Vol. 6, pp. 588-590, 1965.

45Ibid., p. 588.

155

relevant to our purpose is the comparison with the political
behavior of refraining from mobilizing one's resources in
one situation because of what is involved. This is economy
in one sector in favor of investment in another.

What is of interest to us here is not what might be
termed the "real“ cost in terms of objective data, but rather
how the individual student perceives it. In the final analy- FER
sis, acceptance of the cost as perceived by the student is
the major determining factor in actual achievement. We

therefore postulate that over and above the possession of

 

an adequate self-concept of ability and the internalization

of Significant others' expectations, the "Perceived Cost" is
another necessary condition for bringing about school achieve—
ment.

In the Brookover theoretical framework, the concept of
"perceived cost," like the construct of self-concept of
academic ability refers to a category of symbolic behaviors,
i.e., to empirical events. It is the individual‘s evaluation
of the perSpective of sacrifice involved, as expressed in
common language symbols. It is a behavioral process of ap-
praising and reappraising the contemplated cost against the
prOSpective benefits.

At this point, it is proper to note the role of sig-
nificant others in helping the individual to accept delayed
gratifications. In a study by Lawton, the results Show that

"the probability of a subject choosing an immediate or a

154

delayed gratification is a function of the characteristics

of the person offering the choice and making the promise."46
According to Lawton, it is a kind of a "trust“ but there
are other alternatives. In this reSpect, the family seems

like a social institution operating much in the same manner

as a collective security system.

 

.The educational implications of the P. C. (perceived 1?”
cost) concept become clear when we consider its behavioral
aspect. P. C. is not a thing, but rather an evolving process
that is learned and shaped by the various influences and :
Lg.

others' perceptions that are impinging upon the individual.
Here, the roles of parents, educators, counselors and friends
are crucial in helping the student develop certain percep-
tions, accept the delay of enjoyment, endure temporary
deprivations, forego immediate pleasures for the acquisition
of distant and lasting gratifications. This has long been
hailed by educators as a worthy aim of education in the
socialization process, without substantial implementation.
And it is now being adopted by personnel engaged in the
development of nations. Some of them consider the willing—
ness of delaying gratification as one sure indicator of
development.

It should also be mentioned that the foregoing perSpec-

tive runs counter the standard educational practice whereby

 

46J. M. Lawton, "Delay of Gratification as a Function of
Characteristics of Social Agents," Journgl of Educational
Sociology, Vol. 57, No. 5, p. 251, Oct., 1966.

155

we always endeavor to be subservient to the individual's
needs in terms of the whims of the moment or, in the best
instances, in terms of the immediate future.

A highly complex modern society functioning on the basis
of rational long-term planning requires its members to be
likewise in their personal way of life. Isn't that the

basis of human advancement and civilization? 1_1

tha CpllectiOn and-Anplysis Procedures

The pre-test,47 or try-out was administered to 55 seventh %

 

and ninth graders on May 51, 1969. .During Spring term of the
following year, the revised questionnaires were administered
to 574 seventh and ninth grade students present in all48
public complementary schools for boys in Beirut, Lebanon.
The administration started on April 8, 1970, and ended on May
11, 1970.

The questionnaires were group administered to students
in their classrooms by the author of this study with the co-
operation of third, fourth and fifth-year college students of
the College of Education, Lebanese University, Beirut, Lebanon.
School yearly averages were obtained from school records

around the end of June, 1970, by the same group of students.

Analysis procedures may be summarized as follows:

 

‘7See details about pre-test supra, p. 124.

45Ten Schools, see supra, p. 124 for excluded schools.

156

(a) Data were coded and punched on IBM cards, sub-
sequent analyses being performed mainly by the CDC 5600
computer at the Michigan State University Computer Labora-
tory.

(b) Correlation coefficients, means, standard devia-
tions, skewness, Kurtosis were calculated using CDC 5600.
For missing data, we supplemented the modal reSponse in the - E-l
scale. I

'(c) The coefficient of reproducibility was computed

using the Control Data 6500 at the Michigan State Computer

 

Laboratory.

(d) Correlations are based on raw scores.

CHAPTER VI I

RESEARCH FINDINGS

Validity, Reliabilitypand Reproducibility rm‘
Using Hoyt's1 method for computing internal consistency .
reliability, the reliabilities of General Self Concept of

Ability Scale (SCAS)2 Perceived Evaluations by Others Scales

 

(PPFTES: PPES, PFES, PTES) and other micro-Scales were com-
puted, for the male population of seventh and ninth grades
combined (N = 574).

The reliability of SCAS (10 items)3 in terms of total
scores was .86. If we compare it with the reliability of the
original scale developed by Brookover and his associates4
(.82 for males), it shows to be slightly higher. It seems

that SCAS gained in consistency in the process of adaptation.

NOte that we added two more items (items 4 and 5) to the

 

1See Brookover pp_pl,, 1962, pp, cit., p. 105 for
original Scale reliability.

2See Appendix H for list of abbreviations used in this
study. p. 204.

3See Appendix A, p..179.

‘Brookover, 1962, pp, cit., p- 105.

157

158

original scale.5 This may have caused this spur in relia-
bility.

Reliabilities of other scales related to self concept
and used in this study are found in Table IX.6 Of special
interest is the remarkably high reliabilities of the total
twenty-five item scale (SCASPECS)combining self concept, and
perceived evaluations of parents, friends and teachers, which F-l
reached .94.

The SCAS is "considered to have content validity because

 

the method of selection of items can be considered a compre-
hensive sample of the construct under consideration."7
The coefficient of reproducibility obtained was .49

s This suggests

whereas it was .95 for the original scale.
that, at least for our sample, not all adapted and added items
on this Scale are necessarily from the same universe of con-
tent and/or they are of unequal difficulty.

Validation through correlations between SCAS and school

achievement will be dealt with in discussing testing the

first hypothesis in the next section.

 

ssee supra p. 125 for the rationale of adding these two
items.

6Table IX, p. 159.
7Brookover, 1967, pp, cit., p. 164.

8Ibid., p. 166; see also, Ann Paterson, An Evaluation of
an Instrument Designed to Measure the Construct,fiSelf-Concept
of Academic Abgiity, Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, Michigan
State University, 1966.

159

Table IX. Reliabilities of Self Concept of Ability Scale,
Perceived Evaluations by Parents Scale, by Friends
Scale, by Teachers Scale, and Perceived Evalua-
tions by Parents, Friends and Teachers Scale
(N=574, 7th and 9th grades).

 

Number Hoyt
of Reliability
Items Scale Title Coefficient
10 Self Concept of Ability Scale (SCAS) .86
5 Perceived Parents' Evaluations Scale (PRES) .80
5 Perceived Friends' Evaluations Scale (PFES) .85
5 Perceived Teachers' Evaluations Scale (PTES) .85

15 Perceived Parents, Friends, Teachers
Evaluations Scale (PECS) .92

25 SCASPECS (SCAS + pscs) .94

 

 

140
Self Concept and Academic Achievement:
Testingpthe First Hypothesis

The first major hypothesis stated that: "self concept
of academic ability is associated with academic achievement
at each grade level.”

Simple Correlptions: This hypothesis was tested by cor-
relation analysis on the combined sample of seventh and ninth
grade students, on which data was obtained, as well as on the
separate samples of seventh and ninth grade students.

A single item (item 2) "comparing one‘s self with class-
mates in school ability" on SCAS correlated with General
Yearly Average (GA) along a range from .47 for ninth graders
‘(N=248) to .54 for seventh graders (N=526), while the corre-
lation between the ten-item Self Concept of Ability Scale and
GA ranged from .57 for ninth graders to .59 for seventh
graders (N=526).9 BrookOVer obtained a correlation of .57
for male seventh graders (N=515) between SCAS and GPA (Grade

Point Average).lo

 

Factors accounting for such differences between Brookover's

findings and this study's may include the following: The type
and number of indexes used to determine achievement, the
number of items used to give the total scores, which are known

elements introducing variation and error.11

 

9See Table X, p. 145 and Correlation Matrix p.
10Brookover, 1962, pp, cit., p. 41.

111bid., p. 51.

141

Another Lebanese idiosyncratic relevant factor may be
the rounding in the educational practice of marks clustering12
around the average "ten" over twenty, which is the sole basis
for promotion from one grade to another.

The unusual correlation obtained between one single item
on SCAS with GA suggests that it may be more meaningful to
students to ask them”to compare themselves Specifically with v_1
their classmates, which seems to be a concrete and continuing I
lively experience for them. Anyway, it should be noted that

such Lebanese students do not have experience in reSponding

 

to multiple choice items as attested for by their comments
and by our familiarity with the situation.

Partialland Multiple Correlations: Partial correlation
between General Yearly Average (GA) and General Self Concept
of Ability (SCAS) scores was computed for the total sample
of seventh and ninth graders (N=576) in two ways: (a) with
the effect of one other major variable partialled out,

(b) with the effect of all (five) other major variables
partialled out or controlled. The relevant coefficients of
such partial correlations are shown in Tables XI and-XII}3

When the effect of the third variable was controlled

GA and SCAS correlated nearly the same as when the third

 

12510 students or 56% of our sample clustered in the
short mark Span 10-11 over twenty, a Spot where the round-
ing of marks may be crucial in computing correlations.

13See Tables XI and XII, pp. 145 and 144, respectively.

142

variables were not partialled out, except for the Perceived
Evaluations by Parents, Friends and Teachers variable (PECS
or PPFTES), which represents a cluster of variables closely
associated with SCAS and interacting with it as.a construct.
In this type of partial correlation, SCAS was least affected
by the Father's-Educational Level (FEL) variable.
Comparisonl‘ of GA-FOL (Father's Occupational Level)

partial correlation (with the effect of SCAS partialled out)

_. L'l-nl'.-.-m.u .E

with the multiple correlation among SCAS, FOL and GA indi-

cates that the correlation increases from .55 to .41. Such

 

increase raises the variance accounted for by adding the self
concept variable. The multiple correlations reported have
beta weights of .55 for SCA and .17 for FOL. Thus, SCA is
weighted higher than FOL.

Furthermore, when the effect of all (five) other major
variables are controlled, SCAS contributed significantly
(.001 level) to its association with GA.J'5 Other variables
that also contributed significantly to this SCAS-GA associa-
tion are: FEL and PECS or PPFTES (at 1% levelL FEL did not
Show significance in other analyses except in this case.

Mpppp: General Yearly Average (GA) was categorized16

in such a way that: (a) the low category included all

 

l‘Table XI, p. 145.
15Table XII, p. 144.

16See p. 129 and Appendix G, p. 202.

145

Table X. Correlation Between Self Concept of Ability (SCA)

and General Average (GA) and Between Comparing Self
with Class (SWC) and General Average(GA)at Differ-
ent Grade Levels.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variables Correlated Correlation Coefficients
7th and 9th 7th 9th
Grades Grade Grade
SCA - GA .58 .39 .57 S i
N = 574 526 24a ’
1.!

 

Table XI. Partial Correlation: Between Self Concept of

 

Ability (SCA) and General Average (GA); and
Multlple Correlation: Among Sets of Three Vari-
ables (N=574, 7th and 9th Grades).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variables Correlation Coefficients Level Multi-
Correlated No of ple Cor-
Variables Third Sig. relation
Controlled Variable Controlled
SCA - GA .58 .55, FOL Controlled .001 .41
SCA - GA .58 .57, FEL* Controlled -- .57
SCA - GA .58 .33, PC* contrOlled , -- 057
SCA - GA .58 .54, EXC* Controlled -- .57
SCA — GA .58 .12, PEC Controlled .001 .59
* n a I
Not Slgnlflcant

144

Table XII. Partial Correlation: Between Self Concept of
Ability (SCA) and Some Variables, All other
Major Variables Being Controlled (7th and 9th
Grades Combined N=574).

 

 

 

 

Lorrelption Coefficients 7-Variable

Variables Correlated IPartial Level of Multiple
Correlation Sig. Correlation

SCA - GA .11 .006 .45

SCA - PECS .11 .010

SCA _ PC (Percelved 005* __

cost)

SCA - FOL .19 .001

SCA - FEL .06* --

VSCA - EXC .05* --

 

 

 

 

*
Not significant

Table XIII. Mean Self Concept of Ability Scores of High,
Middle and Low Achievement Groups, with Signifi-
cance of Difference Among Groups (7th and 9th
Grades, N=574).

 

 

E: #
Achieve- Self Sig. of
ment Approx- Con- Differ-
Categor- imate cept General ence
ieS N % Mean SD Mean ‘F Level
Low 106 15 55.87 6.14
Middle 510 56 58.27 5.56 L 58.85 45.26 .001
High 158 29 41.99 4.77

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

145

students who earned a GA mark of 9 over 20 or below,
(b) the middle category included all students who earned GA
marks of 10-11, (c) the upper category included all students
who earned a GA mark of 12 or above. This is a rather
standard procedure in Lebanese educational practice for
designating the low, middle and high achieving students.

The mean SCA scores of students found in these three F1!
categories were computed and were tested for Significance of
difference. The result of the "F" test shown in Table XIIIl7

which is significant beyond .001 level, clearly indicates

 

that high achieving students have significantly higher self V/ “T”

concept of ability scores than middle and low achieving stu-

dents. Mean increment was 5.14 for highly achieving students

and -2.99 for low achieving Students. A similar result was

found by earlier studies.18
Thus, the major hypothesis that self concept of ability./‘

is associated with school achievement was substantiated

under all these types of controls, and it seems, therefore,

highly probable that self concept is a Significant factor

influencing school achievement for 7th and 9th grade students

in public Lebanese complementary schools.

 

17See Table XIII, p. 144.

18Brookover, 1962, pp, cit., p. 58.

146

Testing the Second Hypothesis

The second major hypothesis stated that: "student per-
ceptions of the evaluations of their academic ability by
others: parents, friends and teachers, are associated with
self-concept of academic ability at each grade level."

Simple Corpelations: This hypothesis was tested by
analyses similar to those used to test the first hypothesis Ema
which dealt with associations between self concept and school i t

achievement. Correlation analysis was carried out on the

‘ “H 'h.-t‘o

combined sample of seventh and ninth graders, as well as on

 

samples of seventh graders and ninth graders separately.
This analysis showed that19 correlation between Per-
ceived Evaluations of Parents, Friends and Teachers (PECS or
PPFTES) and SCAS ranged from .85 for ninth graders to .80
for seventh graders. Subscales of PPES (perceived Parents'
Evaluations) PFES (Friends'), PTES (Teachers') ranged in
correlation with SCAS from .66 to .80.20 In the above-
mentioned Brookover studies they ranged from .47 to .55.21
Thus, when the perceptions of all significant others
are combined the total score correlates more highly with the
student's own definition of his ability than do any of the

perceptions of individuals significant others evaluations.

 

19Table XV, p. 147.
20Tables XIV and XV, p. 147.

21Brookover, 1962, pp, cit., p. 52.

147

Table XIV. Correlation Between Self Concept of Ability
(SCA) and Perceived Evaluations by Parents,

Friends and Teachers Combined (PEC); and

Between General Average (GA) and Perceived Evalu-
ations Combined (PEC) at Different Grade Levels.

 

 

Correlation Coefficients

 

 

 

 

Variables Correlated 7th and 9th 7th 9th
Grades Grade Grade
(Comparing Self with r_1
Class) SWC - PEC .50 .47 .55
SCA - PEC 082 080 085
GA - PEC .58 .51 .41
J
N = 574 526 248

 

 

 

 

Table XV. Correlation Between Self Concept of Ability_(SCA)
and Perceived Evaluations by Parents (PPE), by
Friends (PFE), by Teachers (PTE), and by Parents-

Friends-Teachers Combined (PEC),

Grade Levels.

at Different

 

 

Correlation Coefficients

 

 

 

Variables Correlated 7th and 9th 7th 9th
Grades Grade Grade

SCA - mar: .77 .80 .71
SCA - PFE .70 °75 .66
SCA - PTE .75 .75 .70
SCA - PEC .82 .80 .85
N = 574 526 248

 

 

 

 

148

This may indicate that the student's self concept is a
composite of the images reflected by many persons who are

2 The differences found between the

important to him.2
correlations are greater than those obtained by Brookover,23
but they support his finding that perceptions which students
have of their friends' evaluations are somewhat lower in
their association with self concept than those perceived
as being held by parents and teachers.24

Partial and Multiple Correlatiopg: Partial correlation
between PECS and SCAS scores was computed in two ways as for
GA-SCAS.25 Relevant correlation coefficients are shown in
Tables XVI and XVII?6

When the effect of (GA) the third variable was con-
trolled PECS and SCAS correlated nearly the same as when GA
was not controlled.

Comparison27 of PECS-GA partial correlation (with the
effect of SCAS partialled out) with the multiple correlation

among PECS, GA, and SCAS indicates that correlation increases

from .15 to .59. Such increase raise the variance accounted

 

22l§l§,. pp. 52-55.

23lplp,, p. 51.

24lplp,, p. 52.

25566 s22£2.p~

26Tables XVI and XVII, p. 149.

27See Table XVI.

 

149

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table XVI. Partial Correlation: Between Self Concept of
Ability (SCA) and Perceived Evaluations by
Parents, Friends and Teachers Combined (PEC): and
Partial Correlation: Between PEC and General
Average (GA): and Multiple Correlations: Among
Sets of Three Variables (N=574, 7th and 9th Grades).
Variables Correlation Coefficients
Correlated No Level Multi-
Variable Third of ple Cor- g.
bontrolled Variable Controlled Sig. relation
SCA - PEC .82 .79, GA Controlled -- .82 5
GA - PEC .58 .15, so Controlled .004 .59 §
GA - PEC .58 .55, FOL Controlled .001 .40 .
GA - PEC .58 .55, PC* Controlled -- .58

 

 

 

 

 

 

*-
Not Significant

Table XVII.

Partial Correlation:
Ability (SCA) and Some Variables, All Other Major
Variables Being Controlled (7th and 9th Grades,

Between Self Concept of

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

N=574).
Variables Correlated Partial Level of 7-Variable
Correlation Sig. Multiple
Correlation
SCA PEC .74 .001 .85
SCA GA .11 .001
SCA PC .09 .024
SCA FOL .02* --
SCA FEL .14 .001
SCA EXC .08 .058
* o 0 0
Not Significant

150

for by adding the SCAS variable. The multiple correlation “#
reported has beta weights of .22 for PEC and .19 for SCA.
Thus perceived evaluations by others is weighted higher than
self concept.

Moreover, when the effect of all (five) other major
variables were controlled PEC remained remarkably (.74)
contributing to its association with SAC,2a whereas the
contribution of other variables was minimal.

gpppp: The mean PEC scores of students found in the
trichotomized categories of GA (Low, Middle and High)29 were
computed and tested for significance of difference. The
resultant "F" tests are Shown in Tables XVIII and XIX and
indicate that high achieving students have significantly
(beyond .001 level of confidence) higher perceived evaluations
by others (PEC) than middle and low achieving students.

Intercorrelations Among Parents'L_Friends' and Teachers'

Evaluations: Intercorrelations among various components of

 

PECS are Shown in Table XX.31 They correlate also highly
with SCAS but are somewhat different and contribute differ-
entially to their association with GA.

Thus, the major hypothesis that perceived evaluations of

students' ability by parents, friends and teachers are

 

28Table-XVII, p. 149.
29See supra, p. 129.
a°Tables XVIII and XIX, p. 151.

31Table XX, p. 152.

 

Table XVIII .

151

Mean (Perceived Evaluations by Parents, Friends
and Teachers Combined) (PEC) Scores of High,
Middle and Low Achievement Groups, with Signifi-
cance of Difference Among Groups (7th and 9th

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Grades, N=574).

Achieve- Self Sig. of

ment Approx- Con— Differ-

Categor- imate cept General ence

ies N Mean SD Mean F Level

Low 106 15 55.25 9.51\\

Middle 510 58 58.47 7.88 > 59.41 45.54 .001

High 158 29 64.07 7.04//

Table XIX. Mean Perceived Evaluations by Parents, Friends and
Teachers Scores (PPE, PFE, PTE) of High, Middle
and Low Achievement Groups with Significance of
Difference Among Groups (7th and 9th Grades,
N=574).

PE Achieve- Approx- Gen- Sig.
Vari- ment imate eral of
able Categor- N Mean SD Mean F Diff.

ies
’/,/ Low 106 15 18.54 5.74\¢
PPE .Middle 510 ‘56 19.68 5.04//319.95 28.18 .001
“*~ High 158 29 21.57 2.84
’,/"Low 106 15 18.44 5.46\\
PFE \ Middle 510 58 19.55 2.96/(19.61 24.04 .001
-High 158 29 20.98 2.98
Low 106 15 .18.25 5.45
PTE / Middle 510 56 19.45 2.90> 19.86 55.04 .001
\ High 158 29 21.75 2.49

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

152

Table XX. Intercorrelations Among Perceived Evaluations by
Parents, Friends, and Teachers (PPE, PFE, PTE)
(7th and 9th Grades, N=574).

 

 

 

Variables Correlated .Correlation Coefficients
PPE - PFE .68
PPE - PTE .66 F2}
PFE - PTE .74 ’

 

 

 

Table XXI. Correlation Between Self Concept (SCA) and Perceived
Evaluations by Parents, Friends, and Teachers
(PEC), and Between Self Concept (SCA) and
General Average (GA) at Different Grade Levels.

 

 

 

 

Variables Correlated Correlation Coefficients

7th and 9th 7th 9th
Grade Grade Grade
SCA - PEC .82 .80 .85
SWC - PEC .50 .47 .55

(Self with Class)

SCA - GA .58 .59 .57

SWC - GA .51 .54 .47

(Self with Class)

 

 

 

 

N = 574 526 248

 

155

associated with self self concept of academic ability was
confirmed under all these types of controls. It is clear,//
therefore that perceived evaluations by Significant others
is an important factor in the hypothesized relationship,
differentiated from self-concept, and highly associated with

it for 7th and 9th grade students in public Lebanese comple-

mentary Schools. Fa}

Tpsting the Third Hypothesis

The third hypothesis stated that: "associations between

 

perceived evaluations by others and self concept of academic E!”
ability are greater than the associations between self concept

of academic ability and achievement."
v/

*‘K

This hypothesis is based on the assumption that self-
concept of ability is an intervening variable between students?

perceptions of the evaluations of their academic ability by 9
{7
others and academic achievement,32 and that it is a necessary \
\
\

but not a sufficient condition to bring about school achieve-
ment. Some students who are evaluated by others as able to
achieve and who believe that they are able to do so may not
choose to perform in accord with either the perceived evalua-
tions of others or their self concept of ability.33 The

correlations between SCA and GA are therefore hypothesized

 

32Brookover, 1967, pp, ci ., p. 86.

33Ibid., p. 118.

154

to be lower than the perceived evaluations and.SCA correla-
tions.

This hypothesis was tested by correlation analysis on
the same total sample (N=574) used to test the first and the
second hypotheses.

Results of correlational analysis Shown in Tables XV
and XXI34 indicate clearly that correlations of PPE, PFE, rt}
PTE and PEC with SCA ranged from .66 to .85 whereas correla- I
tions of SCA with GA ranged from .57 to .58. Although this

is self-explanatory, we further hypothesize that, under

 

better conditions for collecting data about GA, this sharp iflf
difference between these two pairs of correlations may lessen,
but will remain significant.

Thus the third hypothesis was also confirmed.\/

Other Relevant Resplpp_

Although some of the following data are not directly
concerned with the hypotheses of this study they may answer
some questions raised in earlier chapters and may prove
relevant for subsequent research in this area.

Schools: One major difference among schools was found
as regards self concept of academic ability. Analysis of
variance on this variable among the nine schools Showed a

significant difference in the mean self concept scores.35

 

34Table XV, p. 147 and Table XXI, p. 152.

35See Table XXII, p. 155.

155

Table XXII. Mean Self Concept of Ability (SCA) Scores of
Nine Public Complementary Schools for Boys in
Beirut, with Significance of Difference Among

 

 

 

 

 

 

Them.
Applysis of Varlpnce

School General Significance
Number N Mean SD Mean Level

1 59 42.51 4.12

2 48 59.65 6.14

5 96 58.55 6.70

4 45 56.67 4.69

5 66 57.17 4.55 58.85 .001

6 141 59.45 4.98

7 50 58.14 5.87

8 40 56.70 6.52

9 49 41.55 6.16;

 

 

156

These relatively high mean self concept Scores may be
accounted for by the influence of migrant parents or other
significant others and/or by an overall defensiveness.
Significant differences among schools were also found
for the following variables: PEC, FOL, FL (Foreign Language
Average for 1970), the likelihood of finding a job, the
likelihood of finding an appropriate job, and the perception r13
of foreign language difficulty.36 I
Socio-Economic Status: In this study, the two variableS\//

representing the socio-economic status were the Father's

 

Occupational Level (FOL) and the Father‘s Educational Level —
(FEL). These two variables contributed unevenly to various
analyses. FOL and FEL, respectively, correlated .22 (signifi-
cant beyond .001 level) and .01 with GA. FOL contributed
significantly beyond (.001 level) in the partial correlation
between SCA and GA, when one or more variables were partialled
out,37 but FEL did not.
-FOL was also a significant contributor to the correla-
tion between PEC and SCA:38 when the third variable was con-
trolled but did not contribute Significantly when all others

were controlled. FEL substituted for it.39

 

36See Table XXIII, p. 157.
87Table XI, p. 145, and Table XII, p. 144.
38Table XVI, p. 149.

39Table XVII, p. 149.

157

Table XXIII. General Mean Score on Certain Variables of Nine
Public Complementary Schools in Beirut, with
Significance of Difference Among Them for Each
Variable (7th and 9th Grades, N=574).

 

 

 

9-School Signifi-
Variable General cance
Mean Level
FOL 4.65 .001
FL (Foreign Language Grade
Average for 1970) 5.10 .001
Getting a Job 5.18 .001
Appropriate Job 4.28 .001
PFLD (Perceived Foreign Language
Difficulty) 5.02 .001
PEC 59.41 .001
PPE 19.95 .001
PFE 19.61 .001
PTE 19.86 .001
PC (Perceived Cost) 4.59 .02
SCASPECS 98.26 .001

 

 

 

 

158

The mean self concept score of students with low,
middle and high FOL, were tested for significance of differ-
ence and were found to be significant at .001 level. This
indicates that students ranking high in FOL have signifi-V/
cantly higher self concept than those ranking middle or low

on this variable.

 

 

The over-whelming majority of our sample students come -fi
from lower FOL and FEL categories.4o

Significant Others: Parents were more often named41
than any other persons by most seventh and ninth graders _
(85%) as "important in their lives." On the other hand, he!

teachers were more often named (55%) than any other persons
as concerned with "how well they do in school." On the
basis of students comments and previous findings,42 these
two differentiated types of reSponses towards parents and
teachers may be explained in terms of general and academic
importance accorded ix) parents' and teachers' roles. They
may also reflect an ambivalent attitude of love and fear
toward these people who have the power to implement so many
decisions concerning their present and future. Whereas, in
M’

some other cpltures parent-child and teacher-student rela- 0/

tionships tend to form a kind of partnership. Furthermore,

 

4°Table XXIV, p.‘159 and-Appendix F. Po 200-
“'Tables XXV and XXVI, p. 160.

42Brookover, 1962, pp, cit., p. 67.

Table XXIV.

159

Percentage of Students 1

n Every.Father's Occu-

pational Level (FOL) and Father's Educational

Level (FEL) Categories.

%

 

 

 

 

Variable
Category Percent in Percent in
Number FOL FEL
Category Category
2 10 58
5 28 6
4 27 5 -
be!
5 1 2
6 17 0.52
7 17 0.52
8 0.52 0.70
9 -- 0.55

 

 

 

160

Table XXV. Percentage of Students Naming at Least One Person
from Each of the Following Categories as Being
"Important in Their Lives." (7th and 9th Grades

N=574; 7th N=526; 9th N=248)“

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

, Percentage

Person Named 7th and 9th 7th 9th Brook-

Grades .Grade Grade over‘s*
Parents “ 85 89 80 98
School Personnel 41 58 45 46
Adult Relatives 59 65 52 40
~Age Mate Relatives 64 71 59 60
Other Adults 15 10 17 20
Peers 54 58 51 66

 

 

*
See Brookover, 1967, loc. cit., p. 75.

=225)

(9th grade males

Table XXVI. Percentage of Students Naming at Least One
Person From Each of the Following Categories as
Being Concerned with "H0w'Well They Do In
School." (7th and 9th Grades N=574: 7th N=526;

 

 

 

 

9th N=248)
Percentpge

Person Named 7th and 9th ” 7th 9th Brook-

Grades Grade Grade over's*
Parents 55 55 51 97
School Personnel 64 60 69 80
Adult Relatives 51 54 27 50
Age Mate Relatives 58 59 55 50
Other Adults 7 7 7 5
Peers 24 20 28 15

 

 

 

 

 

*
See Brookover, 1967, loc. cit., p. 74. (9th Grade Males

N=225)

161

in develOping countries, the tradition generally keeps the J
teacher rather aloof from the Student so that he "would not
lose his dignity."

This proposition may find some support in comparing p//
seventh and ninth graders as regards the role of adult rela-
tives in their lives. Seventh graders tended to name more
adult relatives as both important in their lives (65% to 52%)
and concerned with their academic status (54% to 27%) than

ninth graders.

Peers seemed to be more significant academically for
ninth grade Lebanese students (28%) than for their American
counterparts (15%). This may be due to the fact that aca-
demic matters are crucial in their lives and peers may
be able to help them more than others.

These findings43 support previous studies in holding
that parents seem to be much more Significant in the lives of

adolescents than peers.44

 

43See Tables XXV and XXVI, p. 160.

4‘See Edsel Erickson's findings, supra p. 55: see also,
Brookover, 1962, pp, cit., p. 58 and 1967, pp, cit., pp.
72-75.

 

162

Perceived Cost (PC): The perceived cost in the present
study, as a cost in delaying gratification for the sake of
continuing one's education (PC) correlated .59 with SCA, .59
with PEC and .18 with GA. Although the latter correlation
is also Significant, and PC proved to be significant in SCA—
PEC correlations, this Shows along with other data in this
study that PC measures a different variable than SCA measures. ria

This variable needs reoperationalization and revision I
in order to be made more Specific as a construct. It might

generate a homogeneous scale comparable to SCAS and prove

 

p;

useful in increasing our predictibility of school achievement
namely on higher levels of education.

.Examinations: Students‘ perceptions of the "Certificat"
and the “Brevet" examinations correlated negatively with each
other and with GA and SCA, except for the perceptions of the
Certificat which correlated .18 with SCA. This shows that
they tend to be different and even contradictory concepts.

The cluster of items (EXC) centering around internal
school examinations correlated .19, .57, .59 with GA, SCA,
PEC respectively.

Most of these items tended to have greater associations
with self concept and related constructs rather than with GA.
Foreign Language: FL (Foreign Language Average for

1970) correlated .51 with GA, .58 with SCA and negatively
with PFLD (Students' Perceptions of FL difficulty), which
indicates that many contradictions are involved in these two

variables.

165

PFLD correlated highly (.62) with EXC, .18 with SCA
and negatively with GA.

Agp; One peculiar characteristic of our sample Students
was "over-aging" in terms of regular age expected in every
grade.

Using a method comparable to Bashshur's and considering
11 as a regular age for the fifth primary grade, age 15 as
regular for the seventh grade (born in or prior to 1957),
we found that 88.6% of our sample students over grade age.

Similarly, considering 15 as a regular age for the ninth
grade (born in or prior to 1955), we also found 95.5%«over
grade age.

Comparing these with what Bashshur reported (58%) for

45

public primary schools, we can clearly see the educational

wastage of the Lebanese educational system.46

Summary of Results
The major results of this study may be summarized as
follows:

1..A Self-Concept of Academic Ability Scale and Per-
ceived Students' Evaluations by Significant Others
Scales were translated into Arabic, and were adapted
from the Michigan State General Self Concept of
Academic Ability Scale and related instruments.

 

‘5Bashshur, 1970, pp, cit., p . 91-92. In primary pri-
vate schools overaging reaches 49%? Bashshur reported.

46Compare with: Comparative Statistical Data on Educa-
tion in the Arab States, pp, cit., pp. 21-51.

 

164

2. Using Hoyt's method, the internal reliabilities of
these scales were as follows: .86 for Self Concept,
.92 for total Perceived Evaluations (PEC) and .94
for all of these combined.

5. Reproducibility coefficients for the Self Concept
Scale was .49.

4. Self concept of academic ability is Significantly
related to school achievement of seventh and ninth
grade boys (N=574) in the Beirut Public Complementary

Schools. .Correlations ranged from .57 to .54 for the _
whple)scale and a part thereof(comparing self with class- (_I
ma es . i

5. Coefficients of correlation, between self concept of
ability and School achievement for seventh and ninth
graders remained nearly the same with or without hav-
ing one or more other4 major variables (such as the
Father's Occupational Level) partialled out or con- ;
trolled. L—r

 

6. High achieving groups in seventh and ninth grades have
significantly higher mean self concept of ability
scores than middle and low achieving groups.

7. Perceived evaluations by Significant others: parents,
friends and teachers are significantly related to
self concept of academic ability of seventh and ninth
graders. Correlations ranged from .66 to .85 for the
whole scales and parts thereof.

8. Coefficients of correlation between perceived evalua-
tions by parents, friends and teachers and self con-
cept of ability remained nearly the same with or
without school achievement partialled out.

9. High achieving groups in seventh and ninth grades
have significantly higher mean "perceived evaluations"
scores than middle and low achieving groups.

10. Intercorrelations among Perceived Parents Evalua-
tions, Perceived Friends Evaluations and Perceived
Teachers Evaluations ranged from .66 to .68.

4”Except for "perceived evaluations by others" which is
a variable closely associated with self concept of ability
and considered its source of derivation.

165

11. Association between perceived evaluations by others
and self concept of academic ability is greater in
magnitude than association between self-concept of
academic ability and school achievement.

Correlations between the first pair of these vari-
ables ranged from .66 to .85, and between the
second pair from .57 to .58 for the whole self con-
cept scale and from .47 to .54 for one item of

that scale (comparing self with classmates).

12. Comparability across schools showed significant
differences in mean self concept scores and in mean
scores on other major variables.

15. The father's occupational level showed as a signifi-
cant contributor to partial correlation between self
concept of academic ability and school achievement
as well as to partial correlation between self con-
cept and perceived evaluations by others.

14. Students with high father's occupational level have
Significantly higher mean self concept scores than
those with middle or low FOL (Father's Occupational
Level).

15. Parents were more often named (85%) than any other
persons as important in the lives of seventh and
ninth grade students.

16. Teachers were more often named (55%) than any other
persons as concerned with how well seventh and ninth
graders do in school.

17. Parent's were more often named (85%) than peers (54%)
as important in the lives of seventh and ninth
graders.

18. Teachers (64%) and parents (55%) were more often
named than peers (24%) as concerned with hOW'Well
seventh and ninth graders do in school.

19. Although related to self concept of academic ability
and to school achievement, the "Perceived Cost"
involved in delaying gratification for the sake of
continuing one's education seems to be measuring a
different variable than self concept, and to be more
appropriate to be used with upper secondary and
college student population.

20. 88.6% of seventh grade students, participating in
this study, were over regular seventh grade age and
95.5% of ninth grade students were over regular
ninth grade age.

 

CHAPTER VIII
CONC LUS ION
High association between self concept of academic ability

and school achievement is not expected since, in the theoreti-

cal framework of this research, self concept is hypothesized

 

to be a necessary but not a sufficient condition for the

.-. ' Lk.“ In ‘43 ..KA - - , ._ '
'I
wr
. .' .
_ v

attainment of a particular level of school achievement.

Partial correlation analysis showed that self concept of
academic ability and perceived evaluations by Significant
others are more significant in associating with achievement
than any other variables in this study.

The greater magnitude of correlation difference between
self concept and perceived evaluations on one hand and be-
tween self concept and achievement on the other as well as
the significance of difference in mean self concept and
perceived evaluations scores for high and low achieving stu-
dents lends further support to self concept as a major inter-
vening variable between perceived evaluations by significant
others and school achievement.

Our primary focus on self concept of ability as a crucial

factor in limiting the level of academic achievement attempted

166

167

by the learner is therefore, warranted. The results of this
study confirmed the various hypothesized relationships among
self concept, perceived evaluations by others and school
achievement.

.The higher correlations between perceived evaluations
and self concept sustain the theoretical prOpoSition that
perceived evaluations by Significant others are a necessary
and a sufficient condition for the elaboration of a particu-
lar self concept of academic ability, provided that they be
internalized by the learner as significant others' expecta-
tions of what is appropriate and proper for him to do and
what he is able to do.

Thus, our next step in research would be: (a) to investi—
gate thoroughly potential intervening variables among per-
ceived evaluations, self concept and school achievement,
such as a revised version of the perceived cost, (b) to move

to what G. E..Jensen1

calls the fourth level in designing
educational research, namely the level of dealing experimental-
ly with the variables involved by manipulating them.under
certain conditions in order to prove the existence of causal
relationships among them.

2

Although some studies are not conclusive, there is

enough rationale that academic achievement can be enhanced by

 

1G. E. Jensen, Educatioppl Sociology, 1965, pp. 99-101.

2M. Manis, "Social Interaction and the Self Concept,"
J.Ap§gAbn. and Soc. Psyphology, 51:5, 562-570, Nov. 1955.

 

168

self concept enhancement, and there is also evidence that
students' self concepts of ability can be modified by sig-
nificant others.3

Significant others then, including parents, teachers,4

5 may play an important role6 in inducing change

counselors
in students' self concepts and may thereby influence their
educational aSpirationS and academic achievement, or many

other aSpectS of their behavior. This conclusion has far-
reaching implications for education.

If schools were alerted to the theory and findings of

this study and related research, curricula7 and programs

 

3Brookover, 1965, pp, cit., pp. 209, 212.

4See B. C. VanKoughnett and M. E. Smith, "Enhancing
the Self Concept in School," Educational Leadership, 27:5,

5See H. A. S. Zahran, "The Self-Concept in Psychological
Guidance of Adolescents," British Journal Of Educatioppl_
Psychology, 57: 225-240, June, 1967; A. K. Korman, Self-Esteem
as a Moderator of the Relationship Between Abilities and
Vocational Choice," J. of Applied Psy., 51: 1, 65-57, Feb.
1967: D. M. Taylor, “Changes in Self-Concept Without Psycho-
therapy," J. of Consulting Psy., 19: 5, 205-209, 1955; C. W.
Cole, "Self-Concept Therapy for Adolescent Females," J. of
Abnormal Psy., 74: 6, 642-645, Dec. 1969.

6A. O. Haller pp_pl,, "Identifying Significant Others
and Measuring Their Expectations for a Personf 1969, Socio-
logical Abstracts: 27: 5, 1969, suppl. 6 p. 10. AJ. Woelpel,
"Significant Others, The Self-Reflective Act and The Attitude
Formation Process," 1969, Sociological Abstracts, 27: 5,
1969, suppl. 5, p. 120.

7L. Hott and M. Sonstegard, "Relating Self-Concept to
Curriculum Development," 58: 548-551, April, 1965.

 

169

would be devised to enhance the abilities of all students
rather than to limit learning Opportunity on the basis of
an assumed level of fixed ability. There would be no early
classification of students on the basis of such assumptions,

and thereby no teacher self-fulfilling prophecies.e

Programs
would be developed to organize the resources of the commun-

ity, family and school to enhance the self-concepts of all rqfi
students.9 t

Even if self concept cannot be altered significantly

at a certain age,10 the task of the educator would be to

 

start the process of self concept enhancement as early as
possible and to exercise judicious surveillance.11
This leads us to the intricacies of needed research con-
cerning problems of self concept and school achievement
change and, in the final analysis to social change and
development.
We have little knowledge about the relative influence

of significant others and about how to work with them in order

to bring about desired changes in the learners' behavior.

 

aSee R. Rosenthal and L. Jacobson, Pygmalion in the
Classroom & Teacher Egpectation and PupilSi Intellectual
Develppment, N. Y.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968.

9Brookover,1965, pp, cit., p. 211.
10Although there is evidence of increase self-esteem with
age, see: B. H. Long, "Developmental Changes in Self Concept
During Adolescence," School Review, 76: 2, June 1968, p. 228.

llEdsel Erickson, 1965, pp, cit., p. 88.

(‘0

170

We also lack knowledge on the characteristics of the society
in which teachers and learners are immersed.12 We need to
know how the socio-cultural forces interact and thereby Shape
the perceptions of significant others13 and how the children's
perceptions of the expectations and evaluations held for
them.by significant others come about and how they may be
transformed into positive self concepts. l-1
This dearth of scientific information on how environ-

l4

ments may be conducive to Optimum levels of learning consti- '

tuteS the unfinished task challenging social scientists and

 

educators for a long time to come.

 

12C. Gross pp_pl,, School and Society, Boston: D. C.
Heath, 1962, p. 9; Ralph W. Tyler, "Educational Evaluations:
New Roles, New Means," NSSE 68th Yearbook, Part II, Chicago,
Ill.: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1969, p. 5.

 

13D. B. Kandel and G. S. Lesser, "Parental and Peer
Influences on Educational Plans of Adolescents,” American
Sociological Review, 54: 2, April 1969, p. 221.

14For Social structure of the classroom, see: G. E.
Jensen, "The Sociopsychological.Structure of the Instructional
Groups," The Qynamics of the Instructional Group (NSSE Year-
book), 1960 pp. 85-114; J. C. Glidewell pp_pl,, Classroom
sociolization and Social structure in the classroom; in L. W.
Hoffman pp_pl,, Review of Chilg Development Research, N.Y.:
Russell Sage Foundation, 1966, Vol. II, p. 244. For a future
outlook see: J. F. Wohlwill, "The Emerging Discipline of
Environmental Psychology,“ American Psychologist, 25: 4,
April, 1970, p. 511. ’

 

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APPENDICES

 

APPENDIX A

SELF-CONCEPT OF ABILITY SCALEl
(English Version)
(1970)

 

 

J'Adapted from W. B. Brookover, 1967, loc. cit., pp.
541 --543 .

 

179

180

SELF—CONCEPT OF ABILITY SCALE:2

(English Version)

Cirple the lptter in firont of the statement which best answers

ppph_gpestion.

1. How do you rate yourself in school ability compared with

your close friends?

a. I am the best

b. I am above average
c. I am average

d. I am below average
e. I am the poorest

2. How do you rate yourself in school ability compared with
those in your class at school?

a. I am among the best

b. I am above average

c. I am average

d. I am below average

e. I am among the poorest

5. Where do you think you would rank in your class in high
school, if you go on?

a. Among the best

b. Above average

c. Average

d. Below average

e. Among the poorest

4. Do you think you have the academic ability to complete
upper secondary school?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. NOt sure either.may
d. No

e. No, definitely

 

2This is an adaptation of the Michigan State General
Self-Concept of Ability Scale (Form A) designed by W. B.
Brookover and associates. See W. B. Brookover, 1967,
lo_c. pi_t_. pp. 557-558.

 

181

5. In order to complete your secondary education till the
second part of the Baccalaureat, you still need to go on
for a few years. Do you think you would complete such a
study?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

6. Do you think you have the academic ability to complete
college?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

7. Anyway, where do you think you would rank in your class in
college if you go on?

a. Among the best

b. Above average
c.1Average

d. Below average

e. Among the poorest

8. In order to become a doctor, a lawyer, an engineer or a
university professor, work beyond four years of college
is necessary. »Do you think that you would complete such
advanced work?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

9. Let‘s forget for a moment how others grade your work.
In your own Opinion how good do you think your work is?

a. My school work is excellent

b. My school work id good

c. My school work is average

d. My school work is below average

e. My School work is much below average

F"!

.5...

 

7%
i=1

182

10. What kind of grades do you think you are capable of
getting if you do your best from now on?

a. Very good

b. Good

c. Average

d. Below average
e. Weak

 

 

APPENDIX B
PERCEIVED EVALUATIONS OF STUDENT'S ACADEMIC
ABILITY) BY OTHERS
SCALESl
(English Version)

(1970)

Section

1 0 Parents 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O
2 0 Best Friend 0 O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O

5 O TeaCher O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O .

184
185
186

 

1Adapted from W. B. Brookover, 1967, loc. cit., pp.

185

 

184

Please answer the following questions as you think your
PARENTS would answer them. If you are not living with your
parents answer for the family with whom you are living.

Circle the letter in front of the statement thpt best answers
each question.

1. How do you think your PARENTS would rate your school ability

compared with other students your age?

a. Among the best

b. Above average

c. Average

d. Below average

e. Among the poorest

2. Where do you think your PARENTS would say you would rank
in your high school graduating class?

a. Among the best

b. Above average

c. Average

d. Below average

e. Among the poorest

5. Do you think that your PARENTS would say you have the
ability to complete upper secondary school and college?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

4. In order to become a doctor, a lawyer, an engineer or a
university professor, work beyond four years of college
is necessary. How likely do you think your PARENTS would
say it is that you would complete such advanced work?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

5. What kind of grades do you think your PARENTS would say you
are capable of getting in general if you do your best from
now on?

a. Very good

b. Good
c..Average

d. Below average
e. Weak

 

'1“

185

Think about your closeSt friend at School. NOw answer the
following questions as you think this FRIEND would answer them.

Circle the letter in front of the statement that best answers
each question.

1. HOw do you think this FRIEND would rate your school ability
compared with other students your age?

a. Among the best

b. Above average

c. Average

d. Below average

e. Among the poorest

2. Where do you think this FRIEND would say you would rank in
your high school graduating class?

a. Among the best

b. Above average

c. Average

d. Below average

e. Among the poorest

5. Do you think that this FRIEND would say you have the ability
to complete upper secondary school and college?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

4. In order to become a doctor, a lawyer, an engineer or a
university professor, work beyond four years of college is
necessary. How likely do you think this FRIEND would say
it is that you would complete such advanced work?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

5. What kind of grades do you think this FRIEND would say you
are capable of getting in general, if you do your best
from now on?

a. Very good

b. Good

c. Average

d. Below average
e. Weak

 

186

Think about your favorite teacher--the one you like best;
the one you feel is most concerned about your schoolwork.
NOw answer the following questions as you think this TEACHER
would answer them.

Circle the letter in front of the statement which best answers
each gpestion.

1. How do you think this TEACHER would rate your school ability

compared with other students your age?

a. Among the best

b. Above average

c. Average

d. Below average

e. Among the poorest

2. Where do you think this TEACHER would say you would rank
in your high school graduating class?

a. Among the best

b. Above average

c. Average

d. Below average

e. Among the poorest

5. Do you think that this TEACHER would say you have the
ability to complete upper secondary school and college?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

4. In order to become a doctor, a lawyer, an engineer or a
university professor, work beyond four years of college
is necessary. How likely do you think this TEACHER would
say it is that you would complete advanced work?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No
e. No, definitely

5. What kinds of grades do you think this TEACHER would say
you are capable of getting in general if you do your best
from now on?

a. Very good
b..Good

c. Average

d. Below average
e. Weak

I

I-
n.
Lt.

 

E;

APPENDIX C

QUESTIONNAIRESl
TO IDENTIFY “SIGNIFICANT OTHERS"
(English Version)

(1970)

Section Page
1. General Significant Others. . . . . . . . . . . 188

2. Academic Significant Others . . . . . . . . . . 189

 

J”Adapted from‘W. B. Brookover, 1967, loc. cit., pp.
547-548.

 

187

 

188
GENERAL SIGNIFICANT OTHERS QUESTION

There are many people who are important in our lives. In the
Space below, list the NAMES of the people whose appreciation

and judgment are important to you. Please indicate who each
person is.

NAMES WHO IS THIS PERSON?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

189
ACADEMIC SIGNIFICANT OTHERS QUESTION

There are many people who are concerned about how well young
people do in school. In the Space below, list the NAMES of
the people who are important to you in appreciating and judg-
ing your school work. Please indicate who each person is.

NAMES WHO IS THIS PERSON?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX D

ANNEX QUESTIONNAIRE
(English Version)

(1970)

190

 

191

ANNEX QUESTIONNAIRE (1970) (English Version)

Circle thepletter in front of the statement that best answers
each question.

1.

During your secondary and college education, if you have
to undergo difficulties and to deprive yourself from meet-
ing other needs you think are necessary for you, would you

,think that completing your education is worth such a cost

or such a sacrifice?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

What is the most important factor that would prevent you
from completing your secondary and college education?

a. Financial resources

b. Difficulties of Curricula

c. Difficulties of examinations
d. I have to get a job

e. Other

How would you rate the difficulties that would prevent you
from completing your secondary and college education?

a. Very big

b. Big

c. Average

d. Minor

e. Insignificant

Would you think that your daily marks (daily evaluation)
would reflect a true picture of your school ability?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

Would you think that your monthly examinations would
reflect a true picture of your school ability?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

C. Not sure either way
d..No

e. No, definitely

 

192

6. WOuld you think that school examinations at the middle
and at the end of the year would reflect a true picture
of your school ability?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

7. WOuld you think that oral examinations in certain school
subjects such as science and grammer, would reflect a
true picture of your school ability?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No ‘ “

e. No, definitely

8. WOuld you think that rating your school work by rank order:
First, second, third, etc. . . . on the basis of the total
number of marks earned, or by "Honor Cards," would reflect
a true picture of your school ability?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes ‘

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

9. WOuld you think that the official "Certificat Examination"
reflected a true picture of your school ability?

a. Yes, definitely*

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely‘

10. How would you rate the difficulty of the official
"Brevet Examination" that you are going to sit for?

a. Very difficult
b. Difficult

c. Average

d. Easy

e. Very easy

 

195

11. If you are going to work after getting the official
complementary school diploma (The Brevet), would you think
that you can then get a job?‘

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes

c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

12. After completing your study, if you get a job, would you
expect such a job to be satisfying and appropriate for

you?
a. Yes, definitely
b. Yes
c. Not sure either way
d. No

e. No, definitely

 

15. How would you rate the difficulty of the foreign language
(French), for you?

a. Very difficult
b. Difficult

c. Average

d. Easy

e. Very easy

14. How would you prefer to study mathematics and science?

a. In arabic
b. In a foreign language (French)

15. What is the subject matter at school that you like best?

 

16. In what type of school would you prefer to study?

a. An Official Complementary School

b. An Official Secondary School (in grades parallel
to the Complementary)

c. A well-known private national School

d. A regular private national school

e.~A private foreign school

f. A vocational school (trade school)

g. Other

194

17. Have you ever been denied admission to another School?

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

a.

No

b.‘Yes, then: what type of school?

a. An official complementary school

b. An official secondary School

c. A well-known private national school
d. A regular private school

e. A private foreign school

f. A vocational school (trade school)
9. Other

Would you imagine a school without examinations?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Yes, definitely

.Yes

Not sure either way
No

(No, definitely

What would you think completing your secondary and college
education would help you to do?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Getting a job

Raising my family‘s economic status
Getting a respectable social status
Raising my country's status

Be a learned person

Other

How would you rate the school you are attending?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Very good

Good

Average

Below average

Much below average

.How would you rate the economic status of your family or

the family that you are living in?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Very good
Good

-Average

Below average
RMch below average

Are there any other observations you would like to make

about:

the schools, teaching, these questions, or any-

thing else?

 

APPENDIX E

 

SELECTIONS FROM: ‘L_r
THE TRY-OUT QUESTIONNAIRESl

(English Version)

(1969)

 

1The try-out questionnaires administered in.1969,
included:

a. The self-concept of Ability Scale.

b. The Perceived Evaluations by Others Scales.
c. The Significant Others questions.

d. An Annex Questionnaire

The first three instruments, adapted from Brookover's
studies (a,b,c), are almost the same as those found in
Appendices A, B and C (see supra, pp. 179, 185, 187 reSpec-
tively), but this try-out Annex Questionnaire changed a great
deal (compare with preceding Appendix D, p. 190).

195

196

ANNEX QUESTIONNAIRE (1969) (English Version)

Put down youpself the proper answers for every gpestion;
in case there are no answers to select from:

1. Should you complete your secondary education?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

2. Why Should you complete your secondary education?
Or should you not?

I should complete it on the following grounds:

Yes, definitely
Yes, probably

Not sure either way
Probably not

No rm]

 

 

 

 

 

I should not complete it on the following grounds:

 

 

 

 

5. Should you complete your college educatflan?

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Yes, definitely
Yes, probably

Not sure either way
Probably not

No

4. Why should you complete your college education or Should
you not?

I should complete it on the following grounds:

 

 

 

 

197

I should not complete it on the following grounds:

 

 

 

 

What do you think would prevent you from completing your
secondary education?

«LEI

 

 

 

 

college education?

 

What do you think would prevent you from completing your 1 I”

 

 

 

 

Whom do you hold responsible for preventing you from
completing your secondary and college education?

 

 

 

 

How would you rate the difficulties that would prevent
you from completing your secondary education?

a. Very big (major)
b. Big

c. Average

d. Minor

e. Insignificant

,How would you rate the difficulties that would prevent

you from completing your college education?

a. Very big

b. Big

c. Average

d. Minor

e. Insignificant

10.

11.

12.

15.

14.

15.

198

WOuld you think that completing your secondary education
is worth such a cost or such a sacrifice?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes, probably

c. Not sure either way
d. Probably not

e.,No

Would you think that completing your college education is
worth such a cost or such a sacrifice?

a. Yes, definitely

b. Yes, probably

c. Not sure either way
d. Probably not

e. No

What do you think completing your secondary education would
help you to accomplish?

 

 

 

 

.What do you think completing your college education would

help you to accomplish?

 

 

 

 

How would you rate the school you are attending compared
with similar private schools?

a. Very good

b. Good

c. Average

d. Below average

e. Much below average

How would you rate the economic status of your family or
the family you are living in?

a. Very good

b. Good

c. Average

d. Below average

e. Much below average

 

APPENDIX F

SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS CATEGORIES

199

 

200

CATEGORIES FOR SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS INDEX

The occupational level of the parents was coded as follows:

(Note: A hierarchical ordering was assumed only for codes

9-5):

Father's Occupational Level:
Other, unclassified . . . . .
Deceased, retired unemployed.
Unskilled labor . . . . . . .
Semi-Skilled labor. . . . . .
Skilled labor . . . . . . . .
Semi-professional, clerical, S
Small business (shopkeeper) .
Professional. . . . . . . . .
Big Business. . . . . . . . .

ooomooooo

Father's Educational Level:'
No schooling. . . . . . . . .
Elementary school education .
Complementary school education
Complementary school diploma.
Upper secpndary education . .
Baccalaureat First Part . .
Baccalaureat Second Part. .
College education . . . . .
.College degree or diploma .

1e

Categpries

(DmNODU‘IPOJNP

Categories

 

(OCD‘ICDU'IPCNNH

Q6

 

APPENDIX G

 

 

GENERAL AVERAGE AND AGE CATEGORIES

201

202

GENERAL AVERAGE AND AGE CATEGORIES

The General Average of each student was coded as follows:

 

General Average 1969-1970 Categories
An average markl of 7 or below . . . . . . . . .1
An average mark of 8 or below. . . . . . . . . .2
An average mark of 9 or below. . . . . . . . . .5
An average mark of 10 or below . . . . . . . . .4
.An average mark of 11 or below . . . . . . . . .5
An average mark of 12 or below . . . . . . . .‘.6
An average mark of 15 or below . . . . . . . . .7
-An average mark of 14 or below . . . . . . . . .8
An average mark of 15 or below . . . . . . . . .9

 

.Age of Each Student was coded in terms of years of birth,
according to the following categories:

 

Age of Each Student: Categories
Born in 1958 or above. . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
Born in.1957 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Born in 1956 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Born in 1955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Born in 1954 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Born in 1955 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Born in 1952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Born in 1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
Born in 1950 or before . . . . . . . . . . . . .9

 

1All these marks are over twenty--7/20, 8/20, etc.

 

APPENDIX H

 

ABBREVIATIONS L5]

203

204

ABBREVIATIONS

SCA = Self-Concept of Academic Ability

SCAS = Self-Concept of Academic Ability Scale

SWC = Self with Class = SCAS Item 2, Comparing one's self
with classmates in school ability (see Appendix A,
Item 2, page 180).

General Yearly Grade Average (of marks over twenty).

GA
PE = Perceived Evaluations by Others

PEC or PPFTE = Perceivedvaaluations by Others: Parents,
Friends and Teachers Combined

PECS or PPFTES = Perceived Evaluations by Others COmbined
Scales

 

PPE = Perceived Parents Evaluations

PPES = Perceived Friends Evaluations Scale
PFE = Perceived Friends Evaluations

PFES = Perceived Friends Evaluation Scale
PTE = Perceived Teachers Evaluations

PTES = Perceived Teachers Evaluations Scale

SCASPECS = Self Concept Scale + Perceived Evaluations Combined

Scale
FOL = Father's Occupational Level
FEL = Father's Educational Level

PC = Perceived Cost (see Appendix D, Item 1, p. 191).

EXC = Five Internal Examinations Items Combined (see Appendix
D, Items 4, 5, 8, 7.and 8, pp. 191—192).

FL = Foreign Language
FLA = Foreign Language Grade Average for 1970

PFLD = Perceived Foreign Language Difficulty

APPENDIX I

 

 

CORRELATION MATRIX FOR MAJOR VARIABLES
(7th and 9th Grade Males, N=574)

205

206

APPENDIX I

CORRELATION MATRIX FOR MAJOR VARIABLES
(7th and 9th Grade Males, N=574)

 

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