SELECTED ATTITUDES TOWARD STUDENTS OF URBAN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS ANALYZED ON THE BASIS OF EMPLOYMENT STATUS AND RACE Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EARL HARVEY 1976 LIBRA I? y lldidhaganyfil,.’ Univcrsi: , This is to certify that the thesis entitled Selected Attitudes Toward Students of Urban Junior High School Teachers Analyzed on the Basis of Employment Status and Race presented by Earl Harvey has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. degree in Education Major professor Samuel S. Corl, III Date May 11, 1976 0-7 539 , u y L - .1“. (‘— ..\ .IM— \5 ABSTRACT SELECTED ATTITUDES TOWARD STUDENTS OF URBAN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS ANALYZED ON THE BASIS OF EMPLOYMENT STATUS AND RACE BY Earl Harvey The purpose of this study was to define the attitu- dinal differences between contract and noncontract inner-city teachers, both black and white, examined on the basis of a number of social and psychological variables. The subjects identified in the investigation were junior high public school teachers from Detroit, Michigan. The data were collected from teachers in 14 inner- city junior high schools. The instrument used to assess the attitudes of the subjects was a teacher questionnaire designed by Brookover and Gigliotti. The design of this istudy, which was descriptive in nature, included the selec- tion of the sample, collection of the data, analysis of the data, and the formulation of implications and recommenda- tions that could be appropriately drawn from the research. Eight hypotheses were formulated and tested. Statistical techniques used to analyze the data in this study included chi-square analysis of contingency and analysis of variance. Earl Harvey The data were grouped for analysis using a clustering pro- cedure,_the oblique multiple-group factor analysis. Eight hypotheses were formulated for testing. Four dealt with the relationship between contract status and certain variables; four related those same variables to racial identity of teachers. In testing the contract-status hypotheses, none taken broadly and analyzed through the clustered data produced results which would lead to the rejection of the hypotheses. This study would seem to indicate that con- tract and noncontract (ESRP) teachers do not differ sig- nificantly in their attitudes, expectations, feelings on perceptions of students, community, or their jobs. In testing the racially related hypotheses all but one produced results that tendtoward acceptance of the hypotheses. One hypothesis (Hypothesis V) produced data that led to the rejection of the hypothesis and the conclu- sion that black and white teachers did differ in their attitudes toward students' academic futures. When dealing with the probability of their students attending college in the future, black teachers had significantly higher expectations than did their white counterparts. SELECTED ATTITUDES TOWARD STUDENTS OF URBAN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS ANALYZED ON THE BASIS OF EMPLOYMENT STATUS AND RACE BY Earl Harvey A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1976 I) .1 H.011 , © Copyrighted by EARL HARVEY l 9 7 6 I dedicate this dissertation to my beloved mother, Mrs. Emma Ellis, and my grandmother, Mrs. Mariah Hayes, whose faith and prayers sustained me in my academic endeavors. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My sincerest respect to my chairman, Dr. Sam Corl, for his continued encouragement, support, and guidance throughout my doctoral program. I wish to acknowledge the help provided by the members of my committee: Dr. Joseph McMillan, Dr. Stanley Wronski, and Dr. Thelma Bishop. A very special thank-you is extended to Dr. Jeff Schneider, who provided far more help than any student could reasonably expect. My thanks go, also, to the peOple at webber Junior High School, for their assistance. In addition I would like to recognize here a number of people who have been especially significant in bringing me to this point in my life: Jim Harvey, Willie Harvey, Florine and Don Harvey, Jeanette and Early Miller, Jimmie Earl Miller, Bobby Gunn, Irv Obermark, Richard Miller, Arthur Simmons, Sandra Love, Roberta and Clarence Powell, John R. Cook, Julius C. Dix, Charles Feard, Dick Barnette, Lucille and William Kottmeyer, Walter Bellamy, Lindsey T. Williams, Linda and Julius Scipio, Sandra Childress, Garfield Hammond, Norma Sanders, Reverend Darneau Stewart, Darlene and John Mullins, Capt. Jimmie Joyner, Mary and Don Adams, Roy and Lottie Harvey, and Nancy Fields. iii If a man hasn't found something he will die for, he isn't fit to live. --Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr. iv LIST OF LIST OF Chapter I. II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE S I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 EXHIBITS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O 0 INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O O C O O I The Problem . . . . . Purpose of the Study . Need for the Study . . Variables . . . . . . Significance of the Study Methodology . . . . . . . Limitations . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . Overview . . . . . . . REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teacher Expectations of Student Achievement Levels . . . . . . . . Job Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . Substitute Teachers . . . . . . . . Motivation and Organizational Morale Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DESIGN OF THE STUDY 0 O C O O O O O O O O 0 Selection of Respondents Instrumentation . . . . . Variables . . . . . . . . Data-Analysis Procedure . ANALYS I S OF DATA 0 O O C O O O O O O O O 0 Review of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . The Effect of Contract Status on Teacher Attitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Effect of Race on Teacher Attitudes . Page vii ix Chapter Page V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS . . . . 63 Summary of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 ' CODClUSiOl‘lS o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 65 -Observations, Suggestions and I plications. 67 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . 69 Recommendations for Further Research . . . 70 APPENDICES O O O O O O O O 0 O O 0 O O O O O O O O O 72 A 0 THE INSTRUMENT O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 73 B 0 COVER LETTER 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 85 C. SUMMARY CHI-SQUARE TABLES FOR ITEMS INCLUDED IN CLUSTERS 1.1V 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o 87 BI BLIOGMPHY O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O 9 7 vi LI ST OF TABLES Table Page 1. DiStribution of Respondents by School . . . . 37 2. Teacher Expectations of Students Finishing High School (Item 17) . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3. Analysis of Variance of Difference Between Contract and Noncontract Teachers' Attitudes Toward Probable Student Achievement (College)(CluSter I)‘ . . . . . 46 4. Analysis of Variance of Difference Between Contract and Noncontract Teachers' Perceptions of Students' Abilities as Measured by Grades (Cluster II) . . . . . . 47 5. Teachers' Estimates of Percentage of Parents Expecting Their Children to Attend COllege (Item 62) o o o o O o o o o o o o o 48 6. Analysis of Variance of Difference Between Contract and Noncontract Teachers' Perceptions of Community Support for Education (Cluster III) . . . . . . . . . . 49 7. Teacher's Level of Consideration of New Job Offer (Item 31) o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 50 8. Analysis of Variance of Differences Between Contract and Noncontract Teachers' Perceptions of School Climate and Attitudes Toward Job (Cluster IV) . . . . . 51 9. Teachers' Estimates of Percentage of Students in the School Who Will Attend College (Item 18) O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 52 10. Teachers' Expectations of Percentage of Students in Their Classes Who Will Attend College (Item 19) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 11. Teachers' Expectations of Percentage of Students Who Will Complete College (Item 21) . . 54 vii Table 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Page Teachers' Estimates of the Frequency of Their Stressing to Students the Necessity of a Post-High School Education (Item 44) . . 55 Analysis of Variance of Effect of Race on Teachers' Estimates of Students' Probable Academic Achievement (College) (Cluster I). 55 Teachers' Estimations of the Percentage of Students in Their School Who Seek Extra WOrk for Better Grades (Item 48) . . . . . 57 Analysis of Variance of Difference Between Black and White Teachers, Regardless of Contract Status, With Respect to Their Perceptions of Students' Abilities as Measured by Grades (Cluster II) . . . . . . 58 Teachers' Estimates of What Percentage of Parents Want Feedback on Their Children's Progress (Item 64). . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Analysis of Variance of Difference Between Black and White Teachers, Regardless of Contract Status, With Respect to Their Perceptions of Community Support for Education (Cluster III) . . . . . . . . . . 60 Analysis of Variance of Differences Between Black and White Teachers, Regardless of Contract Status, With Respect to Their Perceptions of School Climate and Attitudes Toward Their Jobs (Cluster IV) . 61 viii LIST OF EXHIBITS Exhibit Page 1. Clusters Generated by Oblique Multiple Group Factor Analysis and Items Used . . . 41 ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The Problem Attitudes, expectations, and sociological orienta- tions have come to play an increasingly important role in American education, particularly with the disadvantaged of the inner-city schools. The interrelationship of teacher attitudes with student attitudes and achievement has grown in Significance as new methods have been sought to improve the quality of education for these students. These teacher attitudes are varied and many, positive and negative. They may range from a sensitive awareness of the special needs of students to tacit expectations of student performance based on socio-economic status, to more blatant historical prejudices arising out of the teacher's own class back- ground. Much of the literature on urban education assumes that "being a member of a lower-class, ethnic minority implies little chance of academic and future success" is a major set of attitudes held by a large prOportion of inner- city teachers, often with disastrous effects on their stu- dents. A middle-class orientation of these teachers, both in terms of develOpmental background and teacher training, is assumed to contribute to inadequate, unrealistic class- room expectations. Research conducted by Rosenthal and Jacobson suggests the role that teachers play in limiting or enhanc- ing the academic progress of students in inner-city schools.1 Their studies of the "self-fulfilling prophecy” in educa- tion indicate that teacher expectations significantly affect student learning. Negative attitudes on the part of teachers, such as class/cultural biases previously noted, contribute to low achievement and in a weakened student-teacher relationship. When teachers exhibit posi- tive attitudes toward students, interest is heightened and learning is intensified. These teachers help resolve insecurities through an optimistic approach to learning, help to instill self-respect and a strong self-image so necessary to disadvantaged youth, and teach relevant curricula that build a connection between school and students' everyday experience. Studies have found that stereotypes based on the dominant society's feelings are often adopted as firsthand experiences by individuals who may not have had firsthand experience in a particular area. Attitudes formulated upon this basis reflect an unawareness of real differences, lRobert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson, Pygmalion in the Classroom (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1963). particularly cultural and social differences, between majority students and racial and ethnic minorities. In this case an imbalance may be created between the views of the dominant society, of which the teacher is usually a member, and the minority group, defined through the majority's eyes. These stereotypes are assumed to lead teachers to expect less of disadvantaged children and therefore demand less, Ayers noted.2 As expectation influ- ences performance, the student feedback tends to reflect these teacher attitudes, and students respond according to teacher expectations. Purpose of the Study These assumptions, often cited in the literature on urban education, have not been subjected to thorough empirical testing. Neither the existence of these atti- tudes in black or white teachers, nor the impact of them, if indeed they do exist, is beyond question. This study attempted to discover the extent to which certain of these attitudes were present in the teaching pOpulation of junior high schools in Detroit, Michigan. Chosen as a study popu- lation was a group of teachers called Emergency Substitutes in Regular Positions (ESRP). These teachers' attitudes were compared with attitudes of a group of regular, 2George A. Ayers, "Teacher Attitudes and Black Children," Kappa Delta Pi Record, October 1970, pp. 22-24. certified teachers in the same junior high schools, who have had one to three years of teaching experience. The ESRP, a term coined by the Detroit Board of Education, is a teacher who has earned a college degree and who may or may not be certified as a teacher in his field of Specialization. ESRPs are hired on a temporary basis, and their employment is contingent on the enroll- ment of students in the school districts. If enrollment drastically decreases, as it has in Detroit in recent years, the ESRP is released from his position. ESRP's are used at times when a qualified, certified teacher of a particular subject is not available to fill the position. For example, a social studies major could teach music due to the lack of a certified music teacher, or a business major with a degree in marketing could teach third grade. The position of the ESRP is a tenuous one. The ESRP can be released at any time with a two-day notice when 'a qualified replacement is available. Although it is not unusual for an ESRP to hold one position for the school year, he may not know from one week to the next if he does, indeed, have a job. Such instability and insecurity in employment is compounded by lack of a contract, lack of annual raises, and by salaries comparatively lower than those of regular, certified teachers. The areas of social studies and English are hardest hit, a direct result of the Detroit Board of Education's refusal to make contracts with all teachers who assumed positions within the school system in these curriculum areas during the years 1968 through 1973. The Board cited the excessive number of applicants in these fields. It further reasoned that if cutbacks were necessary, these fields could most easily be handled by teachers in other areas; if positions did become available, there would always be qualified personnel to fill them. Those ESRPS of three, four, and five years' eXperi- ence in the system were particularly upset with the Board's action, for they had undergone an extensive probationary period without a contract. If a contract beginning in 1973 were to be offered, they would still be required to fulfill a period of probation, thus losing life insurance benefits and a good deal of bargaining power which would have been afforded them. With so many personal issues at stake, it is not unusual for the ESRPs' resentments toward the system to have some bearing on their classroom attitudes and per- formance. The ESRPs, therefore, may have been more candid in appraising school conditions and, particularly, the classroom situation. The .ESRPs were selected for this study because of these factors, because of their possible influence on attitudes and expectations, and because of their assumed general candor. Need for the Study The statistics of public education in the inner city form a bleak record. Research has pointed repeatedly to low academic achievement test scores of minority youths compared to higher scores of their outer—city counterparts, a factor often attributed to the middle—class bias of these tests, which rely heavily on verbal skills, the weakest area for most inner-city students, who excel, comparatively, in nonverbal communication techniques.3 According to the Coleman Report, black students from northeastern metropoli- tan areas on the average enter the first grade with some- what lower scores on standardized tests than white children have. By the sixth grade, these black students are about 1.6 grades behind, and they have fallen 3.3 grades behind white students by their senior year of high school.4 Racial isolation in the schools and communities is an educational problem for students and teachers alike. Coleman et a1. noted the influence of the socio-economic 5 mix in student classroom populations on achievement. The Kerner Commission Report, in its recommendations, stressed 3Nancy L. Arnez, "The Effect of Teacher Attitudes Upon the Culturally Different," School and Society, March 1966, p. 150. 4James Coleman et al., Equality of Educational Opportunity (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, 1966). p. 20. 5 Ibid., p. 22. the tremendous impact of the teacher in the inner-city school, and the role of his attitudes and expectations in the success or failure of the classroom experience.6 Socialization has become a key factor for the teacher, who must analyze and, in many instances, modify a potpourri of values, experiences, prejudices, and concepts formu- lated before the teacher training period and during his career preparation. Wilkerson stated that even highly professional teachers commonly lack the insights, social attitudes, and instructional skills that are essential for integrating social class and ethnic diversity in the 7 Although some special training programs do classroom. exist to prepare urban school teachers, they are often an annex to the regular program and reflect only slight, if any, modifications over the established model of teacher training.8 Rogers stressed the importance of teacher attitude and behavior in the classroom, suggesting that one of the most important conditions facilitating learning is the quality of attitudes in the interpersonal relationship 6Otto Kerner et al., Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (New York: Bantam Books, Inc., 196g) ' pp. 478-300 7D. Wilkerson, "Quality Integrated Education," IRCD Bulletin 5 (1965): 1-2. 8Robert L. Green et al., "Research and the Urban School," in Second Handbook of Research on Teachiggp ed. Robert M. Travers TChicago: Rand McNaIly & Co., 1973), p. 612. between teacher and student.9 A tremendous amount of sensi- tivity andself-awareness is required on the part of the inner-city teacher, be he black or white, if the problems of public education for the disadvantaged are to be reversed. Quite often, "hidden" prejudices on the part of teachers are allowed to continue and undermine classroom success because the teacher has not met these issues head on.10 Rosenthal addressed himself to the problems of teacher attitudes in the teaching-learning process when he observed that teacher expectations were communicated to the student in subtle vocal and visual nuances of which the teachers were unaware, and that it was these expectations that related to measurable performance changes in children.11 If the teacher is to represent a model for students to emulate, he must be a realistic model. Much of the cur- rent discussion of urban education holds that those teachers whose origins are urban and metrOpolitan have themselves become middle-class oriented during their college years, returning to the urban setting more equipped to teach in suburban, middle-class schools than the ghetto environment. Identification and modification of the prejudicial attitude 9Carl R. Rogers, "Humanizing Education: The Person in the Process," ADCD News Exchange 4 (1967): 2. 10Len Grossman et al., "Color the Problem Black-- But Not Entirely," Journal of Teacher Education 22 (Winter 1971): 492. 11Robert Rosenthal, "Self-Fulfilling PrOphecy," Psychology Today, September 1968, pp. 44-52. that disadvantaged children have limited inherent abili- ties must occur if teachers are to provide realistic, meaningful educational experiences for their students. The self-fulfilling prophecy, it has been pointed out, works equally well in terms of negative attitudinal ful- fillment. - It has been noted that the ESRP was chosen for this study because of the particular terms of his employment versus those of the regular, certified teacher. As with positions in any field which are categorized as "temporary" or are otherwise circumscribed by any number of management- imposed interpretations, an atmosphere exists where atti- tudes toward one's job and its performance--subjective and objective--may be strongly influenced by such job cate- gorizations. This assumption has been given strong con- sideration in the decision to focus upon the ESRP. The regular, certified teacher has been included in the study as a contrast to views expressed by ESRPs on two points: on a teacher/teacher comparison where administrative deci- sion has resulted in the creation of a disparity, and on the effects these differences may bring to bear upon teacher attitudes toward students. Issues such as contracts, salaries, and tenure may have subtle, yet far-reaching consequences on teacher per- formance and attitude. The teacher's self-image in the school aggregate has a distinct influence that cannot be 10 overlooked, nor can the encroachment of these issues be denied in the formation of a comprehensive study and formu- lation of relevant postulates. The advantages and disad- vantages inherent in the position of the ESRP versus the regular, certified teacher offer a different viewpoint on seemingly standard variables, given these subtle nuances. The peculiar status of teachers in the Detroit public schools would seem to call for research to discover the extent to which the employment of ESRP teachers con- stitutes an educational input on the positive or negative side. If, indeed, the unusual status of ESRPs is accom- panied by negative attitudes on their part toward the children they teach, questions should be raised about their continued appointment. Variables The following variables were employed in this study in the data collection: Teacher Variables 1. Attitude toward school 2. Academic expectation for students in the school and class 3. Evaluation of academic ability of students in the school 4. Reported aspirations of the students in the school 5. Commitment to teaching (job satisfaction) 6. Teacher demand for performance 11 Significance of the Study_ This study examined teacher attitudes and expecta- tions. If the teacher's expectations are high, it is assumed that the student will be affected by these expec- tations and probably act in such a way as to fulfill them. The potential for achievement is increased greatly. Through the continuance of positive attitudes and expectations on the part of the teachers and, it would be hOped, adminis- trators, sweeping changes in curricula and classroom appli- cation would facilitate a more relevant, useful, and expansive educational experience. The basic goal orienta- tion would carry the student through elementary and secon- dary school, with the potential for college or vocational training achievements and for future personal success. The far-reaching, long-term objectives would be met, as well as the immediate needs for equal Opportunity in education and for alleviating public school inequalities previously reviewed. Methodology The sample used for the collection of data was comprised of 33 black and 24 white ESRPs, and 28 black and 28 white regularly certified teachers with one to three years of teaching experience. The sample was randomly chosen from within the black and white strata. 12 Fourteen junior high schools from seven of eight regions in the Detroit, Michigan, school system were used in this study. The schools used were: Region 1 Greusel, Hutchins Region 2 Webber, Munger, Condon Region 3 Drew, Noble Region 4 Taft Region 5 Durfee, Post, Hampton Region 7 Jackson Region 8 Barbour, Foch Data were collected using a modified version of a questionnaire developed to study school social environments)"2 Teacher data were collected using a self-administered ques- tionnaire. The questionnaire was composed of 64 items, nine of which asked for demographic information. The remain- ing 55 items were statements of possible attitudes toward students, the school, and the neighborhood. Respondents were asked to indicate levels of intensity of attitude by marking a five-point scale. Eight hypotheses were formulated and tested: Hypothesis I: There will be no significant difference between contract and noncontract teachers with respect to their academic expectations of their students. Hypothesis II: There will be no significant difference between contract and noncontract teachers with respect to their perceptions of the academic ability of their students as measured by grades. 12Wilbur B. Bookover et al., Elementary School Social Envirgnment and School Achievement, Final Report of Coopera- tive Research Project No. 1-3-107, July 1973. 13 Hypothesis III: There will be no significant differ- ence between contract and noncontract teachers with respect to how much community support for education is perceived to exist. Hypothesis IV: There will be no significant difference between contract and noncontract teachers with respect to their perceptions of school climate and their atti- tudes toward their jobs. Hypothesis V: There will be no significant difference between black and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to their academic expectations of their students. Hypothesis VI: There will be no significant difference between bIaEk and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to their perceptions of the aca- demic ability of their students as measured by grades. Hypothesis VII: There will be no significant differ- ence between black and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to how much community support for education is perceived to exist. Hypothesis VIII: There will be no significant differ- ence between black and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to their perceptions of school climate and their attitudes toward their jobs. Because of the very small number of subjects in each cell of the analysis matrix, the data were then subjected to a series of clustering procedures. Four additional hypotheses were formulated as a result of this analysis. A one-way analysis of variance was constructed: black/white, contract/noncontract teachers. Results were analyzed for all variables that achieved a significance level of .10. Limitations The ESRP was selected, among many reasons, for a presumably more candid reSponse to the survey question— naire. Such responses are inherently more subjective in 14 nature, and while this would produce the hoped-for honest, frank answers, the door is also left Open for bias in a conclusion based on the participant's relationship to and attitudes toward the Board of Education and the particu- lar school system or administration. Such political over- tones may not influence attitudes and expectations of student achievement; they may involve only issues outside the basic classroom interaction. Furthermore, the students of the teachers sampled are from predominantly black, inner-city schools, and may not be representative of stu- dent attitudes, black or white, if the survey had also included suburban schools. Definition of Terms Attitude: An emotionalized belief, usually based upon value judgment and expectation of an individual or group. Cultural values: Inherent social and environmental traits adhered to and held in high esteem by a particular racial or ethnic group. Middle class: Socio-economic status and values of the middle and somewhat higher strata. Racially different: A member of a racial minority group. Regularly certified teacher: Certified or approved by the State of Michigan to teach in an area of special- ization. 15 Contract teacher: A teacher who has a written contract with a Board of Education and has established tenure. Noncontract teacher: A teacher without a contract, who is employed on a day-to-day basis. HHHE: A noncontract teacher employed on a day-to- day basis in a regular position, who may or may not be certified to teach in that position. Demographic variables: Specific personal character- istics of an individual (i.e., age, geographic background, etc.). Overview Chapter I serves as an introduction to the study and presents a statement of the problem and purpose of the study, as well as the factors contributing to the need for this research and its significance, its limitations, and definitions of terms used in this research. Chapter II contains a review of the literature used in this study and its relationship to the research. Chapter III outlines the methodology employed and the various procedures of the study. Included are an examination of the sample used, and the instrumentation and statistical procedure employed in the analysis of the data. 16 Chapter IV contains the research data and the results of the analysis of the data. Chapter V is a summary of the results of the research: conclusions are made and recommendations offered. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE We educate one another; and we cannot do this if half of us consider the other half not good enough to talk to. George Bernanrd Shaw Introduction Urban education has failed to provide equality of educational opportunity insofar as it does not fulfill the needs of the inner-city child. The crucial cause of this failure is assumed to be discrimination, a learning vari- able in and out of school.1 This is particularly apparent when inner-city schools are contrasted with suburban schools, which are predominantly white and middle class. Segregared schools have been blamed for this failure and for the perpetuation of a number of myths regarding urban schools, among them that this failure is the fault of the Oppressed child. As Julius Habsen, director of the Washington Institute for Quality Education, noted: "American public education is the only industry in the lByrd Jones, ed., Urban Education: The Hope Factor, Controversies in Education, The Massachusetts Series in Education (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Company, 1972), p. 7. 17 18 history of free enterprise where we have made the consumer responsible for the product."2 A serious conflict exists between the disadvantaged and the middle-class orientation of the school system, its administrators and faculty. Middle-class dominance in urban education has been perpetuated at the expense of the sociological and cultural aspects of the urban environ- ment, of which the inner-city child is a part, and with which he identifies. Today's urban teachers can be among the primary spreaders of this middle-class orientation, whatever their personal class origins. As teachers, their education was founded on a middle-class base, and they can transfer these standards and values to the inner-city student, generally with disastrous results. This happens when a student's cultural values are denied in favor of the teacher's, all supposedly in the better interests of the student. Teaching, too, is learned in middle-class teacher training programs that do not specifically relate to the problems of the inner city. The failure of urban educa- tion is, then, the failure to recognize this interrelation- ship, and to redirect teaching methods appropriately so that the inner-city child receives a relevant education. 21bid., p. 14. 19 Crucial to this study are teacher attitudes and expectations which, it is widely held, directly affect student attitudes and achievement levels. It is the teacher who initiates the self-fulfilling prephecy and the student who fills in the blank. In order to understand the impact of the attitudes of teachers on students' learning abilities, it is neces- sary to examine literature on teacher expectations, job satisfaction, substitute teachers, and motivation and organizational morale. Teacher Expectations of Student Achievement Levels The self-fulfilling prOphecy has maintained that a teacher who assumes that his students cannot learn is likely to discover himself with a class that, indeed, is unable to learn. As low-income, inner-city children con- tinue to be evaluated in research according to their socio- economic class characteristics, negative preconceptions on the part of the teachers are reinforced. Foremost.among the negative attitudes held by teachers are those "hidden" attitudes of which many are not consciously aware, but which serve to undermine any concerted effort toward an equal education for these students.3 The middle-class orientation of teachers and schools serves to reinforce these prejudicial concepts. A teacher's 3Grossman et al., "Color the Problem Black," p. 492. 20 expectation is founded on this base. He attempts to mold the inner-city child to this way of thinking: the child cannot fulfill these expectations: the failure is assured and fulfilled. The irony of this is its irrelevance to the funda- mental educational process, wherein the teacher is respon- sible for transferring knowledge in an effort to develop the intellectual capacity of his students. The limita- tions imposed by such attitudes only serve to stifle the learning process, frustrate the teacher, and reinforce his negative attitudes and expectations. It is simpler to blame the student. In Texas, for example, it has been reported that students in some pre- dominantly Mexican-American communities are forbidden to speak Spanish in class or during recess, under penalty of disciplinary action. Teachers have chosen Anglo class- mates to patrol the corridors, noting the names of those students who use Spanish in conversation among themselves.4 This form of repressive, discriminatory action on the part of teachers and administrators only serves to undermine the educational process and must adversely affect student achievement. Attitudes whose antecedents are in the teacher's middle-class orientation become blinders for the inner-city 4Charles E. Silberman, Crisis in the Classroom (New York: Random House, 1970), p. 94. 21 teacher. As his students reinforce his stereotyped think- ing, he dogmatically plugs away in an effort to transfer his goals and values to them. The situation becomes one of fitting the child to the methodology. Differences in cultural motivation, unacceptable to the teacher, conflict with his values. Negative self- concepts, low aspirational levels, lack of motivation are all characteristics usually ascribed to low-income stu- dents. These cultural differences, viewed in a negative context by the teacher, result in a negative attitude toward learning ability.5 Pessimistic attitudes toward inner-city children reinforce their own pessimism. A successful teacher, Wagner noted, must convince the student of his ability to achieve. Empathy becomes a key tool for teacher and student.6 Perhaps the most severly handicapping effect of negative teacher attitudes toward students is the result- ing defeatism, on both sides. Kenneth Clark stated: The dominant and disturbing fact about the ghetto schools is that the teachers and the students regard each other as adversaries. Under these conditions 5Arnez, "Effect of Teacher Attitudes," p. 151. 6Hilmar Wagner, "Attitudes Toward and of Disadvan- taged Students" (Ed.D. dissertation, University of Texas, El Paso), p. 439. 22 the teachers are reluctant to teach and the stu- dents retaliate and resist learning.7 Job Satisfaction A stigma has come to be attached to urban teaching positions. A great majority of teachers regard the inner- city schools as hardship posts, and almost as soon as they assume their positions they make application for transfer, fully aware that the sooner one is on the rolls, the better.8 Teaching is often reduced to a function of custodial care. A teacher who cannot reach his class by conventional methods, i.e., those more applicable to a suburban envi- ronment according to his standards, reverts to going through the motions of teaching, invariably shifting the emphasis to discipline. For a large number of teachers, job satisfaction has dimmed as a personal yardstick. Negative attitudes and expectations, once fulfilled, tend to result in an apathetic evaluation of one's teaching role. Such teachers have reverted to the most static means of teaching, gen- erously seasoned with disciplinary dogma, like standing a student in a corner, back to the class, or tedious 7Kenneth B. Clark, Dark Ghetto (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), p. 137. 8David R. Hunter, "The Slums: Challenge and Response," Education (New York: The Free Press, 1968). p. 122. 23 9 Others appear to have lost interest copying exercises. in their roles as disseminators of knowledge, developers of intellect. Research used in this study repeatedly points to demoralization of teachers unable to impose their values on students who, rather than working toward the achievement of a learning atmosphere that fits the student, simply give up. Said Allan Ornstein: "For his own mental health and disposition, then, the teacher is forced to learn not to care. . . . That the students are not learning is no longer his major concern."10 Effectiveness is fundamental to job satisfaction, and the unfortunate situation in urban schools is that the core of effective teachers is so small, compared to the greater numbers of teachers who are ill-prepared for urban assignments, ineffective and unconcerned.ll It is interesting to note that missing from the literature was mention of comprehensive assessment by teachers of their own job evaluations. Rather, fulfilled negative expectations and attitudes tended to result in an apathy, a lack of concern, as Ornstein said. Little mean- ing was evident in their work. Instead of challenging the existing system, if satisfaction did not exist--be it their 9Silberman, Crisis in the Classroom, pp. 87-88. 10Allan C. Ornstein, "Why Ghetto School Teachers Fail," Kgppa Delta Pi Record 4 (April 1968): 99-100. llLarry Cuban, To Make a Difference (New York: The Free Press, 1970), p. 34. 24 own self-concepts or those of the prevailing administra- tion--the teachers characterized in the literature Opted for a passive, uninvolved role. Even in ambivalence, this seemed the order. Substitute Teachers Substitute teachers have been called the forgotten men and women of the teaching profession: the dearth of published investigative research bears this out. Little published information concerns itself with the role, attitudes, and challenges that a substitute faces every day the telephone rings, bringing a new assignment to test his teaching skills and professional ingenuity. Compara- tive data are negligible; most information is comprised of checklists for a successful day or of accounts of the trials of the sub. The position of the ESRP in Detroit can be related to some of the researCh, particularly the issues of inter- relationships with school administration and students. Little investigative work has been done in this area, how- ever. Complex issues remain for future analysis. Identity is a critical need of the substitute.12 Most school administrations regard their available sub- stitutes impersonally, as a list categorized by grade 12Elizabeth H. Steltenpohl, "How to Uncomplicate Your Substitute Teacher Program and Make It Make Sense, Too," The American School Board Journal, February 1974, p. 56. 25 level and/or subject specialty. Coordination of skills with need is often left to chance--often the first sub who answers the phone is the one hired. Underutilization is a major problem with substi- 13 They must teach a wide range of subjects tute teachers. and grade levels. Students regard them as fill-ins who are not to be taken seriously. Often, they are excluded from professional activities with fellow teachers. These factors are interwoven in a manner that only tends to complicate an already tenuous situation. Most principals are concerned with how well the substitute con- trols the class, follows school regulations and procedures --inc1uding completion of unfamiliar forms and records. The absent teacher is interested in returning to an orderly classroom. If a lesson plan has been provided, he expects the sub to have followed it to the letter.14 Substitutes cite regular teachers who have been helpful by offering assistance in locating materials and tips on managing particular classes, but they note some aloofness on the part of regular teachers and exclusion in informal situations. Substitutes are often extremely 13Ibid., p. 36. l4Roosevelt Washington, Jr., "Substitute Teachers Need Supervisory Help," Educational Leadership, November 1972, p. 153. 26 conscious of their low status and feel little job satis- 15 Many school principals, too, feel faction or security. their job is done once they have secured an appropriate substitute, and offer little procedural guidance. Those attitudes of principals and regular teacher do little to enhance the substitute's image. It is not surprising that students regard the substitute with irrev- erence, for they have come to know him as a fill-in, a baby-sitter who will maintain the classroom status quo until the regular teacher returns. Long-term replace- ments, while they are afforded a better opportunity to carve a place for themselves in the minds of students and staff, are still viewed guardedly. The credibility gap between substitutes and regular teachers owes much to the poorly administered deployment of substitutes within a school district or system. An atmosphere of insecurity surrounds the substitute; he works in isolation, and rarely gets any feedback for his teaching efforts.16 Substitutes themselves note that their appearance in a classroom can be a meaningful experience for the stu- dents if a little thoughtful planning is taken with each new assignment, whether or not a lesson plan is provided. 15Gloria Stashower, "Is There a Substitute for Sub- stitutes?" School Management, April 1974, p. 25. 16Ibid. 27 Current events discussions, open-end sessions, explora- tion of student interests all can provide stimulating class periods when the regular teacher is absent.17 It has been suggested that school administrators take a close look at the methods in operation for maximum utilization of substitutes. Orientation workshops have proven successful for transmitting new methods of class- room management. Another method is changing the role of the substitute from that of "teacher-replacement” to "learning-replacement," foregoing regular routine for new approaches and experiences with the standard curriculum.18 There has been a call for budget allocations to support the recruitment of a regular corps of substitutes per school in each district. ‘These substitutes would thereby become members of the regular staff, with duties that would include attendance at teachers' and parents' meetings. The substitute would gain status and prestige and could grow professionally with the rest of the staff, making more meaningful contributions to school and self.19 Tenured teachers on the regular staff might be used as substitutes, rather than less experienced beginners, under the direction of a central coordinator, by an 17E. Blanche Norcross, "The Unvarnished Views of a Substitute," Monday Morning, January/February 1970, p. 17. 18Stashower, "Is There a Substitute," p. 25. 19Washington, "Substitute Teachers," p. 155. 28 individual school or on a system-wide basis.20 Retired professionals and experts in various fields have been sug- gested to provide new insights in Specialty areas, like law, the arts, business, and science.21 Motivation and Organizational Morale Just as the student fulfills the teacher's expec- tations of 10w achievement, little chance of future suc- cess and upward mobility, so also is the teacher fair game for the same personally destructive results. While the student's self-concept, at best a low one, may be stunted and deprived of full development because of nega- tive feedback from teachers, the same may be applied to the teacher in his personal and professional role. The demands of urban education require dynamic teachers, flexible, innovative in methodology, objective and Opti- mistic.. These are the significant motivational factors that ultimately separate the successful, positive teacher from the greater group of static, inflexible faculty. Teacher training programs have come under attack for their inability to prepare new teachers adequately for the inner-city school. These programs have been charged with unrealistic, irrelevant approaches to the rapidly evolving role of education. A beginning teacher, 20Thelma K. Stevens, "Whither the Substitute Teacher?" The Clearing House, December 1969, p. 230. 21 Norcross, "Unvarnished Views, p. 17. 29 his middle-class orientation intact, sets out to apply these principles in an environment where they are inap- propriate. He is motivated by a desire to succeed, to practice his skills, to dominate. The succession of frustrations and failures strikes a fatal blow at motiva- tion, transforming him into a spectator in a theatre. Ill-equipped and uninformed as to how he should reverse his unsatisfactory classroom experiences, he plods along, never shifting gears, until motivation all but disappears and he is relegated to walking through his professional role. Motivation has been cited as self-fulfilling, and calls for a greater emphasis upon relevance in curriculum 22 A teacher, frustrated by and classroom materials. failures with inner-city students, must concentrate on innovative teaching techniques that will work success- fully. Teachers must be willing to seek advice and infor- mation from nontraditional sources, like social service agencies and the community. Socialization, said Hazel Karbel, an inner-city teacher, is a prerequisite for success with the disad- vantaged.23 On her own initiative, she educated herself 22Betty Levy, "An Urban Teacher Speaks Out," Educating the Disadvantaged Learner (San Francisco: Chandler Publishing Co., 1966), p. 431. 23Richard Wisniewski, ed., New Teachers In Urban Schools (New York: Random House, 1968): p. 83. 30 to the community, visited her students' homes, learned the cultural and social factors which related directly to the students as people as well as pupils. This kind of approach recognizes the existence of negative attitudes, hidden prejudices, incomplete train- ing, and the need for change. It directly challenges the middle-class thrust of teacher and school. In so doing, the teacher is faced with some serious personal confronta- tions which he may not be willing to meet. Herein lies a critical factor which, when resolved by the greater number of inner-city teachers, can have far-reaching, extremely positive, effects. Most, however, avoid the issue. It is far safer for one's self-image: a teacher can get by, passing failure on the student, as has been illustrated in the literature with countless examples. Larry Cuban stated that ineffectiveness is a result of a lack of flexibility on the part of teachers, and a stubborn resistance to technology.24 As victims of "tunnel vision," these teachers are not motivated beyond traditional methods. He also cited the intellectual iso- lation of teachers, brought about by a dogmatic, wearisome classroom routine that saps many of any desire to continue their own learning processes out of the school. Clearly, attitudes and motivation are strongly interrelated. Much of the adherence to outdated 24Cuban, To Make a Difference, p. 38. 31 methodology and negative attitudes, resulting in low, teacher motivation and morale, can be traced back to school administrations, which continue to place high priorities on prescribed operational methods that leave little room 25 Foremost among these is the teacher's for change. almost paranoid need to maintain control of his class. Noise and discipline are so blown out of pr0portion that they tend to shroud the teacher's imagination. They become priority concerns, at the expense of the learning process. Teachers who approach the inner-city school with limitations on attitude and expectation generally approach motivation in the same manner. In addition, many school systems require five or more years' teaching before a transfer can be requested, thereby trapping teachers in what Ornstein called a hypocritical situation, "syphoning the teacher's energy and enthusiasm . . . first coercing teachers into prohibiting their escape from an almost impossible teaching situation, and therefore meaningless existence."26 'When Speaking of motivation, then, self-analysis by the inner-city teacher is essential. Richard Bessone challenged "disadvantaged” teachers and administrators to question their own attitudes and put ideas of diagnosis 251bid., p. 41. 26 p. 100. Ornstein, "Why Ghetto School Teachers Fail," 32 and treatment into practice in place of irrelevant cur- 27 Such self-motivation might include innovative ricula. sample programs that would include educational psychology, cultural anthropology, urban sociology, corrective and remedial teaching, and methods of teaching English to clarify the structure of language and patterns of learning, suggested here for secondary English teachers. Ornstein's appraisal of teacher morale in the inner city is an appalling indictment, and a cause for concern, both in terms of the teacher and his training, and the school system as a whole. He wrote: Ghetto school teachers are subject people. Their schools are a kind of jail sentence, and "torture" is not too strong a word to describe some of the things that they have experienced in the classroom.28 Summary The literature that has been reviewed in this chap- ter forms the theoretical basis of this study. The first portion of this chapter focused on material indicating that there is a conflict between disadvantaged youth and the middle-class orientation of the schools: for the teacher fosters this middle-class orientation and mini- mizes the student's cultural values. Crucial to this study is the literature by Arnez, which indicates that 27Richard M. Bessone, "Disadvantaged Teachers in Disadvantaged Schools," Contemporary Education, February 1970, p. 184. 28Ornstein, "Why Ghetto School Teachers Fail, " p. 100. 33 teacher attitudes and expectations affect students. Silberman said that low expectations on the part of teachers stifle the learning process, frustrate the teacher, and reinforce negative attitudes and expectations. The successful teacher, Wagner noted, must convince the stu- dent of his ability to achieve. The relationship of teacher attitudes to job satis- faction was discussed. Not only is there a stigma to urban teaching positions, according to Hunter, but the nega- tive attitudes and low expectations of students that a teacher brings with him to the teaching position, when once fulfilled, result in job dissatisfaction. Cuban felt that teacher effectiveness is essential to job satisfaction and the teacher with poor attitudes and expectations of his students is not going to be effective. Additional sections of the chapter about substi- tutes and teacher motivation support hypotheses in this study. Steltenpohl discussed identity as a critical area for the substitute, while Stashower stated that school administrators underutilize noncontract teachers' services. Since motivation was cited by Levy as being self-fulfilling, then success is imperative. Socialization is a prerequi- site to successful teaching in the inner city, according to Korbel. In further discussion on motivation by Bessone, self-analysis by the inner-city teacher was claimed to be 34 essential. Bessone continued to challenge teachers and administrators to become involved in in-service training, not only to correct unhealthy attitudes but as a self— motivational technique. Chapter III contains a detailed description of the research design. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY This study was designed to investigate certain attitudes of junior high school teachers employed by the Board of Education, and to examine their attitudes on the basis of certain social and psychological variables. Two distinct groups were selected for this research study: (1) regular, certified teachers with one to three years of teaching experience: and (2) Emergency Substitutes in a Regular Position (ESRP). These two groups were further subdivided by race. Selection of Respondents Detroit, Michigan, is the fifth largest city in the United States, with a population of over two million. While approximately 90 percent of Detroit's population was born in this country, it is an ethnically diversi- fied city, including descendants from Eastern and Western Europe, the Middle East, Far East, and the Americas. Blacks make up approximately 60 percent of the population. The public school system consists of 233 elementary schools, 55 junior high schools, 8 middle schools, and 21 high schools. Approximately 265,000 students attend 35 36 these schools. Blacks comprise more than 70 percent of the enrollment. The racial composition of the two groups selected for this sample consists of 31 black and 24 white ESRPS, and 30 black and 28 white regular contract teachers. The schools involved in this study consisted of 14 junior high schools located in the inner city of Detroit, Michigan. These schools were located in Regions One through Eight, excluding Region Six. Region Six was originally a part of this study, but the administration would not agree to the research within schools in their region. Twelve of the 14 schools involved in this study had 100 percent black student enrollment. One school was 70 percent white and 30 percent black. Another school had a population of 80 percent black, 15 percent white, and 5 percent Spanish-speaking students. The researcher's aim was to conduct a study includ- ing all 55 junior high schools in the Detroi public school system. However, only 14 schools were involved in the study because the researcher was not granted permission to collect data from 41 junior high schools. The Research and DevelOpment Department was author- ized by the Region Superintendent and the Principal to conduct the study. Participation by an individual or by schools was entirely voluntary. The Research Department had to send each Region Superintendent a c0py of the questionnaire for his approval. 37 He then forwarded the questionnaire to each principal so that he could review and approve it. naire, in which the researcher stated his request (see Appendix B ) . A cover letter accompanied the question- shown in Table 1. Table 1.--Distribution of respondents by school. The distribution of respondents by school is School Region ESRP Teachers Regular Teachers Black White Black White Greusel Hutchins Webber Munger Condon Drew Noble Taft Durfee Post Hampton Jackson Barbour Foch Total Respondents mmflU'lmUlvwaNNNl-‘H NNNNNNNNMNNWWN HHI—‘I—‘NNI—‘NMNNMNH I-‘NNNNNNNNNQ’UJUN HHNI—‘l—‘UNHWWwa-JN w H N b to O N (I) 38 The researcher telephoned the principal who indicated he would accept participation.well in advance and made arrangements to administer the questionnaire at the convenience of the principal and teachers. The prin- cipal selected the ESRPs and the regular teachers in his school. The researcher and a trained graduate research assistant administered the questionnaires to the ESRPs and regular teachers. Several attempts were made to collect data from Region Six, a region that is racially mixed and could prob- ably have contributed significantly to the research. The administration of that region refused to cooperate with this study. Instrumentation The instrument employed for the current analysis was a questionnaire designed to elicit attitudes, beliefs, and perceptions of attitudes and beliefs of those indi- viduals sampled. This instrument was originally developed in 1969 for use in the study of school social environment by Wilbur Brookover and Richard Gigliotti. The original instrument was pre-tested in a moderate-sized industrial city, culminating in the elimination or rephrasing of several items which the subjects were judged to have dif- ficulty in understanding the intended meaning. Since 1969 the questionnaire has been used with measured consistency 39 in research. This same teacher questionnaire was used in this study because it had been found to be valid in measuring teacher attitudes in a school social system; and it was reliable because it consistently measured teacher attitudes. Variables The variables are based on the 55 items from the teacher questionnaire that was administered to 113 teachers. The teachers were treated as individual respondents, rather than using a school mean of items as a basis for factoring. There were no missing data, for all items were completed on the questionnaire by the 113 teachers. The 55 variables were grouped for analysis purposes into six major categories: 1. Attitude toward school 2. Academic expectation for students in the school and class 3. Evaluation of academic ability of students in the school . ' 4. Reported aspirations of the students in the school 5. Commitment to teaching (job satisfaction) 6. Teacher demand for performance Data-Analysis Procedure A chi-square analysis of contingency table was employed for the purpose of studying the relationship 40 between certain individual attitudes of teachers measured by their responses on the questionnaire, and the race of the teachers. Next, the same analysis was employed to study the relationship between the same attitudes and the status of the teachers--that is, whether they were Emergency Sub- stitutes in a Regular Position (ESRP) or regular teachers. These attitudes correspond to individual teacher responses on all 55 items. A clustering procedure, the Oblique Multiple Group Factor Analysis, employing the computer program called "Package," devised by Dr. John E. Hunter, Department of Psychology, Michigan State University, was used. The clusters were refined, resulting in four final clusters, each of which had good internal consistency and reliability (see Exhibit 1). .To analyze the cluster data, a one-way - analysis of variance on two independent variables was' used: black vs. white; contract vs. noncontract teachers. Chapter III has presented the organization of the study and the research procedures used. Chapter IV includes a discussion of the results of the analysis of the data. 41 Exhibit l.--Clusters generated.by oblique multiple group factor analysis and items used. Cluster A: Teachers' Item # 20. 18. 35. 33. 16. 27. 19. 21. 17. 28. Cluster B: What percentage of the students you expect to complete college? What percentage of the students you expect to attend college? What percentage of the students you think the principal expects What percentage of the students you think the principal expects school? estimates of their students' level of probable academic achievement(COIIegeL in in in to in to maximum this school do this school do this school do attend college? this school do complete high What percentage of the students in this school do you expect to complete high school? ‘What percentage of the students in this school would you say want to go to college? What percentage of the students in your class do you expect to attend college? What percentage of expect to complete What percentage of expect to complete What percentage of you say want to go Item # 23. 22. 36. 37. the students college? the students in your high school? the students to college? in your class do you class do you ixiyour class would Teachers' estimates of the academic ability of their students as measured by grades. How many of the students in this class are capable of getting mostly A's and B's? How many of the students in this school are capable of getting mostly A's and B's? How many students in this school do you think the principal believes are capable of getting mostly A's and B's? How do you think your principal rates the academic ability of the students? 42 Exhibit l.--Continued. 15. 14. On the average, what level of achievement can be expected of the students in your class? On the average, what level of achievement can be expected of the students in this school? Cluster C: How much community support is perceived to Item # 60. 64. 47. 51. exist? The parents in the area the school serves are deeply concerned that their children receive a tOp-quality education. How many of the parents in this school service area like feedback from the principal and teachers on how their children are doing in school? How many teachers in this school encourage students to try hard to improve on previous test scores? How many students in this school will try hard to do better on tests than their friends do? Cluster D: School climate--how interested and eager are Item # 29. 25. 26. 38. the students? How much do you enjoy your teaching responsibilities in this school? What percentage of the students in this school would you say want to complete high school? What percentage of the students in your class would you say want to complete_high school? Completion of high school is a realistic goal which you set for what percentage of your students? CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA Review of the Problem Educators in recent years have been giving closer attention to behavioral factors, such as teacher attitudes and expectations, as they relate to student achievement. The Spotlight has been particularly focused on teacher attitudes in inner-city schools whose students are from ethnic minority families of low socio-economic status and whose student achievement is low. In an effort to improve the quality of education in inner cities, an analysis of all educational components, with special scrutiny of the classroom teacher, is being made. The teacher, frequently having a middle-class orientation both in terms of home background and teacher training, often has poor expecta- tions of his students. His attitude often is that since his students came from a lower-class ethnic minority, they naturally have little chance of academic success. This cultural bias, sometimes evidenced in teachers' attitudes, significantly affects student learning, which results in what Rosenthal and Jacobson called a self- fulfilling prophecy:l The teacher who has negative attitudes 1Rosenthal and Jacobson, Pygmalion in the Classroom. 43 44 further weakens student achievement, whereas the teacher with positive attitudes intensifies the learning process which results in higher student achievement. AS expec- tation influences performance, the student feedback tends to reflect these teacher attitudes--the students respond accordingly. This study is a result of a further analysis of teacher attitudes based on the race and con- tractual status of the teacher, and the extent to which they affect a specific group of unique Emergency Substi- tute Teachers in Regular Positions. The analysis of data is divided into two major sections: the effect of contract status on teacher atti- tudes and the effect of race on teacher attitudes. Spe- cific hypotheses are identified within each section. The Effegt of Contract Status on Teacher Attitudes The first set of items used in this analysis deals with teacher attitudes toward students. Specifically, they concern teachers' expectations of the probable aca- demic achievement in school--whether students will probably finish school, attend college, etc. Hypothesis I: There will be no difference between contract and noncontract teachers with respect to their academic expectations of their students. Ten items in the questionnaire dealt with this issue. Of these, one, taken separately, produced data that tend to reject the hypothesis. 45 Table 2.--Teacher expectations of students finishing high school (Item 17). £Hatmsof . '. ' Teal ‘Wayfifiufl: Ihgh Awaage low van{low moans Contract 14 17 8 5 7 51 Nanoontract 12 18 27 3 2 62 Total 26 35 35 8 9 113 Chi square = 11.847 Significant at .02 An analysis of the data in Table 2 reveals that more noncontract teachers felt that a higher percentage of their students had an "average" to "very high" chance of completing high school than did contract teachers. Per- haps the noncontract teacher who is new to teaching and enthusiastic about the changes he can effect has higher ideals for students. The contract teacher, on the other hand, is probably more aware of the environment of his students and the hardships they must overcome in order to Show up for school, regardless of the effort expended by them once they arrive. Experiencing the disillusionment of promising students he taught in junior high school drop- ping out before graduation from high school, the contract teacher may feel that students without basic skills become discouraged with attending class and join the ranks of the ”drOp-outs." For this reason the contract teacher could have less expectation of some of his students. 46 All other single-item analyses failed to yield significant differences. These are included in Appendix C. When the data were clustered, yielding a composite score that was deemed to measure teachers' attitudes toward student success, a variance analysis indicated no signifi- cant difference between contract and noncontract teachers. The mean cluster score for contract teachers was 3.14 with a standard deviation of .72; the mean cluster score for noncontract teachers was 3.15 with a standard deviation of .69. The summary data for the variance analysis are shown in Table 3. Table 3.--Analysis of variance of difference between contract and noncontract teachers' attitudes toward probable student achievement (college)(Cluster I). Source of Variance Sum of Squares D.F. Mean Square F Between categories .00 l .00 .00 Within categories 54.10 110 .49 Total 54.10 111 Not significant Since only one of 10 items yielded a significant dif- ference between noncontract and contract teachers, and since the analysis of cluster data also failed to reveal signifi- cant differences, it would seem reasonable to accept the 47 first null hypothesis. The study supports the similarity between both groups of teachers. Hypothesis II: There will be no significant differ- ence between contract and noncontract teachers with respect to their perception of the academic ability of their students as measured by grades. Six items on the questionnaire dealt with this issue. None of the items alone showed significant dif- ferences. Table 4 shows the summary data for the analysis of variance between contract and noncontract teachers for Cluster II. Table 4.--Analysis of variance of difference between contract and noncontract teachers' perceptions of students' abilities as measured by grades (Cluster II). Source of Variance Sum of Squares D.F. Mean Square F Between categories .24 l .24 .44 Within categories 59.33 110 .54 Total 59.57 111 Not significant The means for contract (3.76) and noncontract (3.85) teachers differed only slightly. The standard deviations were very similar (contact .72, noncontract .74). Since no single item produced a significant difference between groups, and the analysis of variance for the cluster 48 likewise failed to show significant differences, the null hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis III: There will be no significant differ- ence’between contract and noncontract teachers with reSpect to how much community support for education is perceived to exist. Five items in the questionnaire dealt with this issue. Of these items one, taken separately, produced data that tend to reject the hypothesis. Table 5.--Teachers' estimates of percentage of parents expecting their children to attend college (Item 62). sunmsanTamfimm Vhrylfigh Ifigh Amamge low Vbqylow moans Contract 6 13 5 23 4 51 ancontract 6 2 16 32 5 62 TDtal 12 15 21 55 9 113 Chi square = 12.846 Significant at .02 Table 5 indicates that for this item noncontract teachers tended to perceive lower support levels in the community than did contract teachers. But the variance analysis of cluster data, also dealing with this variable, failed to show significant differences (Table 6). The mean cluster score for noncontract teachers in this case was 3.20 with a standard deviation of .69; the mean cluster score for contract teachers was 3.28 and the standard deviation was .69. 49 Even though one item, taken alone, indicated sig- nificant differences between groups, the bulk of evidence-- including the more statistically powerful variance analysis of cluster data--would seem to favor accepting Hypothesis III; there appears to be no significant difference between contract and noncontract teachers on this variable. Table 6.--Analysis of variance of difference between contract and noncontract teachers' perceptions of community support for education (Cluster III). Source of Variance Sum of Squares D.F. Mean Square F Between categories .22 1 .22 .37 Within categories 67.11 110 .61 Total 67.34 111 Not significant Hypothesis IV: There will be no significant difference between contract and noncontract teachers with respect to their perceptions of school climate and their atti- tudes toward their jobs. When asked, "If someone were to offer you an inter- esting and secure nonteaching job for $3,000 more a year, how seriously would you consider taking the job?" the teachers responded as shown in Table 7. The table indi- cates that, generally, noncontract teachers would be willing to entertain a change of position. Interesting, though, is the fact that the previous question--on the preceding page-- 50 was identical except that the dollar amount in question was $1000. The data for this item did not indicate a significant difference between groups. Apparently, money is an important item to these teachers. All other items produced data that tended toward acceptance of the hypothesis. Table 7.--Teacher's level of consideration of new job offer (Item 31). Stanmsof vory timtmhat Not\kmy NOtEhrflmrfly’,kfial Tamflem Senkxsly Senkmsly Senkmsly Atlfll Contract 17 15 9 8 49 Noncontract 33 23 ' 2 4 62 Total 50 38 11 12 111 Chi square = 11.224 Significant at .05 Again the data were grouped, and an analysis of variance for the fourth cluster was performed. Data are shown in Table 8. The mean cluster score for contract teachers was 2.84 with a standard deviation of .96; the mean for non- contract teachers was 2.77 with a standard deviation of .86. No significant difference was found. 51 Table 8.--Ana1ysis of variance of differences between contract and noncontract teachers' perceptions of school climate and attitudes toward job (Cluster IV). Source of Variance Sum of Squares D.F. Mean Square F Between categories .15 l .15 .18 Within categories 90.20 110 .82 _. Total 90.35 111 ' Not significant As in the analysis of Cluster III, while one item I; included in the cluster did result in significant differ- ences, the others--and the variance analysis of the cluster data together--did not. It seems reasonable to accept the hypothesis; there appears to be no significant dif- ference between contract and noncontract teachers on this variable. The first section of this chapter has presented data pertinent to the question of whether noncontract (ESRP) teachers' attitudes differ significantly from con- tract teachers' attitudes. Within the confines of this study it would appear that contract status has very little relationship to attitudes toward students. While contract status is the primary focus of this study, it was also possible to explore the relationship of race to the same general variables. Four additional hypotheses relating the race of teachers, regardless of 52 contract status, to attitudes and expectations toward students, are explored in the final section of this chapter. The Effect of Race on Teacher Attitudes Hypothesis V: There will be no significant differ- ence between black and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to their academic expectations of their students. Ten items in the questionnaire dealt with this issue. Of these items four, taken separately, produced data that tend to reject the hypothesis. As shown in Table 9, only one teacher out of a total of 113 had "very high" expectations of the students in the total school population attending college. Black teachers had somewhat more "high" and "average" responses, as a whole. Total teacher responses indicate that the teachers, either black or white, had low expectations of students attending college. Table 9.--Teachers' estimates of percentage of students in the school who will attend college (Item 18). FacecfifTamflmr Vhrytfigh Ifigh .Awenmxa inmv venylrw' {ands Black 0 10 25 20 16 60 White 1 2 7 21 21 52 Total 1 12 22 41 37 113 Chi square = 9.74 Significant at .05 53 Table 10 indicates that black and white teachers generally have low expectations of students in their classes attending college. Further inspection of the table reveals that one black teacher had "very high" expectations and nine black teachers had "high" expecta- tions, whereas there were no responses for white teachers in these two categories. Table 10.--Teachers' expectations of percentage of students in their classes who will attend college (Item 19). Rmxaoffihadxm “aarfinfli Ifigh Amamge Iow Vaqrnaw mmmus Black 1 9 14 14 23 61 White ' o o 16 11 25 52 Total 1 9 3o 25 48 113 Chi square = 10.165 Significant at .05 Comparing information in Tables 9 and 10, there is a similarity of teacher responses in both tables. One can conclude that teachers who partiCipated in this study, regardless of race, generally had low expectations of the students in the total school or in their classes attending college, but that black teachers' expectations were signifi- cantly higher. Table 11 indicates that 27 black teachers responded "very high” or "high" compared to eight white teachers, con- cerning the percentage of students who would complete college. 54 Further analysis of the data shows that fewer black teachers than white teachers had "very low" and "low" expectations of students completing college. Table 11.--Teachers' expectations of percentage of students who will complete college (Item 21). Rmxaoffnxxmer verylfigh Ifigh lawmage low \kmy Um: 'RMzus Black 13 14 13 12 8 61 White 3 5 12 15 13 52 Tbtal 16 19 25 27 21 113 Chi square = 12.818 Significant at .05 In Table 12, 26 black teachers as compared to 10 white teachers stress.post-high school education for a good job and/or a comfortable life. Black teachers, probably relating to the background of their students more than white teachers, and perhaps their own upward mobility, realize that the only way for a black to gain social or economic security is with education. The white teacher may feel that his students' chances of escaping from their environment are slim and to encourage college attendance or the good life is to frustrate his pupils. 55 Table 12.--Teachers' estimates of the frequency of their stressing to students the necessity of a post-high school education (Item 44). IEwecflETemflEm' \mrytfigh Hiya Awazge low VSquow TUUflS Black 26 15 11 4 5 61 White 10 15 14 9 4 52 Tbtal 36 30 25 13 9 113 Chi square = 10.062 Significant at .05 As was the case in the analysis of contract status, analysis of each cluster by race adds to the understanding of this section. The analysis of Cluster I is shown in Table 13. Black teachers had a mean cluster score of 3.33 with a standard deviation of .64. White teachers, on the other hand, had a mean cluster score of 2.99 and a standard deviation of .71. Table 13.--Analysis of variance of effect ofirace on teachers' estimates of students' probable academic achievement (college) (Clusterll). Source of Variance Sum of Squares D.F. Mean Square F Between categories 3.33 l 3.33 7.22 Within categories 50.77 110 .46 Totals‘ 54.10 111 Significant at .01 56 This difference in responses, and a higher expec- tancy level among black teachers, members of the same subculture, as their students, can be understood if we assume that many black teachers had to experience the same hardships that economic and social discrimination force on their students. Yet, the black teacher who overrode these deprivations to graduate from college might, in turn, have higher expectations for at least some of his students and their ability to complete college. The white teacher, even though he may be able to empathize with his students, may have difficulty in relating to how anyone with so few demonstrated skills could escape from the ghetto to graduate from college. The black teacher may have a higher expectancy level for some of his students because of his ability to assess untapped potential in his students, and to relate to environmental handicaps that he knows can be overcome. Based on the four single items and the cluster variance analysis--the strongest of the analyses--it would seem reasonable to reject Hypothesis V3 The data in this study seem to indicate that there is, indeed, a differ- ence between black and white teachers with respect to their expectations of students. Black teachers expect their students to do better--and based on the literature could be expected, at least on the basis of these data, to encourage higher achievement. 57 Hypothesis VI: There will be no significant differ- ence between black and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with reSpect to their perceptions of the academic ability of their students as measured by grades. Six items on the questionnaire dealt with this variable. Of these, one yielded results that tend to reject the hypothesis. Table 14 illustrates that 25 black teachers responded from "very high" to "average," whereas 12 white teachers responded from "very high"tx>"average." The majority of each group were on the low side of the scale. Twice as many black teachers felt that their students sought extra work for better grades, indicating that either black teachers have a different perception of their students seeking extra work than white teachers have, or their students are actually seeking extra work from their black teachers. Table l4.--Teachers' estimations of the percentage of students in their school who seek extra work for better grades (Item 48). Rmxaoftkwcna: \kmylfigh Ifigh Awamge Iow vanglow TUUfls Black 6 8 11 22 13 60 Vifite 2 2 8 33 8 53 Tbtal 8 10 19 55 21 113 Chi square? 9.551 Significant at .05 fl 58 The cluster analysis of variance is shown in Table 15. Black teachers had a mean cluster score of 3.88 with a standard deviation of .74; white teachers had a mean cluster score of 3.75 with a standard deviation of .73. Table 15.--Ana1ysis of variance of difference between black and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to their perceptions of students' abilities as measured by grades (Cluster II). Source of Variance Sum of Squares D.F. Mean Square F Between categories .48 l .48 .89 Within categories 59.09 110 .54 Total 59.57 111 Not significant Since only one of the single items produced data that would lead to rejection of the hypothesis, and since the more powerful variance analysis of cluster data pro- duced no significant difference between black and white teachers, it seems reasonable to accept Hypothesis VI. Hypothesis VII: There will be no significant differ- ence between black and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to how much community support for education is perceived to exist. Five items in the questionnaire dealt with this variable. Only one produced data showing a significant 59 (.10) difference between categories. Table 16 indicates that 31 black teachers responded "low" to "very low" com- pared to 13 white teachers responding "low" to "very low" on the teacher questionnaire. Black teachers probably have more insight into what parent attitudes about the school are. Black parents undoubtedly relate more of their feelings to the black teachers. More often than not, communication between parent and school about indi- vidual students is in the form Of a complaint. Table 16.--Teachers' estimates of what percentage of parents want feedback on their children's progress (Item 64). Rmxaoftkacna: \kmyffigh any: .Awatge low vaquav Tamas Black 12 10 7 23 8 60 White l4 14 ll 10 4 53 Total. 26 24 18 33 12 113 Chi square = 8.576 Significant at .10 White teachers may have difficulty relating to this condition. Since middle-class parents are often more actively involved in school business, white teachers may assume that all parents want feedback from the school. White teachers may not realize that accessibility to schools was always Open to white parents, whereas in the past the door was closed to black parents. Black teachers 6O know of this inaccessibility to black parents as well as the distrust many black parents have about schools and educators. The cluster analysis of variance is shown in Table 17. Black teachers had a mean cluster score of 3.14 with a standard deviation of .79; white teachers had a mean cluster score of 3.32 with a standard deviation of .77. Table l7.--Analysis of variance of difference between black and white teachers. regardless of contract status, with respect to their perceptions of community support for education (Cluster III). Source of Variance Sum of Squares D.F. Mean Square F Between categories .84 l .84 1.39 Within categories 66.49 110 .60 Total 67.33 111 Not significant Although one item taken singly did show a signifi- cant difference (though weak), the cluster variance analy- sis Shows no significant difference, and the hypothesis is accepted. Hypothesis VIII: There will be no significant differ- ence betweengblack and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to their perceptions of school climate and their attitudes toward their jobs. 61 Four items were included in this cluster of items, none of which produced data indicating significant differ- ences. The analysis of variance for the cluster data is shown in Table 18. Table 18.--Analysis of variance of differences between black and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to their perceptions of school climate and attitudes toward their jobs (Cluster IV). Source of Variance Sum of Squares D.F. Mean Square F Between categories .02 l .02 .02 Within categories 90.34 . 110 .82 Total 90.36 111 Not significant The mean cluster score for black teachers was 2.81, with a standard deviation of 1.01; white teachers had a mean of 2.79 with a standard deviation of .80. Since none of the analyses indicated significant differences, the hypothesis is accepted. Black and white teachers seem not to differ significantly in their perceptions of school climate and attitudes toward their jobs. Of the four hypotheses related to race, only one produced data that indicated a difference between racial groups. The literature (Chapter II) was Shown to indicate 62 probable differences, though the assumption that blacks may become more like whites through the process of higher education may be supported, to an extent, by this study. This and other conclusions and observations, along with recommendations for further research, are presented in Chapter V. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS The purpose Of this study was to define the atti- tudinal differences between contract and noncontract inner- city teachers, both black and white, examined on the basis Of a number Of social and psychological variables. The subjects identified in the investigation were junior high public school teachers from Detroit, Michigan. The data were collected from teachers in 14 inner- city junior high schools. The instrument used to assess the attitudes of the subjects was a teacher questionnaire designed by Brookover and Gigliotti. The teacher ques- tionnaire consisted Of 64 questions, nine relating to demographic data; the remaining 55 were multiple-choice, with five possible answers ranging from 1, the highest attitude,tx>5, the lowest. The instrument was adminis- tered to 31 black and 24 white ESRPs, and 30 black and 28 white regularly certified teachers. The design Of this study, which was descriptive in nature, included the selection Of the sample, collection Of the data, analysis of the data, and the formulation of implications and recommendations that could be approp- riately drawn from the research. Eight hypotheses were 63 64 formulated and tested. Statistical techniques used to analyze the data in this study included a chi-square analysis of contingency, and analysis of variance. The data were grouped for analysis using a clustering proce- dure, the Oblique Multiple Group Factor Analysis. Eight hypotheses were formulated for testing. Four dealt with the relationship between contract status and certain variables; four related those same variables to the racial identity of teachers. Hypothesis I: There will be no significant difference between contract and noncontract teachers with respect to their academic expectations of their students. Hypothesis II: There will be no significant difference between contract and noncontract teachers with respect to their perceptions Of the academic ability Of their students as measured by grades. Hypothesis III: There will be no significant differ- ence between contract and noncontract teachers with respect to how much community support for education is perceived to exist. Hypothesis IV: There will be no Significant difference between contract and noncontract teachers with respect to their perceptions Of school climate and their atti- tudes toward their jobs. Hypothesis V: There will be no significant difference betweengblack and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to their perceptions of the aca- demic ability Of their students as measured by grades. Hypothesis VI: There will be no significant difference between black and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to their perceptions of the aca- demic ability of their students as measured by grades. Hypothesis VII: There will be no significant differ- ence between black and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to how much community support for education is perceived to exist. 65 Hypothesis VIII: There will be no significant differ- enceTbetween black and white teachers, regardless of contract status, with respect to their perceptions Of school climate and their attitudes toward their jobs. Summary of Results In testing the contract status hypotheses, none, taken broadly and analyzed through the clustered data, i_‘ produced results that would lead to the rejection of the hypotheses. This study would seem to indicate that contract and noncontract (ESRP) teachers do not differ E significantly in their attitudes, expectations, feelings, or perceptions of students, community, or their jobs. In testing the racially related hypotheses, all but one produced results that tend toward acceptance Of the hypothesis. One, Hypothesis V, produced data that led to the rejection Of the hypothesis and the conclusion that black and white teachers did differ in their atti- tudes toward students' academic futures. When dealing with the probability Of their students attending college in the future, black teachers had significantly higher eXpecta- tions than their white counterparts. Conclusions This study identified a body of literature that asserts that black teachers have become "more middle class" as a result of their "middle-class college train- 5 ing." Although the data collected do not speak directly 66 to the issue of the effect of earlier training, they do indicate a surprising lack of difference between black and white teachers. TOO, the data tend to reject the notion that uncertainty and apathy, a suspected result of teachers not being Offered normal job security, was a problem characteristic of the noncontract teachers as compared with those in the tenure stream. Based on the data collected for this study and the analysis Of those data, it seems reasonable to con- clude that: 1. There is no reason to believe that greater harm is done to students who are taught by noncontract teachers. 2. Noncontract status seems not to affect in a significant way the attitudes of teachers toward their jobs. 3. Black teachers seem to have higher expecta- tions of their students, regardless Of their contract status. . 4. Other than expectations toward students, black and white teachers seem not to differ significantly. 5. Generally speaking, even where those few dif- ferences occur, teachers seem to have expectations that fall within reasonable congruence with the real environ- ment in which they work. 67 6. Overall, teacher expectations and attitudes were generally negatively skewed. Observations, Suggestions and Igplications l. Pre-service and in-service training for teach- ers Should include a socialization process that would familiarize the teacher with the cultural and social fac- tors related to the student's life. Teachers in the inner city appear to be more sensitive to the impact Of negative racial attitudes and more aware of the racial attitudes they have inherited. If the need to change their atti- tudes and behavior toward the school in which they teach is not fulfilled, they have, at least, become more sophis- ticated about hiding these negative feelings. There is a large body of research which concludes that socialization or conditioning the inner-city teacher to be sensitive to the environment of his students should be a prerequisite for successful teaching in the ghetto. Learning the cul- tural and social factors that are related directly to the student is the kind Of approach that recognizes in the teacher the existence of negative attitudes, hidden preju- dices, inadequate teacher training, and the need for change. It challenges the middle-class thrust of the teacher. It further challenges the teacher to face some serious per- sonal confrontations that he may not be willing to meet. Therefore, it is crucial that inner-city teachers learn 68 about their students' culture and resolve their own per- sonal "hang-ups" for more far-reaching, positive effects in teaching. 2. Urban school districts should begin lobbying for state re-certification of teachers. Part Of teacher retraining should include realistic experiences that underscore the effect that teacher attitudes and expecta- tions have on students, if these attitudes are perceived as negative. One can conclude that this difference between black and white teachers' attitudes is the result Of greater awareness and sensitivity by black teachers toward their students. Familiarity with the students' milieu is a direct result of the black teacher being a member of the same subculture as his students. These same higher atti- tudes of noncontract teachers may be present because of their recent teacher training and age. Drastic steps must be taken not only to change the attitudes Of white and contract teachers, but also to include all teaching personnel who could benefit by such socialization as a staff experience. 3. Administrators should view noncontract teachers as a vital part Of the teaching staff, and utilize their services, training, and experiences to the fullest. Under- utilization Of noncontract teachers by administrators can no longer be rationalized. If the more "apprOpriate" 69 attitudes of noncontract teachers toward their students' are reinforced by administrators, not only will the iden- tity of the noncontract teacher be more clearly defined, but contract teachers may take a cue from this more human- ized behavior on the part of noncontract teachers. 4. Personnel Officials Of urban school districts should be more actively involved in screening candidates for teaching positions. Hiring policies should include the administration of an attitudinal instrument to assess the attitudes of prospective teachers. Although the most SOphisticated instrument would not be effective in screen- ing every candidate with poor attitudes about ghetto schools and their students, it would certainly attune new teachers to the importance that attitudinal values have in the school system. With the job market flooded with teachers, school districts can afford to be more selective. Effectiveness is essential to job satisfaction; thus teachers with poor attitudes are not going to be satis- fied. Personnel Officials, school boards, and local school administrators should not only be aware of the above impli- cations, but should look beyond visual manifestations of "hipness" to the attitudes these teachers hold toward the inner-city school and its students. Limitations of the Study Certain limitations must be taken into account when generalizing the results of this study. 70 1. Participation was limited to those schools in which the principal permitted distribution Of the questionnaire to teachers and to those teachers who elected to complete the questionnaire. 2. The study was conducted in a large, midwestern industrial city that is predominantly pOpulated by blacks. In all probability the characteristics of the teachers in this study will differ Significantly from those in other parts of the country. 3. The strike of the Detroit Federation of Teachers delayed the study by six weeks. It was further impeded by low teacher morale and attitude for the 1973-74 school year as a result of the strike. It was apparent that some teachers felt threatened and defensive about the question- naire. 4. Another limitation of this study lies with the researcher. He recognizes that his particular social orientation makes him subject to possible errors Of omis- sion and commission. Recommendations for Further Research 1. A comparative study should be conducted with the replication of this study and the addition of a ques- tionnaire about attitudes and expectancies of self, adminis- tered tO the students of those teachers in the sample to test further the premise of the self-fulfilling prophecy. 71 2. The present study should be replicated at different intervals to find out whether the same atti- tudes hold across a time period. 3. The present study should be replicated in other urban school districts resembling the community used in the present study, to test the credibility of this study. 4. For the sake of comparison, it would be inter- esting to repeat this study using the teachers in outlying, predominantly white, Detroit schools. The children of our cities deserve the best edu- cation possible in their efforts to cope with a frighten- ing, complex world. TO the extent that teacher expectations and attitudes affect the excellence Of that education, it is hOped that this study will add to efforts in that direc- tion. APPENDICES 72 APPENDIX A THE INSTRUMENT 73 APPENDIX A THE INSTRUMENT .1. Directions: The information which you give us on this questionnaire is completely confidential. NO one will see your answers except the mémbers of our research staff. Reports will be made with aggregate data, and _1 no one person will be identified with his or her data. F—T After your questionnaire has been completely coded and punched on IBM cards, your questionnaire will be des- troyed. Complete confidentialipy is assured. It is very important that you be as candid as possible in , your answers. DO not respond to any question that you ' feel is too "personal" or that you, for any other reason, prefer to leave unanswered. I? 2. Sex (Please check apprOpriate line) (3? female male 3. Please write the name of this school. (4,5) 4. How long have you taught in this school? (6.7) 5. How long have you taught school? (8,9) 6. What grade level are you teaching? (10) 7. How much formal preparation do you have? (Circle the (11) number of the correct answer) . less than a bachelor's degree . bachelor's degree . some graduate work but less than master's degree . master's degree . more than master's degree but not doctorate . doctor's degree 03019me 8. How did you feel about this school before coming here? (12) (Give general attitude) 74 75 9a. Has your attitude changed Since? (Circle number of (13) correct answer) 1. yes 2. no 9b. If so, how? We would like to ask you some questions about grouping rr practices and use Of standardized tests in this school. Please feel free to write any additional comments after each question. 10. In general, what grouping procedure is practiced (14) across sections of particular grade levels in this school? l. homogeneous grouping according to ability 1. 2. heterogeneous grouping according to ability 3. random grouping 4. no intentional grouping 5. other (indicate) 11. In general, what grouping procedure is practiced (15) within your class? 1. homogeneous grouping according to ability 2. heterogeneous grouping according to ability 3. random grouping 4. no intentional grouping 5. other (indicate) 12. How important do you think the standardized test (16) scores of your students are? 1. very important 2. somewhat important 3. not very important 4. not important at all 13. How Often do you use the standardized test scores of (17) your students? ' 1. very Often 2. Often 3. sometimes 4. seldom 5. never Please answer each of the following questions by circling the letter before the choice which most nearly answers the question for you. 14. (18) 15. (19) 16. (20) 17. (21) 18. (22) 19. (23) 76 On the average, what level Of achievement can be expected Of the students in this School? 1. 2O 3. 4. 5. On 1. 2. 3O 4. 5. much above national norm slightly above national norm approximately at national norm slightly below national norm much below national norm the average, what level of achievement can be expected of the students in your class? much above national norm slightly above national norm approximately at national norm slightly below national norm much below national norm What percentage of the students in expect to complete high school? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% What percentage of the students in expect to complete high school? 1. 2O 3. 4. 5O 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% What percentage Of the students in expect to attend college? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% What percentage Of the students in expect to attend college? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% this school do you your class do you this school do you your class do you 20. (24) 21. (25) 22. (26) 23. (27) 24. (28) 25. (29) 77 What percentage of the students in this school do you expect to complete college? l. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% What percentage of the students in your class do you expect to complete college? l. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% How many of the students in this school are capable of getting mostly A's and 3'3? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% How many Of the students in your class are capable of getting mostly A's and B's? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% How would you rate the academic ability Of the students in this school compared to other schools? 1. ability here is much higher 2. ability here is somewhat higher 3. ability here is about the same 4. ability here is somewhat lower 5. ability here is much lower What percentage Of the students in this school would you say want to complete high school? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% 26. (30) 27. (31) 28. (32) Please remember, your answers to all are completely confidential. staff will see your answers. 29. (33) 30. (34) What percentage of the students in your class would What percentage of the students want to go to college? 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% you say 1. 2. 3. 4O 5. you say 1. 90% or 2. 70% or 3. 50% or 4. 30% or 5. What percentage Of the students want to go to college? less than 30% you say 1. 90% or 2. 70% or 3. 50% or 4. 30% or 5. less than 30% more more more more more more more more want to complete high school? in this school would in your class would of these questions but our research How much do you enjoy your teaching responsibilities in this school? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. If 1. 2. 3. 4. very much much average little not at all someone were to Offer you an interesting and secure nonteaching job for $1,000 more a year, how seriously would you consider taking the job? very seriously somewhat seriously not very seriously not at all 31. (35) 32. (36) 33. (37) 34. (38) 35. (39) 36. (40) 79 If someone were to Offer you an interesting and secure nonteaching job for $3,000 more a year, how seriously would you consider taking the job? 1. very seriously 2. somewhat seriously 3. not very seriously 4. not at all How often do you stay after school to help students? 1. very Often 2. often 3. sometimes 4. seldom 5. never What percentage of the students in this school do you think the principal expects to complete high school? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% What percent of the students in this school do you think the principal expects to attend college? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% What percentage Of the students in this school do you think the principal eXpects to complete college? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% How many students in this school do you think the principal believes are capable of getting mostly A's and B's? 1. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% 38. (42) WW V0 but V. U1)“ Va 80 How do you think your principal rates the academic ability Of the students in this school, compared to other schools? 1. rates it much better 2. rates it somewhat better 3. rates it the same 4. rates it somewhat lower 5. rates it much lower Completion Of high school is a realistic goal which r71 you set for what percentage of your students? ' l. 90% or more 2. 70% or more 3. 50% or more 4. 30% or more 5. less than 30% Completion of college is a realistic goal which you RH. . set for what percentage of your students? 1. ()1wa o o o o 90% or more 70% or more 50% or more 30% or more less than 30% How Often do you stress to your students the neces- sity Of a post-high school education for a good job and/or a comfortable life? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. very Often Often sometimes seldom never For those students who do not have the resources which will allow them to go to college, you are careful not to be 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. promote aspirations in them which probably can not fulfilled. strongly agree agree not sure disagree strongly disagree 42. (46) 43. (47) 44. (43) 45. (49) 46. (50) 47. (51) 81 The teachers in this school push students to work too hard. 1. strongly agree 2. agree 3. not sure 4. disagree 5. strongly disagree How many teachers in this school aren't concerned how hard most students work, as long as they pass? 1. almost all Of the teachers 2. most Of the teachers 3. half of the teachers 4. some of the teachers 5. almost none Of the teachers It is unfair to demand more from a student than he is capable of giving. 1. strongly agree 2. agree 3. not sure 4. disagree 5. strongly disagree If you think a student is not able to do some Of the school work you won't try to push him very hard. 1 strongly agree 2. agree 3. not sure 4. disagree 5. strongly disagree For most students you are very careful not to push them to their frustration level. 1. strongly agree 2. agree 3. not sure 4. disagree 5. strongly disagree How many teachers in this school encourage students to try hard to improve on previous test scores? 1. almost all of the teachers . most of the teachers . about half of the teachers . some of the teachers 2 3 4 5 almost none Of the teachers 48. (52) 49. (53) 50. (54) 51. (55) 52. (56) 53. (57) 82 How many teachers encourage students to seek extra school work so that the students can get better grades? . almost all of the teachers most of the teachers about half of the teachers some of the teachers almost none Of the teachers U'Iwal-J How many students in this school try hard to improve on previous work? almost all Of the students most of the students about half Of the students some Of the students almost none of the students mobUJNH o o o o o How many students in your class try hard to improve on previous work? 1. almost all Of the students 2. most of the students 3. about half of the students 4. some of the students 5. almost none of the students How many students in this school will try hard to do better on tests than their friends do? 1. almost all of the students 2. most Of the students 3. about half of the students 4. some of the students 5. almost none of the students How many students in your class will try hard to do better on tests than their classmates do? 1. almost all Of the students 2. most of the students about half of the students some of the students 3 4 5 almost none Of the students How many students in this school are content to do less than they should? . almost all of the students . most Of the students . about half of the students . some of the students . almost none Of the students HNW-fi-U‘l 54. (58) 55. (59) 56. (60) 57. (61) 58. (62) 59. (63) 83 How many students in your class are content to do less than they should? . almost all of the students . most Of the students . about half of the students . some Of the students . almost none of the students UiowaI" How many students in this school will seek extra work so that they can get better grades? 1. almost all Of the students 2. most of the students 3. about half of the students 4. some of the students 5. almost none of the students How many students in your class will seek extra work so that they can get better grades? 1. almost all of the students 2. most Of the students 3. about half of the students 4. some Of the students 5. almost none of the students How many students in this school don't care when other students do much better than they do? 5. almost all of the students 4. most Of the students 3. about half of the students 2. some Of the students 1. almost none of the students How many students in your class don' t care when other students do much better than they do? 1. almost all of the students 2. most Of the students 3. about half of the students 4. some of the students 5. almost none Of the students The parents in this school service area regard this school primarily as a "baby-sitting" agency. 5. strongly agree 4. agree 3. not sure 2. disagree 1. strongly disagree 60. (64) 61. (65) 62. (66) 63. (67) 64. (68) 84 The parents Of this school service area are deeply concerned that their children receive a tOp quality education. 1. strongly agree 2. agree 3. not sure 4. disagree 5. strongly disagree How many of the parents in this school service area expect their children to complete high school? 1. almost all of the parents 2. most Of the parents 3. about half Of the parents 4. some Of the parents 5. almost none Of the parents How many Of the parents in this school service area expect their children to attend college? almost all of the parents most of the parents about half Of the parents some Of the parents almost none of the parents U'IanJNH 00000 How many of the parents in this school service area don't care if their children obtain low grades? 5. almost all Of the parents 4. most Of the parents 3. about half of the parents 2. some of the parents 1. almost none Of the parents How many of the parents in this school service area like feedback from the principal and teachers on how their children are doing in school? 1. almost all Of the parents 2. most of the parents 3. about half Of the parents 4. some of the parents 5. almost none Of the parents APPENDIX B COVER LETTER 85 V APPENDIX B COVER LETTER October, 1973 Dear Principal: I am a teacher in the Detroit Public Schools; during the academic year I am employed at Webber Jr. High School. Currently, I am working on my doctorate at Michigan State University. My field Of study is secondary education, with Special emphasis on health and physical education. With your approval, I would like to request time to admin- ister the enclosed questionnaire to E.S.R.P. teachers and their students at your school, and to regularly placed teachers only. The questionnaire only requires approximately 25 minutes to complete. Should my study reveal noteworthy significance, I will be pleased to share with you my findings. Thank you in advance for your OOOperation. Sincerely, Earl Harvey EH/sc 86 APPENDIX C SUMMARY CHI-SQUARE TABLES FOR ITEMS INCLUDED IN CLUSTERS I-IV 87 If APPENDIX C SUMMARY CHI-SQUARE TABLES FOR ITEMS INCLUDED IN CLUSTERS I-IV Note: Item numbers correspond to numbers in parentheses under the question number on the questionnaire (actually the variable number for analysis pur- poses). Thus item 20 is actually question number 24 on the questionnaire. Cluster I (Contract Status) Very High High Average Low Very Low Total 20. Contract 1 4 5 8 33 51 Noncontract 4 3 5 19 31 62 Total 5 7 10 27 64 113 Chi square = 5.214 18. Contract 0 4 10 19 ‘18 51 Noncontract l 8 13 22 18 62 Total 1 12 23 41 36 113 Chi square = 2.018 35. Contract 2 8 l4 14 13 51 Noncontract 3 6 21 17 15 62 Total 5 14 35 31 28 113 Chi square = 1.238 33. Contract 12 9 15 7 8 51 Noncontract 9 21 20 6 6 62 Total 21 20 35 13 14 113 Chi square = 4.867 88 16. 27. 19. 21. 17. 28. Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square 89 Very High High Average Low Very Low Total 20 18 9 2 l 50 22 24 11 4 2 63 42 42 20 6 3 113 .540 6 9 12 12 12 51 7 ll 22 ll 11 62 13 20 34 23 23 113 1.99 0 4 9 l9 19 51 l 8 13 22 18 62 l 12 22 41 37 113 2.018 2 5 6 ll 25 51 7 l 5 15 34 62 9 6 ll 26 69 113 6.001 l4 l7 8 5 6 51 12 18 27 3 2 62 26 35 35 8 8 113 11.847 0 4 15 10 21 51 1 5 15 15 26 62 l 9 30 25 47 113 1.373 22. 23. 36. 37. 15. 14. Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Cluster II (Contract Status) 90 Very High High Average Low Very Low Total 2 12 13 16 7 50 8 11 16 19 9 63 10 23 29 35 16 113 3.027 4 14 18 8 16 SO 8 11 14 17 22 63 12 25 32 25 28 113 6.219 6 14 18 10 2 50 9 11 21 16 6 63 15 25 39 26 8 113 2.605 3 16 22 6 3 51 4 17 22 13 6 62 7 33 44 29 9 113 3.274 2 8 20 16 5 51 4 6 28 15 9 62 6 14 48 31 14 113 2.990 1 3 13 21 22 51 1 2 23 24 12 62 l 5 36 45 34 113 1.914 60. 64. 47. 51. 29. 25. Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square Contract Noncontract Total Chi square 91 Cluster III Very High High Average Low Very Low Total 8 11 13 15 4 51 10 24 11 9 8 62 18 35 24 24 12 113 7.794 8 11 9 15 8 51 18 13 9 18 4 62 26 24 18 33 12 113 3.862 13 15 8 12 3 51 18 18 11 12 3 62 31 33 19 24 6 113 .473 2 14 11 19 5 51 10 16 16 19 1 62 12 30 27 38 6 113 6.987 Cluster IV 18 16 15 2 0 51 21 14 21 5 1 62 39 30 36 7 1 113 3.789 5 23 12 7 4 51 4 29 23 4 2 62 9 52 35 11 6 113 4.039 26. 38. 20. 18. 35. 33. 92 Very High High Average Low Very Low Total Contract 26 12 5 5 3 51 Noncontract 28 16 11 6 1 62 Tbtal S4 28 16 11 4 113 Chi square = 2.058 Contract 13 14 10 10 4 51 Noncontract 16 23 15 7 1 62 Total 29 37 25 17 5 113 Chi square = 3.787 Cluster V (Race) Black 4 6 6 13 40 60 White 1 1 4 13 34 53 Total 5 7 10 27 64 113 Chi square = 5.407 Black 0 10 15 21 15 61 White 1 2 7 21 21 52 Total 1 12 22 42 36 113 Chi square = 9.745 Black 4 10 19 15 13 61 White 1 4 16 17 '14 52 Total 5 14 35 32 27 113 Chi square = 4.407 Black 10 18 18 9 6 61 White 11 12 17 4 8 52 Total 21 30 35 13 14 113 Chi square = 3.337 16. 27. 19. 21. 17. 28. Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square 93 Very High High Average Low Very Low Total 4 33 14 6 4 61 S 19 21 6 1 52 9 52 35 12 5 113 6.634 9 14 19 10 9 61 4 6 15- 13 14 52. 13 20 34 23 23 113 7.086 1 9 14 14 23 61 0 0 16 11 25 52 l 9 30 25 48 113 10.165 7 3 5 16 29 60 2 3 6 10 32 53 9 6 11 26 61 113 3.768 15 19 17 5 4 60 11 16 18 4 4 53 26 35 35 9 8 113 .834 9 14 19 10 9 61 4 6 15 13 14 52 13 20 34 23 23 113 7.086 23. 22. 36. 37. 15. 14. Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square 94 Cluster VI Very High High Average Low Very Low Total 7 14 17 13 9 60 5 11 15 13 9 53 12 25 32 26 18 113 .288 9 12 16 16 8 61 1 11 13 19 8 52 10 23 29 35 16 113 6.540 10 13 21 11 5 61 5 12 18 15 3 52 15 25 39 26 8 113 3.284 5 18 18 14 6 61 2 15 26 5 3 52 7 33 44 19 9 113 7.093 1 7 28 18 6 60 5 7 20 13 8 53 6 14 48 31 14 113 4.334 1 1 16 30 12 60 l, 4 20 15 13 53 2 5 36 45 25 113 6.707 60. 64. 47. 51. 29. 25. Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square Black White Total Chi square 95 Cluster VII Very High High Average Low Very Low Total 8 16 14 15 8 61 10 19 10 9 4 52 18 35 24 24 12 113 2.908 12 10 7 23 8 60 14 14 11 18 4 53 26 24 18 41 12 113 8.576 15 17 13 12 4 61 16 16 6 12 2 52 31 33 19 24 6 113 2.282 7 15 16 21 2 61 5 15 11 17 4 52 13 30 27 38 6 113 2.924 Cluster VIII 25 11 20 4 1 61 14 19 16 2 l 52 39 30 36 6 2 113 6.810 24 25 7 3 2 61 18 17 13 3 l 52 42 42 20 6 3 113 3.628 26. 38. Black White Tbtal Chi square Black White Total Chi square 96 Very High High Average Low Very Low Total 31 16 7 5 1 60 23 12 9 6 3 53 54 28 16 11 4 113 1.869 18 17 13 ll 1 60 11 20 12 6 4 53 29 37 25 17 5 113 3.892 BI BLIOGRAPHY 97 BIBLIOGRAPHY Arnez, Nancy L. "The Effect of Teacher Attitudes Upon the Culturally Different." School and Society, March 1966, pp. 150-51. Asbell, B. "Not Like Children." 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