I. I B RAR Y hi. Lugan State University IIII III III 2III III IIIII III III III III wfi NE IZIIII. —‘ a I III IIII IIII II 25267 This is to certify that the thesis entitled "A PARTICULAR PROBLEM IN IMPLEMENTATION OF THE UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION IN NIGER STATE OF NIGERIA." presented by JACOB BAWA ISA has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree in Secondary Education and Curriculum Major professor Date CQCMU A2,. /f7f' 0-7639 <:) Copyright by JACOB BAWA ISA 1978 11' A PARTICULAR PROBLEM IN IMPLEMENTATION OF UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION IN NIGER STATE OF NIGERIA By Jacob Bawa Isa CA DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY. Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1978. ABSTRACT A PARTICULAR PROBLEM IN IMPLEMENTATION OF UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION IN NIGER STATE OF NIGERIA By Jacob Bawa Isa The Universal Primary Education program, a compulsory education program designed to eliminate illiteracy in Nigeria, might find it impossible to actualize the hope of educating everyone. At present, it is suffering from shortages of accommodations and personnel, as .' —T II,¢__,_._..._-.'T. g" r . well as of equipment, supplies and materials. The federal government is engaged in the funding of the program, but the staggering financial burden of providing educational programs for a population that is heavily illiterate is a burden that cannot easily be borne by the budget of a developing nation. ' The individual states have been charged with the responsibility for implementing the program, but the resources of the individual states may vary greatly. An information and opinion survey was conducted in Niger State of Nl'Sleria, to determine the extent of the exclusion problem, and the reasons for such a problem. A representative sample of educational Personnel, chiefs and tribal leaders, and private households were con- tacted, and answers were sought to questions about the number of chi ld- ren, the school accommodations in the area, the literacy programs, the Opinions of education, the opinions about the UPE program, the sugges- t1Ons and alternatives that the respondents might have, and about the Information that they had received concerning the UPE program. The responses collected indicated that the people of Niger State held a strongly positive view of education, but objected to those as- pects of it that were inappropriate for their life styles, beliefs and needs. They did not hold equally strong beliefs about the poten- tial for success-of the UPE program. School facilities were reported to be adequate by only 25% of the respondents, and 36% of the respond- ents reported that there was no school at all in their area. Only ' E about 40% of the children were reported as being in school. More , ' I Ti: than one third of the households indicated that they would like to ‘ 4....L_.‘._- I. . . see an improvement in education, and the suggestions and opinions ‘y—a—r that they expressed indicated that, in many cases, the topics, pre- sentations and schedules of the education programs were the areas in which they would like to see changes made. . 0n the basis of this information, which can possibly be considered pertinent to all of Nigeria, as well as to Niger State, it is recom- mended that the existent educational administration structure be adapted to acconmodate programs of education that are non-formal in nahne, or that are school extensions, so that the local communities cuihave a program that is adapted to their life styles, needs and annual traditions. In addition, some of these non-formal and ex- tuuhulprograms would help to alleviate the shortages that now exist NU Nut will possibly get worse in the future. Specifically sug- QESted are correspondence schools, mobile units, radio education pmgrams, and apprenticeship programs. _ Nmilization of all resources in the country is recommended, to relieve the otherwise-insupportable financial burden on the government, and t0 Promote expenditure of conmunity resources--b0th human and material--for the purpose of community development. By the mobilization of all citizens, and by the adaptation of the educational administration structure to include plans for non- formal and extension educational services, the problem of voluntary and involuntary exclusion from the universal program can be both solved and prevented. Dedicated in loving memory to my parents, Bagudu and Vainamu Isa iii' ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My sincere appreciation is extended to Dr. Ted Hard, my committee chairman and the director of this dissertation, for his guidance, com- ments, and most of all, for his concern for me as a human being.. His ' help at every stage in the planning and in the writing of this disser- tation was invaluable to me. Appreciation is also extended to the other members of my committee, Dr. Samuel Moore, Dr. Norman Bell, and Dr. George Myers, for their helpful comments and their constructive criticism of my work. More personally, a heartfelt thank you, love and affection, are offered to my wife Rose and my dear children Grace, James, Sara, Jeremiah and Timothy, who have sacrificed so much so that I could complete my program of study: Words are insufficient to express my gratitude for their support. My gratitude is also expressed to Carol Becka, for her invaluable editorial assistance, and to Linda Hansen, for her typing of the manu- script and of the final draft. I would also like to express my gratitude to Philip S. Gamba, Ahmed Bawa Shambo and Maidawa Tari, for helping as assistant inter- viewers during the research period. Finally, I would like to express my deep apprecation to all of my friends, for the support and encouragement that they gave to me and to my family. Thank you all. iv II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION A. The Problem 8. The Purpose of This Study C. Background Information D. Overview of the Research Plan E. Limitations of This Study F. Definitions of Terms SURVEY OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS IN DEVELOPING NATIONS A. Compulsory Education Programs 1. Indonesia 2. Thailand 3. Arab States B. School Extensions and Non-Formal Education Programs 1. The Israeli Model 2. Southeast Asia 3. India 4. New Zealand 5. Peru 6. Pakistan 7. Sri Lanka METHODOLOGY A. Research Hypothesis and Implications B. Questionnaire Design and Development ' 1. Descriptive Information and Content 2. Opinion and Attitude Content 3. Opinion Verification 4. Language Use C. Survey Techniques 1. Population Sample Selection 2. Selection and Training of Interviewers 3. Procedures for Conducting the Interviews D. Preliminary Survey Testing IV. E. Data Analysis Methods 1. Compiling the Data 2. Processing the Data PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSIONS OF THE FINDINGS A. D. Descriptive Data for the Subjects Interviewed Occupation or Position Tribal Affiliation Level of Education Number of Children Male-Female Ratio of Children Children in School and Not in School H O O 2 3 4 5 6 Attitude and Opinion Data for the Survey Subjects 1. Education in General 2. Community Literacy Programs 3. UPE Program 4. Suggestions/Alternatives Importance of the Collected Data: Cross-tabulations I. Countercheck on Opinions about Education 2. Opinions about Education in General 3. Positive Opinions about Education 4. Negative Opinions about Education 5. Opinions about the UPE Program Summary of the Analyzed Data SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A.. B. C. Government Proposal for UPE Unresolved Problems of the UPE Proposal Suggestions for the Alleviation of Potential Problems 1. Planning to Circumvent Shortages 2. Tailoring Systems to Local Culture and Life Styles 3. Temporary Exclusion Implementation of Suggestions 1. Adaptation of the Educational Administration Structure a. In-Service Training Section b. Instructional Materials Development Section c. 'Public Relations Division (1) Domestic Support Section (2) External Support Section 2. New Administrative Divisions 3. Interaction of Divisions and Sections Summary vi Page 226 228 APPENDIX A APPENDIX B APPENDIX C APPENDIX D APPENDIX E BIBLIOGRAPHY Sample Survey Questionnaires--English Sample Survey Questionnaires--Hausa Letter of Introduction from Commissioner Letter Sent with Survey Questionnaires Dissertation Proposal vii Page 238 245 249 250 251 263 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table OWNO‘U‘I-fiwNI—D N N N H H H H H H H H H H N H o to 00 \l Os 0'! h on N H o O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 LIST OF TABLES Rate of Response to Questionnaires Positions of Educational Personnel Scope of Authority of Educational Personnel Occupations of Individual Citizens ("Parents") Tribal Affiliations of Respondents ("Parents") Level of Education of Respondents (Parents/Chiefs) Number of Children in Respondent Families Family Sizes in Surveyed Sample (Parents & Chiefs) Male-Female Ratio of Children Male/Female/Total Children in School Children in School--by Size of Family- Views on Education in General Chiefs/Edperson Evaluation of Parents' Opinion Edperson Evaluation of Chiefs' Opinions Chiefs/Parents Assessment of Children's Reactions Assessment of Good Aspects of Education Assessment of Bad Aspects of Education Community Literacy Programs Sponsbrship of Literacy Programs Adequacy of Existing School Facilities Percentage of Children in District in School ijber of Primary Schools in District viii Page 77 79 80 82 85 86 87 88 9o 92 94 99 102 103‘ 103 105 107 109 110 111 112 113 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table 46. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. Table 45. UPE Information and Opinions Edperson Opinions about UPE Government Responsibility for Alternatives Desirability of Improved Educational System Suggestions/Alternatives Proposed Suggested Participants in Alternative Programs Cross-tabulation: EDTHINK with Value of Education Opinion of Education by Amount of Education Opinion of Education by Total Number of Children Opinion of Education by Reaction of Children Opinion of Education by Will UPE Solve Illiteracy Opinion of Education by Will Adequate Room be Provided by UPE Opinion of Education by Suggestions Positive Opinion by Participants in Community Literacy Programs - - Positive Opinion by Suggestions Bad Aspects of Education by Will UPE Solve Illiteracy Education by Will Adequate Room be UPE Bad Aspects of Provided by Bad Aspects of Education by Suggestions/Alternatives Proposed Education by Suggested Participants in Programs Bad Aspects of Alternative Mill UPE Solve Illiteracy by Opinion of Education Mill UPE Solve Will UPE Solve Illiteracy by Bad Aspects of Education Illiteracy by Number of Schools Will UPE Solve Will UPE Solve in Schools Illiteracy by Total Number of Children ix Illiteracy by Adequate Room for Children Page 114 116 117 118 119 120 125 127 130 133 135 138 140 143 146 ‘ 150 154 158 161 165 168 172 174 176 Table 47. Table 48. Table 49. Table 50. Page Will UPE Solve Illiteracy by Will Adequate Room be Provided by UPE 179 Mill UPE Solve Illiteracy by Participants in .Community Literacy Programs 181 Mill UPE Solve Illiteracy by Adequacy of Information 183 Predicted versus Actual Attendance 199 p. b'f Mk u. b" LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Descriptive Information and Interviewed Subjects 56 Figure 2. Opinion/Attitude Information and Interviewed Subjects 60 Figure 3. Map of Nigeria 64 Figure 4. Local Government Areas, Ministries of Education & Tribes 66 xi CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM In September 1976, the Nigerian government launched what it called the "Universal Primary Education" (U.P.E.) program. This program is designed to introduce educational opportunities into the various Nigerian conlnunities- at a gradually accelerating pace, until, in September 1980, it becomes compulsory for every six-year-old child to attend primary school. This is a major advance in the country's effort to eliminate illiteracy. The drive to eliminate illiteracy is part of Nigeria's whole- hea rted effort to develop the country's leaders' concepts of the role 01’ education in the development of the country. The. individual citi- zen is seen as ultimately the perpetrator of development, and it"'adequacy on the part of the individual is seen as a deterrent to progress: "An illiterate individual is invariably a poor con- sumer of goods, a pawn in the hands of the unscrupulous politician Accord- and a victim of superstition and magic" (Babs, 1967, p. 35). 1 "Q to a large number of the national leaders, development of the ct)‘dhtry must follow after development of the individual citizens. The Social development philosophy of UNESCO can be construed as suppor- tive of the Nigerian leaders' position, that "the democratisation of ed“cation is one of the most effective means of promoting social justice" (Federal Nigerian Journal, vol. 2, no. 1, p. 2). The hope of social reform is apparently one of the reasons for support of the UPE program, especially among national leaders. One __-_______¥J of the the e‘ a ‘uip exist Law a be ex “a MU. l "'5" may: 2 of the more optimistic leaders expressed his positive feelings about the effect that the UPE program could have in Nigeria, envisioning a future Nigeria in which "tribal and ethnic palaver will cease to exist gradually because of understanding within the literate class.... Law and order will be much maintained because most of the people will be exposed to the law of the society....Equal opportunity for educa- tion will be given to children irrespective of their tribe, religion or cultural background....Itn will wipe out our inferiority complexes" (Illaciullahi, 1974, p. 12). Support has also come from the media, with comments such as those appearing in West Africa magazine, which called the UPE pro- gram one of the greatest social endeavors that the world has ever Seen (vol. 2988, p. 1155). . To all appearances, the UPE program has also garnered popular suDilbert. Three months after the initiation of the Universal Primary ECh-lvtzation program, Lt. General 0. Obasanjo, the Nigerian head of Sta te, announced that the primary school enrollment has increased fro“... four million to eight million (Federal Nigerian Journal, vol. 2, "0‘ 1, p. 2). While the UPE program has many supporters, and has demonstrated a calznacity for producing colorful visions of a better future for “1 QQria, it remains to be seen whether the practical reality of the D"“)QI'-am itself warrants such support and optimism. Although some Nigerian leaders foresee a bright future for the Uni Versal Primary Education program, others are concerned about the stll’lool-‘aged children who do not fit into the schema of the program is a‘ .‘FPN :bilg, . ‘i A: 3))J UI ETA-P. r‘ w. 'A‘ \‘Jvc 3 or into the traditional system of formal education. By rights, a "universal" program must be open to all people, and in the opinion expressed by Brown, this is not the case for the UPE program: All children in Nigeria who happen to be nine or ten, twelve or fifteen are going to be missed out....So if we are to make the thing universal we have to remind ourselves that the vast majority of the possible cus- tomers for primary education are not immediately being covered by the scheme. (1975:45) .111 'the opinion of some educators, the Universal Primary Education pro- gram is also flawed in that it will make little difference to the problem of educational imbalance in different sections of the country. For example, in Kano State, for every child of primary-school age who ‘15; alttending a school program, there are 114 children of primary- SChool age who are not in school. In East Central, Mid-Western and Sou th-Hestern States, the ratio of children in school to those not' in school is one to seven (West Africa, 1974:1155). Whether or not UPE solves the problem of including all of the Dr“; mary-school-aged children, the program is still likely to have some problems: I Universal Primary Education means more school buildings, more teachers, and the number will jump from 60,000 in 1976 to 280,000 in 1980. This also creates a need for new facilities for training teachers (Gowon, 1974:15). Inc‘l uding all children of primary-school age will not alleviate this problem. The more children there are who are included in the UPE p'T'Dgram, the greater will be the problems of facilities and person- “31 No one questions that the launching of the Universal Primary EChlcation program is a landmark in the history of Nigeria, and, in fa" be, hra‘f Jul” 1IIF‘I, .1 II am Ifi‘r 3:5. ‘H 4 fact, in the history of Africa. Some people, however, do question whether or not it will be able to accomplish its avowed purpose of "universally" providing educational opportunities. If it does not actually provide universal opportunity, it will not correct the prob- lems of privilege and imbalance that currently exist in Nigeria. Some educators have criticized the UPE program on the grounds that a formal program of education, by its formality, will exclude some Nigerian children. Suggestions have been made that the program should include opportunities for those children who cannot, for any number of reasons, fit into a formal educational program (Brown, 1975: 45 ) - If illiteracy is to be eliminated, and if all individuals within the society are to be developed so that they can all function adequate- ].Y in the society, then some sort of educational program must be devi sed for those who do not fit into the formal, already-developed sys tem. It is these children--the ones who do not fit into the formal S‘~)’S‘l:em of education--that are the concern of this study. Identify- ing these children, their place in the society, their life-styles and thei r social demands.may shed light on the now-obscure area of their pa Y‘ticular learning needs. Without an awareness of the natureof their learning needs, it would be impossible to formulate concepts 01-? the modes of learning in which they could be, and would be, inwowed (Ward, 1977:21). Essentially; the current dilemma is that there is no available 30‘ ution to the problem of excluding these children from the educa- ti onal opportunities that the UPE program is supposed to be providing fun. .:..a 36.43 5 for all Nigerian children. There is not even any specific informa- tion about the children who are excluded, much less information that would help educators arrive at a solution to the problem. This information is needed. Nigeria will not have a truly "uni- versal" program for primary education, and will not eliminate privilege and inequity, until all children are given the opportunity to be edu- cated, whether or not they fit into the formal system of education. I f non-formal syStems are needed, then non-formal systems must be devised. If non-formal systems are to be devised, they must be ac- ceptable and useful for the participants, or there will be no partici- pants. Research must be done in order to answer these questions, and it "“181: be research that reaches thepeople, so that the educators of Ni geria can formulate systems that will also reach the people. be Purpose of this Study Since the UPE program is already in progress, and since a full- Scaj e implementation of the program is planned for the very near future, i t ‘i s the purpose of this study to try to anticipate some of the problems that are likely to arise, in order to propose preventative $01 utions rather than curative solutions. It seems reasonable to assum that anticipating the problems and preventing them will be betiter for Nigeria, for Nigerians and for the UPE program. Planning, hoWever, cannot Wait until after the program has been implemented. It is the purpose of this study, therefore, to gather informa- tl On that could both help to predict potential problem areas in the “PE program and help to find solutions to those problems. 93““ i wifi~ l 6 In order to gather this information, it is necessary to select some key areas of concentration, to avoid the problems that would arise from collecting miscellaneous and unrelated information. Four key areas were selected: 1) the people's attitudes toward education and educational systems; 2) the people's reasons for disinterest or non- participation in available educational systems; 3) the presentation of the UPE program to the people; and 4) the potential alternative educational systems . Information about the people's attitudes toward education and educational systems would be helpful in demonstrating whether or not If the people the people would accept a proposed educational system. Simply opposed all forms of education, then alternative systems would be no more successful than presently-available systems. If the people 1".EI\Ic>red education, but did not favor the UPE program, then alternative suQgestions might be more successful than the presently-proposed formal sys- tem. This study was directed, therefore, at finding out what pa Y‘ents from various conmunities thought about education in general, What they thought about the UPE program, and whether or not they felt that UPE was the appropriate educational system for their own children. Information about the people's reasons for disinterest or non- i "Volvement in available educational systems would be helpful in demon- strating the nature of the unsatisfied complaints of a conmunity about educational systems and about UPE. Without knowing precisely the nature ()1: the complaints, it would be impossible to formulate a system that W.‘NJ’ld eliminate these complaints, and it would be impossible to know Whether adjustments in the current system would be more appropriate-- and more successful--than formulations of new systems. Jar: iii» ME na: 5C2: ‘0“ big 7 Information about the presentation of the UPE program to the people would be helpful in determining whether people's opinions are being formed out of ignorance or out of knowledge. People who do not understand the value of education, or who do not know very much about a new system, may be expected to more readily support the known than to support the unknown. "Opposition" could turn out to not be oppo- sition at all, but simply ignorance. If support and participation can be gained simply by giving enough information to the people, then this is , quite obviously, a simpler, cheaper and more practical solution to non-participation than the formulation of an alternative system. If the people's attitudes reflect support of education but op- Position to a particular system of education, if the people's reasons for opposition or non-participation reflect unsatisfied complaints abOut the structure of the current or proposed system, then informa- t" On about potential alternative systems would be necessary. Alter- native systems are appropriate only if the people cannot or will not ac-‘-<:ept and participate in the existent or proposed systems of educa- t" On. By paying attention to the acceptability of the UPE program to the people of Nigeria, the Nigerian educational authorities can in- Sure that the Universal Primary Education program will actually be .I universal ." Mground Inforniation The Universal Primary Education program is not a completely new DY‘Ogram in Nigeria, but it differs from previous programs in that it Concerns the whole country rather than just one particular section 0f the country. are r" “-3" [vi 5. 'nllé 8 In January 1955, the Western Region* of Nigerian launched a pro- gram of free, compulsory, primary education. The regional government devoted two and one-half years to the planning and preparation for the program. The time spent in preparing for this program was too short, for the problems soon overwhelmed the program. Anticipating a problem with facilities, the regional government hurriedly erected 8,239 class- rooms at a cost of 32.9 Naira (Onabamiro, 1969:457), but it still found itself faced with the problem of insufficient facilities, in addition to problems of lack of personnel and lack of adequate funds. These problems became so serious that the government formed a special committee to study the situation and submit a report to the Ministry of Education. The committee report points out the serious and over- whelming nature of the problems: The striking advance in numbers in primary schools has however been bought at the price of a high wastage rate and falling standards. Since 1959, for example, wastage in every primary school generation has been running at no less than 52.5 percent which represents a cost of £3 1.6 million over and above the budgeted expenditure. Furthermore, since 1961, the percentage of passes in the Primary Six School Leaving Certificate Examination has been on the downgrade, from 71.2 in 1961 to 44.1 in 1964 and 50.2 in 1965....Wastage is higher in rural areas and fewer pupils pass. Percentage of passes in fact vary from between 97 and 73 in town to a maximum of 40 in rural areas....The magnitude of unemployment among primary school leavers does raise serious questions about the existing primary education system which need to be examined afresh. We refer in particular to the aims and objectives of primary education in the Nigerian context, the adequacy of the curriculum, the school-leaving age and the place of education within the framework of general planning for social and economic development (Onabamiro, 1969:459). The committee summarized what they saw as the problems of the compul- sory education program as it had been planned and implemented: *Nigeria was re-divided into states in 1967, and the area that was called the "Western Region“ forms the present-day states of Ogun, Bendel, Ondo and Oyo. nub. A V I’ "I u a; Pin .05 ill -1- I I ‘1‘ :r‘ . 1 it! I In f\ t ‘.i t (- Ob a A\.v call 9‘ .,\u F i (a A. h 2 «PW Ah» :I l I b - Nb ‘53 n 0‘ Ab. as u U 6 6 ‘II Pl F h (v u ‘1‘ “V w. .I 0 HI! I: . p\c o‘- o\- 0 o u ‘ v ‘41 nit P I: 9 The heavy financial burden, the high rate of wastage, the falling standards among the pupils and the lowering morale among the teachers, the mountaining [sic] unem- ployment and the increasing disenchantment with rural life and against agricultural pursuits (Onabambiro, 1969:459). The compulsory education program of the Western Region of Nigeria proved to be a dismal failure. The program was inordinately costly in proportion to the results achieved. The program did not prepare ' its students to face the contemporary job-market needs. The program was ineffective among the majority of people, since it was ineffective. in the rural areas, where a majority of the people live and where most of the national wealth originates. Although the federal government of Nigeria is financing the Uni- versal Primary Education program, the execution of the program is the responsibility of the individual states (West Africa, 1977:1875). The success or failure of this educational program depends on how each state plans and executes the program. The disastrous failure of the state program in the Western Region should stand as a warning to all of the Nigerian states, and should serve as an example to them so that they can avoid the mistakes that led to failure, and plan a program that has the potential for success. ' Since the Universal Primary Education program is being presented as a national program, it would be wise to investigate national com- pulsory education programs that have been followed in other developing nations, particularly in "Third-World" nations, and to learn from the successes or failures that these programs have experienced, as well as learning from the failure of the state program of the Western Region. 'The study of these compulsory education programs of other nations will 1 P.\.v "ii. A h . II, a... I»... bll~ Eff 10 be contained in the second chapter of this dissertation, which will be an in-depth examination of national compulsory education programs in general, but with particular reference to the type of national com- pulsory education program that might be successful in Nigeria. Overview of the Research Plan The attitudes and opinions of a specific group of people can best be obtained by means of a survey. In a survey, all respondents are asked to provide opinions about a specific and delineated set of topics, and patterns of resonse can often be discovered. This survey was devised in order to obtain information about general attitudes toward education, about the people's attitudes toward the UPE program, and about the people's attitudes toward the content and format of an educational program. In addition, the survey was devised so that information could be ' obtained about the attitudes and opinions of the chiefs and tribal leaders, and about the attitudes and opinions of educational persOn- nel. It was assumed that the chiefs and tribal leaders would have influence over their own people, and that the people's attitudes might reflect their leaders' attitudes. If the people's attitudes and opin- ions were different from those of their leaders, then it would be better for educational personnel to approach the people directly, and not attempt to approach the people through their leaders. It was hoped that the educational personnel would have a reasonably clear perception of the attitudes and opinions of the people that they served, so that the programs they devised would be appropriate for those people. 11 Once the basic survey was devised, counter-checking questions were added, to verify the answers on some of the crucial issues. The sur- veys were expected to be used as the basis for interviews to be con- ducted by trained interviewers, but some of them, for reasons of convenience, were to be mailed to the prospective respondents. A small, randomly-chosen population was given the surveys, as a means of verifying the potential validity, and of identifying the po- tential problems of the survey, before it was actually administered' to the larger population sample. After the interviews were conducted, all of the questionnaires were collected and sorted into three separate categories of respondents, which were labelled "parents," "chiefs and tribal leaders," and "educa- tional personnel." The responses that had been made by these subjects were given com- puter codes, to allow for computer processing of the responses. This was not done prior to this time because it was uncertain exactly what the pattern of responses would be. All answers were keypunched onto computer cards, and analyzed on the basis of the best estimates of what would be the significant vari- ables. Frequency reports were obtained in addition to cross-tabulations, in order to verify that the important variables and values had been selected for cross-tabulation. Once the computer runs were completed, an item-by-itme inspection of the data was made. In some cases, the entire cross-tabulation of two variables was important, but in others, only certain values of _one variable seemed to be related to the other variable. Charts were ifi‘i :yt E5" 5. in 12 drawn up to present the important information that had been obtained by the survey. The opinions and attitudes of each of the different groups was investigated, but the parents' group was given the most attention, since this group would provide the most information about the atti- tudes of the people of Niger State. These attitudes and opinions, as indicated by the survey, were then compared to the programs and plans devised by the educational personnel. Limitations of this Study Practical considerations of time, money and personnel have limited the number of subjects that were interviewed, the number of questions that were asked, and the geographic area in which the subjects were located. Every effort was made to select a representative sample of subjects, from a variety of cultural groups located within Niger State in Nigeria, in order to take advantage of access to the subjects that would result from the writer's personal acquaintance with educational personnel and other people from this area. The honesty and reliability of the subjects' responses to questionnaire items is directly related to their trust of the interviewer, as is true with most survey research on attitudes, and since the interviewers did not have a large amount of time available, it was considered necessary to capitalize on previously-established trust. The writer's personal living and working experience in Niger State made it possible to select tribal and cultural groups that were representative of general types that can be found in all parts of Nigeria, as well as making it possible to make contact with chiefs, tribal leaders and educational personnel 13 from a variety of different parts of this state, and from a variety of different levels of power and influence over the different cultural groups. The representativeness of the sample will be discussed in the chapter on methodology of the study. Financial aid was available for transportation to and from Nigeria, and the writer supervised or participated in the survey that was done, but time considerations limited the study to a several-month period during the summer of 1977. Computer-processing of the data made it possible to ask a certain number of questions, but the subjects' cooperation in an extensive questionnaire would have probably been less willingly offered, so the most pertinent questions were selected, and relatively short question- naires were used. The participation of the writer in interviewing, the attempts to establish trust between the interviewers and the respondents, and the care and attention devoted to the content and form of the survey questions, were all controls exerted in an attempt to insure that the subjects would respond honestly and openly to the questions, and that the answers that they gave would indeed represent the opinions and attitudes of the people of Nigeria. Definition of Terms Certain terms will be used in the discussion of the problems and the possible solutions to these problems, and it seems appropriate at this point to clarify the definitions and the references of these terms. The following terms are used: 14 Universal Primary Education: This term, and the abbreviation"UPE" will be used specifically to refer to the national program for com- pulsory primary education that was initiated in Nigeria in 1976, and that is now being planned and organized for total implementation by the year 1980. According to this program, by September 1980, the op- portunity for a primary education will be made available to all school- age Nigerian children, and as of September 1980, all six-year-old children will be required by law to attend school. Illiterac : For the purposes of this paper, "illiteracy" will refer to the inability to read and/or write in any one of the several of- ficially-used languages of Nigeria. Formal education: This term will be used to refer to conventional, structured and systematic training, usually based on traditional aca- demic practices and procedures, usually that system which is employed by the majority of the training facilities in a given geographical or political unit, and usually associated with physical structures, conventionally-trained personnel, traditionally-enforced rules and regulations, and pre-arranged materials and curriculum. Alternative educational program: This term will be used to refer to any adaptation of a formal educational system, whether it be a change in only one aspect of that system, or a completely non-formal system. Non-formal educational program: "This is.a term given to non-school ways of.helping people learn the kinds of things they need to know to function better in their society" (Miller, 1977:1). "Any organized educational activity outside the established formal system--whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity--that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and objectives" (UNICEF/ICED, 1973:12). School extension: A program of education which bears the character- istics of formaT educational program, but which applies that formal system to an expanded set of participants, media types, etc., such as a continuing education program for people who are older than the normal school age, but who wish to attend traditional classes and lectures on a continuing basis, or lectures transmitted by television or radio, or fbrmal classroom instruction in a building that was originally designed for another use, or which may be being used for another purpose during non-school hours. Out-of—school children: This term will be used to refer to those chil- dren who are of an age at which they would normally be expected to participate in some level of formal educational program, but who do not participate in any formal or non-formal program, either due to voluntary self-exclusion, or due to factors beyond their own control. 15 All other terms that are used in this paper will be used in their ordinary or conventional meanings. Summary The Universal Primary Education program, initiated in September 1976, is a program of free compulsory education, designed to give the opportunity for education to all Nigerians. September 1980 is the target date for full implementation of the program. In discussing the UPE program, and its potential for aiding in the development of Nigeria, mention is made of the fact that a literate citizen is a functional and productive member of his society, and that offering an opportunity for education to everyone is the only truly ef- fective way of democratizing a developing nation. On the other hand, some educators question the universality of the UPE program, realizing that many Nigerians are voluntarily or involun- tarily being excluded from the educational opportunity that the UPE promises: particularly those who are over the minimum age, those who have no school nearby to attend, and those whose beliefs or traditions lead them to reject the formal educational system. What is most seriously needed is an understanding of why particular children might be excluded from this educational opportunity, and an understanding of what can be done to include them. It is the purpose of this study to explore this exclusion and the ways by which it can be reduced. People's attitudes toward education and toward the UPE pro- gram, the presentation that has been made to the people, and the alter- native proposals that would result in inclusion rather than exclusion are explored. 16 One of the reasons for exclusion of participants from earlier com- pulsory education programs was the shortage of facilities resulting from a lack of funds. Failure was also visible in the unemployment rate, which soared instead of falling. By making contact with the people of Niger State, and by exploring their attitudes, opinions and life styles, the author believes that he may be able to discover the true nature of the problem and the nature of possible, workable solutions. Within the limits of available time, labor and money, the author hopes a solution can be found, to bring the same educational opportunity to all Nigerians. The author strongly sus- pects that alternative educational programs, such as school extensions and non-formal educational programs, are the most likely solution to the problem of exclusion. CHAPTER II SURVEY OF EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS IN DEVELOPING NATIONS In order to take advantage of the information and ideas that ex- perience might provide, a survey was done of the records of educational programs that were planned and executed in other developing nations. This portion of the research was focussed on two areas: I) compulsory education programs 2) school extension and non-formal learning experiences. The aspects of compulsory education programs that were considered most pertinent were the methods by which compulsory education was introduced into the country, the problems that were encountered in the planning and implementation of a compulsory education program, the solutions that were suggested or that were tried in attempts to resolve the observed problems, and the overall effectiveness or success of the programs that were introduced. School extension and non-formal learning experiences were investi- gated with respect to the role that they played in the compulsory education programs. Attention was paid to the nature of the extension and non-formal programs that were introduced, the methods by which such programs were implemented, and the people for whom such programs were designed, as well as to the overall success of such programs. Compulsory Education Programs The available existing literature on compulsory education pro- grams in developing nations was not always adequate to provide a 17 18 complete view of the implementation of compulsory education programs, especially in the areas of success, problems encountered, and resolu- tion of problems. To supplement the information that was available, interviews were conducted with educational personnel who were involved in or aware of the programs in their own countries. The available literature generally consists of reports on the planning and the beginnings of implementation of compulsory education programs; the “interviews provided information about the problems that arose during implementation, about solutions that were found to the problems, and about the overall success or failure of the programs. The experiences of Indonesia, Thailand and some of the Arab states may contribute to the understanding of what will be needed in order to successfully implement the UPE program in Nigeria. The parallels in goals, programs, problems and solutions may demonstrate what must be done, what should be done, and what can be done in Nigeria's own UPE program. Indonesia The Indonesian program of compulsory education was born out of the belief that education was a means for promoting social justice: The Indonesians are convinced that, in order to raise the level of education of the population as a means of improving their standard of living, all citizens, irre- spective of their social status, should be given the same educational opportunities. (Hutasoit, December 1954:9) Before a compulsory education program was introduced, the government of Indonesia planned and prepared extensively, in an attempt to resolve problems before they arose, and to guarantee the success of their efforts. 19 Three problems were identified as the major potential deterrents to success in their program: 1) the shortage of teaching personnel, 2) the shortage of buildings and equipment, and 3) the shortage of educational materials (Hutasoit, 1954:83). In examining these problems, the government determined that the shortages of buildings and equip- ment and of teaching materials could be solved by the infusion of money, but that the problem of the shortage of teaching personnel, due to the amount of time that was required to train a teacher, would be their most serious problem. In order to gain the public support that would be necessary to the success of the compulsory education program, and especially to. encourage individual participation in the resolution of the problems of shortages that had been identified, the government engaged in a program of informing and convincing the general populace of the value of education. The Indonesian government explained to the people that the introduction of compulsory education was essential for the achieve- ment of prosperity and social justice in Indonesia (Hutasoit, 1954: 107). They predicted certain changes in society that they felt would be the result of the introduction of compulsory education: 1) the stabilization of the political structure of Indonesia as a participatory democracy, possible only when all citi- zens are educated to their rights and responsibilities; 2) the full utilization of the resources of the country, and the resultant increase in the standard of living, possible only when a sufficient number of people are equipped with the knowledge required for the utiliziation of the resources; 3) the elimination of class differences by means of the elimin- ation of differences in quality and type of education given to citizens of Indonesia, possible when all citizens are part of the same school system; 20 4) the elimination of discrimination against women, by giving both men and women the same education, possible when men and women are both educated in the same school system; 5) greater national unity, as a result of opportunities for contact among differing social groups, possible when all people participate in a single educational program re- quiring the use of a single national language. (Hutasoit, 1954:102-5). The government fully expected such predictions to appeal to the people of Indonesia, since these people had chosen a democratic form of govern- ment rather than permit the Dutch colonials to return to power after the Japanese were expelled in 1945. By demonstrating how education would help insure the continuation of Indonesia's independence, the government hoped to gain the strongest possible popular support for the compulsory education program. In Order to combat the very serious problem of the shortage of trained teaching personnel, the government needed the support of the citizens who were teachers, teacher-training personnel, and prospective teachers. After determining that the training of teachers would require ten years, the government prepared and implemented a program of teather training. Primary school teachers, both certified and non-certified, were to train the students who had completed primary school, and who wanted to become teachers, for the first two years of a four-year pro- gram. The third and fourth years of training for these students would be provided by teachers who had obtained a headmaster's certificate. The trainees would be required to begin teaching in primary schools after they had had one year of training, but their training would continue by means of correspondence courses for the following three to four years (Hutasoit, 1954:84). 21 The cost of such teacher training was quite low, since a large amount of the training was accomplished by mail, and since there was no need to build expensive buildings exclusively for the purpose of the teacher-training programs. Education experts wrote the lessons that the trainees were to use, and these lessons were issued in the form of a weekly magazine that contained lessons on all necessary sub- jects. More advanced teachers, whoacted as the advisors of the less- advanced trainees, did not need to spend time on writing lessons for the teacher-trainees (Hutasoit, 1954:84-5). With the cooperation of the trainees, and the teachers of a variety of levels of skill, the government was able to engage in a program that assured the training of the largest possible number of . teachers in the shortest possible amount of time, with the added ad- vantage that this training would be less costly than other methods of teacher training. Dealing with the problems of shortages in buildings and equip- ment, another problem foreseen by the government planners, would also require the cooperation of the people of Indonesia. Appeals were made by-radio and the press, and by means of meetings with the people, to enlist their aid and cooperation. All available government per- sonnel, from the Ministry of Education and from other civil service positions, were employed in the campaign to inform the people of the need for their assistance. As a result of this intensive cam— paign, people in many different parts of the country set up temporary buildings for educational purposes at a very low rent. The problem of school accommodations was thereby solved with the direct assistance I'M Hr- .‘J 22 of the pe0ple of Indonesia, who even assisted in equipping the build- ings they helped to provide. The equipment itself was supplied by the government, but the citizens provided transportation from the government stores to the out-of—the-way places where buildings were available (Hutasoit, 1954:100). The shortage of educational materials was relieved by the teacher- training materials that were written by the educational experts from inside Indonesia, and sent by mail to the trainees, and by instruction- al material for the primary schools that was sent to Indonesia from foreign countries. While the preparatory steps taken by the Indonesian government prior to the implementation of the compulsory education program are well-documented, this documentation covers only the preparatory stages, and does not include information about the actual implementation of the prepared program. Such information°was available only by means of personal interview of Indonesian educational personnel. The head of the Division of Educational Media for Non-Formal Education, of the Ministry of Education of Indonesia, Soemardi, pro- vided information about the implementation and progress of the planned education program. Essentially, this well-formed plan for the education of the Indonesian people was never implemented. Political instability caused by a new administration, which decided to reduce the funds allocated for education, resulted in the temporary curtailment of Indonesia's compulsory education program. A": Iii 23 ; A second change in political administration, and a second about- face on administration policy concerning education, has resulted in the resurrection of the compulsory education program. The present administration has indicated an interest in the elimination of il- literacy, by providing educational opportunity for every citizen, and has begun to allocate funds and devote energy to the "second develop- ment plan,“ designed to improve both agriculture and educational programs in Indonesia. Optimistic forecasts predict that by the end of this development program, in 1979, about 85% of the children of Indonesia will be in school (Soemardi, 1978). Thailand Elementary education was made compulsory in Thailand on October 1, 1921. At that time, the elementary school program was a four-year program, with the children beginning their studies at the age of seven and continuing until they had completed grade 4, or until they were fourteen years old (Thailand Official Yearbook, 1968:472). Before even this four-year program could be implemented, the government pre- pared a list of villages that would serve as the sites for schools, since Thailand was not prepared to bear the financial burden of imple- menting the program nationwide, and could only afford to provide edu- cational facilities for about 45.7 percent of the country. Fourteen years after beginning the compulsory education program, Thailand was able to extend educational opportunity, in the form of a four-year program, to all of its citizens (Jumsai, 1951:39). In the interim, children who lived far away from schools were exempted from the law. This exemption was a cost-saving measure, since in the scattered 24 villages where there were only a few children, the cost of setting up a school would have been too expensive in proportion to the number of people it would serve. In 1960, with the introduction of the "National Scheme of Educa- tion," elementary school programs were extended to seven-year programs. As each locality is prepared to accommodate the seven-year program, it will be introduced (Thailand Official Yearbook, 1968:472). Three major problems have been encountered in the implementation of the compulsory education program in Thailand: the lack of quali- fied teachers, the shortage of accommodations and equipment, and the shortage of instructional materials. The lack of qualified teachers was a complex problem, since there were not only few teachers who had adequate qualifications, but few people with any sort of qualifications at all. As a consequence, the government was compelled to employ, as teachers in primary schools, personnel who had no training at all in teaching. At the beginning of the program, it was estimated that only 11% of the teachers had cer- tificates (Jumsai, 1951:63). The Ministry of Education requested additional funds from Parliament, to hire more trained teachers and to open more teacher- training facilities, in an attempt to resolve the teacher-shortage problem. The request was granted, without opposition, and the Ministry immediately proceeded to make use of the new funds. In addition to hiring trained personnel and setting up training pro- grams, the Ministry began in-service training programs, for the teachers who had already been hired but whose qualifications were - a below a IEESOBE was a ”it? 25 below an acceptable level. These in-service programs allowed for a reasonable amount of time during which the personnel were expected to prepare for and pass certain examinations; if they failed to pass the examinations within the specified period of time, they were dis- missed from service. This program was reinforced by a law, supported by the Ministry of Education, which prohibited untrained personnel from engaging in educational activities as teachers; By 1951, the teacher shortage problem appeared to have been solved (Jumsai, 1951: 63). The shortage of buildings and equipment resulted in overenrollment in individual classes. To alleviate this problem, existent temple buildings were used for classes during the initial stages of the com- pulsory education program. The government undertook a program of building new school facilities, with the help of local communities, and this slow but effective method was used to resolve the building shortage problem. By 1935, a marked improvement in this situation was already visible (Jumsai, 1951:56). The lack of instructional materials caused a number of serious problems in the schools: . The children had to sit in an uncomfortable position on the floor, listening to the teachers asking them to repeat lessons in unison and memorize them from the blackboard.... The teachers themselves have no handbooks, no details for a working program, no suggestions of any kind to give the details of the subject to be taught and the methods to be used. (Jumsai, 1951:61-2).- _ This kind of hardship, the direct result of the lack of materials, discouraged students from attending schools on a regular basis. Thai educational authorities have not yet found a practical solution to 26 this problem, and it still looms large as a practical deterrent to the success of the compulsory education program. In fact, these three major problems of shortages, which have de- tracted from the education program from its inception, appear to be re- curring problems. The exact nature of the problems may change configur- ation over time, but the essence of the problems remains the same, as iritnessed by a recent report on the compulsory education program: 1) Elementary school teachers in remote areas are seriously lacking due to limited budget and poor living conditions. 2) Some parents do not take the trouble to buy textbooks for their children and not enought teaching materials are available especially in the provinces. 3) Proper school buildings are not available in numerous rural communities. 4) There is a great need for trained personnel to give leader- ship in different phases of elementary education (Thailand Official Yearbook, 1968:477). The continued progress of this education program clearly depends on the availability of personnel, buildings, equipment and supplies. Up to the present time, this program has been somewhat disappointy “‘9 to educational personnel, since it has not been as effective as they would like it to be. The heavy financial burden placed on the erlilii government budget has been a burden that the government has simply been unable to bear. Despite the lack of adequate funding, educational personnel have done their best to develop and maintain programs that would acconmodate i3‘11 of the children who wanted an education. They have developed mo- 'l:"i'le educational'units, to reach nomadic and rural children. The Department of Adult Education has concerned itself with the develop- ‘nr‘EEnt of literacy programs for children who are older than the normal 5Qginning-school age (Powatt, 1978). have be Iiti cal linistr agreene en: Syg COIntr Eton. ':~#. 9? W 07 f0 5 . ‘4 I I Nil/I 9' f; e! 27 The compulsory education program in Thailand has been confronted with serious problems since its beginning in 1921, and is still con- fronted with essentially the same problems, but the fight to eliminate illiteracy has never been abandoned, and educational programs today continue their slow but steady development. Arab States Since the founding of the League of Arab States in 1946, schools have been viewed as one means to achieve unity among the different po- litical and social groups within the Arabic-speaking world. The various Ministries of Education have regularly held conferences, to arrive at agreement on basic issues such as educational objectives in the differ- ent systems of education that can be found in the Arabic-speaking countries. _ The first conference was held in Lebanon, and was aimed at elimin- ating the major differences in the. educational systems, at arriving at a Simplification of the programs for Arabic instruction, and at revising plI‘lltlary-school-level instruction in history and geography. A second conference was held in Egypt, for the purpose of agreeing on the ob- jectives of secondary and higher-level educational programs (Szyliowicz, 1973:43). In December 1954, the representatives of the Arab states met in Cairo, in collaboration with UNESCO, to examine the problem of free Q0Inpulsory education. This conference confronted the major problems Q? a compulsory education program, identifying them as shortages of qualified personnel, school buildings and equipment (UNESCO, 1956:27). 28 The causes of problems and the problems that arose are reasonably consistent throughout the different Arab states, so, rather than study each individual state, representative samples have been selected for investigation. In Iraq, primary education is compulsory for every child who is at least six years old, and who lives in an area where facilities for education are available. Children are required to spend a minimum of ' six years in school. The Iraqi government has made this statement about the purpose and perspective of the compulsory education program: To provide all Iraqi children of both sexes...with a basic education and culture which would make them good citizens, sound in body, mind and conduct, and to discover their capabilities and aptitudes so as to guide them ac- cordingly in their work. (Clark, 1951:76). By'lnaking this statement, the Iraqi government implicitly accepted the responsibility for providing the means to obtain a basic education to each and every Iraqi child who wanted an education. The government expl icitly accepted this responsibility by appointing a special com- mi ttee to, develop a ten-year plan for the implementation of the compul- sory education program. Estimating the number of children who were likely to enroll in a basic education program, the special conmittee inmediately perceived that the shortage of qualified teaching personnel would be the major PVOb'lem of the compulsory education program. The committee recommended that this problem be solved by the t3lrilding of more teacher-training colleges and by the reduction of teEther-training programs to a one-year duration. These suggestions "Ere followed by the Ministry of Education, and when the compulsory education program was introduced, adequate numbers of qualified ECQC‘JE Wig"? (Hill). 29 teachers were available. As the compulsory education program expanded, adequate numbers of qualified teachers continued to be available (UNESCO, 1956:34-5). The Egyptian government initiated a program for free compulsory education in 1953. It was a six-year program, designed to accommodate al'l Egyptian children between the ages of six and twelve. According to the Ministry of Education, the shortage of school buildings was the silngle most important problem in the implementation of the compulsory education program: It is estimated that there are 3,345,000 children of school age of whom 1,600,000 were enrolled in school in 1952-53. There are thus 1,750,000 still without school provision. According to present plans the Ministry is to open 400 new schools a year, such accommodating an average of 600 pupils, and it is hoped in this way to put every child in school in ten years' time (UNESCO, 1956:35).» An independent foundation, called the "Building Foundation," was formed to aid the Ministry in the construction of the necessary school build- ings . The financial resources of this foundation came from the national budget, from special sources and from private contributions. This foundation was able to amass funding to provide for nine-tenths of the necessary school buildings. The Egyptian Ministry of Education was thus able to. eliminate what is perceived as the primary deterrent to the suc- cess of their compulsory education program. Although the conferences concluded that the shortages of equipment were also problematic, the individual Arab states apparently did not E11rtempt to solve these problems themselves, but instead sought assist- ante from other countries or from international organizations such as UNESCO and UNICEF. the 1' ions the d ticip have 51 pr Itits Stare sccfe 30 The Arab states in general have made considerable advances toward the implementation of compulsory education programs, but not even one of the Arab states has been able to provide an education for the entire age-group specified in their compulsory education programs. Some states that enacted compulsory education legislation have even failed to enforce such legislation, due to their own government's failure to solve the problems of shortages in school buildings, in qualified teachers, and in equipment (UNESCO, 1956:77). Sumary (for CompulsorLEducation Programs) Throughout the world, developing nations interested in democratic forms of government have expressed an awareness that the success of the democratic system depends on the capacity of the citizens to par- tici pate intelligently in the affairs of government. These nations have attem'pted to insure this capacity to participate intelligently by providing some form of education for all citizens, and the govern- ments have generally made the education compulsory, presumably to guarantee access to educational opportunities to all members of their Societies. Having made education compulsory, however, these countries have been faced with the problems of implementing an educational program that would include all school-aged children. The most serious prob- 1 ems they have faced have been shortages, in educational personnel Who are adequately trained, in school buildings and equipment, and 1 '1 instructional materials. These problems are educational-program reflections of the finan- Q1 al problems that plague developing nations generally. The success of ti hear Siste 31 of the free compulsory education programs in these countries depends heavily on the available resources in these countries, and the assign- ment of these resources: It is necessary to examine the resources of the country, the economic status of the people, the system of taxation and phases of economic life which impede the schooling of children (Isidro et al., 1952:53). Adequate planning can provide appropriate solutions to the problems that arise, but such planning must include an investigation of the htunan resources as well as the financial ones, and the solutions, in order to be appropriate, must fit the human participants. School Extensions and Non-Formal Education Programs Even though formal educational systems have not yet reached all of the citizens of the developing nations, criticisms of the formal systems have already begun to- arise: It is evident that the existing formal school system in almost all...countries cannot meet diverse demands of the rapidly rising school population...a variety of edu- cational experiences beyond the school wall should merit urgent attention (SEAMEO, 1973-4:1). The large numbers of students attempting to enter the developing formal educational systems, and formal systems' inability to handle Students in such large numbers, make educators look at alternatives to the formal educational system. In addition, it is also becoming alimi'lrent to national leaders that the formal educational system simply Cannot deal effectively with the learning needs of all of the indi- V‘lduals in a society. For the two out of one hundred primary-school stUdents who continue their education in secondary schools in Tanzania, the formal educational system is adequately addressing their needs; «he? :rgu: year ION-f 32 for the ninety-eight individuals who will remain on the land, the formal system is inadequate (Nyerere, 1968:49-70). The students for whom a formal system is inadequate are making it apparent to educators that education is for all of life, and that there are alternatives to a formal system in the form of a learning system that "includes but goes beyond the bounds of a school system," and that is "conterminous with the number of active learners in society" (Ki dd, 1972:14). This type of school system is more appropriate for those who will be able to obtain only a few years of formal education, whether they must leave in order to help support the economy of their group, or because the System cannot provide them with more than a few years of education. School extensions and non-formal education programs are being viewed with more acceptance by educators who see such programs as the means for achieving national development. Such extensions and non-formal programs can serve: ...1) as an alternative for those who lack the oppor- tunity to acquire formal schooling; 2) as an extension of formal schooling for those who need additional training to get them into productive employment (or to become self- employed); and 3) as a means of upgrading the skills of those already employed (Sheffield and Diejomach, 1972:xi). To accomplish these goals, the non-formal education program or the s<-‘-h<)ol extension must be suited to the needs 'of the country and the individuals. Several developing nations have created and followed aDDY‘Opriate non-formal and extension education programs. llLIsrael i Model There are two important youth organizations in Israel that pro- vide non-formal learning experiences for youth. They are known as “Ema, 33 "Gadna" and "Nahal." "Gadna" is a paramilitary organization which recruits all Israeli youth who are between the ages of 14 and 17. In 1965, there were 35,000 youth in this program. A group of young people get together and join Gadna as a unit, becoming what is called a "Gar'in." They receive training in military and technical trades, but their training is also intended to teach them patriotism and a sense of loyalty to the state of Israel. By the time the members reach the age for induction into Nahal, they have developed into fairly well crystalized groups, with their own democratically elected internal ad- ministration, and have begun to prepare for livin on coop- erative agricultural settlements on the frontier Jacob, 1966:181). After the age of eighteen, the young people are ready to be inducted into the "Nahal," which is a branch of the Israeli Defence Force that was created specifically to be an extension of the Gadna. In the Nahal , the young people receive basic military training, followed by one year of agricultural training. The main function of both of these programs is to provide citizens capable of maintaining and guarding the frontiers of Israel. ' The need for military readiness is matched by a com- parable need to mobilize the nation against a harsh and unrewarding physical environment. To this need they have responded by building on tradition and modernizing the concept of the soldier-farmer (Wilson, 1974:44). By preparing the youth of Israel for both military and agricultural "EEdS, Gadna and Nahal have contributed much toward the development (’1:'the nation. The kind of training that the youth received in these o“Simizations was a very effective political socialization process, ‘""\ich succeeded in making them willing to sacrifice many urban comfortS' .1553v‘the harsh pioneering life, which, in turn, has earned the members 34 the reputation for being the most idealistic and strongly motivated nembers of Israeli society (Wilson, 1974:44). The Israeli Model succeeded in training rural youth for the purpose of rural development, and while doing so, mobilizing and making into productive 'citizens the youth who had been bypassed by the formal educational system, and who were, therefore, a potential source of political discontent. These accomplishments have made the Israeli Model attractive to other developing nations (Wilson, 1974: 5(1), and similar youth programs have been created in seventeen African countries, with the help of Israeli technical advisors (Jacob, 1960- 66:181). Southeast Asia The Southeast Asia Ministry of Education Organization (SEAMEO), made up of representatives from Indonesia, Khmer Republic, Laos, Malaysia, the Phillipines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam, expressed concern over the appropriateness and extension of formal educational Programs: ...as a result of low literacy rates and the rising un- employment in the region, it has become imperative that ‘ greater educational opportunities should be provided for the great proportion of the adult population as well as the large number of youth outside the formal school system, to help them acquire further knowledge and skills and thereby improve their livelihood and strengthen the development of the country. It is also evident that the existing formal school systems in almost all SEAMEO countries cannot meet the diverse demands of the rapidly rising school population (SEAMEO, 1973-4z86). It was suggested that each member country introduce non-formal educa- 1t”ion programs for out-of—school youth and school drop-outs, who had become a serious problem that interfered with the progress of 35 national development. An agricultural training program for older out-of-school youth has been introduced in SEAMEO member countries, principally to help youth in rural areas. A two-year program of well-planned home pro- jects, under the supervision of the agriculture teacher, and supported by loans from the government, helps unemployed and underemployed youth get started or established in farming while they are undergoing train- ing, and gives them the mastery of technical skills and the development of managerial abilities that they will need to successfully continue farming (SEAMEO, 1973-4:IO7-8). The Phillipines introduced the Capiz Mobile School, which is a mobile program of training in handicrafts, in 1973, after a survey of the training needs and resource availability in the area. More than 120 young people, from five villages, underwent this training program, which has been evaluated as being 80% effective in achieving its ob- jectives (unesco, 1977 50). ' The Phillipine government also undertook an "Education for Young Citizen—Producers" program, designed to provide non-formal learning modes for out-of-school youth between the ages of 15 and 35. In this program, teachers and trainees prepared their own syllabus, basing it on the needs, aspirations and interests of the young people. By means of functional literacy, young people learned about high return tech— niques, home industries, marketing of produce, conservation of natural resources and the maintenance of health, thereby receiving practical training that will raise their earning power (UNESCO, 1977:52). 36 lgng_ The non-formal education program in India was designed to rein- tegrate children between the ages of 6 and 14 into the school system, after they had dropped out, of if they had never attended formal school sessions. Started in 1974, this program is a part-time in- structional program that not only tries to prepare students for entry into a higher-level formal educational program, but also emphasizes community development through education (UNESCO, 1977:4). In addition, in 1969, the Indian government instituted a program of Mobile Creches for working mothers, in an attempt to provide: ...education, medical care, nutrition, family planning, adult literacy, vocational training and community services to the children and parents living on worksites and slums around Delhi and other congested cities (UNESCO, 1977:55). The success or failure of this endeavor was not reported. New Zealand The government of New Zealand embarked on a program of providing educational opportunity to its citizens based on the idea that: ...every person, whatever his level of academic abil- ity, whether he be rich or poor, whether he lives in town or country, has a right as a citizen to a free education of the kind for which he is best fitted, and to the fullest extent of his powers (UNESCO, 1967:81-4). In places where there were only nine children, the government built schools and provided trained teachers for those schools, but there were still children who lived in areas that were outside the range of the state schools, and who were consequently left out of the state's education program. In order to include such children in the education- al program, the government started a correspondence school in 1922, hoping to thereby reach the out-of—school children. 37 The government delineated the requirements for eligibility to the correspondence school program: 1. Those who live over three miles from a school or from a school bus route. For children under 10 years of age, a distance of two miles is sufficient. Application for en- rollment on these grounds is made through the secretary of the local education authority-~the education board. 2. Those whose ill health or physical disability prevents them from attending school. An application for enrollment on health grounds needs a medical certificate and is made through the medical officer of health for the district. Tem- porary enrollments can be made for children who suffer an accident or protracted illness which prevents them from at- tending school (UNESCO, 1967:82). About fifty children were eligible and enrolled in the program when it began in 1922. By 1923, the enrollment was up to 450, and by 1925, the enrollment was up to 550. Originally, one teacher was responsible fbr the education of all of the 50 children. Now it has a headmaster, 140 teachers, and non-teaching staff of forty, and from its headquarters in Wellington provides lessons for approximately 1,000 primary and 500 secondary pupils, and 3,500 part-time students, including 600 teachers studying for advanced qualification (UNESCO, 1967:43). This correspondence school depends on the postal system, since the assignments are sent to the students in special two-way envelopes. The assignments that are given to the students are free, and the government also absorbs the cost of postage both ways. Students are provided with textbooks, boxes of science equipment and other instructional materials, which are loaned to them for their use. The correspondence lessons are supplemented by radio broadcasts. Trained teachers provide instruction by means of correspondence, and there are other teachers, itinerant teachers, whose responsibility it is to visit the students in their homes, give help where it is needed, advise parents, and act as a liaison between the schools and the individual homes. 38 Based on the realization that a correspondence school cannot succeed without the help of the students' parents, the Ministry of Education set up a special course to help the parents of correspond- ence school students, especially the parents of slow learners. Despite handicaps, such as the lack of daily personal contact between the students and the teachers, the correspondence school has succeeded in providing educational opportunity to many children who would not otherwise have had access to an education. An evaluation of the correspondence program by a special commission concluded: From the evidence submitted from other sources the com- mission is convinced that the service provided by the cor- respondence school for country children and for children suffering different sorts of handicaps, is of very high standard indeed; in fact, the correspondence school ranks as a world leader in such educational services (UNESCO, 1967:93). The correspondence school has proven to be effective in providing edu- cation for those New Zealand youth who are unable to participate in a fbrmal educational program, and it has been effective in providing them with a high-quality education. Eeru_ Like other developing nations, Peru has attempted to provide sup- port for a democratic system through intelligent citizen participation made possible by the introduction of a program for free and compulsory primary school education. The government objectives for this five- year education program were not entirely achieved since ...about 15 per cent of the children of primary-school age are not enrolled. In some of the cities there is a lack of classroom space and seats. In many villages and rural regions, schools are either non-existent, or improvised and poorly housed and equipped...it was estimated that (in the city of 39 Arequipa) 5,000 children of primary-school age were not in school in 1961, and the rate of drop-outs and consequently the proportion of little-educated people had been high (UNESCO, 1967:47). A group of teachers became concerned enough about the problem of drop-outs to organize a program called Telescuela Popular Americana (TEPA). The teachers voluntarily undertook this project for the benefit of the young people living in Arequipa who had dropped out of school at an early age and begun working as house helpers. These youths were to receive the rest of their education by means of television programs de- signed specificially for them. It was hoped that the young people would be able to watch television for an hour each day in the homes where they were working. Time arrangements were made with the management of the local tele- Vision station, who agreed to donate ninety minutes a day, Monday through Friday, for the educational program. The program was introduced in May 1962. The educational programs were designed in such a way as to provide the school drop-outs with the same type of education that they would otherwise miss. With progressive development of this program, came the need to form a committee to direct activities, and this committee was formed by some representatives of the teaching profession, representatives from the ' Ministry of Education, representatives from the television station, and a priest. The teachers themselves took on the responsibility for recruit- ing students, and’they also agreed to correct the students' written work. The program was intended to provide "literacy skills and arithmetic to the students," but this type of work required some sort of feedback from the students and to the students, and "a field staff was also apps auth scho and port . nite 5 Val SChD( . A, _ In“ ‘\ 4O appointed to supervise the student's work" (UNESCO, 1967:48). At the beginning of the program, all that the local education authorities did was to encourage the participating teachers to leave school an hour early each day. The program survived on the dedication and voluntary efforts of the participants, and was not directly sup- ported or encouraged by the government during its earliest days. In 1964, however, the Ministry of Education gave TEPA a contract to provide televised instruction for 800 primary- aged children not enrolled in Arequipa schools because of shortage of classroom places, and also commissioned it to supervise the adult literacy programme in the department of Arequipa. For the first time a regular income was available ....The director was paid a salary, and could afford to em- ploy a staff of five full-time salaried teachers. Field supervisors could be paid fees. Broadcast time was expanded to six hours, and the station was paid for the additional time at a special educational television rate (UNESCO, 1967: 48-9). After the-government recognized the importance and potential value of this program, it got totally involved in expansion and re-organization. The use of local resources and personnel to meet local needs is believed to be the primary reason for the success of this program. At the present time, churches, recreation centers and factory store- rooms, as well as other available spaces, are being used to house classes of both children and adults. This kind of local support is considered the single most important factor in the success and growth of the TEPA program. Not only has TEPA stayed alive, but has expanded enough to offer a variety of educational programs, of which "the accelerated primary school programme is generally thought to be the most successful one" (UNESCO, 1967:49). 41 Pakistan In comparison with all of the other problems that developing nations must struggle with in an attempt to meet the demand of edu- cation, the shortages of teachers, facilities and money are considered 'to be the most formidable problems (UNESCO, 1967:i). Pakistan has tried to circumvent these problems by establishing a school exten- sion program to provide the desired education for its people. 'There'already was a type of educational system that was well- developed and well-established in Pakistan--the religious education system of the Moslem religion. There already were buildings avail- able for the purpose of housing classes--the mosques, where religious instruction was given. There already were trained and experienced teachers available for almost every locality in the country--the 1mmgmg, or teachers of Islam. The Pakistanis provided refresher courses for the immamg, to pre- pare them for expanding their teaching responsibilities, and to try to guarantee at least a minimum level of teaching effectiveness and skill. These immam§_then returned to the communities where they had previously given only religious instruction, and began to impart gen- eral educational skills to their students, in addition to fulfilling their traditional religious responsibilities. The mosques, therefore, have become learning centers for the community as well as religious centers. ' In this manner, Pakistan has been able to provide personnel and facilities with a minimum of waste in time, and is already in the process of providing an opportunity for education to every member of 42 the local communities, without having to wait the ten years that it usually would take to train the requisite personnel and construct the necessary buildings. In addition, there is also the added advantage of immediate acceptance of the teaching personnel and content of the lessons. As respected members of the communities, the immam§_are ac- customed to being consulted for information and guidance, and the people are accustomed to being taught by the immams, In addition to offering refresher courses to the immgmg, the government has attempted to maintain the quality of instruction by providing for regular inspections, and assigning school inspectors to these schools, as they would to any public educational system (UNESCO, 1974:14). Sri Lanka If they are reasonably successful, compulsory primary education programs in developing nations are able to educate a large percentage of the population in basic literacy and arithmetic skills, as well as in some areas of other information that can contribute to the quality of life in the country. But providing primary-level educa- tion for the population does not automatically solve all problems, and often creates new problems that require solutions. One of the problems that mass education has created in developing nations is the problem of unemployment, since the primary-level education does not necessarily produce an immediately-employable papulation. Sri Lanka has developed an educational program for its primary- school—educated people who are not prepared for the available employ- ment opportunities. Beginning at grade VIII (equivalent to primary class 7 in Nigeria), vocational training is available for students. 43 The program provides not only some theoretical information, but some practical training ds well. Unquestionably requiring the assistance and cooperation of factory owners and businessmen, the government has been able to obtain such as- sistance and cooperation, and has been able to develop a program that combines vocational training, and in-plant training in the practical aspects of the vocation that the student has chosen. General instruc- tion is provided by the government educational facilities, and the practical training is provided by the private businessmen and factory owners. Students who have demonstrated a high level of motivation to- ward prevocational studies have been required to work for two hours a day in a factory, for a period of six months. As a result, students who complete primary-level education programs are employable, and are not automatically consigned to the disappbintment and disillusionment of unemployment. In addition to providing education in elementary literacy and arithmetic skills, the government of Sri Lanka has developed a program that goes one step further in guaranteeing that its newly-educated citi- zens have not only the potential, but also the opportunity, to be produc- tive and self-sufficient. By doing so, Sri Lanka has also increased the possibilities for development within the country of the resources, par- ticularly the human resources, of the country, and has decreased the probability of counter-productive or destructive social dissent. While lacking in the resources for full professional and vocation- al training for all citizens, Sri Lanka has made profitable use of the educational and vocational-training facilities that it does possess (UNESCO, 1977:75). 44 Summary All too few developing nations have provided their citizens with alternatives to a formal education program, despite the obvious in- ability on the part of many of these nations to provide a universally- accessible and universally-applicable system of formal education. There are reasons for this failure other than the simple lack of financial means: ...if the educational alternatives for the younger age group have not received quite the same attention in educa- tional policies or in the plethoric growth of educational models, it is often because of the implicit belief that given time and resources the problem will solve itself when the educational systems are able to expand and provide uni- versal primary education (UNESCO, 1977:2). ‘ The developing nations cannot afford to retard their own development by permitting a portion of their populations to remain unproductive. Nor can they afford the potential political unrest and social upj heaval that can result from providing opportunity for advancement to only a portion of the population, and leaving the rest of the popula- tion to suffer and watch the success of others. It is important for the continued development of these countries that they provide adequately for every child to receive sufficient education to become a productive member of his society. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Before beginning to pursue research on the attitudes and opinions of the people of Niger State in Nigeria, it was necessary to formulate a clear idea of the underlying assumptions, attitudes and opinions that the author was bringing to the research, in order to identify any bias that might enter into the collection, presentation and interpretation of the survey results, and in order to identify a limited starting point for the survey research. Other than a strong interest in aiding in the development of his own country, the author could not perceive any personal prejudices that would interfere with the objective assessment of the collected data. As an experienced educational administrator, the author is more concerned with practical and realistic solutions to real-world problems than he is in theoretical solutions to hypothetical problems. This, however, does not seem to be an attitude that would have the capacity to detract from the validity of his interpretation of the data. Research Hypothesis and Implications The primary hypothesis that serves as the starting point for this research is the following broad statement about popular support or op- position for the'proposed or the actual educational programs that are presented to any specific group of individuals: People support an educational system that they judge to be congruent with their own life style, value system and culture, and they oppose an educational system that they 45. 46 perceive to be incompatible with their life style, value system and culture. ‘ To amplify some of the ideas contained in this hypothesis, and to pro- pose some ideas about how this hypothesis might be translated into con- crete, observable and measurable phenomena, the following definitions are offered. By "educational system," one would have to mean any possible formal or non-formal system, as well as any combination of formal and non-formal ideas, and, in fact, one.would have to even in- clude the absence of a system. In the terms "life style," "value system," and "culture," one would have to include all of those ideas, feeling, thoughts, reactions, goals, desires, customs, traditions, beliefs, etc., that motivate one person to choose any option over any ‘ other option existent in a milieu. While it is impossible to have access to all of the possible sources of human motivation, there are some such sources that are completely accessible, since they can be objectively observed. There are other such sources that can be determined by surveying or question- ing individuals. Whether an individual resides in an urban or in a rural setting, whether an individual continues to reside in a single location or changes the location of his residence, are both possible sources of motivation that are visible. An individual's acceptance or rejection of traditional culture-group values, are also possible sources of human motivation that can often be determined by surveying or ques— tioning the individuals. These possible sources of human motivation can be paralleled to some potential characteristics of an educational system. This is not surprising, since an educational system is a human creation. 47 While "education" has manyzdefinitions, the definition that ap- pears to be at least implicitly accepted by many educational authorities, and by the general public, is that education is a systematized method that is intended to "prepare young people for the work they will be called upon to do in the society which exists" (Nyerere, 1968:52). If this is the function that the creators of an educational system assign to the system that they create, then a "formal" educational system will be a concrete representation of the creators' ideas about the form his society will have in the immediate future. The formal education systems that are being proposed as the basis for compulsory education programs in developing nations are essential- ly the same as the formal education systems that exist in the more highly-industrialized nations of the world. They therefore possess many, if not all, of the same characteristics. Formal education systems tend to be urban rather than rural in setting and in the focus of their curriculum (NFE Exchange, Sept/Nov 1977:1). A formal educational system usually also attempts to "re- inforce the social ethics existing in a particular country" (Nyerere, 1968:46), but since the formal educational systems that are being introduced into develOping nations did not begin in those developing nations, the social ethics that they attempt to reinforce are the social ethics of Europe and of American society. In addition, the urban society that they are designed for is often the highly-industrial- ized and'technologically-advanced urban society of Europe and America. Part of the definition of formal education is its almost-inseparable association with physical structures, conventionally-trained person- nel, and pre-arranged materials and curriculum. The formal 48 educational system focuses on cognitive skills, to the exclusion of non-cognitive skills (UNESCO, 1976z9). By isolating itself and its students from the local community, and by isolating young people from the daily life of their families, the formal educational system tends to promote the rejection of family and neighborhood units, and the acceptance of broader political and social units (UNESCO, 1976:9-10; Nyerere, 1968:55-6). It tends to implicitly encourage personal gain as a valid substitute goal for family, tribe or neighborhood welfare and general well-being (Nyerere, 1968:56). The point of this study is not to determine whether these char- acteristics are good or bad, but, rather, to determine the compata- bility of the characteristics of a formal education system with the sources of human motivation that are most prevalent in present-day Nigerian society. To the degree that the formal system of education that is presented to the people conforms to their sources of motiva- tion, they are likely to accept the system. To the degree that the educational system differs from the people's sources of motivation, they are likely to reject the system. More specifically, if the UPE system is urban in orientation, one would expect support of UPE to be strong in urban centers, and weak in rural areas; one would also expect opposition to be strong in rural centers and weak in urban centers. If the UPE system is technologically-oriented, one would expect support from urban areas (the centers of technological activity) and opposition to be strong in rural areas. If the UPE system is dependent on stationary facilities, one would expect acceptance from people who have stationary residences, 49 and one would expect opposition or rejection from people whose life style is nomadic, or even non-stationary to any degree. If the majority, or even a large number, of the people, are Moslem, one would expect rejection of a system that is essentially based on Christian ethics; if the people are Christian, one would expect acceptance. One could extend this hypothesis even further in its implications. One could select attitudes that are, or that could logically be expected to be, associated with a particular life style, and match these at- titudes to the potential characteristics of an education system. For example, rural people, who are commonly engaged in farming and herd- ing, could logically be expected to want their children to remain at home, since the children often provide a source of labor for the farm- ing and herding endeavors.O Rural people, then, could be expected to want their children to remain at home, and to support an educational system that encourages or permits the children to remain at home,( free to engage in farming or herding activities at times that are ap- propriate for such activities. Rural people could also logically be expected to oppose an educational system that would encourage or force children to leave home, or that would require children to be absent from home when farming or herding work needed to be done. Because of the social structure of urban societies, one could logically expect urban-dwellers to be more individual-oriented than group-oriented. [In an urban center, one might expect to see loyalty to a neighborhood or loyalty to a nation, but one would not particular- ly expect to see loyalty to an extended family or a tribe. Due to $0 the fact that most urban residents have left their tribal or family settings in order to venture into urban society, their loyalty to family, clan or tribe could reasonably be expected to be weaker than the loyalty of an individual who has remained in his family, clan or ' tribal setting. As a result of this, one could expect urban dwellers to be more concerned with individual self-sufficiency than with group dependence, particularly dependence on a family, clan or tribal group. One could expect rural dwellers, or individuals who continue to be as- sociated with a family, clan or tribal group, to be more concerned with group inter-dependence than with individual self-sufficiency. One could not expect the urban dwellers to be concerned with contributing to group solidarity, and one could expect the rural or group-oriented in- dividuals to be very concerned with group solidarity. Urban dwellers, then, could be expected to support an educational system that promotes individual self-sufficiency, and does not concern itself with group solidarity; rural dwellers, or group-oriented individuals, could be expected to support an educational system that promotes group inter- dependence, and that contributes to, or tries to maintain, group solidarity. Since the traditional African society is family-oriented, group- oriented, clan-oriented or tribe-oriented, one would expect to find non- traditionally-minded individuals in urban settings, and traditionally- minded individuals in rural or non-urban settings. Non-traditionally- minded individuals could be expected to have personally re-assessed the values of traditional practices, and could, therefore, be expected to support an educational system that encourages re-assessment of tradi- tional values and social structures, and to oppose an educational 51 system that encourages acceptance of and adherence to traditional practices. More traditionally-minded individuals may or may not have re-assessed the traditional values and social structures, but they will have opted for the continuance of such traditions, and could, therefore, be expected to support an educational system that encourages acceptance of traditional values and social systems, and to oppose an educational system that encourages re-assessment, and even rejection, of traditional values and social systems. Religion is one type of tradition. Non-religious individuals could, therefore, be expected to support a system that offers a range of religious ideas and ethical systems or that offers no religious education at all, but traditionally religious people could be expected to oppose such a system. Religious individuals, on the other hand, could be expected to support an educational system that promotes acceptance of and ad- herence to a set of religious ideals and practices, and to oppose an educational system that encourages individual self-determination of a set of behavioral ethics. These implications from the research hypothesis are the evidence that the survey should be able to uncover. While the survey cannot determine whether an individual is religious or not, it should be able to indicate whether or not that individual supports a non-religious school system. While the survey cannot determine whether an indi- vidual is group-oriented or individual-oriented, it should be able to determine whether or not that individual supports an educational system that promotes individual self-sufficiency. 52 By determining whether or not these various (and often opposite) attitudes are present in a society, this survey should be able to indicate whether or not the UPE system, as proposed by the government, will be acceptable to the members of the society to which it is being proposed. If only sUpportive attitudes are present, then the proposed system should meet with little or no opposition from the members of the society; if opposition attitudes are present, then the proposed system, if it is to fulfill its purpose of being "universal," must- find a way to accommodate the attitudes and Opinions of the society it purports to serve. Since the UPE program has been partially implemented, one can look for support or opposition to the system, as well as looking for the presence or absence of the attitudes and opinions mentioned above. If the attitudes and opinions are present, and the predicted support or opposition is not, the research hypothesis would have to be re- jected, in favor of the null hypothesis, which would be that life style does not have an effect on the acceptance or rejection of an educational system. This would, however, also be dependent on the extent to which the people of an area were aware of the nature of the proposed system, which would, in turn, be dependent on the amount of information that they had been given in the form of advertising or public relations, and the degree to which full implementation had been attempted in that area. The survey must elicit not only information about attitudes, but also information about advertising of the UPE program, and information about the progress of the implementation procedure in the area where the survey is taken. 53 Questionnaire Design and Development The questionnaire contains items that pertain to both attitude information and descriptive information. Within these two broad cate- gories of information are some pertinent subcategories. The category of attitude information contains the subcategories of attitudes toward education in general, attitudes toward the UPE program, and attitudes toward alternative programs. The category of descriptive information contains the subcategories of potentially-pertinent demographic in- formation, information about literacy programs in general, and infor- mation about the UPE program in particular. While it would have been possible to ask many questions besides the ones asked in the survey, there seemed to be no value in obtaining vast amounts of irrelevant information, and many questions that might be expected to be found on the survey are noticeably absent. This is the result of a deliberate attempt to limit the survey length in order' to maximize the projected rate of response (Berdie and Anderson, 1974: 61). Descriptive Information Content The information sought from a particular surveyed individual depended on whether that individual was a parent, a chief or tribal leader, or one of the educational personnel. Parents were asked for information about their place of residence (district), their tribe, and their occupation, but they were not asked about their position or department within that occupational field. Chiefs and tribal leaders were asked about their district, their tribe and their position, but they were not asked about their occupa- tion, since this information was either known or irrelevant. 54 Educational personnel were asked about their position and their de- partment, but were not asked about their tribe or place of residence, since this was not considered pertinent, and they were not asked about their occupation, since this was known. Parents, as well as chiefs and tribal leaders, were asked about the amount of education that they personnally had, but educational per- sonnel were not asked for this information. Parents were asked how many children they had, and how many of their children were in school, but they were not asked how many children were in the district, and how many children were in school within the district, since it was felt that they would not have access to depend- able information concerning the district population figures. Chiefs and tribal leaders were asked about their own children (how many and how many in school), and they were also asked about how many children- in the district were in school. It was assumed that they would have access to information about the number of children in school within their district. Educational personnel were not asked about the number of children in their district. Census figures, either from a general census or from a school census, were to be the source of information about the number of children in a district. Parents were asked about the existence of a literacy program in their area, about who such literacy.programs might be for, and about whether or not there was enough room for every child in the community to receive an education. It was assumed that they would have more ac- cess to information about children who were actually not attending school, and might provide information to verify or discount official 55 statistics concerning the number of children in school and the number of school-aged children not in school, particularly with reference to the number of children who were not in school, but who wanted to be in school, or in a literacy program of some type. Chiefs and tribal leaders were asked about the existence of literacy programs, and about the peOple for whom such literacy programs were intended, and educa- tional personnel were asked for the same information. All three groups--parents, chiefs and tribal leaders, and educa- tional personnel--were asked about the amount of information that they received concerning the UPE program. Parents and chiefs were asked how much they had received from the federal government, and the educational personnel were asked how much they had received from the federal gov- ernment and how much they had helped to distribute to the people in the area. The types of information sought on the questionnaire, and the people to whom these information-gathering questions were addressed, 'is presented in chart form in Figure 1 (p. 56). Opinion and Attitude Content Before determining what attitudes were present with reference to a particular proposed educational system, it seemed pertinent to de- termine if negative attitudes toward education in general were present. In the face of opposition to education in general, no proposal would be able to garner adequate support. In the absence of opposition to education in general, opposition to a particular proposal would be likely to be the result of some aspect of that particular proposal. 56 Topics Included Chiefs and Educational on Questionnaire Parents Tribal Leaders Personnel District of Residence Yes Yes No Tribe I Yes Yes No Occupation Yes Yes No Position/Department No Yes Yes Education of Respondent Yes Yes No Children of Respondent Yes Yes No In-School Children of . Respondent Yes Yes No Area Children in School No Yes Yes Number of Schools in , District or Area . Yes Yes No Existence of Literacy Program in Area Yes Yes Yes Intended Participants for Literacy Program Yes Yes Yes Room for Every Child in Literacy Program Yes Yes No Information Received about UPE Yes Yes Yes Information Distributed about UPE No No No Figure 1. Descriptive Information and Interviewed Subjects 57 Therefore, the first and most important opinion to collect would be an opinion about education in general. Since it could reasonably be assumed that educational personnel would have a positive view of educa- tion, they were not asked this question, but the parents and the chiefs and tribal leaders were asked to express not only their opinion about education in general, but also their opinions about the good and the bad aspects of education in general. While educational personnel could reasonably be expected to dis- tinguish between the UPE program in particular and education in general, it was suspected that for most peOple who were not directly affiliated with educational programs (the parents and chiefs and tribal leaders), the UPE program would essentially be considered "education," and not be distinguished in any specific way from education in general. For .this reason, questions about education were not duplicated with similar questions about the UPE program on the parents' and the chiefs and tribal leaders' questionnaires, but such duplicated sets of questions were included in the questionnaires given to educational personnel. UPE and government support of education were mentioned in the non- educational-personnel questionnaires, in order to bring them to mind while the respondents were answering the questionnaires, but only a few direct questions about UPE were asked. The questionnaires dis- tributed to respondents other than educational personnel were directed mostly toward finding out what the people wanted to see in an educa- tional program, what part they felt the government ought to play in providing them with educational opportunities, and what suggestions they had and/or alternatives they wanted to have offered by an 58 educational program. By matching what had been done in the UPE pro- gram in a particular area with what the people wanted, one could quickly see whether or not the UPE program was fulfilling the people's expectations. Too many questions about the potential failings of UPE, widely distributed among the people of an area, could also have had the effect of negative advertising for the UPE program. Such negative ' advertising would have had the potential for affecting the support for UPE that had been obtained in a particular area, and probably have been completely undesirable and unwarranted in this present period of only partial implementation of the government's program. For this reason, care was taken to avoid the suggestion that UPE would fail, and the questionnaire that was most widely distributed among the parents was a questionnaire that implied that the govern- ment would do its best to accommodate the wishes of the local popula- tion. Direct questions about whether the peOple supported or opposed the UPE program were avoided, except on the educational personnel questionnaire. Parents were asked to report on their children's reaction to education, chiefs and tribal leaders were asked to report on the children's and the parents' reactions to education, and educational personnel were asked to report on the reactions of the people in their district to education. In this way, the people who were closest to the children would be able to offer their opinions about the children, and it could be seen, to some degree, how much their children‘s reac- tions affected their opinions. The educational personnel, however, 59 Lwould not be expected to be able to accurately report on the children's reactions, since their own children's reactions would probably be re- lated to the parents' employment in the school systems, and the opinions that were expressed to these educational personnel by other parents .would probably also reflect the fact that the opinions were being re- ported to employees of the school system. The opinions of the parents and of the chiefs and tribal leaders could therefore be expected to be more accurate pictures of the children's reactions than could the opinions of the educational personnel. By asking the parents for their opinions, and asking the chiefs and tribal leaders about the parents' Opinions, and asking the educational personnel about the opinions of the people in the district, one could get some information about how accurately the leaders and the education- al personnel were able to perceive the attitudes and opinions of the ‘ people that they were serving. ' A summary, in chart form, of the information about opinions and attitudes that was sought by this survey, and the groups from whom this information was sought, is presented in Figure 2 (p. 60). Opinion Verification Besides asking several different groups to report on the opinions 'held by the other group or groups, in order to verify the data collected, several questions were added to the questionnaire to verify the opin- ions of each informant on the same questionnaire. This was necessary, since time requirements made it impossible to repeat the survey in order to verify the opinions that were expressed. 60 Chiefs and Topics Included Tribal Educational on Questionnaire Parents Leaders Personnel Personal Opinion of Education Yes Yes No Good Aspects Yes Yes No Bad Aspects Yes Yes No Value of Education for Group No Yes Yes Opinions of Adults in Group No YeS‘ Yes Opinions of Children in School Yes Yes No Opinions of Children not in School No Yes No Opinions of GroUp Leaders No No Yes Proposals--what should be done Yes Yes Yes For whom Yes Yes Yes How Yes Yes . Yes Is it possible Yes Yes Yes Will UPE benefit People Yes No Yes Who Yes No Yes Support/Opposition to UPE No No Yes Who No No Yes Why No No Yes Government-Provided Alternatives Yes Yes Yes Suggestions Yes Yes Yes UPE--What should be done No No Yes For whom No No Yes How No No Yes Is it possible No No Yes Figure 2. Opinion/Attitude Information and Interviewed Subjects 61 In addition to being asked what they thought of education, each interviewed party was also asked his opinion of the value of education. Since this question did not include a direct question about the nega- tive aspects of education, one could reasonably expect the response on this item to be the same as, or slightly more positive than, the posi- tive response to the question concerning the good aspects of education in contrast to the bad aspects. The response to this question, there- fore, would serve the purpose of verifying the validity of the responses received to the first question about what the interviewed party thought of education. ' A dual set of questions was also asked concerning alternatives and suggestions for change in the educational programs. _Again, this was intended to be a cross-check on the responses received, to assure that the responses accurately represented the opinions of the people. The responses that were sought concerning the number of children in a given area, and the number of children in school, could be obtained from some government census figures or school census figures, and the responses made by the interviewed parties could be checked against any available census data; as a countercheck. Minimal differences between . government reports and responses from any of the interviewed parties were not to be considered important, and the only discrepancies in numbers that would be important would be rather large discrepancies. With these four elements added to the survey structure and con- tent, maximum validity of the responses could be achieved. Opinions about the opinions of others could be checked against the responses that were obtained from the different groups; opinions concerning the 62 number of participants could be verified by census figures; opinions about the value of education were sought twice, in two questions that were worded differently, to assure that the data collected on this idea was consistent with itself in the two different questions; and Opinions about alternatives and/or suggestions were sought twice, in two different parts of the survey questionnaire, to verify that the first opinions given were representative of the true opinions of the people who were surveyed. Language Use Two languages were used to convey the questions to the people who were interviewed: English and Hausa. Sample copies of the surveys in English and in Hausa can be found in Appendix A and Appendix B of this paper. These two languages were selected because they are the two offi- cial languages that would be most commonly found in Niger State. There are four official languages in Nigeria, but Yoruba and Ibo are not as commonly found in Niger State. In a few cases, it was necessary to use a local language in order to interview the participants in this . survey, and in these cases, an interviewer who spoke both the local language and either Hausa or English actually conducted the survey. For more than half of the participants in this survey, a written questionnaire could not be used. In some cases, this was necessary because the person being interviewed was not able to read in English or in Hausa. In other cases, the presence of a piece of paper created the fear that the information would be used by some secret agency or fer taxation purposes. These oral interviews could detract from the 63 dependability of the data collected, but there is sufficient reason to believe, due to the training and conscientiousness of the interviewers, that the content of the questions was accurately conveyed, and the responses were accurately recorded on the interview sheets. While this type of reporting would make it impossible to record the exact words of the interviewed parties, the content and meaning of the re- sponses could be recorded accurately by conscientious interviewers. Translation, by itself, could result in unintentional distortion of the data, so, because of the need for translation and oral unrecord- ed interviewing, every precaution was taken to accurately transmit meaning. Survey Techniques The site of this survey was Niger State in Nigeria. Niger State is centrally located within Nigeria, and covers an area of 42,123 square kilometers. It has an estimated population of 1,271,767 people. Niger State is subdivided into five divisions (Kontogora, Bida, Minna, Abuja and Agaie/Lapai) (Nigeria, 1976:31). A map of Nigeria, showing the location of Niger State in relation to the location of the other states, is shown in Figure 3 (p. 64). Niger State is also subdivided into eight local government areas, and each of these areas has a Ministry of Education, to supervise the educational activity within the local area. None of these subdivisions are strictly along tribal area boundaries, and, in some cases, one tribe may constitute the majority of the population of a given area, even though other tribes may be represented, while in other cases, several different tribes may all have a large number of members dwelling in a 64 BORNO PLATEAU LAGOS ANAMBRA CEO 5 E RIVER Figure 3., Map of Nigeria (adapted from Dixon et al., 1977:96) 65 particular local area. Figure 4 shows the eight local government areas, the location of the Ministry of Education for that local area, and the different tribes represented in the population of that local area (p. 66). The major tribes of Niger State, as can be seen in Figure 4, are the Nupe, Hausa, Gwari, Kambari, Dukkawa and Kamukawa. In addition, members of the Fulani, Yoruba, Ibo, Kadara and Dakakari tribes in- habit the area of Niger State in large enough numbers to be considered important, but not in large enough numbers to constitute a majority of the population of any single local area. Each of these tribes has a discernible identity, in terms of language, culture and traditions, social structure, value system and source of income. The obvious differences in life style may result in differences in attitudes and opinions concerning education and concerning a particular educational system. Population Sample Selection Actual census figures for Niger State are not available. A census was taken nationally in 1963, and again in 1973, but the government was unwilling to accept the findings of the 1973 census, and, as a result, the 1973 census was declared invalid. During the same period of time, the political organization of Nigeria was in a state of flux, with a redivision of the country into states in 1967, and further divi- sions taking place afterward. Niger State itself was created in February 1976. Quite simply, there are no census figures available for Niger State, and since the local government areas are not divided along tribal-territory lines, there is not even any reasonably 66 Local Government Location of Strongly-Represented . Areas Ministry of Education Tribes Abuja Abuja Hausa & Gwari Chanchaga Kuta Gwari Etsuwan Agaie Nupe Gbako ' Bida Nupe Lavun Kutigi Nupe Magama Rijau Dukkawa, Kambari, ' . Hausa- Mariga Kontogora Kambari, Hausa . Nupe, etc. Rafi Kagara Kamukawa, etc. Figure 4. Local Government Areas, Ministries of Education and Tribes 67 plausible method for estimating the true population of the local areas, or of determining the percentages of the population that are members of any one tribe for a given local area. Consequently, the normal proce- dure for determining that a random sample is selected, by basing it on percentages of the total population, was not possible for this survey. Since it was impossible to use objective census figures in order to guarantee a random sample, alternative methods for guaranteeing the randomness of the sample had to be found. Different methods were re— quired for selecting a random sample from among the three different groups. In order to select a random sample of the educational personnel, it was necessary to consult with the Commissioner of Education for Niger State, and to obtain from him a list of the educational person- nel employed in the state. Numbers were assigned to the names on the list, and forty numbers, plus alternates, were drawn from these num- bered slips. 1 Local government secretaries were consulted, in the selection of a random sample of chiefs and tribal leaders, and these secretaries provided a list of the names of the chiefs and tribal leaders of their own areas. Numbers were again assigned, and thirty numbers, plus al- ternates, were selected from the assigned numbers. In order to select a random sample of the general population, a list of towns in the local government areas was obtained from the Ministry of Local Government of Niger State, and this list was sup- plemented by information received from the secretaries of local government areas. From this list of towns, a random sample was 68 selected by assigning a number to each of the towns, and drawing ten or twelve numbers from this pool for each of the five divisions in the state. Once the towns had been selected, population figures for each of the selected towns were obtained from the secretaries of the local _governments, and in the cases where such figures were not available from the secretaries, estimates of population were obtained from the chiefs or tribal leaders, or their secretaries, from the area of the town that had been selected. At best, these population figures were from the 1963 census, and therefore about fifteen years old. At worst, these population figures were from 1963 census figures that had been estimated at that time, or from estimates that were made for taxation purposes by lOcal government officials or the "scribes" of the local chiefs and tribal leaders. Based on the population estimates that were received, a decision was made concerning the number of houses to contact in a given area. In a larger town or village, every tenth .house would be contacted, and in a smaller area, every seventh house would be contacted. Every attempt was made to contact people from all parts of a town or village, to avoid the distortion that would be caused by consulting only the residents of a particular neighborhood, and reasonably complete coverage of the entire area of each of the towns or villages was obtained. In all, one hundred houses were selected to participate in this survey. Selection and Training of Interviewers The author could not personnaly interview all of the people who had been selected for the survey, so six men were trained to help in collecting the needed data. 69 The interviewers met to discuss the content of the survey ques- tions, and to resolve any problems that arose from the wording or in- formation sought on the questionnaires, so that each interviewer would be able to cope with questions that might arise during the course of an interview, when he would be unable to consult with the author. As long as the interviewers fully understood what information was being sought, they would be able to conduct oral interviews whenever that was necessary. Interviewers received specific instructions to avoid argumentation with the interviewed parties, and to remain neutral about the topics of 'the survey in the presence of respondents to the survey. Not only were they to avoid arguments, but also to avoid any indication to the respond- ents that they agreed with opinions that were expressed, or that there was a particular response that was desired by the interviewer. The interviewers were also instructed to allay the fears and sus- picions of the respondents by showing them a letter of introduction from the Commissioner of Education, which would indicate that the survey was not being taken for purposes of spying or taxation. In- formation that might demonstrate to the respondent that the survey was for educational administration purposes, such as a clear statement of the purpose for the study, or information about the process of selection, was to be given readily to any respondent who requested such information. All respondents were also to be assured of the confidentiality of their responses. Appreciation for the time and assistance of the respondents was to be expressed at the end of each interview. 70 After the preliminary survey, interviewers were able to assist in the training of each other by sharing the ideas and experiences that they had had while conducting the preliminary interviews. The were also encouraged to provide feedback on the wording of the statements 'and questions in the interview schedule. The interviewers were well-trained and, it is believed, they conscientiously recorded the responses given to them. Procedure for Conductingithe Interviews Each interviewer was assigned a specific number of parties that he would contact and interview. Appointments for interviews were set up by the interviewers, and at the appointed time, the interviewers met with the respondents and asked the survey questions, recording . -the responses on the survey sheets. Before asking any questions, the interviewer was to read the letter of introduction from the Commissioner of Education, or to. .present the copy of that letter to the party to be interviewed. Each interviewer was supplied with a copy of the letter for this purpose. After the respondent was assured that the survey was for educa- tional purposes, the interviewer was to begin asking questions. If the party to be interviewed was suspicious of the presence of paper on which his responses were recorded, the interviewer was to relinquish the survey sheet, ask the questions without consulting the paper, and try to remember the gist of the informants' responses. Immediately after the interview, the interviewer was to sit down and record the responses made by the respondent. If the party to be interviewed was 71 illiterate, the interviewer was to read the survey questions to the- respondent, and to record the answers that were given. In the cases where the respondent was willing to answer the survey, but did not want to take the time for an interview, the survey sheet was left with the respondent, and the interviewer made arrangements to pick up the filled-in form at a later date. If the respondent was unable to speak or read either Hausa or 'English, arrangements were made to conduct-the interview through an. interpreter who spoke the local language. The interviewer then per- formed the function of recording the answers that were given through the interpreter. Before ending the interview, especially in the cases of the re- spondent being a chief or tribal leader, or one of the educational personnel, the respondent was asked if he had any insights or inforr mation that would help the author in understanding the extent and nature of the problem that was being researched, that would help to provide workable solutions to the problems that were being uncovered, or that would provide suggestions for areas of study that the author had not considered. The final procedure in any interview was to express the appreci- ation of the author for the assistance and cooperation of the respondent. Preliminary Survey Testing The preliminary survey of ten educational personnel, eight chiefs and fifteen parents (houses) was conducted to test the survey instru— ment and to obtain feedback on the type of questions and the wording of the questions in the survey schedule. 72 Both the author and the trained interviewers participated in this preliminary survey, interviewing the parties that had been assigned to them, recording the data, and then meeting to discuss the experience. This preliminary survey resulted in the survey forms being supplied in both the Hausa and the English languages, for the parents and the chiefs and tribal leaders. The deletion of some of the original items was suggested, and re-wording or inclusion of some additional items was recommended. The fOrmat of the survey that was actually given is the direct result of this preliminary survey, and the finalized form of the survey questionnaires is what appears in Appendix A (English) and Appen- dix B (Hausa) in this dissertation. The meetings held between the author and the interviewers after the preliminary survey were helpful in arriving at joint solutions to the problems that could arise during the interviews, and provided valuable training for all of the interviewers. Data Analysis Methods The large amount of data collected, and the intricacy of the types of responses to some of the questions, required that the data be com- piled and processed by computer. A large enough number of the questions were open-ended, asking for the respondent's opinions, for example, about the good aspects and bad aspects of education, or asking for sug- gestions that the respondent might have concerning educational programs. This type of question could elicit such a variety of responses that the only efficient means of dealing with such questions is by computer. 73 Compiling the Data All filled-in questionnaires were collected in one location, and variable labels were assigned to the questions and the subdivisions . of the questions. For example, the question, "WhAt do YOU think about education," was assigned the label "EDTHINK," and the subdivi- sions of this question, "What is good about it?" and "What is bad about it?" were assigned the labels "EDGOOD," and "EDBAD." For questions like the sample given above, a variety of answers was possible, and each of these answers was reported as a value of the variable if it occurred often enough to reflect more than idiosyncratic opinion. Opinions expressed by a single respondent were not classified as separate values unless one individual represented at least 5% of the survey sample. Most of these values were nominal in nature, and could not be ranked in value in any way. For example, under the variable "EDGOOD," values were assigned to the responses of civilization, stan- dard of living, opportunity and enlightment, since responses pertaining to these facets of life were recorded relatively frequently. Other responses were not reported as frequently, and were therefore grouped together under the heading "other." Cards were keypunched for each respondent, recording the category of respondent (Educational personnel/chiefs and tribal leaders/parents), the tribal affiliation for those respondents who had reported tribal affiliation, and the occupation of the respondent, as well as the answers to the survey questions that had been given by that respondent. Data were prepared for processing in an SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) system, with one card per case, reported in 74 a fixed-column format (Klecka, et al., 1975). Keypunched cards were verified for accuracy. Processingithe Collected Data When all data were recorded on computer cards, the cards were sorted by category of respondent, and separate frequency runs were made for each of the three categories. Percentage figures for these runs were calculated on the basis of frequency within the subfile (categor --"EDPERSON," "CHIEFS," and "PARENTS") rather than frequency for the total number of respondents for the three categories combined. Subsequent to the frequency run, two cross-tabulation runs were made. The first cross-tabulation was between the variable "EDTHINK" (the computer variable label for the question "What do you think of education?") and the other Variables. The run also included cross- tabulations between the two major values of "EDTHINK"‘("EDGOOD" and "EDBAD") and the other variables. The second cross-tabulation run was made between the variables "EDVAL" (the computer label for the question, "What is your opinion about the value of education?") and "UPEILLIT" (the computer label for the question, “Do you think UPE will resolve the problem of illiteracy in your community?"), and all of the other variables in the study. Some significant correlations were found between variables, but, in general, this type of correlation did not provide as much informa- tion as the cross-tabulation provided. Tests of significance would only be able to measure the signifi- cance of the relationship between one variable and another variable, but in the nominal data that were collected, each value of a variable 75 can, in effect, function as an independent variable in itself (Linton and Gallo, 1975:57). For this reason, the significance tests and correlation tests that are available through the SPSS package do not provide the most useful information about the data that was collected. In the case of nominal data of this type; when a particular value of a variable might show a clear relationship with a value (or all values) of another variable, a cross-tabulation is the only convenient analyt- ical tool available, especially if the other values of the first variable show no meaningful relationship with the second variable's values. Unless one wants to engage in extensive mathematical exer- cises, the important information from the cross-tabulation can best be shown by means of a chart, a bar-graph, or some other pictographic device (Williams, 1968:26). . ' For this reason, visual inspection of the cross-tabulations was carefully made, and the important information that they contained is presented in the following chapter. Data relevant and useful for this study have been hand-charted, based on the cross-tabulations, to demonstrate more clearly the information that the survey had generated. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND DISCUSSIONS OF THE FINDINGS The responses that were received and the frequencies observed for these responses will be presented first. Since the responses of the population in general are more directly the concern of the author, the responses of the "parents" who participated in the survey will be close- ly examined and the responses of the chiefs and tribal leaders and of the educational personnel will be examined as they contribute to the understanding and interpretation of the "parents" responses. The chiefs and tribal leaders are primarily rural leaders, so their responses will be examined as potential indications of the opinions and attitudes of rural population, of interest primarily when they deviate in some mean- ingful way from the responses of the population-at-large, which includes ,both urban and rural representatives. After the frequencies themselves have been examined, an examination will be made of the cross-tabulations between opinions and demographic information, and between one opinion and another, when such cross- tabulations have indicated that there is some statistically significant relationship between the variables. Since the survey sample is quite small in proportion to the total p0pulation of Niger State. it must be remembered that the significance established here is mathematically valid for the surveyed population, but the degree of intensity of any Specific opinion might vary, were the survey applied to a distinctly larger survey population. In particular, the cross-tabulations 76 77 generally demonstrate small populations in any specific cell. With a larger survey sample, the cell configuration might change drastically, making what appears to be a valid interpretation from this data, ap- pear in the larger sample as unsubstantiated. Small sample size, and the resultant small cell size in cross-tabulations, brings with it 'the increased likelihood of invalid interpretation due to overgeneral- ization. Because most of the survey information was collected by means of personal interview, there was a high rate of return on the survey ques- tionnaires. The following table illustrates the rate of response for the different categories of respondents, and the overall rate of response. NUMBER RETURNED % RETURNED Educational Personnel Chiefs and Tribal Leaders 23 76.7 Parents ~100 71 71.0 TOTALS 170 121 71.2 Table 1. Rate of Response to Questionnaires Fear of spying, fear of the information being used for taxation pur- poses, and general mistrust of strangers were probable causes of non-response. The purpose of the survey was to determine whether or not certain attitudes and opinions were present, and not to determine the degree to which those attitudes and opinions were present. The lack of ac- curate and dependable census information would, in any case, have made it impossible to be certain of the generalizability of the data 78 collected, if the goal were to determine the degree of presence of an attitude or opinion. But, in order to collect information about whether or not an attitude is present, a reasonable number of survey participants, randomly sampled, should provide valid and interpret- able information. Descriptive Data for the Subjects Interviewed In determining that a representative sample of subjects had been interviewed for this study, four aspects of the subjects' background were considered: occupation or position, tribe, level of education, and number of children. It was felt that these particular aspects of life of the subjects would most directly affect the subjects' views about education. Although there might not be a perfect correlation between these factors and the socioeconomic status of an individual, or the place of residence of an individual, or his orientation toward tradition, there would very possibly be a strong enough correlation to justify examining the personal traits that would result in a particular socioeconomic status, rather than examining the socioeconomic status itself. In addition, these factors might not markedly affect the socioeconomic status of an individual, but they might affect the at- titudes or opinions of the individual toward education in general, or toward a particular educational system. The fear of the survey infor- mation being used for taxation purposes would also justify avoiding direct questions about income and assets. Occupation or Position The positions held by the educational personnel were investigated so that supervisory personnel, rather than strictly teaching personnel, 79 would be interviewed. The supervisory personnel would be much more likely to have the power to affect decisions that were made concerning programs and curriculum, and they would be more likely to be the people most directly concerned with setting up and maintaining educational programs in their districts. Care was exercised in order to guarantee that supervisory personnel from local, regional and statewide educa- tional offices would be represented in the survey sample. In the survey sample, 77.8% of the subjects interviewed were supervisory personnel, 14.8% of the subjects were teachers, and 7.4% of the subjects were student-teachers in training. This information is summarized in Table 2 below. I Number of Percentage _ 3 Respondents of Respondents “Supervisory Personnel; 21 77.8% ' Teaching Personnel L 4 14.8% Student-Teachers 2 'z,7.4% TOTAL 27 100.0% Table 2. Positions of Educational Personnel Besides determining the positions held by the educational personnel, the survey also requested information about the department in which the educational personnel were employed, in order to determine whether or not local, regional and state educational administrators were all represented in the survey sample. Of the respondents, 24.0% were from the state Ministry of Education, 32.0% were from regional Educa- tional Departments, and 44.0% were from the loCal School District Offices, as shown in Table 3: 80 Number of Percentage Respondents of Respondents State Ministry of Education 6 24'0% Regional Education Departments 8 32'0% Local School District Offices 11 44°°% TOTAL* 25 100.0% *excluding student-teachers Table 3. Scope of Authority Of Educational Personnel More local personnel than regional personnel, and more regional person- nel than state personnel, were interviewed, because it was felt that the local personnel would have more influence on the school programs than the regional personnel, and the regional personnel would have more influence than the state personnel. But the acutal numbers and percentages of personnel interviewed were not radically different, since educational personnel in all departments, at all levels of author- ity, would have the power to affect the educational programs that were Offered in a particular locality, and would have some responsibility for the distribution of information about educational programs in general and UPE in particular. From Tables 2 (p. 79) and 3 (p. 80), it can be seen that the educational personnel who were interviewed constituted a reasonably representative sample of different types of positions within the edu- cational system, and different scopes of authority over the educational programs in Niger State. The opinions that they expressed on the survey, therefore, can be expected to be reasonably representative 81 of the types of opinions that could be found among the educational personnel in Niger State. The specific positions of the chiefs and tribal leaders were not investigated closely, since any individual in a tribal leadership position could be expected to exert approximately the same amount of influence over tribe members. In general, the influence of chiefs and tribal leaders would be local in scope, and unlikely to extend beyond tribal limits, or eVen, perhaps, to extend to tribe members who had relocated outside of the traditional tribal territory. In Africa, the chief is the traditional ruler, but his social, political, religious and military status may differ from region to region and from ethnic group to ethnic group. Generally, the chief or tribal leader is chosen from among the members of his own ethnic group, and from a particular family holding legitimate hereditary claim on the position for which the leader is selected. The tribal leader would have the responsibility for_the administration of the region or district, and would also play an important role in influenc- ing the people of the region to achieve the goals set before the community. The community would generally view the tribal leaders as a guide and advisor, as well as a leader (Omotoso, 1978:1-3). The chief or tribal leader would be the closest political/social administrator to a particular group of people. While other political or social leaders might be expected to adhere strictly to policy de- cisions made at a higher level, the chief or tribal leader might be expected to more directly represent the Opinions and ideas of his people, and to have more direct contact with his people. lThe precise nature of status would not necessarily be important, but the local 82 scope of his influence and the traditional nature of his perspective are important to this survey of attitude and opinion. The individual citizens Of Niger State, identified on this survey as "Parents" (although in fact some of them do not have children at all or do not have children who are affected by decisions about school- ing), come from a variety of different occupations. For the purposes of this survey, three general occupational categories were set up: Farming/Cattle, Knows a Trade, and Professional. These three categories represent three major social divisions in occupation. Any citizen whose occupation could not be classed in one of these three categories was assigned to the category "Other." Of the 71 respondents interviewed for this survey, 39.4% were occupied in "Farming/Cattle," 18.3% were occupied in trades, 23.9% were professionals, 9.9% were occupied in pursuits that were categor- ized under "Other," and 8.5% of the respondents did not supply data on their occupation. This information is presented in Table 4 below. Number of Percentage of Respondents Knows a Trade ' 13 18.3% Professional | '17 23.9% Other 7 9.9% No Data 6 8.5% TOTAL | 71 100 0% Table 4. Occupations of Individual Citizens ("Parents") As can be seen from this table, the respondents to this survey were from a reasonably representative sample of different occupations. 83 This, it is hoped, helps to guarantee that the Opinions and attitudes expressed by the respondents are representative of the variety of Opinions that might be found in Niger State, inasmuch as that variety is the result of the occupations of the citizens, or inasmuch as that variety is correlated to the occupation Of the citizens. The Opinions of the people, the opinions of the local leaders who have influence over the people, and the Opinions of the educational personnel who have differing amounts of control over the establishment and administration of educational programs, are the most important opinions to be collected for this survey. For this reason, these groups, and no others, were interviewed for the survey. As can be seen from the tables presented (Table 1, p. 77; Table 2, p. 79; Table 3, p. 80; Table 4, p. 82), the surveyed group shows every appearance of being reasonably representative of the population in general, and should, therefore, be representative of the opinions to be found in the population in general. Tribal Affiliation As was discussed earlier (p. 65, 66), there are a number of major tribes in Niger State, namely, Nupe, Hausa, Gwari, Kambari, Dukkawa and Kamukawa. In addition, there are other tribes that have members living in Niger State: Fulani, Yoruba, Ibo, Kadara and Dakakari. It ‘is probably true that members of every tribe in Nigeria have moved around enough that any state in Nigeria would have at least a few people in it from each of the tribes of Nigeria, but unless these tribal members are in a large enough group to be visible in a popula- tion, there is no good reason to attempt to survey the Opinions of a 84 tribal group. The opinions that would be gathered would be as likely to be idiosyncratic as to be representative of tribal culture. For this reason, the tribes mentioned above, whose membership is large enough to be visible in the population of Niger State, were represented in the survey sample, and the others were not. The author did not attempt to match opinions and attitudes to specific tribes, but only to ascertain that members Of the different - tribes were part of the survey sample. The lack of census figures made it impossible to verify whether the percentage Of respondents in the survey sample was approximately the same as the percentage of tribal members in the overall population of Niger State. Another factor which compounded the problems involved in verifying the representativeness of the survey sample was the fact that the members of some tribes, among them the Kadara, were unwilling tO identify their tribe On the survey questionnaire. The survey does include members of as many of the im- portant tribes as possible, and every attempt was made to gather opinions from all tribal groups mentioned above. The percentage of each tribal group within the survey sample is different from the per- centage Of that tribal group within the population of Niger State. Table 5 (p. 85) shows the number and percentage of the respondents from each tribe that was represented in the survey sample (for those tribes whose members identified their tribal affiliation on the questionnaire and that were represented by about 10% or more of the surveyed sample). The "Other" category shown in Table 5 (p. 85) in- cludes members of the Gwari, Kamukawa. Yoruba, Ibo, Kadara and Dakakari tribes, in numbers that amount to less than 10% Of the survey sample, or in unknown numbers, due to the respondents having neglected 85 ‘ to fill in information about tribe, or refusing to include tribal af- filiation information in the information given to the interviewers. Number of Respondents Percentage of Respondents Nupe Hausa Kambari Dukkawa Fulani Other TOTAL Table 5. Tribal Affiliations of Respondents (Parents) The figures in Table 5 represent the tribal affiliations of the indi- vidual citizens who were surveyed, and do not include the chiefs or tribal leaders, or the educational personnel. It was assumed that the educational personnel would not take tribal perspectives on educa- tional issues, and it was assumed that the chiefs would automatically represent their tribal group's Opinion. For the private individuals Of Niger State, then, this survey can be considered representative in that the sample includes members of the tribe large enough to be visi- ble in the population. Level of Education 0n the assumption that the amount of education an individual had had might have an effect on his attitudes and opinions about education, participants in this survey were asked to state how much education they 86 had received. They were not asked to specify the number Of years, but simply to identify whether they had had no formal education, primary- school level education, secondary-school level education, or college. As can be seen in Table 6 below, nearly one half of the chiefs and tribal leaders had had no formal education at all, and slightly more than one half of the private individuals (”Parents") had had no school- ing at all. Parents Chiefs & Tribal Leaders. Number of Percentage Number of Percentage Respondents of Respondents Respondents of Respondents None 38 11 - 47.8% Primary 9 8 34.8% Secondary 9 1 4.3% College 15 3 13.0% TOTAL 71 23 100.0% Table 6. Level of Education of Respondents (Parents/Chiefs) . Comparing the two groups, only 17.3% of the chiefs and tribal leaders had had a secondary-school or college education, while 33.8% of the general populace had had a secondary-school or college education. About three-fourths of the general populace that received any education at all, continued that education past the primary-school level, and about one half of the group that received any education at all, con- tinued to college-level education. 0f the chiefs and tribal leaders, however, about two-thirds Of the people who received any formal educa- tion did not continue past the primary-school level, and only one quarter of those who continued their education, continued to college- level education. 87 Approximately one half of the population of Niger State, then, can be expected to have no formal education at all. For reasons of professional courtesy, as well as because there would be minimum requirements in order to hold responsible positions, the educational personnel who were surveyed were not asked to specify the level of education that they had received. Number of Children . Another factor that could reasonably be expected to affect atti- tude or opinion about education was the number of children in a house- hold. Both the private individuals and the chiefs and tribal leaders were asked to specify the number of children that they had, the number Of male children and the number of female children, and the number of children who were receiving or who had had formal education. Table 7 (below) shows the number of children in the families that were surveyed, for both the parents and the chiefs survey groups. Number of Parents Chiefs Children 5 Number “ Percentage E Number Percentage 0 9 12.7% 2 8.7% 1 6 .8.5% 1 4.3% 2 11 15.5% 0 0.0% 3 12 16.9% 4 17.3% 4 4 5.6% 2 8.7% 5 4 5.6% ‘ 3 13.0% 6 4 5.6% ‘ 1 4.3% 7 i 7 9.9% i 1 4.3% 8 j 4 5.6% 1 4.3% 9 or more i 10 14.1% i 8 34.8% TOTALS E 71 100.0% f 23 100.0% Table 7. Number of Children in Respondents Families 88 Looking at the same information from a slightly different perspective, a different picture can be seen, as shown below in Table 8. Size of I Family Parents Chiefs (Nugger Families Children I Families Children Children) Number % of Total % of Number % of Total % Of Sample Number Sample. Sample Number Sample 0 ' .9 12.7% 0 0.0%: 2 8.7% 0 0.0% 1-4 33 46.5% 80 25.3% 7 30.4% 21 14.1% 5 or 29 40.8% 236 74.7%5 14 60.8% 128 85.9% more ' TOTALS ‘ 71 100.0%- 316 100.0%] 23 100.0% 149 100.0% Table 8. Family Sizes in Surveyed Sample (Parents and Chiefs) Since the author is primarily concerned with school children, and with the availability Of appropriate school facilities and programs, the size of the families is important in that it represents the potential usage Of local school facilities. Families that have no children will have no use for school facilities; families with a large number of children have a greater potential for using school facilities. As can be seen in Table 8, simple averages do not tell the entire story, since average family size for the parents group would be 4.5 children per family, but 40.8% of the families have five or more children. For the group Of chiefs and tribal leaders, average family size would be 6.5 children per family, but 60.8% of the families have five or more children. This information implies that the school authorities cannot plan for an average number of children per family, unless they plan for the average size based on true and accurate census figures for an area. It 89 is entirely possible that urban and rural average-sized families could be quite different. The influence of the chiefs and tribal leaders is likely to be greater in rural areas than it is in urban areas, and the chiefs and tribal leaders are more likely to locate themselves in rural areas. Because of the tribal structure of traditional African societies, the life styles of the chiefs would not be significantly different from the life styles of the peOple that they lead. If the chiefs show family sizes of 6.5 children-per family, then this is like- ly to be the average family size in a rural area, and the "average" family size Of the general population (4.5 children per family) is likely to be too high for urban areas and too low for rural areas., It is entirely possible than an actual census of the families in rural areas might show that the average family size for rural areas is 6.5 children per family, and the result would be that the average family size for the urban areas would have to be about 2.5 children per family in order to arrive at an average of 4.5 children per family for the population in general. Certainly, the school authorities would have to plan differently for average family sizes of 2.5, 4.5 and 6.5 children per family. The data collected for this survey do not prove that family sizes are this different for the different types of life styles, but it does imply that great differences are possible. Male-Female Ratio of Children In the educational planning for some societies, it is important to know how many children are male and how many are female, since the society may have a tradition of excluding one sex or the other, or may encourage one sex to receive education and discourage the other 90 from receiving education without actually excluding either sex from participation. Claims of members of a society are not adequate evi- dence for predicting school attendance, and no official census figures exist that would allow for such a prediction, so the information that was gathered in this survey is presented below. Of the seventy-one families that participated in this survey as "Parents" sixty-two families had a total-of 316 children; of the twenty-three chiefs and tribal leaders that participated in this Survey, twenty-one of the "chiefs" had children, for a total of 149 children from this group of families. Table 9 (below) summarizes the information that was gathered concerning the sex of the children. Chiefs Parents ' No;___- Male 175 55.4%” , 65.1% ' Female 141 44.6% § 52 34.9% 193 41.5% TOTALS 316 100.0% I 149 100.0% 465 100.0% Table 9. Male-Female Ratio Of Children In the overall population, there are slightly more male children than female children, but for the families Of the chiefs and tribal leaders, males outnumber females by almost two to one. If the chiefs and tribal leaders are more representative Of a rural population than of an urban population, then one could expect to find about twice as many male children in rural areas as there are female children in those areas. If the "Parents" surveyed represent the population at large, then one Would expect to find only slightly more males than females in the gen- eral population. If the parents who live in rural areas show the same 91 sort of male-female ratio that is shown in the sample of chiefs, then the urban population must have fewer males than females. Exactly how this information might affect educational-program planning depends on the participation patterns that are followed by the citizens of Niger State, as the particular society being studied. Children in School and Not in School. Although survey subjects were not specifically asked to tell how many Of their male children were in school and how many of their female children were in school, they were asked how many of their children were male and how many were female, and they were asked how many of their children were in school, how many of their children had had a formal education, and how many of their children were not in school. The result was that, in some cases, it was not possible to tell whether the children who were in school were male or female children. In many cases, however, it was possible to tell whether the in-school children were male or female, and the certain caSes form the basis for the table on the fOllowing page (Table 10.) On the assumption that the unknown cases would probably not be very different from the known cases, adjustments were made to include the children listed as "unknown" into the 'in school" and "not in school" figures, following the same proportions as were visible in the known cases. The resultant figures are presented as the "adjusted figures" fOr male and female children in school. While the dependability of these figures is subject to question, they do at least provide some indication of whether or not school of- ficials should concern themselves with the taking of census figures on the number of male children and female children in a given area. 92 _eeeum ee eeee_.eu Peeee\apeEeL\a_ez .oH apeee ao.oofi wee ao.eo~ 33H uo.oofi men " ao.oo~ mo.oefi uo.oe~ meeeoe ---- --- ---- --- ---- --- aa.e~ ue.mm ezoexea um.mm new uN.m~ ac“ Rm.fim eefi xe.mm uo.mm no.~m m Peeeem e_ 662 N~.He NmH um.e~ oe afi.me NmH _ ae.m~ M pooeum em W zumoe~=e ee< ao.oo~ xo.oo~ uo.oofi He“ go ooH uo.oo~ uo.cofi M me4HzSH=pummmz m>wu_moa u .HOP . N .pee N see aczou zumn¢~xu mo zouhuPem Ne: .22: Ne eoeeaoeem Le ee.e_eo .Nm o_eae fl o.eoN N.NN N.eN m.mm _ «Peed» NN 5H NH NN “ ee=_oe N.NN eox_z ON _ N.N eem N 0.38 eeeu me T xz_=eoN . u a .uoh . apogee 3oz Pmspzmz oz mm> w a ..ou M a 39. ucaou >u<¢th44H m>40m mm: 44H: 136 Of those who had mixed feelings about education, 40% did not expect the UPE program to be successful, 35% were unsure Of the UPE program's success, and only 25% expected the program to be successful. Thirty-eight people said that they expected the UPE program to eliminate illiteracy, 86.8% of these were people who had a positive opinion Of education, 13.2% of them were people with mixed feelings about education in general, and none of them were people who had a negative opinion of education. Predicting success for the UPE program apparently usually goes along with things that education is good. On the other hand, predicting failure of the program, or hesitancy to predict any result at all, does not seem to be clearly attached to positive or to mixed feelings about education in general. 0f the people who predicted failure, 47.4% were people with a positive view of education and 42.1% were people with mixed feelings about education. Of the peOple who remained neutral, 50.0% were people who thought educa- tion was good, and 50.0% were people who had mixed feelings about education. Only slightly more than half of the surveyed sample predicted success for the UPE program (53.5%). Several different queStions were asked, in an attempt to determine the reasons for support or op- position from the people for education in general and for UPE in particular. One Of the questions elicited responses that showed a stastically significant relationship with the responses to the question concerning Opinions about education. The responses to the question of whether or not UPE would be able to provide adequate room for all children cor- related well with the parents' Opinions of education (raw chi square 137 of 12.23870, 4 degrees of freedom, significance level .0157) (Table 34, p. 138). A slightly higher percentage of the survey sample thought that the UPE program would provide room for all of the children (60.6%) than thought that the UPE program would solve the problem of illiteracy (53.5%). Again, the people who thought that education was good tended to also think that UPE would solve the problem of room for all children-- 43.5% of the people who thought that education was good also thought that the UPE program would provide adequate room. 0f the people who thought that education was bad, one (50.0%) said that the UPE would not be able to provide enough room, and one (50.0%) said that UPE would be able to provide room. Of the people who had mixed feelings about education, 30.0% said that UPE would resolve the problem of room, 50.0% said that it would not, and 20.0% expressed mixed feelings. . Approximately one quarter of the surveyed group said that they did not think that the UPE program would be able to provide adequate room, and 42.1% of these peOple were people who had expressed positive opin- ions about education, 5.3% Of them had expressed negative Opinions Of education, and 52.6% had expressed mixed opinions of education. Only one-eighth of the group expressed mixed feelings about the UPE program's ability to provide the needed room, and 55.6% of these people were respondents who had said that they thought education was good, none had said that education was bad, and 44.4% had said that they had mixed feelings about education. With respect to this question, there were still about 40% of the respondents who either thought that the UPE program would not be suc- cessful or who were unsure of the UPE program's capacity for success, 138 Ne: Ne eee_>oce ea seem oeeeeee< _._3 Ne eeNNeoeeN Le eeNeNNO .eN epeee o.eoN . N.NN . N.eN e.ee e_eeee NN a NN .Ne ee=_oe mx— N.NN _ e .2 ON _ . — m N.N _ e N N L * O e.ee 8 ea me ‘ Nzezeom ”Peace sea eeNNz oz we» N ..60 N see uczou mm: >m omoa>omm mm zoom mh<=omo< 44H: 139 just as there were 46.5% of the survey sample who thought that the UPE program would be unable to eliminate illiteracy or who were unsure of the UPE program's ability to eliminate illiteracy (Table 33, p. 135). In general, however, it would appear that a positive opinion of educa- tion and a reasonable amount of certainty about the UPE program's potential for success do go together. Uncertainty about the UPE pro- gram's success or certainty of its failure are not as easy to identify with any particular opinion about education in general. In order to Obtain more information about how the educational system could win support from the people, the survey participants were asked an open-ended question about what changes should be made in the current educational programs. More than half of the respondents (59.2%) made no response whatsoever to this question (Table 35, p. 140 -- raw chi square 11.47350, 4 degrees of freedom, significance level .0217). . Of the respondents who answered this question at all, five (7.0% of the survey sample) said that things should be left as they were. The people who said that things should be left as they were represented one Of the people (50.0%) who said that education was bad, one (2.0%) of the people who said that education was good, and three (15.0%) of the people who had mixed feelings about education in general. The people who chose not to respond to this question at all represented 57.1% of the people who had said that education was good, 50.0% of the people who had said that education was bad, and 65.0% of the people who had expressed mixed feelings about education. Half or more of the people in each of the three opinion categories chose to skip this question and not respond to it. mcopummmmzm xa =o_uooanu No covc_ao .mm «peep 140 o.oo~ ~.mm 0.x m.mm W mPMHOH : Ne . m N . :58 8:: N.wm ON 25 m.~ N eeoe o.mc 3 ENE..- _ o o mpopoh 3oz ocop< “comes; . w .wow smzmc< oz mmcwgu m>om4 on“ m>oLaEH I N 3oz ucaou mzomhmmwwam . 141 The only other response that was reported was "improve the present system," which was suggested by only one-third of the sample population (33.8%). These people were not people who had expressed negative opin- ions Of education, but were people who had expressed positive or mixed feelings about education. Most of them (83.3%) were people who had ex- pressed the opinion that education was good, and only 16.7% of them were people who had expressed mixed feelings about education. It would seem that, in general, only about one-third of the people are willing to offer definite suggestions as to how education could gain more support. It also appears that those who feel positively about education are more willing to make suggestions for its improve- ment than the people who have mixed or negative feelings about education. The opinions Of education in general that were expressed by the respondents to this survey seemed to be related to the amount of educa- tion of the respondents, with educational level and support of education in inverse proportion to each other and with roughly half of the unedu- cated people feeling supportive of education. Larger families seem to be less supportive, and smaller families seem to be more supportive, of education in general. Positive reactions to education on the part of the children are more likely to occur with positive reactions to education in general on the part of the parents. Positive Opinions about education in general are likely to co-occur with positive feel- ings about the potential success of a particular educational program, and those with positive feelings appear to be more willing to offer suggestions for improvement. 142 Positive Opinions about Education Fifty of the seventy-one survey respondents (one more than the 49 who said that education in general was good) offered opinions about the particular aspects of education that they considered good, and about the potential participants in community literacy programs. These two variables--positive opinion of education in general and participants in community literacy programs--showed a statistically significant relationship among their various values (raw chi square 23.89221, 8 degrees of freedom, significance level .0024), whereas most of the other variables did not demonstrate statistically signifi- cant relationships. The cross-tabulation done by the computer is presented in Table 36 (page 143). The categories "Adult Men" and "No Answer“ were not included in the cross-tabulation done by the computer (and therefore only 8 degrees of freedom were established by the computer), because no respondent chose these as answers, but they were possibilities that were included in the survey questionnaire, so they have been included in this chart. For communities in which the literacy program was available to all adults, 27.6% of the respondents expressed the opinion that edu- ,cation was good because it provided knowledge and the obtaining of knowledge was good in and of itself ("enlightenment"); 31.0% of the respondents said that education was good because it provided knowl- edge that could be used for the betterment of the population in general ("civilization"); 17.2% of the respondents said that education was good because it provided peOple with skills ("Opportunity"); and 24.1% of the respondents said that education was good because it 143 mz<¢wo¢o >uh~z=zzou zH mkzNuNmoo .em oNooN o.ooN o o.eN o.NN o o.Nm m NNeNoN om o N eN o . NN I aseNeo ---TTT.T-:. e an a; e. u a o N N o 1 co o.oN o e o o o H eNo N o e N o o w o o o.e o o.eN m o N N.eN o N.eN oeN>NN co o.oN o o o.ON o o.oN eeaeeeNm memNaN oN o N N o N o o o.e o . o.oN m TI o o N.eN o N.NN N N e ceee o.eN o o e.NN o e.NN N.e N o N o o N o m o o.e o.eN o m.wm o.eN o N.NN N.NN o e.om Ne NNN .o NN o N N o a o o e o o.eN W o o N o e.NN L o.ON o o o o o.om m NeeEeoNeeNNeN oN o o N o N cocoom cozeea ea: mNNeea I N .NeN mpouo» 3oz oz coNoNN;u ocozc< u_:o< NN< b a .—ou ” N sea uozou 144 provided skills that could be useful to the community, the family or the individual himself ("raises standard of living"). These were the only four reasons that were chosen by the respondents from communities ,with literacy programs open to all adults in the community. The respondents from communities in which literacy programs were available to anyone chose the same four answers, and one re- spOndent expressed a different reason (categorized under "Other"), with 14.3% of the respondents choosing "Enlightenment," 50.0% of the respondents choosing "Civilization," 14.3% of the respondents choosing "Opportunity," and 14.3% of the respondents choosing "Raises Standard of Living." In the communities with adult programs for literacy, 55.1% chose the two utilitarian qualities of education ("Civilization" and "Raises Standard of Living") and 44.8% chose the idealistic qualities of edu- cation ("Enlightenment" and "Opportunity"), and in the communities with literacy programs Open to anyone, 64.3% chose the utilitarian qualities and 28.6% chose the idealistic qualities. It would appear that when the adult members of the community are the only potential participants in a literacy program, utilitarian qualities are only slightly more important than idealistic qualities of education, but when children are added to the group Of potential participants, the importance of utilitarian qualities of education increases considerably, although idealistic qualities are still in evidence. This tendency toward a utilitarian perspective on education, when that education is intended for children, is even more pronounced in communities where the literacy program is intended for children alone, as can be seen in Table 36 (p. 143). NO respondents identified the idealistic aspects 145 of education ("Enlightenment" and "Opportunity") as the good aspects of education, when the community literacy program was for children alone, 28.6% of the respondents chose "Civilization," 14.3% chose "Raises Standard of Living," and 57.1% chose some other aspect other than these four. The only other variable which showed a statistically significant relationship between its values and the values Of the opinion about the good aspects of education, was the variable "SUGGEST," which stands for the suggestions given by the respondents concerning al- ternative forms of education for their children (raw chi square 20.45823, 8 degrees of freedom, significance level .0087). The cross-tabulation chart (Table 37, p. 146) shows that, of the people who thought that the government ought to leave the educational system as it was, 25.0% had also identified "Raises Standard of Living" as the good aspect of education, and the remaining 75.0% identified some aspect Of education other than the four most common choices. Of the respondents who did not answer the question concerning suggesitons, 25.0% had chosen “Enlightenment," 25.0% had chosen "Civil- ization," 19.4% had chosen "Opportunity," 16.7% had chosen "Raises Standard of Living," and the remaining 13.9% had chosen some aspect other than the four major ones. A total of 50% of the respondents who did not Offer any suggestions had also chosen those two aspects that pertain to a broader community ("Enlightenment" and "Civilization") and only 36.1% had chosen those aspects that relate to a smaller com- munity or to an individual ("Opportunity" and "Raises Standard of LiVing"). 146 Neopumommam No =o_:Noo o>NNNNoo .Nm oNNNN. mzouhmmwuam N.NNN N.NN N.N N.NN m mNaNeN ee NN e eN _ ee=NoN N N m N o N N.NN N N N W ceeeo N N N N “ .e.N N .N.N W N.oN o m.o~ N m=N>NN No N.NN N.NN N N.Ne M ecaoeaNN NoNNNN NN N N N . N.NN o N.e W N.NN o N.NN m N.NN N.NN o N.NN E NNNeeeceeeo NN .N o e _ N.NN o N.NN . N.NN m.ww w w.mm eeNNaNNNN>No NN N. o NN N.NN o N.N N.NN o N.N , N.NN N.NN o N.NN NeoEeeNeoNNeN m Empmzm Nil a .po# -11. N—ouop 3oz mcop< ucomogo _ a .pou cozmc< mmcpzp o>omN oz» o>oNoEN m a 3oz w “coco _ , 147 One-half of the respondents who suggested that the government improve on the present system of education, were respondents who had selected "Civilization" as the good aspect of education, only 8.3% of them had picked "Enlightenment" as the good aspect of education, 16.7% of them had picked "Opportunity" as the good aspect Of education, 20.8% of them had picked "Raises the Standard of Living" as the good aSpect, and 4.2% of them selected some aspect other than these four major choices. I The highest percentages of response, among the respondents who said that they thought the government Should improve the present educa- tional system, were in the two utilitarian categories of aspect ("Civili-L zation" and "Raises the Standard of Living"). The implication from these data are that the people of Niger State see the accumulation of knowledge as being beneficial to the community in general, but they would, to some degree, like to see changes in the educational system that would generate skills that were more prac- tical and useful for the community in general. The fact that these two variables show a relationship with the positive opinions about education, and the others do not, implies that the people of Niger State generally do think that education is beneficial because they think that increased knowledge and skills essentially are of benefit to everyone in the community as well as the individual who receives the education. There is an obvious utili- tarian and practical perspective on the part of the sample population, especially with reference to the children in the population, who ap- parently are expected to have a need for practical skills and knowledge as much as they have a need for knowledge and skills in 148 and of themselves. The sample population did not express any strong disillusionment with the worth of education, nor any strong dislike for the idealistic aspects of education, but they did seem to feel that the educational system needed to place more emphasis on the prac- tical skills than it was doing, in addition to maintaining the idealistic role of disseminating knowledge for knowledge's sake. It is entirely possible that the emphasis on utilitarian information in those programs designed for children is caused by the practical reality that most adults have established some form of livelihood, and the children have not yet done so. In any case, the people surveyed for this study demonstrated both practicality and idealism with reference to their views on education. Negative Opinions about Education One possible way for the educational planners to increase support for the UPE program is to determine the causes Of Opposition, and to find a way to eliminate or amend those aspects of the educational system that appear to cause opposition. Three primary sources of opposition were discovered: the lowering of traditional values, the loss of local culture and the removal of children from the family or community labor force, when these occur as the result of education. The descriptive information and the opinions that can be associated with these complaints about the effect of education will be likely to shed light on the exact nature of these complaints, and make it pos- sible to determine whether the educational system can resolve these problems. 149 The crOSS-tabulation charts concerning the bad aspects of educa- tion (from the perspective of the surveyed population) and the other variables that showed statistically significant relationships with the values Of this variable all include that segment of the survey sample who stated that there was nothing bad about education. By comparing the responses of those who found nothing bad with education to the responses of those who found something bad abOut education, more in- formation should be Obtained about the nature Of the complainers as well as of the complaints. Four variables were found to have a statistically significant relationship with the negative opinions that were expressed about education: whether UPE would have the capacity to resolve the problem of illiteracy, whether UPE would have the capacity to provide enough room for all of the children, the suggestions and alternatives that were proposed, and the proposed participants in the alternative pro- grams. ' . The chart for the cross-tabulation of the bad aspects Of education with the capacity expected of UPE for the elimination of illiteracy ap- pears on the following page (Table 38, p. 150). From this chart, it can be seen that 71.4% of the people who said that there was nothing bad about education also expected the UPE program to be able to resolve the problem of illiteracy. The other 28.6% of the people who said that there was nothingbad about education were evenly split, one-half of them expressing the Opinion that UPE would not be able to solve the problem of illiteracy, and the other half remaining neutral on this issue. 150 NoeeeNNNNN osNeN Ne: NNNz Ne eeNeaoeeN Ne NeooeNN oaN .NN eNeaN o.¢~ m.mm Npouoh cszpou m N . N.NN m N.NN N.N N.NN NN . N N N N ‘ W ”WWW w w N 3oz m. m acoou _ w >o4om ma: 44H: 151 Of the respondents who identified bad aspects of education (30 subjects, 46.2% of the survey sample), roughly one-fourth identified "Values lowered" as the bad aSpect of education but stated that they did expect the UPE program to be able to solve the problem of illit- eracy. AnOther one-fourth (approximately) of this group cited the fact that the children were not available to help with family or com- munity work, but stated that they did not expect the UPE program to be able to eliminate illiteracy. If the families who said that the bad aspect of education was that it lowered values, fully intended to send their children to school in any case, then they would probably predict that the UPE program would solve the problem of illiteracy, although they might not expect the UPE program to alleviate the prob- lem of lowering of values. If the families that objected to the fact that education removed their children from the work force, in contrast to the first group did not intend to send their children to school, then it is entirely likely that they would predict that the UPE program would not resolve the problem of illiteracy. Of the twelve survey respondents who indicated that the lowering of values was the bad aspect of education, eight (66.7%) said that they expected the UPE program to resolve the problem of illiteracy, three (25.0%) remained neutral, and only one (8.3%) said that UPE would not solve the problem of illiteracy. It is possible that the eight re- spondents see the lowering of values as something that is outside of the purview of a formal educational system, or that they can counter- act by themselves, regardless of the educational programs. It is also possible that the one respondent who objected to the lowering of values 152 and who predicted failure on the part of the UPE program felt that he could not counteract the negative effects of a formal education system, and would choose to keep his children out of school rather than have them suffer the detrimental effects of education. The three respond- ents who remained neutral about the success of the UPE program may have felt that if they saw that the educational system could refrain from having this negative effect, they would want their children to have an education, but if they saw that the educational system was more effect- ive in creating this effect than they were in preventing it, they would not want their children to be educated. Four of the members of the sample population (6.2%) said that the loss of local culture was the detrimental aspect of education that they saw. Of these four, two predicted that the UPE program would fail to eliminate illiteracy, one predicted that the UPE program would succeed in eliminating illiteracy, and one remained neutral. The two who predicted failure could have been reflecting their own unwilling- ness to have their children educated, if the price Of education were the loss Of local culture. The one respondent who predicted success may have also been indirectly stating that either he or the educational system could find a way to avoid the loss of local culture, and the one respondent who remained neutral could have been expressing uncer- tainty over his or the educational system's ability to prevent the ‘loss of local cuiture. In much the same way, the respondents who expressed concern over the unavailability of the children for labor could have been expressing their feelings about the education system's ability to overcome this 153 problem to their satisfaction. Two of these twelve respondents said that they expected the UPE program to eliminate illiteracy, which could have been an indirect assertion of a belief that the educational system could find a way to adapt itself to their needs, or that they could find a way to adapt their need for labor to the strictures of the educational system. The other two of the twelve, who remained neutral, could have been expressing uncertainty over their ability to accommodate the schedule of the school system, or the school system's ability to ac- commodate their needs and schedule. It is not unreasonable to assume that the responses to the question of whether or nOt the UPE program will be able to resolve the problem of illiteracy, at least for those respondents who indicated that they per- ceived a negative aspect to education, were somehow related to the re- spondents' own predictions of their behavior. An examination Of one Of the other variables (the question of whether or not the UPE program would be able to provide adequate room) should help to clarify the re- 'sponses given to this survey question. The probability that the config- uration visible in Table 38 (p. 150) is the result of pure chance is about 98 out of 10,000 (raw chi square 20.15584, 8 degrees of freedom, significance level .0098), which is quite small, but the probability of the configuration of Table 39 (p. 154) occurring strictly by chance is even smaller, being 8 out of 10,000 (raw chi square 26.59540, 8 degrees of freedom, significance level .0008). Table 39 presents the information concerning the respondents' expectations of whether or not the UPE would be able to provide ade- quate room for every child, cross-tabulated with the particular negative aspects of education that these respondents perceived. 154 Ne: Ne NNNNsecN 6N 266N NNNNNNN< NNNz Ne eeNNeoNNN Ne NNoeeNN NaN .NN N.NNN N.NNN N.NN N.NN - N.NN NNaNeN NN N . NN Ne aseNeN N N.NN N.NN w m m.ww . NNN NzNzNoz NN e N N o N N.N o N N.N N.N o N N.NNN eeeNo N N o N N N.NN N.N . N.NN w w.mw W.MN N.N: N.NeN eacNNNNN NN o N N N N. N.N Nne N.N w m.MN w.MN NNeN aceeNeo NaoeN e N N N N.N N NHNN m.mN m.mw m m.mm _ oosozoN NooNo> NN N o N NNNNN O o . NNeNeN zeN NexNz oz No» N .Hew N :eN “coon mo: >m oun~>ozo mm zoom mh<=omo< 44H: . 155 The respondents who saw lowered values as the negative factor in education responded three quarters of the time that the UPE program would be able to provide adequate room, and one quarter of the time that they were uncertain that the UPE would be able to provide enough room. Not one of the respondents predicted the failure of the UPE program to provide enough room. The respondents who feared the loss of local culture, and the respondents who were concerned over the loss Of manpower, did not express any mixed feelings, but chose only "Yes" or "No" responses to the question of the UPE's success in providing adequate room. Three- fourths those fearing the loss of local culture were certain that the UPE program would be able to provide enough room, and three-fourths Of those concerned over the loss of manpower asserted that the UPE program would not be able to provide enough room. . .I . The two respondents who saw a negative aspect to education other (than the three major negative features that have been discussed, were certain of the UPE program's potential for success, both in solving the problem of illiteracy (Table 38, p. 150) and in providing enough room for every child (Table 39, p. 154). Using a certain amount of freedom in the interpretation, one could still interpret the information from the two questions as being indi- rect statements of the respondents' expectation concerning their own behavior. The strongly positive response to both questions given by those who saw lowered values as the bad aspect of education could be an indirect statement of these respondents' desire to have their chil- dren educated, and their possible view of value systems as being outside 156 Of the purview of education. They could easily see the lowering Of values as a necessary evil of formal education, an aspect that was un- desirable and unavoidable, but not strong enough in negative value to deter them from sending their children to school. Those who feared the loss of local culture could be saying that even though the govern- ment is likely to provide enough room for their children through the UPE program, the loss of culture is such a negative factor that it might keep them from sending their children to school, whether or not there would be room for their children. This group may be the true "unde- cided" group, concerning the future issue of Sending their children to school. The strongly negative response to both questions by the group who saw the lack of help from the children as the bad aspect of education could be an indirect statement of the respondents' unwilling- ness to send their children to schOOl, under any circumstances. It seems illogical, if they were to fully expect to keep their children at home, for them to predict that the UPE program onld not provide adequate room for all of the children. If no children are attending school, then no room at all is adequate. This could be a somewhat humorous "No, they couldn't provide enough room, because they could never provide enough room for the farm (or the cattle), too,“ or it could be a sort of rationalization that "They wouldn't provide enough room for us, even if we were to send our children to school." It does appear to be possible that the respondents did not really answer the questions that were asked, but rather predicted their own behavior, and the effect that their behavior would be likely to have on the government's plans and programs. This is not unreasonable for 157 them to do, but it does seem to indicate also that the previously- mentioned lack of adequate information (Table 23, p. 114) can have the effect of forcing the people to make their own predictions, based on the situations they are aware of, and not based on information about unfamiliar situations that the respondents had received from the govern- ment, from their leaders, or from advertising about the UPE program. The potential validity of this interpretation of the data appears to be supported somewhat by the responses given to the other two items that demonstrated a statistically significant relationship between their values and the values of the "EDBAD" variable (indicating a negative aspect of education). An open-ended question that requested suggestions and alternatives that the survey subjects wanted to propose provided some additional supportive evidence. The cross-tabulation chart for this variable ap- pears on page 158 (Table 40). This variable and its values were related to the negative Opinions of education at a significance level of .0080 (raw chi square of 38.37688, 20 degrees of freedom). The only respondents who suggested "government aid to farming" were one respondent who had objected to the value-lowering properties of education (representing 8.3% of this group), and two respondents . who had objected to the children not helping (representing 16.7% of this group). At worst, this is a blatant statement that the best im- provement that the government could make in education would be to help farmers, and at best, it is an implicit statement that agricultural training programs are the only worthwhile form of education. . The only respondent who suggested that the government inform people about education was one respondent, representing 8.3% of the 158 uoNoooLN No>NuN:LON—<\N:oNuNommom No eeNeaoNNN co Neooeme eeN .oe,oNNaN o.ooN N.N N.NN N.NN N.NN m.om m.o Npmuoh No N m m NN mm m osspou N.N N.N N.N N.NN ~.om o o.ooN o.m~ o.m~ o.om o.mm o o.am N.N N.N N.N N.NN N.NN o oow an how . «coco numomomm mm>uh~hNuocsouN< :N Naooopovucoo ooumommzm No coNNNuoom No Nuooom< com .Na o—ooh N.NNN w N.NN N.NN N.NN N.NN NNaNeN NN L m N mm .NN egoNoo m.¢ N.m m.mm m.NN m.Nm m.mN o.om m.mm N.Nm N.m N.N o.mm N.NN om N.N:wmwufimmm W ”WWW 162 veiled by the categories in which the data have been grouped, such as the response of "educate everyone else, but leave us alone" being grouped in the category of "other" for the suggested participants question. The group that expressed concern over the lowering of values was _quite mixed in its response to the question of who should participate in the suggested education programs, with 8.3% of the group (1 respond- ent) choosing his own tribe, 50.0% of the group choosing "everyone," 16.7% of the group (2 respondents) choosing children, and 25.0% of the group (3 respondents) choosing "other." While it is understand- able that these people would not want anyone to have low moral stand- ards, and would feel that everyone could benefit from moral education, it is also understandable, if they feel that moral education is not necessarily the job of a formal, non-religious educational system, that they would feel some reluctance about imposing this moral educa- tion system on everyone, and might be divided in their opinions about who should receive moral training. The group that indicated their concern for the loss of local culture, encept for the one respondent of the four who did not answer this item, unanimously recommended that the amended education program, which was to adapt itself to local culture, should be presented to children only. The group apparently feels that the children, especial- ly the children of a local area, are the ones who need to have help in learning about their own culture. The implications from the data collected for those individuals who reported negative aspects to education, when viewed in relation- ship with their responses to other questionnaire items, are that the 163 group of individuals who see the loss of their children as the major negative factor in education, also do not expect to allow their child- ren to participate in educational programs, unless those programs are tailored specifically to the needs and patterns of movement and activ- ity of the particular groups that they are part of. Those who view the loss of local culture as the most important negative aspect of education appear to be willing to have their children educated by the government, provided that the government adapts the educational system to fit the local culture. The group that feels that the lowering of values is the important negative factor in education is apparently willing to have their children educated in spite of this disadvantage of education. In a more general view, the positive and negative opinions about education seem to be predominantly opinions about the form, topics and’perspectives of education, and the opinions expressed by this survey group suggest that adapting the educational programs to the characteristics of local groups could easily result in almost total acceptance of education. Opinions about the UPE Program An investigation was made not only of the opinions about educa- tion in general, but also of the opinions that were specifically about the UPE program. One would expect there to be some relationship be- tween the two "sets" of opinions, but the survey attempted to determine how strong this relationship might be, what differences there might be in the two sets of Opinions, and what similarities there might be in the two sets of opinions. 164 The first two variables that were investigated were the opinion of education in general, and the opinion of whether or not the UPE program would be able to solve the problem of illiteracy. The cross- tabulation data on these two variables appears in Table 42 (p. 165). The relationship between the two variables was found to be statistical- ly significant (raw chi square 12.61909, 4 degrees of freedom, signifi- cance level .0133).- These two variables were also cross-tabulated in the reverse direction, and the data appears in Table 33 (p. 135). The number of cases investigated for Table 33 was 71, or the entire sample population of "Parents." The cross-tabulation was done at a different time for this perspective (with UPE as the center of focus), and the computer determined that two of the cases contained technically "il- legal data," so it rejected these two cases from the consideration, and only 69 cases were investigated for this cross-tabulation. The result of this difference in the number of cases studied is a slight difference in the numerical values of the results, but not in the general picture that these results form. For this reason, even though the number of cases is different, both cross-tabulations are presented, the first one as Table 33 (p. 135), and the second one as Table 42 (p. 165), and the reader can determine for himself that the differences in numbers do not substantially change the interpretations. As was found for Table 33 (p. 135), survey respondents who said that education was bad also said that the UPE program would not solve the problem of illiteracy. From the perspective of the UPE question as the focal point, 5.9% of the respondents who said that UPE would not solve the problem of illiteracy were also people who had said that 165 838:3. .3 SEEN 3 323:: 2:8 #5 E: .2. 22: N.NNH N.NN N.N N.NN “ NPNNNP NN NH H me ~ NsN_NN N.NN N N.NN . . N.NN N N.NN N.NN N.NN N N.NN _ PNNNNNz NH N N h _ _ N.NN N.N N.NN w . N.NN N.NNH N.NN fl oz N.NN N.NN N.N N.NN m “N _ n H N N _ _ _ N N.NN # N N.NN N N.NN mm» N mm w . hNNNNNaN a .NNN _NNNP zNN NNN NNNN. a ._NN a sea assoc zo~pFNN NNN __N= .NN NPNNN ZNNNNNNNN NN NNNNNN< NNN N.NNN _ N.NN “ N.N N.N N.NN N.N N.NN N_NNNN NN _ NN N N NN N NH NNNFNN N.N N.N N N.N N.N N.N N.NN N.NN N N.NN N.NN N.NN N.NN N.NN N.NN N N.NN N.N N.NN _NapNaz NH N N N N H N N.N N.N N N.N N.N N.N N.NN N.NN N N.NN N.NN N.N Nz N.NN N.NN N.NN N N.NN N.NN N.N NN N N N N N N mm no _ W N.NN N N.N N.N N.N N.NN “ N.NN N N.NNN N.NN N.NN N.NN mm» N.NN N N.NN N N.N N.N N.N N.NN NN _ NN N N N N N “ NNNNNNNN M M Npmz NNNN a .NNN. NPNuoN 30m w uom gmzmc< u.=oc mgaupau cogmzoa a .pou _ NNNNNNz oz LNNNN NNNNFNNN _NNNN NNNPNN N :NN % a , acaou N 169 did not answer the question about the negative aspect of education, and consequently has a lower number of degrees of freedom, as well as a lower number of survey subjects. As was discussed with reference to Table 38 (pp. 151-3), predic- tion of the success or failure of UPE seems to depend on the character of the negative aspect of education that the survey participants identi- fied. If the negative aspects were "values," the survey respondent was likely to predict success or to remain neutral, but was more likely to predict success. If the negative aspect were the loss of local cul- ture, any prediction was possible. If the negative aspect were the loss of the children's labor, a prediction of failure was most likely, but prediction of success, or neutrality of the respondents, were also possible. From the perspective of the prediction about UPE, predictions of success were most likely to come from those who saw the lowering of values as the negative aspect, but they might come from any of the groups. Predictions of failure came only from those who did not speci- fy the negative aspects that they perceived, or from those who perceived one of the three most-commonly-cited negative aspects, but predictions of failure were most likely to come from the group that objected to the children's absence. Neutrality about the UPE's success came from the same groups that produced predictions of failure, but it was slight- ly more likely to come from the respondents who objected to the lowering of values or from those who did not identify their reasons for thinking that education was bad. The strongest evidence of relationships came from the group who predicted success (related to objecting to the lowering of values), ‘ 170 and those who predicted failure (related to objecting to the absence of children). Perhaps the strongest relationship was between the group who said that they saw nothing at all bad about education, and a pre- diction of success on the part of UPE. About 70% of the group who said that there was nothing bad about education also said that they expected the UPE to be successful in eliminating illiteracy. The implications from the data in Table 42 (p. 165) and Table 43 (p. 168) are that the surveyed population of Niger State can separate their feelings about education in general from their feelings about the UPE program, even most of the people who feel negatively about education in general. The surveyed group demonstrated, also, an ability to isolate an aspect of the general situation, and to separate that judgment about an aspect from their judgment about the whole situation. While the people's opinions about education in gen- eral appear to be related to their opinions about UPE in particular, there is no strong evidence that would identify the nature of the relationship. It is entirely possible that some of the other factors might have equally strong or stronger relationships with the opinions about education in general, and about the UPE in particular. In cross-tabulating the data that were collected in this survey, six sets of responses, other than responses about education in general and about negative aspects of education, were found to have statistical- ly significant relationships with the expressed opinion of the UPE program's capacity to eliminate illiteracy. These six sets of responses included descriptive information as well as Opinion and attitude infor- mation. There were information about the number of schools in the local area, information about the total number of children in a family, 171 opinions about whether or not adequate room for the children was cur- rently available in the schools, opinions about whether or not the UPE would be able to provide adequate room for all of the children, opin- ions about who the participants were in community literacy programs, and opinions about whether or not adequate information had been pro- vided by the government about the UPE program. Each of these sets of responses was cross-tabulated, and a table was prepared to present the information. The cross-tabulation between the expressed Opinion of whether or not the UPE program would successfully eliminate illiteracy and the total number of schools in an area is presented in Table 44 (p. 172). This cross-tabulation was found to have a statistical significance level of .0298 (raw chi square 25.51534, 14 degrees of freedom). From this chart, it can be seen that people from areas with a large number of schools tended to expect the UPE program to be suc- cessful, since only 3 out of 69 respondents from areas with 3 or more schools expressed a negative or even a neutral opinion of whether or not the UPE would be successful. Thirty-eight of the 69 respondents expressed the opinion that the UPE program would be successful, and only two of these (2.9% of the survey sample) were from areas with no schools at all. Of the 18 respondents who came from areas with no schools, repre- senting 26.1% Of the total survey sample, 9 (50.0% of the no-school group) predicted failure of the UPE program, and 7 (38.9% of the no- school group) remained neutral. 0f the 26 respondents with one school in their area, 17 (65.4% of. the one-school group) predicted success, 6 (23.1% of the one-school NUMBER OF SCHOOLS mv-O NO q-m m o H o H 0 LO d' O Ln N N 82 MOO") OOOO OOOO 0 NOV USE O H HOOQ' OOOO OOOO NOH O H MOON OOOO OOOO NOV O F. 6"“?le Hmmq- r-Iv-cl‘q- OOLO LOO". N50!“ HQ I—i PI NOV O .4 manna: HOHQ' ('0me ”LON tar-1F! Home In H NM SNQ’O OMHN ”VON Q'LOQ’ mmoo HHQ’ VON MN NH o NMHO‘ OOOO ROOF-i LOF'N NON O O H mun-0 to H N“ +338 c o o 3 ZF-H O O O O uncut- F G [.— S- H +4 _l m 3 ..J O O G.) H >— Z Z m 0. O 100.0 4.3 r~- z 2 Lu 0. O 11 15.9 11 15.9 6 8.7 9 13.0 Column Totals Will UPE Solve Illiteracy by Total Number of Children Table 45. 175 (raw chi square 40.97339, 18 degrees of freedom). The average family size fOr the survey sample was found to be 4.5 children per family (Table 8, p. 88), so this figure will be used to separate the data on “small“ families from the data on "larger" fami- lies. 0f the nine respondents with no children (13.0% of the survey sample), eight (88.9% of the no-children group) said that they expected the UPE program to be successful and only one (11.1% of the group) re- mained neutral in opinion. 0f the 32 families (46.3% of the survey sample) with between one and four children, twenty (62.5% of the small-family group) expected success, six (18.8% of the small-family group) predicted failure, while another six remained neutral. _0f the 28 families (40.7% of the survey sample) with five or more children, ten families (35.7% of the large-family group) predicted suc- cess, eleven families (39.3% of the large-family group) predicted failure, and seven (25.0% of the large-family group) remained neutral. Ranking the percentages of support or Opposition by family size, beginning with the families with no children, then small families, and then larger families, one gets support figures that go from 88.9% to 62.5% to 35.7%, one gets opposition figures that go from 0.0% to 18.8% to 39.3%, and one gets neutrality figures that go from 13.0% to 18.8% to 25.0%. The support decreases, the opposition and the neutrality increase, as the size of the family increases. The adults were asked also if there was currently enough room for their children in the schools. Their responses have been cross- tabulated and charted, and appear in Table 46 (p. 176). This 288m E 8.62.: ..NL .53. 3882 .3 ”.3232: 2:8 EN z; .3 N22 176 o.ooH N.N NHNuoN mo N o m e o N.NN o ¢.HN N.NN o «H c m HH 0 1 o o N.HN N.N o o N.NN H.HH oz N.NN o o N.NN N.HH NH o o mH N Li N.N o .o.mN N.NN o.ooH o m.m¢ N.NN Nm> H.mm N.N o N.Nm H.Ne an N o oN NH . _ in ii. NHNNHNN: 238 :3. _ . N .NNN _ gmzmc< OHNNONHNN< oz mm> a .Hou oz aoz s 3cm , _ . , . uczou mgoozom zH zNNNNqu mom zoom NN<=omo< 177 cross-tabulation had a significance level of .0004 (raw chi square 24.75052, 6 degrees of freedom). 0f the 18 families that said there was currently enough room for their children, 16 (88.9% of the enough-room group) also said that they expected the UPE program to eliminate illiteracy, and two (11.1% of the enough-room group) said they did not expect the UPE program to elimin- ate illiteracy. 0f the 46 families that said there was not currently enough room for their children, 20 (43.5% of the not-enough-room group) said that they expected the UPE program to succeed, 15 (32.6% of the not-enough- room group) said they expected the UPE to fail, and 11 (23.9% of the not-enough-room group) remained neutral. Support among the families that are in areas where there is enough room is twice as high as in areas where there is not enough room, and opposition in areas where there is not enough room is three times as high as it is in areas where there is enough room. Neutrality ap- parently does not exist except in areas where there is not enough room. When asked if they expected the UPE to provide enough room for their children, 62.3% of the survey population indicated that they did expect the UPE to be able to provide enough room. This is quite high, especially in comparison to the 26.1% of the survey population who in- dicated that there was currently enough room for their children. The significance level found when the responses to whether the UPE would eliminate illiteracy were cross-tabulated with the responses to whether or not the UPE would provide enough room for all children, was the lowest significance level to be found in any of the cross- tabulations, .0002 (raw chi square 22.49281, 4 degrees of freedom). 178 The data from the cross-tabulation are presented in Table 47 (p. 179). Thirty-eight of the 69 respondents said that UPE would eliminate illiteracy, and 32 of these people (46.4% of the survey sample) were people who also expected the UPE to provide adequate room. 0f the re- maining six who expected UPE to resolve the problem of illiteracy, four (5.8% of the survey sample) said they did not expect the UPE program to provide enough room, and two (2.9% of the survey sample) remained neutral. Seventeen of the respondents said that UPE would not resolve the problem of illiteracy, and the majority of these people (52.9%) were respondents who did not expect the UPE program to provide enough room for their children. Slightly less than half of this group either had mixed feelings about the UPE's ability to provide room (2 respondents,' 11.8% of the no-success-on-illiteracy group) or were optimistic about the UPE's ability to provide enough room (6 respondents, 35.3% of the no-success-on-illiteracy group). Those respondents who remained neutral on whether or not the UPE would be able to solve the problem of illiteracy, were almost equally divided among "Yes," "No," and "Mixed feelings," concerning whether the UPE program would provide enough room. It would appear, from these data, that many of the respondents equate the UPE's chances of success in eliminating illiteracy with its chances of success in providing enough room for all of the children. In comparing the data from Table 46 and Table 47, it would also seem to be true that the people in general expect the UPE program to be‘ more successful in providing adequate room than previous or current programs have been. 179 ma: Na Nmuv>ogm we seem mumscmu< HHH: an NONLONNHHH m>Hom mm: Hsz .Ne OHNNN o.ooH N.NH N.NN N.NN NHNuoN mm m NH me :ENHou _ N.N N.N N.N ‘ N.NN N.NN N.HH . N.NN N.NN N.NN N.NN _ _NNNNNz NH m e m m _ N.N N.NH N.N w N.NN N.Nm N.NH _ oz N.NN m.HH N.NN N.NN NH N m N . N N.N N.N N.NN m N.NN N.NN N.NN ” mm> N.mm N.N m.oH N.NN " mm N N NN _ tlilsm N NHNNHNNN m _ a .pop NHNuoN 3oz ” mmcmemN oz No» a .Hou _ umtz a 3oz . ucaou ma: >m omoH>oaa mm zoom mhHom um: HHNz .we «HAN» mzo<¢uhHH >th=zzcu zH mhz_NN NNN pppz .NN N.NN» N.NNN N.N N.NN N.NN N.NNNN NN H NN NN NNNPNN N NNNN N.N N N.NN N.NN N.NN N N.NN N.NN _NNNNNZ NH N NH N N.NN N.N N.N N.NNN N.NN N.NN Nz N.NN N.N N.NN N.NN RN N Na N N N.NN N.NN N N.NN N.NN N.NN N N.NN N.NN mm» . N .NN» mpmuo... 30m smzmc< oz @0535va 93.52% a .30 N 3oz acaoo onHo<=omo< 184 aspects of education in general, but practical considerations appear to weigh more heavily with them. The factors that appear to have a strong relationship with the survey sample's responses concerning the potential success of UPE in eliminating illiteracy, are those factors that are immediately visible to the people, and that pertain to their own communities. The total number of children in a family, and the total number of schools in an area appear to be strongly related to opinions about success or fail? ure of the UPE program. Whether or not there is currently enough room seems to affect their opinions about the success of the UPE program, and even though the people are most optimistic about the UPE program providing more room than is currently available, their predictions of the adequacy of future space seem to be strongly related to their opin- ions about the future of UPE. The present experience of the people who have literacy programs in their communities seems to affect their opinions as well, with the people who have had experience with literacy programs for children being more optimistic about the UPE than people who have not had ex- 'perience with children's literacy programs. In addition to these practical considerations of the space in re- lation to the number of participants, and the experiences with programs involving children, the amount of information that is provided to people seems to have a strong effect on their opinions, with the people who feel that they have received adequate information being more strong- ly supportive of the UPE program than the people who feel that they have not been given enough information. 185 Summary of the Analyzed Data From the descriptive data collected from the survey respondents, it would appear that the sample population was reasonably representa- tive of the population of Niger State. Slightly more educational personnel were interviewed than chiefs and tribal leaders, and almost three times as many private individuals were interviewed as either educational personnel or chiefs and tribal leaders. The educational personnel were selected from among supervisory and teaching personnel, and even included two student-teachers. There were almost five times more supervisory personnel than teaching personnel, but the supervisory personnel are more involved in the planning and execution of the UPE program than are the teaching personnel. The educational personnel were from the state Ministry of Education, from regional education departments and from local school districts, with state personnel representing about one-fourth of the surveyed educational personnel. regional personnel representing slightly less than one third of the surveyed educational personnel, and local personnel representing the remainder, and the largest number of interviewed personnel. The chiefs and tribal leaders were from a variety of different tribes and a vari- ety of different positions within their communities. The surveyed private individuals represented occupational levels ranging from agri- cultural (about two-fifths of the sample) to professional (about one- fifth of the survey sample), and including those who know a trade and- others that were not easily included in professional, trade or agricul- tural categories. The members of the general population who participated in this survey were from all of the tribes in Niger State that had a large '186 enough membership to be visible in the general population: Nupe, Hausa, Gwari, Kambari, Dukkawa, Kamukawa, Fulani, Ibo, Kadara and Dakakari. Almost half of the chiefs and tribal leaders, and more than half of the general population that was surveyed, had had no formal educa- tion at all, but the other levels of education were also represented among the members of the survey groups. Family sizes ranged from families with no children to families with seventeen children, but there were split in such a way that 12.7% of the general population sample and 8.7% of the chiefs were from families with no children, 46.5% of the general population and 30.4% of the chiefs 'were from families with four or fewer children, and 40.8% of the general population and 60.8% of the chiefs were from families with five or more children. Average family size for the general population was 4.5 chil- dren and for the chiefs and tribal leaders was 6.5 children per family. The general population sample included 316 children, 55.4% of them male and 44.6% of them female, and the chiefs and tribal leaders population sample included 149 children, 65.1% of them male and 34.9% of them female. Reasonably equal percentages of males and females were in school, for a combined percentage of 26.5% of all children (both sexes) in school, and 38.6% not in school, with about 34.1% of the children unidentified as to in-school or not-in-school status. Smaller families were found to have more of their children in school (on a percentage basis) than larger families, and there was a marked tendency for families to have all of their children in school (33.7%) or to have none of their children in school (28.9%) with the remaining 37.4% of the families to have some of their children in school. The general population demonstrated a slightly stronger 187 tendency to have all children in school than did the chiefs, who showed stronger tendencies to have only some of their children in school. From the opinions and attitude data collected from the survey sam- ple, it would appear that about 70% of the peOple of Niger State support the idea of education in general, and only about 4% of the population thinks that education is bad. The others appear to have mixed feelings about education in general.- 0f the surveyed chiefs, only about 52% support education in general, but the same percentage (about 4%) thinks that education is bad. The educational personnel seem to be reasonably accurate in esti- mating support for education among the parents of the communities, but they appear to overestimate the opposition felt by the general public. The chiefs, on the other hand, appear to underestimate the parents sup- port for education, and to grossly overestimate opposition, seeing almost as much opposition as support. The educational personnel appear to overestimate the chiefs' support of education, expecting it to be higher than the support they perceive in the general public, when the chiefs themselves express considerably less support for education than the general public. The educational personnel also overestimate the opposition on the part of the chiefs, expecting it to be approximately equal to the opposition that they perceive among the general public. In fact, the chiefs and the general public do demonstrate about the same percentage of opposition, but it is less than half of the educa- tional personnelis estimate of oppositition. ‘ The chiefs and the parents were reasonably well in agreement about the children's reactions to school, estimating that slightly more than 188 half of the children reacted positively to school. The chiefs indicated that a higher percentage of the children in school liked school than the children who were not in school. 'Despite the difference between the percentage of children who like school (about 52%) and the number of parents who think that education is good (about 70%), the truly strong support for education appears to be at about a 50% level, with about this much of the population indica- ting that they perceived no bad aspects to education. The remaining twenty per cent saw some bad aspects to education, such as the lowering of values, the loss of local culture and the absence of children from the work force. Those who felt positively about education and those who had mixed feelings about education all indicated aspects of education that they felt were good, mostly revolving around the knowledge and information that could be gained from education, but with an emphasis on the utility of that knowledge and information, both for the advance- ment of the individual and his family or tribe, and for the population in general. No community reported a current literacy program that was intended for adult men only (just as there was no apparent discrimination be- tween male and female children attending school), and respondents reported that their communities' literacy programs were primarily for all adults or for everyone. Only a small percentage of respondents reported literacy programs designed primarily for children. Close to 70% of the current literacy programs are government-supported, about 20% are district-supported, and only 10% are jointly supported by the government and the district. 189 School facilities were reported to be inadequate in space by about 68% of the respondents, and adequate by about 25% of the respondents. More than 56% of the respondents indicated that 60% or fewer of the area children were in school, and about 36% of the respondents indica- ted that there was no school at all in their district. About 8% of the respondents indicated that there were nine or more schools in their area. With regard to the UPE program in particular, about 67% of the educational personnel said that they had received enough information about the UPE_program, but only about 30% of the chiefs and about 42% of the general population indicated that they felt they had received adequate information about the UPE program. About 60% of the general population (despite the perceived_lack of information) felt that the UPE program would provide enough room for their children in schools and would solve the problem of illiteracy. About 96% of the educational personnel said that they were active- ly involved in the UPE program, and about 81% of the educational person- nel felt that the UPE program would benefit everyone, but only 44% indicated that they felt the government support had been adequate. Alternative programs were suggested by about 30% of the education- al personnel, but such programs were suggested by only about 26% of the chiefs and about 11% of the general public. Only 48% of the education- al personnel expressed an opinion about who should be responsible for alternative programs, but they all said that they felt the government should take this responsibility. 0f the parents, 56% felt that the government should be responsible for any alternative programs, but 190 about 40% of the parents also stated that the government should not take the responsibility for these programs. More than one-third of the general public indicated that they would like to see improvement in the current educational system, and most of the suggestions that they offered had to do with the topics of study, the content studied (suggestions of including moral educa- tion and information about local culture) and about the scheduling of the school sessions or classes, which they suggested should be geared to the living patterns of the particular community in which the school was located. Some mobile communities suggested bringing the school to the community, instead of trying to bring the community to a sta- tionary school. More than 50% of the respondents recommended that the alternative .programs and the improvements in the educational system be provided for everyone. Almost 22% of the chiefs suggested instead that these plansbe provided for their tribes, but slightly more than 20% of the chiefs did not provide any answer to this question. 0f the parents group, about 17% suggested that the plans be applied to their tribes, about 10% suggested that the plans be applied to children, and about 13% had other suggestions (such as applying the plans only to those who wanted them). The cross-tabulations that were run indicated that some statist- ically significant relationships could be found between categories or descriptive information and opinions, and between some opinions and other opinions. Opinions about education in general appeared to be related to the educational level of the respondent, the family size, the children's 191 response to school, and to opinions about the UPE program's chances of success. The people with no education at all supported education in about 55% of the cases. Those with only a primary-school education supported education completely, but the amount of support decreased to _about 89% from those with a secondaryeeducation, and continued to de- crease to about 73% from those with a college education. The family size appeared to be related to increased misgivings about education rather than to negative feelings about education. Smaller families reported stronger supportive feelings and fewer mixed feelings, but larger families reported weaker supportive feelings and more mixed feelings about education in general. Only 42 respondents (out of 71) replied to the question about their children's reactions.to school, but of these, all of those who said that education was good were people who reported a positive re- sponse from their children. Some of those who reported a positive response from their children expressed negative or mixed feelings about education, but 81% of those whose children reacted positively also ex- pressed their own positive feelings about education. Opinions about UPE and about education in general are not com- pletely parallel, since about 70% of the general population expressed positive feelings about education, but only 53.5% expressed the expecta- tion that the UPE program would solve the problem of illiteracy. The people who said that they did not think UPE would provide enough room for their children were as likely to be people who had mixed feelings about education. People who expressed mixed feelings about education tended slightly to be pessimistic about the UPE's chances of success- fully eliminating the problem of illiteracy or of providing enough room, 192 but they also tended to remain undertain about the future success or failure of the UPE plan. The suggestions and alternatives that were offered by the survey population tended very strongly to come from those with a positive opinion of education, rather than those with a negative opinion or with mixed'feelings. The positive opinions that were expressed by the survey respond-' ents about education in general showed a relationship to the partici- pants in current community literacy programs and to the suggestions that were offered. The impression given by the observedrelationships was that the people of Niger State who had positive opinions of educa- tion saw both idealistic aspects of education, in that education could promote individual and community growth in knowledge, and more pract- ical aspects of education, in that the knowledge, information and skills imparted by education could be used for the betterment of the individual, the tribe, the community or all mankind. Those who empha- sized the more idealistic benefits of education tended to be from com- munities with adult literacy programs, and those who emphasized the practical benefits from education tended to be from communities with literacy programs for children. 1 ' Some of the negative opinions about education in general appeared to be related to the respondents' predictions of whether or not they would permit their children to attend school. Those who objected to education because it took the children out of the work force of the community appeared to be quite strong in their opinions, and quite negative. The implication from this is that their predictions about the success or failure of the UPE program in eliminating illiteracy 193 and in providing adequate room for children, both of which were strongly negative, were in fact, less predictions about the UPE program than they were predictions of howthe parents would react to any educa- tional program. Those who expressed fears about the lowering of values, expressed strongly positive views about the UPE program's capacity to resolve the problem of illiteracy and provide enough room for the children, but these views could also be interpreted as predic- tions that the negative aspect perceived by the parents would not prevent the parents from sending their children to school. Most of the respondents who expressed negative opinions about edu- cation in general, in the survey items requesting suggestions, gave suggestions for changes in the educational system that would eliminate the disadvantageous aspects that they saw. Few respondents rejected education completely. The implications from these data are that adapta- tions of educational programs to local groups and to community character- istics would be very likely to result in support of education. Only about 4% of the survey population appeared to be intransigent in their opposition to education in general. Opinions about the UPE program appear to have a strong relationship with practical considerations such as the number of children and the number of schools in a community. Communities with fewer schools ex- pressed less optimism about the potential success of the UPE program, and communities with a larger number of schools expressed more optimism. Families with more children express less optimism about the success of the UPE program than families with a small number of children. Both pessimism about the success of the UPE program and neutral feelings were expressed more often by larger families than by smaller families. 194 People from communities that do not now have enough room for their children are less optimistic about the success of the UPE program than are people from communities that currently are providing adequate room for their children. But, overall, only about 26% of the respondents said that their communities were providing enough room at present, and yet 55% expressed optimism that the UPE program would be successful in eliminating illiteracy. More respondents expected the UPE program to be able to provide adequate room than expected it to be successful in eliminating illiter- acy. In addition, those people in communities with literacy programs for children expected UPE to be successful more often than those people in communities with literacy programs for adults, or for anyone. ‘ When questioned about the adequacy of information received, the respondents indicated that only a little less than half of them had received adequate information, but of this group, optimism about the success of the UPE program was almost twice as strong as in the group that had not received adequate information. The well-informed people were much stronger in support, and much weaker in opposition and in neutrality than the uninformed group. In general, the people of Niger State appear to have been reason- ably well represented in the sample population that responded to this survey, in tribe, occupation, family size and level of education. They appear to be aware of the practical realities of requiring facilities for education, and appear to be able to estimate, from information about their own groups, potential capacity for accommodating the educational facilities' needs of their area. 195 Their opinions about education in general and about the UPE pro- gram in particular seem to be based on the idealistic benefit derived from increasing knowledge and information, and the practical benefits derived from obtaining useful information and skills. Negative opin- ions about education and about the UPE program seem to center around the ability of the government to provide adequate facilities, and around the appropriateness of the educational programs to the life styles, needs and traits of the local communities. Suggestions and comments made by the survey respondents suggest very strongly that there is little deep-seated opposition to education, but primarily opposition or uncertainty that could be eradicated by adapting educational programs to the communities. Among other expressed wishes of the survey respondents, the strongest appeared to be the desire to be adequately informed about the UPE program. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS An analysis of the government proposal for the UPE program clearly shows that some of the areas that are most crucial to the program's success among the people of Niger State have not been extensively discussed by the government. These crucial areas of concern were identified by means of the investigation of the problems facing other compulsory education programs in developing nations, and by the data collected from this survey. The recommendations for UPE implementation. that are presented in this chapter are based on this analysis of the Igovernment's proposal, and the information and suggestions implicit . in both the previous experiences of other countries, and the attitudes and opinions of the people of Niger State. Government Proposal for UPE The government proposal, and the comments made about the govern- ment proposal, have not concentrated on presenting concrete information. They have concentrated almost exclusively on presenting the ideological basis for the creation of a program such as UPE and on presenting the governing philosophy for the implemented program. The federal government of Nigeria identified the ideological basis for the creation of the UPE program in its statement entitled National Policy on Education: Nigeria's philosophy on education, therefore, is based on the integration of the individual into a sound and effective citizen and equal educational opportunities for all children 196 197 of the nation at the primary, secondary, and tertiary levels, both inside and outside the formal system (1977:4). This expression of goodwill on the part of the government toward the citizens of Nigeria, formalized into the national education policy, would remain hollow unless it were filled out with the practical means by which this goal is to be accomplished. "Good intentions are of little value unless they are backed up with the means, the men, the materials and the resources to make the plans work" (Adesina, 1974: 294). O The federal government prepared a schedule, to be followed through- out the country. All children who were six years old in 1976 were to begin primary education that year, and during the subsequent years, all children who became six years old during each year were to begin their primary school education in that same year. By 1980, after five years of the program, all children between the ages of six and eleven were to be attending school. This is what the government has labelled "full implementation" of the UPE program. Government estimates of attendance were projected for 1980, at which time more than 15 million children were expected to be participating in the national educational program (West Africa, 1977:1875). Estimates for other years are not available, especially since the government softened the proposal by making school attendance mandatory beginning in 1980, and not beginning in 1976 when the UPE program began. In addition, the lack of dependable census figures would render it virturally impossible to predict how many children might be potential participants in the program. 198 The government presumably knows how many educational facilities it has, through its educational personnel. It has not, however, indi- cated clearly whether these facilities will be adequate for the number of children in the area of each of the facilities. It has no way to indicate this, since it does not know how many children there are. The federal government has taken on itself the responsibility for financing the UPE program, but the government has allocated the respon- sibility for the implementation of the UPE program to the individual states. In this way, the government has made it the responsibility of the states to locate the manpower and accommodation resources that would be required for that particular state. Each of the states has reportedly made remarkable progress (West Africa, 1977:1877), in spite of the fact that the available resources vary greatly from state to state. ' There is no doubt that the federal government is determined to make its good intentions become a reality, and there is no doubt that the states are working hard to fulfill their responsibility for imple- menting the UPE program. "Progress" is not "success," however, and there is some doubt about whether the initially-achieved progress can be continued. Unresolved Problems of the UPE Proposal One of the most crucial issues in the UPE program is the deter- mination of the number of potential participants. Estimates and predictions made by some states have not been as accurate as one might want them to be, as can be seen from Table 50 (p. 199). 199 State . Predicted Actual Attendance ' Attendance Number of children As a percentage of Predicted Sokoto } 68,000 80,000 117.6% Kano . 350,047 382,901 109.4% Anambra 3 304,687 873,402 286.7% Niger 5 65,753 107,402 163.3% Table 50. .Predicted versus Actual Attendance (Source: Adapted from Kolawale, 1977:5) Some states have done a better job of estimating attendance than others, but the information collected in this survey indicated that accommoda- tions in Niger State were adequate in only 25.4% of the cases (Table 20, p. 111), and futher indicated that only a little more than 40% of the children in the state were in school (Table 10, p. 92). If accommodations available are so far short of the need for accom- modations, then it can reasonably be assumed that personnel, equipment and supplies are also in short supply, if for no other reason than that the estimated attendance was so inaccurate. Government officials, among them the Nigerian head of state, saw the problem, and now project that one of the effects that the UPE pro- gram will have, will be serious congestion in primary schools by 1979 (New Nigerian, 1977:3). From the acutal figures, and from the revised estimates, it can be seen that these shortages are likely to cause involuntary exclusion of some potential participants from the "universal" primary education program. These shortages, then, besides being problems in themselves, also can create new problems, specifically the problem of involuntary 200 . exclusion from the opportunity for an education. The law states that every child must attend school, but in the face of their being no school to attend, or no teachers to teach, or no materials to study from, the child who would like to attend school has no place to go, no one to teach him, and nothing from which to study. "In many countries and territories where the urgent problem is to provide sufficient schools for all children the existence of compulsory school laws may be only of academic interest since almost all such regulations exempt a child from attending if there is no suitable school within reasonable distance of his home" (UNESCO, 1975:72). If the child who does not want to go to school is exempted from school, he will probably be happy and satisfied with the arrangement. But if the child who wants to go to school is "exempted" from attending school because there is no school for him to attend, he is unlikely to be contented with this arrangement. Ultimately, the promise of education, unsupported by the provision of adequate facilities for fulfilling that promise, could lead to the kind of social problems that would be totally counterproductive to the cause of development. The population of Niger State, by means of the representatives interviewed for this survey, has indicated that they have a strong desire for education, which about 70% of them view as a positive benefit (Table 12, p. 99). Ignoring this strongly supportive attitude toward education, and exempting children from schooling in- stead of providing facilities for education, could easily result in extensive social problems. The problems of shortages, therefore, must be faced, and must be overcome. In addition to the problems of shortages, there are also problems of partial acceptance or of rejection by the potential participants in 201 the educational programs. During the interviews conducted for this survey, some parents expressed unwillingness to totally support the UPE program, out of fear that their children would leave home once they had finished the primary education program, moving away from farms and villages in order to find white-collar jobs in urban areas. It is understandable that the children would do this, and that the parents would have this fear, if the educational system were one that prepares the children for white-collar jobs, and does not prepare them to be better farmers or members of their own home communities. Other parents expressed fears that their children would be taught ideas and habits that were in conflict with the families' religious or moral beliefs. A belief that the schooling would have this effect on their children, according to the survey data collected, would result in partial or total rejection of the idea (Table 38, p. 150). This has happened. "Certain states, particularly in the North, had a gigantic task in persuading parents to take advantage of UPE, partly because Moslem parents feared that children sent to schools might acquire the habit of drinking or of drug-taking, two habits now widely prevalent in schools of all kinds in West Africa" (West Africa, 1977:1884). The general public has also expressed fears about "lowering the standard of education, the prospect of unemployment for the extra“ millions of primary school leavers that UPE will produce, and the cost of the great expansion in secondary, technical and university education which is essential if UPE is to be fruitful" (Nigerian Herald, 1977:8). These are essentially all complaints that the UPE program does not meet the needs of present and future Nigerian society, but, instead, prepares Nigerian children for life in a society other than their own. 202 They are complaints that the schooling that the children are to be given is not compatible with the value systems of the communities from which those children come. Given the problem of shortages, perhaps it would be more practical to ignore the problems of rejection or partial acceptance of education, since they theoretically could resolve each other, but this seems to be contrary to the avowed purpose of the UPE education program, as well as being an unjust manner of dealing with those who desire education but have valid complaints against its current form. In the same way that thwarting the desire for education can pro- duce social unrest, ignoring valid complaints can produce social unrest. If children are trained for jobs that do not exist, the disillusionment that they eventually experience as a result of unemployment can result in discontent with the entire social and political system. Ignoring the valid complaints of different segments of the population can cause those ignored segments to isolate themselves from the community-at- large, which is contrary to the national unity required for development. The complaints and fears of the people, especially the ones that have the potential for eventually creating social and political up- heaval, must be faced. They must be considered potential problems for the UPE program, and solutions must be found for them. They are . problems that cannot be ignored. Like the problem of shortages, which made itself evident, they will eventually surface. If solutions are found before the problems become so large that they are unassailable, those solutions, and perhaps even attempts at solutions, can have the effect of uniting all of the country in an all-out effort to promote development. 203 Suggestions for the Alleviation of Potential Problem The development of human resources in a country is an essential part of the country's growth, as important as the development of natur- al resources. The development of human resources by means of education, while it represents a long-term investment for the country, is not ne- cessarily a long-term process in which results appear long after the beginning of the investment program (ECA/UNESCO, 1961:4). Careful planning can assure that the return on the invested time, money and personnel is the maximum possible return, and occurs at the fastest possible rate. "Careful planning based on a realistic assess- ment of present and future needs as well as of the available and potential resources, is of the utmost importance in countries which are attempting to expand their educational facilities" (UNESCO, 1954: '33). The plan itself must be good in order to be successful, but even a good plan must be fortified by adequate funding and competent admini- strative personnel if it is to be successful. Inadequate funding and inefficient administration can result in failure of the best of plans (UNESCO, 1954:34). The suggestions that are given below are plans, or possible plans, that could be begun at the present time, and could be functioning ef- ficiently and effectively in a relatively short period of time. Since money is not an infinitely expandable commodity, these plans depend on the use of available facilities, equipment, supplies and personnel, and on the inclusion of other human resources that are already available, at hand, in Nigeria (even though they require the expenditure of some funds). It is essential that the government prevent what began as a 204 free education program from becoming a financial burden on the private. individuals of the country, but this can be done by using the resources of the country to their best advantage. The development of human re- sources always requires the expenditure of human resources, but the supportive attitude expressed generally by the people of Niger State (and this is very possibly representative of the feelings of the people of Nigeria in general) suggests that they would be willing to cooperate in plans to educate their children. Planning to Circumvent Shortages Before planning can begin, the extent of the need must be deter- mined. For this reason, the first suggestion to be made is that the Ministry of Education engage in a census of the population of the state. The most important information for this census would be the number of school-age children, but it would also be necessary to deter; mine the number of facilities that exist in the state, the number of teachers who are available, and the amount of instructional materials at hand. i From this information, the planners could determine how many children could be accommodated by the existing facilities, how many teachers would be needed to teach the children accommodated by the existing facilities, and how much instructional material would be needed by the teachers for the accommodated children. Knowing what can be done is the first step. In addition to statistics, the census should collect information about the resources available in the communities themselves. It is possible that such information could be quickly and efficiently gotten by local functionaries in school districts, and relayed to higher-level 205 authorities, to be used as the basis for planning. Inf0rmation should be sought about buildings that could be used for educational purposes on a temporary basis, about factories or shops that are currently in existence in the communities, about the skills (whether professions, trades or hobbies) of the adult members of the communities, and about any unemployed or underemployed members of the communities. While such information was being gathered, the census-takers could also try to promote conmunity involvement in the project by explaining to the surveyed individuals that the educational program, in order to be successful, will need the skills and assets of every member of the community, but that these skills and assets will be used for the benefit of the communities from which they originate. Census-takers could also implant the idea that the community itself should organize a planning commission, to guarantee that their needs and life styles are accommo- dated in the planning and eventually in the implementation of the community education project. With any program that affects the entire community, community in- volvement is necessary for success, and this has already been recognized by General Obasanjo (New Nigerian, 1977:1). but the call for community involvement could be made louder and more clearly if it were conveyed by one individual to another. Census-takers, perforce, must be indi- viduals who come into contact with other individuals, so they would be able to supply information on a personal basis at the same time that they were taking the census. The census-takers, however, should be local people, so that their words would be believed more readily, and they would be given more 206 accurate information. All available personnel from educational offices and from all civil service positions could be used, as was done in Indonesia (p. 21). . Once the census-takers have done their job, and the information has been gathered in one place, informed planning can begin. The shortage of school accommodations, even though its true extent is not known, is already recognized as a problem that "has assumed serious proportion" (West Africa, 1977:1880). The military governor of Cross River State, Coronel Omu, has sug- gested that the communities themselves must help in the construction of the needed buildings (Nigerian Herald, 1977:12). This is one pos- sible solution, but there are others. Enlisting the aid of the community in building the schools could also provide a source of education, since those out-of-school children who were not old enough to be on their own, but not young enough to attend school themselves, could learn about building construction at the same time that they were helping to construct the community's school facility. For more iMmediate needs, already existing buildings that were not originally intended to be educational facilities could be used as the temporary quarters for classes, but this would also require providing . the community members with full information about the need for build- ings, and about the impossibility of constructing the necessary buildings soon enough to accommodate the area's children. This idea was successfully employed both in Indonesia (pp. 21-2) and in Thailand (p. 25). Private and public buildings, temples and places of worship, and even homes could serve as locations for classrooms. Equipment for 207 the buildings was provided by private individuals in some cases in Thailand and Indonesia, and in other cases, the government provided the equipment and the members of the community provided transportation from central locations to the school location (p. 22, 25). In some areas with some school buildings, but not enough, a "swing" session could be created, thereby doubling the existing facility's capacity to accommodate children. This could be accomplished in two A} different ways. Either half-day sessions could be scheduled, or activ- ities could be scheduled so that two classes would be assigned to one room, and one of the classes would pursue activities that did not require classroom space at the time when the other class was using the room. This would free classroom space for strictly academic pursuits by re-locating activities such as music, art and physical education, probably to the outside (UNESCO, 1977:42). This type of program was successfully attempted in the Phillipines. As part of the educational program, apprenticeship plans could be devised that would make use of the apprentices in businesses and shops for at least part of the year, and they would gain practical training in useful skills without the need for school buildings. Also, if the apprentices were to study academic programs for part of the year, and get practical training for the rest of the year, the same classroom facilities could be used by two different groups, scheduled for acadmic work at different times. Shortages in accommodations could also be circumvented by means of correspondence schools, with instructional materials either mailed or delivered to the students regularly, and itinerant teachers who 208 would meet on a regularly-scheduled basis with the correspondence- school students, to discuss problems and provide information that was not included in the materials. The itinerant teachers themselves might be able to deliver the materials to areas with inadequate postal serv- ices. The aid of the parents would be necessary, since they would have to most directly oversee the work of their children. This method was tried and found to be successful in New Zealand (pp. 36—8). In addition to these plans, the government could develop two concurrent building plans, one long-term and one short-term. The short- term plan could cover the construction of temporary buildings in areas where no alternative facilities were available for temporary use. The long-term building plan could be a more deliberate, carefully-scheduled plan for providing school facilities to every community that did not have such facilities, and could gradually replace temporary accommoda— tions with more permanent ones. In this manner, facilities could be provided quickly in many different locations, but the full cost of adequate schools could be spread over a tenable period of time. The staggering cost of providing permanent schools for all of the communi- ties would not have to be borne at a single time, or in a short period of time (Huq, 1965:216-7). As an alternative to temporary structures, mobile schools units, much like "bookmobiles," could be used to provide contained academic atmospheres for highly-mobile populations or for areas where immediate school construction was not possible. Such mobile units could also _be used to supplement the correspondence schools. A shortage of teachers seems to be as inevitable a result of the expansion of educational programs as is the shortage of accommodations 209 (Bilodeau, 1955:38). There are several ways to get around the problem of a shortage of teachers, at least on a temporary basis. Teachers could be recruited from foreign countries, but this has been tried, and the number of teachers recruited has not been sufficient to alleviate the shortage. . Some teaching personnel could possibly be recruited from among the graduate students of the more developed countries, who would be quali- fied to teach several different levels. They could be induced to postpone their graduate studies, and gain experience while aiding in the development of a less-developed country by offering to pay their expenses while they were in the country, and to pay the expenses of their graduate study at a later date. This way, the government could also postpone the expenditure of funds, and get reasonably-well- qualified teachers. Teacher-training programs within the country could be amended to shorten the time spent in academic training programs, and to send the .trainees out to primary-school positions more quickly. This could be accomplished by setting up a program of in-service training that would allow them to continue their professional training while they began their teaching assignments. Their training could be continued by means of correspondence lessons that were administered jointly between the training college that the trainees had attended and the Ministry of Education. . Secondary-school leavers could be employed to teach in primary schools, after a short training session, that could be scheduled to occur during the longer vacation periods. These secondary-school 210 leavers could also be required to continue their own education by means of correspondence schools, and could eventually be awarded teaching certificates when they had completed the prescribed plan of study (UNESCO, 1954:63-4). For courses or programs of study that were not academic in nature, skilled non-educators could be employed. Shopkeepers could be employed to train students who were interested in commerce; carpenters or maSons could be employed to train students in these professions; athletes could be employed to teach children about athletics; nurses could be employed to teach children about hygiene. In addition, local craftsmen could be employed to teach Children the crafts that might improve their lives. Even those who had hobbies that could be useful would be en- couraged to give some of their time to the education of the children. Chiefs and tribal leaders, politicians, legislators, bureaucratic of- ficials and local functionaries could be used to teach children about the functions of the various social leaders. Religious or tribal leaders could be employed to teach children about their own culture and traditions. Correspondence schools would help to alleviate the teacher short- age, since one teacher could supervise the study of more students than could normally be reached in a single classroom. Using educational facilities in shifts would probably also in- crease the number of students that each teacher could reach, since the classes might change, but the teachers could remain. Concurrent with these temporary measures, however, the government could begin to build more permanent improvement in the number of teachers by planning and executing a program of increasing the 211 teacher-training facilities, personnel and programs throughout the nation. The trainees graduated from these institutions could gradual- ly replace the less professional people who were performing teaching duties, and gradually change the system so that the level of compe— tence of the teachers was continually on the rise. The shortage of instructional materials already noticeable would actually increase as the nature and number of educational programs in- creased. This could be accommodated by the creation of a special department in the Ministry of Education that would be charged with writing and producing materials for use in any and all of the educa- tional programs. The first priority would be the correspondence schools, both for children and for teacher-training. The members of this department would .be able to request assistance from educational experts from anywhere in the country and around the world, in order to obtain information that they needed in order to write lessons. They would essentially be writers, who would take information from any source, and produce lessons from it. Building reference libraries, or at least one, and providing a means for individuals in different parts of the state to obtain materials on loan from the library, would be a good method of building the compe- tence of the more advanced learners, whether they be teacher-trainees, or individuals who were reasonably well-educated, but who wanted to learn more about a particular subject so that they could teach it, or teach it better. Aid in the provision of instructional materials could be sought from foreign countries, from international organizations, and even from the participants in teacher-training programs within the country. Any 212 and all sources of such materials could be explored and exploited. These three major kinds of shortages--buildings and equipment, personnel, and instructional materials--are not insurmountable problems. The suggestions presented above are all possible ways to temporarily circumvent the problems, and to allow for the time necessary for the development of more permanent solutions: Tailoring Systems to Local Culture and Life Styles The objectives of primary education, as stated in the National Policy on Education, are: 1) to inculcate numeracy and the ability to communicate effective- ly; ' 2) to lay a sound basis for scientific and reflective thinking; 3) to provide citizenship education as a basis for effective par- ticipation in and contribution to the life of the society; 4) to develop character and provide the moral training for the development of sound attitudes; 5) to develop in the child the ability to adapt to his changing environment; ' 6) to give the child the opportunity to develop manipulative skills that will enable him to function effectively in the society within the limits of his capacity; 7) to provide basic tools for further educational advancement, ( inciuding preparation for trades and crafts of the locality 1977:7 . These objectives are a clear indication that the educational system has more of a responsibility to adapt its programs to the individuals and the communities than it apparently has been doing. The educational system that has been given to the people of Nigeria up to now has been that _system that was brought to the country by the British, and that was used by the British to staff their clerical positions, and to promote and protect the colonial trade. It was not intended to give the Nigerian a sense of pride in his own culture and identity, but, rather, to make him 213 recognize his "master," and to fear his "master" enough that he would not question his authority. Before the introduction of this formal education system, the Nigerian system of education was community-centered, and "within the different tribes, parents taught their children practical arts, health and sanitation, farming, music, fishing, trading, folklore, proverbs, genealogies, wise sayings, incantations, rituals and other knowledge that was related to day-to-day living and their religion" (Fafunwa, 1971:iv). The prestige of this kind of education was lost, when the British began to be able to convince at least some of the people that the British dress, names, language and government system were better than the Nigerian, because the Nigerian way of living, arts, crafts, music and dress were pagan, inferior and uncivilized. The “lucky ones" who received formal education became very different from the other mem- bers of their communities, and they preferred to move away from the tribal socieities and into the cities. Traditional occupations such as farming, crafts and arts were forsaken because they were regarded as occupations suited to the illiterates (Omotoso, 1978:6). For the UPE program to fulfill its stated purpose of making the individual capable of being a productive member of his community, it must be quite different in focus and in values from the British system, and must adapt itself to the environment, in the same way that it pro- fesses to want to teach the child to adapt to his environment. The content of the educational materials must radically change, both in the value system that teaches the child that his own village is no good, and in the course content, that teaches the child skills 214 that are only useful in an urban environment of a highly-technologically- developed country. Continuation of this system can only encourage the exodus from local communities to the urban centers, which cannot support the employable population that they already have. Educating more indi- viduals into unemployment will only increase this problem considerably (Ocho, 1976:7). It is the responSibility of the educational system--and expressly stated as its responsibility--to prepare the individual in such a way that he can be an effectively functioning member of his society. This must mean that the UPE program should train individuals to become better farmers, traders, herdsmen, craftsmen, leaders, etc., as well as clerks. This is not an impossible task. There are many sources of infor—' imation about training programs in practical skills, and within the local communities, there are many individuals who can educate the children in skills that they have learned. Materials could be developed that would help the farming people develop better crops, protect their crops from diseases and pests, increase the yield of a given area of land, etc. There are also many sources of information that can be tapped to provide instructional materials to help the herdsmen. The advances of medical science can be taught to the children, so that they can better protect themselves and their families from disease and injury. There is no lack of information available in order to vary the content of the instructional materials so that it better matches the local community's needs and life style. 215 Instead of using teachers who are unfamiliar with the local area and its customs and traditions, the educational planners could either employ local teachers, or employ individuals who can learn from local people. Koranic teachers could be employed to teach not only religion, but other subjects as well. The content of material could be varied from locality to locality, if need be, so that it does not conflict with ideas and beliefs that exist in a given cultural group. If the cultural group is mobile, the schools could be made mobile as well, or the teachers could be local group members who would be willing to travel with the group, and teach when the work schedule permitted it. For farming people, the schedule of the classes could be adapted to the growing season and the work needs of the c0mmunity, and the con- tent adapted to their information needs. Teachers who were unnecessary in a farm region during the growing season could perform some other educational function during this time, or could move to a location where they could be employed in teaching, returning to the farming area when the harvest was finished. I . For groups that are living in isolated regions, correspondence schools, mobile units, itinerant teachers, or even radio broadcasts could be employed in order to provide education. The educational materials, schedules and programs could be adapted to the people, instead of trying to adapt the people to the educational system. Accommodating the people in this way would very possibly stop the movement from the rural areas, decrease the unemployment problem, increase productivity and increase the standard of living, and have 216 the additional effects of increasing pride and national unity (Wilson, 1963:9). It is not impossible to adapt the educational system to the people, but it would require extensive use of the human resources that are now available in the country. As a prerequisite to this use, a census of the skills, the skilled people and the locations of need would have to be done. Temporary Exclusion "There are millions of people who for many reasons entirely beyond their own control have no access to educational institutions" (Erdos, 1967:5). Besides-the people who are excluded temporarily until short- ages can be alleviated, and those with special learning problems or with handicaps, who probably would not be able to endure the hardships of the temporarily-established programs, there are many people who are. excluded from educational opportunity because they are not the right age. They are too old to begin with the six-year-olds and too young to be self-sufficient. . The ideal educational system should "provide all who want to learn with access to available resources at any time in their lives" (Rusk, 1971:106). The UPE program, in that it does not accommodate these over-age children, excludes them from educational opportunity. This can be considered a temporary exclusion, however, since it should cease to exist as soon as every child attends school, beginning when he is six, and being able to continue until he is adequately educated. At the present time, though, even these children could be given some type of education that would enable them to be productive members of their communities. ’The same kinds of apprenticeship programs, 217 training in arts, crafts, trades, etc. that were suggested as ways of making the educational program appropriate to the life styles and needs of the individual communities could be adapted to provide some sort of education for these over-age children. The younger ones could partici- pate in programs similar to those being developed for the even younger children, or they could be employed as helpers in the teaching process. The prestige of being an assistant to the teacher could provide enough inducement to draw these oUt-of—school children into the educational system. Apprenticeship programs, in shops or in factories or wherever there is a skill to be learned, would probably be more appropriate for the out-of-school children who are older. The government could enlist the support and the aid of the businessmen, factory owners and shopkeepers of the area, and could encourage their participation by tax credits or by offering to pay part of the wages to be given to the apprentice. A It is not necessary that these children be excluded from receiving an education, and it is important that the government recognize that "it has become the right of each individual to acquire as much educa- tion as he is capable of absorbing" (Erdos, 1967:1). The suggestions and proposals for coping with shortages, for pro- viding opportunities for out-of-school children, and for adapting the school system to the community, are all proposals that are different . in nature from the proposals appropriate to a traditional formal edu- cational system. The proposals, if implemented, would result in the creation of non-formal systems of a variety of descriptions, the crea- tion of many school extension programs, and many combinations of 218 partially formal and partially non-formal systems. A fully formal sys- tem of education simply does not seem to be appropriate to the needs and life styles of the different communities in Niger State (and in Nigeria). Adaptive and creative programs are needed, and most of these programs are far outside the realm of formal education systems. The exact nature of the system that would be appropriate for each com- ~munity has yet to be determined, but the fact that such appropriate systems could be created or devised must be accepted, along with the fact that such systems are needed. Implementation of Suggestions Adaptations in the existent educational administration structure, and the introduction of some non-formal and extension programs could take care of the observed needs and desires of the people of Niger State. It would not be necessary to abandon the present system and create a new system, but merely to change some aspects of the present administrative structure and of the educational programs. Cooperation with the goals of the UPE program, and total involvement on the part - of all potential participants, would be essential, not only from the educational administrators, but also from the members of the communi- ties that are involved. The preceding suggestions dealt with the problems that were fore- seen, and with the alternatives that could be employed in order to avoid or to solve those problems. The following section will concern itself with the administrative changes that would be necessary in order to deal with the implementation of the suggestions, and with the pro- grams that would have to be developed in order to present these proposed 219 alternatives to the peOple, through the adapted administrative of- fices. Adaptation of the Educational Administration Structure Three of the current administrative divisions--the Personnel Development Division, the Planning Division, and the Public Relations Division--would have to be adapted, so that they would be able to serve the needs of the new educational programs. The Personnel Development Division, also called the "Manpower Development Division," that already is in charge of in-service training programs, would probably have to be enlarged, in order to accommodate the needs of the special training programs, as well as to accommodate the needs of an increase in the number of teachers to be trained. The Planning Division, already in charge of the development of instructional materials, would have to enlarge this section, in order to accommodate the quantity and type of material that would be needed. The Public Relations Division, besides performing the normal func- tions of a public relations department, would have to be enlarged, and re-organized into two separate sections, in order to function as the locater of services and supplies needed by the new and enlarged in- structional programs. In-Service Training Section The In-Service Training Section of the Personnel Development Division would continue to supervise and coordinate the current pro- grams of teacher training, but would also have to set up personnel and procedures to organize and coordinate the special correspondence 220 programs, mobile-unit programs, work-study programs, refresher programs, and even apprenticehip programs that would be used in order to increase the available numbers of teaching personnel. Perhaps this section could create subsections that would generate plans for the special pro- grams, each subsection being concerned with locating the personnel, buildings or equipment, and materials needed for the program, or with informing one of the "Support Services" divisions about the needs for a particular program or for a particular location. By locating these programs in a division that was already prepared to oversee the training of new teaching personnel, minimum standards of quality (at least) could be maintained, in that all of the different programs would train the teachers for their future positions in the same way that such teachers would be trained at a teachers' college, but the manner in which the lessons were distributed would be adapted to the type of program and to the participants. Correspondence-school lessons, for example, would contain the same information that would have been used in the teacher-training college, but the information would be presented in a way that would make self-study possible. The part of the In-Service Training Section that is currently con- cerned with the training of primary-school teachers would retain its authority over the training of primary-school teachers, whether they were trained in teachers' colleges or by means of correspondence schools. This part of the section would set standards, specify mater- ials, determine timetables, and perform their ordinary functions, but they would also work with the correspondence school subsection, which would take care of distribution and collection of the correspondence- school materials, recruitment of students for the correspondence school, 221 and maintenance of the records of the participating student-teachers. Instructional Materials Development Section The Planning Division would have to enlarge its current section for the production of the required instructional materials for the different programs. This materials development section would have to find or to develop materials for teacher-training programs, for example, adapting the format to suit the needs of the correspondence schools, the mobile units, the refresher programs, etc. The Instructional Materials Development Section would be a pool of material-writers, who could take the material currently used for a particular program, and adapt its format and presentation to one that would be appropriate for the specific need.. They would be writers who could take material concerning agriculture, for example, and produce materials that could be used by illiterate people, by people with a primary-school education, by people with a secondary-school education, and by college graduates. They would produce material that could be used to teach this agricultural material to people with a primary- school education, for example, by means of classrooms, by correspond- ence schools, by mobile units, by radio, etc. The material that they produced would be classified also according to the audience that would receive it, whether they were adults, children, teenagers, or out-of- school children. The needs of a particular division, section, program or location would be conveyed to this section specifically, and the section would set about producing materials that would comply with the expressed need. This section would keep records of all materials produced, and 222 would build a reference library of instructional materials gathered from all over the world, and would eventually produce guidelines to be followed for the creation of materials for subject areas, levels of education, age groups and media of instruction. This section would also develop a file on the human sources of information within the state and country, and throughout the world. This section would concentrate first on producing for the needs that exist, as those needs are identified, and only later concern it; self with advance production for possible needs. By centrally locating the writing of materials, maximum effici- ency'could be achieved, and by using the best available personnel for writing, maximum quality of materials could be maintained. Public Relations Division The Public Relations Division, generally concerned with the image presented to the general public, would be enlarged and split into two units, both of which would concentrate on information collection and dispersal. All units of the Public Relations Division would be charged with collecting information concerning available resources and current needs. They would build a file on people with specific skills that could be used for educational programs, people who could serve as con- sultants on local culture, on subject areas or on the use of a specific medium of instruction. They would concern themselves with matching the talent that is available with the needs that exist or that arise. Domestic Support Section The information about domestic sources of skill and information would be collected by a special section that would concern itself only 223 with the local, state and national sources. The human resources that are available in Nigeria for information about local culture, subject areas and means of instruction could be inventoried by means of a census. 'In addition to human resources able to provide necessary informa- tion, this division would be concerned with locating the people with skills who could teach those skills to others, or who could contribute those skills to the success of the program. For example, if a mechanic were located in a particular region, and that region had a need for a mechanic to maintain its mobile units, the Domestic Support Section would have the responsibility to make contact with the mechanic and attempt to secure his assistance in the maintenance of the mobile units. If the mechanic were needed to teach out-of—school children, then the Domestic Support Section would have the responsibility for contacting the mechanic and attempting to enlist his cooperation in providing the needed instruction to the children. 'This section would also be concerned with locating and keeping an. inventory of buildings that coUld be used for educational purposes, transportation equipment that could be used to carry materials, per- sonnel or equipment from one place to another, materials that could be used for educational programs in crafts, trades and practical skills, and shops, craft centers or factories that were willing to provide as- sistance in the apprenticeship programs. This section would be the source of information for other educa- tional programs sections, divisions and locations, which would depend on this section for information about local sources that could be used to fill the needs of the programs. 224 External Support Section Complementary to the Domestic Support Section, the External Sup- port Section would collect and maintain information about sources of information and assistance that were external to Nigeria. They would find out about sources of funds, including foreign aid from other countries and help from international organizations. They would create and maintain files on potential donations of materials, equipment and I supplies. They would be charged with locating possible consultants or teachers from areas outside Nigeria. This section would be responsible for locating the needed material, - personnel, facilities and equipment, or with locating funding for the purchase of these materials, the payment of these personnel, the pur- chase or the transportation of this equipment, the funding, or even the construction of the facilities. For example, if some automobile manufacturer could be convinced to produce several mobile units and ship them to Nigeria, it would be the duty of this section to negotiate for this manufacture and shipment, and once the units were shipped, to get them relocated to the places where they were needed. If graduate students from more developed countries were to be employed in teaching positions in Nigeria, this section would have the recruitment and relocation responsibilities. This section, like its counterpart Domestic Support Section, would perform services that were necessary in order to maintain the programs of the other divisions and sections. 225 New Administration Divisions Besides the enlargement and restructuring of the current divi- sions, there would be a need for four new divisions to be created. These new divisions would be concerned with providing supportive ser- vices to the other divisions, but would build experience and expertise in certain means by which educational information could be conveyed. They would be a Correspondence School Division, a Mobile Unit Divi- sion, an Apprenticeship Program Division, and a Radio Division. These divisions would not be in charge of educational programs, but would be responsible for obtaining information about the creation and maintenance of such programs, and would be responsible for working in concert with other divisions in order to produce the needed program, with the needed content, for the appropriate people and location. The Correspondence School Division, for example, would have the duty of collecting as much information as is possible about correspon- dence school programs, and of determining the best mode of material distribution and collection. Working with the other divisions (the one that needs a correspondence-school program), the Correspondence School Division would assist in planning the program to be followed, tailoring the program and the procedures to be followed in the program to the subject area, the division that is offering the program, the in- tended participants in the program (in terms of age, level of education, time schedule, etc.) and the location or locations of the participants. These new divisions would be advisory divisions, empowered to assist in the creation and maintenance of programs, but not empowered to create or maintain programs on their own. 226 Interaction of Divisions and Sections The adapted divisions and the new divisions would all work together with the divisions that are currently in charge of the four major areas of educational programs, the programs in primary-level education, secondary-level education, advanced-level education and adult education. These divisions would function as the starting point and the overall coordinator for the programsof any nature that would be created. For example, if the Adult Education Division decided to organize a rural extension program, it might create a Rural Extension Section, as an internal arm, to organize the adult rural programs. The Rural Extension Section might decide that it should be organ- ized into three main branches, or subsections, such as an agricultural information section, a family services section and an apprenticeship section. - The Agricultural Information Subsection, planning programs for the areas that needed them, might decide to plan on one type of classes for certain groups that were engaged in herding, and.a separate type of classes for different groups, that were engaged in farming. The Herding Unit might decide that for their program, a mobile unit, backed by a radio broadcast program, would be the best means for educating the groups it intends to serve. The Herding Unit would then get in contact with the Mobile Unit Division, and in cooperation with them. plan a mobile program, and determine the requirements for the successful execution of that program. It would then get in contact with the Correspondence School Division, and in cooperation with them, plan a correspondence school program, and determine the requirements for the successful execution of that program. Once this planning had 227 been accomplished, the Herding Unit would get in contact with the In- structional Materials Development Section, and specify to them the subject matter, coverage and approach to be taken in the materials, identify the groups that would be participating in the program (so. that cultural and religious factors could be accounted for in the de- velopment of materials), and the schedule proposed for the program. The Instructional Materials Development Section would then set about producing the materials to fit the need. The Herding Unit would then get in contact with the Domestic Support Section, to find out if mobile units are available within the country, if teachers would he available from within the country, and if drivers for the mobile units would be available from within the country. The Instructional Materials Development Section might also get in contact with the Domestic Support Section, to find out if information or consultants on the subject would be available from within the country. Failing to find what they needed in the Domestic Support Section, either or both of the groups might then get in contact with the External Support Section, to locate what they were in need of. With firm plans for both a mobile unit program and a correspondence school backup, the Herding Unit would then work out its own schedule for the distribution of the materials that would be created by the Instructional Materials Section for the mobile program and for the correspondence school program, would schedule sessions for the teachers who would have been found through.the Domestic Support Section or the External Support Section (or provided through the Personnel Devel0pment Division), and organize record-keeping activities for its education program. 228 The primary requirement of this type of organization would be full cooperation of all units with all other units. No agency could afford to jealously guard its power and information, for such withholding of cooperation would destroy the entire plan of action. All departments, divisions, units, sections, etc. would have to work together in full cooperation and in freely sharing the needed information. Information from local units would have to be listened to, and in- formation would have to be freely passed within the educational admini- stration, as well as being passed from the educational administration to the people, and from the people to the educational administration. Summary The introduction of the Universal Primary Education Programs in September 1976 was a major advance in Nigeria's effort-to eliminate 'illiteracy. Through this program, education is to be brought to all parts of the country, to people of all ages and social levels, so that they may all become effectively functioning and productive members of Nigerian society. The program is expected to befully implemented by September 1980, at which time it will be compulsory for all six-year- olds to attend primary school. While some educators predict complete success for the UPE program, others are concerned about how well it will be able to do its job, and even if it will be able todo its job. As a national compulsory education program, UPE is not unlike other national compulsory education programs that have been attempted, with varying degrees of success, in other developing nations. In Indonesia, for example, compulsory education programs were well-planned, intended to avoid the shortage problems that were known to be probable 229 in such new programs, but failed because social upheaval prevented the eventual implementation of the program. On the other hand, although the Thai program was not as well planned at its beginning, it eventual- ly began to resolve the problems that faced it, and even though serious shortages of buildings and equipment, personnel and instructional materi- als still face the educational planners, substantial progress has been made toward the elimination of illiteracy. The Arab States experienced shortages that slowed their education programs, which to the present day have not yet achieved their goal of providing an education for the entire age-group specified in their com- pulsory education programs. ' In other developing nations, the fact that the education programs have been based on a formal education model has resulted in severe cri- ticism of the projects, and has forced some of the countries to alter or adapt their programs to better fit their people. fShortages have encouraged the development of non-formal and exten- sion programs in these nations, since such programs have been found to be more readily organized and maintained in the face of limited re- sources. In Israel, rural youth have been trained in socially-tight units, receiving both the military training and the agricultural train- ing that are considered necessary for the survival of the Israeli nation. A mobile school program was developed in the Phillipines; the Indian people developed a correspondence school program to bring education to the widely-scattered settlements; and in Peru, educational programs are televised. Pakistanis enlisted the religious teachers to give literacy instruction also, and in Sri Lanka, work-study programs that combine aca- demic instruction and practical training have been successfully used. 230 Prior to making suggestions as to how the government of Nigeria could hope to guarantee the success of the UPE program, a survey was done among a representative sample of the people of Niger State. Based on the hypothesis that people would support an educational system that they judged to be congruent with their own life styles, values and culture, and that they would oppose an educational system that they perceived to be incompatible with their life styles, value - system and culture, a questionnaire was developed that would attempt to elicit from the people of Niger State their feelings about educa- tion and about UPE. The questionnaire was administered, by means of an interview, to seventy-one private households, twenty-three chiefs and tribal leaders, and twenty-seven educational personnel. They were asked to express their opinions of education in general, to specify what they thought was good and/or bad about education, and to express their opinions about whether or not the UPE program would be successful in eliminating illiteracy, in addition to being asked about how many schools there were in their area. The chiefs and tribal leaders were asked to identi- fy the level of support or opposition to the UPE program that existed among their people, and to suggest reasons for whatever existed. The 'educational personnel were asked to tell what their involvement in the UPE program was, and to indicate how much support or opposition to the program there was among the people, and the chiefs and tribal leaders, in their districts. Slightly more than half of the private households interviewed did not contain a literate individual, so the interview forms could not be handed to the individuals for them to complete. These interviews had 231 to be conducted orally by the trained interviewers. Questionnaires were prepared in English and in Hausa, but occasionally these were not enough, and on-the-spot translations into other languages had to be made. . From the descriptive information collected from the survey re- spondents, it was possible to determine that the sample had represented both supervisory and teaching personnel, from different levels of ad- ministration, from state, regional and local departments. The private individuals represented occupational levels ranging from agricultural to professional, and were from the tribes with a visible membership in the population of Niger State: Nupe, HauSa, Gwari, Dukkawa, Kamukawa, Fulani, Ibo, Yoruba, Kadara and Dakakari. Almost half of the chiefs and tribal leaders, and more than half of the general population, had no education at all, but the remainder of the samples represented all levels of education. I Family sizes ranged from no children to seventeen children, but the average family size among the general population was 4.5 children, and the average family size among the chiefs was 6.5 children. Slightly more than half of the children were male, and slightly less than half were female, but only 38.6% were identified clearly as not being in school. Smaller families had more children in school than larger families, but smaller families tended to have all of their children in school, and larger families, in general, tended to have none of their children in school. About 52% of the children were reported by their parents to like school, but the parents reported a 70% favorable opinion of education 232 in general. About 50% of the survey sample indicated that they saw nothing wrong with education at all, but others perceived bad aspects such as the lowering of values, the loss of local culture, and the absence of the children from the family. The good aspects of education identified by the survey respondents centered around the information and knowledge that could be gained from education, with emphasis on the utility of that information and knowledge for the betterment of the in- dividual, his family, his community, or mankind in general. Only 70% of the general population reported that there was a literacy program in their community, but 100% of the educational per- sonnel reported the existence of literacy programs. School facilities were reported as adequate by only about 25% of the respondents, and 36% of the respondents reported that there was no school at all in their area. . . . 0n the topic of adequate information, 67% of the educational per- sonnel said that they had been given adequate information by the government, but only 30% of the chiefs, and only 42% of the general population said that they felt they had received adequate information about UPE. About 96% of the educational personnel said that they were active- ly involved in the UPE program, but only 44% of them indicated that they felt that the government support had been adequate. Alternative programs were suggested by 30% of the educational per- sonnel, but only by 26% of the chiefs and tribal leaders, and by 11% of the private households. The 48% of the educational personnel who ex- pressed an opinion said that they felt the government should be 233 responsible for alternative programs, and 56% of the respondents from private households felt that the government should take the responsi- bility for alternative programs. More than one-third of the private households indicated that they would like to see improvement in education, and most of their sugges- tions concerned changes in the topics studied, in the approaches to the topics, and in the scheduling of sessions, all of which they generally suggested be adapted to the community. More than 50% of the respondents recommended that alternative programs be applied to everyone, but others suggested that such programs be applied to their tribes, to children, or even to only those who wanted the alternative programs. Cross-tabulations of the data were run, and they indicated that some statistically significant relationships existed. Opinions about education in general appeared to be related to the educational level of the respondent, with 100% support from those with primary education, and increasingly less support from those with more education, but only about 50% support from those with no education at all. Smaller families ap- peared to be more supportive of education, and larger families appeared to show more mixed feelings about education. A positive response to education on the part of the children appeared to co-occur often with a positive response to education on the part of the parents. Opinions about the UPE program's chances of success were similar to opinions about education in general, but not exactly parallel, since 70% of the population reported positive feelings about education, but only 53.5% expected the UPE program to be successful in eliminating illiteracy. People with mixed feelings about education in general 234 tended to be more pessimistic about the UPE program's chances of suc- cess, but both people with positive feelings and those with mixed feelings toward education expressed doubt that the UPE program would provide adequate room for their children. The suggestions and alternatives offered by the survey sample tended to come more often from the people with a positive opinion of education, and positive opinions tended to come more from people in communities with literacy programs for adults or for everyone, than from communities with literacy programs for children only. Some of the negative opinions seemed to be reflections of whether E or not the parents expected to allow their children to attend school, and not true responses to questions about the success or failure of the UPE program. Few respondents rejected education completely. Only about 4% of the survey population appeared to be immovably opposed to educa- tion. The respondents with negative opinions generally offered sug- gestions that would eliminate the disadvantages that they perceived, and such suggestions centered around adapting the programs to the par- ticular communities. Communities with fewer schools, and families with more children, expressed more pessimism about the UPE program's chances of success. Respondents from communities that do not now have adequate room ex- pressed less faith that the UPE program would provide adequate room, and more respondents expected the UPE to be able to provide adequate room then expected it to solve the problem of illiteracy. When questioned about the amount of information that they had re- ceived, those who said they had received adequate information were almost twice as optimistic about the success of the UPE program as 235 those who said they had not received adequate information. The responses made to this survey suggest that there is relatively little unresolvable opposition to the UPE program, and strong support for education in general. The responses also suggest that opposition to the UPE program could be relieved by adapting the educational pro- grams to the individual communities, and by increasing the information supplied to the people about the UPE program. On the basis of the information gathered in this survey, and on the examination of the experiences in other developing nations, sug— gestions and proposals have been constructed to avoid or circumvent the problems encountered in other countries, and possible in Nigeria. The first suggestion is that a census be taken, to inventory the existing facilities, personnel and materials. In addition, this cen- sus should attempt to inventory the potentially-usable buildings, the skilled or knowledgeable individuals, and the needs and characteristics of the communities to be served by the UPE program. On the basis of this survey, educational planners can begin to map out a strategy for matching possible programs with locations that are in need of education. Using the already-existing educational administration structure, which would retain control of the primaryLlevel, secondary-level, advanced-level and adult education programs, special departments, divi- sions, units and sections would be created within the already-existing structure, or adapted from their present jobs and sizes to suit the future and present needs. In-Service Training would be increased, programs would be establish- ed that would bring trainees into the classroom sooner, provide refresher 236 courses to more experienced teachers (such as religious teachers, who would be asked to teach other material as well), and to establish correspondence courses for teacher training. Instructional Materials development would be enlarged and put into the hands of writers who would be responsible for producing the neces- sary materials. The Public Relations Department would be enlarged and expanded to two sections, that would be concerned primarily with locating informa- tion about resources that would be available inside and outside the country. They would be information and assistance providers for other departments and divisions within the educational administration. Four special support services divisions would be created, to assist in the planning and execution of programs for correspondence schools, mobile units, apprenticeship programs, and radio programs. These suggestions, properly implemented, and with the cooperation of the educational personnel and the private individuals from every- where, would be the groundwork for a functioning education program that would bring appropriate educational programs to all communities in Nigeria. Without some changes in the UPE program as it now stands, it is very likely that many citizens of Niger State will be excluded from educational opportunity. Some will choose not to participate because the educational program conflicts with their schedule of work, with their beliefs or culture, or with their needs. Some will be involun- tarily excluded because there will not be room for them, or teachers, or materials. Some will be excluded because they are too old to 237 participate, or because they feel that they cannot use the skills that are taught to them, or because they live too far away from the buildings to get to school every day, or because they are needed by their families for jobs that must be done during the time when the school sessions are scheduled. Without plans to include these people, these exclusions are un- avoidable. With proper planning, these excluded individuals can be included. APPENDICES APPENDIX A SAMPLE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRES--ENGLISH QUESTIONNAIRE FOR PARENTS: Name: District or area: Tribe: Occupation: 1. What do you think about education? a. What is good about it? b. What is bad about it? 2. What should be done? For what people? 3. How best might this be done? Is it possible? (doable?) 4. How much education have you had? (a) Primary education (b) Secondary education (c) College education (d) None 5. What is your opinion about the value of education? 238 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 239 How many schools are there in your home town? How many children do you have? Boys Girls (a) How many children are in school? (b) How many have had formal education? (c) How many are not in school? How do your children react to school? Did the government give you parents enough information about U.P.E.? Do you think U.P.E. will resolve the problem of illiteracy in your community? Is there any literacy pregram in your community? Yes No _______ If so for whom? (a) All adults (b) Children (c) Anyone Does the present school system make room for every child in your community to receive education? Yes No Do you think U.P.E. will be a solution to this problem? Yes No Do you want to see the government come up with an alternative way of getting your children educated? Can you give me some suggestions if you have any? Name: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR EDUCATIONAL PERSONNEL Position: Department: 1. Do you think the people of your district or state all benefit from formal education? Yes No Do the chiefs and tribal leaders in your area support U.P.E. or education in general or do they oppose it? (a) What do parents in the area think about education in general? (b) Education for their own children? How many school-age children in the district or State are in school? 00 you assist or participate in the selection of children to be sent to school? Do you have a literacy program in your State or district? For whom? (a) Adult men only gbi All adults c Children only d Anyone Is this a government sponsored program or the product of your own district efforts to improve the standard of education? 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 241 How much information did you get from the Federal or State government about U.P.E.? Have you and your associates been involved actively in promoting U.P.E. in your area? DO you personally feel that U.P.E. would benefit everyone in the State or district? (a) If it would not benefit everyone would it benefit specific segments Of the population? NO Yes (b) WhO.would benefit most from U.P.E.? Has the government provided you with the personnel, materials, and support that are necessary for the implementation Of the U.P.E. program? . Do the people in the state/district support and participate in the U.P.E. program? Or do they Oppose it? Can you explain why they support or Oppose U.P.E.? Has the government, or have you and your associates been able to provide alternatives for the people who Oppose or dO not partici- pate in U.P.E. in your area? If alternatives have not already been provided for the people who Oppose, or are left out Of U.P.E. program, can you Offer any suggestions about what could be done, by whom, and how? QUESTIONNAIRE FOR CHIEFS OR TRIBAL LEADERS Name: District: Leadership Position: Tribe: 1. What do you think about education? a) What is good about it? b) What is bad about it? 2. What should be done? For what peOple? 3. How best might this be done? Is it possible? (doable) 4. How much formal education have you had? a) Primary education b) Secondary education c) College education d) Other 5. What is your personal Opinion Of the value Of education? 242 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 243 What is your Opinion about the value Of education for your peOple? What do parents in your community think about education in general for their own children? How many children do you yourself have? Male Female How many Of your children are in school? How many are not in school? About how many Of the school-age children in your district are in school? (percentage if possible) How were they selected? How do children in your community react to school? . (a) Those who attend (b) Those who do not attend How many primary schools are there in your district? (a) DO you have a literacy program in your district? ‘Yes NO (b) If so for whom? (i) Adult men only (ii) All adults (iii Children only (iv Anyone 15. 16. 244 How much information did you receive about the Universal Primary Education? (a) General Objectives of U.P.E. (b) Specific Objectives for individuals or communities. DO you think the present school system needs tO be changed in order tO improve it? (a) Teachers (b) Materials (c) Curriculum APPENDIX B SAMPLE SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRES--HAUSA PARENTS QUESTIONNAIRE -- HAUSA TRANSLATION TAMBAYOYI GA IYAYE Menene manufar ilmi a ganinka? a. Menene amfanin ilmi? b. Menene rashin amfanin ta? Me ya kamata a yi? Don wasu mutane? Ta wace hanya mafi kyau ya kamata a yi ta? Ya yiwu? Ina ka kai ga ilminka? a. Makarantar Firamare b. Makarantar Sekandare c. KOleji A ganinka menene amfanin ilmi? Akwai makarantu nawa cikin garin ku? 'Ya'yanka nawa? Maza Mata a. Nawa ke makarantar bOkO? b. Nawa suka gama makaranta? c. Nawa ne ba su cikin makaranta? Menene tunanin 'ya'yanka game da makaranta? 245 10. 11. 12. 13. '14. 15. 246 Gwamnati ta ba ku cikakken bayani game da shirin bada ilmi kyauia? U.P.E. Ka yi tsammani U.P.E. zai kawas da jahilCi a inda kake? Akwai yafii da jahilci a cikin garinku? I A'a Don su wanene? (a) Manya (b) Yara (c) Don kowa Yadda makarantu suke yanzu, suna bada zarafin kowa ya sami ilmi? I A'a a Ka yi tsammani U.P.E. zai kawas da Raraicin makarantu? I A'a Kana son gwamnati ta sara wasu hanyoyi dabam don a ba yara ilmi? Ka iya ba da shawarar yadda za'a yi? QUESTIONNAIRE FOR CHIEFS OR TRIBAL LEADERS -- HAUSA TRANSLATION TAMBAYOYI GA SARAKUNA DA SHUGABANNI: Suna Hukumarku Matsayinka Kabilarka 1. Menene manufar ilmi a ganinka a. Menene amfanin ilmi? b. Menene rashin amfanin ta? 2. Menene rashin amfanin ta? 3. Wace hanya mafi kyau za'a bi don a yi ta? 4. Ina ka kai ga ilmin ka? a. Makarantar Firamare b. Sekondare c. KOleji 5. A ganinka menene amfanin ilmi? 6. Menene amfanin ilmi ga jama'arka? 7. Menene tunanin jama'arka game da zancen ilmi don 'ya'yan $0? 8. 'Ya'yanka nawa?' Maza . Mata 247 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 248 Su nawa ke cikin makarantar bOkO? Nawa ne ba su cikin makaranta? Yara nawa na yakineasarka ke cikin makaranta? Ta yaya aka zabe su? Suna son makaranta kO babu? a) Su da ke ciki yanzu b) wadanda ba sa ciki Akwai makarantu nawa cikin Rasarka? Akwai yaei da jahilci a yankin Rasarka? Don su wa? (i) Manya (ii) Yara (iii) Manya maza kawai (iv) Don kowa Kun sami cikaken bayani game da manufar ba da ilmi kyauta? (UPE) Ka yi tsammani ya kamata a sake shirya makarantu, don a kyautata hanyar ba da ilmi? (a) Malamai (b) Kayan aiki (c) Darussa APPENDIX C LETTER OF INTRODUCTION FROM COMMISSIONER Alhaji Umaru Mashegu, Ministry of Education. Niger State, Minna. 13th July. 1977. The Chief Education Officers: Local Government Areas. Chanchaga Local Government Kuta. Rafi Local Government Kagara. Gbako Local Government Bida. Lavun Local Government Kutigi. Mariga Local Government Kontagora. Magama Local Government Rijau. Etswan Local Government Agaie. Abuja Local Government Abuja. Mr. Bawa Isa Salka The above named is an indigene Of this state under going various educational course in the United States Of America. He has completed his course work and is in the process Of doing research to write his Ph. D. thesis in educational planning. Mallam Bawa came with some questionnaires and seeks cOOperation Of those to do with Education Administration in helping him to have them filled up. Reference above I hope M. Bawa will receive this cooperation. Thank you. (ALHAJI UMARU MASHEGU) Commissioner fOr Education. ZEUMZISZ] 249 APPENDIX D LETTER SENT WITH SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRES 6236 Esperanza Ct. East Lansing, MI 48823 U.S.A. June 14, 1977 Dear ---- You have been selected as a representative sample in a research project, which is related to the problem Of planning and implemen- tation Of Universal Primary Education scheme, in Niger State. The purpose Of this research is tO identify the problems Of U.P.E., and whether or not every child in Niger State will benefit from it. If the research indicates that not every child will benefit from U.P.E., alternative educational program will be sug- gested as a means Of meeting this need.. Interviewers will be in your area tO interview you. However a specific date Of their arrival can't be given tO you until I hear from you and your willingness to participate in the interview. Your responses will be treated confidentially. It will be most helpful if you could get a reply to me before' July 1, 1977. Since it takes 10 to 15 days tO get a letter from Nigeria to U.S.A., kindly send your reply to the following address: Mr. Jacob I. Bawa c/O Moh. Gado WandO General Hospital Kontogora Niger State Your cooperation will be greatly appreciated. . Sincerely, Jacob I. Bawa Graduate Student Department Of Secondary Education and Curriculum College Of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 250 APPENDIX E DISSERTATION PROPOSAL Dissertation Proposal. TENTATIVE TITLE: A Particular Problem in Implementing Universal Primary Education in Niger State Of Nigeria 251 A PARTICULAR PROBLEM IN IMPLEMENTING UNIVERSAL PRIMARY EDUCATION IN NIGER STATE OF NIGERIA Introduction The Nigerian Federal Government launched "Universal Primary Education" (grade 1-7) in September 1976, in order to Offer free primary education to all Nigerian children. With the introduction of the Universal Primary Education, it will be compulsory for every six-year-Old child to attend primary school, beginning in September 1980. This is a major advance in the country's program for the elim- ination Of illiteracy. The philos0phy behind this scheme, as stated by the Federal Commissioner for Education, Colonel A. A. Ali, at the 19th session Of the UNESCO general conférence, is in accord with the words Of the organization's document on education which states that PThe democratisation Of education is one of the most efféctive means Of promoting social justice."1 . The Nigerian Head Of State, Lt. General Olusegun Obasanjo, made an announcement three months after the initiation of the Universal Primary Education scheme, that primary school enrollment has increased from four million tO eight million.2 The West African Journal called U.P.E. tone of the greatest social endeavours the world has seen."3 Some Nigerian leaders have high hopes fOr U.P.E., one leader said: "Tribal and ethnic palaver will cease to exist gradually because Of understanding within the literate Class... Law and order will be much maintained because most Of the 252 253 peOple will be exposed to the law Of the society... Equal opportunity for education will be given to children ir- respective Of their tribe, religion or cultural background . It will wipe out our inferiority complexes."4 Problem Although some Nigerian leaders have high hopes for U.P.E., there are others who show a great concern about the future Of the children and youth Of our country who do not fit into the formal system Of education. “Some (educators) see Universal Primary Education as making little difference in correcting the educational imbalance between sections Of the country. In Kano State, for every child Of primary school age jn_school, there are 114 children Of primary school age who are not in school. This is compared to the 1:7 ratio in East Central, Mid-Western and South-Western States."5 Some edu- cators are asking this question: How do we go about educating such‘ children? ' “The study Of the problem Of out-Of-school children, their place in society, their lifestyles and social demand, their particular learning needs and the modes Of learning in which they are most ef- ficiently involved is a large research problem..."6 The lack Of specific infOrmation about this problem, and the lack Of solutions to this problem, has motivated me to do research on the educational needs Of Niger State children, in an attempt to determine whether non-fOrmal education modes would better serve their needs. Hypothesis The central question Of the research: Non-formal education might prove tO be the solution for groups that resist U.P.E. most —254 strongly. The research may show that the general hypothesis is cor- rect, but that the system of non-formal education would have to be individually organized tO fit the culture, needs and goals Of each group, or it might show that a single system could serve the needs Of many different groups. Data collected might indicate that nOn- formal education is not_the solution, but the significance Of the data cannot be assessed until the data has been collected. Purpose The Objectives Of this study are to deal with the following questions: 1. (a) What is the attitude of parents toward U.P.E. for their children? (i) Support. (ii) Apathy. (iii) Resistance. (iv) Combinations Of the above. There are three possible positions in reference to Universal Primary Education: support, apathy and resistance. There are absolute posi- tions, but in fact, the parents could have some combination Of these feelings, or various values Of support or resistance. I would need tO find out who supports the program, what parts Of the program they support, and, if possible, why they support that part Of the program. I would also be interested in knowing the same infOrmation about the people who resist or are apathetic about the program. In addition, considerable valuable information could be gained by finding out what 255 parts Of the program are resisted by those who support the major part Of the program, or those parts that are supported by those who resist the major part of the program. (b) What are the underlying reasons fOr resistance or non- participation? Are the reasons for support or resistance the con- scious verbalized reasons that the interviewers collect, or are there in fact social, political, cultural, religious or psychological reasons underlying the support or resistance? If the support is created by some belief that the education will accomplish a certain goal, and that goal is not accomplished, then the support can become apathy or resistance. This would still be true even if the goal that the parents have set for the program is a goal that the program could never accom- plish under any conditions. If the apathy is present because the 1 parents have not been infOrmed about the prOgram in a way that could “sell“ the program to them, it is quite different from apathy that is present because the parents fundamentally believe that education is worthless. 2. What measures has the government taken to demonstrate the value Of U.P.E. to all Of the people of the Niger State? --- extension Of "advertising" --- method Of advertising --- appropriateness of advertising --- format (written material to someown who can't read) content (reference to "advantages" that are unknown/undesirable) implication (impliedseparation Of families in a group that stresses unity) 3. Are modes Of non-formal education'for children the appropriate solution for non-participation? 256 Methodology, The following points show how the research will be done. 1. Library research first (preliminary research). This will be done in order to find out what kind Of children in other parts Of the world have had non-formal education systems created for them. (a) What kind Of systems were created? And for what_kind Of peOple? . . (b) Were the systems supported or resisted? (c) Were the Objectives accomplished by the system that was established? 2. Interviews Letters will be sent to those who will be interviewed, requesting permission to interview them. (a) A random selection Of thirty chiefs or tribal leaders will be made for interview. . (b) A random selection Of forty educational personnel will be made for interview. (c) A random selection Of 100 parents will be made for interview. Interviewers will be'trained in order to help interview parents by means Of survey materials that can be quantitatively analyzed. Interview and Survey Problems 1. Accessibility Of people; and their ideas, opinions and the actual reaons for support or resistance. 2. Quantitative probelms. (i) How many peOple are enough for interview? (ii) How many questions are enough? 257 (iii) Can the response by quantitatively analyzed? (iv) Can the quantitative data tell you anything? 3. Data. (1) Can you synthesize the data that is collected? (ii) Is the collected data pertinent? 4. Cultural. (i) Language: Would one get enough information in Hausa that you would get in tribal languages? (ii) If not, what is the alternative? 5. There is economic and time limitations in the interviews. Conclusions Conclusions will be based on the research with major emphasis on the infOrmation from the'interviews and surveys because Of the fact that there are so many variables involved. Non-participation in U.P.E. program might be caused by any out Of a variety Of possible reasons and the method for circumventing this non-participation would have to be determined by causes. . After that suggestions will be given as tO how to answer the following questions: 1) Should an entire new system be created for them, including a) materials, b) personnel and procedures, and c) curriculum? 2) How should the choice Of teachers and instructional materials be made?' (e.g. should we given them a teacher who is a tribal member or an outsider?) Who chooses teachers? 3) 3) 4) 5) 258 Can Koranic schools and churches help in the elimination Of Of non-participation? Some tribes have Koranic schools where their children receive religious instruction, which is non- fOrmal. Should we work within this sytem, in order to educate children? Should we have night classes for the children? The reason for suggesting night classes is because day classes might disrupt their life style, if it is customary fOr the children tO be out on the farm with their parents, for example. (As it is With most tribes.) a. 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