A STUDY OF FACTORS RELATTNG T0
DRUG ABUSE AND TREATMENT
RESULTS IN A SELECTED
HTGH SCHOOL POPULATTON

Bissertati’m to: the Degree of Ph. D.
MTGHTGM STATE UNWERSTTY
CHARLES WILLIAM BETHEA
1975

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

A STUDY OF FACTORS RELATING TO DRUG ABUSE AND
TREATMENT RESULTS IN A SELECTED HIGH SCHOOL
POPULATION

presented by

CHARLES WILLIAM BETHEA

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

PhD ”92!"? in Education

 

 

    

LIBRARY
I yearn-mung

 

 

"R35!
*5

 

This

Purpose We
from grOu;
attezpt We
betWEen dl’

invOlVEd ix

 

 

 

ACCu
with SUbste
fish of Wha
to treatmer

In 01
has te3ted
dI‘Ug abUSe
perienCe.
ability to
attitudes t

_ .17 y)

ABSTRACT
A STUDY OF FACTORS RELATING TO DRUG ABUSE AND
TREATMENT RESULTS IN A SELECTED HIGH SCHOOL POPULATION

By
Charles William Bethea

This study had two central thrusts. Its primary
purpose was to identify what individual changes result
from group counseling for drug abusers. Secondly, an
attempt was made to describe psychosocial differences
between drug abusing youth and their peers who were not
involved in drug use or abuse.

Accurate information on the variables associated
with substance abuse is often lacking or contradictory.
Much of what is accurate does not readily lend itself
to treatment application.

In order to extract appropriate data, this study
has tested individuals who met predetermined criteria of
drug abuse before and after peer group counseling ex-
perience. Among the variables examined were self-concept,
ability to cope with anxiety, social skills, and social
attitudes towards the family, school, and authority, and

several forms of substance use.

 

The tre
school studen

marginally e:

Subjects con;

 

family, socia
tests utilize

State-Trait A
\

 

section of on
school attend
for Purposes
The tre
“ling angina:
ZEdical» Educ
seling Strat.
self-defeati‘
were pOSed b
Support Ta
were attempt
FollOw
eight ”Eel-cs
retested Wit
Mire Was at
In addition.

R's

The treatment subjects were thirty-eight high
school students from a conservative, all-white,
marginally employed community of blue collar workers.
Subjects completed standardized tests and also a

Student Survey which assessed attitudes regarding the

 

family, social agencies and drug use behavior. The
tests utilized were the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale,
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and Fundamental Inter-
personal Relationships Orientation-Behavior. A cross-
section of one hundred thirty-six youth from the high
school attended by the treatment subjects was selected
for purposes of comparison.

The treatment consisted of six weeks group coun-
seling augmented by any necessary individual, legal,
medical, educational or vocational assistance. Coun-
seling strategies consisted of enabling clients to see
self-defeating behavior and attitudes. New alternatives
were posed by the individuals themselves with the group's
support. Task which were to test out these alternatives
were attempted between sessions.

Following the six week treatment, another six to
eight weeks were allowed to elapse. Clients were then
retested with the standardized tests. A brief question-
naire was administered to assess drug taking behavior.
In addition, a one to two hour interview was conducted

with each subject by a staff member with whom a prior

relationship

 

from this in

findings.
One hu

the Student
Statis

neasures (Sp

 

The former wl
0“Way AHOV
the treatmen
nificance Wa
Nine p
COUSider p05
self-mug)t
drug USe be“,
between the

related to 1

Signi:

Cat .

and
Compari!

1, T]

a .
Rd 111 wantj

relationship and trust existed. Information obtained
from this interview.aided understanding of statistical
findings.

One hundred thirty-six students also completed
the Student Survey, Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, Stage
Trait Anxiety Inventory and Fundamental Interpersonal
Relationships Orientation-Behavior.

Statistical methodology consisted of repeated
‘measures (split-plot) and one-way analysis of variance.
The former was utilized to ascertain treatment effects.
One-way ANOVA provided assessment of differences between
the treatment and comparison groups. The level of sig-
nificance was set at .05 in order to reject null hypotheses.

Nine null hypotheses were developed in order to
consider possible differences regarding social deviancy,
self-concept, anxiety coping, interpersonal skills, and
drug use behavior. Five dealt with variances in scores
between the treatment and comparison groups, and four

related to the treatment group's pre- and post-test scores.

Findings

 

Significant findings were obtained in several
categories, both due to treatment and between experimental
and comparison groups.

1. Treatment and comparison groups differed only
in regard to the farmer's greater non-medical drug use

and in wanting other people to assume much of the

decision-ma
sistent alt
deviancy b:
2.
handling 5!

and reduce.

decision-making in their lives. (There was also a con-
sistent although non-significant pattern of greater social
deviancy by the former.)

2. Individuals in treatment reported more ease in
handling short-term anxiety, increased interpersonal skills,

and reduced non-medical use of drugs.

A

 

TREAThE

in

A STUDY OF FACTORS RELATING TO DRUG ABUSE AND

TREATMENT RESULTS IN A SELECTED HIGH SCHOOL POPULATION

BY
Charles William Bethea

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Higher Education

1975

This
standing 3

individual

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This writer gratefully acknowledges the under-
standing support, and professional example of numerous
individuals.

To Dr. George Barnett for his teaching
which first challenged the writer to enter
the field of education.

To Dr. Louis Stamatakos for his qualities

of warmth and personal interest, and for

the sheer enjoyment with which he approaches
all his endeavors.

To Dr. Arthur Vener who has been a model of
rigor and insight, and however busy, always
made the writer feel especially welcome with
undivided attention.

And especially to Dr. waiter Johnson, whose
guidance, patience and compassion have set
an example which the writer will continually
seek to emulate personally and professionally.

The writer also appreciates the assistance and
support of Dr. Daniel Stone, Mr. Bryan Ellis and Dr.
David Newbury.

ii

This
urban corn
The resea:
those edu:
EJCh vita:

In (
location
Breakthrol
me“ Cents
existing ‘

Cidental .

SPECIAL NOTE

This investigation was conducted in a small
urban community in the midwestern United States.

The researcher deeply appreciates the support of
those educators and civic leaders who rendered so
much vital assistance.

In order to protect the anonymity of the study
location and population, the names Grandmont and
Breakthrough are substituted for the city and treat-
ment center, respectively. Any relationship to
existing community or agency names is entirely coin-

cidental.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables
List of Figures
Introduction

CHAPTER I: Statement of the Problem

Background

Purpose of this Study
Definition of Terms
Limitations and Scope of Study
Overview

CHAPTER II: Review of Current Literature

Introduction

Historical Perspective

Major Studies

Principal Factors Indicated by the
Major Studies

Summary

CHAPTER III: Population and Methodology

Social Setting for the Study
Client Treatment Procedures
Population and Sample
Instrumentation

Data Collection

Data Analysis

Summary

CHAPTER IV: Findings

Findings Between Treatment and
Comparison Groups
Treatment Effects

iv

CHAPTER

List of

Append:
r

Appendi
s

Appenai
s

Append:
S

Append:
S

CHAPTER V: Findings, Discussions and
Conclusions

Significant Findings Between Groups
Non-Significant Findings Between Groups
Significant Treatment Effects
Non-Significant Treatment Effects
Discussion and Recommendations
Implications for Research

Conclusion

List of References

Appendix A
Follow-Up Interviews and Inferences

Appendix B
Student Survey (97 Items)

Appendix C
Student Survey (50 Items)

Appendix D
Student Survey (34 Items)

Appendix E
Service Chart

141
145
147
149
151
152
160
161

164

A 1

B 1

C 1

D 1

E 1

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

4:

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

>9 >9 >> >b >b

>e

Dub :>e~

>~l>

>4> >J>

LIST OF TABLES

1
Comparison of Responses
Perception Category

2
Comparison of Responses
Perception Category

3
Comparison of Responses
Smoking Category

: 4

Comparison of Responses
Perception Category

5
Comparison of Responses
Use Category

6
Comparison of Responses
Communication Category

7
Comparison of Responses

8
Comparison of Responses
Self-Concept Category

10

t0

to

to

to

to

t0

t0

to

School

Police

Teacher

Alcohol

Parent-Child

Rage Category

the

.Comparison of Responses to Coping

Behavior Category (Trait Anxiety)

11

Comparison of Responses to Coping
Behavior Category (State Anxiety)

:12

Comparison of Responses to the Expressed

Inclusion Category

vi

106

107

109

110

112

113

114

115

117

118

119

Table 4:
A

C
W
Table 4:
A C
C
Table 4:
A C
C
Table A6:
A C
E
Table A;
A C
I
Table 4;
A C
1
Table 4:
A (
5
Table 4:
A (
5
Table 4:
A (
5
Table 4:
A (
Table 4:
A 1
Table 4:
A 1
Table

>9

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

>4> >J> >J> {>L‘ >¥> Pb >4> >J> >4> >4> >4>

{>9

:13

Comparison of Responses to the
Wanted Inclusion Category

:14

Comparison of Responses to the Expressed

Control Category

:15

Comparison of Responses to the Wanted
Control Category

° 16

Comparison of Responses to the
Expressed Affection Category

:17

Comparison of Responses to the Wanted

Affection Category

:18

Comparison of Responses to Soft Drug
Use Category

:19

Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test
Scores in the Self-Concept Category

:20

Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test
Scores in Trait Anxiety Category

:21

Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test
Scores in the State Anxiety Category

:22

Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Expressed Inclusion Category

:23

Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Wanted Inclusion Category

:24

Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the expressed Control Category

:25

Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the wanted Control Category

vii

120

121

122

123

124

126

128

129

130

131

132

133

134

Table 4: 2
A Cc
1!

Table 4: 2
A C
I.

Table 4-.
A C
i

Table A;
A (

Table

Table

Table

Table

4:

>5

26
Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Expressed Affection Category

:27

Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
In the wanted Affection Category

:28

Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Drug Abatement Category

:29

Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Drug Abatement Category (Amended)

viii

135

136

138

140

Figurt

Figur

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure l: 1
Mean Percentage of Senior High School
Students Who Have Used Drugs (Ever

Used) by Type and Year of Study 5
Figure 2: 1
Delingquency Across Time Related to
Drug Use During High School 34

ix

It
defeat:
The mai
ing th
sively
Psychi
for u.
Prese
abus‘l
A“ \n
and -
t10n
90a}
upcu

frc)
(Eff

he),

INTRODUCTION

It is imperative that alternatives to self-
defeating forms of drug usage must address basic needs.
The many attempts to modify drug abuse without respect-
ing these needs and behaviors have been almost exclu-
sively failure-ridden. A joint study by the American
Psychiatric Association and the National Association
for Mental Health recently concluded that "None of the
presently available approaches to treatment of the drug-
abusing population and all approaches combined will have
an undoubtedly limited effect" (70:1). Health, Education
and welfare-funded studies label government drug educa-
tion "a flop and urged dropping prevention as a primary
goal” (119:2). The most intensive current efforts focus
upon initial prevention on the one hand, or recovery
from hard core addiction on the other. Evidence of
effective assistance for the early non-opiate abuser is
both sparse and questionable in methodology. While
many studies have been conducted in this general area,
few have dealt with out-patient treatment program effects,
with high school youth, or with white, lower socio-
economic populations. Blum comments that "although there
are accurate statistics throughout the drug world, there

is, perhaps, no greater inaccuracy than on the high school

2
level" (13:332). By studying a peer group counseling
experience, more information can be gained concerning
un-met needs and how these needs might be met in ways
other than using drugs. Secondly, there is benefit to
identifying psychological factors differentiating the

drug-abusing youth from his peers.

States:

to nee
and f1
eXper
and p
drUgs
0f ex
deSt:
alte-
Urge
that

anii

abL

CHAPTER I

Statement of the problem
Drugs and the manner in which they are used reflect

need directed behavior. That is, human beings use drugs

 

to meet needs which to them give life increasing meaning
and fulfillment. Often, youth begin drug use through
experimentation. However, increased personal satisfaction
and possible drug dependency lead to total dependency on
drugs for life fulfillment. In this way, inordinate use
of even the non-opiate and non-alcoholic chemicals can be
destructive to both oneself and others, and viable
alternatives which can meet major needs without drugs are
urgently required. Research increasingly demonstrates
that drug abuse is but symptomatic of un-met psychosocial
needs which are subject to modeling, modification and
treatment. It is a central premise of this study that
drug abuse is learned in ways not dissimilar from other
need-fulfilling behavior patterns where social example
and reinforcement are essential. These same elements
can be used to aid those who desire alternatives to drug
abuse.

The drug phenomenon challenges youth and those who
would assist their development as seldom before. Although
drug abuse is not new to society, the speed with which it

has become an integral consideration for a student's life

3

style
per501

optiox

Ameri
disti
3“ ar
over

times
thenh
Out c
is t]
bill.
USe

tisi
that
vic>2

deg‘

PIE

re:

4

style has caught both youth, counselors and other
personnel workers illprepared to weigh implications and
Options.

we strongly believe that the expansion of

drug abuse will continue downward by age,

diffusing by social class, and extending

to more regular use-~as opposed to simply

casual experimentation--for many of the

illicit substances. The challenges and

questions posed thereby to parents,

educators, law-enforcement personnel,

health workers, and the citizen at large,

are immense and dare not be ignored (13:348).
America is a drug-oriented culture. To speak of a
distinct, youth-centered drug culture is to focus upon
an artificially designated sub-category. There are
over nine million alcoholics in the country and several
times that number of people are directly affected by
them. On a given evening in the state of Michigan, one
out of seventeen drivers is legally drunk (44). Heroin
is the nation's largest consumer import at over six
billion dollars a year (1:122). Ten million Americans
use sedatives to assist sleep every night (94). Adver-
tising media continuously promote the miraculous results
that can accrue from drug usage. Fifty percent of the
violent crimein metropolitan areas is related to drug
dependency (109:157-65). The illicit traffic in
barbiturates is equal to the amount sold through legal
prescription (28:293).

Figure 1:1 (on the following page) portrays the

rapid rise in use of all drugs by high school youth over

a five year span. Results are based on a synthesis of

approxim.

country .

MEAN 1

Tobacco

 

 

Alcohol I
Marihuam
Inhalant!
Halluc in
Stinmlan
DePIeS S a

Opiates

5

approximately two hundred studies conducted across the

country.

Figure 1:1

(109:82)

MEAN PERCENTAGE OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
WHO HAVE USED DRUGS (EVER USED)

Tobacco
Alcohol
Marihuana
Inhalants
Hallucino

Stimulant

gens

Depressants

Opiates

50%
62%
15%

4%
6%

4%

34%
47%
23%
5%
9%
10%
4%
1.7%

1968

61%
39%
23%
11%
6%
14%
13%
3.3%

1969

49%
65%
23%
8%
7%
12%
12%
3.3%

1970

BY TYPE AND YEAR OF SURVEY

45%
72%
25%
7%
8%
11%
10%
4%

1971

66%
74%
40%

 

 

 

1967

1968

 

 

 

1969

1970

1971

 

 

‘ cu— _ ‘—

 

. A A A _Al A

1972

The
because
are healt
difficul
perceive
recreat:
no more
absurdi
Howevex

Culabl,

Chemi c

mOdel

6

The drug abuse problem is an increasing concern
because of greater availability and usage. Most users
are healthy individuals whose use, to them, poses few
difficulties and even provides considerable self-
perceived benefits and experiences. "The experimental,
recreational or circumstantial user of drugs is generally
no more 'sick' than the social drinker; it becomes an
absurdity to talk of treating such a person" (109:338).
However, the overall loss in human potential is incal-
culable and the decline in social trust is also enormous.
Chemicals' effects can be all-pervading: they can block
development in all areas of growth--persona1, social,
ethical, and physical.

The complexity of the human personality as it relates
to the drug problem demands the development and testing of
multifaceted alternatives. Such efforts must address them-
selves to the full sc0pe of underlying needs and behaviors,
integrating existing resources and creating new learning
models, if the solutions are to be reached. While we dare
not neglect decisive action, simplistic answers are to be
avoided because they do not work.

Practical assistance programs are of the highest pri-
ority. This is particularly crucial since many current
treatment and educational programs are sporadic and lacking
in systematic rationale and methodology. Also, social,

legal and medical ambiguity confuse efforts to define and

meet the problem. Strict legal enforcement, fear-provoking

approac
to be a
have p1
instant
fessior
inform:

bodies

in8t11
abSQl]
abuse

given

approaches and illconceived educational media are proving
'to be as ineffective as deterrents in this area as they
have provén to be with other social problems. In many
instances they actually promote usage. The lack of pro-
fessionally-sound studies, effective programs and reliable
information is so acute that the nation's leading review
bodies (National Education Association; Department of
Health, Education and welfare; and the National Coordina-
ting Council on Drug Education) are urgingserious con-
sideration of a federal moratorium on the production of
drug education media until more accurate findings are

available (58:4).

BACKGROUND

 

A most important ramification of uninformed drug use
is the erosion of t£g§£_in social relationships and
institutions. Although frequently overlooked, trust is
absolutely essential in human interdependencies. Substance
abuse subtly encourages feelings of alienation and defen-
siveness in user and non-user alike. The environment
appears increasingly threatening and individuals tend to
withdraw from dealing with society's ills. When trust is
diminished, people become estranged from one another,
entire environments become alienating, and each person's
effectiveness, self-actualization and willingness to

become meaningfully involved wane significantly.

 

A so
is severJ
ance Witt
promote <
Symbols
nificanc
rupted c

Change .

A society operating in such an ambivalent setting
is severely handicapped. Each member behaves in accord-
ance with environmental stimuli. When these stimuli
promote doubt, mistrust, and apprehension, the very
symbols upon which our culture is based lose their sig-
nificance. At some point the uncertainty leads to dis-
rupted communications, which is key to all effective
change.

Interpersonal behavior which aids personal growth
and communication of the user and others is valued. Such
behavior is a functional necessity both for the individual's
well-being and effective social involvement. Society has
many agencies which seek to instill these behaviors and
attitudes in its newer members. Chief among these are the
family, church, school, and reference groups. Beginning
in the early teens, reference groups take on increasing
significance. It is in the peer culture that one tests
new ideas, modifies values, alters perception, and truly
learns (i.e., internalizes content, perceptions and
behaviors for living). Most importantly one evaluates
himself and shapes his self-concept, and develops a
repertoire of behavior for all functioning.

A critical and often overlooked factor is that
involvement in drugs is usually associated with a life-
style, not a mere decision to add drug usage to one's

living pattern (69:114). Just as in any total lifestyle

there BIA

 

systems,
Abo‘l
under st
Any effe
central
from me;
98t in
non-exp
with tt
alterm
ful as
ates w
E
NEanir
is as:
Other:
Often
Plina
uPOn
and e

ObSQu

cOnSi
relia

there are accompanying norms, peer expectations, reward
systems, and psychosocial predeterminants.

Above all, use of drugs (even the "soft" variety
under study here) is an intensely experiential activity.
Any effective treatment alternative must appreciate this
central truth. One can not learn to swim, for example,
from merely hearing lectures and reading books; one must
get in the water and attempt the activity. No amount of
non-experiential education can sufficiently acquaint one
with the actual experience. In like fashion, a treatment
alternative must provide experiences at least as meaning-
ful as the benefits the drug-dependent individual associ-
ates with his current circumstances.

Because of this need for experiences of equivalent
meaning, accurate knowledge of particular un-met needs
is essential. Currently, much advice is moralistic or
otherwise narrow in scope. Even major treatment efforts
often confine themselves overly much to a single disci-
plinary approach. The amount of redundancy focusing
upon symptoms and attendant figures (crime, employment
and education are the chief ones) tends to further
obscure the central issue--need-directed behavior.

Research on drug abuse treatment is generally in-
consistent, experimentally uncontrolled and wanting for
reliable data. Major studies in the past three years

have rejected traditional media and information sharing

programs

 

analysis
evidence

knowledg

 

drugs an
Studies

drug kno
10mg the
States,

that int
may be <
eChoed 1
to Prov.

COURSel

W
It
a 3&1: o
underly
Subject
Any act
muSt be
is and

In

10

programs as completely ineffectual. A comprehensive
analysis in New York City concluded that there is "No
evidence of any significant relationship between
knowledge about drugs or awareness of the dangers of
drugs and their actual use" (32:28). Indeed, several
studies report positive correlation between level of
drug knowledge and subsequent abuse. Helen Nowlis,
long the leading voice on drugs and the college student
states, "I am more and more reinforced in my conviction
that information alone is not the answer and at times
may be counter-productive" (32:28). Her conclusion is
echoed by others. More information is necessary in order
to provide appropriate treatment goals, methods, and

counseling strategies.

PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY

 

It is the thesis of this study that drug abuse is
a set of socially-learned behaviors utilized to meet
underlying needs. These behaviors and attitudes are
subject to social modeling, modification and re-direction.
Any attempt to deliberately provide viable alternatives
must begin with basic premises of what the individual
is and how he changes.

Individuals in the study will be involved in a

treatment model operating on the following assumptions (30):

in i
coun
“\du
you:
ment

tion-

9365'

11

Each person is ultimately responsible for
his or her own development.

Each person is entirely unique. Everyone
is an individual existing in an unparalleled
set of experiences.

Each person is a complex being. Growth and
change are an outcome of many interdependent
functions--emotions, social, intellectual,
spiritual, and physical.

Drug abuse and other self-defeating behaviors
are but symptomatic of other concerns needing
attention.

It is thegpurpose of this study to: l)identify changes

in individual needs resulting from participation in a group

counseling drug treatment experiences, and 2) examine indi-

vidual and social needs that precipitate drug abuse among

youth. The drug treatment program at a single community's

mental health center is the focus of investigation. Ques-

tionnaires, treatment records, standardized testing and

followbup procedures will be used to study the following

questions:

1.

Does involvement in group counseling drug
treatment alter the use of illicit drugs and
abuse of legal ones?

Does involvement in group counseling drug
treatment result in changes of self-concept?

Does participation in treatment result in
changed ability to cope with anxiety?

Does participation in treatment instill new
interpersonal behaviors and attitudes?

What, if any psychosocial factors distin-
guish the drug abuser from the general popula-
tion of the same age and setting?

Al
abusing
enterin
beginni
ence.
termina
follow-
school
tested
Haire.

detail

Challe

USed i

DRUG (

DRUG 1

12

All participating non-opiate and non-alcohol drug
abusing youth between the ages of fifteen and eighteen
entering a drug treatment program will be tested at the
beginning of a six week group counseling treatment experi-
ence. They will be tested again in six weeks after the
termination of their treatment. During the treatment and
followbup period a comparison group sample from the high
school attended by the experimental group member will be
tested once with the same standardized tests and question-
naire. Methods and procedures will be discussed in more

detail in Chapter III.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

 

Few topics suffer from as much confusion with termi-
nology as substance abuse. Primarily, this term is socially
defined, and therefore subject to continual change and
challenge. Slang, opinions, stereotypes and failure to
discriminate compound the confusion. The following terms
used in this study are defined to lend clarity:

DRUG (SUBSTANCE): A chemical which affects the body's own
chemistry. (Opiates and alcohol are
excluded from this study).

DRUG ABUSE: For puposes of this operational study,
drug abuse is the misuse or overuse of
substances (both legal and illegal) which
results in admission to treatment at ‘
Breakthrough. The nature of abuse may
be simple or multifaceted but will fit
Einstein's three part model: (1) abusing
drug laws and rituals, (2) self-abuse,
and (3) abuse of others (39).

PARTICIP

SELF -COI\‘
ANXIETY 2

INTERPEE

GROWTH 1

BREAKTHI

13

PARTICIPANT (CLIENT, PATIENT):

Individual receiving treatment services.
More narrowly, one who is involved in
group counseling.

 

 

SELF-CONCEPT: As defined by the Tennesee Self-Concept
Scale.

ANXIETY: As defined by the State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory.

 

INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIORS:

As defined by Schutz' Fundamental Inter—
personal Relationship Inventory-Behavior.

GROWTH (CHANGE): Relinquishing former patterns of living
for new ones. More specifically, dif-
ference in drug use pattern. It is an
operating premise of this study that
change is deemed positive when there is
evidence of less drug abuse.

BREAKTHROUGH The Grandmont Mental Health Center. More

narrowly, the out-patient drug abuse
treatment program at the Center.

LIMITATIONS AND SCOPE OF STUDY

 

The study population is composed of drug-abusing youth
from a metropolitan region in the Midwest, predominately from
the city of Grandmont. The majority of the youth and young
adults (ages 15 - 18) are lower and lower-middle class
whites of conservative background. The experimental sample
is comprised of both volunteers and referrals (courts,
counselors, police, schools, business and other programs);
thus it cannot be regarded as a random group.

The treatment experience will not be simultaneous for

all subjects as they will enter the program.at different

tinesth-l
to soon
uniform
Car
invalid
this st
maturat
cal reg
0f tes
bias 8
POSt-t
With,‘
refine

ment;

Sele
expe
Subj

Use
nyr
Ex;
Tear

SQ]
113;

14

times throughout the year and their needs must be attended
to soon after admission. However, the treatment will be as
uniform as possible for each person.

Campbell and Stanley cite several possible sources of
invalidity for the one-group pre-test/post-test design in
this study (18:7-12). Internal factors include history,
maturation, test familiarity, instrumentation and statisti-
cal regression. External concerns are interaction effects
of testing and treatment, and interaction effect of selection
bias and treatment. The brief time between pre-testing and
post-testing in this study minimizes the risks associated
‘with history and maturation. Use of standardized testing
reduces the contamination due to test familiarity, instru-
mentation, and interaction effect of testing and treatment.

Statistical regression, and interaction effect of
sele-tion bias and treatment are inevitable since the
experimental group is intentionally comprised of those
subjects likely to have extreme scores on some variables,
such as drug use.

While the treatment center deals with casual and chronic
use of a number of substances this study will exclude certain
forms of abuse: narcotic addition, alcoholism and casual
experimentation. The most frequently abused substances rele-
vant to this study are "downers" (barbiturates, tranquilizers,
soporifics), "Uppers" (amphetamines, MAO inhibitors), and

hallucinogenics (THC, "mescaline", LSD, intensive marijuana

use, and
search at
are poly
deliniat
this sti
one or 1
use is
It
measura
Subtle
final E
resear,

also m

15

use, and various street drugs). A problem of both re-
search and treatment is that most drug abusing individuals
are poly-drug users. This makes it difficult to clearly
deliniate abusers into strict categories. Subjects for
this study will be included when their drug of abuse is
one or more of these and when no heroin or heavy alcohol
use is present.

It is the intent of this study to not only document
measurable changes but also to identify and comment upon
subtle issues that are suggested by the evidence. In the
final analysis, such nuances may prompt new themes for
research, application and treatment. In addition, they

also might lend greater understanding of statistical data.

OVERVIEW

This study's central purpose is two-fold. The first
is to identify individual changes resulting from drug
abuser's involvement in a multi-service counseling experience.
The treatment is premised on the belief that an interpersonal
climate which encourages open examination of unmet needs and
self-defeating actions will reinforce self-selected
alternatives. The second is to describe psychosocial dif-
ferences between high school youth in general and those who
abuse drugs.

The literature pertaining to current drug abuse treat-

ment efforts will be reviewed in Chapter II. The historical

and ps

also t

menta'

Chapt

IV.

and f

l6

and psychosocial factors precipitating drug abuse will
also be discussed.

The hypotheses, experimental model, testing instru-
mentation and other methodology will be presented in
Chapter III.

Experimental findings will be discussed in Chapter
IV.

A summary of findings and implications for treatment

and further research will comprise Chapter V.

substa
be ex:
pervag
Create
ical I

by the

ing tc
theore
effort
unSYSt

Practi

Contro
isolat
POpula‘
single
Studiec

Ur.

separat

CHAPTER 11

The literature pertaining to the abuse of chemical
substances and treatment efforts to abate that abuse will
be examined in this chapter. Due to the complexity and
pervasiveness of the current phenomenon, the review is
treated in the following categories: Introduction, Histor-
ical Perspective, Major Studies, Principal Factors Indicated

by the Major Studies and Summary.

INTRODUCTION:

Proper identification of psychological factors lead-
ing to deviant drug use by youth is crucial for any
theoretically sound and empirically effective treatment
effort. Although the bulk of literature is speculative,
unsystematic and oft times moralistic, the need for
practical and applicable data is essential.

Most current research in the area is improperly
controlled and based on small samples. Many studies are
isolated both in their theoretical framework, if any, and
population under study (prisoners, psychiatric patients,
single sex, and single-drug users). Few longitudinal
studies have been conducted.

unfortunately, most research falls into two distinctly

separate camps--sociologica1 and psychological. One set of

17

facto
nearl
relat
one w
the a‘

by bot

r-u

Contir
GrOWt}
the ir
tors F
the Qt
that c

Our so
into m
Awaren
Profes

Self‘u

artifi.
Compan:

self~de

18

factors is emphasized to the exclusion of the other in
nearly every study. Drug abuse is a product of inter-
relating social environment 33g personality factors, not
one without the other. At the conclusion of this chapter,
the attempt is made to synthesize the salient points made
by both major approaches.

Man is inclined to grow and change. He is in a
continual state of flux mentally, emotionally and physically.
Growth entails relinquishing previous forms of living for
the inclusion of new ones. Drugs and the psychosocial fac-
tors precipitating their use, can have important bearing on
the quest for change. The use of chemicals can create moods
that compensate for anxiety, boredom, sensed inadequacies,
and undesired awareness in the growth process.

While the use of drugs to alter mood is not new to
our society, its destructive use by some prompts inquiry
into motivating personality factors in a treatment setting.
Awareness of psychosocial propensities can assist the
professional in providing education, and aid the abuser's
self-understanding.

Drugs and the social arena in which they are shared,
artificially provide certain important features, such as
companionship and sense of well-being, which might not have
been experienced before in the user‘s life. Despite the
user's unmet needs, he often does not consider his situation

self-defeating but derives profound gratification from it.

 

 

Deer

and

reli

Hers:

1Q a

aff

19

Frequently, he loses awareness of what a non-drug life-
style is after developing a pattern of chemically-induced
mood changes. Any approach attempting to treat or reduce
drug abuse must recognize these realities.

There appears to be sufficient research concerning
three central psychological factors to warrant further
examination of them in a treatment study. These factors
are self-concept, anxiety coping, and interpersonal atti-
tudes and behaviors.

Additionally, central sociological themes warrant
attention. Chief among these are the family environment,
peer group relations, deviancy from traditional values,
and attitudes held toward social authority (school,

religion and police).

HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE:

Almost every society has utilized some form of chem-
ical to make its members' lives more tolerable or meaningful.
Man has always used such substances to alter his moods by
affecting his own chemistry. Drugs have had significant
roles in widely separated cultures, usually being parts of
spiritual or recreational customs. Over the centuries,
medical use of drugs has eased human suffering, and improved
and prolonged life. Homer and Plato, among others mention
the use of drugs in their times. In praising the merits of
wine drinking, Plato remarked:

No experiment is less costly and none shall bear fruit
more surely and more quickly if we wish to test the

20

character of men, to judge them and to guide in

the art of making them better (54:1).
The Prophet Ezekiel spoke of medicinal uses of plants (42).
Drugs, of course, are not new to the American scene. As
our nation developed so too did its involvement with
chemical substances. Prior to the Revolutionary War,
addiction to opium was prevalent, but not regarded as a
distinct, separate problem (54:1). Popular literature in
the 18008 prompted further interest and experimentation.
Addiction to morphine incurred during the Civil War was so
widespread that it was known as "army disease" (54:1).

Cocaine was introduced from South American in the
late 18708, where for centuries it was integral to Indian
rites (66:15). During the same decade the hypodermic
needle was invented (94). This invention was soon followed

by the commercial production of heroin in 1898 as a non—

 

addicting cure from.morphine dependency (65:2, 93). By
the advent of Wrold war I, almost a quarter million addict;
existed in the United States (65:2).

Although some local governments attempted to control
use of certain drugs, it was not until 1914 that the Federal
Government enacted the Harrison Narcotics Act (54:2). This
legislation required stricter registration and packaging of
narcotics, and permitted distribution only upon appropriate
written authorization. This time marks the point at which

agencies and governments began to overtly recognize drug

21

abuse as a major concern.

Nearly all early legislation, however, was forged
to combat organized crime (or at least restrict it to the
ghetto) (65). This fact helps to explain the severity of
drug laws and much of the ambivalence and confusion
regarding those laws that exist today.

The ensuing years witness the focus upon alcohol
(Prohibition), a decline in opiate addiction and emergence
of new drugs which were predominately synthetic.

Barbiturates were introduced in 1903 to relieve stress,
induce sleep and ease pain (54:3). Control of epilepsy
also became an effective use. Due to mounting suicide
and accidental death rates, however, medical and social
agencies moved vigorously in the 19403 to create public
awareness and stricter legal controls (54:3).

New drugs which depress the central nervous system
as do barbiturates and tranquilizers are continually being
discovered and marketed by highly competitive corporations.
Classification difficulties further complicate efforts to
reduce abuse potential.

Amphetamine was developed during the Depression to
relieve respiratory ailments. Use increased drastically as
the drug's effectiveness with a variety of concerns were
attempted: appetite reduction (weight control), allevia-
tion of fatigue and depression, mood elevation, and

hyperkenesis treatment.

22

Although debatable, marijuana appears to have been
introduced to North America prior to the Revolutionary
War. The plant's initial use was for hemp, however. Its
hallucinogenic use during subsequent decades was limited,
primarily due to the mystique created by literary sensa-
tionalism. In the 19308, marijuana was admissible as
evidence in highly publicized rape and murder trials (54:5).
Accordingly, strict controls were placed on the drug which
caused its use to be restricted for decades to the ghetto
and some artistic sub-groups. However, the socializing
aspects of marijuana use added to its growth.

Perhaps no category of drugs has drawn more atten-
tion regarding the current "epidemic" than the psychedelics
or hallucinogens. LSD, which was isolated in 1943, precip-
itated a wave of experimentation with consciousness altering
drugs (66:18). Along with similar acting compounds such as
psilocybin, mescaline, DMT and STP, LSD became an integral
part of other forms of deviancy from traditional cultural
values.

Interdependent with the growth of these newer drugs
and the continuation of older ones, were several important
social changes. These changes were far reaching and affect-
ed segments of society heretofore on the periphery. Trad-
itional perceptions of drug use as an addiction of the
ostracized classes were rapidly eroding.

Drugs in the home rapidly became an accepted and,

inde
home
and

whit

CTEE

home
cati
drug
less
furt

SOCI

gra:
low:
add.
By 1
The

to -
all

awe:

thi:

c012

23

indeed, welcome and integral part of life. Nearly every

home maintained chemicals to provide first aid, ease pain

and counteract real or imagined medical problems. Pneumonia,
which had been the nation's number one killer, became rapidly
treatable with medical attention, rest and drugs.

By the late 19508, the central role of drugs in the
home had shifted dramatically from medicinal to mood modifi-
cation (62, 109, 118). Thus the lines between different
drugs' classifications and between "use" and "abuse" became
less distinct. The legality and availability of alcohol
further clouded the picture. In such settings, members of
society grew to accept drugs as ever present realities.

Additionally, the illicit drug using population
gradually shifted from being predominately minority and
lower class in character. Before the Harrison Act, the
addict population had been Caucasian and Oriental (65:4).

By World War II, it was primarily Black and Puerto Rican.
The past two decades have witnessed the reinvolvement of
all socio-economic classes and nationalities.

The quest for civil liberties spawned new approaches
to traditions and experiences. Existential encounter with
all areas of living, but expecially with immediate sensory
awareness, received greater emphasis in an increasingly multi-
facted world. Use of chemicals became more acceptable in
this milieu for a variety of purposes, both individual and

collective, and generally were associated with lessening of

PSY'

spn

Vie

ill

war

pat

is

The

and

(92

the

ole

acc

his

PIE

31

so?

24

psychological restrictions.

Another factor influencing the resurgence of wide-
spread drug abuse was the Vietnam conflict. Although
Vietnam is oft times used as a catch-all for many social
ills, a historical review demonstrates that nearly every
war in America's experience has markedly altered the
patterns of drug abuse.

To speak of a distinct, youth-centered drug culture
is to focus upon an artificially designated sub-category.
There are over nine million alcoholics in the country,
and several times that number are directly affected by them
(92).

Despite attempts by segments from Colonial times to
the present to forbid their use, some drugs (alcohol,
nicotine and caffeine among others) are considered perfectly
acceptable by the public at large. During periods of our
history, cocaine, morphine, heroin, codeine, and marijuana
have been readily and legally available for public consump-
tion. Thus, the conclusion could be drawn that America is

a drug-oriented culture.

MAJOR STUDIES:

 

Six major studies are reviewed in this section.
They are selected because of their appropriateness, com-
prehensiveness and scholarship. Each of them encompasses
a broad spectrum of drug abuse concerns and tentative

solutions. Each has its own scope, limitations and line

whit
are

Tao

hi

SE

25

of inquiry. Throughout, however, central themes recur
which warrant further study and testing. (These themes
are the subject of the following section, Principal

Factors Indicated by the Major Studies).

The Blum Studies

 

Richard H. Blum and associates have produced an awe-
somely comprehensive overview of the history of drugs and
the dimensions of their use. Their two volumes are entitled

Society and Drugs and Students and Drugs. The former is an

 

exhaustive compilation that traces the historical use of
the major drugs since men's first encounter with them (12, 13).

Students and Drugs looks intensively into drug use by

 

high school and college youth. Evidence is supplied by
several thousand subjects from a variety of campuses across
the country.

Use of chemical substances reflects interlocking sets
of reasons--defeat, socializing, alienation, peer inclusion,
confusion, rebellion, desire for new experiences, and quest
for self-discovery among others. The authors describe use
as often directly related to length of exposure to available
sources, models and pro-use arguments, rather than to any
character disorder. The disaffiliation of many extensive
users, they point out, is not altogether unhealthy and may
reflect flexibility, openness to new experiences and neces-
sary examination of customs and values.

Significantly, those who evidenced most advanced use

and

the

the
as
he
In
of
P1"
la
fr
sk

ie

86

26

and self-destructive abuse, tended to be more critical of
themselves and the world, and to have few close friendships.
Their lives were in more continual turmoil, and Blum infers
that drugs were viewed as a means to help sort out options
as well as to provide enjoyment. Unlike other students,
heavy users had few if any models for personal development.
In view of research literature's support for the importance
of role modeling in high school and college, this fact could
prompt immense anxiety. Emotional distance from peers and
lack of appropriate models can combine to heighten isolation
from others and further hinder development of interpersonal
skills necessary for bridging social barriers.

Curiosity, peer pressure and search for new exper-
iences are cited most frequently as reasons for initial and
early use. In accordance with other studies, Blum too found
that illegality, traditional values, and fear of authority
had markedly little impact on decisions concerning drug use.

Drug abusing students view their families as far less
harmonious than their peers do. The former families were
characterized as being more openly rebellious. At the
same time, members experienced more pronounced individual
isolation. These students who did not hsare their parents'
religious views also tended to be more involved with all
drugs, legal and illegal, than were other youth.

Subjects were measured on an "outsider-insider di-

mension" which assessed their antagonism.toward or accep-

 

tan
Amo
sch
Dru

on

IDOI'

SCI

Stu
ned
hgi
con
en;

anc‘

inu
Sch
exp
Ham

011

and

27

tance of traditional social institutions (13:74-75).

Among the institutions in the survey were the family peers,
school administration, and symbols of middle-class values.
Drug abusers report significantly greater "outside" scores
on the overall dimension. Relative to non-users and users
of only legal drugs, the abusers sense themselves to be
more excluded from many traditional agencies of change and
structural authority.

After providing abundant evidence from.numerous
studies, the writers assign major responsibility for non-
medical use to several key factors. American society holds
hgih expectations for drugs and their effects. Within this
context, mass media, more liberal home practices and
emphasis on the experiential combine to foster greater use
and, subsequently, abuse.

Among specific findings, Blum et al. report that the
correlation of grades and drug use is very inconsistent
(13: 77, 225). As drugs become more central to their life-
styles, students tend to become more apolitical and less
involved with organized activities both within and outside
school. While a strong interest in values and mystical
experiences may be prevalent, formal religious involvement
wanes. Such youth are also more apt to differ with parents
on politics, religions, peers, values and priorities. Users
tend to have histories of disappointment with both family

and social relationships. Prior to their involvement with

illi

drug

thei

the)

vol:
tra:
Std]

thr

are
Una

phe

Ho»

al
at-
th.
fa

th
Ye

ac

28

illicit substances, youth grew up in homes where legal
drugs were more commonly used to ease pain or tension.

Although Blum et al. are careful to state that
their generalizations do not suffice in every case,
they further identify their students using illegal drugs
as more pessimistic, politically left, more deeply in-
volved with tobacco and alcohol, and alienated from
traditional religion. Heavy users tend more to use sub-
stances to cape with problems concerning parents, anger,
threat, rapid changes and general disappointments.

On a cautionary note, Blum states that conclusions
are based primarily on college subjects, and that he is
unable to fully account for the rapid spread of the drug

phenomenon in high school settings.

Horatio Alger's Children

In a later work, Horatio Alger's Children, Blum et
a1. identified even more definitively the family features
attendant with substance abuse (11). It is the most
thorough examination of the all-important impact of the
family to date.

To a pronounced degree, drug abusing youth act out
the values of their home environments. From their earliest
years, chemicals play a relatively greater role in family
activities. Such families are typified by subtle pressures

more likely to induce anxiety and defeatism--less confidence,

29

negative attitudes toward institutions of society, and
lower overall satisfaction with the circumstances of life
in which they find themselves. High associations were also
found between drug abuse and sexual deviation from peer
norms.

Propensity for drug use is an outgrowth of family
attitudes and child rearing practices. Most closely asso-
ciated with these family factors are excess use of alcohol
and other drugs, negativism, less family cohesion and
warmth, and greater anxiety over a sense of being victim-
ized by life and society. Offspring model these beliefs
and act them out in ways which reflect less confidence,
greater deviance from social norms, and more likelihood
of using drugs to ease pain encountered in life.

On the basis of drug abuse behavior of offspring,
the researchers divided white, middle-class families
into high, moderate and low risk categories. Families
were analyzed on a variety of attitudinal factors and
habit patterns.

Clearly identifiable differences were discerned be-
tween families with high drug using youth and those with
low; High risk families tended to be less cohesive, more
distant emotionally, and concerned with issues rather than
people. Such families were characterized by less religious
participation and belief in God. Members expressed less
positive emotional interaction both within the family unit

and with peers. 0f marked import is that use of alcohol

30

is far greater in these families, and problems associated
with its use are more frequent. These families also grant-
ed greater freedom to their children but did so with fewer
definable guidelines and support. Low risk families, on
the other hand, tended to exert greater, yet more appro-
priate discipline, emphasized respect for authority, and
placed higher priority on family cohesion.

Apropos to this study, Blum and his colleagues exam-
ined a smaller sample of white, blue collar families.
Eleven low and twelve high risk ones were involved. The
same general distinctions found in the larger middle class
families held true for the lower class as well. Youth
more prone to abuse drugs came from homes that were more
permissive, less harmonious, and less religiously oriented.
Inordinate use of alcohol and other drugs for need modifi-
cation were more prevalent. These families were prone to
be more matriarchal than 10W'r18k ones.

Parents of these lower class families were less happy
and affective in relating. They tended to lack confidence
in their roles and to have fewer interest that were centered
around religion or the family.

High risk families were also characterized by dis-
integration of traditional value system and a rejection of
authority in most of its forms. It was superseced by a
rational, pragmatic approach to life. These factors seem

to permeate nearly all other attitudes and actions. Parents

and
low
sit

deg

his
It

ant

31

and offspring trusted their emotions less, and exhibited
lower resistance to and more confusion over stressful
situations. All these variables subtly reinforce lower
degrees of self-acceptance.

The range of expressed behavior by children from
high risk families tended to be evident early in life.

It displayed itself in terms of ill health, nervousness
and eating problems.

The authors propose three central individual themes
attendant with drug abusing youth. First, a "trouble
variable" which develops from parents' uncertainty, early
health problems, and evident behavior both at home and
school prior to drug use. An important indicator and out-
come of this is low self-concept. The second factor is
a philosophy of life typified by self-centeredness, un-
certainty and less ability to postpone gratification.

The final theme concerns attitudes and behaviors internal-
ized from parents. These include perspectives toward
drugs, authority (within the home and society), and self-

indulgent values.

Drpgs and American Youth

Lloyd Johnston et al. conducted longitudinal studies
with 2200 high school males in Drugs and American Youth (69).
The subjects, a random sample from across the country, were
traced from the beginning of their tenth grade (Fall, 1966)

till two years after graduation (1971). Records were kept

32

on a wide variety of sociological factors. As the study
progressed, the pervasiveness of drug use became increas-
ingly apparent.

The great value of the Johnston report is that it
collected on-going data before and during the subjects'
encounters with chemicals, and did so on a nationwide
basis. Nearly all other studies work back to reconstruct
personal and family histories, rather than collect data as
lives unfolded and decisions were made regarding drugs.
This approach has also provided a built-in control group.

The family and its relationship to drug use was ex-
amined in terms of intactness, mobility and socioeconomic
level. As might be expected, broken homes (either by death
or divorce) were more closely associated with use of most
illicit chemicals. Higher than normal use of all drugs,
legal and illegal, was related to youth whose families moved
during the school years. Findings between drug use and so-
cioeconomic standing were erratic. Certain drugs (alcohol,
stimulants and tobacco) were more closely associated with
lower status, while others (marijuana and hallucinogens)
were coupled more to higher level. Results were less clear-
ly discernable for heroin and depressants.

The study reaffirms more persistently than any other
the predominance of alcohol and tobacoo as continuing drugs
of choice. Approximately one-third of their study popula-

tion drank weekly and an equal percent smoked daily.

is

an

3T1

33

Rates of use tended to be much greater at large
schools. This remained true when urban setting, which
is closely associated with larger institutions, was con-
trolled with multivariate analysis. Indeed, school size
was established as having "more explanatory power than
any other background or school experience variable in
predicting to (sic) marijuana and hallucinogenic use during
high school" (69:193-94). The writers conclude that greater
anxiety results from increased impersonality and psychologi-
cal stress at larger educational settings.

More frequent use of illicit drugs was associated
with low grades. Significantly, lower academic performance

preceded use. Only with acute addiction did grades decline

 

from their pre-use level. Those students who dropped out
of high school before completion did so for reasons other
than those directly attributable to substance abuse.

Youth who have histories of delinquent behavior are
far more likely to become involved in non-medical drug use.
However, the converse, that involvement leads to more de-
linquency, does not hold true. This latter finding is
contrary to popular belief, but well supported by the data.
(Figure 2:1) (69:180). (Survey items dealt with such
issues as theft, vandalism, trouble with police, and
antagonism toward parents and teachers.)

No correlation was discovered between amount of use

and degree of involvement in extracurricular activities.

re;

has

at

34

(This is at variance with Blum and other studies which

report less involvement by those more heavily into drugs.)

Figure 2:1: Delinquency Across Time Related to
Drug Use During High School

 

 

Index of
Frequency of Delinquency
220 Used MOre Serious
Drugs
210 Ne 175
200 /
190 ‘\\“\c_ g_ Used Marijuana Only
N= 169
180 ‘/////’
17o \
160

Used No Illegal Drugs

150 “~c~\__._—_._.ar”” Na 1290

140
130
120
110

 

 

Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4
(Soph.) (Jr.) (Sr.) (Post H.S.)

The Shafer Reports
The National Commission on Marijuana and Drug Abuse
was established by the Federal Government in 1970 to conduct

a thorough review of chemical abuse in America. Members of

35

Congress and representatives from law, medicine and service
agencies were chaired by former Governor Raymond P. Shafer.
They have issued two major reports: Marijuana: A Signal of

Misunderstandingin 1972, and DrugAbuse in America: Problem

 

in Perspective, the following year (109, 110).

 

The former reviews the history of marijuana use,
along with its legal, medical and psychosocial ramifications.
Substantial research was drawn upon. Its chief contribution
was to reduce attention to the drug itself and to urge more
focus on causes and users' unmet needs. Solutions were to
be found more "in the nature of the soil than in the charac-
teristics of the seed. The individual users, rather than
the drug, is the core of the problem" (109:141).

Drug Use in America deals even more extensively with
not only all chemicals, but with broader psychosocial
variables as well. This report renders two great services
at the outset, and repeatedly underscores them throughout.
It first removes the stigma of crime from drug related
behavior and thereby places greater focus on more central
individual needs and environmental issues. Secondly, it
continually affirms the centrality of alcohol as the pri-
mary drug of abuse in American society, and portrays its
role in prompting use of other substances through example,
advertising and damage to family environments.

The Commission provides four action-oriented princi-

ples for families that place responsibility for drug use in

pn

Per,
Of 3

36

proper perspective (109:394-95).

1. Parents must recognize that their own use or
non-use is a model for their children.

2. Curiosity and quest for new experiences are
normal and part of the developmental process.

3. Parents should foster open channels of communi-
cation on drug use and all other growth choices
confronting adolescents prior to their happening.

4. Parents, and not agencies such as churches,
schools and guidance clinics, have primary
responsibility for responding to their offsprings'
use. Referring youth elsewhere only augments the
problem and diminishes opportunities for everyone
to reassess and grow.

Parents must serve as the treatment agency of first

resort, and if they decide that referral to profes-

sional services is necessary, they must participate
actively with the program or person which provides
these services.
One of the Commission's most important contributions, the
"vulnerability factor" relates to this need fulfillment via
alternatives (109:141-43). The vulnerability factors are
a cluster of variables which collectively dispose one person
to become drug dependent while not another. The former
finds himself more controlled by his environment and is
unable to either master it or remove himself from it. This
person lacks the skills to be upwardly mobile in many areas

of life. The drug abuse lifestyle is a gradual develop-

mental process which receives various types of reinforcement

AT
pr
of

bi

C0:
wi.

H102

tre
to

Pro

37

at different stages. Effective alternatives must be
flexible enouch to respond to shifting needs and subtle
forces which reinforce abuse patterns in different ways
at different times.

The Communication criticizes traditional educa-
tional approaches based on fear, moreal premises or the
myth that information by itself will deter use. "The
entire area of drug use prevention as presently con-
ceived is, unfortunately, mostly wishful thinking" (109:
347). Rather than attempting to restrict use through
negativistic campaigns, Shafer and his colleagues stress
identifying and meeting needs associated with drug use
with more lasting alternatives.

In reviewing non-opiate, non-alcohol drug treatment
approaches, Shafer holds hope only for multi-modality
programs. Their success, he reports is due to the variety
of options to offer entering participants and the flexi-
bility to move them from one treatment to another with
a minimum of inconvenience. Shafer further cautions that,
"If treatment 'success' means no less than a quick and
complete cessation of drug taking, treatment programs
will often fail to achieve either that utopian goal or
more limited results which are within reach" (109:337).

The Shafer staff concludes the complex issue of
treatment with long-range humanistic answers. In addition
to meeting the abuser's immediate needs, treatment must

provide him and the entire community with tools for

38
changing the social circumstances prompting use.

The LeDain Commission

The most completely comprehensive review of sub-
stance abuse and its impact on society has been prepared
by the Commission of Inquiry into the Non-Medical Use
of Drugs. Known as the LeDain Study, after its chairman
Gerald LeDain, it reflects four years exhaustive examina-
tion of the problem in Canada. Over 120 major studies
were conducted and the more essential studies elsewhere
in the world were also drawn upon heavily. The Commission
produced four major volumes: Interim Report, Treatment
Report, Cannabis Report and Final Report (34). The
magnitude of this study is without parallel and, unlike
the Shafer Report, received the highest of priority and
prestige from the government, media and agencies. (One
noteworthy example of Canada's awareness of and approach
to substance abuse is the fact that the Province of
Ontario 31223 spends more money on alcoholism research
annually than the entire midwestern United States.)

Over the course of the four volumes, the Commission
intensified its support of the central role of the family
in offsprings' involvement with chemical substances. "We
have become increasingly impressed in the course of our
inquiry by the importance of the family in relation to the
whole pheomenon of drug use, medical and nondmedical, legal

and illegal. Indeed, the family would appear to be the

a:
8!
TC

St

6X

of

in;

aeti

Was

39

most important of the formative influences" (34:234).
The subtleties of attitude imparted by parents early
in life establishes the priority youth place on drgus
as an integral part in their own development.

This comprehensive study goes on to cite the
stresses and complexities of modern family life and their
roles in drug use training. The rapid rate of change,
stimuli bombardment, cultural pessimism, and emphasis on
experiential living all prompt inappropriate modeling
by parents and undermine traditional patterns of rearing
offspring.

The Commission identifies several key distingquish-
ing characteristics of drug abuse prone adolescents
(34:32-35):

1. They have had personal, family and/or legal

difficulties before drug use.

2. They have feelings of inadequacy in terms of
parents' expectations for them. This is
frequently reflected in poor academic performance.

3. They have a parent whose own drug problems,
usually with alcohol, were disruptive to the
family.

4. They usually had no close friends of either sex
during early years.

These youth exhibited deviant behavior prior to

active non-medical involvement with drugs. This behavior

was characterized by estrangement from other people and

40

less adequate social skills which hampered overcoming
the estrangement. In the majority of homes of heavily
abusing youth, parental or other adult models used
chemicals frequently in order to cope with stress.

The LeDain Study focuses heavily on what differen-
tiates the casual from the more extensive user after both
types have initially experimented. The Commission states
that the most evident characteristic is the latter's lower
self-acceptance. The pain resulting from inability to
like oneself is intolerable to many who seek more involve-
ment with chemicals. Self-defeating use is a means of
relief and perpetuates the inferiority. The writers stress,
"We could reduce the vulnerability to harmful drug use very
greatly if we could remove the conditions that contribute
to this lack of self-acceptance" (34:24).

A second major conclusion is the anxiety resulting
from.endless stimuli bombardment. This onslaught relent-
lessly assaults the individual, causing distress, confusion
and feelings of defeatism. (Kenisten labels this phenomenon
"psychological numbing" (73). Increased use of drugs to
insulate oneself only delays dealing with the pressures and
ultimately increases vulnerability.

The LeDain Study draws several vital conclusions
concerning drug abuse treatment. Scores of effective
programs throughout the world were reviewed. It points

out the difficulty of reintroducing a non-drug existence

41

to those who have long experienced a modified need
reality (34:41):

1. Drug-free alternatives must deal with personal
and social problems which precede drug use.

2. Long term followeup is essential, and repeated
relapses must be accepted as part of the change
process.

3. Low motivation to stop is an inevitable reality.
Support by other people is vital in overcoming
this factor.

4. Therapy is ineffective until clients are drug-
free.

5. Most successful treatment results from cooper-
ation between a variety of people and agencies.

6. In-patient treatment (especially therapeutic
communities) offer the most effective and

lasting results.

The Glasscote Study

The most ambitious evaluation of community-based
treatment programs was conducted by Glasscote et al.,
The Treatment of Drug Abuse, under the auspicies of the
American Psychiatric Association and the National Asso-
ciation for Mental Health (49). A team of authorities
conducted on-site visitations at nine programs coordinating
over forty satellites throughout the country. Their central
pupose was to identify treatment means and goals that were

both effective and feasible.

42

The research group experienced great difficulty in
locating theoretically and professionally sound agencies.
"These programs limiting their service to users of 'soft
drugs' appeared to be so informal and spontaneous and so
recent in genesis that we would have a hard time identi-
fying suitable models to visit" (49:6). In further caution,
the writers remark that "the small informal nature of these
activities coupled with the extreme difficulty of evalu—
ating their effect, may preclude any serious evaluation
ever being attempted" (49:60).

Although statistical evidence is sparce, the Glass-
cote committee did discover criteria for success and pro-
grams which prompted movement toward them. Among the
criteria viewed as valid were obtaining or advancing in
employment, refraining from illegal activities, improving
family relations, and elevating educational status.

The most effective centers offered a variety of
services instead of a single modality (hotline, drop-in,
detoxification or some other service by itself). In
addition, the more capable programs tended to exercise a
balance in therapy between confrontation and compassion.

In specifically assessing the New Haven Mental
Health Center's achievements the authors report evidence
of "markedly reduced psychedelic drug use" (49:215).
'Wiajor interpersonal deficits and chronic family problems"
were central concerns which could be successfully alleviated

with peer group counseling (49:215). One year follow-up

43

reinforced growth. The more successful clients tended
to be older, better educated, and had shorter periods
of dependence.

At the Mendocine State Hospital clinic, the re-
searchers identified factors which distinguished those
who successfully completed the program and those who
left prior to termination. The latter resented staff
authority, found difficulty with rules and regulations,
and longed for the status of former peer groups and
norms (49:239).

Glasscote and his colleagues were critical of the
lack of systematic premises and structure which hampered
some programs. However, the investigators remind that due
to the complexity of drug abuse and the environments which

foster it, even limited success was noteworthy.

PRINCIPAL FACTORS INDICATED BY THE MAJOR STUDIES

This section examines specific research findings in
four areas: Self-Concept, Anxiety Coping, Internpersonal
Skills, and Social Deviation. All of these factors were
repeated themes in the preceding section.

There is no central personality type more inclined
to abuse drugs. Research which does reach conclusions
concerning certain predisposing psychological factors tend
to be negated by other studies. Nevertheless, there appears
to be considerable concensus on several general areas of

growth.

pi
Vi

ml

'1‘

44

Variables exist which encourage individuals to
participate in self-defeating use of chemicals. These
variables are in addition to the pain relieving and mood
modifying effects of the drug themselves. The home
environment is marked by greater, disharmony, pessimism
and frequent non-medical use of drugs. Youth who are
prone to be more heavily involved think less highly of
themselves, are more anxious, lack desired interpersonal
skills, and are socially deviant in various ways. Among
the forms of deviancy are antagonism toward institutional-
ized authority, differences within an already difficult
home situation, and more frequent use of legal drugs. All
these factors tend to precede drug experimentation. Peer
groups, with self-justifying norms that place negative
value on outside ideas and behaviors, further reinforce
drug use activity.

Although none of these identified factors is indis—
putable, there is considerable basis for testing them further
in an empirical setting. By testing these assumptions,
clients can be aided in a more definitive manner, and more
accurate data might be generated for even more effective

treatment in the future.

Self-Concept ---
Self-concept is instrumental to all major decision-

meking and inescapably so with choices regarding drug use.

Ina

rel

bet
to
the

bet

abt
anc'
anc‘
Att
Muc

bet

in

Tits
(55
Thu]
tes
Sig

8r:

twe
Uti

Stu

45

Inadequate self-conception or lack of self-acceptance is
related to both initial use and continuation.

The individual's stress over the perceived gap
between real and ideal self has marked impact on decisions
to use chemicals states Kleber (75). Others also state
the paramount role of the quest for self-definition and
behaviors utilized to gain this end (68).

In a Swedish study, significant changes in drug
abuse and self-concept were measured due to individual
and group counseling combined with extensive vocational
and recreational therapy--swimming, skiing and riding (56).
Attitudinal measures showed greater optimism and openness.
Much of the therapy, which had been directed at social
behavior, brought about increased self-esteem.

Using the Tennessee Self-Concgpt Scale and a change

 

in self-concepts as the primary measure of successful
treatment, Guidoz tested two group counseling approaches
(55).‘ The sample was composed of twenty to forty year old
multi-drug users with no histories of psychosis. The post-
test given three months after treatment began, recorded
significant changes for both self-help and psychotherapy
group treatments.

DeMerritt examined sixty subjects identified by
social, health and legal agencies aged thirteen through
twenty-two years. The Thematic Aperception Test was
utilized to test for differences (35). The population was

studied in three drug history categories: non-users,

46

abusers in treatment and former users. Drugs of abuse
included marijuana, stimulants, depressants and psyche-
delics. No significant differences were discovered
concerning sex, age, academic achievement, childhood
religion, family income, or either parents' education or
employment. Former users had better self-concepts than
non-users and abusers as a class. They saw themselves

as more adequate, less easily threatened and more accept-
able to peers. Little difference existed between the
latter two groupings.

Belter states that the self-image is usually quite
low, despite the defense mechanisms used to give other
impressions (7). In another study, Becker concludes that
the drug user is more socially alienated and has difficulty
in assigning meaning to himself and the environment, and
has a drive to seek interaction with them.en a more
subjective level (5).

McCormic summarizes five case studies and forty-one
other subjects (86). He states that effects and patterns
of drug use primarily are "based on personality traits and
organic predisposition rather than upon any pharmacological
action of the drug", and need to accept oneself fully (86).

Support for the value of self-discovery through a
group counseling drug treatment model comes from Blumis
study of college students and their membership in identifi-
able groups and organizations (13). Amount and variety of

drug usage were indirectly proportional to the number of

47

clubs, interest groups and sports in which youth could
have greater opportunity to discover themselves and
others.

In his insightful work, Blaine cites the dearth
of natural challenges available to youth today to test
out one's sense of adequacy (9). Through encountering
challenges, youth discover resources they did not know
existed, define more clearly who they are and develop
more positive images of themselves. In the absence of
other actions, drugs are now a readily accessible fron-
tier to discovery and a doorway to escape from.many
tensions.

Rouse and Ewing tested a random sample of univer-
sity students to identify differences between varying
levels of non-medical drug use (100). They report that
those who used marijuana continually over two years dif-
fered significantly from experimentors and non-users.
The former used marijuana to cope with depression,
experience identity problems, report more frequent
serious suicidal thoughts, and take higher risks (such
as driving after drinking). Alienation was not found
to be a valid indicator of chemical use.

L. B. Brown examined eighty-five college students
in terms of cognitive styles and substance abuse (16).
None of the four major functions proved significant:
integrative complexity, cognitive complexity, extreme

response style, or construct integration. One item which

48

was significant was that users tended more to enjoy

a lifestyle involving contemplation of the inner self.

Anxiety Coping- - -

The role of anxiety is primary in human motivation.
One of the most uncomfortable of human experiences, when
intense it can cripple and distract from healthy pursuits
until it is relieved. Accentuated anxiety and the need
to cope with it, is a major force in prompting inordinate
drug use.

Man tends to be a pain-avoiding creature, and few
conditions are more painful than anxiety. Green gt_al.
found psychedelic users more vulnerable to frustration
and less self-controlled (53). Gilbert and Lombardi
found their subjects to be depressed more frequently (46).
Further findings indicate greater sensitivity to irrita-
tions and apprehension (103).

Rosenberg conducted an analysis of fifty LSD,
amphetamine and narcotic abusers aged thirty and younger
(101). Using the IMPAT Anxiety Scale Questionnaire,
Eysenk Peronality Inventory and Raven's Progressive
Matrices, he described his subjects as anxious, passive
and often deviant in sexual behavior. Most had evidence
of many years of social alienation and disruptive family
situations. Over all, individuals were characterized by

extensive difficulties in handling the stress of anxiety.

49

Bender also found heavy narcotic users to have low
resistance to frustration, to be prone to fantasizing,
and to seek escape from their problems (8).
Savage, Fadiman, Mogar and Allen report treat-
ment with seventy-seven out-patients on LSD therapy (106).

The MMPI, Inter-Personal Check List and clinical assess-

 

 

ment were used for measures. A combination of counseling
and drug administration yielded lower defense mechanisms
in all groups. Anxiety-prone subjects became less with-
drawn, anxious and compulsive, and the outer environment
appeared less threatening. Hyperactive individuals began
to lead more organized, self-controlled lives.

After interviewing ninety-eight physicians who were
current or former narcotic addicts, Winick listed factors
which prompted use (123). In descending order they were
anxiety due to overwork, physical ailment, self-concept,
wives, level of aspiration, mood leveling effects, and
age. Winick also discussed the accessibility of drugs to
the physician.

Glickman and Blumenfield studied twenty-five
patients who were admitted to a psychiatric hospital due
to LSD reactions (50). Findings revealed that the use and
adverse reactions were preceded by situational crisis,
drug use patterns to reduce anxiety, and histories of
frustration. The researchers conclude that mental break-

down or violent actions often attributed to LSD's effect

50

would have occurred inevitably and that high anxiety
played a major role.

In studying fourteen individuals dependent on
amphetamines in depth, Bell and Trethewn concluded
that although personality disorders were evident, in
large measure depedence was due to the drug's stimula-
ting actions in relief of emtional stress (6). Regression
was cited as a highly noticeable personaltiy change due
to dependence.

Dimascio and Barrett conducted experiments with
sixty healthy college males who scored either high or

low on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (34). Subjects

 

were administered oxagepam, a mild tranquilizer. Oxagepam
substantially reduced anxiety among high scorers yet in-
creased anxiety among low students. One important con-
clusion is that while a mild tranquilizer works success-
fully with anxious people its stimulating effects (for
whatever reasons) with low anxiety scorers can be self-
regulating prevention to further use of stimulants. Thus,
through experience, less anxious users would tend more to
remove themselves from involvement.

The following year Barrett and Dimascio again
conducted a similar but broader study (33). One hundred-

twenty male college students were given the Taylor Manifest

 

Anxiety Scale and the Scheir and Cattell Anxiety Battery.

 

 

Anxiety traits were significantly related to reactions to

various drugs and a placebo. Anxious subjects displayed

51

lower anxiety, while low anxiety students showed greater
anxiety even from such tranquilizers as Valium and Librium.
This underscores again the power of suggestion and the cir-
cumstances under which drugs are taken.

In a study of 1000 heavy amphetamine abusers, Clement
reports 40% abstinance rate for one year after program
completion (24). Treatment consisted of two weeks detoxi-
fication, evaluation, and medical therapy, followed by
chemotherapy to counteract depression. Thereafter, clients
were referred to appropriate counseling centers. Reduction
of emotional and physical stress was closely allied with
continued abstinence.

Most psychologists agree that no one personality
type is more prone to chemical abuse than others (74).
However, research points to general character disorders
centering around the attempt to deal with anxiety by mani-
pulating other people and the environment. As well, drug
abusers frequently have great difficulty in handling their
anger (36). It will usually be buried, displaced or re-
leased explosively, all of which are interdependent with
anxiety.

In studying adverse reactions to hallucinogenics,
Cohen and Ditman found their subjects more prone to
hysteria, paranoid thinking and less stable emotional
control (29). Their findings are based on intensive
interviewing in a psychiatric hospital. However, their

conclusion must be held questionable with a study population

52
of only nine.

Interpersonal Skills

Peer group inclusion is a powerful force in the
perpetuation of substance use (13). This phenomenon
is particularly heightened during late adolescence and
cohesiveness is further encouraged by the legal and
informal censure of adult society. Treatment which fails
to attend needs for peer involvement will tend to defeat
itself.

Difficulties with interpersonal skills and relation-
ships affect all areas of living. The frustration in
their social development has inclined many to seek drugs
for assistance and mood leveling in social settings.
Although it is difficult to empirically isolate these
social interaction factors, D. Jaffe and Clark repeatedly
underscore the individual's attempt to attain intimacy
and to overcome fears of others (23). The need for peer
inclusion is an integral dynamic in drug experimentation
and subsequent use patterns.

Concommitant with these friendships is the need for
interpersonal skills with which to expand and deepen them.
Drugs are experienced as a social lubricant, and desired
moods and behaviors emerge more readily with the modifying
effects of drugs.

Much of this quest for social facility derives

from.direct and indirect modeling. Parents and other

53

adults daily utilize drugs to alter moods and cope
with stress. Society through such vehicles as customs
and advertising support these practices.

Blake, Carboy and Zenhausenn tested middle class
high school students using marijuana and found them to
be more vulnerable to frustration, reckless, group
dependent and less self-controlled (10). Findings con-
cerning juvenile deliquent amphetamine users provided
similar evidence (25). Cockett and Marks found these
subjects reporting greater hostility, self-criticism,
guilt feelings and anxiety. The subjects also were
more shy, introverted, and less self-confident.

Burlington, Ontario offers assistance to street
drug abuses via a storefront clinic (80). No in-patient
or long term facilities exist. Most clients initially
seek assistance because of medical, legal or vocational
concerns. Therapy consists of promoting new interpersonal
skills. The greatest obstacle to successful growth is the
return to the same friends and settings that support
substance abuse liefstyle. Success is measured in terms
of abstinence and "responsible social functioning", and
one client in oufr maintains this performance fairly
consistently for one year after beginning program service.

A Swedish study focused on a goal of amphetamine
free living in a therapeutic community which applied
stringent rules for behavior (56). Subjects learned the

abilities of empathy, compromise and open interaction.

54

Key to this approach was the withdrawal of group
privileges for one individual's infraction. Such

rules did not inhibit the programis emotional climate
and succeeded in only 6% continued use during treatment.

A highly revealing conclusion reached in a study
utilizing the California Psychological Inventory found
users low on sdcialization at the .002 level of signifi-
cance (5). The manual identifies such scores as defen-
sive, demanding, opinionated, resentful, stubborn, head-
strong, rebellious, and undependable; as being guileful
and deceitful with others, and as given to excess,
exhibition and ostentation in their behavior (51).
Scores on the dominance subscale characterize drug users
as lacking self—confidence and prone to avoid anxiety-
producing situations. Other scores indicate drug users'
relative lack of persistance, organization, cooperation
and stability and their pessimism over vocational ob-
jectives.

In testing marijuana only users with the MMPI,
McAree and his colleagues found no significant differ-
ences from normal subjects (85). However, they did find
that multiple-drug users ranked higher on the schizo-
phrenia scale. This reflected greater social detach-
ment and less adequate social skills. Users in this
sample also reported higher scores on the Hypomania,

Psychopathic, Deviate and Masculinity-Feminity scales.

55

Odyssey House in New York conducts a four phased
treatment over eighteen months (80). Central focus is upon
confronting the manipulation behaviors that had previously
guaranteed social success and replacing them with more
appropriate non drug-centered ones.

In studying 41 college students abusing drugs,

Kuehn reports subjects on pre-tests as passive in social
relationships, more oriented toward the present, desiring
more immediate reinforcement, and having difficulty with
logic and articulation (77). Among his other conclusions
were more pronounced depression, tendencies to rationalize
and intellectualize, and unregarding sexual behavior.

Peer acceptance and attendant social norms and be-
havior play a critical role in establishing and maintain-
ing drug use patterns. Malcolm describes the allure of
the drug subculture's associated norms (83). Chief among
these are exclusiveness, acceptance for deviant behavior,
immediate reward, repudiation of competition and mutual
support for views variant with "straight" society.

One of the best controlled studies available is that
of Everson (40). Thirty heavy users (LSD and narcotics)
and thirty non-users were randomly selected from a female
prison population. The Rorschach, MMPI, Taylor Manifest

Anxiety Scale, Maudsley Personality Inventory and Revised

 

Beta Intelligence Test were given. Many demographic
factors were carefully controlled. Heavy users were found

to be more aggressive, alienated others and had greater

56

difficulty adjusting to the confines of prison living.
However, they exhibited greater cooperation in therapy
as their more pronounced needs were met.

Helpern conducted early tests into marijuana use
and personality (60). Forty-five marijuana using prison-
ers and as many non-using inmates took a battery of tests.
Among the instruments were the Rorschach, Binet Lines
Test, Wechsler Vocational Interest and Free Association
Test, Level of Aspiration Test, Goodenough DraweA-Man

Test, Pressey X-O Test, Loofborrow Personal Index, and

 

Downey-Will Temperament Test. Tests were administered

 

in drugged and undrugged states to both groups. No basic
personality changes were evident when under the drug in-
fluence. Those inmates who had less adequate social
expression tended more to use marijuana.

Makin, and Conway and Fox tested college undergrad-

uate marijuana users with the California Personality

 

Inventory(82). They found evidence contradictory to
other projects. Their subjects evidenced more social
assurance, openness to new experiences, sensitivity to
others' needs, self-confidence and broader social skills
and perceptions. They tended to be spontaneous, have
wide ranges of interest, be self-enhancing and pleasure
seeking. In addition, they were more hostile to customs
and traditions.
Chapman reports greater use of projection onto

other people as a defense mechanism among amphetamine

57

users (20). Savitt concluded that addicts exhibit great-
er difficulty in expression and in achieving sought
social goals (107).

Sanford identifies three-categories of drug abusers:
a) Escapist, b) Failitative, and c) Integrative (105). In
this model, the former uses alcohol or drugs in self-defeat-
ing fashions in addition to temporarily assisting social
interaction.

Laskowitz describes greater self-centeredness and
alienation from both social norms and inclusion in lasting
peer group relationships (78). His subjects, all proven
drug abusers, displayed more marked anxiety, personal feel-
ings of inadequacy, lack of responsibility for their actions,
and limited decision making ability. Knight and Front report
anxiety, social withdrawal, and underdeveloped interpersonal
skills from their observations of narcotic addicts (71).
They describe low affective expression with limited
aspirations and low resilience to disappointments.

Administering the MMPI, Gilbert and Lombardi report
insecurity, low levels of depression, and apprehension
about social adequacy (46). Cameron echoes support for
emotional inadequacy as a precipitating factor in heavy
usage (19).

Lowe tested two groups of thirty each which included

ages between fifteen and thirty-five with the California

 

Psychological Inventory (81). It was again administered

after five months counseling. One was a group of non-drug

58

users evidencing more social skills and flexibility.
Hogan administered the California Psychological

Inventory and a biographical questionnaire to 148 under

 

graduates at two universities (63). Users and non-users
were indistinguishable in terms of their secondary
education, extracurricular activities or athletic partici-
pation. Users were somewhat less social but the nature

of their behavior did not readily lend itself to stereo-
typing. No moral or characteralogical differences were
identified.

Alienation and its relationship to non-medical
drug use was the focus of Hoffman's dissertation study
(61). In analyzing a student survey administered at
three college settings involving 484 students, he found
no significant relationship between use and degree of
social alienation. He also describes polydrug users as
more liberal than single drug only users, who were in
turn more liberal than non-users. Close relationships
between one's personal attitudes toward drugs and one's
closest friends' actual use were supported by evidence.

Romine came to conclusions in opposition to those of
Hoffman (99). The former administered over 1300 question-
naires to nine universities on a randomized basis. (This
represented approximately seven percent of the students
living at residence halls at the institutions.) Defining
alienation as sensed individual powerlessness, normless-

ness and social isolation, Romine found a positive

 

 

59

correlation between alienation and those who abused
drugs.

One of the best studies utilizing a vast popula-
tion is that of Robbins et al. (98). Analysis of
over 6400 surveys administered to junior and senior
high school students revealed that users describe them-
selves as socially inadequate and cite drug use activity
as a way of encountering friends. Users were eight times

as likely to have a best friend who also used chemicals.

Social Deviation

Youthful drug offenders tend to come from.home
environments which reflect less stability, intimacy and
optimism. There is also strong tendency for excessive
drug consumption by adult models. The peer groups
influence at this stage in life is pronounced both in
promoting or suppressing initial use, and in the course
of subsequent continuation. Central sociological themes
of study are parental modeling, peer group relations,
deviancy from traditional norms, hositility, family
environment and attitudes held toward social agencies
(school, church and police among others).

Rollo May reports that those who exhibit self-.
destructive behavior are often precursers of conflicts
that society at large will experience within a decade (84).
One who displays such behavior is able to "reveal to us

what is going to emerge endemically in the society later

60

on" (84:16). He lives out "consciously what the masses

of people are able to keep unconscious for the time being."
Should this philosophical posture have some merit, the
destructive user of chemicals may be by those who are

most in touch with the stresses that are confronting
individual and interpersonal functioning in the latter ‘
third of this cnetury. The Major Studies portions earlier
in this chapter described many of these factors. The
following pieces of research focus on these and other
stresses related to social deviation.

Many traditional agents of change have less signifi-
cant impact than they did previously. Our society is marked
by confusion that Keniston labels "psychological numbing"
(72). Individuals are constantly bombarded with external
stimuli (and their own responses and defenses) of great
quantity, variety and intensity that can bury as well as
enlighten. The result is accentuated boredom, anxiety,
and loneliness.

Interdependent with these forces is the tremendous
acceleration in the rate of change. The state of flux of
reference points and the speed with which they change have
been described in both professional and popular literature.

No formative factor is as significant in individual
development as the family. Increasingly, research in the
substance abuse field is focusing upon family characteris-
tics and identifiying variable associated with non-medical

use .

61

Delone reveals very definite family patterns and
attitudes which indicate great likelihood for substance
dependency. Drug abusers are prone to the following
(32:30):

1. To come from loose knit families.

2. To sense alienation from families and social

institutions.

3. To lack adequate coping skills and value systems.

4. To maintain only superficial friendships.

5. To demonstrate lOW'SChOOl achievement and de-

linquent behavior before drug activity.

Family cohesiveness has been a concern of several
other important studies. Harris and Gillie found that
youthful drug offenders tended more than non-users to come
from single parent homes (59). Even in two parent homes
welpton reported less rapport between spouses than in
homes of non-users (122). Kuehn identified families of
soft drug users to be characterized by less stable
emotional climate, communication difficulties, greater
focus on material wants and less structured expectations
for family members (77).

Rathod examined the early life factors of thirty
narcotic users and twenty-eight control subjects (97).
Almost twice as many users (13) as controls (7) were the
only child of their sex in the family. Fifty-three

percent of the users,twenty percent of the controls had

62

no or inappropriate parent models (divorced, alcoholic
or drug abusing parent, desertion or mental illness).

In testing 233 entering college students and
their parents(s) Stormer reports a .001 positive corre-
lation between parental and student non-medical drug
use (115). He also found .10 relationships with use
and size of community and the mother's attitude toward
the use.

Dorhoffer identified positive associations between
the extent and potency of drug use and several important
factors among his junior college student subjects (37).
Among these factors were a higher proportion of males,
families with ppor communication, no current religious
affiliation, unfair childhood discipline, pessimism in
the home, level of self-confidence, sensed ability to
make friends and to adjust to new situations, and lack of
involvement in the non-academic offerings of college.

Fox's review of numerous treatment programs and
staffing produced two vital findings (45). The first
important result is that groups for the parents of abusers
significantly increased positive change in offspring in
the programs. Secondly, reliance upon former users for
staff (an axiom to many in the field) does not seem to be
as effective in the long run as "straight", well-trained
professionals.

Non-medical drug use is associated with other forms
of deviancy, most notably smoking, use of alcohol and lower

respect for traditional agencies of cultural transmission.

63

Families of substance abusing youth are frequently
characterized by alcohol abuse, lack of intimacy, and
cynicism and powerlessness toward society.

Bray stated that high school drug users have
more -egative home situations, more negative perceptions
about school experiences, greater peer involvement and
solidarity, and more concern about both personal and
world problems (15). His results are derived from
studies involving 570 youth between 14 and 18 randomly
selected from seven city high schools. Drug use followed
problems with the family, school, peers and the world.
Bowker received anonymous questionnaires back from a
small private college, and followed up with fifty-three
in-depth interviews (14). He found use of chemicals
positively related with negative perceptions of home,
peer group environment, religion, academic major political
values.

With armed services inductees, Kearns was able to
identify numerous characteristics which distinguished
those who abused drugs from all others (76). Most preva-
lent was the evidence of disharmonious families. More
specifically, relationships with the father and status in
the neighborhood were critical. The number of arrests,
convictions, and use of opium, barbiturates and marijuana

were also significant variables. Those who most frequently

abuse
decez
expe:

clos

1y i
Sevc
bet
are
R01

SO

fl)

64

abused chemicals tended to have one or both parents
deceased, and to have left home before sixteen. Negative
experiences with teachers and school in general were also
closely associated.

General social deviancy and delinquency are frequent-
ly interdependent with many of these family characteristics.
Several excellent studies have centered on the relationship
between drug abuse and these factors. Recurring themes
are hostility, use of legal drugs, non-traditional values,
non-involvement with school, and negative attitudes toward
society and its principal agencies.

Stewart, Vener and Hager found significant correla-
tionships (.001) between illicit soft drug use and other
forms of deviancy (drinking and heterosexual activity) (114).
Negative associations (.10) were found between drug use
and indices reflecting more traditional norms (family
rientation, religious orthodoxy, respect for authority,
high school grades and college aspirations). Males scored
higher on all forms of deviancy. Amount of drug use and
socio-economic status were positively related.

Hager looked at differences in use by age, sex, and
school at three disparate socio-economic levels (57).
Analysis was conducted in terms of other deviant behavior,
value orientations, socializing agencies and ego strains
(such issues as depression, alienation and lack of peer

involvement). Over 4200 students were involved. A

dis
use
dri
sh:
co:
sc
sh
ti

IE

65

distinct deviancy group was identified whose soft drug

use correlated positively with hard drug use, smoking,
drinking and heterosexual behavior. Negative relation-
ships were found with traditional values, parental
congeniality, church attendance and involvement with
school activities. Depression and affectional deprivation
showed low inverse relations with soft drug use. Aliena-
tion and lack of peer involvement were not significantly
related to use.

Kenniston articulately states the association of
drug use with nonconformity and social alienation (72).
The appeal of cult with distinct norms and behaviors for
protest reasons is cited by Suchman, and McAree, Steffen-
hagen and Zheutlin (117).

Testing 282 students at a Canadian university, Mehra
isolated several factors significantly related to drug
use: belief in an omnipotent God, sibling marijuana use
and family socio-economic status were most influential (90).
Regular users tended to be more progressive in their
social attitutdes, more impatient with what were deemed to
be unnecessary delays, and socially "undisciplined".

Chipman divided 607 college students into four
fairly evenly distributed groups in terms of substane use:
"Regular", "Casual", "Experimental", and Non-users" (22).
When compared to other groups, the "Regular" subjects

were more pleasure-seeking, more non-traditional and

anti-e
conce

tobacc
were c

People

Colleg
orient
juana

but in
whare

the p]
Cific
Soft ‘
drugs

66

anti-establishment, more estranged from their families,
concerned with immediate rewards, and used alcohol and
tobacco more frequently. "Non-users", relevant to others,
were confident, well adjusted, less judgmental of other
people, and held more traditional values.

In assessing 3500 questionnaires from over 20
colleges, Bruce D. Johnson found sex, religion, political
orientation and cigarette use strongly relation to mari-
juana use (67). These were not concluded to be the causes,
but increased the likelihood of involvement with peer groups
where marijuana was used. His findings further supported
the premise that peer groups using drugs, rather than spe-
cific types of drugs, lead into hard drug use. Sellers of
soft drugs were far more likely to become users of hard
drugs later on than any other individuals. Drugs them-
selves did not impair social functioning in college or
prompt asocial behavior. Rather, pre-existing psychosocial
factors shaped these.

Nash surveyed all the New Jersey drug abuse treat-
ment programs, both drug-free and chemotherapy (91). He
found both types to be equally effective in all respects.
The chief indicator of success appeared to be significant
reduction in crime by treatment graduates.

New York City achieved success with a "temporary
alternative school" for 60 drug abusing, problem behavior

students (32). One year in a program of formal instruction

67

with all afternoon group sessions which focused upon needs
and behavior resulted in marked success. The average
student advanced two grade levels in most subjects and
drug use was all but extinguished. "Student involvement
creates a kind of counterpeer pressure against the use of
drugs and generates student initiative in developing
alternatives to drug abuse."

A survey was conducted with 1912 tenth and twelfth
grade students at twelve high schools revealed that heavy
users tended to beunhappy with themselves, less active in
school organizations, more dissatisfied with the academic
environment in general, and received lower grades (3).

The researcher, Althoff, discovered little difference in
alienation between user and non-user, and also that use was
more prevalent in the upper and lower classes. She con-
cluded with key predictors of abuse. In descending order
they are the following: 1) Satisfaction with school,

2) Grades, 3) Degree of alienation (normlessness), 4) Self-
satisfaction, 5) Participation in school activities,

6) Degree of alienation (social isolation), 7) Social

class status.

McGlothlin, Cohen and McGlothlin conducted a battery
of tests on seventy-two male graduate student volunteers
(87). Twenty-two tests were given to assess long range
affects of LSD on values, personality and attitudes. Those

individuals who were more rigid, self-controlled and

accc
lit
if“

to

te

68

accepting of authority responded to the experiment with

little involvement. Other subjects who became intensely
involved were characterized by spontaneity and openness

to new experiences.

Edwards, Bloem and Cohen contrasted thirty long
term psychedlic users with a like number matched controls
(38). Utilizing the Rosenweing Test and Comery Test they
found the groups differing only in regard to greater hostil-
ity among the heavy users. The researchers further report
that the degree of hostility is highly correlated with
level of dependency and tends to be expressed with a great-
er force and less control as dependency mounts.

Winick and Nyswander compared fifteen musician addicts
with a control group of other addicts (124). The former
tended to be more success oriented, interested in hetero-
sexuality, and come from homes with strong fathers. Of
impact to this study is the finding that drug use helped
to reduce hostility for both groups.

Chickering declares that drug abuse and its asso-
ciated lifestyle are outgrowths of inability of youth to
define purpose (21). Accordingly, subcultures develop in
which both drugs and lack of commitment become norms.

Drugs are used to deal with the dilemma of values
and framework to provide meaning in life. Several studies
find a pronounced disregard for traditional social mores.

Roszak and Keniston discuss the collective cynicism over

thl
id
te

81'.

111

f .

69

the research for meaningful values (102;72). Kenniston
identified drug users in three categories. "Tasters"

test out drugs occasionally for the novelty and discovery
and tend to be fairly self sufficient. "Seekers" tend
more to use drugs for self-discovery, understanding about
life and values clarification. "Heads" are the more regular
users. Kenniston discusses reasons given for use--search
for meaning, self-understanding, experimentation during an
accelerating period in life, and academic pressures. The
attraction of more tolerant campuses is also elaborated
upon in terms of drug use.

Welpten secured ten white middle class young adults
who seriously abused LSD, in addition to using marijuana
and amphetamines (121). As a result of using the Bender-
Gestalt, Rorschach, Human Figure Drawing Test and intensive
interviews, Welpton reports strong dependency, control of
aggressive behaviors, and confusion regarding sexual roles.
A search for meaning, values and social inclusion also
typified the subjects. All evidenced continual difficulties
in achieving adult independence.

Rucker studies the attitudes of junior high students
toward drugs (104). Those who did not attend church or
participate in school activities viewed drugs more favor-
ably. He also found that sex, church preference and socio-
economic level were not related to attitudes. Although
Rucker identifies these factors, he does not see any as

cause for use or abuse.

non-
(l3:
mys1
reS]

18V:

lat
LeD
sel
con
Ano

Spi

maj
hig
ant
301
1'10-
diu
dr-
be

wi

70

Remarkable differences were found between drug and
non-drug users on the As Regressive Experiences Scale
(13:235). This instrument measures preferences for
mystical experiences, escapism, and reluctance to accept
responsibility. Differences were significant at the .001
level with drug users having high preference scores.

Darden and Jekel report findings with negative corre-
lations between church participation and drug use (31).
LeDain reported associations between excessive drug use,
self preoccupation and lack of involvement with spiritual
concerns (79:234-38). (It bears mentioning that Alcoholics
Anonymous' considerable success is based heavily on
spiritual surrender and growth (4) ).

A study with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator found
major differences on two dimension (88). Drug users score
higher on intuition (on the sensing vs. intuition scale)
and on perception (on the judgment vs. perfection scale).
Both results were significant at the .001 level. M. Cohen
noted that drug users tend more frequently to have character
disorders than non-users. These findings indicate that
drug users, while imaginative and spontaneous, are apt to
be less goal-oriented, organized and skilled in dealing
with immediate responsibilities.

With high school age youth, Cockett and Marks report
no correlation between amphetamine users and intelligence

(25; 27). However, Cohen and Klien found higher

intel

popul

among.
sive.
gradu.
(111)
simij
(96)
fOux
liaz,
Xxx
\Nux

§£

71

intelligence among users than non-users in a hospital
population.

Acadmic performance as distinguishing criteria
among college student users and non-users is inconclu-
sive. Smart and Fejer in their studies of college under-
graduates found psychedelic users to be underachievers
(111). This is in contrast to Pearlman who with a
similar population found no academic record variations
(96). To further confuse the issues, Steffenhagen et al.
found college users above average academically (113).
Hagan et al. also collaborates this latter finding (64).
In addition, they found users in higher percentages in

humanities and social sciences.

SUMMARY

Truth is the shattered mirror strown in myriad

bits; while each believes his little bit the

whole to own. (Jaji Abdu el-Yezdi) (17:37)
This chapter has reviewed literature pertinent to histor-
ical, psychological, sociological and treatment evidence.
This summary attempts to derive patterns out of many
diverse and conflicting findings. The bulk of available
literature, unfortunately, focuses more upon causational
factors than treatment results.

Our society is rapidly becoming aware that drug

dependence is a serious crisis for many of its members.

Widespread misuse has spread to include the mainstream of

the p
style
and d
walk
whicl
More

defe

abru
ca1_
OI

inx

art

80-

an

SL1

ITe
<ie

aII

On,

QOI

72

the population. Stereotypes of the user and his life-
style are obsolete yet act as barriers to understanding
and development of alternatives. People from every
walk of life, age and background use and abuse drugs
which in turn affects their jobs, families and associates.
More understanding of these forms of deviancy and self-
defeating behaviors is essential.

Much verbiage is available describing the drug
abuse prone personality, and little of it is scientifi-
cally credible. MOst literature speaks from.moralistic
or ill informed points of view, and is couched in fear-
inciting language. Sound research studies in this area
are frequently limited in scope.

Contradictory findings are legion. There is enough
sound research data, however, to identify tentative
psychosocial factors and the role they play in drug abuse
and subsequent treatment effects. The availability of
supportive aids available to this study--medical, legal,
vocational, etc.--permits freedom to focus treatment upon
remaining personality concerns. If drug abuse is inter-
dependent with unmet needs, reduction of chemical abuse
and resolution of these needs might accompany each other.

A review of available literature and research leads
one to the conclusion that involvement in drug use is a
complex and often subtle process of interrelated psycho-

logical and sociological factors. In many sectors of our

popul
Were .
minor
far 1
educa
pende

in no

 

73

population, use is merely a fad or a coming of age.
Were the consequences not so crippling for a sizable
minority, the entire phenomenon could be treated with
far less earnestness. More effective treatment and
education can not only reduce potential and actual de-
pendence but also assist individuals deal with blocks

in normal growth and development.

the f (
Treat.
menta‘

and S

Wa S
Coll
the

at e

at

Qt:

CHAPTER III

Seven sections comprise this chapter. They are
the following: the Social Setting for the Study, Client
Treatment Procedures, Population and Sample, Instru-
mentation, Data Collection, Procedures for Data Analysis,

and Summary.

Social Settingfor the Study

A review of the social context in which this study
was conducted is essential. To a large degree, the
collective social expectations of a community determine
the actions and values of its members. These expectations
are internalized by youth and shape behaviors which aid
or inhibit need-fulfillment. As has been stated in
Chapter 1, drug abuse is viewed as need-directed behavior.
As such, drug abuse is inescapably interdependent with
the community environment in which it exists. This en—
vironment formally and informally defines what is accept-
able. Drug use, in turn, is often an attempt to deal
with unmet needs and/or respond to the social setting.

The community used in this study is Grandmont, a
2.6 square mile city located adjacent to a major metropolis.
Its population of 23,784 is almost entirely lower class
and lower middle class. It is a completely Caucasian

community, with a significant percentage migrating from

74

Appal
socio
allud

COIIIIDLJ

$6.39
for a
are ]
home:
inex}
are 4
0Ver

ment,

Cath
orie
prOQ

resi

75

Appalachia in the past three decades. Politically and
sociologically, Grandmont is very conservative, and is
alluded to as "red-neck, blue collar Kentucky"tnrother
communities.

The average income for the City in 1971 was
$6,391.00 per family and the average educational level
for adults is 9.7 grades (130). Both of these figures
are lower than all neighboring municipalities. The
homes in Grandmont are, for the most part, small and
inexpensive. Single parent marginally employed families
are attracted to the City by the small, low cost housing.
Over 40% of the school children from at least two ele-
mentary schools come from single parent homes (89). h

The community is over 80% Baptist, Methodist and
Catholic and is extremely conservative in religious
orientation. This fundamentalism reinforces cultural
proclivities of parochialism, traditional values and
resistance to change.

Grandmont has the lowest percentage of college
graduates and professional management personnel of
surrounding communities. It is above average in its
percentage of A.D.C. recipients. Its 8% unemployment
rate over the last decade is the highest among nearby
cities (95). One vital and pervasive result of all
these indices is a psychosocial climate which collec-

tively reinforces low expectations for success and

76

advancement.

The public school system is composed of eight
elementary schools, two junior high schools, one senior
high school and a vocational training school. In 1974,
the high school population was 1,460.

It is not possible to assess accurately the degree
of drug abuse in Grandmont. However, inferences as to
its severity can be gained from certain indicative items.
The first concerns alcohol-related legal infractions.
Although Grandmont is one of the county's smallest
communities, it ranks first in total number of liquor
law violations, second in arrests for public intoxication
(behind a much larger community) and third in D.U.1.L.--
driving under the influence of liquor. These ratings
are true for both actual reported offenses and total
arrests. Also, there is local recognition of the sever-
ity of chemical misuse since Grandmont appears to be the
only town in the Tri-County area that conducted its own
grassroots study of need for drug abuse treatment services
with full sanction and support of the local government (52).
Most other treatment efforts elsewhere seem to have de-
veloped from private channels, existing agencies, or a
small nucleus of supporters. Lastly, 90% of the cases
tried before a neighboring District Court are drug and
alcohol related (2).

It bears mentioning again, as was reported in

77

Chapter II, that almost no studies of substance abuse
have been conducted with white, blue collar populations,
especially not with high school youth. Grandmont
provides an appropriate setting to investigate ways of
addressing the drug abuse concern as it relates to these

sub-groups.
Client Treatment Procedures

Breakthrough

During 1971, the City of Grandmont conducted an
intensive study into its drug abuse problems. Over 250
citizens from various backgrounds assisted in data
collection and research. The committee submitted a
report after seven months' intensive work (125). Chief
among its subsequent recommendations was the creation of
a non-medical out-patient treatment and education program,
since named Breakthrough. During the past two years,
services have been expanded to include aid for alcoholism,
family and marriage counseling, vocational guidance,
legal counsel, pre-school child therapy, and other forms
of mental health services. (See service Chart in
Appendix E.)

The original, central drug abuse treatment program
provides the specific experimental setting for this study.
The goal of this program is not simply elimination of drug

use, but education and counseling concerning work, values,

 

 

 

 

 

78

self-understanding, social skills, and family life.
Emphasis isplaced on each individual being responsible
for his own decisions and their consequences.

Another purpose is to provide a variety of growth
services to neighboring communities. These forms of
assistance include counseling, workshops, information,
sharing and referral services. Thus, in a very real

sense, Breakthrough is a student personnel services

 

center in a non-academic setting. College students and
graduates serve as staff, interns and volunteers and
offer assistance or referrals for personal, family, legal,
medical and vocational concerns.

Undergirding the entire program and all services
are the four major principles stated in Chapter I. They
are central enough to bear repeating:

1. Each person is ultimately responsible for his

or her own development.

2. Each person is entirely unique. Everyone is
an individual existing in an unparalleled set
of experiences.

3. Each person is a complex being. Growth is an
outcome of many interdependent functions--
emotional, social, intellectual, spiritual
and physical.

4. Drug abuse and other self-defeating behaviors
are but symptomatic of other concerns needing

direct attention.

79

Group Counseling

The core of the drug abuse program is its peer
group counseling. These are groups of six to twelve
members with a professional or paraprofessional leader.
During sessions, members examine themselves and their
lifestyles, attempt to discover obstacles to their
development, and experiment with new behaviors and
attitudes. Any necessary auxiliary aid (legal, medical
and vocational, among others) is secured at little or
no cost in order to free participants to focus more
freely on social and emotional concerns as such become
manifest in the group setting.

Therapy stresses individual responsibility, limited
confrontation, self—selected alternatives and task assign-
ment. It is an eclectic model, more closely approxima-
ting Glasser's Reality Therapy than any other single
approach.

Elements of the two central therapeutic strategies--
humanism and behaviorism--are utilized. The first
stresses new awareness and self-esteem, with the outcome
of more effective behavior. The latter emphasizes the
converse: testing new behaviors with resultant new aware-
ness and self-esteem.

The core of the therapeutic process, which can not
be overemphasized, is the assumption of individual re-

‘sponsibility for one's attitudes and actions. Experience

 

 

 

he

80

has shown that little growth ensues unless participants
cease holding others and external reasons accountable
for their circumstances. Only then can they redirect
their own lives, rather than manipulate others and their
environment.

In practice, humanism is used more in the group
setting, and behaviorism is employed in between sessions.
During group sessions, the following set of dynamics are
central:

1. Participants encounter a new and often provoca-
tive environment. They tend to respond with
the attitudes and behaviors that have worked
successfully for them in the past.

2. Through both support and confrontation, indi-
viduals learn that previous, inappropriate
strategies will not work. Frustration results.

3. Participants examine themselves to become aware
of their hidden dimensions and discover new
alternatives which may enable them to succeed.

Then, behavioral goals come more into focus:

1. During group sessions, participants share unmet
needs and new insights about how they might meet
these needs in drug-free fashion.

2. Each person establishes behavioral tasks at the
end of each session.

3. These tasks are acted upon in the home, school,

peer group and community.

81

4. Participants report their progress to the
group. This reporting in turn reinforces
their striving, rewards their successes, and

provides a sounding board for their failures.

Client Flow

 

The individuals' first contact with Breakthrough
results from numerous referral sources: friends, parents,
schools, courts, churches and other agencies. Some
participants refer themselves because of friends' encour-
agement, advertising, the "grapevine" or presentations in
the community.

Whether initial contact is by phone or in person,

a prompt assessment is made of the person's concern by a
receptionist or other trained front office staff member.
If referral to another agency or form of assistance is
not in order, an appointment is made for an intake inter-
view with a staff counselor. In the cases dealt with in
this study, a youth and/or his parents would be assigned
to a drug abuse program staff member.

During the intake session three central tasks are
focused upon. These are reduction of anxiety and hostil-
ity of the newcomers, "ventilation" of the reasons for
contact, and explanation of the offerings available and
what the prospective client might anticipate happening.
The first of these tasks is essential as many people are

apprehensive, not only about their immediate problem but

82

also with the nature of Breakthrough. To some it
appears to be a hang out for "junkies"; to others it

is perceived as a semi-religious organization which
moralizes to the community. Although it is not

possible to dispel all stereotypes immediately, the
assurance of confidentiality is stressed strongly.
Second, in an atmosphere of receptiveness, individuals
are aided in sharing their concerns (and this act in
itself is highly therapeutic). Records usually precede
those referred for punitive or disciplinary reaSons.
Such materials reduce the likelihood of "conning" and
provide the counselor with information with which to
confront any discrepancies. Finally, the client is
acquainted with the treatment program and the full range
of services. If there is any need to refer a person for
additional auxiliary services, it is done so at this time
to free him to focus more completely on social and emo-
tional concerns. If the staff member is convinced of
the client's sincerity of commitment, the services are
without cost.

The same staff member continues to meet one to two
weeks with the individual for orientation. The previously
noted, three initial tasks continue to be the primary
focus. Effort is made to alleviate (but not eliminate)
anxiety to the point that it can be productive of, rather

than a hindrance to change. Support is given for further

ventil
Any te

during

exper
himse
peer:
Thes
ing
has
to 1
thal
‘m8uf
1113
do

Sta

to
to
Urg
ThC

ins

phy
all.

Sub:

83

ventilation and identification of need-based problems.
Any testing appropriate to treatment is administered
during this period.

The merits and dynamics of the forthcoming group
experience are discussed. A client is asked to commit
himself to a newly constituted group of six to twelve
peers, most of whom have similar drug-related problems.
These groups meet twice weekly for two hours each meet-
ing over a six week span. Experience with the program
has shown that drug abusing youth in the past have tended
to resist making or holding to longer term commitments
than six weeks. The six week period enables group
members to build toward a closure with subsequent new
insights and ways of living. (Clients, however, can and
do continue to be involved longer if they and Breakthrough
staff see value in their doing so.)

Certain guidelines are carefully spelled out prior
to the beginning of a group. Participants are expected
to come to each session and to be prompt. Each person is
urged to abstain from drugs during the six week period.
Those who need detoxification or maintenance (as in
instances of barbiturate dependency) receive assistance
beforehand and may join upon written approval from a
physician. Under no circumstances whatever is anyone
allowed to attend a session under the influence of a

substance. Socializing with other members of the same

group
first
all c

cente

helm
for

to 1
parr
clu

dii

84

group outside of sessions is discouraged for the
first three weeks to encourage the viewpoint that
all contact with fellow members is serious and need—
centered.

Every effort is made to promote attitudes of
being in a "special" experience and raise expectations
for change which may prompt greater change. In addition
to the above preparations and guidelines, the partici-
pants begin to feel that Breakthrough is like a special
club for them. By careful scheduling, encounters between
differing age groups and activities are kept to a minimum.

Each participant's main goal is to resolve perceived
problems underlying and/or created by drug abuse. Above
all, stress is placed on new awarenesses and decision-
making behaviors rather than mere substance abatement or
new superficial ways of coping with solvable problems.
Responsibility is placed on each participant to define
his needs and ways to meet them, with the group counselor
playing a facilitating role in the process. Behavioral
tasks are tried out between sessions and results shared
with the group. These efforts are related to concerns
identified by group members and tend to deal with self,
home, school, peers, values, and social skills. Attempts
are made to become more involved in new activities, to
honestly share feelings with significant others, and to

take the initiative in threatening situations, etc. The

actual
them f1

promot'

climat
themse
for t]

many 1

Long-
expre
Fermi
and r

growt

affi]
Cute:
that

than

85

actual performance of these tasks and the support for
them from a peer and/or a meaningful peer group tend to
promote and internalize growth.

Confrontation is important but not central. A
climate exists for the leader and each member to express
themselves honestly as long as they take responsibility
for their acts. Attack games utilized by Synanon and
many other programs are discouraged.

The sessions are frequently emotionally charged.
Long-harbored grief and resentment surface. Group members
express thoughts and feelings previously unacknowledged or
permitted. Opportunities exist to learn new ways of giving
and receiving as people grow and assist one another's
growth.

The issue of individual responsibility is repeatedly
affirmed. It is further reinforced for each person by the
outcome of attempted task assignments. Individuals learn
that they can indeed exercise more control in their lives
than they had previously imagined or possibly experienced.

During the sixth and final week, a review is made
of each person's growth experiences. Each person shares
what he perceives to be important change, and limited feed-
back is offered by other members. This very act reinforces
the permanency of change. Time is also spent in discussing
the necessary yet often painful termination of the group
experience and reentry into society without the ongoing

fellowship.

 

i
from he

Experie

 

pendenc
their
suffici
C
after a
to come
member
first ,
Change,
membeIi
identi‘
testin;
Situat
and Ot'
ties,
happen

PErcei.

even i:
contaCI
this St

Navert

as p03

86

After the final session, members are discouraged
from having contact with Breakthrough for six weeks.
Experience has shown that many clients maintain a de-
pendence on the center and its staff rather than continue
their new directions of growth toward greater self-
sufficiency.

Staff initiate contact again with each group member
after a six to eight week lapse. Each member is requested
to come in individually for a discussion with a staff
member who knew him well. The returning participant is
first asked to retake appropriate testing to assess growth
changes. Then the two individuals (staff and former group
member) have a structured hour-long interview designed to
identify changes not readily obtainable with standardized
testing. New peer groups and activities, changes in home
situations, progress in school, legal and medical status,
and other evidence is obtained. Following these activi-
ties, the former client usually freely shares what is
happening in his life and elaborates on changes that he
perceives.

In the above fashion, clients have highly similar,
even if not concurrent, experiences. Since initial client
contact with Breakthrough is different for each individual,
this study is unable to measure all subjects simultaneously.
Nevertheless, the treatment experience has been as uniform

as possible for every person.

 

22M
1

enterin
tween t
Grandmc
during
were ir

E
38 yout
drug t]
The gut
Those r
admissj
Who we]
Other ‘
8r8ate]

I
High S<
b°dy fc
jects c
involve
the Stu

with th

87

Population and Sample

The sample under study was composed of those youth
entering the Breakthrough treatment program who were be-
tween the ages of fifteen and eighteen, residing in
Grandmont and in attendance at the Grandmont High School
during the 1973-1974 school year. Both males and females
were included.

Specifically, the experiemental groups consisted of
38 youth from the population who entered the Breakthrough
drug treatment program between October, 1973 and May, 1974.
The subjects met the definition of drug abuser (Chapter I).
Those needing medical detoxification received it prior to
admission to group counseling. Non-students and students
who were married, were employed full-time, or lived in
other communities were excluded from study to insure
greater homogeneity.

A comparison group was selected from the Grandmont
High School to represent a cross-section of the student
body for testing purposes. One hundred thirty—six sub-
jects comprising five required English classes were
involved. This group, approximating a cross-section of
the student population, provided a basis for contrast

with the experimental group.

PLEASE NOTE:
Page 88 is lacking in number only,
no text is missing.

UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS

 

89

INSTRUMENTATION

The following instruments were used to more accurate-
ly assess differences among study subjects. In addition
to their merits, which are reviewed below, these tools
‘were selected for their brevity and non-threatening nature.
Experience with drug abusers has underscored the importance

of these factors.

Tennessee Self Concept Scale

The self concept is the cluster of feelings and be-
liefs one has about oneself, and equally important the
value one places on this cluster as conditioned by unique
life experiences (43). Much of one's behavior and per-
ceptions about other people and the environment are
directly shaped by this central view of self. Much be-
havior termed deviant by observers may be completely in
accordance with an individual's image of himself. Aware-
ness of the self-concept, therefore, can be a key to
much of one's change.

The Tennessee Self Concept Scale consists of 100
questions relating to the individual's perception of him-
self. Persons choose between five responses--"complete1y
false", "Mostly false", "partly false and partly true".
The total P (positive) score is the central index of
overall self-esteem. A high score reflects confidence
and a view of oneself as being of worth and value. Inidi-

viduals with low P scores tend to dislike themselves,

90

express doubt about their worth, feel more anxious and
discouraged about who they are and what they can accom-
plish. In addition, five "Self" scores--physical, moral-
ethical, personal, family and social--are cross-hatched
‘with three "positive" scales--identity, self-satisfaction,
and behavior.

The Tennessee Self Concept Scale was first stan-
dardized with 626 individuals representing a cross-section
of the national population. Subsequent testing of numerous
other samples, including many high school groups, correlate
closely with the original group and suggests no need to set
up separate sub-category norms.

Test-re-test coefficients range from .61 to .92 for
various portions, the latter reflecting the Total P score.
A shortened version of the scale has a .88 reliability for
the Total P. score. The author of the manual reports
coefficients in the .80 to .90 range for retesting a year

or more later.

Validity ---

Extensive evidence is available regarding the validity of
the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Content validity was
established only after unanimous agreement of each item
by a panel of clinical psychologists. The items, there-

fore, are assumed to be meaningful and communicable.

 

differ
are e‘
diffs
indiv
grati
peate
Prone

alco?

cor:
inst
M
the

C 0111}

to ‘
Str.

grcr

91

Testing supports the assumption that self concept
differences exist where pronounced behavior differences
are evident. Such testing has measured significant
differences between psychiatric patients, "normal"
individuals, and people deemed high in personality inte-
gration; delinquents and non-delinquents; first and re-
peated juvenile offenders; unwed and other mothers; stress-
prone and other populations; and alcoholics versus non-
a1coholics,among others.

Scales of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale have
correlated closely with many scales on other standardized
instruments. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality

Inventory, the Edwards Personal Preferences Schedule, and

 

the Inventory of Feelings are among the numerous tests
compared.

Significant experiences in life might be expected
to affect self perception. Studies show that intense
stress lowered scores on some scales, while long term
group therapy raised some scores significantly. On the
other hand some studies reported noticeable attitudinal
and behavior changes without change in self concept. thus
underscoring the stability and resistance to change of

that variable.

State Trait Anxiety Inventory

Anxiety is a condition of discomfort for which the

origins are not always clearly known (112). Until

 

 

anxie
|
one s
and i
to 1}

CW8 e

cate
"Sta
torj
flu
ind
the
of
1ex
Tho:
nm
to
Ea
te

at)

ch

92

anxiety and the reasons that cause it are worked through,
one's energies for effective living can be drained off
and life is more difficult to manage. Evidence points
to important associations warranting further study be-
tween anxiety and drug usage.

The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory consists of two
categories which report specific forms of anxiety termed
"State" and general "Trait". "State" describes transi-
tory nervousness or emotional tension. This form may
fluctuate with varying stressful circumstances. The
individual is consciously aware of the apprehension and
the difference between this state and his "normal" level
of existence. "Trait" measures more general but permanent
levels of anxiety, or one's overall emotional tone. It is
more stable, less subject to change, and is based on more
numerous past experiences which developed, and continue
to reinforce, a consistent pattern of responses for living.
Each of the two categories consists of twenty self-adminis—
tered, forced-choice questions. Four choices for each

answer reflect various levels of sensed apprehension.

Norms ---

Researchers have used the §2A1_with high school,
college and psychiatric patient populations, in addition
to numerous other groups. Separate norms are available
for the former three populations. The instrument has been

used both to differentiate between groups and to measure

trea1

Relie

for 4
thr01
reli
Whic
Sign

SCOr

Vali

93
treatment effects.

Reliability ---

Internal consistency is noteworthy. Reliability
for each scale is .83 to .92 with junior high school
through college student samples. Trait test-retest
reliability ranges from .73 to .86. The State scale,
which measures temporary stress, is statistically in-
significant (.16 to .54) on test-retest, thus under-

scoring its value as a gauge of situational anxiety.

Validity ---

The STAI Manual presents in detail fifteen rigor-

 

ous steps in developing construct validity. Concurrent
validity of the Trait scale was established by comparing
it with existing instruments with diversified samples.
Correlations ranged from .75 to .83 with the Taylor
Manifest Anxiety Scale and the IPAT Anxiety Scale. The

 

State scale was further validated during various induced

situations with brief retest times.

Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientations - Behavior
How people act in social situations can be key to
their overall satisfaction and mental health (108). The
FIRO-B assesses attitudes and behaviors related to this
social interaction. A scale of six responses is used to
answer fifty-four items. Scores are reported in terms of

three interpersonal needs: Inclusion, Control and

 

Affect.
feelin;
Contro:
social
depth
needs
EXpre
divid

What

“Or-m

C011
Sin.
Sal
maj

Sef

94

Affection. Inclusion describes the degree of "in"
feelings; accepting and being accepted by others.
Control relates to decision-making and influence in
social exchanges. Affection characterizes needs for
depth and permanency in relationships. These three
needs are matrixed with two aspects of behavior:
Expressed and Wanted. The former reports what the in-
dividual expresses toward thers; the latter identifies

what he wants to receive from other people.

 

Norms ---

The instrument was originally developed with a
college population of 1,943 individuals. Norms have
since been developed for various other groups: teachers,
sales personnel, medical students, different school
majors, etc. The FIRO-B has been used as a device for
selection, training, counseling, and measuring treatment
results. Due to its success and applicability, the
FIRO-B has served as that basis for five subsequent
instruments seeking to measure other facets of personality
(feelings, marriage, attitudes and values in addition to

others).

Reliability ---
The coefficient for internal consistency is .94
with high school and college students. Test-retest

studies establish a .76 mean coefficient for the six

95
scales.

Validity ---

Content validity was established with a variation
of the split-half technique in which specific items were
removed. It was found that the subsequent response to
the removed items were predictable over ninety percent
of the time. Concurrent validity was demonstrated by
the relationship between test scores, and various other
criteria and performance ratings. Studies were conducted
with diverse settings and occupations, with individual,

dyad, group and organizational level situations.

Student Survey

Literature reports a strong relationship between
drug use and certain sociological characteristics. Differ-
ent environmental factors and attitudes were associated
with different drug behavior. In order to ascertain
these factors, a Student Survey questionnaire was admin-
istered. This 34 item forced-choice questionnaire was
utilized to describe sociological factors related to
drug abuse and general deviancy as indicated by other
research.

Originally a 97 item instrumentation was developed
from three sources: Vener and Stewart, 1973; Drug Abuse

Questionnaire, Oakland County Department of Drug Abuse

 

Control, 1971; and this researcher's own questions (see

96

Appendix C).

This second 50 item format consisted of background
data and ten indices. School Perception, Police Perception,
Smoking, Teacher Perception, Alcohol, Sex, Religious Atti-
tudes, Parent-Child Communication, Rage and Soft Drug
Abuse. Concern was expressed by the local school system
over items relating to religion and sexual attitudes.
While it may have been desirable to incorporate these two
topics, it was not deemed feasible to do so. (Several
key studies indicate consistent positive correlations
between sexual and other forms of deviancy, and negative
correlations between religious orthodoxy and general
deviancy). These items, as well as the intended use of
the Allport-Vernon-Lindsey Study of Values, were excluded.
These eliminations resulted in the final 34 items from
which, in essence, it is a distillation of the afore-
mentioned Vener and Stewart instrument (See Appendix D).

While it was not possible to obtain direct evidence
on religious and sexual issues, tentative conclusion will
be inferred from the available data as it relates to other
studies and structured interviews with clients that have

been treated anonymously.

Data Collection
In order to obtain data to test hypotheses, the fol-
lowing procedures were undertaken. Care was taken at

every step to insure anonymity of respondants.

97

Treatment Sample ---

Between October, 1973 and May, 1974, all clientele
between the ages of fifteen and eighteen entering the
drug abuse treatment program at the Breakthrough mental
health center were administered the following instruments.
Clients took them after one to three individual coun-
seling sessions and just prior to entering group coun-
seling.

1. Tennessee Self Concept Scale

2. State-Trait Anxiety Inventory

3. Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation
Behavior

 

4. Student Survey

5. Client Intake Form and Treatment Form
Treatment consisted of six weeks group counseling. Sub-
jects seldom progressed concurrently, as clients entered
the program continuously throughout the year. Six weeks
after completing the program (twelve weeks following pre-
testing), subjects completed the TSQS, STAI and FIRO-B
again along with a brief questionnaire to assess drug use
subsequent to leaving the program. In addition, a one-
hour structured interview was conducted to obtain
additional information that might provide more insight
into statistical trends.

The treatment sample consisted of 38 subjects.
Those clients whose primary substance of abuse was alcohol

or one of the opiates were excluded from study. (The former

98

were placed in the alcoholism program and the latter
'were referred to heroin-related services). Of the re-
maing 43 youth subjects, five failed to complete post-
testing; thus the final 38 individuals. (One was im-
prisoned, two had moved outside Michigan, one refused to
take additional testing, and the whereabouts of the

other was unknown).

Comparison Sample ---

In April, 1974, five required English classes at
the Grandmont High School (where all treatment subjects
attended) were visited by this researcher. As a random
selection from the student body was deemed impractical
and unnecessary, approaching a group of classes which
all high school students were required to take was con-
cluded to adequately represent a cross section of the
student body. Students were requested to take tests
which would report their attitudes on numerous subjects:
school, home, drugs, society, and themselves. It was
stressed that at no time would they be asked to reveal
their identity. (Those who wanted to see the results
of their own tests were asked to remember the number on

their folder and call Breakthrough for an appointment.)

 

All classes were asked to come to the cafeteria the next
day instead of to class.

Of the 168 students (from high school population of
1,460), 13 failed to show; The 9% "no show" rate closely

99

approximates the 6.5% absentee rate for Spring term.
Another 9 of the tests were removed due to incomplete
answer sheets, leaving a final total of 136.

This testing group served for comparison purposes
only, and no post-tests were administered. The assump-
tion was made at the outset of the study that the twelve
week lapse between experimental group pre- and post-
testing was too brief to measure maturation changes.

Any change for the treatment scores was deemed to be due

to treatment effects.

Data Analysis

 

The objective data were examined in terms of the
hypotheses stated below; These hypotheses were developed
for testing on the basis of research literature and ex—
periences described in previous chapters.

Hypotheses I through V deal with differences be-
tween experimental and comparison group scores. Hy-

potheses VI through IX relate to treatment effects.

Statistical Hypotheses ---

Null Hypothesis 1: No differences exist between the
client group and the general popu-
lation sample with regard to the
following characteristics: School
Perception, Police Perception,

Smoking, Teacher Perception, Alcohol,

Null

Null

Null

Null

Null

Null

Hypothesis

Hypothesis

Hypothesis

Hypothesis

Hypothesis

Hypothesis

II:

III:

IV:

VI:

VII:

100

Parent-Child Communication, and
Rage (as measured by the Student
Survey).

No differences exist between the
client group and the general popu-
lation sample with regards to self
concept (as measured by the TSCS).
No differences exist between the
client group and the general popu-
lation sample in regards to ability
to cope with anxiety (as measured by
the STAI).

No differences exist between the
client group and the general popu-
lation sample with regards to inter-
personal behavior and attitudes (as
measured by the FIRO-B).

No differences exist between the
client group and the general popu—
lation sample with regard to drug
abuse.

No differences exist between client,
pre- and post-treatment scores con-
cerning self-concept.

No differences exist between client
pre- and post-treatment scores con-

cerning ability to cope with anxiety.

 

101

Null Hypothesis VIII: No differences exist between pre-
and post-treatment scores concern-
ing interpersonal behaviors and
attitudes.

Null Hypothesis IX: No differences exist between pre-
and post-treatment scores concern-
ing drug abuse.

Statistical techniques applied in this research
were the repeated measures analysis of variance (split-
plot) and one-way analysis of variance. The .05 level
of significance was used as the criterion to reject null
hypotheses.

The repeated measures ANOVA was used in testing for
treatment effects. This statistical approach was used

with pre- and post-testing scores of the TSCS, STAI and

 

FIRO-B. One-way ANOVA enabled identification of differ-
ences between the treatment and comparison group scores

on the TSCS, STAI, FIRO-B and Student Survey categories.

 

Additional nuances of change were inferred from
staff reports, records, and interviews to be used in
discussing statistical data. Weekly written assessents
of clients' progress were recorded by staff. Often,
additional data was available (e.g.: medical records,
school reports, court and police forms and other agencies'

records of auxiliary services). Most importantly, an

hour-long interview was held between an individual client

102

and a single staff member with whom prior trust existed.
These sessions were conducted with thirty-three of the
thirty-eight subjects between six and eight weeks follow-
ing completion of the basic program. A form containing
eight standard questions was used to enable comparison of
responses. (See Appendix A.) Clients were requested to
postpone discussion on other topics until after the
structured interview.

The interview enabled identification of dynamics
within the family, the peer group, and the individual
himself that were not otherwise attainable. In addition,
attitudes toward religion and sexual behavior were
gathered which were not permissible subjects in the Stu-
dent Survey. All information was treated in an anonymous

manner .

SUMMARY

Extensive drug use is an attempt to alter some
aspect of one's life, usually one's mood and accompanying
set of perceptions toward problems which exist in oneself
or one's world. Treatment is an effort to enable people
to become more aware of their self-defeating actions and
unused abilities that prevent them from having mastery
over their lives.

The methodology for an operational study was pre-

sented in this chapter. the population, treatment and

103

sample were discussed. Drug abuse clients and a com-
parison group of high school students were selected
and tested.

Standardized tests included the Tennessee Self

Concept Scale, the State-Trait Anxiety Scale, and the

 

Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation - Behavior.
A 34 item forced-choice Student Survey questionnaire was
also administered. Legal, medical and treatment records
were also gathered.

Null Hypotheses were formulated to test two sets of
differences: 1) those existing between clients' pre-
and post-test scores, and 2) those existing between the
client'and comparison groups. These two major themes
were treated separately.

Statistical techniques consisted of repeated
measures analysis of variance (split-plot) and one-way
analysis of variance. The .05 level of significance was

used as the criterion to test null hypotheses.

CHAPTER IV

The scope of the drug abuse problem and the need
for accurate data, particularly in the treatment area,
were described in Chapter I. A review of pertinent
literature comprised Chapter 11. Research methodology
was presented in Chapter III.

This chapter reports findings derived from testing
and statistical analysis of both treatment effects and
psychosocial factors. Thirty-eight drug abusing subjects
experienced two months peer group counseling. A test
battery was administered at admission and two months
following treatment. Records and interviews rendered
additional information. A comparison group of one hun-
dred thirty-six drawn from the same population as the
treatment sample was also given the pre-test battery.

Chapter IV consists of two sections: I) Findings
between Treatment and Comparison Groups, and II) Treat-
ment Effects. A section entitled FolloweUp Interviews
and Inferences is located at the end of the test of the

Dissertation.

1. FINDINGS BETWEEN TREATMENT AND COMPARISON GROUPS
In this section, each original hypothesis will be
restated and will be followed by appropriate statistical
results and narrative discussion. Data for this section
is derived from the previously described Student Survey

and standardized tests.

104

105

SOCIOLOGICAL DATA - STUDENT SURVEY

NULL HYPOTHESIS I: No differences exist between
the treatment group and the general population sample
‘with regard to the following characteristics: A) School
Perception, B) Police Perception; C) Smoking, D) Teacher
Perception, E) Alcohol Use, F) Parent Child Communication
and G) Rage.

The survey utilized to test this hypothesis focused
upon sociological factors which research indicates tend

to be related to drug abuse and general deviancy.

I-A School Perception

 

This category examined students' views of the educa-
tional environment. Questions assessed receptivity to the
overall experience--whether school was regarded as a desir-

able or negative component in an individual's life.

Questions: 5. I am proud of my school.
11. School is a friendly place.
16. I would rather be in school than most places.
26. I enjoy going to school.

Answers: 1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree

3. Uncertain

The mean for this category for the treatment group

was 3.230 and the comparison group's was 3.327. This was

106

not significant at the pre-established .05 level for

testing. Null hypothesis I-A failed to be rejected.

Table 4: l: A comparison of responses to School
Perception category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Experimental Comparison
R'= 12.921 R'= 13.308
SD = 3.844 SD = 3.332
Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 4.453 .374 .542
R:C 172 11.894
F = .374 .05 = 3.90

Students from the cross section of the school body
did not regard the educational institution and its environ-
ment more favorably than those involved in drug abuse treat-
ment. The former found school to be more friendly and
identified with it more closely but not to a significant

degree.

I-B. Police Perception

 

Basic attitudes held toward traditional formalized
authority are studied in this category. There are repeated
significant relationships reported between the norms of

deviant youth and their hostile perceptions of police.

Questions: 6.
19.

20.
28.

Answers: 1.

107
Communities could not exist without the
help of the police.

Police should be admired and respected
because of their tough job.

A typical police officer is a nice guy.

Police are fair in their treatment of
people.

Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
Disagree 5. Strongly Agree

Uncertain

The treatment sample reported a category mean of

3.198 as versus the comparison group's 3.334. The null

hypothesis I-B was not rejected.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 4: 2: A comparison of responses to Police Per-
ception Category.
Experimental I Comparison
2 = 12.795 Y = 13.338
SD = 3.314 SD = 2.942
Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 8.773 .958 .329
R:C 172 9.156
F = .958 .05 = 3.90

108

Findings show that although the two groups vary,
and the experimental group reflects more negative
attitudes toward police, the difference is not statis-

tically significant.

I-C Smoking

Researchers have demonstrated high correlation be-
tween cigarette smoking and illicit drug use. Both are
accompanying forms of protest and receive similar peer
support. This category looks at the relationship between
the two groups on the issue of quantity of smoking.
Questions: 7. On the average, how many cigarettes do

you smoke in a typical day?

Answers: 1. I don't smoke or I've only
tried it a few times

Less than % pack
Between a and 1 pack

Between 1 and 2 packs

LII-POOR)

Over 2 packs

Questions: I inhale when I smoke.

H

Answers: I don't smoke 4. Frequently
2. Never 5. Very Frequently

3. Sometimes

109

Questions: 9 I enjoy cigarettes.

Answers: 1. I don't smoke 4. Agree
2 Strongly Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3 Disagree

Category scores were 1.911 for treatment and 2.184
for comparison groups. The Null Hypothesis I-C failed

to be rejected.

Table 4: 3: A comparison of responses to Smoking Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Experimental Comparison
R = 6.553 K = 5.736
SD = 4.482 SD = 4.272
Source d.f. MS F P '
GP 1 19.820 1.063 .304
R:C 172 18.644
F = 1.063 .05 = 3.90

Those who are described as drug abusers in this
thesis do not smoke to a significantly greater degree than
a cross section of their peers. The former on the average

tend to smoke as many cigarettes per day as do the latter.

ZED. Teacher Perception

 

Attitudes toward teachers was the focus of this section.

Teachers of teens can be viewed as friends and significant

110

others, and as authority figures and disciplinarians.
This category measures any differences held by the two

groups in question.

Questions: 10. Most teachers are easy to talk to.

15. Most teachers are interested in their
students as individuals.

27. Most teachers should be respected for
the work they do.

32. Most teachers are helpful.
Answers: 1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree

3. Uncertain

Since respective scores for treatment and compari-
son subjects were 2.8421 and 2.8419 and this was not sig-
nificant, the Null Hypothesis I-D was not rejected.

Table 4: 4: A comparison of responses to Teacher
Perception Category.

 

 

 

 

Experimental Comparison

X = 11.3684 X = 11.3676

so = 3.365 so = 3.423
Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 .000 .000 .9991
R:C 172 11.631

 

 

 

F = .000 .05 = 3.90

111

It is concluded that drug abusers do not differ
in their perception toward teachers from the general
student body. It can be seen that the overall scores

for the two groups are almost identical.

I-E. Alcohol Use

 

Use of alcohol is often reported as interdependent
with use of other drugs. Blum especially stresses the
correlation between alcohol use both by adult models in
the home and youth themselves on the one hand, and
experience with a wider variety of substances. This
category describes the association between alcohol use
by the two groups under study.

Questions: 12. On how many different occasions during
the past month have you had beer to drink?

13. On how many different occasions during the
past month have you had wine to drink?

14. On how many different occasions during the
past month have you had whiskey to drink?

Answers: 1. None 4. 5 - 7 times
2. Once 5. 8 or more times

3. 2 - 4 times

A treatment mean of 2.509 was analyzed with a com-
parison group mean of 2.106. The result failed to reject

the Null Hypothesis I-E.

112

Table 4: 5: A comparison of responses to Alcohol Use
Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Y = 7.527 X = 6.318
SD = 3.733 1 SD = 3.396
Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 43.428 3.604 .0594
R:C 172 12.049
F = 3.604 .05 = 3.90

Although treatment members did not differ from com-
parison subjects in their use of alcohol at the .05 level,

this is barely so with a .0594 score.

I-F. Parent - Child Communication

 

Open communication between parent and offspring is
key to preventing many forms of deviant behavior and/or
reducing the degree of it. Freedom to share concerns in
the family arena provides ventillation and opportunities
to modify views and positions. This category determines
any variances that exist between such communication

patterns of the two groups.

Questions: 17. My parents talk Ig_me not AI me.

21.

33.

34.

Answers: 1.
2.

3.

113

It's easy for me to talk to my parents
about things that bother me.

My parents listen to what I have to say.
I can talk to my parents about anything.
Strongly Disagree 4. Agree

Disagree 5. Strongly Agree

Uncertain

2.837 was the treatment group's mean. When con-

trasted with the comparison group's 3.096 the Null

Hypothesis I-F was not rejected.

Table 4: 6: A comparison of responses to Parent - Child
Communication Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Experimental Comparison
2 = 11.347 R = 12.382
SD = 3.819 1 SD = 3.331
Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 31.816 2.685 .103
R:C 172 11.848
F = 2.685 .05 = 3.90

All subjects relate euqally well with their parents.

This was true despite a higher percentage of comparison

responses in answer three than two.

114

I-G. Rage

How one copes with stress and the way in which
aggression are expressed can be interdependent with the
use of chemicals. The Rage category identifies possible
relationships between difficulty in handling hostility

and involvement with drugs by treatment subjects.

Questions: 18. I have felt so mad that I could hardly
keep from hitting someone.

29. I have had the urge to kill.
30. At times, I feel like exploding.
31. I have felt like smashing things.
Answers: 1. Never 4. Frequently
2. Seldom 5. Very Frequently
3. Sometimes
The Null Hypothesis I-G was not rejected when the
respective scores of the experimental and comparison

groups 2.526 and 2.485 were analyzed.

Table 4: 7: A comparison of responses to Rage Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Experimental Comparison
X = 10.103 X'= 9.94.
SD = 2.719 1 SD = 3.381
__§gu;ce d.f. MS F P
GP 1 .779 .074 .786
R:C 172 10.564
F = .074 .05 = 3.90

The two groups under observation do not differ in

respect to rage.

115

NULL HYPOTHESIS II: No differences exist between
the treatment group and the general population sample
with regard to self concept (as measured by the Tennessee
Self Concept Scale).

An examination was conducted into comparative self
concepts of treatment and comparison subjects. Test re-
sults show an overall positive score of 38.526 for the
former and 41.500 for the latter. Although a noteworthy
difference existed it was nevertheless insufficient to
reject the Null Hypothesis II at the .05 level.

Table 4: 8: A comparison of responses to the Self
Concept Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Experimental Comparison
R = 38.526 R'= 41.500
SD = 7.986 SD = 9.032
Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 262.64 3.38 .068
R:C 172 77.74
F = 3.38 .05 = 3.90

Clients receiving treatment for drug abuse related
concerns at Breaktrhough do not differ from their peers in
how they esteem themselves. (It bears noting, however,

that both groups score alarmingly low compared to the

116

standardized norm of 50. These scores likely reflect
the collective set of low expectations perpetuated by

the community as discussed in Chapter I.)

CgpiuguBehavior

 

HYPOTHESIS III: No differences exist between the
client group and the general population sample with regard
to ability to cope with anxiety (as measured by the State-

Trait Anxiety Inventory).

 

A preliminary study was conducted into any differ-
ences existing between the two groups on tgeit scores.
These scores purport to reflect more permanent, less situ-
ation-oriented levels of stress handling. The instrument's
authors claim this measurement to be relatively fixed.
Thus, any differences on the trait score would tend to re-
flect resistant, predisposing psycho-physiological anxiety
factors, much as has been demonstrated for alcoholics.

Such was not the case with the subjects in this
study. Trait mean scores of 53.658 and 51.051 were report-
ed for experimental and comparison groups respectively.

A statistical difference does not exist. It can be assumed
that the two groups are alike with respect to any long-term,

predisposing variances in ability to cope with anxiety.

117

Table 4: 10: A comparison of responses to Coping Behavior
Category (Trait Anxiety).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Experimental Comparison
X = 53.658 2 = 51.051
SD = 11.525 1 SD = 10.810
Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 201.77 1.68 .97
R:C 172 120.29
F 1.68 .05 = 3.90

The central issue relative to coping behaviors
centers on the more temporary factor of etete scores. Do
youth tend more to be involved with drugs in an illicit
manner when transitory or periodical anxiety can not be
handled successfully?

Entering clients scored 53.368 on the state scale
versus 51.103 for comparison subjects. Although the
client score denotes greater anxiety, the difference is
not significant. The Null Hypothesis III failed to be

rejected.

118

Table 4: 11: A comparison of responses to Coping Behavior
Category (State Anxiety).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Experimental I Comparison
Y = 53.368 X'= 51.103
SD = 12.343 SD = 8.304
Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 152.44 1.75 .187
R:C 172 86.89
F= 1.75 .05 = 3.90

It can be concluded that experiental subjects do
not differ in any appreciable way from comparison subjects
with regard to being more susceptible to anxiety. Anxiety,
and the pressures associated with it, do not likely play a

part in prompting drug use.

NULL HYPOTHESIS 1V: No differences exist between
the client group and the general population sample with re-
gard to interpersonal behaviors and attitudes (as measured
by the FIRO-B).

Perhaps no area of substance abuse is as shrouded
in myth as that of interpersonal relationships. Much of this
is due to our customs surrounding alcohol as a social lubri-
cant. To many, drugs are viewed primarily either as a form

of socializing or a "crutch".

119

This hypothesis examines six components of how
people behave in social situations. Three describe what

an individual expresses toward others and three describe

 

what he wants others to exhibit toward him.

IV-A. Expressed Inclusion

This category identifies the degree of "welcoming"
one gives to other people, the ability to put others at
ease and the willingness to do so.

The respective experimental and comparison group
means were 3.974 and 4.419. Computer analysis revealed
that this difference was insufficient to warrant rejection
of the Null Hypothesis IV-A.

Table 4: 12: A comparison of Responses to the Expressed
Inclusion Category.

 

 

 

 

__Experimental Comparison
R = 3.973 R'= 4.419
SD = 2.187 SD = 2.236
Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 5.893 1.19 .277
R:C 172 4.954

 

 

 

F = 1.19 .05 = 3.90

120

Clients who enter Breakthrough for treatment, there-
fore do not differ from their peers in terms of expressing
inclusion with others. Both groups score in the middle
range and reflect means only slightly less than national

norms .

IV-B Wanted Inclusion

The type and amount of acceptance one wishes from
others is measured by this index. It indicates the level
of involvement or distance one is likely to seek on the
interpersonal level.

It was found that clients scored 4.658 and their
representative peers 4.294. The Null Hypothesis IV-B
was not rejected.

Table 4: 13: A comparison of responses to the Wanted
Inclusion Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Experimental Comparison
X = 4.658 X'= 4.294
SD = 2.916 SD = 3.340
Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 3.931 .371 .543
R:C 172 10.586
F = .371 .05 = 3.90

Although the treatment group participants report

greater desire for others to include them in social

121
activities,it does not exist to a significant degree.

IV-C. Expressed Control

The drive to exert control and exercise a comfortable
amount of informal power is the focus of this section.
Satisfactory relationships can not exist without some de-
gree of structuring involving control, autonomy and in-

fluence.

The Null Hypothesis IV-C was not rejected. The ex-
perimental and comparison groups respective means were

2.289 and 2.757.

Table 4: 14: A comparison of responses to the Expressed
Control Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Experimental Comparison
Y = 2.289 R'= 2.757
SD = 2.639 SD = 2.517
Source ggj. MS F P
GP 1 6.502 1.005 .3176
R:C 172 6.469
F = 1.005 .05 = 3.90

Both groups indicate similar and surprisingly low

desire to exert much control in social relationships.

122

IV-D. Wanted Control

The degree of decision-making responsibility one
welcomes or expects from others is measured by this index.
It also gives insight into the amount of influence others
could wield with the respondant.

An ‘experimental mean of 4.211 was gathered. When
analyzed with the comparison group's 2.471 a significant
difference was concluded. The Null Hypothesis IV-D was
rejected. This was significant at the .01 alpha level.

Table 4: 15: A comparison of responses to the Wanted
Control Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Experimental 1 Comparison
X = 4.211 Y'= 2.471
SD = 2.632 SD = 2.170
. Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 89.917 17.334 .0001
R:C 172 5.187
F = 17.334 .05 = 3.90 .01 = 6.79

Treatment subjects differ from others in that they
want others to assume a greater degree of control for

direction of the relationship and decisions.

 

123

IV-E. Expressed Affection

This category characterizes the more in-depth long-
ings for friendships initiated by the test taker. It
reflects his openness to vulnerability and intimacy.

The reported means for the treatment group, 3.342
and the comparison group, 3.426, were almost identical.
The Null Hypothesis IV-E failed to be rejected.

Table 4: 16: A comparison of responses to the Expressed
Affection Category.

 

 

 

 

Experimental 1 Comparison
7 = 3.342 Y’= 3.426
SD = 2.172 SD = 2.343
Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 .2114 .0397 .8423
R:C 172 5.325

 

 

 

Clients and the peer group from which they come are
alike in the amount of affection they express toward other
people and the degree to which they are open and caring in

their quest for intimacy.

IV-F. Wanted Affection

 

The amount of affection one likes to receive from
others is reflected by this score. Love and closeness that

one hopes for from other people are the primary components.

 

124

The mean for the treatment group was 4.184 as versus
4.081 for the general high school population. The statis-
tical results failed to reject the Null Hypthesis IV-F.

Table 4: 17: A comparison of responses to the Wanted
Affection Category.

 

 

 

 

Experimental Comparison
Y'= 4.184 Y'= 4.081
SD = 2.154 SD = 2.633
Source d.f. MS F P
GP 1 .3171 .0492 .8247
R:C 172 6.441

 

 

 

No difference exists between the two groups in this
category. Neither desires greater affection to be exhibi-
ted toward them by social acquaintances than the other.

In conclusion, in only one of the six categories was
there a significant difference. However, this one was
significant at the .01 alpha level. By their Wanted Control
score, treatment participants report more willingness to
have other people assume greater responsibility for control
and decision-making.

There is, however, an important pattern that suggests

a meaningful, even if not significant, distinction between

125

the two groups under study. Without exception, the
treatment group scored lower than the comparison group

on the three Expressed indices (Inclusion, Control and

 

Affection) and higher on all three Wanted indices.

From this trend it is inferred that treatment clien-
tele are less prone to assume responsibility for important
social dimensions in their lives. They have fewer skills
and/or less inclination with which to express inclusion,
decision-making and affection. Additionally, relative to
their peers, they expect others they encounter to assume
more initiative in these areas--to exercise the leadership
in organizing and influencing their lives and providing for

many of their self-esteem needs.

HYPOTHESIS V: No differences exist between the client
group and the general population sample with regard to drug
abuse.

This category assesses whether or not the treatment
and comparison subjects differ in the amount of drugs used.
This issue could determine in part whether clients are in-
deed different in terms of the reasons initiating their in-

volvement with the treatment program.

Questions: 22. On how many different occasions in the
past two months have you used marijuana?

23. On how many different occasions in the
past two months have you used hallucino-
gens or psychedelics (such as LSD, STP
and Mesc.)?

126

24. On how many different occasions in the
past two months have you used amphetamines
or methamphetamines (uppers such as benza-
drine, dexadine or methadrine)?

25. On how many occasions in the past two
months have you used sedatives (downers,
such as quads, barbiturates and pheno-

barbital)?
Answers: 1. None 4. 5 - 7 times
2. Once 5. 8 or more times

3. 2 - 4 times

9.684 and 7.269 were the experimental and compari-
son means respectively. The Null Hypothesis I-H was

rejected.

Table 4: 18: A comparison of responses to Soft Drug Use

 

Category.
Experimental Comparison
Y'= 9.684 §’= 7.269
so = 4.574 J so = 4.216

 

 

.m, Sguzge d.f. MS F P

 

 

 

GP 1 173.279 9.392 .003
R:C 172 18.451
F = 9.392 .05 = 3.90 .01 = 6.79

It can be concluded that treatment group members

do differ significantly from their peers in terms of the

127

greater use of ”soft" drugs in the two months preceding

testing.

II. TREATMENT EFFECTS

 

Changes in clients due to treatment experience are
reported in this section. Each hypothesis is stated again.
Statistical information and a brief descriptive narrative
is then presented.

Results reported below may be the result of two
months group counseling involvement. The Tennessee Self-

Concept Scale, State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the

 

Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation-Behavior
were administered at program admission and again four
months later (two months after completing the two-month

program).

NULL HYPOTHESIS VI: No differences exist between
client pre- and post-treatment scores concerning self-
concept.

Each person has an image of himself with which much
of his perceptions and behaviors are closely associated.
This image (or set of images), although complex and subject
to change, tends to maintain a core of central beliefs about
oneself that is stable over brief periods of time. In
testing Null Hypothesis II, it was found that differences
do not exist between the self-concepts of clients and

comparison group subjects.

128

The pre- and post-treatment means for the treatment
group are 38.526 and 41.211 respectively. The Null
Hypothesis failed to be rejected.

Table 4: 19: A comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Self—Concept Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pre Post
S1 x1 x1
S2 x2 x2
S38 x38 x38
X = 38.526 X'= 41.211
Source d.f. MS F
Meas. 1 136.895 2.648 N.S.
SM:G 37 51.705
F = 2.648 .05 = 4.11

Clients involved in the treatment did not experience
change in self-concepts. Although self-concept is deemed
to be central to much of one's functioning, researchers
underscore its relative permanence and resistance to rapid

change. Such was the case in this study.

NULL HYPOTHESIS VII: No differences exist between
client pre- and post-treatment scores concerning ability

to cope with stress.

129

As a validity check on the instrument (the Stete—
Trait Anxiety Inventory) a study was made of pre- and
post-test scores on the tgeit dimension. The trait score
measures coping factors that the authors claim to be more
permanent in character and less subject to change than
the more problemvcentered etete dimension. The respective
pre- and post-scores of 53.658 and 52.026, while reflect-
ing a decline in trait anxiety, do not demonstrat a sig-

nificant change.

Table 4: 20: A comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in Trait Anxiety Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pre r Post
81 x1 x1
S2 X2 x2
S38 x38 x38
X’= 53.658 R = 52.026
Source duff MS .E
Meas. 1 50.579 .692 N.S.
SM:G 37 73.065
F = .692 .05 = 4.11

The more central issue can now be focused on more
clearly. Are there treatment effects in the area of
client's ability to cope with state stress? Are test

subjects better equipped to handle the anxiety associated

130

with pressures of daily life in the home, school, peer
group and community?

The mean score at program admission was 53.368.
Four months later it was 48.974. When analyzed, this was
sufficient to reject the Null Hypothesis VII.

Table 4: 21: A comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the State Anxiety Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pre Post
S1 X1 x1
32 X2 x2
S38 x38 x38
X = 53.368 X = 48.974
Source d.f. M§_ 1E
Meas. 1 366.961 4.971 S.
SM:G 37 2731.539
F = 4.971 .05 = 4.11

Youth involved in drug abuse group counseling tends
to increase ability to cope with stress. This may indicate
an important area of growth in being able to deal with some

pressures which could prompt drug abuse or other deviancy.

NULL HYPOTHESIS VIII: No differences exist between
pre— and post-treatment scores concerning interpersonal be-

haviors and attitudes.

131

This section addresses itself to six autonomous
dependent scores which relate to differing facets of
social activity: 1) Expressed Inclusion, 2) Wanted
Inclusion, 3) Expressed Control, 4) Wanted Control,

5) Expressed Affection; and 6) Wanted Affection. Each
facet concerns aiunique aspect of social behavior and

will be dealt with separately.

VIII-A. Expressed Inclusion

This score measures the degree of involvement one
desires with other people that he is willing to initiate.
The degree of commitment to relationships and the social
skills in "breaking the ice" are reflected by this
category.

The Null Hypothesis VIII-A was firmly rejected with
means of 3.974 and 5.316 for pre- and post-tests.

Table 4: 22: A comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Expressed Inclusion Category.

 

 

Pre Post
31 x1 x1
S2 X2 X2
S38 x38 x38

Y = 3.974 R'= 5.316

 

 

1___Sonrce d f MS F

Meas. 1 34.224 26.785 S

SM:G 37 1.277
F = 26.785 .05 = 4.11

 

 

 

132

It can be concluded that subjects developed great-
er assurance in seeking out satisfactory relationships
with others. This displays increased responsibility for
and comfortability with both initiating and maintaining

social interactions.

VIII-B. Wanted Inclusion

 

This category reports the amount of social involve-
ment a person wants others to display toward him. A high
score would indicate one's preference to have others
always accept him and also a fear of rejection. A low
mean reflects disinterest in being included in others'
activities.

Respective pre- and post-test means were 4.658 and
4.500. This was insufficient to reject the Null Hypothesis
VIII-B.

Table 4: 23: A comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Wanted Inclusion Category.

 

 

 

 

Pre Post
31 X1 X1
X X
$2 2 2
S38 x38 X38
i = 4.658 X’= 4.500
. Sguzge ..__d_._f 1 NE E
Meas. 1 .474 .347 NS.
SM:G 37 1.366

 

 

 

F = .347 .05 = 4.11

133

There were not treatment effects due to group
counseling in the area of wanted inclusion. More
specifically, clients do not report either a greater
or lesser desire to have other people include them in

their social relationships.

VIII-C. Expressed Control

Expressed control describes the need for decision-
making and other power functions in relationships. A
high score reflects confidence or feelings of superiority.
A low report may indicate discomfort or inadequacy with
control in social interactions.

2.289 and 4.053 were the means for the entry and
post-treatment measures. Computer analysis enabled the
Null Hypothesis VIII-C to be rejected.

Table 4: 24: A comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Expressed Control Category.

 

 

 

 

Pre Post
S1 X1 X1
$2 X2 X2
S38 X38 x38
Y = 2.289 X = 4.053
Source d.f. MS F
Meas. 1 59.066 15.131 S.
SM:G 37 3.904

 

 

 

F 15.131 .05 = 4.11

134

Due to treatment, subjects changed in the direction
of assuming greater responsibility for power and decision-
making in interpersonal relationships. This reflects in-

creased assertion, leadership and structuring of choices.

VIII-D. Wanted Control

 

The wanted aspect of control refers to the amount
of power one wants others to assume. High scores are in-
dicative of dependency on others to make decisions concern-
ing one's own life. while extremely low scores could
reflect a mistrust of authority and insecurity with normal
sharing of decision-making.

The respective means for this category are 4.211 and
3.921. This change was not capable of rejecting the Null
Hypothesis VIII-D.

Table 4: 25: A comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Wanted Control Category.

 

 

 

 

Pre Post
31 x1 x1
S2 X2 X2
538 X38 x38
2 = 4.211 x = 3.921
Source d.f. MS F
Meas. 1 1.592 1.157 NS
SM:G 37 1.376

 

 

 

F = 1.157 .05 = 4.11

135

Scores report no change in their expectations to-
ward others' role in exerting control. The slight

decline is not significant.

VIII-E. Expressed Affection

 

Following resolution of inclusion and control needs,
the issue of love and affection become central. This
category concerns itself with emotion-laden aspects of
personal exposure, expression and more intimate commitment.

The null hypothesis VIII-E was rejected after data
analysis. The pre-test score of 3.342 and post-test of
4.368 reflected substantial change.

Table 4: 26: A Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Expressed Affection Category.

 

 

 

 

Pre 1 Post

S1 X1 X1

82 x2 x2

. L

S38 X38 X38

i = 3.342 R'= 4.368
Source d.f. MS F
Meas. 1 20.013 8.765 S
SM:G 37 2.283

 

 

 

F = 8.765 .05 = 4.11

136

Treatment subjects indicate greater openness to
expressing their needs for emotional closeness. It
bears stating that this is a matter of choosing to do
so rather than forming emotional dependence on others.
This change is marked by more spontaneity and contact

with one's effective functions.

VIII-F. Wanted Affection

Wanted affection identified the form and amount of
affection the scorer likes others to exhibit toward him.
It is an indicator of the level of friendship and intimacy
one would like.

When tested, the respective means of 4.180 and
4.553 did not generate sufficient power to reject the
Null Hypothesis VIII-F.

Table 4: 27: A Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Wanted Affection Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pre Post
81 X1 X1
S2 ‘2 x2
338 X38 X38
X = 4.180 X'= 4.553
Source d.f. MS F
Meas. 1 2.579 1.201 NS
SM:G 37 2.147
F = 1.201 .05 = 4.11

137

Subjects do not indicate any change in how they
would like others to regard them in terms of offering
affection. The mid-range scores for pre- and post-test
reveal that subjects are neither threatened by or overly
dependent on others' intimacy.

In three of the six categories, the Null Hypothesis

was rejected. Each of these was the Expressed aspect of

 

three dimensions—-Inclusion, Control and Affection.
The treatment subjects changed markedly in the
direction of taking increased responsibility for themselves

and their actions. Much of this is accountable to thera-

 

peutic emphasis-~confrontation regarding game-playing, task
assignments, group support for new risk taking, and in-
dividuals' feedback to group members about their progress
attempts.

More pronounced change in any or in all of the three

Wanted categories, or less in the Expressed categories,

 

might have reflected clients' continued projection of
responsibility for their problems upon others. Instead,
results characterize a willingness to accept more initiative
in social interactions, and a growth in new skills and

confidence with which to achieve this.

NULL HYPOTHESIS IX: No differences exist between
pre- and post-treatment scores concerning drug abuse.
In one very real sense, this issue is the central

focus of this study. Do youth use chemical substances less

138

following peer group counseling? After addressing other
needs that research identifies as precipitating drug abuse,
does abuse itself decline? Can short-term peer group
counseling diminish the amount of substance use of an
individual?

The pre- and post-test means were 9.685 and 5.947,
respectively. This was sufficient to reject the Null

Hypothesis IX.

Table 4: 28: A Comparison of Pre- and Post-Test Scores
in the Drug Abatement Category.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Pre P05;

31 x1 x1

S2 X2 x2

' 1

S38 x38 x38

x = 9.685 x = 5.947
1 Source _‘f. M§_ F
‘ Meas. 1 261.592 38.120 3

SM:g 37 6.862
F = 38.120 .05 = 4.11 .01 = 7.39

Youth who are involved in short-term group coun-
seling indicate significantly less drug use two months

after the cessation of treatment.

139

However, with this issue more than with others in
this study, there is serious question concerning "success".
Follow-up interviews underscore the fact that the data
for this category is tenuous. There are key reservations.

The informal grapevine among drug-oriented youth
is frequently a reliable source of information. Much of
this information gleaned is inconsistent with former
clients' stated responses concerning subsequent use of
chemicals. Comments like "Mark's getting high" or "Sarah's
back where she was” were shared by friends within treatment
centers, and were accurate more often than not upon staff
follow-up.

Consequently, during the follow—up interviews, a
more accurate identification of drug use was made. (See
Appendix: "Follow-Up Interviews and Inferences").

Scores were secured for thirty-three of the thirty-
eight treatment subjects and were averaged for the remain-
ing five. The resultant mean was 7.000 (as versus the
previous post-test score of 5.947). Thus, the more
accurate pre- and post-test means were 9.685 and 7.000,

respectively.

140

Table 4: 29: A Comparison of Pre- Post-Test Scores In
The Drug Abatement Category (Amended).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1.
Pre Post
S1 X1 X1
S2 X2 X2
838 X38 x38
X'= 9.685 Y'= 7.000
Source d.f. MS F
Meas. 1 134.224 17.532 8
AM:C 37 7.656
F = 17.532 .05 = 4.11 .01 = 7.39

These adjusted results were still sufficient to
reject the Null Hypothesis at the .01 alpha level.
Participation in peer group counseling by drug abusers

significantly reduced that abuse according to this study.

CHAPTER V

Chapter V is divided into five sections. They
are the following: Problem; Population, Sample and
Procedures; Findings; Recommendations; and Conclusions.

This study has two central thrusts. Its primary
purpose has been to identify what individual changes
result from group counseling for drug abusers. Secondly,
an attempt was made to describe psychosocial differences
between drug abusing youth and their peers.

It is the underlying premise of this study that drug
use reflects need-directed behavior. Often, these needs
are simple interest in new experience or desire for peer
acceptance. When other needs are pronounced, use can
become more intensive. For a minority use becomes highly
destructive. Even when such abuse is not fatal, there is
immense loss in human potential.

Research literature portrays the drug abuse prone
individual as distinguishable from his peers pgigg to
actual use. Studies report such youth as possessing less
self-acceptance, less developed social skills, and greater
anxiety. They are also apt to exhibit deviant behavior in
a variety of ways, as being more negative toward authority.
expressing greater rage, and smoking and drinking to

greater degrees. The home situation is characterized by

141

142

less harmony, fewer supportive guidelines, less religious
orientation, and feelings of being victimized by life.
Drugs of all types are more likely to be a part of the
home life, and excess use of alcohol is particularly
prominant.

Accurate information on the variablesassociated
with substance abuse are often lacking or contradictory.
Much of what is accurate does not readily lend itself to
treatment application.

Most treatment efforts focus upon the extremes--
either prevention of initial use or abatement of acute
addition. Much of what could be termed middle-range use
is unnecessarily destructive for some or transitory to
later addiction. There is no greater confusion than in
this middle range of polydrug use.

In order to develop appropriate data, this study
has tested individuals who met predetermined criteria of
drug abuse before and after peer group counseling
experience. Among the variables examined were self-
concept, ability to cope with anxiety, social skills, and
social attitudes toward the family, school, and authority,
and several forms of substance use.

The treatment subjects were thirty-eight high school
students from Grandmont. Located on the border of a major
midwestern metropolis, it is a conservative, all—white, mar-

ginally employed community of blue collar workers. Subjects

 

 

selir
medic
Selil
self
were
SUPP
were
indi
ceix

Slgr

eig}
re-t
2:31
3313
Was
addit
SUbje
and t:

Which

 

143

completed standardized tests and also a Student Survey
which assessed attitudes regarding the family, social
agencies and drug use behavior. The tests utilized were
the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, State-Trait Anxiety

Inventory and Fundamental Interpersonal Relationships

 

Orientation-Behavior.

 

The treatment consisted of six weeks group coun-
seling augmented by any necessary individual, legal,
medical, educational or vocational assistance. Coun—
seling strategies consisted of enabling clients to see
self-defeating behavior and attitudes. New alternatives
were posed by the individuals themselves with the group's
support. Tasks which were to test out these alternatives
were attempted between sessions. In subsequent sessions,
individuals reported their success or failure, and re-
ceived feedback from peers who were becoming increasingly
significant in their lives.

Following the six week treatment, another six to
eight weeks were allowed to elapse. Clients were then

re-tested with the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, State-

 

Trait Anxiety Inventory and the Fundamental Interpersonal

 

Relationships Orientation-Behavior. A brief questionnaire
was also administered to assess drug taking behavior. In
addition, a one-hour interview was conducted with each
subject by a staff member with whom a prior relationship
and trust existed. This interview obtained information

which aided understanding of statistical findings.

 

144

A cross-section of youth from the high school
attended by the treatment subjects was selected for
purposes of comparison. One hundred thirty-six students

also completed the Student Survey, and the tests men-

 

tioned in the preceding paragraph.

Statistical methodology consisted of repeated
measures (split-plot) and one-way analysis of variance.
The former was utilized to ascertain treatment effects.
One-way ANOVA provided assessment of differences between
the treatment and comparison groups. The level of
significance was set at .05 in order to reject null
hypotheses.

Nine null hypotheses were developed in order to con-
sider possible differences regarding social deviancy,
self-concept, anxiety coping, interpersonal skills, and
drug use behavior. The first five dealt with variances
in scores between the treatment and comparison groups.
The latter four related to the treatment group's pre- and

post-test SCOIBS .

Findings

 

Significant findings were discovered in several
/categories, both due to treatment and between experimental
and comparison groups. This section reviews findings in
the following segments:

A. Significant Findings Between Groups

B. Non-Significant Findings Between Groups

145

C. Significant Treatment Effects

D. Non-Significant Treatment Effects

A. Significant Findings Between Groups

Significant differences were found between the ex-
perimental and comparison groups on two out of sixteen
categories. Only Null Hypothesis V, which concerned
differences in non-medical drug use, could be rejected
completely.

Social Deviation ---

Drug abusing youth in this study differ from their
high school peers in none of the seven categories. These
categories dealt with perceptions of school, police,
teachers, rage and relations between themselves and parents,
and the use of alcohol and cigarettes.

Although there are no significant differences, an
important and consistant pattern exists that warrants
mentioning. Drug abusing youth have less regard for their
shcool and the police, and report less harmonious parent-
child relations. These youth also drink and smoke to great-
er extents, and experience more rage. The remaining cate-
gory score, perceptions of teachers, was almost identical
with comparison group. This non-significant pattern is
consistent with significant findings of Stewart and Vener
who developed the original expanded form of the same

survey.

 

 

 

Fi

TIN

Cor

Int

Spo
The
ers
Thi:
inf:
to j

grEE

that
gori

that

thre

146

Fig. 5: 1: Mean scores by category for treatment and
comparison groups.

Sch Pol Smok Teach Alc Par-CH Rage
Treatment 12.92 12.79 6.55 11.37 7.53 11.35 10.11
Comparison 13.31 13.34 5.74 11.37 6.32 12.38 9.94

Interpersonal Behaviors and Attitudes ---

Treatment subjects are more willing to yield re-
sponsibility for decision-making over their lives to others.
They report a pattern of letting other people assume lead-
ership roles more readily than seeking them for themselves.
This also indicates greater inclination to letting others
influence them. That is to say, they may have a tendency
to follow more than lead and to negate themselves to a
greater degree while seeking the approval of others.

A noteworthy, although not significant findings, is

that treatment mean scores for all three Expressed cate-

 

gories ("Inclusion", "Control", and "Affection") are lower
than comparison scores. The converse is also true: client
scores are higher than those of the comparison group on all

three Wanted categories:

 

Inclusion Control Affection
Expressed
Treatment Group 3.973 2.289 3.342
Comparison Group 4.419 2.757 3.426
Wanted
Treatment Group 4.658 4.211 4.184

Comparison Group 4.294 2.471 4.081

147

This pattern suggests a possible tendency for drug
abusers to be less expressive socially, to assume less
initiative than their peers in the three levels of inter-
personal behavior measured by this instrument. This
speculation gains further strength from the conversely con-
sistent Wanted pattern.

Drug abusing youth seem to imply more willingness
on their part for peers to take the lead for including
them socially, in making decisions affecting the welfare
of both, and in expressing affection. In brief, comparison
group subjects seem to be somewhat more self-assured in
all areas of social interaction. This suggests a likeli-
hood on the part of treatment group members to use sub-

stances as social lubricants.

Drug Use behavior ---

Thomayouth involved in the experimental group do
indeed use illict drugs to a greater degree than their
peers. In terms of substance use, the two groups are

different at a .01 level of significance.

B. Non-Significant Findings Between Groups
Social Deviation ---

As mentioned in the section above, drug abusing
youth do not differ from their peers in significant
fashion in terms of social deviation. No statistically

sound differences were found concerning attitudes toward

148

school, teacher, police, parent-child relations, ex-

pression of rage, or drinking and smoking.

Self-Concept ---

Drug abusing youth in this study and the general
high school population report similar levels of self-
esteem, but not at a .05 level of significance.

An important finding is that compared to national
norms, both groups state abnormally low scores: one
standard deviation below. This may be a product of many
forces: lower-class Appalachian setting, the large
percentage of downwardly mobile families, the high rate
of single-parent homes, the highest unemployment and
lowest education levels of neighboring communities, among

other factors.

Anxiety Coping Behavior ---

Drug abusing subjects and their high school peers
were alike in how they relate to stress in their lives.
This was true for both "state" (temporary) and "trait"
(more permanent) forms of handling anxiety

Inordinate amounts of stress or an inability to
cope with such tension do not appear to be reasons why
drugs would be used. That is to say, youth in this study
were not using chemical substances to escape from the

pain of stress or the lack of coping ability.

149

Interpersonal Behaviors and Attitudes ---
There were no significant differences in five of
the six categories in this section. Drug abusers are
similar to the rest of their peers in terms of social
skills and perceptions. The teen years are ones of
intense change in the area of interpersonal development.
However, confusion with expressed social roles and skills
during this time does not prompt significantly greater
drug use on the part of the subjects as a social lubricant.
At the same time, the categorical exception mentioned
above is noteworthy. Experimental scores are significantly
lower at the .01 alpha level on the Wanted Control category.
Users express desire for others to assume more leadership
in the social arena. Additionally, the non-significant
tendency for users to accept less responsibility for their
lives than other high school youth in the study is con-

sistent across the remaining five categories.

C. Significant Treatment Effects

 

Significant differences due to treatment effects
were found with five of nien categories. Three of the
four treatment effect null hypotheses were rejected at

the .05 alpha level.

Anxiety Coping Behavior ---
Experimental group youth report greater ability in

handling anxiety of a temporary nature ("state" score).

150

Daily stress encounters with home, peer and school are
less apt to adversely affect these yOuth than previously.

As a check, the scale measuring ability to cope
with long-term anxiety ("trait" score) was also readmini-
stered. No difference was found. Thus, no change was
measured in subjects' predispositional ability to handle
anxiety. This result lessens the likelihood that change
is a product of test-taking since change occurred on
only one of the two scales.

Additionally, the experiemtnal group's post-score
was statistically insignificant with the comparison group's
score (48.974 and 51.103, respectively). It is concluded
that transitory anxiety can be reduced as a result of

short-term peer group counseling.

Interpersonal Behavior and Attitudes —--

Dramatic changes were reported in the area of social
skills. Significant changes occurred in the direction of
experimental subjects assuming greater responsibility for
initiation, expression and decision-making in interper-
sonal relations.

All three Expressed categories--"Inclusion", "Control"

 

and "Affection”e-reflected significant change in a positive
direction. Clients indicate more confidence in affirming
themselves and their ideas, and for behaving in more re-

laxed, assertive and openly caring fashion. There is also

151

a corresponding but non-significant reduction in all three
Wanted categories. This consistency reflects lessening
desire on the part of clients for others to "carry the ball"
socially.

Treatment focused heavily on discussing social be-
haviors and task assignments which prompted testing out
attitudes and actions. With group support,individuals
identified current behaviors, established new goals, and
attempted them in daily life. Subsequent group feedback
reinforced continued attempt, modification of efforts, and
continual success. Youth became aware that they could
transcend their social limitations in ways they had not

previously anticipated.

Drug Use ---

Youth participating in this study's peer group coun-
seling significantly reduced their illicit use of drugs.
This conclusion remained true even with the modification
of post-test figures based on follow-up interviews.

With the decline in substance use, it can be con-
cluded with greater certainty that other changes that took

place could be associated with needs formerly met with drugs.

D. Non-Significant Treatment Effects
Upon statistical analysis, treatment effects proved
to be non-significant in two major areas. These were self-

concept and three of the six categories concerned with in-

152
terpersonal behaviors and attitudes.

Self-Concept ---

Experimental subjects report no significant change
in self-concept over the period of study. The peer group
counseling experience neither increased or decreased how
individuals fundamentally view themselves.

How one esteems oneself can have strong and direct
influence on actions and attitudes. However, other treat-

ment changes do not appear to be related to self-concept.

Interpersonal behaviors and Attitudes ---

There was no significant change in any of the three
Wanted categories ("Inclusion", "Control" or "Affection")
on the FIRO-B. Subjects indicate that they still welcome
or expect other people to exercise the same amount of re-
sponsibility in social relationships as previously.

Although Wanted scores remain unchanged, their

new relationship to the Expressed categories is important

 

to note. With the significant increase in individual

 

decision-making and initiative taking denoted by the

Expressed scores, the relative importance represented by

 

 

the Wanted scores (dominance by others in social relations)

declines in overall consequence.

Discussion and recommendations

 

In reviewing the findings of this study and relevant

literature cited earlier, the following discussion is

153

presented. Recommendations are made at the conclusion
of each discussion section.

1. The crux of this study has been to identify
whether drug abuse would abate as basic individual needs
were addressed. Between treatment admission and three
and one-half months later, non-medical use of chemical
substances declined significantly.

Changes in other variables accompanies this decline.
Most noteworthy was the increased self—determination in
interpersonal relationships. Youth began to assert them-
selves more in various social opportunities. They assumed
more initiative for making their own decisions, for affirm-
ing themselves and their ideas where they had previously
been hesitant to do so, for sharing their affective side
more readily, and for becoming increasingly sensitive to
other people and their perspectives. Associated with this
shift was a slight decline in wanting to have others
exert control over their lives. Youth in the experimental
group became less willing to have others determine the
conditions of social relationships.

An increase in the ability to cope with transitory
anxiety accompanied these changes. Individuals developed
more assurance in handling daily crises and pressures.

At the same time, caution must be exercised with
this variable of anxiety coping. Literature concerning

the instrument (State-Trait Anxiety Inventory) fails to

 

154

differentiate between increase in coping ability and

any corresponding decrease in the factors which caused

the transitory anxiety. Thus, it is not entirely clear
what degree of impact each of the two factors (improved
coping ability and reduction of the anxiety stimulus) has
in the final score. If, however, reduction in the "state"
anxiety score was due primarily to reduction of external
pressures, program familiarity or becoming "test wise",
one might also expect a reduction in the "trait" score,
the other half of the §gg;. This did not occur. Addition-
ally, any reduction in external pressures might in large
part be due to new, more mature skills of the subjects in

being able to personally reduce them.

Recommendation: Drug abuse treatment, research and

 

education programs would be well advised to focus upon
skills and attitudes that aid interpersonal development
and the ability to better cope with short term anxiety.
2. One of the noteworthy results of this study
concerns the lack of definitive relationship between drug
abuse and the sociological variables which were studied.
This lack is at variance with findings of several key
studies reported in Chapter II: Blum.et_el., Hager,
Vener and Stewart, Johnston et_el., and the LeDain
Commission are among the most important. These and other

studies found frequent significant positive relations

155

between drug abuse and such factors as delinquency,
disharmonious home environment, and negative attitudes
toward society and its agencies, and alienation from
peers.

There was a consistent pattern of positive relation-
ship between drug abusers and the variables in this study.
(The variables were again, School Perception, Police
Perception, Smoking, Teacher Perception, Alcohol Use, and
Rage.) However, not one was significant.

Based on the statistical evidence of this study, it
can only be concluded that drug abusing youth of this
study do not differ from their peers in terms of socio-
logical factors in question. Notwithstanding this con-
clusion, it is essential to look at this atypical situation
more fully.

The foremost explanation lies in the nature of the
community under study. As noted, Grandmont is unusual in
several ways. Its citizenry are marginally employed, and
have the lowest cost housing and education levels, and the
highest unemployment rate over the past decade of border-
ing communities. Almost half the school age children
live in single parent homes. Although one of the county's

smallest municipalities, it has the highest absolute

 

number of alcohol-related legal offenses. Approximately
ninety percent of the cases heard at the local District
Court are alcohol related. Except for the sizeable influx

from Appalachia, most new arrivals from other communities

156

are what might be described as "downwardly mobile".

What may be of great importance in explaining this
finding is that self-concept scores for both treatment
and comparison groups are over one standard deviation be-
low the national norm. This finding is immensely impor-
tant, and warrants further, intensive examination.

The community is a closed, parochial setting in
numerous ways. It is very conservative politically and
religiously. A vivid example of these attitudes was
shown when the school system.refused to permit any survey
items concerned with sexuality or religion for this study.

It is speculated that the Grandmont environment
reinforces a collective set of negative attitudes with
low expectations for success. In a community with littel
relative upward mobility, these attitudes become self-
fulfilling and self-perpetuating norms.

Due to these negative attitudes and the homogeneity
of the community, there appears to be less differentiation
among the home environment, family modeling and perceptions
toward society of all youth than might exist with drug
users and non-users in other communities.

Grandmont as a total community collectively appears
to be a "high risk" environment alluded to by Blum and
his fellow researchers. Paradoxically, the setting con-
tains both a rigid allegiance to traditional values (which

are seldom associated with drug abuse) and, simultaneously,

 

157

many of the ingredients related to non-conformity and
social deviation (which research show to usually foster

non-medical use of chemicals).

Recommendation: It is imperative to develop crea-

 

tive and more discriminating methodologies to discern
sociological variables in population settings that are
homogeneous and/or resistant to data collection.

3. Closely related to number one above is the
finding that drug abusing youth differ in some ways and
tend to differ in others from the general high school pop-
ulation in some behaviors and attitudes, but not in more
permanent characteristics such as self-concept or predis—
positional forms of anxiety coping. The clientele group
differ from their peers in their drug use behavior and in
wanting others to assume control of mutual interpersonal
relationships. A tendency also exists for the former to
have attitudes and behaviors which are opposed to tradi-
tional values and which reflect greater defeatism as a
lifestyle.

There is still a large portion of the population,
professional as well as lay, that views drug abuse as a
disease or mental disorder, and subscribes to strict moral,
legal, or medical responses. This study supports the
mounting evidence which describes drug abuse as a product
of learning behavior and social reinforcement. Unfortunate-

ly, treatment and education lag behind research findings.

158

In order to address drug abuse related concerns
short of addiction, it is not necessary to pursue a
medical or mental disorder model. Differences between
youthful drug users and non-users are attitudinal and

behavioral in nature, not characteralogical.

Recommendation: Effective treatment with non-

 

addictive drug abuse can proceed with peer group coune
seling models appropriate to "normal" personality
functioning.

4. The most distinguishing charactertistic
between drug abusing and other youth in this study is
the former's willingness to let others exert control for
interaction between them. This was significant at the
.01 alpha level.

Frederick Perls, the originator of Gestalt therapy,
stresses that healthy life is a continual development
process from total environment control to ever increasing
self-determination. This central premise is similar to
those of such varied authorities as Carl Rogers and B. F.
Skinner, among others.

Pre-test scores indicate that those identified as
drug abusers have a greater dependency on the outer en-
vironment, primarily other people, to provide social
process and structure. Users in this study evidence a

history of being less willing and/or able to assume as

 

159

much self-determination in their lives as do their
peers. This posture is accompanied by a non-significant
but consistent pattern of lower expressed social behav-
iors such as assertion, initiation and affection.

Due to treatment effects, subjects significantly
increased their awareness and expression in all three
interpersonal areas. This counteracted some of the
strong propensity to have others assume the major re-
sponsibility.

However, the treatment group "Wanted Control" post-
score was still significantly lower than that of the com-
parison group. This suggests a permanency which has had
years of reinforcement and is highly resistant to rapid
change.

In view of all the above--re1evant research, the
study setting, and the persistance of environmental
control--it is speculated that much of the social de-
viation cited in many studies may in part be attempts
by individuals to affirm themselves in a world in which
they have little autonomy. Much of the acting out with
drugs and nonconformist lifestyles may be expressions
of resentment at dependence on others and the environ-
ment for structure, meaning and interaction in their
lives. Thus, deep dependence on others (and irritation
about it) exists, and at the same time there is negative

and rebellious behavior utilized to react against

160

traditional authority, vent frustrations and ease
anxieties. Use of chemical substances helps meet all

these needs.

Recommendation: Substance abuse programs must

 

facilitate greater self-determination and expression which
aid both the individual and others.

5. Ibllow-up interviews with experimental subjects
indicate that greater change occurred when other family
members were also involved. Many parents and siblings
participated in the Family Communication Skills classes,
other counseling groups, or in marriage or family therapy.

When more than one member of the family was open to
change, this in turn reinforced growth that the client was

attempting.

Recommednation: Treatment programs are encouraged

 

to involve other members of the client's family unit in

the growth process.

Implications for Research

A vital purpose of this study is to identify key
issues worthy of further research. The following questions
have been generated from the discussions in this chapter.

As has been repeatedly stressed in this investigation,
current research has focused almost exclusively on variables
associated with the onset of drug abuse. It is imperative

that more emphasis be placed on operational studies in order

 

161

to discover more precisely what makes for effective
approaches in treating all self-defeating levels of use,
rather than merely the precipitating variables.
1. What specific forms of drug education and treat-
ment can best facilitate interpersonal skills
and abilities to cope with short-term anxieties?

2. What are the longeterm,treatment effects of peer

 

group counseling with drug abusers? (Six months
to three years?)

3. How can psychosocial research data be generated
in a setting that is resistant and/or con-
servative?

4. What research models can be developed to promote
differentiated diagnosis and treatment?

5. What is the interdependency of psychological and

sociological variables in promoting drug abuse?

Conclusion

 

The most important contribution of this study is the
evidence that certain personal and social need-fulfillment
accompanies reduction of non-medical drug use. By focus-
ing on alternate approaches to these needs, they can be
met in more appropriate ways that enhance self-determina-
tion and encourage less non-medical drug use. Specifically,
these associated needs are individual expression in social
relationships and coping with short-term crises which prompt

anxiety.

162

The second major contribution is the identification
of some characteristics that differentiate drug abusing I
youth from their peers. Central discriminating factors
are the former's reliance on others to assume social
leadership and an insignificant but consistent tendency
to report lifestyles which are more deviant socially.

It is speculated from data, research literature and
follow-up interviews that the family and community en-
vironments are instrumental factors precipitating and
perpetuating drug abuse. The specific test and survey
evidence fail to bear out this premise. Other descriptive
data on the community itself, however, point to expecta-
tions for lower achievement and mobility.

Essentially, the drug abuse problem is a living
problem. It is fraught with human variables of enormous
complexity and ambiguity: individual, social and environ-
mental. Legal, moral and cultural issues further compound
and distract from the central reality. The prime concern
is not the chemicals themselves, but the behaviors that
are elicited or prohibited by them.

Simplistic solutions are unrealistic and unattain-
able. Each person's unieque cluster of needs can be best
served by a therapeutic environment which discourages the
success of self-defeating attitudes and behaviors and

encourages support for insight and new self-determination.

163

Such an experience can aid many youth with their
maturation and assist some whosetne might have even-

tually have led to dependence.

LIST OF REFERENCES

10.

ll.

12.

l3.

14.

15.

LIST OF REFERENCES

Adams, Nathan M. "Inside Heroin, Inc." Readerh Digest,
March, 1972.

Agnelio, Joseph (Judge, State of Michigan District
Court). Interviews between September, 1972 and
October, 1974.

Althoff, Sally Ann. "The Relationship of Social Class
Status, Alienation and Selected Social-Psycho-
logical Factors to Drug Use in the Tenth and
Twelth Grades, " (Unpublished) Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Toledo, 1971.

Anonymous.

Alcoholics Anonymous Comes of Age: A Brief

History of’A. A. New York: Alcoholics Anonymous

 

Becker, H.S. "Marijuana Use and the Social Context,"
Social Problems. Kalamazoo, 1955.

 

Bell, D. S. and W. H. Trethown. "Amphetamine Addiction,"
Journal of Nervous Mental Disorders. Baltimore,

1961.

Belter, E. W. "Treatment of Those Using Alcohol and
Other Drugs," Grassroots. September, 1972.

Bender, L.

 

"Drug Addiction in Adolescence," Compre-

hensive Psychiatry, 1963. 4, pp. 131-34.

Blaine, Graham. Youth and the Hazards of Affluence.
New York: Harper Colophon,I966.

Blake, Carboy and Zenhausenn. "Rehabilitation of Drug
Users," (Unpublished). '

Blum, Richard H. Horatio Alger's Children. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 1972.

Blum, Richard H. et. a1. Society and Drugs (Volume I)
and Students and—firugs (Volume II). San Francisco:

 

Jossey-Bass, 1970.

Blum, Richard H. et. a1. Students and Drugs: College
and High School 05servations. San Francisco:

 

 

Jossey-Bass, 1970.

Bowker, Lee H. "Drug Use at a Small Liberal Arts College,’
(Unpublished) Ph.D. dissertation, Washington State
University, 1973. .

Bray, Charles C. "Patterns and Motives in Illicit Drug
Usage Among Secondary School Students," (Unpublished)

PH.D.

dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1972.
164

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

165

Brown, L. B. "A Cognitive Functioning Approach to
the Differentiation of College Drug-Users and
Non-Users," (Unpublished) Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Utah, 1972.

Burton, Richard F. (trans.). The Kasidah of Haji
Abdu el-Yezdi.

 

Campbell, Donald T. and Julian C. Stanley. Ex eri-
mental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research.
Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1969.

Cameron, D. C. "Addiction: Current Issues," American
Journal of Psychiatry, 1963. 120, pp. 3I3-I9.

 

Chapman, A. H. "Paranoid Psychoses Associated with
Amphetamine Usage," American Journal of Psychiatry,
1954. 111, pp. 43-457

Chickering, Arthur W. Education and Identity. San
Francisco: JosseyJEass, 1969.

Chipman, Donald A. "The Attitudes, Behaviors and
Characteristics of Students at MacAlester College
with Respect to the Use of Illicit and Exotic Drugs
with Particular Emphasis on Marijuana," (Unpublished)
Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 1971.

Clark, Ted and Dennis T. Jaffe. Drug Use and the Youth
Culture. New Haven, Connecticut, I972.

Clement, W. R. "Abuse of Amphetamine and Amphetamine-
Like Drugs," Psycholegical Reports, 1970. 26,
00. 343-54.

Cockett, R.and V. Marks. "Amphetamine Taking Among Young
Offenders," British Journal of Psychiatry. London,
1969. 115, pp. 1203904.

Cockett, R.and V. Marks. Amphetamine Taking Among Young
Offenders," British Journal of Psychiatry. London,
1969, 115, pp. 1203-04. (Unpublished typed copy
of source.)

Cohen, M. and D. G. Klein. ”Drug Abuse in Young
Psychiatric Population," American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, 1970. 40, pp. 448-55.

 

Cohen, Sidney. Hearings Before the Subcommittee to
Investi ate JuveniIe Delinquency of the COmmittee
on tEe fiudiciary, U. S.~Senate, 19st Congress, 1st
Session. September 17, 1969. Washington, D.C.:
U. S. Government Printing Office, 1969, p. 293.

 

29.

30

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

166

Cohen, S. and K. S. Ditman. "Prolonged Adverse
Reactions to LSD," Archives of General Psychiatry.
Chicago, 1963. 8, pp. 475-80.

Commission on Professional Development of the Council of
Student Personnel Associations, "A Proposal for
Professional Preparation of College Student Develop-
ment Educators" (Working paper). A report presented
at the Annual Convention of the American Personnel
and Guidance Association, Chcago, 1972. (Adaptation
of the Working paper).

Darden, M. H. and T. F. Jekel. "Pilot Program in High
School Drug Education Utilizing Nondirective
Techniques and Sensitivity Training," Journal of
School Health, 1971. 44, pp. 118-24.

De Lone, Richard H. "The Ups and Downs of Drug-Abuse
Education," Saturdey Review. November 11, 1972.

Dimascio, A. and J. Barrett. "Comparative Effects of
the 'Minor Tranquilizers' on 'High' and 'Low'
Anxious Student Volunteers," Diseases of the
Nervous System. Galveston, 1966. 27 (7), pp. 483-86.

 

Dimascio, A. and J. Barrett. "Comparative Effects of
Oxagepam in 'High' and 'Low' Anxious Student
Volunteers," Psyehosomatics, Brooklyn, 1965, 6,
pp. 398-402.

De Merritt.Mary Walter. "Differences in the Self-Concept
of Drug Abusers, Non-Users and Former Users of
Narcotics and/or Non-Narcotic Drugs," (Unpublished)
Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University, 1970.

Di Salvo, Anthony. "Overview of Drug Abuse Education and
Prevention," A lecture given at the Drug Dependence
Institute, Yale University Department of Psychiatry.
New Have, Connecticut, April 30, 1973.

Dorhoffer, Roland H. "The College Drug Scene: An
Analysis of Kingsborough Community College,"
(Unpublished) Ed.D. dissertation, Columbia University,
1972.

Edwards, A. E., M. H. Bloom, and S. Cohen. "The
Psychaedelics: Love or Hostility Potion?"
Peychological Reports. Missoula, 1969. 24 (4),
pp. 843-46.

Einstein, Stanley. "Alternatives to Drug Abuse: An
Analysis," The Non-Medical Use of Drugs:
Contempprary Clinical Issues. Farmingdale, New
York: Baywood Publishing Company, 1972.

 

40.

41.

42.
43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

167

Everson, M. "Research with Female Drug Addicts at
the Prison for WOmen," Canadian Journal of
Corrections. Ottawa, 1964._6 (1), pp. 21-27.

 

Executive Office of the Governor: Office of Drug
Abuse and Alcoholism. Michigan Comprehensive
Substance Abuse Plan. Lansing, Michigan:
Department of Public Health. March, 1973, X-4.

Ezekiel. Bible, 47:12.

Fitts, William H. Tennessee Self Concept Seele Manual.
Nashville: Counselor Recordings and Tests.’l965.

Fleming, James (Director of Oakland County Alcohol
Highway Safety Project). Interview: February
18, 1974.

Fox, T. A. Development of a Druggehabilitation Center
for Mistakes We Have Made. Tulsa: fTfilsa
PsychiatricFoundation, 1970.

 

Gilbert, J. G. and D. N. Lombardi. "Personality
Characteristics of Young Male Narcotic Addicts,"
Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1967. 31,
pp. 536-38.

Gilbert, J. G. and D. N. Lombardi. "Personality
Characteristics of Young Male Narcotic Addicts,"
Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1967. 31, pp.
536-38. (Unpuinshed typedcopy of source.)

Gillie, 0. "Drug Addiction: Facts and Folklore,"
Science Journal, 1969. 5A, pp. 75-80.

 

Glasscote, Raymond et. £1. The Treatment of Dru Abuse:
Prngrams, ProbIEmsLProspects.'Washington, .C.:
AmericamPsychiatric Association, 1972.

Glickman, L. and M. Blumenfield. "Psychological
Determinants of 'LSD Reactions'," Journal of
Nervous Mental Disorders. Baltimore, 1967. 145
(1), pp. 79-83}

Gough, H. G. Calfiornia Psychological Inventory. Palo
Alto: Consulting PsychoIgists Press, 1956.

Grandmont City Council. Minutes of Council Meeting,
February 22, 1971, establishing the Citizens
Comprehensive Drug Control Program Advisory
Committee to research and formulate a comprehen-
sive drug program.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

168

Green, M. G. et. a1. "Personality Characteristics of
the MiddIE CIEss High School Drug User," Proceed-
ings of the Annual Convention of the American
Psychological Association, 1971. 6 (2), pp. 559-60.

Griffenhagen, George B. "A History of Drug Abuse,"
Grassroots, January, 1972. l.

 

Guidoz, Fay Thraser. "Evaluation of Four Treatment
Approaches for Drug Addiction," (Unpublished)
Ph.D. dissertation, Louisiana State University,
1970.

Gunne, L. M. "The Status of Treatment Research in the
Field of Drug Dependence in Sweden," (Unpublished)
1970.

Hager, David L. "Adolescent Drug Use in Middle America:
Sociol-Psychological Correlates," (Unpublished)
Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University,
1970.

Hammond, Peter G. "Why Drug Abuse Education is Failing
in America," Proceedings of the 30th International
Congress on Alcoholism and Drug Dependence,
September, 1972, p. 4, (Unpublished).

Harris, E. M. "Measurement of Alienation in College
Students: Marijuana Users and Non-users,"
Journal of School Health, 1971. 41, pp. 130-33.

Halpern, F. "Emotional Reactions and General Personality
Structure." The Marijuana Problem in the City of
New York. Lancaster, Pennsylvania: Jacques Cattell
Press, I944. pp. 107-32.

 

Hoffman,Alan H. "Sociological Alienation and Drug
Usage in Three Collegiate Settings," (Unpublished)
Ph.D. dissertation, Penn. State University, 1972.

Hogan, Philip. "Drug Problems in the Community,"
Grandmont News. March 7, 1974. p. l.

 

Hogan, Robert. "Personality Correlates of Undergraduate
Marijuana Use." (Unpublished) Ph.D. dissertation,
Johns-Hopkins University, 199.

Hogan, R. EE- al. "Personality Correlates of Under-
graduate MErijuana Use," Journal of Consulting
and Clinical Psychology, . . PP. - .

Jalkanen, Arthur. Drug Use and the Guidance Counselor.

Pontiac, Michigan: Oakland Community College
Press, 1970.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

169

Jenkins, David P. and Robert Brody. Facts About
Commonly Used Drugs. Phoenix: 06 It Now
Foundation, 1973.

Johnson, Bruce D. "Social Determinants of the Use
of 'Dangerous Drugs' by College Students,"
(Unpublished) Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia
University, 1971.

Johnson, Vernon. I'll Quit Tomorrow. New York:
Harper and Row, 1973.

Johnston, Lloyd. Drugs and American Youth. Ann
Arbor: Institute for Social Research, 1973.

Joint Information Service of the American Psychiatric
Association and the National Association for
Mental Health. ”A Comprehensive Study by the
Joint Information Service," The Informant, 1972,
III.

Knight, R. C. and C. T. Prout. "A Study of Results
in Hospital Treatment of Drug Addicts," American
Journal of Psychiatry, 1951. 108, pp. 303-08.

Kenniston, Kenneth. "Drug Use and Student Values,"
Paper presented at the National Association of
Student Personnel Administrators Drug Education
Conference, Washington, D.C., November 7-8, 1966.

Kenniston, Kenneth. The Uncommitted: Alienated Youth
in American Society. *Néw YOrk: Dell Publishing
company, I965.

Kleber, Herbert. "Student Use of Hallucinogens,"
(Unpublished), 1965.

Kleber, Herbert. "Therapeutic Implications for Rules
in Treatment," A lecture given at the Drug

Dependence Institute, Yale University Department
of Psychiatry. New Haven, Connecticut, April 30,
1973.

Kearns, Patricia M. "Drug Dependence: A Comparative
Study to Discover Significant Factors Relating to
Interpersonal and Intrafamilial Relationships
Prevalent in a Group of Trainees at Fort Sam
Houston, Texas," (Unpublished) M. S. Thesis,
Trinity University, 1973.

Kuehn, J. L. "The Student Drug User and His Family,"
Journal of College Student Personnel, 1970.
II, pp. 404-I3}

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

170

Laskowitz, D. "The Adolescent Drug Addict: An
Adlerian View," Journal of Individual
Psychology, 1961. 17, pp. 68-79.

Le Dain, Gerald et. a1. Commission of Inquiry into
the Non-MediEal_Use of Drugs. Interim Report
(1970), (Treatment Re ort (1972), cannabis

Re ort us Report (1973). Ottawa:
InEo mation Canada.

Le Dain, Gerald et. a1. Commission of Inquiry into
the Non-MediEal-Use of Drugs. "The Treatment of
High Dose Amphetamine Depedence," Grassroots.
December, 1972. p. 13.

 

Lowe, W. R. "A Comparison of Personality Changes in
Ex-Drug Users Living in a Communal Setting and
Non- -Drug Users from a Therapy Group," (Unpublished)
Ph. D. dissertation, University of Northern
Colorado, 1973.

Makin, D. , J. Conway and S. Fox. "Personality Corre-
lates of Undergraduate Marijuana Use," Journal
of Consultin and Clinical Psychology,

339 pp 0 58‘

Malcolm, A. 1. "Drug Abuse and Social Alienation,"
Today's Education, 1970. 59, pp. 28-31.

May, Rollo. Love and Will. New York: W. W. Norton
and Company, 1969.

McAree, C. P. et. a1. "Personality Factors in College
Drug Users," _International Journal of Social
Psychiatry, 1969.415} p. 102-06.

 

McCormick, T. C. "Toxic Reactions to the Amphetamines,"
The Nervous System. Galveston, 1962, pp. 23,
219-24.

McGlothlin, W. H., S. Cohen, and M. S. MCGlothlin.
"Long Lasting Effects of LSD on Normals," Archives
of General Psychiatry. Chicago, 1967. 17 (5),
pp. 521-32.

McGlothlin, W. H., S. Cohen, and M. S. McGlothlin.
"Personality and Attitude Changes in Volunteer
Subjects Following Repeated Administration of
LSD," Paper presented at the Collegium Neuro-
psychopharmacologicum, Fifth International
Congress, March, 1967.

Mecsey, Bert (Princi al of elementary school, Grandmont
School District . Interview, February 6, 1973.

 

90.

91.

92.

93.

94.

95.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100.

101.

171

Mehra, N. "Socio-Psychological Correlates of Non-
Medical Use of Drugs Among University Students,"
Paper presented at the Symposium on Alcoholism
and Drug Abuse, University of Alberta, June, 1973.

Nash, George. The I act of Drug Abuse Treatment from
Criminality: A .ook at Nineteen Programs. ’Upper
Mbnthair, Néw Jersey: Monthair State College,
1973.

National Association of Blue Shield Plans. The
Alcoholic American. U.S.A.: 1973.

 

 

Nethforth, Karl. "Pharmacology," A lecture given
at the Drug Dependence Institute, Yale University
Department of Psychiatry. New Haven, Connecticut,
April 25, 1973.

Nethforth, Karl. "Pharmacology," A lecture given
at the Drug Dependence Institute, Yale University
Department of Psychiatry. New Haven, Connecticut,
April 27, 1973.

Office of Economic Opportunity (0E0), Grandmont
Michigan Figures.

Pearlman, S. "Drug Use and Experience in an Urban
College Population," American Journal of Ortho-
Psychiatry, 1968. 38. pp. 503-14.

 

Rathod, N. H. "Early Experiences in the Life of a
Narcotic User," Papers Presented to the Inter-
national Institute on the Prevention andITieatment
6f’Drungependence, ed. A. Tongue et. a1.
Lausanne, 1970. pp. 277-80.

 

Robbins, Lillian E£~ al. "Drug Use in Adolescents:
Findings From A Eistrict-Wide Census of Junior
High School and High School Students in New
York State," (Presented at the American
Psychiatric Association Meeting). August, 1973.

Romine, Ray S. "An Analysis of the Relationship
Between Alienation and the Use of Mind Altering
Drugs by Students Residing in Campus Residence
Halls," (Unpublished) Ph.D. disseration,
University of Oregon, 1972.

Ronse, Beatrice A. and John E. Ewing. "Student Drug
Use, Risk Taking and Alienation," Presented at
the American Psychiatric Association, Honolulu,
May, 1973.

Rosenberg, C. M. "Young Drug Addicts: Addiction and
Its Consequences," Medical Journal of Australia,

1968. 1, pp. 1031-33.

172

102. Roszak, Theodore. The Making of 8 Counter Culture.
New York: AnchEr Books{_l969.

 

103. Rosenberg, C. M. "Young Drug Addicts: Background
and Personality," Journal of Nervous Mental
Disorders. Baltimore, l9y9. 148 (1), pp.65-73.

104. Rucker, Arnold L. "A Comparative Analysis of the
Attitude Toward Drugs of Selected Junior High
School Students," (Unpublished) Ed.D.
dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 1972.

105. Sanford, Nevitt. Where Colleges Fail. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass, 1968.

106. Savage, C., J. Fadiman, R. Mogar, and M. H. Allen.
"The Effects of Psychedelic (LSD) Therapy on

 

Values, Personality and Behavior," International
Journal of Neuropsychiatry. Chicago, I966. 2 (3),
pp. 241-54.

107. Savitt, R. A. "Psychoanalytic Studies on Addiction,"
Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 1963. 32, pp. 43-57.

108. Schutz, William C. The FIRO Scales Manual. Palo
Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists
Press. 1967.

109. Shafer, Raymond P., (Chairman) National Commission
on Marijuana and Drug Abuse. Drug Use in America:
Problem in Perspective. washington, D. C.: UK S.
G6vernment Printing Office, 1973.

110. Shafer, Raymond P., (Chairman) National Commission on
Marijuana and Drug Abuse. Marijuana; A Signal
of Misunderstanding. Washington,_D.C.: U. S.
Government Printing Office, 1972.

 

lll. Smart, R. G. and D. Fejer. "Illicit Drug Users:
Their Social Backgrounds, Drug Use, and Psycho-
pathology," Journal of Health and Social
Behavior, 1969] 710, pp. 297-308.

 

112. Spielberger, C. D., R. L. Gorsuch and R. E. Lushene.
State-Trait Anxiety Inventory Manual. Pal Alto,
Galifornia: Consulting Psychologists. 1970.

113. Steffanhagen, R. A. EE- a1. "Social and Academic
Factors Associated with Drug Use on the Univer-
sity of Vermont Campus," International Journal
of Social Psychiatry, 1969, 15, pp. 92-96.

 

114. Stewart, Cyrus 3., Arthur M. Vener and David L. Hager.
"Drugs, Sex and Straight Youth: Life Styles in
Middle America,” (Unpublished).

173

115. Stewart, Cyrus, Arthur Vener, and David Hager.
Patterns of Adolescent Drug Use in Middle
America," Journal of Counselinngsychology.
_ 18 (1971), pp. 292-97.

116. Stormer, J. R. "Drug Use and Attitudes Toward Drugs
of College Freshmen and their Parents,"
(Unpublished) Ph.D. dissertation, University
of Florida, 1972.

117. Suchman, E. A. "The Hang-Loose Ethic and the Spirit
of Drug Use," Journal of Health and Social
Behavior. Washington,91968. 9 (2), pp. I45-55.

118. Tucker, Robert. "Social and Cultural Factors of
Drug Use," A lecture given at the Drug
Dependence Institute, Yale University Department
32 Psychiatry. New Haven, Connecticut, April
, 1973.

119. (Untitled) Behavior Today, 1972. III, 46.

120. Vilican-Leman and Associates. Neighborhood Analysis.
Southfield, Michigan, October, 1969.

121. Welpton, D. F. "Psychodynamics of Chronic LSD Use,"
Journal of Nervous Mental Disorders. Baltimore,
I968. 147 (4), pp. 377-85.

 

 

122. Welpton, D. F. Psychodynamics of Chronic LSD Use,"
Journal of Nervous Mental Disorders. Baltimore,
I968. I47 (47} PP. 377-85. (Unpublished typed
copy of source.)

 

123. Winick, C. "Physician Narcotic Addicts," Social
Problems. Kalamazoo, 1961. 9 (2), pp. I74-86.

124. Winick, C. and M. Nyswander. "Psychotherapy of
Successful Musicians Who Are Drug Addicts,"
American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. New York,
I961. 31 (3), pp. 622-36.

125. Yearby, Sam (Chairman). Toward a Drungree Community
Through Responsible Livifig. Giandmont,'Michigan,
October, 1971.

 

APPENDICES

FOLLOW-UP INTERVIEWS AND INFERENCES

The two previous sections reported findings of stan-
dardized testing and appropriate statistical analysis. This
has yielded valuable information about several factors associ-
ated with drug use.

In an effort to identify more of the subtle changes among
treatment youth, to suggest further research tapics and, above
all, to clarify reported data, individual interviews were con-
ducted following post-testing. Thirty-three subjects from.the
thirty-eight member treatment group each spent one to two hours
with a staff counselor discussing their experiences. (The
remaining five individuals either refused to have interviews
or were unavailable.) The interviews were conducted two months
after leaving the group counseling programs

Eight, open-ended questions served as the nucleus for
interviewing. These items focused upon possible areas of
client change which had not been permitted or fully ascertained
through standardized testing. The interviews centered on eight
specific areas of possible change and maturation.

To insure uniformity, three different staff members with
a minimum of a Bachelor's degree in the social sciences con-
ducted all the interviews, with clients almost equally divided

among them.(eight, twelve and thirteen).
A l

A 2
Church Perception

Q: "How'important is the church in your life?"

Thirty youth saw the church as irrelevant to their needs,
and geared more to adults. Those who did attend church regularly
tended to do so more out of habit or for peace in the family.
Only three reported the church as playing an important part in
their lives. ‘Less than one-fourth knew their clergyman personally.
A majority expressed resentment that their parents went to church
while complaining about having to do so.

Based upon experience in the community, the client youth
seem to attend church less frequently and see it as less impor-

tant in their lives than do their peers.

Religion
Q: "What do you believe in, spiritually?"

Answers to this question and subsequent discussion were
adapted to variations of Stewart, Vener and.Hager's Religiosity
sub-scale. The four items below are major tenants in the funda-
mentalism-oriented community under study.

1. God is a heavenly father who watches over and
protects us.

2. The Bible is God's word and what it says is true.

3. I believe there is a life after death.

4. I believe there is a hell where men are punished
for their sins.

 

A 3

'Yes Uncertain ‘N9
1. "God” 25 2 6
2. "B ible" l6 8 9
3. "Life after death" 25 6 2
4. "Hell" 14 8 11

Those who placed higher trust in the Bible's inerrancy
also tended more to believe in a punitive hell; these individuals
'were more apt to express their views in fundamentalist vocabu-
lary.

These interviewees were joined by others who stated belief
in.God and an afterlife. Some of these others were very liberal
in their views and saW’God and life after death in broad humanis-
tic terms.

Answers and the emotional tone of respondents reflected
their questioning and a longing for something authentic to commit
themselves to. Despite acting out in socially deviant fashion
(using drugs), most of the interviewees continue to state
allegiance to the religious values strongly espoused by the
community. IMuch of this religious posture reflects a state of
ongoing examination and confusion rather than outright allegiance.
It could perhaps be described as a cultural rather than an

ethical position.

Heterosexuality
Research literature indicates that one of the key indicators
of other deviant social behavior is sexual attitude. Reiss (1964

and 1970), and Stewart, Vener and.Hager (1971 and 1972) explain

A 4

the correlation of sexual attitudes and behaviors with other

forms of deviant lifestyle.

Q: "What has your sex life been like?"

Interviewers posed this question in a casual manner after
sensing from earlier discussion that some Openness and trust
existed. Results from.the ensuing conversations were adapted
to an abbreviated form of the Heterosexual sub-scale of the
Stewart, Vener and Hager instrument.

1. How often have you kissed or been kissed by someone
of the Opposite sex (not including relatives)?

1) Never

2) Seldom

3) Sometimes

4) Frequently

5) Very frequently

2. How often have you been involved in light petting
(feeling above the waist) with someone of the
opposite sex?

1) Never

2) Seldom

3) Sometimes

4) Frequently

5) Very frequently

3. Have you gone all the way with someone of the
Opposite sex?

1) Never

2) Once

3) 2-5 times

4) 6-12 times

5) 13 or more times

4. 'With how many peOple of the Opposite sex have you
gone all the way with?

l) I have not gone all the way
2) one person

3) 2-3 people

4) 4-6 people

5) 7 or more peOple

A 5

Incidence of Participation in an Activity at Least

Once (N - 33):

«PUDNH

. Kissed or been kissed 31
. Petting 27

Gone all the way (Coitus) 20
. Coitus with 2 or more partners 12

The following central impressions were gained from this

portion of the interview:

A.

There is strong peer group expectatiOn for increased
heterosexual intimacy among those youth most heavily

involved with drugs.

Negligible change was reported in heterosexual behavior
in either direction. However, interviewees expressed
new attitudes and expectations for deeper commitment

toward others sharing sex with them.

Those youth whose drug use declined sharply, also
reported more strained relations in their hetero-
sexual activities, although there were feW'behaviOral
changes. Part of this appears to be due to increased
awareness of oneself and one's needs, which reflected
itself in clients seeking greater meaning in their
relations with the opposite sex. It is Speculated
that the higher treatment effect scores for social
skills (FIRO-B) Open up interests in other ways of

relating than heavily sexual.

A 6

D. Clients state more intelligence about their bodies
and sexual activity. Comments similar to "I didn't
think I could get pregnant since I wasn't sixteen yet"
were frequent. Although sex education was not a
central goal of the program in this study, staff

shared accurate information when the topic arose.

E. Although many clients indicated pressure from peers
for their level of sexual involvement, a quest for
acceptance and intimacy was more pronounced in youth
who were more deeply involved. These latter also seem

to reflect more troubled home environments.

F. Despite behaviors to discount the importance of sex
in their lives, most youth report continual concerns
regarding adequacy and acceptability. To many,
sexual relationships are a substitute for personal

intimacy.

Family Relations

Q: "Have relations between you and your family improved, stayed
about the same or gotten worse?"

"Improved" l4

"Stayed about the 13
same

"Gotten worse" 6

Fourteen of the thrity-three interviewees indicated that

relationships within the family had improved. It is of interest

A7

to note that among these fourteen families were all seven
families from which one or both parents had attended a six
week.Family Communications Skills course similar to Parent
Effectiveness Training held at Threshold. (The course focused

on values, listening skills, discipline and decision-making,

and involved considerable amounts of role playing). Additionally,
one or both parents from twelve other families came in for at
least one consultation with a staff member. Clients from.aix

of these families were among those reporting more positive
relations within the home.

Parents who attended the Family Communications Skills course
(7) and who consulted with staff more than once (6) tended to be
Open to examining their own responsibility in their offsprings'
deviant behavior according to interviewees. For some families,
the crisis surrounding drug abuse (arrest, school discipline,
discovery in the home, etc.) was one Of the more positive uni-
fying incidents they had had in years.

The most frequently stated change was that clients believed
that their parents listened to them with greater patience and
understanding, and were willing to trust them.again (or for the
first time). Clients reported that they themselves in turn were
more patient, able to listen more readily, and could appreciate
the views of others without having to accept them as their own.
Several expressed greater appreciation for themselves as

fallible yet emerging young adults. These comments would coincide

A 8

'Iith the aforementioned significant increases in self-
responsibility reflected in the Expressed categories of the
FIRO-B.

Thirteen clients shared impressions that there were basi-
cally no changes in the home circumstances. .Attitudes ranged
from.acceptance of a that's-the-way-things-are position to
pessimistic resignation. The former reflected a sense that
their own growth need not necessarily be dependent on maximal
relationships with others. The latter gave evidence of return
to a stalemate family existence in which they played a tradi-
tional part.

The remaining six interviewees reported worsening family
communications. Comments described continual friction that
came out in arguments, physical abuse and some members leaving
the home for brief periods. Alcoholism existed in five Of the
homes.

Subjects in this last group tended to evidence greater
pessimism about themselves, their families and their future,
which was regarded either bleakly or as an escape from.their
currently perceived dismal set of circumstances. They tended
to see siblings and parents more as irritants and to assign
deliberate motives to much of others' behaviors that bothered
them.

In summation, there is evidence of positive or no change

in twenty-seven of the thirty-three clients' interpersonal

A 9
circumstances at home. Positive change was almost invariably
associated with openness on the part of several family members.
Negative types of change appear often to be in alcOholic

families, the least appropriate modeling of drug use.

Drug Use

Q: "What drugs have you been using since completing the program?"

The lack of reliability for post-test drug use figures
was pointed out in Chapter IV, Hypothesis IX. Responses to the
above question enabled more accurate data which was presented
with Hypothesis IX.

Interviewers sought to discover how many times members of
the experimental group had used the following substances during
the two months after program completion: a) marijuana,

b) psychedelics, c) stimulants, and d) sedatives.

1. None

2. Once

3. 2-4 times

4. 5-7 times

5. 8 or more times

Involvement in Non-Academic Activities

Q: "Are you involved in more, fewer or about the same number
of non-academic activities?"
This question was deemed important for two reasons: 1) the

most successful former clients appeared to develOp important new

A 10
non-academic involvements, and 2) fairly concrete evidence of

change could be identified.

"More" 11
"Fewer" 5
"About the same" 17

The most frequently expressed reasons for both more and
fewer involvements were similar. Clients either deliberately
chose to seek new peer affiliations or leave former ones, or
they experienced boredom which prompted their seeking or leaving.

The most frequently cited new activities were part-time
jobs and after school socializing. School clubs or organized
athletics were infrequently mentioned. Many of the new involve-
ments were direct outgrowths of close associations with fellow

counseling group members.

Peer Relations

Q: "How'have your friendships changed in the last four months?"

Responses indicate that with little exception, youths'
peer relationship patterns did not alter appreciably. In view
of the immense role of peer norms and modeling in initiating
and perpetuating drug use behavior, the permanency of the
reported statistically significant decline is dubious.

Counteracting this force is the tendency for most youth
to simply outgrow their non-medical use of drugs. With newly

acquired social skills and increased ability in handling

A 11

transitory anxiety, this normal maturation process may have
been accelerated. .Adding further support is evidence that
numerous friendships initiated during treatment (and the
associated norms reinforced in the treatment setting) were

continuing and meaningful.

Conclusion

Results of the interviews suggest that treatment youth
have acquired more acute awareness of themselves and the pro-
cesses which mold their development. Very importantly, they are
keenly aware of and can readily articulate many of the changes
occuring in their lives. They recognize to a greater degree
than previously that they themselves are responsible for many
changes and that they can effect future growth in more conscious

fashion.

 

Appendix B

STUDENT SURVEY

How much formal education does your Father have?

Some high school or less

Graduate from high school

Some college

Graduated from college

Attended graduate or professional school.

WDWNH
O o o o o

What church do you belong to?

Answer:

 

With the second coming of Christ, the dead will live again.

1. Strongly disagree

2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

Most teachers are interesting people.

1. Strongly disagree
2. disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5.

Strongly agree

I am proud of my school.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

B l

10.

I believe there is a hell where men are punished for
their sins.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

Communities could not exist without the help of the police.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

On the average, how many cigarettes do you smoke in a
typical day?

1. I don't smoke or I've only tried it a few times.
. Less than a pack

. Between 35 and 1 pack

Between 1 and 2 packs

Over 2 packs

()1wa

I inhale when I smoke.

l. I don't smoke
2. Never

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very Frequently

I enjoy cigarettes.

1. I don't smoke
Strongly disagree
Disagree

Agree

Strongly agree

U'lubWN

 

B 3

11. Are your parents smokers?

No.

Yes, father only
Yes, mother only
Yes, both parents

waH
.000

12. How many of your friends smoke?

1. None
2. A few
3. Some
4. Most
5. All

13. Most teachers are easy to talk to.

l. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

14. I believe there is a devil who tries to lead men into sin.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

15. My parents are happy that I was born.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

16. I desperately need someone to talk to but no one will listen.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

314

The church helps you live a happier life.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5.

Strongly agree

Sometimes I feel like crying out for love and understanding.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5.

Strongly agree

School is a friendly place.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5.

Strongly agree

I need more affection from someone who cares about me.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

On how many different Occasions during the past month
have you had beer to drink?

1.
2. Once

3. 2-4thms

4. S - 7 times

5. 8 or more times

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

On how many different occasions during the past months
have you had wine to drink?

None

Once

2-4 times

5-7 times

8 or more times

U'I-waH

On how many different Occasions during the past month
have you had whiskey or other hard liquor to drink?

1. None

2. Once

3. 2-4thms

4. 5-7thms

5. 8 or more times

Most teachers are interested in their students as
individuals.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5.

Strongly Agree

I would rather be in school than most places.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

You can count on the church to be of help in times of need.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

B 6

My parents talk 39_me, not §T_me.

l. Strongly disagree

2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

I believe there is a divine plan and purpose for every
living person and thing.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5.

Strongly Agree

I have felt so mad that I could hardly keep from
hitting someone.

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very Frequently

How often have you held your arm around or been held by
someone of the opposite sex (not including relatives)?

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

How often have you held hands with someone of the opposite
sex (Not including relatives)?

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

 

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

How often have you kissed or been kissed by someone
of the opposite sex (not including relatives)?

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

How often have you necked (prolonged kissing and hugging)
with someone of the opposite sex (not including relatives)?

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

How Often have you been involved in light petting
(feeling above the waist) with someone of the opposite
sex?

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

How Often have you been involved in heavy petting (feeling
below the waist) with someone of the opposite sex?

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very Frequently

Have you gone all the way with someone of the opposite sex?

. Never

Once

2 - 5 times

6 - 12 times

13 or more times

U'IAOJNH
o 00.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

With how many people of the opposite sex have you
gone all the way with?

I have not gone all the way
One person

2 - 3 people

4 - 6 people

7 or more pe0p1e

U'lnbh»)f\)I--J
o O O O 0

Who was the first person you went all the way with?

I have not gone all the way

A steady date

Someone I had known for awhile
A stranger

bWNF‘
O C O .

Have you had sexual relations with someone of the
same sex?

 

1. Never

2. Once

3. Twice

4. 3 times

5. 4 or more times

When I tell my parents the truth, they believe me.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5.

Strongly agree

I often feel low.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

 

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

Police should be admired and respected because of their

tough job.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

My parents

UlwaH
on...

B 9

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly agree

enjoy being with each other.

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly agree

A typical police officer is a nice guy.

UlowaH

My parents

U‘Iwal-d
oeso-

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly agree

encourage or praise me for what I do.

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly agree

What do you think of someone who sells drugs for
large profit?

thtONi-d
so...

Strongly disagree
Disagree

Uncertain or don't care
Agree

Strongly agree

B 10

47. My parents care what happens to me.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

48. The church has something to offer everyone.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5.

Strongly Agree

49. I can talk to my parents anytime I like.

1. Strongly disagree

2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

50. It's easy for me to talk to my parents about things
that bother me.

1. Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly Agree

Ul-bUON

51. On how many different occasions have you used marijuana?

1. None

2. Once

3. 2-4thms

4. 5-7thms

5. 8 or more times

B 11

52. On how many different occasions have you used hallucinogens
or psychedelics (such as LSD, STP and Mescaline)?

None

Once

2 - 4 times
5-7thms

8 or more times

mwaI—I
0 0.0 O

53. On how many different occasions have you used amphetamines
or methamphetamines (uppers such as benzadrine or
dexedrine or methedrine)?

None

Once
2-4thms

5 - 7 times

8 or more times

U'hb-WNI"

54. On how many different occasions have you used sedatives
(downers, such as barbiturates and phenobarbital)?

None

Once

2 - 4 times
5-‘7thms

8 or more times

muwal'"
so...

55. I need to find someone who will really love me.

. Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly agree

111-hume-

56. I enjoy going to school.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. -Agree

5. Strongly Agree

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

My parents

U'IDUJNH
I. o

3.12

are interested in what I do.

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly Agree

At times, I feel my life is empty.

U'lubUJNl"
O . O

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly Agree

Most teachers should be respected for the work they do.

mfiWNH
.....

I believe

Ulnwal"
.0...

Police are

U'Inwai—Q
O 000 I

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly Agree

there is a life after death.

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly Agree

fair in their treatment of people.

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly agree

How easy is it for your parents to talk to each other?

mbWNH
0

Very difficult
Somewhat difficult
Fairly easy

Easy

Very easy

b

63.

64.

65.

66.

B 13

Rate your parents' general relationship to each other.

1. Very unhappy
Unhappy
So-so

Happy

Very happy

U'lath

My parents are considerate of each other's feelings.

1. Never
Seldom

2.

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

Have you ever sought help or assistance related to

drugs from the following sources?

1. Family or relations

. Friend about your age

. Doctor

. Drug clinic

. School counselor

. Teacher

. Minister, priest, rabbi
or other religious leader

8. Hot or rap line

9. Other

0. No assistance sought

yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes

yes
yes
yes

>3,» >‘>D’>HV3’§

no
no
no
no
no
no
no

no
no
no

mood: wmwmwmw

To what extent do you feel such assistance has been

helpful to you?

Very Some-

help- what
ful
1. Family or relations A B
2. Friend about your age A B
3. Doctor A B
4. Drug clinic A B
5. School counselor A B
6. Teacher A B
7. Minister, priest, rabbi,A B
or other religious leader
8. Hot or rap line A B
9. Other A B
10. No assistance sought A B

helpful help.

not
very

000 0000000

not at
all
helpful

UUUUUUU

DUO

67.

68.

69.

70.

71.

72.

B 14

I have had the urge to kill.

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

My parents show affection for one another.

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

My parents agree on important matters.

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

At times, I feel like exploding.

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

How many club, sport and other non-academic school events
have you been in this year?

1. None

2. One

3. Two - three
4. Four - Six

5. Seven or more

I have had the urge to beat someone up.

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very Frequently

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

B 15

I have felt like smashing things.

U'IuwaI-J
.0000

Never

Seldom
Sometimes
Frequently

Very frequently

Have you ever thought of killing yourself?

W-wai—I'

To me, the

Never

Seldom
Sometimes
Frequently

Very frequently

most important work of the church is

saving sinners.

(1115005)?“
0 o a 0

My parents

(”kWNH
00000

Police are

U1bLJhJH
O O O O

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly Agree

like me.

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly agree

helpful in the time of need.

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly agree

316

b 78. Your first experience smoking cigarettes was in
what grade?

Never use it
4th or below
5

6

7

8

9

10

ll

12

ommqmmthI-J
0000000000

1...

79. My parents enjoy having me around.

1. Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly Agree

()1th

80. Most teachers are helpful

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

81. The Bible is God's word and what it says is true.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5.

Strongly agree

82. Ministers and priests are understanding and easy to talk to.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5.

Strongly agree

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

B 17

Serious illness is a problem in my family.

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

Drinking is a problem in my family.

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

Divorce or the likelihood of divorce is causing trouble
for my family.

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

Mental illness is causing problems for my family.

1. Never

2. Seldom

3. Sometimes

4. Frequently

5. Very frequently

Your first experience drinking alcoholic beverages at
other than family approved occasions was in what grade?

1. Never used it
2. 4th or below
3. 5

4. 6

5. 7

6. 8

7. 9

8. 10

9. 11
10. 12

88.

89.

90.

91.

92.

93.

B 18

Have your parents ever beaten you so badly that you
had to stay home from school?

1. No
2. Yes

My parents think I'm as good as anyone.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

Ministers and priests give up many things for the
good of others.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5.

Strongly agree

My parents listen to what I have to say.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

I have frequently felt unloved.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

Ministers and priests should be admired and respected for
the word they do.

1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree

3. Uncertain

4. Agree

5. Strongly agree

b

94.

95.

96.

97.

I can talk

thNH
00000

B 19

to my parents about anything.

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly agree

God is a heavenly father who watches over and protects me.

U'IuthH
on...

Strongly disagree
Disagree
Uncertain

Agree

Strongly Agree

The first drug you used, for other than medical

purposes,

1.
2.
3.

4
5
6

Your first
use was:

ommxlmuluwaD-d
O on. so. 000

H

was 3

I have never used drugs

Marijuana

Stimulants (Meth, cuptal, no-doz,

uppers, bennies)

Depressants (reds, downers, yellow jackets)
Hallucinogens (L.S.D., mescaline)

Narcotics (codiene, snak, jons, skag
(opium)

experience with drugs for other than medical

Never used it
4th grade or below

1006430501

10
12

'1 ill'lllll In .II i l‘. I llllll] IIIIIII
'I‘ I I'll

Appendix B Question Sources:

 

 

a = Researcher

b = Oakland Schools. Drug Abuse Questionnaire
(Oakland County, Michigan: oakland Schools,
1971).

All other questions from Vener and Stewart.

B 20

 

Appendix 9

 

STUDENT SURVEY

What is your Opinion? Please read each question and circle the
number of your choice.

1.

What is your age?

1. 15 or younger 3. l7

2. l6 4. 18 or older

I am

1 . Male

2. Female

My overall grade point average is:

1. 0 - 1.00 3. 2.01 - 3.00

2. 1.01 - 2.00 4. 3.01 - 4.00

I live with

1. Both parents (including step) 3. Relatives or guardians
2. One parent only 4. On my own
I am proud of my school.

1.
2.
3

Strongly disagree 4. Agree
Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
Uncertain

Communities could not exist without the help of the police.

1.
2.
3.

Strongly disagree 4. Agree
Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
Uncertain

the average, how many cigaretts do you smoke in a typical day?

I don't smOke or I've only tried it a few times
Less than 1/2 pack

Between 1/2 & 1 pack 5. Over 2 packs
Between 1 and 2 packs

inhale when I smoke.

I don't smoke 4. Frequently

Never 5. Very frequently
Sometimes

9.

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

I enjoy cigaretts.

1. I don't smoke 4. Agree

2. Strongly disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Disagree

Most teachers are easy to talk to.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

School is a friendly place.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

On how many different occasions during the past month have
you had beer to drink?

1. Nam 4. 5-'7thms
2. Once 5. 8 or more times
3. 2 - 4 times

On how many different occasions during the past months have
you had wine to drink?

1. None 4. 5 - 7 times
2. Once 5. 8 or more times
3. 2 - 4 times

On how many different occasions during the past month have
you had whiskey to drink?

1. None 4. 5 - 7 times
2. Once 5. 8 or more times
3. 2 - 4 times

With the second coming of Christ, the dead will live again.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

I believe there is a hell where men are punished for their sins.
1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree

2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree

3. Uncertain

Most teachers are interested in their students as individuals.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree

g. Disagree 5. Strongly.Agree
. Uncertain

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

C 3
I would rather be in school than most places.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

How often have you held your arm around or been held by someone
Of the Opposite sex (not including relatives)?

1. Never 4. Frequently
2. Seldom 5. Very frequently
3. Sometimes

How often have you held hands with someone of the Opposite
sex (not including relatives)?

1. Never 4. Frequently
2. Seldom 5. Very frequently
3. Sometimes

How often haVe you kissed or been kissed by someone of the
Opposite sex (not including relatives)?

1. Never 4. Frequently
2. Seldom 5. Very frequently
3. Sometimes

How Often have you necked (prolonged kissing and hugging)
with someone of the opposite sex (not including relatives)?

1. Never 4. Frequently
2. Seldom 5. Very frequently
3. Sometimes

How often have you been involved in light petting (feeling
above the waist) with someone of the Opposite sex?

1. Never 4. Frequently
2. Seldom 5. Very frequently
3. Sometimes

How often have you been involved in heavy petting (feeling
below the waist) with someone of the opposite sex?

1. Never 4. Frequently
2. Seldom 5. Very frequently
3. Sometimes

Have you gone all the way with someone of the Opposite sex?

1. Never 4. 6 - 12 times
2. Once 5. 13 or more times
3. 2-.Stfims

 

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

C 4

With how many peOple of the Opposite sex have you gone all
the way?

1. I have not gone all the way.
2. One person 4. 4 - 6 peOple
3. 2 - 3 people 5. 7 or more peOple

My parents talk Q me not £1: me.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

I have felt so mad that I could hardly keep from hitting
someone.

1. Never 4. Frequently
2. Seldom 5. Very frequently
3. Sometimes

Police should be admired and respected because of their tough job.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

A typical police offer is a nice guy.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain ~

It's easy for me to talk to my parents about things that bother me.
1 Strongly disagree 4. Agree

2 Disagree 5. Strongly Agree

3

. Uncertain

On how many different occasions have you used marijuanna?

1 None 4. 5 - 7 times
2. Once 5. 8 or more times
3. 2 - 4 times

On how many different occasions have you used hallucinogens
or psychedelics (such as LSD, STP and Mesc)?

1. None 4. 5 - 7 times
2. Once 5. 8 or more times
3. 2 - 4 times

On how many different occasions have you used amphetamines or
methamphetamines (uppers such as benzadrine or dexadrine or
methadrine)?

L Nam 4. S-7thms
2. Once 5. 8 or more times
3. 2 - 4 times

C 5

35. On how many different occasions have you used sedatives (downers,
such as quards, barbiturates and phenobarbital)?

1. None 4. 5 - 7 times
2. Once 5. 8 or more times
3. 2 - 4 times

36. I believe there is a devil who tries to lead men into sin.
1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

37. I believe there is a divine plan and purpose for every
living person and thing.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

38. I believe there is a life after death.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

39. I enjoy going to school.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

40. Most teachers should be respected for the work they do.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

41. Police are fair in their treatment of people.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

42. I have had the urge to kill.

1. Never 4. Frequently
2. Seldom 5. Very frequently
3. Sometimes

43. At times, I feel like exploding.

1. Never 4. Frequently

2. Seldom 5. Very frequently
3. Sometimes

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

C 6

I have felt like smashing things.

1. Never 4. Frequently

2. Seldom 5. Very frequently
3. Sometimes

H

O me, the most important work of the church is saving sinners.

l. Strongly disagree 4. .Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

The Bible is God's word and what it says is true.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

God is a heavenly father who watches over and protects us.

Strongly disagree 4. Agree
Disagree 5. Strongly agree
. Uncertain

WNH
a

Most teachers are helpful.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

My parents listen to what I have to say.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

I can talk to my parents about anything.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly agree
3. Uncertain

APPENDIX D

STUDENT SURVEY

 

What is your opinion? Please read each question and circle
the number of your choice.

1. What is your age?

1. 15 or younger 3. 17

2. 16 4. 18 or older
2. I am

1. male 2. female

3. My overall grade point average is
1. 0 - 1.00 3. 2.01 - 3.00
2. 1.01 - 2.00 4. 3.01 - 4.00
4. I live with
1. Both parents (including step) 3. Relatives or guardians
2. One parent only 4. On my own
5. I am proud of my school.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

6. Communities could not exist without the help of the police.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

7. On the average, how many cigarettes do you smoke in a
typical day?

1. I don't smoke or I've
only tried it a few times

D 1

10.

11.

12.

13.

2. Less than 1/2 pack 4. Between 1 and 2 packs
3. Between 1/2 and 1 pack 5. Over 2 packs

I inhale when I smoke.

1. I don't smoke 4. Frequently

2. Never Very Frequently

3. Sometimes

I enjoy cigarettes.

l. I don't smoke 4. Frequently
2. Strongly Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Disagree

Most teachers are easy to talk to.

1. Strongly Disagree 3. Uncertain 5. Strongly Agree
2. Disagree 4. Agree

School is a friendly place.

1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

On how many different occasions during the past month
have you had beer to drink?

1. None 4. 5-7 times

2. Once S. 8 or more times

3. 2-4 times

On how many different occasions during the past month
have you had wine to drink?

1. None 4. 5-7 times
2. Once 5. 8 or more times
3. 2-4 times

D 2

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

On how many different occasions during the past
month have you had whiskey to drink?

1. None 4. 5-7 times

2. Once 5. 8 or more times

3. 2—4 times

Most teachers are interested in their students as
individuals.

1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

I would rather be in school than most places.

1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

My parents talk 29_me not A!_me.

1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
Disagree 5. Strongly Agree

3. Uncertain

I have felt so mad that I could hardly keep from
hitting someone.

1. Never 4. Frequently

2. Seldom 5. Very Frequently

3. Sometimes

Police should be admired and respected because of
their tough job.

1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree

2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree

3. Uncertain

A typical police officer is a nice guy.

1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

It's easy for me to talk to my parents about things
that bother me.

1. Strongly disagree 4. Agree

2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree

3. Uncertain

On how many different occasions have you used marijuana?

1. None 4. 5-7 times A
2. Once 5. 8 or more times
3. 2-4 times

On how many different occasions have you used hallu-
cinogens or psychedelics (such as LSD, STP and Mesc)?
1. None 4. 5-7 times

2. Once 5. 8 or more times

3. 2-4 times

On how many different occasions have you used ampheta-
mines or methamphetamines (uppers such as benzadrine
or dexadrine or methadrine)?

1. None 4. 5-7 times

2. Once 5. 8 or more times

3. 2-4 times

On how many different occasions have you used seda-
tives (downers, such as quads, barbiturates and
phenobarbital)?

1. None 4. 5-7 times

2. Once 5. 8 or more times

3. 2-4 times

I enjoy going to school.

1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

D 4

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

Most teachers should be respected for the work they do.

1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

Police are fair in their treatment of people.

1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

I have had the urge to kill.

1. Never 4. Frequently
2. Seldom 5. Very Frequently
3. Sometimes

At times, I feel like exploding.

1. Never 4. Frequently
2. Seldom 5. Very Frequently
3. Sometimes

I have felt like smashing things.

1. Never 4. Frequently
2. Seldom 5. Very Frequently
3. Sometimes

Most teachers are helpful.

1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

My parents listen to what I have to say.

1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree

3. Uncertain

D 5

34. I can talk to my parents about anything.

1. Strongly Disagree 4. Agree
2. Disagree 5. Strongly Agree
3. Uncertain

D 6

SERVICE CHART

 

 

C 0 M M U N I T Y

 

 

J
_

 

 

_ msmuwoum yoguo_

 

 

.amwma .Hmoavmx

porno .<<
.HchAOOOzvm .Hmauwuwdm .Hmcofiumoo>

"mmaocow< Hmcuwuxm

 

 

 

 

 

D
f

mommmao

 

J

,1

Anll

 

 

 

HmEmumxm Hoonum

1L

 

 

 

 

mcHHmmasoo maouo

auowpwa

{
n F _t‘

 

 

 

Smw>
uuoucH

ummum

 

 

 

 

 

agomcaou 7354,28?

 

 

 

fl» Iii

    

  

a mmocwnsm
.uaoecuo>oo

 

 

 

 

AK

 

_uquauuuH Nahum

 

 

 

 

 

mxmucn

 

 

J“

msmuwoum

mahoganam
monuuonu

 

mwuoaow<
«HOOSOm
muuaoo.
maasam
«How

nomouuao

 

 

 

 

.3560 rlll.

 

 

uow>umm

 

—->(

 

 

Hucowmnououamumm
mo wcwcwuuh

 

 

 

 

acauwsam>m_

 

 

’

I N n H K O 3

Y
m

A

 

 

l

"71.111111117111111ill?