ASTUDY OFT'HE FEASIBILITYD-FASYSTEM‘ i:?:?‘;S.?i?:"f:“;§;-
0F PRE-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION IN MEDIA, ~ —- ,

Thesis for the Degree of Ed. D;
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
MARIE E. McMAHAN
1968

 

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thesis entitled

A Study of the Feasibility of a System
of Pre-Service Teacher EducatiOn in Media

presented by

Marie E. MC Mahan

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ed. D. degree in Curriculum

   

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ABSTRACT
A STUDY OF THE FEASIBILITY OF A SYSTEM OF
FEE—SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION IN MEDIA
By

Marie E. McMahan

This study investigated the feasibility of designing

a system for developing media selection and utilization
competencies in existing education and methods courses
by: (1) identifying nine desirable competencies for
initial development at the pre—service level, (2) pro-
curing the Judgments of representative elementary edu—
cation professors at Michigan State University regarding
Optimum points in the elementary course sequence for
initial development of each competency, (3) deriving
system design procedures from the literature, and (A)
testing on a pilot basis in one course the system pro-
cedures for developing media selection and utilization

competencies.

Summary and Conclusions
The conclusions are:
1. That findings of student and faculty surveys to
ascertain the degree of media competency

deveIOpment of prospective elementary teachers

Marie E. McMahan

at Michigan State University demonstrate a
substantial need for improving current methods
of developing these competencies.

That the substantial agreement of professors
interviewed regarding appropriate points in the
elementary education sequence for introduction
of specified media competencies indicates the
desirability and feasibility of a systematic
approach to media competency development.

That professors' recommendations regarding
points at which specific media competencies
should be introduced suggest a logical sequence
of competency develOpment in existing elementary
education and methods courses.

That steps for system design derived from the
literature and applied to planning for competency
development in one course are practical and
helpful.

That, following use of such procedures, students
reported significantly more media experiences
than they had at the beginning of the course.
That members of the post-student teaching group
reported more media experiences at the beginning
of the course and greater growth in media

experiences during the course than those who

had not participated in student teaching.

Marie E. McMahan

7. That students using self-instructional programs
on media selection and utilization were able to
suggest applications in other situations of the
principles developed in the programs.

8. That the system, as initially tested, should be
redesigned to place greater emphasis on psycho-

logical organization.

Recommendations

The recommendations of this study are based on three
assumptions: (1) that prospective teachers need to acquire
certain basic media competencies, (2) that a media course
is not the complete answer for the development of these
competencies, and (3) that alternative answers to the
problem need to be tried.

As a result of the findings of this study and the
review of pertinent literature, the following recommen-
dations are made:

1. That media professionals and teacher education
faculties collaborate in identifying media
competencies and attitudes which they want
prospective teachers to acquire.

2. That a systematic approach to development of
these competencies within existing education

and methods courses be planned.

Marie E. McMahan

That such an approach take into consideration
the background and needs of individual pro-
spective teachers and relate media competency
develOpment to purposes which are important

to faculty and to students.

That such an approach identify and take advan-
tage of the instructional roles which can best
be played by faculty members and by multi-media
self-instructional programs.

That planners consider the following steps in
developing the prOposed system of teacher edu-
cation in media:

a. Goal identification (i.e., deriving system

 

objectives from the identified media com-
petencies).

b. System analysis (i.e., specifying functions
to be performed by the proposed system).

0. System synthesis (i.e., incorporating these

 

functions into a system model).

d. System try-out and evaluation (i.e., testing
the proposed model).

e. System redesign (i.e., redesigning the model
as necessary for more adequate goal achieve-

ment).

Marie E. McMahan

That, in order to facilitate acceptance of the

system, planners take the following into

account:

a. The kind of climate that encourages change.

b. The role of administrators, innovative staff
members, and "respected others" in change.

0. The role of adequate support staff, materials,

and facilities in change.

That system planners evaluate the system by

determining whether it does the following:

3..

b.

Achieves identified goals.

Adapts to needs of students with varying
backgrounds, attitudes, and perceptions
in relation to media.

Allows both teachers and students to
function in a creative manner.

Utilizes the unique capabilities of both
teachers and media.

Facilitates better communication and
c00peration among its components.
Facilitates analysis of when and how it

(i.e., the system) needs to change.

A STUDY OF THE FEASIBILITY OF A SYSTEM OF

PRE-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION IN MEDIA

By

Marie E. McMahan

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

College of Education

1968

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The development of a dissertation is a long and
arduous process, and the completed product includes the
contributions of a number of people. Although it is
impossible to recognize all of those who have partici—
pated in this study, the author wishes especially to
acknowledge her indebtedness and express her gratitude
to the following:

To Dr. Charles Schuller, chairman of the advisory
committee for his wholehearted support and encouragement
throughout the doctoral experience and especially for
the quality of his guidance (and the graciousness with
which it was given) in the writing of the dissertation;
to members of the committee, Dr. Charles Blackman, Dr.
Jean LePere, and Dr. Donald Olmsted and also to Dr. Paul
Witt of the Instructional Media Center for the gift of
valuable time and for many worthwhile contributions to
the author's thinking; to the professors and students
who participated in the surveys; and especially to the
author's parents and sister, Edna, for their strong
support throughout the doctoral program and for their

confidence that the goal would be reached.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . ii
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . v
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Need for the Study. . . . . . . 1
Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . 6
Plan of the Study . . . . . . 7
Definition of Terms . . . . . . 10
Organization of the Study . . . . . 10
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 11
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. . . . . . . 13
Media Competencies. . . . . 13
Development of Media Competencies. . . 17
The Systems Approach to Instructional
Planning 0 o o o o o o o o o 23
Teacher Education . . . . . . . . 32
The Change Process. . . . . . . . 33
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . 35
III. DESIRABLE MEDIA COMPETENCIES AND THEIR
ACHIEVEMENT IN PRE-SERVICE TEACHER
EDUCATION. . . . . . . . . . . 37
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . A6
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF A SYSTEM OF TEACHER
EDUCATION IN MEDIA. . . . . . . . ”7
Goal Identification . . . . . . . “7
System Analysis. . . . . . . . . 61
System Synthesis . . . . . . 68
Try-Out and Evaluation . . . . 81
System Revision. . . . . . . . . 102

iii

Chapter Page

V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
FURTHER STUDY OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL
SYSTEMS APPROACH TO DEVELOPMENT OF

MEDIA COMPETENCIES . . . . . . . . 110
Implications of This Study . . . . . 119
Educational Change . . . . . . . . 127

Proposed System Development
Procedures. . . . . . . . . . 132
Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . 1Ul
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . 1U“
APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1A8
APPENDIX A . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
APPENDIX B . . . . . . . . .3 . . . 156
APPENDIX C . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
APPENDIX D . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. PrOposed System Development Procedures . . 3O

Figure

1.

LIST OF FIGURES

Summary of Judgments of Seven Representa-
tive Elementary Education Professors at
Michigan State University Regarding
Placement of Media Competencies in
Existing Education and Methods Courses. .

Media Experiences Reported by at Least
Half of 35 Students (Pre—Student Teaching
Level) Enrolled in Two Children's Liter-
ature Classes at Michigan State Uni-

versity at Beginning of Spring Term, 1968.

Degree to Which Representative Elementary
Education Professors at Michigan State
University Perceive Media Competencies
to Have Been Deve10ped When Students
Enter Their Classes . . . . . . . .

Media Experiences Reported by at Least Half
of 37 Students (Post-Student Teaching
Level) Enrolled in Two Children's Liter-
ature Classes at Michigan State Uni-
versity at Beginning of Spring Term, 1968.

Model of System of Teacher Education in
Media. 0 O O I O O O O O O O 0

Implementation of System of Teacher
Education in Media . . . . . . .

Portion of System Tested in Children's
Literature Classes . . . . . . .

Reason for Selection of Strategies . . . .

Media Experiences Reported by at Least
Half of the Students Enrolled in Two
Children's Literature Classes at Michigan
State University at Beginning and End of

Spring Term, 1968. . . . . . . .

vi

Page

AA

5“

56

58

69

73

86
89

96

Figure Page

10. Students' Evaluation of the Self-
Instructional Programs on Types of

Media 0 O O O O O O O O O O 101
ll. Redesigned Model of System of Teacher
Education in Media. . . . . . . . 103
12. Proposed Procedures for Investigation of a
1142

System of Teacher Education in Media. .

vii

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Need for the Study

Teaching is more challenging in 1968 than ever be—
fore. The essence of this challenge was ably captured
by Harold Shane (1967), Professor of Education at Indiana
University, in Phi Delta Kappan when he said:

We have encountered the future so rapidly and with

such violent changes in the ordered and familiar

patterns of our way of life that we are suffering

'. . . the dizzying disorientation' brought on by

the premature arrival of the future. Many gener-

ations of change have been compressed into the

span of 10 years (p. 67).

Among the "Jolting educational changes" described by
Shane are ones with which we are all familiar: prolifer-
ation of knowledge; an unprecedented pOpulation explosion;
rapid development of cybernetics; organization of in—
structional combines; and deterioration of core areas of
cities with resultant inequity of educational opportunity
for pupils in inner city and suburban schools.

Goodlad (1968), surveying the milieu in which

schools currently exist, stated baldly:

. . . One is led to conclude that today's schools
are obsolescent. They were designed for a different
culture, a different concept of learners and learn-
ing, and a different clientele. The central pro-
blem, it seems to me, is that the intensity of the
school must be enormously increased (p. 6).

It seems clear that schools will have to change.
Tomorrow's teacher will need to face multiple and diverse
challenges with new approaches, new materials, new com—
petencies. Fortunately, there are supporting elements.
The technological revolution of the twentieth century
has generated many new teaching tools, and federal legis-
lation, such as the National Defense Education Act and
the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, has permitted
schools to purchase substantial quantities of the new
equipment and instructional materials.

But tools and materials without expertise in their
use are inadequate to the task. As was so well demon-
strated in Wittich's (1946) classic utilization study,
cognitive learning increments from materials such as films
can be doubled if careful preparation and follow-up are
integral parts of a lesson.

Research in the audiovisual area has long shown that
when educational media are appropriately used they can en-
hance and improve learning. Early studies such as that by
Arnspiger (1933), for example, ably demonstrated that single
media types (e.g., films) had the capability of greatly
extending both cognitive learning and retention. What

is more important in a period characterized by availability

of many diverse types of media, subsequent research
(Allen, 1952) revealed that additional learning accrued
from use of appropriate combinations of media in a
teaching-learning situation.

Pre-service experience in the selection and use.of
new media, materials, and methods appear to be of signifi-
cant help to teachers when they get on the Job. Oliver
(1962), for example, found that more and better media
use prevailed when teachers had experienced pre-service
training in this area. A study by Streeter (1967)
confirmed Oliver's findings, revealing that those teachers
having pre-service experiences with media had initial
competence in this area and that they tended to use more
media.

In addition, growing concern on the part of both
media professionals and public school administrators that
teachers become increasingly competent in media use is
producing numerous requests for more pre—service edu—
cation in this area. As long ago as 1959, Dr. Anna Hyer
(1959), Executive Secretary of the Department of Audio-
visual Instruction of the National Education Association,
said: "Concentrated attention to improved methods of
developing AV competencies in the teacher education pro—
gram is long overdue" (p. AO). More recently, Georgia
supervisors have strongly urged training in media
selection and utilization for prospective teachers prior

to student teaching (Oliver, 1962), and administrators

of schools for the deaf have suggested that "teacher
training institutions up-date curriculum to give infor-
mation and training in use of the latest technological
devices" (Stepp, 1965).

If prospective teachers need opportunities to
develop competencies in use of instructional materials,
the question follows as to whether the majority of them
BEES such opportunities at the undergraduate level.
Various surveys suggest that they do not. One by the
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education,
for example, reported that only 26 per cent of the insti-
tutions affiliated with it required audio-visual in-
struction (Torkelson, 1966). Another, by the Research
Division of the National Education Association, revealed
that 60 per cent of the in-service teacher respondents
were dissatisfied with their undergraduate media train-
ing (Wittich and Schuller, 1967). It appears, therefore,
that alternative solutions to the provision of under-
graduate media experiences need to be sought.

In the summary report (Allen, 1960) of the 1958
Lake Okoboji Audio—Visual Leadership Conference which
dealt with pre-service teacher education in develop-
ment of media competencies reference is made to this
problem. The report proposes that development of
competencies "can theoretically best be accomplished

through a completely integrated media program in all

professional coursea and particularly in methods courses"
(p. 31). This statement leads to the inference that
development of media competencies in existing education
and methods courses might be a reasonable alternative
to separate media courses. Since total integration of
methods and media involves multiple interrelationships
such as those among staff members, students, teaching—
learning objectives and available materials and equipment,
a procedure which would enable a staff to consider these
interrelationships is necessary.

One method which educators have begun to look to
in consideration of complex instructional problems is
the systems approach. Initially utilized by industry and
the armed services, the systems approach with respect to
instruction was first discussed by Hoban (1956) in his key-
note address at the National Audiovisual Leadership Con-
ference at Lake OkoboJi in 1956 and later by Finn (1956)
in the publication Teaching Eggls and by Carpenter (1960) at
a symposium on the state of research in instructional
television.

A four-year study of the potential of a systems
approach in higher education instruction was undertaken
at Michigan State University in 1963. During the first
two years of the study an instructional systems model
was designed and tested in two university courses at
Michigan State University (Barson, 1965). During the
third and fourth years, the model was further tested at

Syracuse University, San Francisco State College, the

University of Colorado, and Michigan State University
(Barson, 1967).

Trzebiatowski (1967) undertook to analyze the
systems approach to instructional development in order
to assess its potential in higher education. After de-
tailed examination of the literature on systems and
careful analysis of the model developed by Michigan
State University, he concluded that the instructional
systems approach appears to have great potential as an
instructional planning technique.

Assuming the need for media competence on the
part of teachers and in lieu of a separate course, alter-
native approaches to development of media competencies--
such as the use of a systems approach in existing education

and methods courses--must be tried.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
feasibility of a system of teacher education in media
designed to function within the present teacher edu-
cation system of Michigan State University to develOp,
as an integral part of existing elementary undergraduate
education and methods courses, desired competencies in
selection, production, and utilization of media.

More specifically, this study undertook to answer

the following questions:

1. What competencies in selection, production,
and utilization of media should.be initially
develOped at pre—service level?

2. What do selected professors of undergraduate
elementary education and methods courses at
Michigan State University consider to be the
optimum point or points in the elementary
course sequence for initial development of
each of the suggested media competencies?

3. Do the recommended competencies tend to fall
in such a way as to suggest a logical sequence
within existing education and methods courses?

A. To what degree do the selected professors per—
ceive the identified media competencies as
being currently developed by prospective ele-
mentary teachers at Michigan State University?

5. Can suggested steps for system development, as
derived from the literature, be used to identify
a procedure for the design and Operation of a
system of teacher education in media?

6. If a pilot study is conducted with one course,
what implications are there for redesign of

the total system?

Plan of the Study
This was a pilot study designed for the purpose of

considering the feasibility of a systems approach to

development of media competencies by prospective ele-
mentary teachers at Michigan State University. A list
of desirable media competencies was compiled and an
analysis made of the degree to which they are currently
being developed. Next, steps for development of an in-
structional system were derived from the literature,
applied to the problem of the proposed development of
media competencies in existing elementary education and
methods courses, and tested in a pilot study in one
methods course. Specific steps included identification
of:

1. Media Competencies to be Sought.--A list of
media competencies was derived from the literature and
validated for purposes of this study by two media and
teacher education specialists at Michigan State University.

2. Current Status of Development of Identified
Media Competencies.--Professors with experience in use of
media were interviewed to determine their perceptions of
the degree to which the identified media competencies
are currently being developed in the elementary education
program at Michigan State University. Seven professors
were interviewed, including one from each of the follow-
ing courses: Individual and the School, Curriculum
Methods and Materials, and methods courses in the teach-
ing of mathematics, reading, science, and social studies.
A representative of the student teaching program was

also interviewed.

3. Sequence of Media Competencies.--The previously-
identified professors were then asked to indicate what
they considered to be the optimum point in the elementary
course sequence for initial development of each of the
identified media competencies. These recommendations
were then used to set up a sequence of such competencies
in specific undergraduate education and methods courses.

A. System of Teacher Education in Media.--Appropri-
ate steps in instructional system development were identi-
fied from the literature. These steps were then used as
a guide in designing, operating, and evaluating a system
of pre-service teacher education in media. The sequence
derived in the previous step was used to determine in
which courses specific media competencies should be
developed.

5. Pilot Study.-—One course, Education 325C,
Children's Literature, under the direction of Dr. Jean
ILePere, was used to test operation of the proposed system.
CDhe steps identified for design and operation of the total
ssystem were utilized in designing and providing media
(BXperiences for the course. Findings of the pilot study
Vvere analyzed and suggestions made for redesign of the
=3ystem. Of particular importance in this analysis were
Gifforts to determine whether the system could facilitate
<ievelopment of the desired media competencies in a manner
consistent with the basic human values so important in

teacher education.

 

10
Definition of Terms

Mgdia.—-The terms media, educational media, in-
structional media, audiovisual media, and instructional
materials are used interchangeably in this study to
refer to the complete range of non-print materials avail-
able for utilization by teachers for instructional pur-

poses or by students for learning or presentation pur—

poses. (See Continuum of Audiovisual Media in appendix.)
Media Competencies.--Competencies, as used in this
study, refer to a composite of understandings, abilities,
and skills sufficient to a teacher's needs in the type of
‘teaching-learning situation being described (e.g., Com-
Iaetency in selection of media would refer to a composite

c>f understandings, abilities, and skills which would en-

eible a teacher to select appropriate media types for a

specific instructional purpose).

Instructional System.--An instructional system con-
=3:Lsts of learners, teachers, media professionals, materials,
Elrnd machines whose relationships are carefully defined in
(erier to enable them to start with specified inputs, work
<'-‘C>Operatively in a manner designed to achieve agreed-

‘311 outputs, and adjust, as necessary to insure more ade-

quate achievement of the desired outputs.

Organization of the Study
Consideration of the feasibility of development of

asYStem of teacher education in media begins with

11

statements of: the need for the study, the purpose of

the study, major questions to be considered, and a
definition of terms to be utilized in the study.

Chapter II reviews the literature on media competencies,
procedures for developing such competencies at the pre-

service level, proposed steps in designing instructional

systems for higher education, and procedures for facili-

tating change. Chapter III identifies the media com-

petencies prOposed for develOpment at pre-service level
and the points in the elementary program at which selected
professors believe each competency should be introduced.
It further attempts to set up a continuum for the sequen-
tzial develOpment of media competencies as an integral
g>art of specific undergraduate education and methods
czourses. Chapter IV explores the feasibility of a system
c>f teacher education in media by suggesting steps for
<3Aesign, Operation, and evaluation of such a system and

1337 conducting a pilot study in one course to test the

IDIWDposed steps. In Chapter V the study is summarized

Eirui conclusions drawn regarding the feasibility of
designing and operating a system of teacher education

133. media in conjunction with education and methods
courses.

Summary

There is currently much concern among educators

t1lat the multiple and diverse challenges faced by

12

education are not being adequately met. Sensing the
crucial need for teachers to develOp increased competence
in the utilization of a wide range of instructional
techniques and materials, they are urging teacher edu-
cation institutions to place more emphasis on develOp-
ment of the desired media competencies by prospective
teachers. Universities are currently unable to provide
basic media courses for the rapidly-increasing numbers

of prospective teachers on their campuses, making it
necessary for them to seek other solutions to the problem
of developing the necessary media competencies. Since
recent research has indicated the usefulness of the
systems approach in the solution of instructional problems
eat the higher education level, this study proposes to
(explore the feasibility of use of this method in design-
:ing a program for development of media competencies in

eexisting education and methods courses.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Media Competencies

A review of the literature on recommended media
competencies reveals that they have not been static.
Rather they have changed with shifts in instructional
Inethods, available technological devices, and the de-

gJEe of SOphistication of media professionals.

A substantial increase in use of audiovisual
nnaterials after World War II focused attention on

tzeachers' need to acquire media competencies. As a

Iéesult a number of surveys were made to ascertain what

general and specific competencies media specialists felt

t eachers should develop .
The Pascoe study, conducted in California in 1957,
Thaide an important contribution in establishing the prior-

3113y'of competencies in the areas of selection and utili-

5ZEItion of media (Pascoe Report, 1959). Of eight com-
IDertencies rated by instructors of audiovisual courses,
Erna directors of audiovisual programs, utilization and

selection of media were identified as most crucial.

l3

14

In an article entitled "What Constitutes Teacher
Competence in Audiovisual Communication?", published in
Phi Delta Kappan, Fulton and White (1959) reported
general consensus that selection and utilization com—
petencies could be subsumed under four headings: (a)
selection and evaluation of material; (b) utilization
of appropriate instructional material; (0) production
of simple instructional material; and (d) preparation
and use of physical facilities.

Later competency lists began to establish the
relationship of media to the total instructional pro-
ggram. Participants at the 1958 Lake Okoboji Audiovisual
Ileadership Conference, for example, recommended that
tzeachers should have a working point of view based on
czertain "philOSOphical and psychological factors under-
:Lying use of audiovisual materials in the teaching-
Jxearning process" (Allen, 1960, p. 29). Singled out
.fYDr special emphasis were such factors as:

1. Knowledge and understanding that the accepted
principles of use of audiovisual materials are

based on sound research.

2. Communications theory and learning theory
underlying the use of audiovisual materials
and equipment in the classroom.

3. Understanding of the relationship of audio-
visual materials to the curriculum (p. 29).

By the early 1960's increased emphasis on instruc-
t1-<I>nal systems and the role of media in such systems

“Evie further updating of competency lists necessary.

l5

Meierhenry (1966) undertook this task in 1965, and a
year later, with the assistance of six nationally-known

audiovisual leaders, he made available a new and compre-

hensive volume on Media Competencies for Teachers.

Topics discussed in the Meierhenry publication

included: instructional systems (Heinich); theory

(Norberg); media selection (Gerlach); equipment Oper-
ation (Curl); production (Kemp); and utilization

(Torkelson). Each author, considering the systems

approach and other recent influences in education,

attempted to extrapolate future trends in teacher edu-

cation, including those related to media. Many potenti-

ally useful procedures were identified and discussed.

In summarizing the six papers and attempting to
Inrepare an instrument against which teacher education
jgnstitutions could measure their current programs for
Cievelopment of media competencies, Meierhenry identified

Several basic experiences which he suggested prospective

t(eachers should have. Those related to selection,

1ltilization, and production of media are pertinent to

1Shis study and are listed below:

Conceptual and Operational
Processes (Cognitive)

I. To develop instructional objectives in

behavioral terms followed by specification and
arrangement of instructional stimuli upon which

the desired behavior is contingent.

16

II. To gain knowledge about and experience
with media so that their respective characteristics
might be known. Such knowledge should help the
designer of the instructional sequence to make
acceptable intuitive judgments as to which medium
used alone or in combination with other media will
most effectively and efficiently produce the de-
sired behavior change. Where extant media are not
available or where they do exist but require
additional elaboration, experience in designing
media in order to achieve the desired results
should be provided.

III. To try out, analyze, critique, and modify
a unit prepared and used with one or more learners
possessing the psychological characteristics for
which the unit was prepared.

IV. To have experience with instructional
systems involving man-machine relationships.
Television is likely the best medium for most
prospective teachers although programed instruc-
tion or learning laboratories might be more suit—
able for certain content areas.

V. Actual experience with the total range of
instructional resources which are available in both
substantive as well as professional areas of teacher
education programs. The first-hand encounters with
the media will enable each prospective teacher to
jugge the effectiveness of each medium (pp. 225—

22 .

Production of Audiovisual Materials
I. Manipulative Skills

Using the chalkboard

Cartooning and simple sketching
Mounting pictorial materials
Lettering

Making displays

Duplicating printed materials
Recording on tape

Making transparencies (p. 229).

EQ'IJLTJUOCDb

In presenting his suggested list of competencies,
MEBierhenry (1966) recognized that such lists cannot be
Sliatic. He said: "One of the difficulties with develop-
illg specific competencies is the rapidity with which they

become out-of-date and obsolescent" (p. 22”). His inference

17

was that teacher education institutions concerned with com-
petency development might start with such a list as his
and adapt it in terms of new educational influences and

of their own requirements.

DevelOpment of Media Competencies
Although identification of adequate methods of
developing media competencies is as important as select-
ing those to be developed, the literature indicates only

a limited amount of attention to this problem.

A Formal Media Course
During the 1930's and 1940's a few media enthusiasts
taegan to recognize the need for teacher education and to
Eidvocate a required audiovisual course. Accordingly, two
estates (i.e., Pennsylvania in 1934 and California in 1946)
IDassed rulings making such a course mandatory for those
seeking permanent teaching certificates. By 1957, approxi-
Inertely 15 per cent of the teacher education institutions
affiliated with the American Association for Colleges of
(Deiacher Education required an audiovisual course of pro—
Spective elementary teachers and about 12 per cent required
One of prospective secondary teachers.
Fulton (1960), writing on teacher preparation in

therJ'ournal g£_Teacher Education, declared that a re-

 

gilired media course was not the complete answer to com—

'p€?tency development. He cited extreme scheduling

18

difficulties and inability to provide adequate laboratory
facilities as disadvantages of this method.

In considering advantages and limitations of the
formal course, participants at the 1958 Lake Okoboji
Conference (Allen, 1960) discussed such advantages as:
(l) more organized presentation of audiovisual content,
(2) more adequate instruction and facilities, (3) more
adequate time, (4) more depth of experience for stu-
dents, (5) more opportunities to influence attitudes
toward media, (6) and more chances for recruitment of
media specialists. They also discussed such limitations
as: (l) inability to reach many of the students, (2)
difficulty of adapting course to wide range of needs,
and (3) difficulty of presenting content in terms of
learning problems.

Although little attention has been focused on
alternative methods of competency develOpment, a review
of the literature reveals some discussion of the ad-
vantages and disadvantages of the following: integration
with methods, the laboratory approach, and the self-study

approach.

Integration with Methods

Participants at the 1958 Lake Okoboji Conference
(Allen, 1960) decided that, theoretically, competency
development could best be achieved through a completely

integrated program in education and methods courses. In

l9

evaluating this approach, they discussed the following
advantages: (1) media training offered to all students,
(2) student interests and needs considered, (3) in-
service provided for all education instructors, (4)
longer contact with AV made possible, (5) limitations

of separate course structure overcome, (6) audiovisual
concepts presented in larger and more realistic frame

of reference.

Looking realistically at the usefulness of the
completely integrated program, however, Okoboji conferees
indicated that its success would be contingent on: (1)
procuring the effective participation of all methods
course instructors, (2) having a method of evaluating
the student to determine his full scale accomplishment
of the needed audiovisual competencies, (3) having all
students involved in the integrated program, and (4)
providing ample opportunity for laboratory experience

as needed.

The LaboratorygApproach

 

Various educators have suggested the laboratory
approach as an alternative method of media competency
develOpment. Meierhenry (1966) and Combs (1965), for
example, have both advocated this method, and, although
their approaches differ, they are not incompatible.
Meierhenry conceives of the laboratory as a place to

which prospective teachers will go to gain much of the

2O

substantive content of the teaching field. Learning in—
dependently from types of instructional materials which
they will later use with their own students (e.g., tele—
vision, 8 mm films, transparencies, and programed in-
struction), they will, he believes, develop many of the
media competencies needed by teachers.

Combs perceives the laboratory as a place in which
prospective teachers can encounter an abundance of mater-
ials and equipment and can explore a variety of instruc-
tional techniques. Staffed by a person who has been an
excellent teacher, who is sensitiveto student needs, and
who is willing to share himself and his skills, the
laboratory makes possible the discovery and critical
appraisal of many methods of using materials.

These concepts of a teacher education laboratory
suggest an area in which students can work independently
or in small groups, having access to materials both
programed and unprogramed, having space in which to
experiment, and having professional assistance when

needed.

The Self-Instructional Approach

This approach, although it might occur in a
laboratory, differs from the two just described in that
it involves self-instructional programs on the substantive
content of the media field. It was one of four methods

investigated by Torkelson (1965) in an effort to establish

21

empirical evidence of the superiority of one method of
media competency develOpment over others.

Torkelson's study covered a four-year period and
compared the following methods: separate course, inte-
gration, student teaching, and self-study. During the
first two years approximately 1,000 prospective teachers
were instructed by one of the four methods and then
tested; during the last two years, two hundred of them
were visited in their own classrooms. Classroom visits
were analyzed by means of the following instruments:
school description, classroom description, class visi-
tation check list, open-end interview, course Opinion-
naire, course effectiveness inventory, and frequency of
use inventory. Although all patterns resulted in
significant mean gains from pre- to post—tests, Torkelson
found none to be superior to all others on all measures.

There were, however, some interesting findings
with regard to self-instruction. Following Phase One
of the study, Torkelson concluded:

In terms of the teaching of equipment operation,

the self-study pattern proved that this kind of

perceptual motor skill can be learned through the
avenue of specially prepared materials without

the presence of an instructor (p. 149).

If information acquisition includes a conceptuali-

zation of the interrelationships of audiovisual

type materials with the teaching-learning process,

self-instructional materials may have limited
application (p. 71).

22

Following Phase Two of the study, Torkelson further
stated:

It appears significant that the teachers who had

been prepared in the self-study pattern had the

highest Opinionnaire, classroom description, and
class visitation scores. These scores reflected
greater use and a more positive attitude than for
the teachers who had been prepared through the

other patterns (p. 152).

The evidence from this experiment seems to sug-

gest that the process of self-discovery and per-

sonal involvement in determining the merits of
audiovisual materials in teaching and learning

may develop the attitudes which will result in

greater utilization on the teaching job (p. 152).

In considering both the advantages and limitations
of self-instructional materials as revealed by his study,
Torkelson concluded: "Perhaps more self direction and
more depth in the actual utilization of audiovisual
materials in all of the courses in teacher preparation
may be the answer" (pp. 151-152).

The literature on media competency development
suggests that each discrete method has both advantages
and limitations. This does not, however, preclude the
necessity of finding an adequate solution to the problem.
Fulton (1960), in the previously-cited article in the
Journal of Teacher Education, prOposed, after careful
analysis of the existing situation, that teacher edu-
cation institutions should "embark on an intensive pro-
gram designed to develOp audio-visual competence" (p.

494). Like Torkelson, he suggested that such a program

employ some combination of the previously-discussed methods.

23

Meierhenry, discussing the problem in the summary
chapter of his recent publication on competencies, con-
curred with Fulton's point of view but added an emphatic
admonition that:

. . more careful and systematic planning will
need to be carried out in regard to the entire
teacher education program than was done previously,
and the media competencies must now be deliberately
planned with purposes and functions to be met
rather than develOped haphazardly, incidentally,
or not at all. All persons responsible for the
education of teachers, including those who teach
foundation courses, child growth and learning
courses, and the methods courses along with the
academic areas, must provide for learning experi-
ences involving media in order that the prospective

teachers may experience firsthand the contributions
of such learning resources (p. 219).

The Systems Approach to Instructional
Planning

A media program of the scope and complexity pro-
posed by Meierhenry would require the most sophisticated
of planning techniques. Increasingly in recent years,
audiovisual leaders such as Finn (1956), Hoban (1956),
and Carpenter (1960) have theorized that the systems
approach is an appropriate method of dealing with such
complex situations. The conclusion of Trzebiatowski
(1967) following his comprehensive study of the potential
of the systems approach in higher education supports
this point of View.

To evaluate the potential usefulness of the systems
approach in the present situation, it is necessary to

understand to what degree system capabilities match the

24

situation requirements. The literature provides a number
of clues to the capabilities of systems.

To begin with, system definitions furnish such
clues. According to Trzebiatowski (1967), general system
theory describes a system as any grouping of components
which operates in concert or related fashion with the
purpose of accomplishing a specific goal or set of goals.
System components are dynamically interrelated, such a
relationship implying that they are capable not only of
changing the performance of the system as a whole, but
of affecting one or more of the other components.

This description suggests that one of the capa-
bilities of a system is that of changing to meet altered
conditions. Diamond (1965) confirms and emphasizes this
capability when he says:

The systems approach to instruction not only allows

for change but demands it. . . . By requiring stated

objectives (the prerequisites of evaluation) and a

continual evaluation of the program and materials

being used, this technique, more than any other, is

a tool for change and a lever for improvement of

instruction (p. 370).

Tracing the history of the systems approach provides
added clues to system capabilities. Trzebiatowski (1967)
suggests that system methodology resulted from the con-
vergent development of system engineering, information
theory, system analysis, and Operations research. Each

of these resulted from a specific need, and, accordingly,

was able to make a specific contribution to the systems

25

approach. Operations research, for example, came into
existence to solve certain strategic and logistics pro-
blems during World War II and contributed to the systems
approach a scientific method of studying the immediate
future. System analysis grew out of a need for design
and analysis of data systems and, as a result, furnished
methods of identifying communication networks in systems.
System engineering developed as a result of need for
control of electromechanical devices and, consequently,
provided procedures for organizing man-machine combi-
nations.

Derivation of the systems approach from these
disciplines suggests its possible usefulness in the
following kinds of situations: those concerned with
problems too urgent for solution by the typical slow
research to practice procedures often found in edu-
cation, those involving communication problems resulting
from complex interrelationships, and those involving new
elements requiring man-machine relationships. A review
of the literature on systems confirms the fact that they
do, indeed, have these capabilities.

They do, for example, provide a scientific and
speedier approach to problem solving. Hopkins (1960),
in a precise comparison of the steps used in the scientific
method with those used in the systems approach, found them

remarkably similar. Of interest to this study, however,

26

is the fact that, while the major purpose of the scienti—
fic method is to contribute to theory (and eventually to
practice), Finan (1962) posits that the purpose of the
syStems approach is to facilitate problem solving and
decision making in the here and now.

That a system can deal with the communication
problems resulting from complex interrelationships is
inferred by Silvern (1965) when he describes a system as
"the structure or organization of an orderly whole,
clearly showing the interrelationship of the parts to
each other and to the whole itself" (p. 367). After a
long period of study of systems, Silvern believes the
characteristic that differentiates this approach from
others is its ability to deal with interrelationships.
It follows that correct analysis of interrelationships
contributes to better communication among system com-
ponents.

Probably one of the most important system capa-
bilities as revealed by the literature is that of pro-
viding a way of conceptualizing Optimum man-machine
relationships in instruction. Hoban (1962) proposes
that "the problem of management of learning becomes more
acute when any aSpect of new technology is introduced
into education" (p. 5), and it is obvious that the availa-
bility of many s0phisticated new teaching tools neces-

Sitates kinds of instructional decisions never before

27

required. Discussing this matter in a recent issue of

AV Communication Review, Carpenter (1968) said:

 

The major problems, it seems to me, are decisions
about what roles and functions can be served or
mediated by people, by instrumentation, by condi-
tions, by the internal controls and self-activated
regulated contingent efforts of the individual
learner himself. I think that the controversies
about the roles and develOpment of instrumentation
or the roles and develOpment of people are beside
the point. Both are required. It is rather a
question of what specific roles can be most appro-
priately carried out by which people or what
things or what instrumentation (p. 21).

One of the most crucial questions in education today
is that of appropriate teacher roles. Trow (1963), in

his book,Teacher and Technology, somewhat facetiously

 

suggests that today's teacher is a custodian, clerk,
foster-parent, disciplinarian, examiner, audio—visualist
and technician, librarian, student adviser, therapist,
recreation leader, and responsible citizen. Obviously, a
number of these roles are inappropriate. Limiting him—
self to purely instructional roles, however, a reviewer
of the literature still finds much concern regarding the
inapprOpriateness of certain of these roles.

Addressing himself to the question of teacher roles,
Witt (1968) recently interjected a hopeful note into the
discussion when he told a group of curriculum specialists,
librarians, and media professionals that technological
devices will play an important part in freeing the teacher
from inappropriate roles and enabling him to make use of

his unique humanness. He said:

28

Through the intelligent and effective use of in-
structional technology it will be possible to free
teachers to devote their time and talents to those
tasks which only they can do and which they must
do if their pupils are to develOp to their full
capacity (p. 15).

Thus the systems approach may not only strengthen
instruction but free the teacher to act in a more human
capacity. First, however, it must help in ascertaining
what that more "human" role is. Carpenter (1960) sug-
gested that systems can, in fact help to differentiate
between roles to be played by men and machines. He said:

The means of executing these functions are speci-

fied, and components of the system are defined to

include human capabilities, machines, materials

and their interaction in the system. Distinctions

are made between those functions which can best be
performed by persons with known competencies and
those which can best be performed by instrumentation

and materials with known characteristics (p. 75).

The literature suggests, then, that systems have
several unique capabilities: (1) that of facilitating
change in instruction, (2) that of helping planners con-
ceptualize the interrelationships and Optimum roles of
system components (including men and machines), and (3)
that of providing scientific procedures for making in—
structional decisions in the immediate future.

As a result of recent attention (both theoretical
and empirical) to system develOpment procedures, the
literature also provides assistance in the design of

instructional systems. Consideration of system develop-

ment procedures advocated by Schuller (1968), Carpenter

29

(1962), Hopkins (1960), and Trzebiatowski (1967) leads

to discovery of many common elements in current plans

for system design. (See proposed procedures in Table 1.)

These appear to be:

Goal definition. This presupposes attention

in the present system, its components, its

input (including knowledge, competencies, and
attitudes of students), and its inadequacies

as presently organized.

Analysis. Once goals have been determined,
analysis of required system functions can occur.
This is followed by division of the system into
sub-systems, based either on the functions to
be performed or, as suggested by Trzebiatowski
(l967),on "common inputs and outputs, geo-
graphical characteristics, the use of common
processes or techniques, and so forth" (p. 118).
In determining optimum procedures, alternate
possibilities need to be considered, trade—off
analyses being used to facilitate decision—
making.

Synthesis. Following their identification, sub—
systems need to be incorporated into a proposed
system model. If they have been determined on
the basis of functions, consideration of appropri-

ate means of executing these functions needs to

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31

occur. Determination must be made of those
functions to be accomplished by people alone,

by media alone, and by combinations of people
and media. This suggests selection of appropri-
ate strategies, followed by identification or
production of media.

4. Try-out and evaluation. An important step in
system develOpment, this can be achieved either
through computer simulation or actual try-out
in a limited situation.

5. Revision and field testing. Redesign of the
system on the basis of its ability to achieve
its identified goals is a basic concept in
system design.

In addition to suggesting system capabilities and
providing procedures for their development, the litera-
ture (in particular that resulting from empirical studies
such as the one at Michigan State University) offers
important cautions to system developers.

Trzebiatowski (1967) warns, for example, that

. . . if variables which are important to the

problem (i.e., the system undergoing study), are

not included within the parameters of the system

--or irrelevant variables are included--then

efficient and effective study of the problem is

made more difficult and in some cases impossible.

Synthesizing the findings of the Michigan State Uni-

versity system development study (Barson, 1967), Schuller

32

(1968) urges educators' consideration of the following

points:

1. Readiness is a highly important factor in
instructional develOpment.

2. The human elements in instructional systems
need to be stressed.

3. For each "what" represented by the labeled
boxes or steps in the system develOpment model,
there is a "how" or a collection of strategies,
tactics, approaches, and alternatives called
forth to make the model work.

4. The development of the "software" is more

costly and difficult than the acquiring of
hardware (pp. 29-33).

Teacher Education

 

Both Schuller (1968) and Trzebiatowski (1967)
emphasize the importance of the context in which a system
functions. Trzebiatowski prOposes, for example, that,
for every system, there is a supra-system within which
it will need to operate. Schuller expresses it somewhat
differently. "The systems approach," he says, "assumes
there is a 'real world' in which whatever new system may
be develOped will have to work" (p. 8). A system of
teacher education in media, therefore, must operate within
the framework of the total teacher education program and
must adapt as the program changes.

A survey of the literature on teacher education
suggests several current emphases, three of which are

especially pertinent to this study:

33

l. A search by Gage (1964) and others (Bruner,
1967; Macdonald and Leeper, 1965) for a theory
of instruction; an accompanying preoccupation
on the part of researchers such as Taba (1965)
and Flanders (1960) with description of "the
teaching act."

2. A concern for making learning to teach as real
an experience as possible. Dramatic evidence
of the latter is provided by the prOposed new
standards for accreditation of teacher edu-
cation (American Association for Colleges of
Teacher Education, 1968) which place consider—
able emphasis on laboratory and clinical
experiences and on the practicum component of
teacher preparation.

3. An emphasis by Combs (1965) and others on
making teacher education as relevant as
possible to the individual prospective teacher
with his unique characteristics, needs, pur-

poses, and teaching style.

The Change Process
An innovative effort as comprehensive as that of
involving previously discrete components in an instruc-
tional system demands careful attention to the change
process. Whereas, in many systems change is primarily

a mechanical process, in an instructional system it is

34

a uniquely human one, and, as such, demands that system
designers have an awareness of and sensitivity to factors
which encourage peOple to change. Reviewing the liter-
ature on the change process provides useful generali—
zations from the writings of Brickell (1961), Rogers
(1962), Miles (1964), Lionberger (1965), Griffiths
(1964), Combs (1965), Wiles (1965), and Gardner (1965).
Among those pertinent to this study are the following:

1. Innovation is more likely to occur in situ-
ations where experimentation is encouraged
and where openness, flexibility, and respect
for the individual exist (Gradner, 1965).

2. In every organization there are innovators and
influentials with whom change agents can most
profitably work, letting innovation spread
'from them (Wiles, 1965).

3. A temporary system, existing in a protected,
enriched, autonomous environment, facilitates
design of innovative programs (Miles, 1964b).

4. Linkage between the temporary and permanent
systems is necessary for diffusion of the
innovation (Miles, 1964b).

5. Following design of an innovation, change
tends to proceed through five stages: interest,
awareness, evaluation, trial, and acceptance.
Innovators and change agents are most active
during the first two stages. A person's
reference group and his "respected other
persons" are very influential at the evaluation
or "decision to try" stage of innovation
(Lionberger, 1965). During the trial stage
adequate support in the way of consultant help
and appropriate instructional materials is
essential (Brickell, 1961).

35

Appropriate change strategies are crucial in any
situation where innovative procedures are being considered.
So, too, are the characteristics of the specific inno-
vation, these providing clues to its probable success or
failure. Miles (1964a), in the summary of his volume,
Innovation in Education, lists several characteristics
which tend to encourage adOption and acceptance of an
innovation:

1. Support of values prized by the adopting group.

2. Congruence with the accepting system (relative

absence of threat to existing practice or to

the autonomy of peOple).

3. Likelihood of reducing a gap between ideals
and practice.

4. Feasibility.

5. Divisibility.

6. Reasonable cost.

7. Ease of adoption.

8. Ease of use.

9. Availability of implementation supports.

It would appear that any instructional system, if
it is to exist in the "real world" that Schuller describes,
must be designed with the above procedures and charac-

teristics in mind.

Summary

A search of the literature reveals a gradual growth

in sophistication of the media competencies expected of

36

teachers. Inadequate attention has been given, so far,
to apprOpriate methods for helping teachers develop such
competencies. However, since each discrete method of
competency development has proved to have certain dis—
advantages, leaders in the media field are currently
considering a combination of methods most promising.

Planning for such a combination of methods appears
to demand use of a sophisticated procedure such as the
systems approach. Systems have three unique capabilities
which make them appear suitable for this task: (1) they
facilitate change in instruction; (2) they provide scien—
tific procedures for making instructional decisions in
the immediate future; and (3) they help planners con-
ceptualize the interrelationships and optimum roles of
system components (including men and machines). Although
systems planning requires a rigorous, scientific approach,
various studies (both theoretical and empirical) provide
suggested procedures which have proved to be useful.

A system, to be successful, must be designed so as
to function in the "real world." The literature furnishes
important clues regarding both the suprasystem in which
a system of teacher education in media would exist and
the kinds of procedures which would be likely to facili-

tate change to a systems approach.

CHAPTER III

DESIRABLE MEDIA COMPETENCIES AND THEIR
ACHIEVEMENT IN PRE-SERVICE

TEACHER EDUCATION

The purpose of this study was to investigate the
feasibility of a system of teacher education in media
in which desired competencies in selection, production,
and utilization of media were developed in existing
elementary education and methods courses.

As a part of this study answers were sought to
certain questions concerning media competencies. These
questions, how they were dealt with, and the answers
obtained are discussed in this chapter.

What competencies in selection,pproduction,

and utilization of media should be initially
developed at pre-service level?

 

 

The media competencies which this study proposes
for development by teachers were derived by: (l)
ascertaining common elements in previously-developed
competency lists, and (2) performing a task analysis

of the terminal behavior expected of teachers in the

37

38

area of media utilization. Competencies identified by
these procedures were submitted to teacher education
and media specialists at Michigan State University for
validation.

The resulting list of competencies and their
rationale are:

l. Recognizing the various types of media and

 

their characteristics.-—In order to select appropriate
media, teachers need to be cognizant of currently-
available types. Knowledge of the characteristics of
various types of media enables teachers (at least on an
intuitive basis) to make a more appropriate selection of
materials for a specific teaching-learning situation
from among those available.

2. Recognizing instructional situations in which

 

learner achievement can be facilitated by appropriate

 

use of media.—-Use of media is more likely to occur when

 

teachers perceive them as making contributions to learner
achievement in a specific teaching-learning situation.
Teachers' perceptions of the value of media in instruc-
tion are developed through opportunities to experience
their usefulness.

3. Designing clear and specific instructional
objectives for teaching—learning situations.--Since

effective selection and utilization of media are in

39

part a function of careful formulation of objectives,
teachers need to develop skill in goal specification.

4. Selecting media apprOppiate to specific

 

teachingelearning situations in terms of both subject

 

and learner needs and the characteristics of the media
Eype.—-Careful analysis of an objective within a subject
area (e.g., the specific concept, principle, or skill to
be developed) will assist the teacher in matching charac-
teristics demanded by the learning situation with those
exhibited by the media. Analysis of the entry behavior,
attitudes, and characteristics of learners will assist
teachers in selecting media appropriate to those learners.

5. Locating sources of media appropriate to

 

specific teaching—learning situations.—-Familiarity with

 

media sources contributes to greater materials use by
teachers.

6. Producing simple media not commercially avail—

 

aple,--Since commercially-prepared media appropriate for
certain teaching-learning situations are not currently
available, teachers and pupils will need to produce some
of their own materials.

7. Utilizing media in terms both of sound principles
of learning and of the instructional objectives sought.--
Principles of learning such as motivation, readiness,
reinforcement, and knowledge of results provide important

clues for media utilization. The manner in which teachers

40

prepare for, present, and follow up media is, in large
part, a function of these principles and of instructional
objectives.

8. Utilizing appropriate combinations of media

 

in a systems approach to instruction.-—Teachers need to

 

be competent in using media in an instructional system,
either one which they design and use, one in which they
collaborate with other people, or one in which they
collaborate with programed materials. Use of media in
a system requires more sophisticated selection and
utilization competencies than use of single media.

9. Evaluating and modifying one's use of media

 

in terms of achievement of instructional objectives.--The
desired terminal behavior of teachers in use of media is
appropriate adaptation of their material selection and
utilization techniques in terms of knowledge of the de-
gree of achievement of their stated instructional ob-
jectives.

As previously noted, Meierhenry (1966) expressed
concern about the rapidity with which lists of media
competencies become obsolescent. Two procedures were
utilized in development of this list to retard obsoles-
cence: (1) use of general media-related tasks which
would be pertinent to a variety of instructional
methods, and (2) use of commonly—accepted generalizations

0

about the relationships of media with learners, objectives,

41

and learning theory. This makes a competency statement
somewhat more stable while permitting its application to
vary with new methods and media of instruction.

The topic to which this section of the study is
addressed (i.e., identification of media competencies to
be developed at pre-service level) seems to infer a need
for two competency lists, one for prospective and one
for in-service teachers. This study, however, accepts
the Meierhenry position that rapid changes in content,
methods, media, and concepts of the learning process re-
quire continued development of a whole range of media
competencies throughout a teacher's years of service.
This suggests a single list of competencies, initially
developed at pre-service level, but extended, and altered
as necessary, during the total in—service period.

What do selected professors of undergraduate
elementary education and methods courses at
Michigan State University consider to be the
optimum point or points in the elementary

course sequence for initial development of
the suggested media competencies?

 

 

 

 

 

 

In order to answer this question, seven professors
were selected who represented the elementary education
courses which appeared to be most closely related to media.
These included the initial required education course,
Individual and the School; the general elementary

methods course, Curriculum, Methods, and Materials;

42

specific methods courses in the teaching of reading,
mathematics, social studies, and science; and student
teaching.

The Michigan State University catalog (1966)
describes the content of the initial required course
as follows:

Major psychological factors in the school learning-

teaching situation; concepts in human develOpment

related to problems in the school situation; teach-
er's role in motivation, conceptual learning,
problem solving, and the develOpment of emotional
behavior, attitudes, and values; learning of skills;
retention and transfer; and measurement of student
abilities and achievement.

Methods course content is described in this manner:

Basis, scope, and sequence of elementary curriculum,

fundamentals of methods and materials; adaptation

of principles of methods and materials to teaching
of subject areas.

The student teaching experience is described as
follows:

Participation in activities of school and community.
Teaching and related activities, observation, and
seminar on problems of teaching. Usually requires
students to live in typical Michigan cities for an
entire term. This course required for all students
earning a teacher's certificate, including special
education courses.

Professors with whom an interview was to be requested
were selected on the basis of two criteria: (1) those who
were regular users of media in their own instructional
situations and/or (2) those who had been engaged in in-
structional development with members of the Michigan

State University Instructional Media Center staff.

43

For purposes of identifying professors' perceptions
regarding the Optimum point for initial development of
the competencies suggested by this study the following
question was asked: "If there were an optimum point
during the teacher education sequence for develOpment
of each competency, what do you think it would be?"
Professors were asked to choose among the initial re-
quired education course, general methods, special methods
courses, and student teaching. Since, at this time, it
appeared difficult for interviewees to make a distinction
between general and specific methods as they related to
specific competencies, this report considers methods as
one category.

Responses of the seven professors interviewed to the
question of suggested placement of media competencies in
the elementary course sequence are summarized in Figure 1.
Do the recommended competencies tend to fall

in such a way as to suggest a logical
sequence within existing courses?

 

Placement of media competencies within elementary
courses as recommended by the professors interviewed does,
in fact, indicate a logical sequence. Allocation of the
first competency to two courses suggests introduction of
students to various types of materials in the initial
course and concentrated emphasis on media characteristics
at the methods course level. During methods, too, pro-

fessors suggest that prospective teachers be exposed to

44

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45

a variety of situations in which learning can be facili—
tated by use of media. Since methods courses and student
teaching require students to plan units, do demonstrations,
and engage in actual teaching, attention to instructional
objectives at these points in the elementary sequence is
necessary. Once objectives have been identified, students
need, in their methods courses, to gain initial experience
in locating media, selecting appropriate ones, and, where
needed, to gain some competency in producing their own.
Utilization can begin as demonstration, tutoring, and
micro-teaching experiences are provided during the ele-
mentary block, and can continue in greater depth during
student teaching. Hopefully, students will, at some point
in their student teaching, have an opportunity to work as
part of an instructional system, learning how to collabor-
ate with a television teacher or with programed materials
designed to accomplish a portion of the teaching task.
Only as students have an Opportunity to try selected
materials in an actual classroom situation can they deter-
mine how effective their tools and techniques have been

in accomplishing stated objectives. This kind of experi-
ence, obviously, must come during student teaching.

If competency development is conceptualized as
occurring on a continuum, check marks indicating apprOpri-
ate points in the elementary sequence for development of
specific media competencies should be considered as points

for initial development. This suggests that further

46

develOpment of the particular competency continues

throughout the remainder of the pre—service period and
on into the in-service period as required by the indi-
vidual to operate effectively in the teaching-learning

situations in which he becomes involved.

Summary
This study is based on the assumption that there

are certain basic competencies in the selection, pro-
duction, and utilization of media which all teachers
should be expected to develop, such development to begin
at the pre-service level and continue thereafter on an
in-service basis.

Judgments of representative elementary education
professors at Michigan State University regarding optimum
points in the elementary course sequence for initial work
on the proposed competencies indicate that they tend to
fall into a logical sequence. This sequence will be
applied in the following chapter in an analysis of the
feasibility of a systems approach to media competency

development at Michigan State University.

CHAPTER IV

DEVELOPMENT OF A SYSTEM OF TEACHER

EDUCATION IN MEDIA

As previously indicated, the literature on systems
suggests potentially useful procedures for those engaged
in instruptional system design. These procedures can be
subsumed under five major categories: goal identifi-
cation, system analysis, system synthesis, try-out and
evaluation, and system revision.

For purposes of this study, use of these procedures
will be illustrated in considering the system of teacher

education in media at Michigan State University.

Goal Identification

 

Goal identification consists of three elements:

1. Specification of desired outcomes of the system
under consideration,

2. Description of the present situation, including
the degree to which specified goals are being
achieved, and

3. Analysis of the problem, including reasons

for any current inadequacies in goal achievement.

47

48

Each of these will be discussed as it relates to
the system of teacher education in media at Michigan
State University.

Speeification of Desired
Outcomes

Decisions regarding desired outcomes of a system
of teacher education in media at Michigan State Univer-
sity should be made by a committee composed of repre—
sentatives of the staff of the Instructional Media
Center, the Instructional Resources Center of the
College of Education, and the education and methods
courses involved in the system.

For purposes of the present study, desired outcomes
were specified in terms of competencies to be developed.
The suggested competencies are as follows:

1. Competency in recognizing various types of

media and their characteristics.

2. Competency in recognizing instructional situ-
ations in which learner achievement can be
facilitated by apprOpriate use of media.

3. Competency in designing clear and specific
instructional objectives for teaching—learning
situations.

4. Competency in selecting media apprOpriate to
specific teaching-learning situations in terms
of both subject and learner needs and the

characteristics of specific media types.

49

5. Competency in locating sources Of media

appropriate to specific teaching—learning

situations.
6. Competency in producing simple media

commercially available.

not

7. Competency in utilizing media in terms both

of sound principles of learning and of the

instructional Objectives sought.

8. Competency in utilizing appropriate combi-

nations of media in a systems approach to

instruction.

9. Competency in evaluating and modifying one's

use of media in terms of achievement

structional objectives.

of in-

Competencies, once identified, can be converted

rather easily into measurable objectives, especially if

they were initially stated in the form of tasks to be

performed. Mager (1962) suggests that a well-written

instructional objective should include statements of

the terminal behavior expected of the learner,

the

conditions under which the behavior will be expected to

occur, and the criteria of acceptable performance.

Conversion of competencies to behavioral
can be illustrated by use of one or two of the

identified for this study. Competency #1, for

can be converted into the following objectives:

objectives
competencies

example,

50

Shown a number of types of media, the prospective

teacher will be able to identify each one correctly.

Provided with a list of media types and a list of

characteristics, the prospective teacher will be

able to identify at least five characteristics
pertaining to each type.
Conversion of competency #3 would result in the following
objective:

Given a description of a group of learners and of

the instructional situation, the prospective teacher

will be able to formulate several instructional
objectives for the situation, these being stated

in behavioral terms.

Designers wishing to evaluate a system both in terms
of achievement of hoped-for output and also in terms of
exemplification of important human values should formulate
key questions concerning those values. The questions can,
if desired, be restated in terms of behaviors to be ex-
pected if the system does, in fact, exemplify the desired
values. Some important considerations for system de-
signers are whether the system:

(1) adapts to the needs of students with varying

backgrounds, attitudes, and perceptions in

relation to media,

(2) encourages its human components to function in
a creative fashion,

(3) utilizes the unique capabilities of both
teachers and media,

(4) facilitates better-communication and cooper-
ation among its components,

(5) facilitates analysis of when and how it needs
to change.

51

One of the advantages of a system of teacher edu-
cation in media is that agreements are made regarding
competencies to be developed in specific courses in the
education sequence. These competencies, when integrated
in a course, must be develOped in relation to the objectives
of the professor. General objectives, derived from the
suggested competencies, need, therefore, to be stated
more specifically when the instructional development
specialist begins to plan with the professor for self-
instructional programs for that course.

Description of the Present
Situation

 

Once objectives have been identified, the exist-
ing situation should be described and evidence obtained
as to the present degree of achievement of specified
goals.

Several types of experience, not closely connected,
contribute to the development of media competencies by
prospective teachers at Michigan State University. They
include: a basic media course (elective), a self-
instructional media laboratory, education and methods
courses, and student teaching. Their contributions to
students' media competencies can be described briefly
as follows:

1. Basic media course (elective).——The basic course

 

is described in the Michigan State University catalog

52

(1966) as being concerned with "audiovisual materials and
techniques for pre-service teachers." Topics considered
include, besides projector Operation, selection, sources,
and techniques for effective utilization of flat pic-
tures, slides, filmstrips, motion picture films, record-
ings, models, radio, television, field trips, and other
media types. One section of the course is offered during
each of the fall, winter, and spring terms. During the
1967-68 year, it was taken by about 245 prospective
elementary and secondary teachers.

2. Media laboratory.--The self-instructional media
laboratory, occupying a section of the Instructional
Resources Center of the College of Education, was started
on an experimental basis by IRC director, Dr. James Page,
during the 1966-67 school year. Now equipped with six-
teen permanent carrels, the laboratory is used for various
purposes, one of which is to assist nearly all prospective
elementary teachers in gaining competence in operation of
basic kinds of audiovisual equipment.

3. Education and methods courses.--The education
and methods courses preceding student teaching assist
those students unable to incorporate a basic media course
in their schedules in acquiring some knowledge regarding
media selection, production, and utilization. Because
the amount of background students acquire in this manner

has not been formally identified, this study has sought

53

to determine it in two ways: by surveying previous media
experiences of students involved in the pilot study for
this dissertation, and by interviewing representative
professors of pertinent education and methods courses
regarding their perceptions of the degree of media com-
petency develOpment among prospective elementary teach-
ers. Findings of the two surveys are as follows:

The student survey.——Results of the survey of media
experiences reported by students who had not had student
teaching are shown in Figure 2.

Students were given a list of twenty-five types of
media and asked to indicate with which they had had the
specified kinds of experiences. It will be noted that at
least half of the students reported having seen fifteen
of the media types used by professors in classes. For
none of the media types had at least half of the students
been given selection criteria, utilization suggestions,
or production suggestions. None of the media types had
been used by at least half of the students in demonstrat-
ing something to pupils or to peers in a college class.
This indicates that, prior to student teaching, many of
the media competencies still require development.

The faculty survey.--In the faculty survey, staff
members were asked to react to the following question:
Please indicate your perception of the degree to which

each of the following specific competencies has been

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55

developed by students when they enter your class. Use
a 5-point scale as follows: 1 = well-developed, 2 =
somewhat developed, 3 = may or may not be developed,
4 = probably not developed, 5 = definitely not develOped.
(Competencies to which staff members reacted were the
nine listed on pages 48-49.)

In the faculty survey, one professor of each of

the following courses was interviewed: Individual and

 

the School (the initial required education course);

Curriculum Methods and Materials (the general elementary

 

methods course); methods courses in mathematics, reading,
science, and social studies; and student teaching. Find-
ings of the faculty survey are reported in Figure 3.

It is of interest that faculty members, interviewed
independently, perceive growth between the time of entry
in the education sequence and the beginning of student
teaching in such basic competencies as recognizing media
types and their characteristics, recognizing instructional
situations in which media can facilitate learning, and
specifying clear objectives. However, in only one case
do they perceive the competency as well developed at the
pre-student teaching level.

It will be noted that, across all groups, the
selection, utilization, and evaluation competencies are
considered to be least developed, having been placed in

all instances, either in the "probably not developed" or

56

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57

"definitely not develOped" categories. This finding ap-
pears consistent with the reported experiences of the
pre-student teaching group in the previous survey. In
regard to production competencies, however, the responses
of the two groups are in disagreement, faculty members
appearing to believe students have more production experi—
ence than students report.

In summary, it will be noted that, of twenty—seven
judgments made as to degree of competency development,
five list competencies as developed, four as either
developed or not develOped, and eighteen as not developed.

4. Student teaching.-—A student teaching experience
is generally considered to provide an oppOrtunity for
application of theory to practical problems. Study of
responses in the student survey indicates that, in this
case, student teaching provided both suggested methods
and Opportunities to apply them (see Figure 4).

Comparison of findings reported in Figure 4 with
those in Figure 2 suggests that students receive more
guidance in selection and utilization of media and more
actual experience in media use during student teaching
than when enrolled in education and methods courses.

In the process of development of a system of
teacher education in media, description of the present
situation should be followed by analysis of the problem

as it presently exists.

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59

Analysis of the Problem

 

Analysis of the previously-reported surveys indi-
cates that, even at the beginning of student teaching,
students are perceived to have only one of the nine sug—
gested competencies well develOped, only three somewhat
developed, three still probably not developed, and one
definitely not developed. Prior to student teaching,
the seventy-two students in the two classes surveyed
reported few media experiences other than seeing media
used by their professors. After student teaching, they
still reported media experiences with only about 20 per
cent of the media types surveyed. This lack of experi-
ence with media can be attributed, in part, to the
following conditions:

1. The basic media course is presently taken

 

bypabout lOpper cent of the_prospective teachers.--
This course is not presently required in the elementary
program. During the 1967—68 year about 245 students were
enrolled, this figure being a rather small percentage of
the approximately 2400 prospective teachers graduating
from Michigan State University. Among the reasons for
low course enrollment is the fact that elementary stu-
dents have few elective hours, some, such as those en-
rolled in special education,having none at all.

2. Education and methods course_professors do not

curgentlycontribute extensively to development of selection,

60

production, and utilization competencies.--Since many stu-
dents do not presently take the media course, the task of
competency develOpment falls on education and methods
professors. Both the student and faculty surveys indi-
cate that, although professors are using media extensively
in their classes, they are presently providing inadequate
assistance to students at the pre-student teaching level
in development of the identified media competencies. It
must be noted that, up to the present time, no agreement
has been made among instructors regarding media selection,
production, and utilization competencies to be emphasized
in specific courses. It must be further noted that, in
the case of equipment operation competencies, development
of which the elementary staff has agreed should be allo-
cated to the methods block, nearly 100 per cent of the
elementary students are gaining the desired skills.

3. Back-pp materials for develppment of selection,
production, and utilization competencies in education and
methods courses have been limited.--An important factor in
the successful develOpment of equipment operation com-
petencies has been the availability of self-instructional
packages on the basic types of projection equipment. Such
packages have not been available (with the exception of
one series prepared by social studies staff members) for
helping students develop desired competencies in selection,

production, and utilization of media. A favorable

61

attitude toward self-instructional materials by those
professors interviewed, together with requests for addi-
tional multi-media packages, is indicative of a desire
for more adequate back-up materials.

4. Limited media staff in the Instructional Re-
sources Center of the College of Education.--The fact
that preparation of ten self-instructional programs for
the physiology preparation laboratory required frequent
meetings of the Media Center instructional develOpment
team, half time of an instructor (for six months), and
extensive assistance from Media Center graphics per-
sonnel indicates that design of media packages is a
time-consuming task. Development of the self-instruc-
tional programs needed for substantial emphasis on media
competencies in education and methods courses cannot be

accomplished with the present Instructional Resources

Center staff.

System Analysis
Various system designers have suggested that, before
a model of a new system can be derived, attempts at system
analysis must occur. One method of accomplishing this is
through examination and choice among alternative solu-

tions to the problem (Schuller, 1968).

62

Examination and Choice
Among Alternative
Solutions to the
Problem

 

 

Among possible solutions to the problem of adequate
media competency development on the part of prospective
teachers at Michigan State University are the following:

1. A basic media cOurse for all students.--At the
1958 Lake Okoboji Audiovisual Leadership Conference (Allen,
1960) participants suggested that, of available alterna-
tives, a basic media course appeared to offer a means of
providing the most comprehensive development of competencies.
Such a solution to the problem of competency develOpment
at Michigan State University would necessitate revision
of the elementary course sequence in such a manner as to
make a media course mandatory and to permit students to
incorporate it in their schedules. In view of increas—
ing demands for new courses in a variety of areas, this
solution seems unlikely at the present time.

2. Total development of media competencies in
education and methods courses.—-Okoboji participants
(Allen, 1960) considered total integration of media and
methods to be, theoretically, the best choice among pro—
cedures for competency development. They did, however,
recognize various problems inherent in this approach in-
cluding those of coping with differing degrees of media
sophistication on the part of staff members and planning

satisfactory procedures for evaluating competency

63

development. In considering this solution to the present
problem, it appears unreasonable to expect professors of
education and methods courses at Michigan State University
to assume the total task of media competency development
in addition to their other instructional responsibilities.

3. Total development of media competencies by means
of self-instructional programs.-—The Torkelson (1965)
study of alternative methods of competency development
pointed to certain advantages of self-instruction in the
area of information transmission and attitude development.
Research in use of self—instructional programs for
assisting students in application of principles to new
situations, however, is inconclusive, Pressey's (1950)
studies showing that programs can, in fact, be used in
this manner, Torkelson's (1965) tending to question
this use. Other studies indicating the advantages of
group rather than individual problem-solving appear to
support a thesis that self-instructional programs, al-
though capable of making an extensive contribution to
media competency develOpment, are not an apprOpriate
means of achieving the entire task (Wallen and Traverse,
1963).

4. Total development of media competencies in
student teaching.--Since the survey of previous media
experiences of students in the two children's literature

classes involved in this study revealed that post-student

64

teachers reported more experiences with use of materials
than did pre-student teachers, we can assume that student
teaching provides essential Opportunities for application
of media selection and utilization principles. Deferring
the total task of competency development to the student
teaching term, however, has several disadvantages. Be-
sides placing additional burdens of information trans-
mission on supervising teachers, it tends to limit the
length of time that students can experience use of media
in a first-hand situation.

5. Development of media competencies by a combi-
nation of approaches including self-instruction, inter-
action in education and methods courses, direct experi-
ence in student teaching, and possible enrichment
egperiences in an elective media course.-—A systems
approach to development of media competencies would,
presumably, enable educators to take advantage of the
strengths of various approaches to competency develOp-
ment and to identify appropriate relationships among
them. To this end, attention will now be directed to
system design procedures in further study of the problem
of development of media competencies on the part of pro-
spective elementary teachers at Michigan State Uni—

versity.

65

Identification of Functions
of a System of Teacher Edu-
cation in Media

 

Theory suggests that one of the most useful pro-
cedures in system design is analysis of the functions
that the proposed system is expected to perform. Such
functions for a system of teacher education in media
should include the following:

1. To help prospective teachers become oriented

 

to the media field and to media services available to

them at Michigan State University.-—Throughout the pro-
fessional education sequence prospective teachers should
be involved in experiences which provide a real need for
use of media. An introduction to media types, to the
rationale for use of media, and to facilities and ser-
vices of the Instructional Resources Center of the College
of Education should be provided for all students early in
the education sequence.

2. To present a variety of models of media use

 

for consideration py prospective teachers.--Combs (1965)
proposes that prospective teachers should be "surrounded
with rich Opportunities to see the kinds of methods and
materials other people have found useful" (p. 109).
Exposure to models of good teaching with media should
begin with the first course in the education sequence
and continue through all succeeding courses. As was

pointed out by one of the professors interviewed, when

66

instructors use media with prospective teachers, they
should reserve time for discussing why the particular
media type was selected and why it was used in the manner
that it was. Carefully planned observation experiences
should be developed to show in-service teachers utiliz-
ing media effectively in public school classrooms. Such
observation, as studies reported by Schueler and Lesser
(1966) indicate, can be presented live or in the form of
filmed, televised, or videotaped lessons. It is assumed
that each prospective teacher will see enough models of
media use to enable him to begin to identify those pro-
cedures most compatible with his teaching style.

3. To provide for the development of those motor
skills reqpired for effective utilization of media.--
Skills in operation of the basic kinds of projection
equipment are currently being developed by prospective
teachers at Michigan State University by means of self-
instructional programs used in a carrel setting. These
skills are basic to other self-instructional experiences
with media. Skills related to operation of production
equipment such as dry mounting presses, laminating
machines, and transparency-producing equipment are also
needed by prospective teachers as they begin to prepare
their own materials for teaching-learning situations in

which they are involved.

67

4. To assist students in gaining pertinent knowl-

edge about media.--As the kinds of experiences in which

 

prospective teachers engage during methods courses help
them become aware of a need for media use, they will re—
quire additional information about media characteristics,
selection, and utilization. Such information should be
available to individual students or student committees
when needed and in a form that will permit them to dis-
cover its relationship to goals and purposes that are of
concern to them.

5. Topprovide for develppment of those intel—
lectual skills required for effective utilization of media.--
Bloom and his associates (1956) divide cognitive objectives
of education into two groups: (1) knowledge, and (2) in-
tellectual abilities and skills. It is obvious that
knowledge is of little value unless students develop
adequate ways of using it. They must, in the case of
media, be able to utilize facts in developing concepts
and generalizations. They must be able to draw inferences
from known information, identify the implications of media
for new situations, and apply principles of media selec-
tion and use to their own instructional problems.

6. To facilitate students' application of media
knowledge and skills to a variety of instructional
situations.--In the final analysis, the best test of the

effectiveness of a system of teacher education in media

68

is the way in which teachers apply their media knowledge
and skills in real-life situations. A teacher education
in media system must provide many and varied situations
in which prospective teachers can try their skill,
evaluate their achievements, and modify their proce-
dures accordingly.

Identification Of Sub-Systems

of a System of Teacher Edu—
cation in Media

 

One of the analysis procedures designed to facilitate
systems use is identification of appropriate sub-systems.
This can be done, according to Trzebiatowski (1967) on
the basis of functions, inputs and outputs, use of common
processes or techniques, or some other means. It is
suggested, for purposes of the present study, that the
proposed system of teacher education in media be divided
into sub-systems according to function. The sub—systems
proposed included: orientation, models of media use,
motor skills, knowledge, intellectual skills, and appli-

cation.

System Synthesis

 

Once sub—systems are identified, conceptualization
of the new system can begin. Development of a model of
hypothesized relationships among elements is a useful

procedure for system designers. Figure 5 illustrates

69

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70

a logically-organized model for a system of teacher edu—
cation in media based on the functions previously de-
scribed.

Model of a System of Teacher

Education in Media

Systems are described by Trzebiatowski (1967) as
being open or closed, an Open system having inputs from
and outputs to its environment. A system of teacher
education in media is, of necessity, an open system.
Among its inputs are the following: stated objectives,
student entry behavior (i.e., skills and competencies),
funds for system development, and research results
pertinent to its development. One of the more important
inputs of this type of system is the group of attitudes
toward media that students exhibit. Obviously careful
and accurate identification of inputs is essential to
successful Operation of the system.

Conceptualization of the system of teacher edue
cation in media must inevitably include analysis of
relationships among sub-systems. With the exception
of the sub-system of models of media use, a linear
relationship with feedback loops exists in the system
being designed.

While entry into an established system (e.g., the
Michigan State University Instructional Development

System) may occur at numerous points, develOpment of a

71

new system requires that planners clearly identify their
goals before the system is designed and put together. When
a system is organized in a logical fashion, inferences are
made as to the order in which functions need to occur,

and sub—systems are so arranged.

It is obvious that orientation to the media field
and to services at the university must occur early in the
teacher education sequence. In a system organized to give
students many first-hand experiences with media, they will
need competencies in operation of both projection and pro-
duction equipment, and motor skill training in both of
these areas should occur early, probably immediately
following orientation. As prospective teachers find them—
selves needing to solve real problems involving media
(e.g., tutoring a child in a classroom or demonstrating
use of media for developing a specific concept in a methods
course), they will want pertinent knowledge about media,
assistance in thinking about the implications of the
knowledge for their specific problem, and an Opportunity
to test their proposed problem solution and evaluate its
effectiveness in terms of goal achievement. In a logi-
cally organized system the knowledge sub-system would pre-
cede the intellectual skills sub-system which would, in
turn, precede application. Knowledge of the results of
application would provide feedback into the system, this

being useful both to system designers and to the student

72

in future encounters with media. Models of media use
(i.e., demonstrations by professors and elementary
public school teachers) should be made available to
students at all points in the system, these influencing
each of the other sub-systems.

Because the system of teacher education in media
is an Open one, output from the system is returned to
the environment. This is usually identified in terms
of the exit behavior resulting from new knowledge,
competencies, and skills. Since the study by Torkelson
(1965) makes clear the crucial role played by attitudes
in determining teachers' decisions to use or not to use
.media in their classrooms, these are a particularly
important type of system output.

Identification of Relationships
Between Sub-Systems and Courses

Once the system is conceptualized and relationships
of sub—systems identified, attention must be given to
appropriate relationships among sub-systems and courses
in the elementary education program.- It would appear
logical, if students are to Obtain maximum value from
media during the total education sequence that orien-
tation should occur in the first required course. At
Michigan State University this is the course on the
Individual and the School. It would also seem important

that the motor skills related to projection and production

73

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be acquired at this point so as to be available to stu-
dents in ensuing courses.

Reference to professors' recommendations regarding
Optimum points at which to introduce the competencies
suggested by this study indicates that much of the
knowledge about media be transmitted at the methods
course level. This level also is an apprOpriate one
for developing students' intellectual skills in the
media area, these being essential to later application
of media to real—life problems.

Finally, the experiences in which students are
involved in actual classroom situations--tutoring,
micro-teaching, and student teaching--lend themselves
best to application of media knowledge and skills.

At Michigan State University limited amounts of these
experiences are included in the methods block and much
more extensive amounts during the student teaching
term.

Selection of Instructional
Strategies

 

Identification of appropriate relationships among
media functions and courses and media competencies and
courses, permits attention next to suitable instructional
strategies. Trzebiatowski (1967) contends that no
definitive studies have been conducted which provide

guidance in selection of appropriate strategies for

75

specific types of instructional situations. The system
designer, therefore, must make his selection on the
basis of such criteria as:

l. the limited research evidence available,

2. the number of students to be served,

3. the extent of need for interaction, and

A. the extent of need for first-hand experience.

Because all elementary education students need
orientation to media and because, they tend to have many
common concerns, it appears that an appropriate strategy
for the first sub-system would be large group instruction.

Development of motor skills, conversely, demands
Opportunities for students tO be able to proceed at rates
appropriate to them. The motor skill sub-system, then,
would appear to function most effectively when an indi-‘
vidualized instruction strategy is utilized.

Research studies as reported by Lumsdaine (1963)
and others, indicate that information can be made avail-
able as well by programed materials as by conventional
instruction. This appears to suggest that much of the
knowledge about media which prospective teachers seek
can be gained from self-instructional packages in a
carrel setting, individualized instruction being an
apprOpriate strategy. If, however, all students require
the content being transmitted, and if the professor can
allocate time to this purpose, class instruction may,

at times, be more efficient.

76

The appropriate strategy for development of intel-
lectual skills is not easily identified. Pressey's (1950)
studies, for example, show that students can develop this
kind Of skill through use of printed materials and adjunct
questions. Torkelson's (1965) research, on the other
hand, suggests that information involving conceptuali-
zation of the role of media in instruction seems to
demand student-teacher and student-student interaction.
These diverse findings indicate that, perhaps, a combi-
nation of self-instructional programs and class inter-
action is most appropriate for the function of develop-
ment of intellectual skills. Simulation experiences (in
an individualized or group setting) should also be an
aspect of development of intellectual skills.

Application of media skills requires a special
kind Of strategy which, for purposes of this study, will
be labeled direct experience involving interaction.

This is no longer simulation, but rather is involvement
in an actual instructional situation. In order that the
prospective teacher can improve his application techni-
ques, he needs not only to engage in self-evaluation but
to receive feedback from others-—students, teachers,
supervisors, or all three--on the adequacy of his pro—
cedures. This kind of direct experience and interaction
can occur in tutoring, micro—teaching, student teaching,

or internship situations.

77

Selection Of Media Types

Gerlach (1966), in discussing selection of appropri-
ate media for specific instructional situations, suggests
that there is no research indicating any media type better
for a particular kind of situation than any other. Media
selection, he adds, is accomplished primarily on the
basis of convenience.

System designers, then, must select media types
largely on an intuitive basis. Allen (1952) and Meier-
henry (1966), among others, have urged extensive research
in the area of media characteristics and the relationship
of these characteristics to specific kinds of teaching
tasks.

Wendt and Butts (1962) suggest that student charac-
teristics are also of importance in determining the types
of media most appropriate for certain situations. Some
research evidence supports this point of view, studies
showing, for example, that abler students prefer the
branching type of self-instructional program and that
high-anxious students benefit from more feedback and
knowledge of results (Briggs, 1967).

On an intuitive basis, it appears that certain types
of media are more appropriate for certain instructional
purposes than others. For example, motion pictures
(combining sound, motion, commentary, music, and color)

seem more useful for introducing and motivating interest

78

in a unit than do diagrams; and objects which can be
manipulated appear more helpful in developing initial
understanding of mathematics processes than do symbolic
materials.

In the absence of definitive research, we must use
the common sense approach which good teachers have al-
ways used with respect to methods and materials, abetted
by our own extensive experience. This means that media
should be selected as a result of considering:

1. types of media having characteristics demanded
by the specific instructional situation,

2. types of media appropriate for students with
specific characteristics, and

3. types of media appropriate for specific in-
structional purposes.

In considering prOposed media types for the pre-
viously—identified strategies for a system Of teacher
education in media, these principles are of assistance.
Orientation to media and media services requires a medium
appropriate for a large group--one that incorporates
brief examples of a number of media types being used in
a variety of situations. It demands, also, a medium that
can introduce students to the various areas and services
of the College of Education Instructional Resources Center.
The media type which can most effectively combine such a
variety of experiences appears to be closed circuit tele-
vision, videotape probably being used to enable the pre-

sentation to be carefully programed and recorded in advance.

79

Development of motor skills seems to require several
types Of media experiences. First, because equipment
operation involves motion, short cartridge type motion
pictures might be used for introducing each process.

Then, because students progress at varying rates during
practice sessions, devices such as captioned slide
sequences which permit speed regulation by the student,
seem necessary. And finally, first—hand experience is
essential in actual development of the skill by the
prospective teacher.

Many media types have proven to be useful in gather-
ing information, the appropriate type, in this case, de-
pending primarily on the content to be attained. In a
program, for example, on use of tape recordings, the con-
tent (including excerpts from sample tapes) can be at-
tained most effectively by the medium itself. Programs
on use of such visual devices as bulletin boards, flannel
boards, and maps may require a visual medium whose speed
is user controlled (e.g., slides) accompanied by an audio
commentary (e.g., a tape recording). A program on use of
media in teaching a unit may require a combination Of media
types with an accompanying tape. To facilitate use of
such a program, it can be placed on film or videotape.

To make media packages appropriate for different users,
they can be developed as branching-type programs or organ-
ized in modular form, allowing students to enter the pro-

gram at different points.

80

Media types for developing intellectual skills can,
like those for gathering information, be varied. Re-
searchers, such as Taba and Suchman, have done useful
experimentation on develOpment of intellectual skills,
Taba (1965) working on techniques for develOping concepts,
drawing inferences, and applying principles, and Suchman
(1964) stressing inquiry learning. With an 8 mm film and
tape package a prospective teacher can be helped to analyze
techniques for using films to stimulate inquiry. Follow-
ing this a simulated situation, depicted by means of a
sound film or a slide and tape package, can test the stu-
dent's ability to apply inquiry techniques to a hypotheti-
cal situation. A flat picture and audiotape package can
be used to introduce a student to Taba's techniques for
concept development, the student later using these pro-
cedures in a class demonstration and benefiting from
interaction with the teacher and other students.

Media for the application sub-system cannot be
specified as they depend entirely on the multiple variables
in the situation (i.e., the objective to be achieved, and
the types of learners involved).

Identification of competencies for development in
each group of courses helps in determining knowledge to
be attained and intellectual skills to be developed. In
some cases a group Of media programs can be shared by
several courses. In others specific programs for develop-

ing competencies in ways appropriate to a specific course

81

may be required (e.g., a social studies course in which
students are required to develOp a unit may need a pro-
gram showing how media can be incorporated in a unit).

An instructional develOpment person should be avail-
able to work, on an invitational basis, with each staff
member in identifying the specific competencies and ob-
jectives required in his course and in preparing self—
instructional programs to be used in achieving the

Objectives.

Try:Out and Evaluation
A system of teacher education in media, like any
other, must be tried out and evaluated. Therefore, one
elementary methods course at Michigan State University
was selected in which to test the procedures proposed in
this study. During spring term, 1968 a pilot study was
conducted using two sections of the course in Education

325C, Children's Literature, taught by Dr. Jean LePere.

GoalAIdentification

When a plan is formulated to incorporate development
of media competencies in existing education and methods
courses, there must, first Of all, be agreement regarding
the competencies to be emphasized in specific courses.
These competencies, preferably stated in behavioral terms,
plus the professor's course objectives then become the

system goals for that course. It must be understood,

82

however, that a professor's goals for his course are
paramount. Discussion between him and the instructional
development specialist should seek to identify ways in
which specific media competencies can best be related
to these goals, and experiences, including supportive
media packages, should be developed accordingly.

Dr. LePere's course,1 being very well planned, had

several stated Objectives. In attempting to provide

 

1The course in Children's Literature for the under-
graduate student has a two—fold purpose. As a survey
course it is designed to assist teachers-in-training in
becoming acquainted with the great wealth of trade books
which are available for today's children. At the same
time its purpose is to assist future teachers so that they
may guide children toward more comprehensive, creative,
and insightful utilization of these materials in the
classroom setting. With these objectives in mind, a
variety of activities have been planned for students en—
rolled in the course.

The develOpment of a project in connection with the
utilization of children's books in the classroom is to be
accompanied by a research paper on the topic selected by
the student.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

A. To become well acquainted with a special area of
children's literature.

1. Outstanding authors and illustrators in your
particular field.

2. Selecting the outstanding as well as other
useful materials.

3. Research indicating some idea of the scope Of
the field.

B. Learning how to use children's literature through
experience in developing:

l. Motivational techniques that entice children
to read.

2. Methods that enhance learning and broaden
knowledge and comprehension.

83

meaningful experiences for her students in connection
with these objectives, she encouraged them to select an
area of children's literature of particular interest to
them, identify pertinent teaching-learning objectives in
this area, explore ways in which media might be utilized
in helping children grow in understanding and enjoyment
of literature, and present their findings for other
members of the class.

As previously stated, media goals for a course are
derived from the competencies selected for development at
that level. Competencies which professors assigned to the
methods block included ones on types and characteristics
of media, teaching-learning situations requiring media,
instructional Objectives, and media sources, selection,
production, and utilization. ‘

Description of the present situation.--Since the
total system Of teacher education in media had not been

in Operation, it could not be assumed that students had

 

3. Means of helping children to share books with
others.

A. Correlation between literature and the entire
curriculum.

C. Sharing findings with others in order to broaden
our concept of the entire field of children's
literature.

1. Classroom Presentation

a. Panel Discussion d. Role Playing
b. Skits e. Videotape
c. Dramatizations f. Simulation of a

classroom situation

2. Mimeographed Materials

84

been exposed to basic media types in the initial edu-
cation course or to certain other competencies in other
methods courses. Therefore, it was important to ascertain
students' entry behavior in regard to proposed competencies
prior to designing media experiences for the children's
literature course.

Entry behavior of students was identified in two
ways: (1) by noting that all students had been enrolled
in the initial education course, one which deals with
educational psychology and human growth, and that some
background might be assumed with regard to development
of instructional Objectives, understanding of pupil
needs, and knowledge of principles of learning, and
(2) by conducting a survey to ascertain students' pre-
vious experience in the media area.

Results of the survey, reported earlier in this
chapter, indicated that pre-student teaching students had
been given little assistance with media selection, pro-
duction, and utilization while post-student teaching
students had experienced a limited amount of help in
these areas. Further checking on media background re-
vealed that only three of the approximately seventy-two
students in the two children's literature classes had
taken (or were taking) a media course. On the basis of
their reported experiences, it seemed necessary to pro-
vide students with a rather broad base of activities in

selection, utilization, and production Of media.

85

System Analysis

 

Identification Of functions.--In the previous dis-
cussion of the total system, the following functions were
proposed: models of media use, orientation, motor skills,
knowledge, intellectual skills, and application. Those
suggested for the methods courses were: knowledge and
intellectual skills. Since students had not experienced
orientation to media and media services in the initial
course, it was decided to provide this function in the
children's literature class also. Motor skill develOp-
ment, which some of the students had not previously en—
countered, was omitted since the media laboratory super—
visor indicated willingness to assist students in setting
up self-instructional programs if needed. Models of media
use, recommended for inclusion in all courses, were to be
viewed at apprOpriate points in the children's literature

class.

System Synthesis

 

Development of a system model.—-Using the functions
identified for the children's literature course, a system
model was conceptualized as shown in Figure 7.

Input for the system included students' entry be-
havior as previously described, funds provided by an
instructional development program at the University for
design and production Of the self-instructional packages,

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87

and use of media, and design of instructional systems.
Knowledge to be conveyed and intellectual skills to be
develOped were derived from the competencies to be
developed (e.g., knowledge of media types and their
characteristics and skills in discovering implications
for their use in specific instructional situations).
Behavior of students after their exposure to the experi-
ences provided by the system was to be described in
quantitative terms as follows: the number of media used
by demonstration groups in making their presentations,
the media experiences reported by students after the
course as compared with those reported before the course,
and the number of ideas generated after use of the self-
instructional programs. No attempt was to be made to

establish causal relationships.

Selection of Strategies

In a previous section, it was proposed that research
results support the ability of self-instructional pro-
grams tO convey media information. It was further sug-
gested that, should all students in a group need certain
knowledge and should the professor be able to provide
class time for this purpose, information might, at times,
be more efficiently conveyed to all students simultaneously.

In the case Of the children's literature class it
was decided, because Of the limited media background of

students and the need for committees to start initial

88

planning of their demonstrations as early as possible, to
convey needed content to the total group by means of a
media unit. Careful scrutiny of the necessary media
competencies enabled the professor and the present in—
vestigator to determine which might best be approached
by means Of group instruction, which by individualized
instruction, and which by a combination of the two. The
chief criterion used for making this decision was the
degree to which a particular experience was required by
all members of the groups versus its need by only some
members.

The competencies suggested for development, the
strategies chosen, and the reasons for choices are
summarized in Figure 8.

Selection of media.-—Three fifty—minute group
sessions were planned to initiate development of the
above competencies as follows:

Group session #1 was planned to introduce the com-
petencies on media types and characteristics and on in-
structional situations requiring media. In order to
present an overview of media types as efficiently as
possible, a slide-tape presentation was prepared. Two
instructional situations (not in the children's literature
area) in which learning could be facilitated by media use
were identified, and brief segments of available materials

were shown and described.

FIGURE 8.

89

REASON FOR SELECTION OF STRATEGIES.

 

Competency

Strategy

Reason

 

Media types

Media
character-
istics

Situations
requiring
media

Selection

Production

Utilization

Group instruction

Group plus
individualized
instruction

Group instruction

Group plus
individualized
instruction

Individualized
instruction

Group plus
individualized
instruction

Group inter-
action

Overview of media types
not given in initial
course; needed by all
students

Overview needed by all;
characteristics of
specific media needed by
groups considering those
media for their demon-
strations

Introduction needed by
all; ability to identify
situations extended
mainly by viewing and
analyzing models Of media
use

Introduction needed by
all; help in matching
characteristics of speci-
fic media to specific
learning situations re-
quired by groups consider-
ing use Of those media

Information on production
of specific media required
only by committee deciding
to use those media in
demonstrations

Use of media in an instruc—
tional unit needed by all;
use of specific media need-
ed by committees selecting
those media; interaction
required to extend stu-
dents' ability to develop
concepts, draw inferences,
and apply generalizations
about media use

 

 

90

Group session #2 was designed to introduce students
to characteristics of media types and to assist them in
drawing inferences as to the most useful media for
achieving instructional Objectives in the two previously—
introduced teaching-learning situations. Check sheets
were provided on which students identified those charac-
teristics possessed by specific media types. Attempts
were then made to identify with students the charac-
teristics demanded by the two teaching-learning situations
and to determine which Of the available media types had
those characteristics. For example, a motorized planetar-
ium was selected as most apprOpriate for developing the
concepts of rotation and revolution of the earth, these
concepts requiring a media type which is both three-
dimensional and capable of motion.

Group session #3 was planned to illustrate use of
media in an instructional unit.‘ Excerpts from various
media (e.g., a motion picture, filmstrips, recordings,
flat pictures, transparencies, and pupil-made materials)
were used to illustrate utilization of media in intro-
ducing a unit and in helping students gather information,
develop needed intellectual skills, build attitudes and
appreciations, and summarize and share learning. For the
first group, the demonstration was done with a pre—recorded
tape commentary, and for the second group, commentary was
furnished by the demonstrator. It is Of interest that the

second demonstration, although not as efficiently executed,

91

was more appropriate to the group in that it accommodated
to student feedback.

Production of media.—-Self-instructional programs

 

were designed: (l) to help students extend their knowl-
edge Of the characteristics of various media types, (2)
to provide Opportunities for them to use instructional
purposes and media characteristics in selecting apprOpri—
ate materials for a teaching task, and (3) to help them
explore effective ways of using media.

Nine such programs were developed and made avail—
able for use in the carrels in the Instructional Re-
sources Center. They included: bulletin boards,
dioramas, filmstrips, flannel boards, flat pictures,
puppets, tape recordings, teacher and pupil-produced
maps, and transparencies. In designing the programs an
attempt was made not only to transmit information about
selection, utilization, and (if appropriate) production
of the media type, but also to provide experience in trans-
fer (application of principles identified by the program)
tO the student's own instructional situation.

For purposes Of conveying the desired information
as effectively as possible, the program designed attempted
to apply certain principles identified by Traverse (l96h)
in his publication Research and Theory Related to Audio-

visual Information Transmission. These included: verbal

 

simplification, lack of embellishment, simultaneous

92

presentation Of redundant information in both the audio
and visual channels, use of a variety of examples of a

principle, and cessation of information flow while the

learner performed a task.

For purposes Of facilitating transfer of principles
identified by the program to students' own situations
Gagne's (1962) research had implications. Gagne's theory_
that, if a hierarchy of competencies is identified for
any task, acquisition Of higher competencies is dependent
on prior mastery of those lower in the hierarchy, has
been from 97 to 100 per cent confirmed by various of his
studies.

Although no research exists showing a hierarchy of
competencies needed by students in applying principles Of
media selection and use to their own instructional pro-
blems, self-instructional programs used in this study
were based on the assumption that development of this
competency might proceed through the following steps:

1. helping the student recognize characteristics

of a media type which make it useful for
particular kinds of tasks,

2. helping the student recognize characteristics
required by specific instructional situations,

3. providing students with examples in which media
characteristics are matched with instructional
situations requiring those characteristics,

A. giving the student an Opportunity to identify
further situations for which the characteristics
of the media type make it apprOpriate.

93

Worksheets designed to accompany the programs were developed
primarily for the purpose of testing the students' ability
to apply the media type to situations other than those de—

scribed in the program.

Try-out and Evaluation

The pilot study was evaluated in three ways: (1)
by identifying the number of media types used by student
committees in their demonstration of an aspect Of chil-
dren's literature, (2) by comparing students' reported
media experiences at the beginning and end of the 1968
spring term, and (3) by studying students' ability to
apply the media selection and utilization principles
identified by the self—instructional programs to new
situations.

In order to redesign the media packages to make
them more effective, student evaluations of the programs
were also carefully analyzed.

1. Media types used by students in children's

 

literature demonstrations.--Early in the term students
chose tOpics on which they wished to prepare demonstrations
for the class. Demonstration groups averaged above five
persons. Each group was asked to hand in on the day of

its demonstration a planning sheet including the follow—

ing information:

General objective of

Specific objectives
of the demonstration

l.
2.

etc.

the demonstration

Media selected

1.

2.

etc.

94

 

Characteristics
of media selected

Tabulation of information on the sheets revealed

students using a variety of materials in their demon-

strations, the following numbers of media types being

used by various groups:

Social studies 13
Science 8
Bibliotherapy 8
Creative

writing A
Poetry 6
Individualized
reading 8

Group
media
media

media

media

media

media

These figures indicate use

visual media types by each

fifty-minute demonstration.

1
types
types

types

types

types

types

10

Group 2
media types
media types

media types

media types

of an average of eight audio-

group during the course Of a

This suggests that students

had become aware of the utility of a variety of media for

enhancing teaching of children's literature.

Media types used by the demonstration teams in order

of frequency of use were:

bulletin boards, records, flat

pictures, objects or models, filmstrips, displays, charts,

95

posters, puppets, flannel boards, transparencies, maps,
chalkboard, dramatization, slides, dioramas, motion pic-
tures, resource people, tape recordings, and globes. It
would appear that more easily procured and/or produced
media were used more frequently than those not so

easily procured or produced.

2. Media experiences reported at beginninggand

 

end Of spring term.--At the beginning and end Of the

 

spring term students in the two children's literature
classes were asked to check experiences they had had with
twenty-five media types. A summary of the findings
appears in Figure 9.

It is of interest that, although across all cate-
gories, students reported more media experiences at the
end of the term than at the beginning, those in which most
growth was reported were suggestions for use of media and
suggestions for selection of media. All students reported
having used an additional three types of media during the
term.

It will be noted that, although post-student teach-
ing people initially reported more experiences, they
showed more growth from the beginning to the end of the
term. This suggests the importance of actual classroom
experience in helping prospective teachers recognize

the implications of media for instruction.

96

FIGURE 9. MEDIA EXPERIENCES REPORTED BY AT LEAST HALF OF
THE STUDENTS ENROLLED IN TWO CHILDREN'S LITER-
ATURE CLASSES AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY AT
BEGINNING AND END OF SPRING TERM, 1968.

 

Pre-Student Post-Student
Teaching Group Teaching Group

 

Beginning End Beginning End

 

Number of media types
seen used in class 15 15 16 20

Number Of media types

for which selection

criteria had been

given 0 3 3 11

Number of media types
for which utilization
suggestions had been
given O 10 5 17

Number of media types
for which production
suggestions had been
given 0 1 l 3

Number of media types

used in demonstrating

something to pupils or

to peers in a college

class 0 3 6 9

 

97

Of the twenty media types that post-student teach-
ing people reported having seen used in classes, nine were
used by the student himself. It is of interest that, of
these nine, all except one are commercially produced. Of
the eleven seen but not personally used by students, six
require production proficiency. The fact that students
report little assistance with simple production processes
at either pre-cn‘post-student teaching level indicates a
need for greater attention to this area.

Of eleven media types for which members of the post-
student teaching group had been given both criteria for
selection and suggestions for use, nine had been used by
at least half of the group. This suggests that the extra
confidence which students have when provided with pre-
service training in selection and utilization of media
encourages them to incorporate more materials in their
own teaching.

3. Number of media selection and utilization
principles applied to other situations.--It was hy-
pothesized that the media programs would be useful to
prospective teachers only if they enabled them to apply
the suggested principles of selection and utilization’
to their own instructional problems. One portion of
each program worksheet afforded the student an oppor-
tunity to do this. The worksheet on filmstrips, for

example, asked students to select any two strips not

98

used in the program, choose a frame or frames in each,

and list questions they would ask if utilizing it for

one of the purposes indicated in the program. Several

examples follow:

Material
Selected

Filmstrips on
pioneer life

Purpose

For helping pupils
"read" pictures

For helping pupils
form concepts

For drawing
inferences

Suggested
Questions

 

What are they build-
ing the house of?
What has been done
to the logs?

How are they held
together?

Why was it important
that the fire be kept
going all the time?

What factors limited
the settlement to the
seaboard for so long?
Why did people finally
move West?

Why was it so hard to
plow the land and
plant a crOp?

The worksheet on flat pictures asked students to select

three or four pictures from a collection prepared for

them, indicate for which purpose each would be used, and

describe how it would be used to achieve the purpose.

Several responses followi

Material
Selected

Picture of a
redwood tree

Pictures of
the earth's
surface

Purpose

For "reading" pic-
tures and drawing
inferences

For developing
Concepts

Suggested
Questions

 

Questions to help
pupil determine size
of tree

Questions to help
children develop con—
cept of erosion

99

 

Material Suggested

Selected EEEEQES Questions

Picture of For stimulating Questions to help

a falls creative writing children think about
the sound it makes,
how the spray would
feel

Picture of For stimulating Question about how a

a sunset creative writing sunset would make one

feel
The worksheet on flannel boards asked students to list
other examples of layouts illustrative of types of uses

suggested in the program. Several responses follow:

Type of Use Specific Examples of Use

 

 

Depicting a process An assembly line replication (e.g.,
for a car) with apprOpriate pieces
being added at each step'

Telling a story A small group round robin, each
child having a number of pieces
to work into the story

Matching or grouping States with major cities, industries,

items that go to— products, characteristics, animals,
gether and plants placed in appropriate
= positions

The worksheet on the tape recorder asked students to list
ideas for new uses of this device for purposes suggested
by the program. Several ideas follow:

Type of Use Specific Examples of Use

 

 

Motivation Encouraging children to be creative
by using the tape recorder to simu—
late radio programs, panel dis-
cussions, etc.

Drawing inferences Recording sound effects and having
pupils describe what they hear

lOO

Type of Use Specific Examples of Use

 

 

Sharing information Encouraging classrooms to share
recordings of activities in which
they are engaged.

Evaluating pupil Recording pupils' speech and helping
efforts them evaluate it

While the above examples could hardly be adjudged
as to quality or SOphistication in media application or
use, they are sufficient to demonstrate that the kinds of
learning sought can be materially enhanced in aJmethods
class and should be provided there.

A. Student evaluation of the self-instructional

 

programs.—-A survey of evaluation sheets turned in by
students after use of the media packages reveals the
information shown in Figure 10.

It appears logical that more programs were used by
those students not having had teaching background or
experience with a particular media type. Important in
considering the degree of revision needed by the programs
is the fact that an overwhelming majority of users Judged
the level as appropriate to their specific background and
needs.

Because the purpose of the experiment was simply
to determine the feasibility of this system of develOp-
ing certain media competencies in a methods course and
because of the many variables which would be encountered
in such an effort, no attempt was made to determine

whether amount or variety of use correlated highly with

101

FIGURE 10. STUDENTS' EVALUATION OF THE SELF-INSTRUCTIONAL
PROGRAMS ON TYPES OF MEDIA.

 

Level ofgprogram users:

Sophomore UB.5% Junior.. 56.5% Senior Graduate

Teaching experience of program users:

87% None 13% Student Teaching Regular Teaching

Previous experience with media type:
U.5% Much H.5% Quite a Bit 13% Some

26% Hardly Any 52% None

Appropriateness of program in relation to background:

 

Difficult 4.5% Somewhat Difficult 91% About Right

A.5% Rather Simple Simple

 

Of the programs used worksheets were turned in on
twenty-three and amounts of use of programs on the various

media types were as follows:

Bulletin boards 30.4% (7)
Dioramas 21.7% (5)
Filmstrips 13 % (3).
Flat pictures 13 % (3)
Tape recordings 8.7% (2)
Flannel boards A.A% (l)
Puppets A.“% (l)

Teacher-and pupil-
produced maps A.A% (l)

102

the quality of the student programs developed or with
such factors as appropriateness of selected media types
to children's literature or with availability or ease
of production of materials chosen. Such considerations
are obviously important, however, and would need to be
accommodated in further refinements made in the system

as a whole.

System Revision

 

Results of the pilot study of the system of teacher
education in media reveal that, in general, steps identi-
fied for development of the system are appropriate. How—
ever, certain of the findings suggest a need for recon-
sideration of the system model (see Figure ll). The
following changes in the model are recommended:

1. Greater emphasis should be placed on the psycho-

 

logical organization of the system.--Results of the pilot
study indicated that members of the post-student teaching
group responded differently to the system than those of
the pre-student teaching group (i.e., they perceived
implications of media experiences not seen by members of
the pre-student teaching group). This suggests that the
system failed to meet the specific needs of pre—student
teachers as well as those of post-student teachers and
that the psychological organization of the system should

receive greater emphasis in any future investigation.

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lOA

Conceptualization of a psychologically-organized
system is complex, for while a logical system model is
concerned primarily with the sequence in which functions
are performed, a psychological one deals with the manner
in which they are performed as they adjust to the needs
of particular students or groups of students. It may,
on occasion, reorder the logical pattern of system
functions. Essential to the develOpment of such a model
is precise specification of system input in the form of
. student attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors. A system
so organized must adjust to student variables not merely
by varying the rate of movement through the system, but
more importantly, by varying the type and quality of
experience for different students.

It appears possible, in giving greater emphasis to
the psychological organization of the system, to retain
the previously-suggested functions but alter the manner
in which they are performed.

Orientation.--After careful identification of input

 

in the form of student experiences with and understandings
about media, two or more concurrent orientation sessions
should be scheduled, students participating in the one
most appropriate to their previous experience with media
and to their depth of understanding of the role of media

in the teaching-learning process.

105

Motor Skills.—-Availability or lack of availability
of needed motor skills could be easily assessed, a student
then being encouraged to enter each media projection and
production skill develOpment program at a point con—
sistent with his degree of expertise in that specific
skill.

Knowledge.-—Self—instructional programs on media

 

selection and utilization could also be prepared in modular
form, students again being able to enter at points con-
sistent with their experience and needs. To insure ade-
quate program use and to avoid duplication, programs would
be developed to provide experiences pertinent to specific
courses and would be reserved for use in those courses.
Although students would be expected to use at least one
self-instructional program in each course, choice of pro-
grams would be made by the student on the basis of his
learning purposes in relation to the course and to re—
sponsibilities that he might have in school classrooms.

2. The system functions of assisting students in
gaining pertinent knowledge about media, in develgping
intellectual skills, and in applying knowledge and skills
to instructional situations should be performed recurrently
in a cyclical fashion.--The ability,of members of the post-
student teaching group to recognize implications of media

experiences not seen by the pre-student teaching group

106

suggests that prospective teachers need experience in
classrooms much earlier in the professional sequence.
More opportunities for participation, tutoring, and
micro-teaching seem to be necessary. It is obvious that
opportunities for students to be involved in these types
of experiences throughout the professional sequence
generate recurring needs: (1) to know about media, (2)
to consider the implications of media for the task at
hand, and (3) to apply appropriate media knowledge and
skills to instructional problems. Evaluation by students
of their success in achieving their stated objectives in
these situations provides feedback into the system.
Subsequent teaching-learning problems (each increasingly
complex) encourage the student not only to make use of
feedback from previous problem-solving experiences but to
seek more advanced knowledge, develop more sophisticated
intellectual skills (e.g., concepts, generalizations, and
inferences regarding media use), and make more competent
applications of available knowledge and skills to the
problem situation.

Learning to use media in the solution of meaningful
teaching-learning problems, then, is a developmental pro-
cess, the system functions being performed recurrently at
increasingly sophisticated levels. Functioning in this
manner, the system provides experiences in selection and

utilization of media similar to those which in-service

107

teachers encounter in their own classrooms and provides a
firm base for the teacher’s continued growth in expertise
in use of media after graduation.

As a result of the pilot study, the following
changes in system operation are suggested:

1. Objectives need to be defined in such a way as

 

to facilitate evaluation of quality as well as quantity
of system output.--The present study was concenred with
quantitative analysis of results-—the number of media
types used in demonstrations, number of media experiences
reported by students before and after the study, and
number of ideas generated after program use.

Quality of use, so essential to effective teaching,
must be more carefully considered in future investigations
of the systems approach to media competency development.
Obviously specification of objectives for use in assessing
quality is difficult as it requires answering the question
"What is good?" To date, empirical studies in the media
field have given little help in understanding what good
selection and utilization practices are. Much additional
research needs to be done in this area. In the meantime,
it appears helpful for system planners to draw inferences
about good media utilization from what is known about=

good teaching and learning.

108

2. In order to freepprofessors for those roles

 

which are distinctively human, knowledge about media

 

should be made available to students to the greatest

 

extent possible by_means of self-instructional pro- .
g3§m§,--Following use of the self-instructional programs
in the pilot study, responses of students indicated that
they not only had gained knowledge about media but had
demonstrated the ability to generate new ideas based on
the knowledge. Numerous previous studies have demonstrated
the capability of media of conveying information as ade-
quately as teachers can. It seems important, then, that
in a man—machine instructional system, the talents of
humans be reserved for those important functions which
only they can perform (e.g., the kind of interaction be-
tween professor and students which occurred in the chil-
dren's literature classes). This crucial point will be
explored more completely in Chapter V.

3. Greater attention should be given to production
of simple instructional materials.--Since major emphasis
in this study was placed on selection and utilization of
media, few production experiences were reported by stu-
dents at its conclusion. More than half of the media
types which they had seen used by professors but had not
personally utilized were ones requiring some expertise
in production. It is suggested, therefore, that, because

teaching and learning are often greatly enhanced by the

109

media that teachers and children make for themselves, a
laboratory of the type proposed by Combs be a part of
any future investigation of a teacher education in media
system. Such a laboratory would enable prospective teach—
ers needing materials for specific teaching-learning
situations to investigate the use of available commerci-
cally-produced media, make supplementary teacher-produced
ones as required, and test the validity of proposed
utilization procedures both in simulated instructional
situations in the laboratory and in first-hand situations
in a classroom.

In addition to the extended study of the system
and the changes recommended here, other recommendations
need to be made with respect to faculty time, instructional
development personnel, and supportive facilities and ser-
vices. These will be discussed in the following chapter
which will present the findings and conclusions of this

study.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER
STUDY OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS APPROACH

TO DEVELOPMENT OF MEDIA COMPETENCIES

A need for prospective teachers to develOp media
competencies has been indicated both by school adminis—
trators and supervisors as well as by the findings of
empirical studies. Considerable evidence exists that
teacher education institutions are currently unable to
provide a basic media course for all prospective teach-
ers, and that alternative methods of developing competen-
cies in selection, production, and utilization of media
need to be investigated.

The purpose of the present study has been to explore
the feasibility of a systems approach to teacher education
in media with desired competencies being developed in
existing elementary undergraduate education and methods
courses. A review of the literature has disclosed sug-
gested media competencies, advantages and limitations of
various methods of competency development, and proposed

steps for designing an instructional system. A pilot

110

111

study to test procedures suggested for development of a
system of teacher education in media has been designed,
conducted, and analyzed.

Six questions were raised in this investigation.
These questions, the manner in which they were investi-
gated, and the subsequent findings are as follows:
Question 1: What competencies in selection,

production, and utilization of media should.
be initially developed at pre-service level?

 

This question was investigated through use of three
procedures, namely, ascertaining common elements in pre—
viously developed media competency lists, performing a
_task analysis of the terminal behavior expected of teachers
in the area of media utilization, and submitting the re-
sulting group of competencies to teacher education special-
ists on the Instructional Media Center staff for further
validation. The competencies recommended for initial
development at the pre—service level are listed under
question two below.

Question 2: What do selected professors of under-
graduate elementary education and methods courses
at Michigan State University consider to be the
Optimum poInt or points in the elementary_course

sequence for initial development of each of the
suggested media competencies?

 

 

This question, and the next two, were answered by
interviewing representative professors of the following
courses in the elementary education sequence at Michigan,

State University: Individual and the School (the initial

required education course); Curriculum Methods’and

112

 

Materials (the general elementary methods course), and

 

courses in the teaching of mathematics, science, reading,

and social studies.

ing program was also interviewed.

The director of the student teach—

Recommendations of

these seven professors regarding optimum points for

initial development of the proposed competencies are:

Competency

Competency

Competency

Competency

Competency

Competency

Competency

Competency

 

Recognizing the various
types of media and their
characteristics

Recognizing instructional

situations in which learn-

er achievement can be

facilitated by apprOpriate

use of media

Designing clear and
speCific instructional
objectives for teaching—
learning situations

Selecting media apprOpri-
ate to specific teaching-
learning situations in
terms of subject and
learner needs and the
characteristics of the
media type

Locating sources of media
appropriate to specific
teachinghlearning situ-
ations

Producing simple media
not commercially avail-
able

Utilizing media in terms
of sound principles of

learning and of instruc-
tional objectives sought

Suggested Point
for Development

Initial
course,
courses

Methods

Methods
student

Methods

Methods.

Methods

Methods
student

education
methods

courses

courses,
teaching

courses

courses

courses

courses,
teaching

113

Suggested Point
Competency for Development

 

Competency 8: Utilizing appropriate Student teaching
combinations of media in
a systems approach to
instruction

Competency 9: Evaluating and modifying Student teaching
one's use of media in
terms of achievement of
instructional objectives

Question 3: Do the recommended competencies
tend to fall in such a way as to suggest a
logical sequence within existing courses?

 

It will be noted that the participating professors
proposed initial development of competency one (1) in the
first required education course and in methods courses,
competencies two (2) through seven (7) in methods courses,
and competency three (3) and competencies seven (7) through
nine (9) during student teaching. If these judgments were
applied, the needed competencies would fall into a logical
sequence within existing courses.

Question A: To what degree do selected professors_
of undergraduate elementary education and methods
courses perceive these competencies as beipgycur-
rently developed by prospective elementary teachers
at Michigan State University?

In responding to question four, each professor was
asked to indicate his perception of the degree to which

students entering his class had developed each of the

nine media competencies. Professors' replies follow:

114

 

Number of the When Students When Students When Students
Nine Competen- Enter the Ini- Enter Methods Enter Student

 

cies Judged As tial Required Courses Teaching

Education ,

Course

Well
develOped O O 1
Somewhat
developed 1 O 3
May or may
not be
developed 1 2 l
Probably not
developed 1 A 3
Definitely
not developed 6 3 l

 

Question 5: Can suggested steps for system develOp-
ment as derived from the literature, be used to
iéentIfy a procedure for the design and operation

of a system of teacher education in media?

 

 

 

Question five (5) was answered by using system
development procedures derived from the literature to
design a system of teacher education in media. The pro-
cedures utilized were: goal identification, system
analysis, system synthesis, try-out and evaluation, and
system revision.

In conjunction with goal identification, the
following steps were employed: specification of desired
outcomes of the system under consideration; description

of the present situation, including the degree to which

 

115

specified goals are being achieved; and analysis of the
problem, including reasons for any current inadequacies
in goal achievement.

System analysis was undertaken by means of exami-
nation and choice among alternative solutions to the
problem, specification of proposed functions of a system
of teacher education in media, and identification of
sub-systems based on functions.

System synthesis was achieved by developing a pro-
posed model for a system of teacher education in media.
Conceptualization of the system was approached by analysis
of relationships among sub-systems, identification of
relationships between sub-systems and courses, selection
of suggested instructional strategies, and consideration
of apprOpriate media types.

Procedures utilized for try-out and evaluation and

for system revision will be discussed under question six

(6).

Question 6: If a pilot study is conducted with one
course, what implications are there for redesign of
the total system?

 

 

Question six (6) was explored by conducting a pilot
study in two sections of Dr. Jean LePere's children's
literature class during spring term, 1968. One of the
professor's objectives necessitated development of media
competencies by students. This was the objective that

students become well acquainted with a special area of

116

children's literature and share their findings with others
by means of a class presentation involving various media
types.

Use of the systems concept in planning the pilot
study required concurrent consideration of several fac-
tors and their interrelationships. Professors inter-
viewed by this investigator had recommended that, of
those media competencies identified for development at
the pre-service level, one (1) through seven (7) be
developed in whole or in part during the methods block.
The model of the proposed system of teacher education in
media suggested that two functions, namely, conveying
basic content and developing basic intellectual skills
in the media area be performed in conjunction with methods
courses. It further suggested that self-instruction and
class interaction strategies be used to perform the
functions.

Experiences planned for the pilot study consisted
of three demonstrations by the investigator for the total
group andrUJmeself-instructional programs made available
to individuals. Following those learning experiences,
student committees presented selected lessons in chil-
dren's literature, utilizing and discussing a variety of
media applications as they did so.

An analysis of student achievement at the end of

the pilot study indicated the following:

117

Demonstration groups utilized an average of
eight different media types in their pre—
sentations.

Students completing worksheets after use of a
self-instructional program generated an average
of five ideas regarding other ways of utilizing
the media type discussed in the program.

Of particular significance is the fact that a
majority of students reported substantial
growth in the number of experiences received

in media selection and use during the term.
More than half of the pre-student teaching
group, for example, reported

having been given criteria for selection
of three more media types

 

having been given suggestions for use of
ten more media types.

A majority of the post-student teaching group
reported

having been given criteria for selecting
eleven more media types

 

having been given suggestions for using
twelve more media types.

After student demonstrations for the class, a
majority of the members of both pre-student
teaching and post-student teaching groups re-

ported having used three more media types with

 

pupils or peers.

118

Evaluation of results of the pilot study suggests

‘tluait the system should be redesigned in the following

IN61§782

By placing greater emphasis on the psycho-
logical organization of the system and by

more adequately responding to the special
needs of members of the pre-student teaching
group.

By using a developmental approach to perfor-
mance of the system functions of knowledge,
intellectual skills, and application of
knowledge and skills, all of these being based
on the students' sense of a need to know.

By seeking to specify objectives conducive to
the measurement of quality as well as quantity
of system output.

By freeing the teacher to perform "human"
functions as a result of allocating to media

a more substantial role in making information
available to students.

By placing more emphasis on development of
competency in production of teacher-made

materials.

119

Implications of This Study

 

Several implications of this study are apparent.
These are categorized in three groups: implications
for teacher education, implications for teacher education
in media, and implications for instructional system
development.

Implications for Teacher
Education

 

l. prprospective teachers are to find their methods

 

courses as meaningful as possible, theypmust have classroom

 

experience earlier in the professional sequence.--Whether

 

early involvement in classrooms should be extensive, should
be available in limited form and supplemented by video-
taped or filmed classroom episodes, or should be available
in a series of experiences which increase in length and
sophistication, this study cannot say. The point, however,
is clear: learning occurs only as knowledge comes to have
personal meaning for students. It appears, from this
study, that classroom involvement is one of the most im-
portant factors in enabling prospective teachers to attach
meaning to teaching-learning problems, including those
pertaining to selection and utilization of media.

Implications for Teacher
Education in Media

 

l. Purposes for which students use media during

 

teacher education must be ones that they perceive as real

120

and important (e.g., ones that are derived from a need

 

to teach something to a student or group of students or
from a class assignment which involves demonstrating for
one's peers).

2. Watching someone else demonstrate with media
can contribute substantially to the proppective teacher's

competencies in media selection and utilization if

 

followed by thoughtful discussion of implications of the

demonstration.--In the pilot study, discussion of selec—

 

tion and utilization of a media type was more conducive
to its use than merely watching a demonstration. This
suggests that only as prospective teachers become involved
does a media demonstration begin to have personal meaning
for them. Involvement may be in the form of participation
(as when a professor is using media to achieve specific
instructional purposes in a class) or it may occur as free
and frank discussion of the selection and utilization
techniques utilized by a professor or public school teacher
in a particular teaching-learning situation. Adequately
handled, such involvement enables prospective teachers to
begin to form generalizations about effective ways of
using media.

3. Apppopriate media selection and utilization
techniques can be aided substantially by experiencing
media selection and utilization. A representative

collection of materials should be readily available for

 

121

use by prospective teachers during the‘preaservice period.-—

 

Such a collection should include not only an adequate
supply of commercially-produced materials (e.g., 8 and
16 mm films, filmstrips, records, tape recordings, pic-

tures, transparencies, models, videotapes, and programed

_.. xvd

materials) but supplies and equipment for use in making
one's own materials.

This implies a need for the kind of laboratory de-
scribed by Combs, one in which students have many Oppor-
tunities to experiment with materials, make materials, do
demonstrations and watch others demonstrate, and critically
assess the usefulness of materials and techniques. Respond-
ing to simulated situations involving media selection and
use and interacting with others about the simulated experi-
ence should be one of the kinds of opportunities available
to prospective teachers in the laboratory.

A. Students should be actively involved in use of
media in classrooms if they are to recognize the impli-
cations of media for teaching-learning situations.--Pro—
spective teachers should have an abundance of opportunities
to use materials with children for a wide variety of pur-
poses. Such opportunities can be readily found in
participation experiences, tutoring, and micro-teaching

as well as in student teaching.

122

Implications Regarding
Instructional Systems

1. System development procedures are useful tools

 

for helping a group achieve its goals moreOeffectively.—-
Though a system is neither inherently good nor bad, it
can be utilized to facilitate achievement of either good
or bad purposes. The awesome responsibility is to make
sure that the men who design the system have worthy group
goals.

2. System development procedures, prOperly used,

facilitate change.--Change is a necessary concomitant of

 

our world today. Moreover, it occurs with such rapidity
that man frequently experiences what Shane calls "the
dizzying disorientation brought on by the premature

arrival of the future" (p. 67). It is apparent that unless
individuals and organizations can also change, civilization
cannot survive. Gardner clearly expresses the challenge

when he says in his provocative book,Self-Renewal: "In

 

the ever-renewing society what matures is a system or
framework within which continuous innovation, renewal,
and rebirth can occur" (p. 5).

Instructional systems appear to provide educational
institutions with the capability of continuous renewal.
They do so by providing an orderly process for planning
how to achieve specified goals, for implementing the
plans, for evaluating their effectiveness in terms of

goal achievement, and for revising the system, when

123

necessary, and in a manner designed to facilitate more
complete goal achievement.

3. Systems may inspire the creative functioning
of individuals.--A system tends to set broad limits within
which individuals can Operate. A system such as the human
body, for example, functions properly only when the in-
dividual is mindful of certain limits (e.g., the need for
a balanced diet, appropriate combinations of work and
relaxation, exercise). Within these broad limits, however,
there is room for individual variation. A balanced diet
does not need to be the same for everyone, but can vary
to meet individual tastes.

An instructional system also sets broad limits for
the individual. In this investigation, broad general goals
were established for the pilot study. Within these goals,
however, the individual professor was able to function
effectively, establishing objectives that were seen of
vital importance. The students, in turn, functioning
within the broad goals of the system and the somewhat more
specific goals of the course, were also able to identify
purposes that were meaningful to them and to achieve their
purposes in creative ways.

A. Systems can free the individual to become more
creative byassigningfto media the functions that they
can perform as effectively as humans and to teachers the

roles that only they--because of their humanness--can

 

p1ay.--The ultimate objective of a system of teacher

12Al

education in media is that teachers and pupils use media
in the ways most conducive to achievement of their teach—
ing-learning objectives. Use of media is an aspect, then,
of creative teaching.

It has been demonstrated that creativity does not
exist inla vacuum but grows rather out of a rich store-
house of information. It is also true, however, that
possession of knowledge is a necessary but not sufficient
condition for stimulation of creativity. As a person
begins to use knowledge, to identify its meaning for him,
and to put it together in new ways, creativity occurs.

This implies that, in order to stimulate creative
teaching, a system must perform two interacting functions.
Not only must it help students to gain the knowledge to
be used as a basis for creative thinking and action, but
it must also help them learn to think with the knowledge,
to see what it means, to combine it in new ways, and to
use it in problem—solving situations. In the past, teach-
ers have most often concentrated their efforts on the
first function. Recently, however, research has shown
that this function can be performed as adequately by media
without a teacher. The challenge is clear: teachers must
now identify much more carefully and become much more
competent in the second function, the one which only they

--because of their humanness-—can perform.

125

This study helps in differentiation of the types of
functions which media and peOple can best perform. 'In
the children's literature course, presentation of infor-
mation was accomplished adequately by self-instructional
programs, freeing the professor for another kind of role.
This consisted of the following types of activities:

DevelOping course goals.

Formulating general plans for a situation that would

provide students with "real" purposes for learning

to select and use media.

Introducing committee members to the general

nature of the task and giving them opportunities

to interact and plan.

Interacting with committees as general and specific
guidance were needed.

Helping students become aware of resources available
to them.

Assisting students before their demonstrations by
asking questions and making comments designed to
help them (1) analyze the instructional problem
they were attempting to solve, (2) relate appropri-
ate knowledge to it, and (3) plan appropriate pro-
cedures for solving it.

Assisting students after the demonstration by

helping them evaluate it and discover its impli—

cations for the classroom.

Interacting with students more extensively in areas

that would not have been possible outside the system

(e.g., spending more time with students in sharing,

analyzing, and enjoying books).

This study implies that, if a systems approach is to
be used, the apprOpriate role for media is primarily one
of making information available to prospective teachers

and helping them begin to generate new ideas from it. The

126

appropriate role for the teacher is that of stimulating,
providing a setting in which students can attack real
problems, making materials and resources available as
needed, guiding, supporting, questioning students in
order to challenge and clarify their thinking, providing
opportunities for interaction which facilitates dis—
covery, and helping students evaluate their efforts.
Although this study has focused primarily on the
cognitive aspects of the develOpment of media competencies,
both this and other studies point to the fact that an
individual should, in the final analysis, be dealt with
as a unit. His knowledge, his perceptions, his attitudes
cannot be put into separate containers and viewed as dis-
crete elements. He, too, Operates as a system, and, as
was shown by this study, the information he has received
cannot be viewed apart from the experiences he has had
and the influence they have on how he perceives.
This need for relating to the prospective teacher
as a unit also helps in differentiating the role of the
teacher in an instructional system. He must have as great
an awareness as possible of these interrelated components
of the students with whom he is working, for only as he
understands and responds to them, can he begin to meet
students' unique needs. Media and machines can respond to

the unique cognitive needs of pupils, but not to the

127

complex interrelationships of cognitions, perceptions,

and attitudes. This only a human being can do.

Educational Change

 

Although the findings of this study lead to cautious
optimism regarding the feasibility of a system of teacher
education in media, certain environmental factors must be
adequately understood and carefully taken into account if
such a system is to be successful. Schuller, in a paper
on systems development presented at a recent conference
at Bucknell University, strongly emphasized the point
that a system must be able to survive in the "real world"
in which it comes into existence. Since the instructional
systems concept is relatively new to many teacher edu—
cators, any attempt to introduce such a system must take
into account the findings of pertinent research on the
change proceSs. It seems apprOpriate, therefore, in con—
sidering further work on a system of teacher education in
media,to review certain pertinent principles abstracted
from the literature on educational innovation and relate
them to possible system develOpment procedures.

Role of the Administrator
in Educational Change

 

Whether or not change in education occurs "from the
top down" as the Brickell study suggests, it is certain

that the administrator plays a crucial role in determining

128

whether change occurs. It is he who sets the climate of
his organization. If he is a person who values change;
if he establishes a climate conducive to exploration,
experiencing, seeking new answers to problems; if he
minimizes the threat that teachers tend to feel when
they try new procedures and techniques; if he is suppor-
tive of innovative efforts, change is much more likely
to occur. This kind of support was available during the
pilot study and would be important to further investi—
gation of the systems approach to development of media
competencies.

Role of Innovative Teachers
in Educational Change

 

 

Wiles proposes that, in every organization, there
are innovative and influential persons with whom change
agents can most profitably work, letting innovation
spread from them. The professor under whose guidance
this pilot study was conducted is such a person and is
representative of the type of professors who should be
sought for further work in this area.

Establishment of Temporapy

System During Design of
Innovation

 

It has been recommended that, when innovative pro-
cedures are being explored, a temporary system be set up,

this system to provide an enriched, protected, autonomous

129

environment. Use of one course for the pilot study, with
a time limit of one term, did, in fact, provide a temporary
system for investigation of the questions posed. Enrich—
ment did occur as a result of the services of the investi-
gator and the funds made available through an instructional
development project for design and production of the self-
instructional packages.
Lipkdge Between Temporapy
and Permanent Systems

Obviously, innovative procedures can be designed
but not fully implemented in a temporary system. To
facilitate implementation, adequate linkage between
temporary and permanent systems is required. Attempts
have been initiated, and should be continued, to contri-
bute to the awareness of other staff members of the
findings of this study.
Role of Respected Co-Workers

Duripg Evaluation of
Innovation

 

Following design of an innovation, Lionberger sug-
gests, change tends to proceed through five stages:
interest, awareness, evaluation, trial, and acceptance.
Various studies indicate that, while innovators and
change agents are very active during the first two stages,
an individual's reference group and his respected co-

workers are most influential during evaluation of an

130

innovation. The professors interviewed in regard to media
competencies appear to be appropriate persons to assist
with dissemination of findings of this study and with
evaluation of the potential of a system of teacher edu—

cation in media.

Relation of Characteristics of
An Innovation to Its Success-
ful Introduction

In the summary chapter of his volume, Innovation in

Education, Miles lists several characteristics which tend

 

to encourage adoption and acceptance of an innovation.
These include, among others:
1. Support of values prized by the adopting group.
2. Congruence with the accepting system (relative
absence of threat to existing practice or to

autonomy of people):

3. Likelihood of reducing a gap between ideals
and practice.

In the case of this pilot study, the investigator attempted
to furnish materials and experiences supportive of a course
objective previously identified by the professor, this ob-
jective also being related to the media competencies recom—
mended for initial development in methods courses.
Professors interviewed in the study expressed con-
cern that students receive experiences conducive to develOp—
ment of appropriate media competencies, and were in sub-
stantial agreement that such competencies were not in fact

being developed. A plan for more effective provision of

131

such experiences should, therefore, meet with their accept-
ance unless other factors interfere.

One such factor could be that a proposed new system
might pose a threat either to their existing practices or
to their enjoyment of relative autonomy.' Because a system
of teacher education in media, imprOperly introduced,
might appear to have either or both of these disadvantages,
it should be made clear at the outset that the proposed
system would be designed in collaboration with professors
of education and methods courses, and that any self-
instructional media programs would be supportive of their
course objectives, relating them, as feasible, to the
identified media competencies.

Adequate Support of AdOpters
During Trial Stdge

Lionberger and Miles, among others, have emphasized
the fact that adequate support is a crucial factor during
the implementation stage of an innovation. Since this
study proposes the incorporation of media content in
existing courses, it is important that professors be
provided assistance in the addition of such content.

This suggests that further investigation of a system of
teacher education in media would require the services of
an additional media professional in the College of Edu-
cation to coordinate development of the self-instructional

programs required for making available the proposed media

132

content. Such a person is needed to assume major responsi-
bility for program development after consultation with the
professors involved, and to facilitate students' explor-
ation of the potential of media in instruction. Experi—
ence in the present study further suggests that adequate
funds be made available for development of the required
self-instructional programs, and that released time be

given a faculty member during any term in which he is
engaged in planning for the production of self-instructional
programs. Such a pattern is commonly provided under grants

from the Educational Development Program of Michigan State

University.

Proposed System Develppment Procedures
The system development procedures derived from the
literature and applied to the problem of development of
media competencies in one course will now be used to
suggest steps for investigating a system of teacher edu—
cation in media in a college of education. Implications
of the previously-identified change principles will be

incorporated in the discussion.

Administrative Action

Although interest in developing a system of teacher
education in media may initially be expressed by a faculty
group such as a committee charged with the responsibility

of planning an innovative teacher education program,

133

implementation of such a system should be initiated by
administrative action of the college of education and
the media department.

A committee composed of innovative staff members
knowledgeable in the media area should be authorized to
make plans for system implementation. The selection of
appropriate members for this committee cannot be over-
emphasized. Ideally, they should be faculty members with
a deep concern about how people learn, about how media
contribute to learning, and about appropriate ways of
helping prospective teachers develop the needed competencies
in selection and utilization of media. Previous experience
in instructional develOpment would also be helpful.

Committee members should include the director of
the college of education resources center; a media in—
structional development person; and a representative of
each course or group of courses to be involved in the
system. The director of the resources center would be
expected to initiate planning among committee members,
call the committee together as necessary, and maintain
effective communication among members during the period
of the group's existence.

Planning Committee Action-—
Stage One

 

 

The planning committee as a group should be responsi-

ble for certain aspects of goal identification, system

134

analysis, system synthesis, and system redesign. These
will be discussed individually.

1. Goal identification.——As has been stated pre-

 

viously, a system can assist a group in achieving its
goals more effectively, and this applies regardless of
the goodness or badness of the goals. It would seem
important that the proposed system planning committee
formulate two sets of goals, one to guide its development
of a system consistent with the basic values held by its
members and another to specify desired system output.
Goals to be used in system development should be stated
first and should indicate kinds of values to be built
into the system. General goals specifying system output
should be derived from the media competencies and atti-
tudes a faculty desires for its prospective teachers.
Quality as well as quantity of output should be a concern
of the planning committee.

2. Syptem analysis.—-A potential teacher education
in media system starts with a diverse group of courses,
professors, students, media, and machines and seeks to
create from this diversity a functioning unit. Some
organizing entity must be employed for this purpose.
Various system designers have suggested that analyzing
the functions to be performed by the proposed system is

an appropriate procedure.

135

The second responsibility of the planning committee,
then, is to identify desirable system functions. The
goals previously formulated to guide system development
should be useful at this point, for identified functions
should be consistent with the philosophy of education and
the point of View toward students and learning expressed
in these goals.

Another aspect of system analysis and a third
responsibility of the planning committee is identification
of sub-systems. Traditionally courses have tended to be
viewed as sub-systems of a teacher education system. In
order to allow for more flexibility in system design,
this investigation has adopted Trzebiatowski's suggestion
that sub-systems be based on functions, this procedure
enabling one, when necessary, to disregard course bound-
aries in favor of other organizational patterns (e.g.,
the function, application of media knowledge and skills,
can occur in tutoring, micro-teaching, or student teach-
ing, which are not limited to any one course).

3. System synthesis.—-Once sub—systems have been
identified, the committee should begin to conceptualize
the system in the form of a working model. Such a model
should provide, in visual form, the hypothesized relation-
ships among the sub—systems as well as relationship of

input and output to the system as a whole.

136

Accurate identification of input, which Trzebia—
towski suggests is often inadequately accomplished, is
crucial to successful system Operation. The planning
committee, therefore, should be responsible for identify-
ing funds available for system implementation, available
resources (e.g., facilities, materials, equipment, and
staff) and, in a general way, student competencies and
attitudes in the media area.

After the system is conceptualized, planning
committee members should appraise it critically to deter-
mine whether it does, in fact, implement their previously—
identified goals for system development. It is appropri-
ate to ask, at this point, if the model depicts a system
that can (1) adapt to the needs of students with varying
backgrounds, attitudes, and perceptions in relation to
media; (2) allow its human components, both teachers and
students, to function in a creative fashion; (3) utilize
the unique capabilities of both teachers and media; (4)
facilitate communication and cooperation among its com-
ponents; and (5) facilitate analysis of when and how it
needs to change.

The previously-identified steps in system design
are basic to a system of teacher education in media.
Prior to full-scale investigation, a pilot study should
be employed, involving as members of a system try—out

committee one professor from each of the courses or

137

experiences expected to be a part of the system. At
Michigan State University, for example, the committee
would include an instructor of the initial required
education course, of a methods course, and of a stu-
dent teaching group.

Again, selection of professors to participate on
the try—out committee is crucial to system success.
Selection of these persons should be from among the
most interested, knowledgeable, and innovative members

of the staff.

Tryrout and Evaluation

Working together, members of the planning and try-
out committees would agree on functions and goals to be
assigned to each course.

An early responsibility of the try-out committee
would be to attempt to obtain much more specific data
about students' past experiences with, competencies in,
perceptions about, and attitudes toward media at each of
the three levels. Working with the media instructional
develOpment person, each professor should, within the
broad spectrum of general goals set by the planning
committee for his course or group of courses, identify
his own specific goals. Further joint efforts of the
professor and ID person would involve attempting to
define the relationship between the professor's goals

and the media objectives assigned to the course. Having

138

identified these relationships, appropriate strategies
(large group, small group, or individualized instruction)
should be identified and the content of self-instructional
programs planned.‘ Listing of behavioral objectives for
the media aspects of the course would facilitate evalu—
ation of the degree to which objectives had been achieved
at the end of the course. Should it be required, the pro-
fessor and media instructional development person would
seek guidance from an evaluation specialist in determining
appropriate means of evaluating goal achievement.

After careful planning by the professor and in-
structional development person, preparation of the self-
instructional programs should be primarily the responsi-
bility of the latter. Since programs are useful only
when made an integral part of a course, it should be the
responsibility of the professor to organize his course
requirements so as to implement the joint plans made by
him and the media instructional development person. A
crucial point to be kept in mind by both of them, however,
is that, within the general framework of system goals and
those of the individual professor, students should be
given Opportunities to identify and pursue learning pur-

poses important to them.

139
Recommendations and System
ReVision

Adequate evaluation of system try-out would be
essential to further system development. Evaluation for
purposes of system revision might be accomplished in one
or more ways (i.e., by means of motor skill tests, knowl-
edge items incorporated in regular course examinations;
or evaluations of use of media in demonstrations, simu-
lated experiences, micro-teaching, or student teaching).

Important as are the findings of this kind of
evaluative effort, teachers' and students' perceptions of
(and resulting attitude toward) the system will be strongly
influenced by the degree to which it helps them accomplish
purposes important to them. To the degree that it has
done so, it will be more likely to be accepted.

The planning committee should serve still another
important function by communicating results of system
try-out to other staff members of the college of education
on a regular basis by a variety of appropriate methods.
Enthusiastic users of the system, both members of the
try-out committee and students, are among the most appro-
priate people to assist in communicating the results of
system use.

Careful analysis of results of system try—out should
enable the planning committee to recommend adoption of the
system as initially tried out or (which is more likely)

as adapted following evaluation. Analysis should include

140

not only consideration of the degree to which students
developed the desired competencies but of system per-
formance in relation to the goals identified to guide
its development and the questions asked about the
capabilities of the system model.

One of the major advantages of the systems approach
'to instruction is its capability of adjusting its proce-

<flures to facilitate a higher degree of goal attainment.

IPlanning Committee Action-—
Stage Two

During the second stage of investigation of a system
(Jf teacher education in media, the planning committee
unauld be expected to make the following adjustments in
tile system: V

1. Revising competencies and goals in terms of
changes in the educational milieu,

2. Revising functions, sub-systems, and/or the
system model in terms of inadequacies dis—
covered in the system. Hypothesized relation-
ships among system elements should be care-

fully examined at this time.

lfiflplementation Committee
£33tion--Stage Two

Following system revision additional courses should
13a involved in the system. HOpefully, professors of any

<3ne course would meet with the instructional development

141

person and come to joint agreements regarding relation—
ships of their course goals to media goals and the kinds
of self-instructional programs most likely to facilitate
achievement of these objectives.

As more courses were built into the system, it
would be the responsibility of the instructional develop- .
ment person to inform new participants Of the ways in
which their proposed activities related to those of other
courses and to the total instructional system. It would
also be the responsibility of this person to assist staff
members in avoiding duplication of effort as well as
failure to provide certain needed experiences.

Since instructional development is a time—con-
suming procedure, it is assumed that a period of at
least three years would be required to involve all
courses in the system.

System evaluation and necessary revision should
occur at the end of each year. After an adequate trial
period (perhaps five years) the staff should be given
the option of continuing or discontinuing use of the

system.

Summarydand Conclusions

 

This study investigated the feasibility of design-
ing a system for developing media selection and utili—

zation competencies in existing education and methods

 

 

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143

courses by: (1) identifying nine desirable competencies
for initial develOpment at the pre-service level, (2)
procuring the judgments of representative elementary
education professors at Michigan State University re—
garding optimum points in the elementary course se-
quence for initial development of each competency, (3)
deriving system design procedures from the literature,
and (4) testing on a pilot basis in one course the
system procedures for develOping media selection and
utilization competencies.

The conclusions are:

1. That findings of student and faculty surveys
to ascertain the degree of media competency
develOpment of prospective elementary teachers
at Michigan State University demonstrate a
substantial need for improving current methods
of develOping these competencies.

2. That the substantial agreement of professors
interviewed regarding appropriate points in the
elementary education sequence for introduction
of specified media competencies indicates the
desirability and feasibility of a systematic
approach to media competency development.

3. That professors' recommendations regarding
points at which specific media competencies

should be introduced suggest a logical sequence

144

of competency develOpment in existing ele-
mentary education and methods courses.

4. That steps for system design derived from the
literature and applied to planning for com-
petency development in one course are practical
and helpful.

5. That, following use of such procedures, stu-
dents reported significantly more media ex-
periences than they had at the beginning of
the course.

6. That members of the post-student teaching group
reported more media experiences at the beginning
of the course and greater growth in media ex-
periences during the course than those who had
not participated in student teaching.

7. That students using self-instructional programs
on media selection and utilization were able to
suggest applications in other situations of the
principles develOped in the programs.

8. That the @ystem, as initially tested, should be
redesigned to place greater emphasis on psycho-

logical organization.

Recommendations
The recommendations of this study are based on three
assumptions: (1) that prospective teachers need to acquire

certain basic media competencies, (2) that a media course

145

is not the complete answer for the development of these

competencies, and (3) that alternative answers to the

problem need to be tried.

As a result of the findings of this study and the

review of pertinent literature, the following recommen—

dations are made:

1.

That media professionals and teacher education
faculties collaborate in identifying media
competencies and attitudes which they want
prospective teachers to acquire.

That a systematic approach to development of
these competencies within existing education
and methods courses be planned.

That such an approach take into consideration
the background and needs of individual pro-
spective teachers and relate media competency
development to purposes which are important to
faculty and to students.

That such an approach identify and take advan—
tage of the instructional roles which can best
be played by faculty members and by multi-media
self—instructional programs.

That planners consider the following steps in
develOping the prOposed system of teacher

education in media:

146

Goal identification (i.e., deriving system

 

objectives from the identified media com-
petencies).

System analysis (i.e., specifying functions

 

to be performed by the proposed system).
System synthesis (i.e., incorporating these
functions into a system model).

System try—out and evaluation (i.e., testing
the proposed model).

System redesign (i.e., redesigning the model

 

as necessary for more adequate goal achieve-

ment).

That, in order to facilitate acceptance of the

system, planners take the following into account:

a.

b.

The kind of climate that encourages change.
The role of administrators, innovative staff
members, and "respected others" in change.

The role of adequate support staff, materials,

and facilities in change.

That system planners evaluate the system by

determining whether it does the following:

a.

b.

Achieves identified goals.
Adapts to needs of students with varying
backgrounds, attitudes, and perceptions

in relation to media.

147

Allows both teachers and students to
function in a creative manner.

Utilizes the unique capabilities of both
teachers and media.

Facilitates better communication and
cooperation among its components.
Facilitates analysis of when and how it

(i.e., the system) needs to change.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

150

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY East Lansing, Michigan 48823

 

Instructional Media Center

Dr. John Doe
Erickson Hall

Dear Dr. Doe:

You are very much aware, I know, of the importance of
teacher education at pre-service level in the use of
instructional media. We are currently seeking several
professors of elementary education like yourself who
utilize media in achieving their own course Objectives
and who could be helpful to us in planning an improved
teacher education program in media for our prospective
elementary teachers.

We need essentially two kinds of assistance: your analysis
of the degree to which our elementary education students
are presently acquiring media competencies and your judg-
ment as to points in the elementary program at which
specific competencies might most logically be introduced.
Enclosed is a list of media competencies, abstracted from
the literature, which might be useful to you in considering
these questions.

Miss Marie McMahan, an experienced teacher educator, is
conducting a study, as part of her doctoral dissertation,
of alternative ways of developing necessary media com—
petencies and would like an opportunity to talk with you
about the two points listed above. If you agree to
participate, she'll be getting in touch with you shortly
to work out details.

Please give me an early call or note indicating your re-
action.

Cordially,

Charles F. Schuller,

Director

Instructional Media Center
CFS:mm

Enclosure

 

"4

151

Introductopy Comments——Faculty Interview

 

This-study deals with the develOpment of competen-
cies in the selection, utilization, and production of
audiovisual media. The term audiovisual media, as used
here, refers to the total range of non—print materials
from very unsophisticated devices such as bulletin boards
and flannel boards to media such as instructional tele-
vision, simulation, and multi-media instructional programs.

Since many universities are unable, for various
reasons, to provide a basic audiovisual course for all
prospective teachers, this study will attempt to explore
one possible alternative method of developing media com—
petencies. Specifically, it will seek to determine the
feasibility of developing needed competencies within exist-
ing methods courses and other courses in education, where
apprOpriate, with the help of self-instructional programs
for individual students and packaged multi-media programs
suitable for use by single classes or by large groups as
desired.

In order to study the desirability of the above
procedure, representative professors of elementary edu-
cation at Michigan State University, knowledgeable in the
area of media, have been asked about their willingness to
react to certain questions. Since you have kindly agreed
to participate, I should like to secure your reaction to

the following questions:

152

Faculty Interview Form

 

Name of faculty member

 

Date interviewed

 

Course(s) taught by faculty member:

 

 

 

1. In general, what is your perception of the degree to
which competency in selection and utilization of
audiovisual media is currently being developed by
elementary prospective teachers at Michigan State
University?

153

2. Please indicate your perception of the degree to which
each of the following specific competencies has been
develOped by students when they enter your class. Use
a 5-point scale as follows:

 

 

1 2 3 4 5
4.)

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Competency 1

 

Competency 2

 

Competency 3

 

Competency 4

 

Competency 5

 

Competency 6

 

Competency 7

 

Competency 8

 

Competency 9

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

154

3. If there were an optimum point during the teacher
education sequence for development of each competency,
what do you think it would be?

 

‘ Methods
Education Education Course Student
200 321A (Which Teaching
One?)

 

Competency 1

 

Competency 2

 

Competency 3

 

Competency 4

 

Competency 5

 

Competency 6

 

Competency 7

 

Competency 8

 

Competency 9

 

 

 

 

 

 

155

4. What other suggestions do you have regarding how the
indicated competencies might best be achieved?

APPENDIX B

 

 

Previous Experiences with Media

Name Class Term

 

Check items which relate to you: Sophomore Junior
Senior Have done student teaching

Have had teaching experience

Directions for Use of Check Sheet

1. In column 1 please check each media type that you
have observed a professor using in any of your classes.

2. In column 2 please check each media type that a pro-
fessor has given you some assistance in knowing how
to select.

3. In column 3 please check each media type that a pro-
fessor has _given you some assistance in knowing how
to utilize.

4. In column 4 please check each media type that a pro-
fessor has given you some assistance in knowing how
to produce.

5. In column E please check each media type that you
have used to teach something to pupils in a student
teaching situation or to your peers in a college
class.

 

Column

 

Media Type

R

 

IEducational Tours

¥

 

1Reasource People

\

Objects or Models

\

 

 

DI‘amatization

\

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

158

 

Media Type

Column

 

3

 

Puppets or Marionettes

 

Simulation or Role
Playing

 

Chalkboard

 

Flannel Board

 

Bulletin Board

 

Magnetic Board

 

Motion Pictures

 

Instructional Television

 

Videotape

 

Flat Picture

 

Filmstrip

 

Slide

 

Overhead Projector
Transparency

 

Record

 

Tape Recording

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

159

 

 

 

 

 

Column
Media Type
3
Map
Globe
Graph

 

Teaching Machine

 

Programed Text

 

Electric Board

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX C

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162

 

Characteristics 0
Specific Media
Types

arencies
Recordi

s
rogramed Texts

-lide-
Electric Boards

Tape Recordings

Motion Picture
Flat Pictures

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APPENDIX D

164

Script for Self—Instructional Program
on Transparencies

 

Many teachers today are finding that the overhead
projector can assist them in solving a variety of in-

structional problems.

Transparency 1.—-To discover some of the ways in

 

which overhead projector transparencies are unique, re-
move transparency number 1 from the box and place it on
the lighted viewer. Try folding back the overlays and
then superimpose them on the base transparency once more
in the correct sequence.

You'll find that the grease pencil in the box does
an excellent job of adding information to the transparency
and that the marks can be easily erased with a kleenex.

Transparencies have special kinds of characteristics
which make them unique and which dictate the manner in
which they can be utilized in achieving instructional
Objectives.

Turn to your Worksheet on Transparencies. On page 1

 

you will find a section listing characteristics inherent

in various media types, some of these being pertinent to

transparencies, some not. Try selecting from among these
characteristics the four or five which you feel best

describe overhead projector transparencies.

165

Transparency 2, Characteristics.--Which charac-
teristics did you check? On transparency 2 you will find
the ones to be discussed in this program. Flip back the
opaque overlay strips, one at a time, as you are ready to
View each succeeding characteristic (Strip 1).

Transparencies involve the visual sense only
(Strip 2). They are primarily a still visual type (strip 3),

but can, on occasion, be utilized to depict simulated motion.

 

One of their most unique characteristics is that, unlike
other projected materials (strip 4), they can be EEEEEF
imposed on each other, thus achieving kinds of instruc-
tional objectives not possible with most other media types
(Strip 5). Like other projected visuals, they can be
enlarged and, in this form are usable by groups, whereas
in their original form they were not (Strip 6). Trans-
parencies have one additional characteristic not typical

of most other media: they can be marked on and erased.

 

These characteristics of transparencies, like those
of other media, are important, for they help in determining
apprOpriate uses. Cognizant of the characteristics of
transparencies, we can examine, for instance, how the fact
that materials can be manipulated on the stage of the over-
head projector suggests ways in which they can be used.

Transparencyd3.—-Teachers or pupils can move charac-

 

ters about on the stage as they share stories with each
other. A colored background can be utilized, or scenes
can be painted on a movable acetate roll that many over—

head projectors possess.

166

Transparency 4.——Arithmetic processes can be demon—

 

strated with cut—out objects, plastic dime store objects,
or checkers. If desired, an opaque paper can be held in
front of the lens while removing objects.

Transparency 5.——The Opaque cut-outs accompanying
this transparency represent two basketball teams which
can be manipulated to illustrate offensive and defensive
positions.

Transparency 6.--0paque hands for a clock face can

 

be manipulated by pupils to depict different times of the
day.

Transparency 7, Superimposed Visuals.--The overhead

 

projector, unlike most other audiovisual equipment, can
use visuals which are superimposed upon a base trans—
parency. This feature of the overhead makes many interest-
ing instructional tasks possible.

Sometimes, as in Transparency 7, transparent over-
lays are used to depict a process--in this case the
territorial growth of our country.

Transparency 8.--Superimposed images are useful,

 

too, in showing relative sizes of things--in this case
the equivalence of the fractions 1/4, 4/16, and 25/100,

and here

167

Transparency 9.--The relative sizes of the United
States, Brazil, and Argentina.

Transparency lO.—-In other cases, transparent over-
lays facilitate the depicting of other kinds of relation-
ships. Here, for example, the relationship of tOpography
to history is shown as one sees and understands the routes
by which settlers first moved inland from the coast.

Transparency ll.--Transparency 11, as presently
organized, shows the relative elevations of different
parts of the United States. With another overlay showing
crops, occupations, or rainfall, various geographic re-
lationships could be identified.

Transparency l2.——That green is a combination of

 

yellow and blue is graphically demonstrated by this over-
lay transparency, which helps one better understand the
relationships of various colors.

Transparency l3.—-Opaque overlay transparencies can

 

also be used, these enabling one to reveal a process,
step by step, as shown here.

Transparency l4.--Disclose or conceal information,
as depicted here.

Transparency 15.--Or reveal only part of the avail-
able information, as shown here.

Transparency 16,_Enlarged Visuals.-—The fact that

 

transparencies are projected visuals means that, like

other projected visuals, they enlarge materials which

168.

are too small to see at a distance. This fact has many
interesting implications.

Suppose, for example, that one wanted to enlarge
these letters. He could move the projector back as far
as necessary to project the letters at the desired size,
enlarge them on the chalkboard or on paper, and trace
them with ink.

Transparency 17.-—Or note that this plastic ruler,
too small to be read in its initial state, becomes very
legible when projected and is apprOpriate for giving
students practice in measuring.

Transparency l8.--On many occasions, you may wish

 

to show a magazine picture to a group but find yourself
without either an opaque projector or a darkened room.

A simple process which will be described later enables

you to transfer the ink from a magazine page to an acetate
sheet, thus making it possible to project the picture on
the overhead projector.

Transparency l9.-—Sometimes you will need a map of
an area currently in the news and will discover, much to
your disgust, that all of your maps are outdated. A
small newspaper map, run through a transparency—producing
machine in a few seconds, can be projected large enough

for a group to see.

169

Transparency 20, Visuals that can be Written on

 

and Erased.--One characteristic that transparencies have

 

which most media do not is that they can be written on
and the writing subsequently erased. This makes many
demonstrating and testing activities possible. For
example, a grease pencil can be utilized to demonstrate
how to fill in a check or other business form.

Transparency 21.-—To fill in blanks in a completion

 

exercise.

Transparenpy 22.--To select an answer from a group
of possible answers.

Transparency 23.-—To match a question and answer.

Transparency 24.--0r to illustrate a musical score.

 

Transparency 25, Brainstorming about Transparencies.—-
We have been looking at some examples of the fact that
characteristics of a transparency determine its uses.
There are many ways of using transparencies not mentioned
in this program, some of which have probably been running
through your mind as you used the program and began to
speculate about applications that this media type might
have for you. Turn to Page 2 of your Worksheet on
Transparencies and jot down three or four of your ideas
opposite the appropriate characteristics. When you have
finished, refer back to this program fOr a discussion of

types of transparencies and procedures for making them.

170

Transparency 26,dTypes of Transparencies.--We have
been looking at a variety of uses of transparencies but
have not, in the meantime, considered the various types
that can be produced.

Transparency 27.--Here is a matte acetate trans-

 

parency, one of the simpler kinds of permanent trans-
parency to make.

Transparency 28.--This is a temporary transparency,

 

made by using transparent grease pencils on clear acetate.

Transparency 29.--If you wish more permanent clear
acetate transparencies, they can be produced, as was this
one, by using nylon tip markers on clear acetate.

Transparency 30.—-Thermofax transparencies are among
the simplest machine-made ones. Here is a direct image
positive Thermofax transparency.

Transparency 31.--This is the same type of trans-
parency, except that it has been colored with nylon tip
markers.

Transparency 32.--This, again, is a direct image
positive Thermofax transparency, colored with adhesive
back acetate.

Transparency 33.--This, too, is a Thermofax trans-

parency, made on one of the tinted films. These come in

red, blue, yellow, or green tints.

 

171

Transparency 34.--This is a Thermofax negative trans-

 

parency. As you can see, it is Opaque and projects black
except for the lines, which project the same color as the
film. Negative transparencies are dramatic when a single
sheet suffices to convey the message, but are not useful

when overlays are required.

Transparency 35.--This is a diazo transparency.

As you will note, each overlay is of a different color.
This type of transparency is somewhat more complicated
to make than those previously described.

Transparency 36.—-This transparency is made from a
magazine picture and is called a picture transfer trans-
parency. It can be produced in about ten minutes.

In this program we have been thinking together about
the characteristics of transparencies and the resulting
implications for their use. We have looked, too, at some
of the types of transparencies which can be produced by
teachers and children. Once one has a sketch (called a
master) from which to make his transparency, the actual
production is usually a relatively simple process. The
next portion of this program will describe the procedure
for making:

1. Matte acetate transparencies

2. Clear acetate transparencies

3. Thermofax transparencies

4. Picture transfer transparencies

172

Work Sheet on Transparencies

Name Class Date

 

(From time to time as you use this self-instructional pro-
gram you will be asked to stop the recorder and react to

a specific question or problem on this sheet. In most
cases, the questions will ask you not merely to recall
information but to apply it to the solution of new pro-
blems and the generation of new ideas.)

I. CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSPARENCIES

Listed below are some characteristics which apply to various
types of non-projected media. Check the four or five which

you feel best describe transparencies. When you have finished,
change the tape recorder to "play" position once more.

 

 

Senses involved §Peed of use
Visual only Speed of use fixed
___AUdiO only '___Speed of use regulated
by user

Visual & audio
Sequence of use

 

Visual &
manipulative Sequence of use fixed
.__1All senses Sequence of use regu-

lated by user
Type of visual

 

___Motion visual Type of use possible
(motion inherent
in the medium) ___Usable by individual
___Simu1ated motion ___Usable by group
(motion provided
by the user) ___Usable over long period

(more than a day)

Still visual
Usable for only short

Two-dimensional period (less than a day)

visual
Availability of media type

Three-dimensional

visual Available from commercial sources
Superimposed visuals Can be locally produced
possible

Easy to procure commercially
Pictorial visual possible .
Relatively inexpensive (unit

Symbolic visual possible price of $10 or less)
Concrete visual possible Relatively easy to produce
Equipment - Relatively difficult to
produce

Equipment required

Equipment can be used
but not required .

Equipment not required

Equipment readily
available

173

II. Brainstorming About Transparency Uses

 

(As you read the section of the script on purposes for
which transparencies can be used, you undoubtedly thought
of some other examples of transparencies illustrative of
several of the uses. List three or four of these ideas

opposite the apprOpriate categories.)

General Uses Growing out of Specific Uses Growing Out
Characteristics of the Over- of These Characteristics
head Projector and/or of

Transparencies

 

Uses growing out of provision
of the ability to manipulate
objects on the overhead pro-
jector stage (simulating
motion, grouping and regroup-
ing objects, etc.)

 

Uses growing out of provision
of the ability to employ plastic
overlays

 

Showing processes (natural,
industrial, production,
governmental, etc.)

 

Showing relationships
(geographic, historical
and topographical, organ-
izational, etc.)

 

Uses growing out of provision
of the ability to employ
Opaque overlays

Showing a process

 

Revealing or concealing
something

 

174

Uses growing out of provision
of the ability to enlarge
materials that, unprojected,
are too small to be viewed

by a group

 

Uses growing out of provision
of the ability to mark on a
transparency and subsequently
erase the marks

 

Demonstrating filling in a
form

 

Giving experience in matching‘
items that go together

 

Giving experience in selecting
an item from a group of items

 

Giving experience in filling
in blanks

 

Other possible uses (please
be specific)

 

175

III. Evaluation of This Self-Instructional Program

Check items which relate to you.

1. Level:

SOphomore Junior Senior Graduate student

2. Teaching experience

 

None Student teaching Regular teaching

3. Previous experience with this media type:
Much Quite a bit Some Hardly any

None

4. Level of this program in relation to my background:
Difficult Somewhat About Rather Simple
difficult right simple
5. Ideas that I generated after using this program:

Many Quite a few Some Hardly any None

6. Parts of this program which I found unclear: (Please
be specific)

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allen, W. H. Research verified the value of audio-visual
materials. National Education Association Journal,
1952, 41, 49.

 

Allen, W. H. Research on new educational media: Summary
and problems. AV Communication Review, 1959, 1,
83—97.

Allen, W. H. (Ed.) A summary of the Lake Okoboji audio—
visual leadership conferences, 1955-1959. Iowa
City, Iowa: State University of Iowa, Extension
Division, 1960.

 

 

American Association for Colleges of Teacher Education.
Professional teacher education--a programed design
developed by the AACTE teacher education and media
project. United States Office of Education, Depart-
ment of Health, Education and Welfare, Educational
Media Branch, Contact No. OE 3-16-006. AACTE, 1968.

 

 

American Association for Colleges of Teacher Education.
Standards for the accreditation of teacher education.
(2nd draft) Washington, D. 0.: AACTE, 1968.

 

Arnspiger, V. C. Measuring the effectiveness of sound
motion pictures as teaching aids. New York:
Columbia University, Teachers College, 1933.

 

 

Barson, J. A procedural and cost analysis study of msdia
in instructional development. United States Office
of Education Grant No. OE-3-l6-030, Michigan State
University, 1965.

 

Barson, J. Instructional systems development project,
final report, United States Office of Education
Grant No. OE—5—l6-025, Michigan State University,
1967.

 

Bellach, Arno A. (Ed.) Theory and research in teaching.
New York: Columbia University, 1963.

 

177

178

Bloom, B., Englehart, M. D., Furst, E. J., Hill, W. H.,
& Krathwohl, D. R. Taxonomy of educational ob-
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York: Longmans Green, 19 6.

Brickell, H. M. Organizing New York state for edu-
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New York, 1961.

 

Briggs, L. J., Campeau, P. L., Gagne, R. M., & May, M. A.
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Briggs, L. J. Sequencing of instruction in relation to
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Bruner, J. S. Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge,
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Carpenter, C. R. Approaches to promising areas of_re-
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In W. Schramm (ed.), New teaching aids for the
American cldssroom. Stanford, California:
Institute for Communication Research, 1960.

 

Carpenter, C. R. A constructive critique of educational
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