THE EMPATHIC AFFECT OF A SOCIODRAMATIC GAME ON PROSPECTIVE INNER CITTI TEACHERS Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY PETER FRANCIS FLTNN 1971 This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE EHPATHIC AFFECT OF A SOCIODRAMATIC GAME ON PRmPECTIVE INNER CIT! TEACHERS presented by PETER F. FLINN has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PH. D. degreein snumflon /fiW% W /quor professor Date May 1).!) 1971 0-7639 ABSTRACT THE EMPATHIC AFFECT OF A SOCIODRAMATIC GAME ON PROSPECTIVE INNER ' CITY TEACHERS BY Peter Francis Flynn Purpose of the Study It was the purpose of this study to assess the effectiveness of an original, sociodramatic game, the Washington Heights Simulation Game (WHSG), as a method for preparing inner city teachers in an affective manner. Specifically, two basic questions were posed about the WHSG: (1) Do prospective inner city teachers who play the WHSG express attitudes more similar to those of inner city residents than those expressed by prospective inner city teachers who do not play the WHSG? (2) Are prospective inner city teachers who have played the WHSG more empathic toward inner city people than those who have not played the WHSG? The Washington Heights Simulation Game is a socio- dramatic learning experience designed to develop in prospective inner city teachers a feeling for powerless- ness and its accompanying frustrations, similar to that felt by people of minority groups in the inner cities of Peter Francis Flynn America. Players are given information about the living conditions (educational, social, political, physical) of a simulated inner city environment, Washington Heights. Players act out the roles of Xenoes, a minority group that makes up the majority of the population of Washington Heights, attempting to better their situation. Before the game begins players are briefed concerning the rules and objectives. Following the game players are encouraged to talk about their personal feelings as they experienced them during the game. Participants frequently say that following the game they feel that they have a better understanding, emotionally, of the plight of blacks in the inner city, whereas before their awareness was pri- marily intellectual. Empathy in prospective inner city teachers seemed to be a worthwhile trait to assess as it is affected by a sociodramatic experience. The empathic teacher would be effective in his ability to reach and-teach students of a different culture. The empathic teacher has a feeling for and an awareness of the attitudes of people different from himself. Studies have shown the character- istic of empathy to be highly correlated with teaching success. A broadening of attitudinal understanding can come about through a sociodramatic game consisting of role playing within a simulated environment, which offers Peter Francis Flynn a non-threatening situation conducive to the exploration of personal, emotional feelings. Methodology In this study nine experimental groups were admin- istered a treatment, the Washington Heights Simulation Game, in order to test the effectiveness of this game in developing an empathic response on the part of prospective inner city teachers for residents of the inner city. Following participation of each group in the WHSG, data were gathered through the use of the Flynn Attitude Inventory (FAI). The preliminary items of the FAI were field tested on an inner city norm group and the final items were selected on the basis of the lowest standard deviation. The same data were gathered from control groups that did not participate in the WHSG. The data were measured to obtain similarity, projection, and raw and refined empathy scores for each group. Comparisons were made using a correlated t-test and the .05 level of significance, between control and treatment groups. Findings of the Study Groups which participated in the WHSG expressed attitudes on the FAI which had greater similarity with the inner city norm group than did the attitudes expressed by the control groups. Treatment groups also projected more than control groups when responding to the FAI as Peter Francis Flynn they thought inner city people would respond to the items. Although treatment groups expressed greater raw empathy than control groups, the difference was significant at the .2 level and therefore not sufficient to reject the null hypothesis. Experimental groups had lower refined empathy scores than control groups. Administering the FAI to an experimental group before playing the WHSG showed no dif— ferences when compared with other experimental groups on Cthe similarity and refined empathy scores. Further cal- culation of selected items of the FAI, deemed to be particularly pertinent to the objectives of the WHSG, showed the differences of the refined empathy scores of control groups to be less significant than when consider- ing all items. The Washington Heights Simulation Game is a use- ful method for affectively preparing inner city teachers. This study has shown it to be particularly effective in eliciting attitudes from prospective inner city teachers similar to those expressed by inner city residents. This game should be used in the preparation of inner city teachers along with other techniques for developing cross- cultural understanding. THE EMPATHIC AFFECT OF A SOCIODRAMATIC GAME ON PROSPECTIVE INNER CITY TEACHERS BY Peter Francis Flynn A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1971 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people helped in the course of this study. The writer wishes to express his deep gratitude to all concerned: To George R. Myers, chairman of the guidance committee, goes a special expression of thanks for giving unfailingly of his time and support as a dependable and helpful friend and mentor. C To the members of the guidance committee, Sanford Farness, Robert L. Green, and William E. Sweetland for their efforts and interest throughout the duration of my doctoral program. To all the "game players” without whose help the study could not have been carried out, and especially to James Covert and Peter Remender, master game players and true friends, whose advice and friendship I treasure. To Howard Teitelbaum of the Office of Research Consul- tation whose hours of concentration and knowledge of the hardware helped enormously with the data analysis. This work is dedicated to my wife, Joan, whose love, tenderness, and empathy were the final ingredients for the successful completion of this venture.’ Finally, thanks to our child, Kristin, for being such an understanding daughter. ii CHAPTER I. II. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . . Nature of the Problem The Study . . . Purpose . . Hypotheses . . Definitions . . Assumptions . Overview . . . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Affective Teacher Education Teacher Education for the Inner The Affective Needs Teachers . The Need to Prepare Teachers . . City. of Inner City Empathic Previous Approaches to the Definition and Study of Empathy Empathy as Imagined Empathy as Detached Empathy as a Multi-Step Process Related Concepts Summary . . Oneness Comprehension. . Operational Definitions of Empathy . Empathy and Effectiveness in Social Interaction . The Empathizer as Role Experiential Learning and Attitudinal Change . . . Role Playing . Sociodrama . . Educational Games Simulation . . Summary of Experiential Learning Attitude Change Summary . . . . iii Player . 20 22 22 25 27 27 28 3O 32 34 34 36 37 41 42 43 III. IV. v. BIBLIOGRAPHY DESIGN OF THE STUDY General Methods Sample . . Instrument and Measures Treatment . Experimental Design Procedures . Statistical Hypotheses Analysis . . Limitations Summary . . PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF Inventory Items Testing the Null Hypotheses Summary . Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis U'lthJNH SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The Study . Discussion of the Findings Recommendations APPENDICES C O O O C A. B. C. THE WASHINGTON HEIGHTS SIMULATION GAME ATTITUDE INVENTORY (PRELIMINARY) FLYNN ATTITUDE INVENTORY. iv Page 45 45 46 47 48 49 51 51 52 54 55 56 56 58 64 64 65 65 66 67 67 70 73 76 87 88 101 107 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This study is about a method used for the development of empathy in prospective inner city teachers. The method used was an original, sociodramatic game, I which simulates an inner city environment. In the remainder of this chapter the nature of the problem, the. basis of the study including general hypotheses, defini- tions and assumptions, as well as an overview of the study are presented. Nature of the Problem More conclusively today than ever before, people involved in inner city teacher education are aware of the need to devise methods of preparation which will develop the primarily affective, social perceptions of teachers. Teachers at large seem to be asking for some experiences which will be conducive to a fuller understanding of the people they will be teaching. At times, this has been cited as the necessity for the teacher to "reach" before he or she can teach. In order to "reach" another person, one must first understand the way the other person feels about certain things. Generally, to "reach" another person is to put oneself in that person's shoes and surmise how that person would react in a given situation. Arthur Pearl pointed out that a desirable attribute of a teacher ". . . is that of being hip. By that I mean a teacher has to understand the hang of a student's hat. He has to free himself from his biases and prejudices."1 This process, which some researchers have referred to as empathy, is helpful in preparing a person to become involved in the learning process as a teacher. This should be true whether the teacher will be looking to the learner as a data source or the teacher has the data and will be tailoring the communication process to be effective with a particular learner. Furthermore, whatever is important for preparing teachers at large becomes crucial, if these teachers are headed for the inner city. The inner city school child is more dependent upon the school as an institution of access into the economic and social mainstream of society. Therefore, it behooves those in inner city teacher educa- tion to create methods and materials which will help teachers to become more empathic. Empathic ability seems to be basic to the human personality. G. H. Mead stressed the importance of a lArthur Pearl, "A Hard Look at Teacher Education," Changing Dimensions in Teacher Education, Yearbook of the Amefican Association of CoIIeges for Teacher Education (Washington: AACTE, 1967), p. 139. person's ability to conceptualize "the generalized other." Mead contended that a person could not develop a complete self without taking in theattitudes of an organized social group.2 D. A. Stewart also saw empathy as being an integral component of the self: Empathy is thus the psychological ground of personal identity and communication. The two aspects of the empathic process, identifying with rand yet reSpecting the other, yield a growing insight into oneself.3 The gap between student and teacher must be closed and it seems likely that the obligation for this should fall with those who are responsible for teacher prepara- tion. Regarding teacher education, Passow stated, "The emphasis must be on knowing about and understanding the lower class culture, especially where it collides with the culture that permeates the schools."4 Today, much has been written on the disadvantaged. Michael Harrington's book, The Other America,5 detailed the dilemma of the impoverished people in the United States, urban and rural. The Kerner Commission's report6 2George H. Mead, Mind, Self, and Societ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934), pp. 154-I55. 3David A. Stewart, "The Psychogenesis of Empathy," The Psychoanalytic Review, 41:216-228 (July, 1954). 4Harry Passow, "Diminishing Teacher Prejudice," New York State Education, 55:6-10 (February, 1968). 5Michael Harrington, The Other America (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1968). 6U. S. National Advisory Commission on Civil Dis- orders, Report of the U.S. National Advisory Cgmmission on Civil Disorders (New York: Bantam Books, 1968). Spelled out the historical, institutional and individual racism of America. James S. Coleman's findings in Equality of Educational Opportunity,7 depicted the ill effects of segregated schools and the lack of fate control. These works, among others, have helped to fill the infor- mational, or primarily cognitive, void concerning the culturally different and have been useful in the prepara- tion of teachers. But, as Will noted, little has been done in the area of identification and realization of the affective goals of teacher education.8 Gage, in his article, "Explorations in the Percep- tion of Others," clearly pointed out: The studies of the perception of attitudes and opinions of groups suggest strongly that accuracy of social perception is positively and significantly related to effectiveness as a teacher, supervisor of clerical staff, as a group leader.9 In a later article, Gage stated that "to the degree that this perception is 'accurate,‘ the teacher's behavior will more likely be 'appropriate' and hence effective."lo 7James S. Coleman, Equality of Educational Oppor- tunity (Washington: U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, 1966). .8R. Y. Will, "The Education of the Teacher as a Person," The Journal of Teacher Education, 18:471-475 (Winter, 1967). 9N. L. Gage, "Explorations in the Understanding of Others," EducationalJand Psychological Measurement, 13:14-26 (Spring, 1953). 10N. L. Gage, "Explorations in Teacher's Percep- tions of Pupils," The Journal of Teacher Education, 9: 97— 101 (March, 1958 8) Arnez stated: Educators, like their pupils, are often unable to cross social and cultural boundaries without help. But, educators have professional obligation to cross these if they are to teach in today's multi-cultural and desegregated schools. So now that the need has been shown and the respon- sibility has been placed, it remains to be stated more specifically what the teachers have to learn to do, and to delineate how this might be carried out. The inner city resident, especially if black, is caught up in a milieu which is oppressive, stultifying and capable of rendering one powerless. The average college graduate who has been prepared as a teacher has not known to any significant degree this lack of fate control so often experienced by the inhabitants of the ghetto. Some people have tried to understand what it is like to live inside the skin of a person who is different. John Howard Griffin described his ventures as a black man in Blagk 12 Like Me, and more recently, Grace Halsell wrote of her view from behind a black mask in Soul Sister.13 This is the ultimate in simulation learning. Students, who are preparing to become teachers of the physically handicapped, often spend time walking with a blindfold on to get a 11Nancy L. Arnez, "A Unique Teacher Education Pro- gram," Im roving College and UniversityTeaching, 16:150- 152 (Spr1ng, 1968). .12John Howard Griffin, Black Like Me (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1961). 13Grace Halsell, Soul Sister (New York: World Publishing Co., 1969). feeling for the experience of blindness. These experi- ences, granted, do not allow the individual to get deeply into things like despair and cynicism, because the indi- vidual knows that he or she can take off the blindfold, or leave the black life and return to the relative security of a white existence. However, it seems as though a well-planned sociodramatic experience might pro- vide a useful transition for the move from the passivity of being a college student to the action of being an inner city teacher, as part of an effort to develop the empathic response. This kind of vicarious experience should be offered not so that one can know what it is like to be black or oppressed; no game can reveal that, but so that prospective inner city teachers can be somewhat aware of how blacks come to perceive the "game of life" as run by whites. Thus, we come to know ourselves as others see us, which is one of the first steps in understanding others. Rogers cited experiential learning as one of the ways to Open things up to change: . . . the kind of learning engaged in by the whole person, in both his cognitive and affective aSpects. It is learning in which the person is involved. It is self-initiated learning. It is learning that makes a difference--in the individual's behavior, attitudes, and in his personality.14 14Carl R. Rogers, "What Psychology Has to Offer to Teacher Education," Mental Health and Teacher Education, Yearbook of the Associatibn for Student Teaching (Dubuque, Iowa: AST, 1967), p. 42. Rogers also noted the educational advantage of a life-like academic activity: . . . it faces the student with a problem which, while not real to him in the ordinary sense, becomes real through simulation. It then involves him in a meaningful, personal, participative, experiential learning as he confronts the problem.15 In the simulation developed for this study, the 16 was combined with concept of Mead's "generalized other" ideas from Moreno in the field of sociodrama. Moreno showed the connection when he wrote: "In sociodramatic procedure the subject is not a person, but a group. There- fore, it is not an individual Negro who is considered, but all Negroes, all Christians, all Jews are considered."17 Specifically, this simulation was devised for students who are about to engage in a cross-cultural teaching situation. They have hOpefully developed the "generalized other" for the group to which they belong and now they can use some practice at gaining a feeling for the "generalized other" of another cultural group, namely inner city residents. Moreno pointed out the applicability of sociodrama to the cross-cultural situation: For the study of cultural inter-relations the sociodramatic procedure is ideally suited, esPeci- ally when two groups co-exist in physical proximity and their members respectively are in a continugus process of interaction and exchange of values.1 15 16 Ibid., p. 53. Mead, loc. cit. 17J. L. Moreno, Sociodrama, Psychodrama Monographs, No. 1 (New York: Beacon House Press, 1944), p. 15. lSIbid., p. 6. This or any other simulation gaming should not be taken as a panacea, but merely as an activity which will possibly lead to some insight that will make the players more empathic toward the people whom they are playing. As Coplin stated, "The simulation is not valued except as a waystation to more precise knowledge: It appraises us of our areas of ignorance, and it illustrates for stu- dents or laymen otherwise difficult principles."19 In other words, simulation is one way of easing a person into the real thing, while keeping the anxiety level low and non-threatening enough to allow some affective learn- ing to take place. The Study Purpose The purpose of this study was to assess the effec- tiveness of an original, sociodramatic game, the Washington Heights Simulation Game,20 in developing the empathic ability of prospective inner city teachers. Since the theoretical base of empathy is new, and since there is little or no methodology for preparing teachers in this most crucial affective ability, this study utilized a refined conceptual definition of empathy in an experiment 19William D. Coplin, SimulationJin the Stud of Politics (Chicago: Markham Publisfiing Company, 1968), p. I50. 20For a complete description of the WHSG, see Appendix A. that might contribute to the supply of methods conducive to cross-cultural understanding in the teaching/learning situation. Hypotheses21 The following are the general hypotheses of this study: H-l Prospective inner city teachers who parti- cipated in the Washington Heights Simula- tion Game (also noted as "WHSG") will demonstrate a greater empathy for inner city residents than those who do not experience the game. H-2 The reSponses of prospective inner city teachers following their experience with the WHSG will be similar to the responses of inner city residents on an attitude inventory. H-3 Taking the attitude inventory as‘a pretest before the WHSG will further increase empathy on the part of the prospective inner city teachers as measured following the game. Definitions The definitions of projection, similarity and raw and refined empathy are adapted from a study by Bender and Hastorf:22 Projection.--The total item by item deviation of the forecasters' own res onses from their redictions for P 21Stated in testable form in Chapter III. 22J. E. Bender and H. A. Hastorf, "On Measuring Generalized Empathic Ability," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 48:503-506 (1953). 10 associates (the smaller the deviation, the greater the projection). Similarity.--The deviation between the subjects' own responses and the responses of their associates (the smaller the deviation, the greater the similarity). Raw empathy.--The predicted responses for asso- ciates compared with the actual responses of associates (the smaller the deviation, the greater the raw empathy). Refined empathy.--The difference between the raw empathy score and the projection score. Inner city residents.--In this study the inner city residents were from Detroit, Michigan. They were predominantly black, ranged in age from 18-35, and came from areas of Detroit known as "hard core" sections of the city. PrOSpective inner city teachers.--The subjects participating in this study were students enrolled in college courses, who expressed an interest in teaching in or learning more about teaching in the inner city. Sociodramatic game.--The game used in this study is the Washington Heights Simulation Game (WHSG), devel- oped by the researcher. It is based on the sociodramatic principles of Moreno, in that it is a "deep action method dealing with inter-group relations and collective 11 23 ideologies." The WHSG is based on Coplin's notion of gaming, that is the "structured interaction between players of roles."24 Assumptions One of the major assumptions of this paper is that the teacher of the inner city who is empathetic is more effective than the one who is not. A further assumption is that empathy can be devel- oped within each of us and that its development can be operationally measured. Overview In Chapter I the need for the study is stated along with the purposes, general hypotheses, definitions and assumptions of the study. The literature pertinent to theoretical traditions underlying the study is reviewed in Chapter II. Also, recent studies in the field of teacher education, which have considered topics similar to the one presented in this paper, are summarized. In Chapter III the sample, operational measures, limitations, testable hypotheses, design, and analysis are described. An analysis of the results, the findings from the gathered and analyzed data, are presented in Chapter IV. Chapter V contains a summary of the study, including 23Moreno, op. cit., p. 3. 24Coplin, 0p. cit., p. 149. 12 the conclusions drawn from the data, and implications for further empirical and conceptual studies. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE In preparing this study of the effectiveness of a sociodramatic method for developing empathy in prospective inner city teachers, the previous work done by researchers in the pertinent fields was investigated. The results of the investigation of the literature will be presented in three major divisions: l) Affective Teacher Education, 2) Previous Approaches to the Definition and Study of Empathy, and 3) Experiential Learning and Attitudinal Change. Affective Teacher Education Teacher Education for the Inner City Many teachers find the inner city a traumatic setting. ‘They historically do not want to make a career out of teaching there. They have become engulfed in the role of the teacher. Their behavior is so constricted by conceptualized lines which they have drawn or accepted that they have great difficulty in assessing with accuracy the needs of their students, who are culturally different. 13 14 Part of the problem lies in the individual's perception of a change in role from that of a student to that of a teacher. According to Will: Many other teachers find the transition from the passivity of being a student to the active involvement of being a teacher too demanding. They feel it is unrealistic to be asked to take the responsibility for their actions, to exhibit genuine feelings and to become actors in rather than reac- tors to life. Another part of the problem is getting teachers and prospective teachers to expand these conceptual lines they have drawn for themselves in order that they might better understand the cultural milieu of their students, which has so much to do with determining educational needs. As Donovan stated: Teachers need to be immersed in the smell and taste and throb of the social realities of cities and suburbia, and homes and neighborhoods and gangs that children bring to school with them. They must also be abreast of the ideas and stra- tegies of government, welfare agencies, churches and scholars for the amelioration or elimination of unwholesome social environments.2 Today, educators are noting that although the need for improvement of teacher education in general is important, the need for improved teacher education for the inner city is urgent and crucia1.3’4 lw111, op. cit. 2Rev. C. F. Donovan, S.J., "Tradition and Innovation in Teacher Education," Chagging Dimensions inygeacher Educa- tion, Yearbook of the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (Washington: AACTE, 1967), p. 18. 31bid., p. 19. 4E. O. Melby, "The Contagion of Liberal Education," The Journal of Teacher Education, 18:134-137 (Summer, 1967). 15 Smith noted the past failure of teacher education: . The fault (of the collapse of the urban school) lies within the larger society that fails to acknow- ledge the existence of black peOple and subsequently trains teachers and constructs curriculums and materials for a presumably monolithic white middle class society. Teachers have failed because for the most part, they don't know anything about, care little about, and have not been trained to teach their black and brown pupils.5 Teacher education is certainly not the only area in which improvement needs to come in order to resolve the mammoth problems of the inner city. It is because teacher education is the focus of this study that the ills of inner city teacher education are examined. No longer can those involved in teacher education assume that tinkering with the regular prOgram is suffi- cient to adequately prepare teachers for the inner city. Smith pointed out the "need for drastic changes in the training of teachers. Teachers are frightened and frus- trated as they attempt each day to confront what is for most of them the urban ordeal."6 It is interesting to note that when people write of the conditions of urban teachers they often refer not to intellectual skills, but to psychological states. For example, Ornstein claimed that "the teachers (of the dis- advantaged) are the victims of an intolerable system, 5D. H. Smith, "Preparation of Teachers for the Central City," Teacher Education/ Issuesjand Innovations, Yearbook of the AmeriCan Association of ColIeges for Teacher Education (Washington: AACTE, 1968), p. 50. 6Ibid., p. 53. 16 and this causes them to become frustrated, angry and finally indifferent."7 Part of the cause of this frustration is that by and large teachers of the inner city are dealing with strangers, children of a culture they do not understand. Foster contended that "most teachers and school adminis- trators have not been able to bridge the gap between their culture and that of their disadvantaged students."8 In a study by Howard it was found that middle class teachers tended to misinterpret the desires and underestimate the interests of lower class children. Further, the teachers tended to underestimate the number of problems disadvantaged children face in the school environment and to overestimate the number of problems that are related to the home environment and family relationships.9 The above findings carry with them an implicit charge for preparing teachers to work with culturally different children. That charge is that prospective inner city teachers should receive some training that would, as 7A. C. Ornstein, "Anxieties and Forces which Miti- gate Against Ghetto School Teachers," Journal of Secondagy Education, 43:243-254 (October, 1968). 8H. L. Foster, "The Inner City Teacher and Vio- lence: Suggestions for Action Research," Phi Delta Kappan, 50:172-175 (November, 1968). 9D. P. Howard, "The Needs and Problems of Socially Disadvantaged Children as Perceived by Students and Teachers," Exceptional Children, 34:327-335 (January, 1968). 17 Ornstein has stated, "provide . . . insights into the psychological and sociological problems of the disadvan- taged."10 Flynn, based on his experiences in the Detroit Public Schools, wrote that, "A teacher working with chil- dren in a ghetto school, to use a loaded phrase, has to have sensitivities and perception and understanding of the most humane kind."ll Consistently, the terms used by authors when stat- ing the needs of inner city teachers are of an affective tone. Olsen concluded that: If teachers are ever to work effectively with such children, (deprived) they must first come to know . . . the patterns of life, the value systems, and the motivational outlooks of these children as they live in their own daily environments.12 This view of cultural relativism does not mean adopting the ways and mores of another culture. Rather it means an awareness and acceptance as stated here by Ornstein: Teachers need only to be made aware of the differences in cultural values without viewing one as right or better. Instead of reshaping the disadvantaged child, teachers should accept his culture and improve him within the scheme of his own values. Indeed, teachers should maintain 10A. C. Ornstein, "Improving Teachers for Slum Schools," Improving Collgge and University Teachipg, 16:120-123 (Spring, 1968). 11F. A. Flynn, "Beginning at Hutchins Junior High," The Bulletin of Ehe National Association of Secondary School PrinEipals, 52:123-129 (October, 1968). 12E. G. Olsen, "Teacher Education for the Deprived: A New Pattern," School and Society, 95:232-234 (April 1, 1967). 18 their system of values, but, at the same time, respect and enhance the child's own values in order to reach him.13 The Affective Needs of Inner Cigy Teachers One trend in the study of the education of the culturally different has been to examine in microscopic fashion the traits of Blacks, Chicanos and Puerto Ricans, without ever holding a mirror up to the predominant white 14 A different tack recom- .cu1ture and its institutions. mended by Smith15 and Carroll16 is that which is self- conscious, and that which allows prospective teachers to become more aware of their attitudes and beliefs by devel- oping empathy for inner city people. Inman recommended that, "The preservice program of teacher education should seek to develop in each teacher a sense of genuine respect and empathy for the students."17 The task becomes one of preparing white, middle class teachers for their encounter with culturally dif- ferent peOple. Consider this recollection of Chapman: ' 13A. C. Ornstein, "Reaching the Disadvantaged," School and Sociegy, 96:214-216 (March 30, 1968). 14R. Wisniewski, "Urban Teacher Preparation Pro- grams," Social Education, 33:77-82 (January, 1969). 15 Smith, op. cit., p. 51. 16E. G. Carroll, "Adjusting Our Teaching--Adapt- ing to Other Values," Elementary English, 46:172-173 (February, 1969). 17T. H. Inman, "Educating Teachers for the Dis- advantaged," The Journal of Business Education, 43:268-269 (April, 1968). 19 I remember vividly the first day I was to report to work. For two weeks before this day I had nothing but apprehension about my job. I felt determined to go at least one day and if it didn't work out I would quit. My first professional duty was to appro- priate classrooms. The room was crowded, hot and sticky with the high—pitched voices of constantly- talking students. To get over to the counselor's office I had to pass through a myriad of students. In order to get into the counselor's office I had to weave somehow through the unfamiliar crowd. All of- a sudden I felt real panic inside. I was very much aware that at that moment I was the only white person in a room filled with two hundred strange faces. I had never been in a place with so many colored people, let alone in the minority. I thought I would suffo- cate or faint.18 That was certainly not an intellectual or academic problem that that young woman had to deal with. It was one of a lack of understanding of what it is like to live even a few brief moments as a minority. Had she any idea of what black or brown pe0p1e go through every day of their lives in a predominantly white society, she would have gained some insight into her own feelings. The pro- blem is ameliorated through a process of knowing oneself through knowing how others feel and perceive. As Redfield informed us: For as one comes to understand people who live by institutions and values different from one's own, at the same time one comes to see that these people are nevertheless, like one's own people. The alien culture at first appears to us a mask, enigmatic or repugnant. On closer acquaintance we see it as a garment for the spirit; we understand its harmonies and appreciate them. Finally, as acquaintance goes deeper still, we do not see or for a time forget the 18 . R. Chapman, "Teaching is Also Learn1ng," The Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary Scfiool Principals, 52:23-27 (October, 1968). 20 culture, but look only to the common humanity of the men and women underneath.19 The Need to Prepare Empathic Teachers Teaching is a vocation in which one becomes humanly involved with other people. Therefore, it is no surprise that Will found that, "treatises on effective teaching and teaching competence place a premium on the personal quali- ties possessed by the teacher."20 Empathy, or social perception, is a basic personal quality that is desirable, necessary and, according to Katz, "almost always expected of the helping person if he is a professional and responsible individual."21 Effectiveness in teaching has been linked with this personal quality, although authors have referred to the quality as "sensitivity,"22 "understanding of others,"23 "accuracy of social perception,"24 "ability to empathize,"25 19R. Redfield, "The Study of Culture in General Education," Social Education, 11:259-264 (1947). 20 Will, op. cit., p. 471. 21R. L. Katz, Empathy (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1963), p. ix. 228. J. Cratty, "The Assessment of Teacher Sensi- tivity," California Journal of Educational Research, 13:73-77 (March, 1962). 23N. L. Gage, "Explorations in the Understanding of Others," Educational and Psychological Measurement, 13:14-26 (Spring, 1953). 24N. E. Gronlund, "Social Perception and Teaching Effectiveness," The School Review, 63:277-283 (May, 1955). 25H. H. Remmers, "A Qualitative Index of Social- Psychological Empathy," American Journal of Orthopsychia- try, 20:161-165 (January, 1950. 21 "ability to capture the 'spirit of a group,”26 as well as "empathy."27 A Some Specific studies have addressed themselves to establishing correlational relationships between teaching effectiveness and empathy. Cratty found that "a signifi- cant and positive relationship exists between sensitivity to student reaction and classroom teaching success."28 Results of a study by Gage and Suci led them to conclude that "teachers' accuracy of soCial perception is positively related to their effectiveness in eliciting positive affect in pupils."29 Diskin studied empathic student teachers and their ability to conduct a classroom. His findings were that "student teachers that are high in individual predictive empathy are better able to maintain harmonious interper- sonal relations in the classroom."30 26S. Lundstedt, "Criteria for Effective Teaching," Improving College and University Teaching, 14:27-31 (Winter, 1966TL 27O. Strunk, "Empathy: A Review of Theory and Research," Psychological Newsletter, 9:47-57 (1957). 28 Cratty, op. cit., p. 219. 29N. L. Gage and G. Suci, "Social Perception and Teacher-Pupil Relationships," Jouppal of Educational Psychology, 42:144-152 (March, 1951. 30P. Diskin, "A Study of Predictive Empathy and the Ability of Student Teachers to Maintain Harmonious Inter- personal Relations in Selected Elementary Classrooms" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1956). 22 Dixon and Morse found a verification of their hypothesis that "individuals who have high empathic capa- city as measured by pupils' responses are also seen as better teachers."31 Previous Approaches to the Definition and Study of Empathy In conceptualizing empathy there has been some agreement, some overlapping and some divergence of mean- ing. In this sub-section a summary of those conceptual definitions of empathy and some other related terms as found in the review of the literature is presented. Con- ceptually, empathy has been defined as 1) imagined one- ness, 2) detached comprehension, and 3) a multi-step process. Empathy as Imagined Oneness. Katz has written of empathy as the ability to assume an "as if" mode when dealing with others: We see, we feel, we respond, and we understand as if we were, in fact, the other person. We stand in his shoes. We get under his skin. When a per- son empathizes he abandons himself and relives in himself the emotions and responses of another per- son. . . . in moments of empathy he experiences the keenest and most vivid sense of closeness or same- ness with the other person. We reverberate to the emotions of the other per- son and are no longer aware of our separate identity. We are involved in 'as-if' behavior.3 31W. R. Dixon and W. C. Morse, "The Prediction of Teaching Performance: Empathic Potential," The Journal of Teacher Education, 12:322-329 (September, 1961). 32 Katz, op. cit., pp. 3-4, 5. 23 Others have described empathy as being this feeling of oneness with others. Dymond used empathy to denote "the imaginative transposing of oneself into the thinking, feel- ing and acting of another and so structuring the world as 33 Meek defined empathy as "the capacity to put 34 he does." oneself in the place of another person." Olden, when describing empathy, saw a merging of egos. She wrote, "The subject temporarily gives up his own ego for that of the object."35 Stewart included the concept of identification in his definition of empathy when he stated, "He who empathizes goes beyond free imitation in a circle back to identifi- "36 cation, but now he identifies deliberately . . Warren also included the process of identification as part of the empathic state.37 Jacob Moreno, the sociodramatist, described the concept of empathy graphically in the form of a poem pre- facing one of his works: 33R. F. Dymond, "A Scale for the Measurement of Empathic Ability," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 13:127-133 (April, 1949). 34C. R. Meek, "An Experiment in Teaching Empathy," The Journal of Educational Sociology, 31:107-110 (October, 1957). 35C. Olden, "On Adult Empathy with Children," Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 8:111-126 (1954). 36D. A. Stewart, "The Psychogenesis of Empathy," The Psychoanalytic Review, 41:216-228 (July, 1954). 37H. C. Warren, Dictionary of Psychology (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1934), p. 92. 24 A meeting of two: eye to eye, face to face, And when you are near I will tear your eyes out, And place them instead of mine, And you will tear my eyes out, And will place them instead of yours, Then I will look at you with your e es, And you will look at me with mine. Empathy as Detached Comprehension Equally prevalent in the research and study of empathy is the conceptualization that empathy is an intel- lectualized awareness of another person's state of mind. Writers of this notion are careful to use words of a pri- marily cognitive tone to describe the empathic process. The usage of words such as, "comprehend," "apprehension," and "abstracting" is frequently noted. Murphy defined empathy by contrasting it with sympathy. He said it was the "direct apprehension of the state of mind of another person without as in sympathy, 39 feeling as he does." English and English used almost exactly the same wording, but then went on to elaborate on empathy as an intellectual process: Apprehension of the state of mind of another person without feeling (as in sympathy) what the other feels. While the empathic process is pri- marily intellectual, emotion is not precluded, but it is not the same emotion as that of the person with whom one empathizes . . . The attitude 38J. L. Moreno, Psychodrama (Vol. I) (Beacon, N.Y.: Beacon House, Inc., 1964), Preface. 39 G. Murphy, An Introduction to Psychology (New York: Harper Brothers, 1951f, p. 570. 25 of empathy is one of acceptance and understanding of an implicitly 'I see how you feel.‘40 Buchheimer recognized the affective nature of empathy, but pointed out that basically it is an "abstract process."41 Johnson also stated that the process of empathy yields a cognitive state when he wrote that empathy is to "enter another person's experience to comprehend what life means to him in his living adventure."42 Empathy as a Multi-Step Process A statement by Bonfenbrenner and others, regarding empathy indicated two parts to the empathic process. They said, "The process of sensing or responding to other people's thought and feelings is often referred to in this "43 This connotes that theoretical tradition as empathy. empathy is more than a feeling or an appreciation of a feeling held by others. Instead it infers that some fur- ther, perhaps enlightened action follows the sensing of the feeling of others. 40H. B. English and A. C. English, A Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytical Tenmg (New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1958), p. 178. 41A. Buchheimer, "The Development of Ideas About Empathy," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 10:61-70 (1963). 42P. E. Johnson, Personality and Religion (New York: Abingdon, 1957), p. 130. 43U. Bonfenbrenner, J. Harding and M. Gallwey, "The Measurement of Skill in Social Perception," in Talent and Society, ed. by D. McClelland, et a1. (Prince- ton: Van Nostrand, Inc., 1958), p. 29. 26 Lipps, who first used the term Einfuhlung, which has since been translated as empathy, saw the process as one including the sensing of a stimulus and reintegration of the stimulus by the empathizer.44 Lipps differentiated between empathy and Einsfuhlung, which he saw as being the active seeking of commonality.45 Fenichel described empathy as a process consisting of identification with the other person followed by an increased self-awareness.46 Olden wrote of empathy as act which has a back and forth quality to its essence, "an interchange of the emotional experience of feeling the object does and intellectual process of observing, "47 Like Olden, Stein felt judging, and understanding. that empathy takes place in steps which have affective and cognitive qualities: If (empathy) is an experience of being led by the foreign experience and takes place in three steps as follows: 1. the emergence of the experi- ence, 2. the fulfilling explication and, 3. the comprehensive objectification of the experience.48 44Buchheimer, op. cit., p. 62. 45Stewart, op. cit., p. 224. 46O. Fenichel, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis (New York: W. W. Norton, 1945). 47 Olden, op. cit., p. 113. 48 Martinus Nijhoff, 1964), p. xiv. an as E. Stein, On the Problem of Empathy (The Hague: 27 Related Concepts Empathy should not be confused with "identifica- tion" which is often unconscious,49 and frequently not purposeful.50 Also related to empathy is the act of projection. Projection, like identification, is unconscious and is, 51 Norman and Ains- furthermore, "nonéadaptive behavior." worth found that empathy and projection are negatively related and that empathy is more closely related to adjustment than is projection.52 In summarizing research in the area, Katz said that "errors in empathy are made by individuals who tend to project, who lack insight, who are ethnocentric, and who are hypochondriacal."53 Summary For the purposes of this study the following is typical of those descriptions of empathy which best lay theoretical support for the operational definition of empathy: When we empathize in everyday experiences, we enjoy a sense of membership in the same group and participate in communications that are based on a 49Strunk, 0p. cit., p. 49. 50H. C. Smith, Sensitivity to People (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1966), p. 93. 51Strunk, op. cit., pp. 48-49. 52R. D. Norman and P. Ainsworth, "The Relationships Among Projection, Empathy, Reality and Adjustment, Opera- tionally Defined," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 18:53-58 (1954). 53Katz, op. cit., p. 21. 28 common understanding of verbal symbols. In empathic understanding the practitioner not only appreciates symbols in the ways his subject does-- he becomes the subject by making a trial identifi- cation.54 Operational Definitions of Empathy Usually when writing about an operational defini- tion of empathy authors agreed on it being the ability to predict the responses of others.55’56 Dymond, in some of the earlier studies of empathy, had people rate each other and predict the responses of each other as follows: A rates himself rates B as A sees him rates B as he thinks B would rate himself rates A as he thinks B would rate him B rates B rates A as B sees him rates A as he thinks A would rate himse f rates B as he thinks A would rate him. www 3’3’3’ Empathy on the part of one person toward a group of people has been noted as a "sensitivity to the general- ized other" when a person is asked to predict such things 58 as community attitudes. Researchers have recommended / the use of a standard other when asking a subject to 54Katz, op. cit., p. 33. 55Remmers, op. cit., p. 161. 56Gage (1953), op. cit., p. 15. 57Dymond, op. cit., p. 128. 58Bonfenbrenner, et a1., op. cit., p. 37. 29 59,60 predict the responses of others. However, it is possible that projection may be a part of this act of predicting for others. That is, a person may be project- ing his or her views into the responses of others, rather than projecting himself or herself into the place of others and responding as they would. Projection has been operationalized as the degree to which a person's predic— tions for others are closer to his own than to the people for whom he is predicting.6l'62 Bender and Hastorf offered operational definitions following a study in which they made adjustments for this flaw in the measurement of empathy: projection, the total item by item deviation of the forecaster's own responses from his predictions for an associate . . . the-total deviations indicate projection . . . the smaller the deviation score, the greater the projection . . . raw empathy, predicted responses compared with actual responses of associates . . . the smaller the deviation, the greater the raw empathy . . . refined empathy, a comparison of the raw empathy score and the projection score. It's purpose is to show numerically whether S's predictions were closer to the responses of his associates or closer to his 59N. L. Gage and L. J. Cronbach, "Problems in Interpersonal Perception," Psychological Review, 62:411- 422 (November, 1955). 60A. M. Anikeeff, Reciprocal Empathy: Mutual Understanding AmongAConflict Groups (Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University, DiVISion of Educational Reference, 1951), P. 16. 61R. C. Cowden, "Empathy or Projection," Journal of Clinical Psychology, 11:188-190 (April, 1955). 62A. H. Hastorf and I. E. Bender, "A Caution ReSpecting the Measurement of Empathic Ability," The Joupnal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47:574-576 (1952). 30 own responses. Subtract the raw empathy score from the projection score to get a refined empathy score. Bender and Hastorf also found reason for using the refined empathy score over the raw empathy score, because "there is a significant negative relationship between pro- jection and refined empathy."64 These studies and findings by Bender and Hastorf are used as an integral part of the procedures described in Chapter III. Empathy and Effectiveness in Social Interaction Mead stressed the importance of taking the role of the other in building social cooperation among human 65 Stewart pointed out that where mutual empathy beings. exists, communication thrives.66 Katz expanded on this notion, saying that when communication takes place on a deeper level, the peOple involved end up understanding each other more completely and accepting each other.67 Several studies have been done relating empathic ability to effectiveness in social interaction. Speroff found 631. E. Bender and A. H. Hastorf, "On Measuring Generalized Empathic Ability (Social Sensitivity)," The Joupnal of Abnormal and Social Psyehology, 48:503-506_ (1953). 64Ibid., p. 54. 65Mead, op. cit. 66Stewart, 0p. cit., p. 217. 67Katz, op. cit., p. 7. 31 the faculty of empathy to be useful in resolving conflict 68 Van Zelst and Waldman both found correla- 69,70 situations. tions between empathy and leadership. In a study of personality traits and empathy Dymond found empathic peo- ple to be optimistic, warm, emotionally mature and well- adjusted persons.7l Both Dymond and Halpern attempted to explain the correlation between empathy and self-satisfac- tion. Halpern stated: The relationship between self-satisfaction and empathy suggests that a person who is at home with most of his own behavior is likely to be a better empathizer than those who are largely dissatisfied with themselves.72 Stewart concluded that the empathizer can be creative in his or social interaction: And he who can empathize will be a creator, for he will be freed of externally imposed rules of social prestige, and of professional status, and in this freedom he gives to his imitation the control and direction of his own personality.73 68B. J. Speroff, "Empathy and Role Reversal as Factors in Industrial Harmony," The Journal of Social ngcholggy, 37:117-120 (1953). 69R. H. Van Zelst, "Validation Evidence of the Empathy Test," Educatignal and Psychological Measurement, 13:474-477 (Autumn, 1953). 70H. Waldman, "Correlates of Empathy in Family Life Teachers" (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1961). 71R. F. Dymond, "Personality and Empathy," Journal of ConsultingyPsychology, 14:343-350 (1950). 72H. M. Halpern, "Empathy, Similarity and Self- Satisfaction," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 19:449- 452 (December, 1955). 73 Stewart, op. cit., p. 226. 32 Katz stated something similar when he pointed out that empathic individuals are not bound up by rationality. According to Katz, "Empathy helps us to transcend the limits of our rational powers. When we empathize we are not confined to using the stock labels or descriptive 74 words at our command." Goodman postulated that empathy very importantly allows a person to look more objectively at himself.75 The Empathizer as Role Player The definition of role playing ability comes very close to defining the ability to empathize. According to McClelland, "The term role taking ability refers to the facility with which a person can perceive and act out organized behaviors or roles (i.e. putting himself in 76 someone else's position)." Cottrell concluded tentatively that when a person purposely takes on the role of another in a social situation he sharpens his perception, enhances his comprehension and increases his observational skills.77 74Katz, op. cit., p. 16. 75H. Goodman, "Self-Insight, Empathy and Perceptual Distortion: A Study of the Relationships Between Measures of Self-Insight, Empathy and Perception Distortion as Defined by Ratings Made by Individuals" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, New York University, 1952). 76W. A. McClelland, "A Preliminary Test of Role- Playing Ability," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 15:102-108 (April, 1951). 77L. S. Cottrell, Jr., "Some Neglected Problems in Social Psychology," American Sociological Review, 15:705- 712 (December, 1950). 33 Mead claimed that it is the social nature of the mind that requires each of us to empathize with others in the 78 society. Studies about role playing and social inter- action have been done from both directions. For example, Gibb found that "role playing contributed to both the con- ceptualization of new roles and the taking of new roles 79 in social situations." On the other hand, McClelland said that: Role playing ability is largely a product of social interaction . . . direct personal experi- ence in social situations is the most important way in which the learning of these organized sys- tems of behavior (or roles) takes place. Stein related empathy to the formation of one's identity: By empathy with differentially composed personal structures we become clear on what we are not, what we are more or less than others. Thus, together with self-knowledge, we also have an important aid to self- evaluation. Since the experience of value is basic to our own value, at the same time as new values are acquired by empathy, our own unfamiliar values become visible. Katz pointed out that when we take the roles of others, we close the social distance and thus form a stronger sense of identity.82 78Mead, op. cit., p. 300. 79J. R. Gibb, "Effects of Role Playing Upon (a) Role Flexibility and Upon (b) Ability to Conceptualize a New Role," The American Ppychologist, 7:310 (July, 1952). 80 McClelland, 0p. cit., p. 102. 81Stein, 0p. cit., p. 105. 82Katz, pp. cit., p. 33. 34 Experiential Learning and Attitudinal Change Role Playing Roles are not easily defined. That is, where one role stops and another role begins is difficult to deline- ate. Yet, individuals tend to see the world through what they come to believe is an exclusive View. As Moreno put it: Every individual lives in a world which looks entirely private and personal to him and in which he partakes in a number of private roles. But, the millions of private worlds overlap in large portions. The larger portions which overlap are truly collective elements. Only the minor por- tions are private and personal. 3 The ability to empathize, as in role playing, becomes important when an individual finds himself in these overlapping situations calling for an understanding of role behaviors which may not be consonant.84 Garvey defined and explained the usefulness of role playing as the: Experience of 'being someone else.‘ It is employed to enable a person to attempt to under- stand the situation of another person, or it may be a fictitous role in which the player is seek- ing to acquire an understanding of relationships or of actions. 83J. L. Moreno, Sociodrama: A Method for the Analy- sis of Social Conflict (New York: Beacon House, 1944), p. 2. 84S. N. Herman and E. Schild, "Ethnic Role Conflict in a Cross-Cultural Situation," Human Relations, 13:215-228 (August, 1960). 85D. M. Garvey, "Simulation, Role Playing, and Sociodrama in the Social Studies," The Emporia State Research Studies, 16:5-21 (December, 1967). 35 Studies have been done regarding role playing as a means for develOping social understanding or empathy. Garvey concluded that: Even though the student may not be convinced of the adequacy of the position which he portrays he will usually develop a greater awareness and appreciation of the differences between his posi- tion and one which differs.86 A study by Ross showed that subjects taking roles congruent with their initial attitudes grew stronger in the affirmation of their views; while those playing non- congruent roles tended to change their attitudes in dir- 87 Janis ections away from their originally held views. and King's study support these findings and, further, they stated that when subjects verbalized an improvisation of their roles this tended to further increase the effec- tiveness of the attitude change.88 Myers found that role playing and a discussion of it in a small group setting increased the empathy of the role players.89 DeKock, in a study of high school students, 861bid., p. 20. 87J. L. Ross, "An Experimental Use of Simulation as a Training Technique for Collective Negotiations for Teachers" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of California at Los Angeles, 1968). 881. L. Janis and B. T. King, "The Influence of Role Playing on Opinion Change," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 49:211-218 (1954). 89C. L. H. Myers, "An Experiment in the Development and Measurement of Empathy in Social Work Students" (unpub- lished Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University, 1966). 36 found that playing the role of a minority person brought about positive changes in racial attitudes.90 Sociodrama Role playing can be used to study individual pro- blems or to investigate problems in a social context. Moreno has termed roles which represent collective ideas and experiences "sociodramatic roles."91 Sociodrama is a learning technique that uses role playing in order to give the learners some experience dealing with a parti- cular social problem. Garvey described sociodrama as involving "a situation to which an acceptable solution must be devised by the actors or role-players."92 Garvey continued to outline the intended outcomes of sociodrama and differentiate it from simple role playing: After a suitable warmup period, the pupils are permitted to proceed with the sociodrama in an effort to achieve both a solution to the issue and an understanding of the roles of the individuals involved in the situation. It is apparent that sociodrama is more highly structured than role-playing alone, and that a slightly greater demand is placed upon the teacher to pre- pare the initial description of the situation.93 Moreno, who is a pioneer in the fields of psycho- drama and sociodrama, noted that the use of sociodrama is 90F. DeKock, "Simulation and Changes in Racial Attitudes," Social Education, 33:181-183 (February, 1969). 91Moreno (1944), op. cit., p. 3. 92 . Garvey, op. c1t., p. 8. 93Ibid., p. 10. 37 particularly appropriate for dealing with intergroup rela- tions as between blacks and whites. Sociodrama allows the players not only to explore, but to treat conflicts which may exist between groups of different cultural backgrounds.94 Educational Games James Coleman wrote about games and saw them as being: A kind of play upon life in general. It induces, in a restricted well-defined context, the same kinds of motivation and behavior that occur in the broader contexts of life where we play for keeps.95 Clark Abt stated, "Reduced to its formal essence, a game is an activity among two or more independent deci- sion-makers seeking to achieve their objectives in some limiting context."96 Dawson basically agreed with Abt's definition, but added that the component of competition is generally pre- sent in games.97 In educational simulation the game concept, accord- ing to Ogunniyi, is "a model which provides stimulating 94Moreno (1944), op. cit., p. 6. 95J. S. Coleman, "Social Processes and Social Stimulation Games," in Simulation Games in Learnipg, ed. by S. S. Boocock and E. O. Schild (Beverly Hills: Sage Publi- cations, Inc., 1968), p. 29. 96C. Abt, Serious Games (New York: Viking Press, 1970), P. 6. 97R. E. Dawson, "Simulation in the Social Sciences," in Simulation in the Social Sciences, ed. by H. Guetzkow (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962), p. 9. 38 mimetic practice for students about gamed situations of real life."98 Moreover, Ogunniyi concluded that an educa- tional game is different from a parlor game in that "an educational game has specific instructional objectives to which the student must be oriented at the beginning of the game. Also, educational games end with debriefing."99 Although educational games usually have stated objectives, they offer a freedom to improvise not avail- able in a computerized game or a mathematical model of a situation. As Raser stated: There is more leeway with respect to analogical consistency and strictness. The rules for translat- ing 'real life' variables into simulation variables are less demanding, so it is possible to 'play around' a bit and 'make do,‘ . . .100 Games are useful learning techniques for testing 101 available strategies in a social situation, or for studying some of the basic principles of human behavior.102 The advantages of games or gaming in an educational sense are that they increase interest and motivation, allow the participants to take active part, thereby applying and 98O. Ogunniyi, "The Methodology of Educational Simulation and a Design of Simulated Instructional Model for Occupational Education" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969), p. 156. 99Ibid., pp. 156-157. 100J. R. Raser, Simulation and Society: An Explora- tion of Scientific Gaming (Boston: AlIyn andTBacon, Inc., 1969), p. 32. 101W. D. Coplin, Simulation in the Study of Politics (Chicago: Markham Publishing Co., 1968). 102 Raser, loc. cit. 39 testing knowledge and all of this within a context which is a simplified version of the complex real world.103'104’105 Simulation Rogers has defined simulation as an experiential type of learning which is, in effect, a complex form of role playing.106 In support of this notion, Cruickshank has offered a definition of simulation which is much like Moreno's concept of sociodrama: Simulation may be defined as the creation of realistic games to be played by participants in order to provide them with life-like problem solving exper8ences related to their present or future work.1 7 Garvey agreed that simulation incorporates both role playing and sociodrama, but that it usually also includes the element of a game.108 Garvey went on to point out that simulation may be all-man, man-computer, or all computer.109 103Raser, op. cit., p. 115. 104Abt, 0p. cit., p. 13. 105Coleman, loc. cit. 106C. R. Rogers, "What Psychology Has to Offer to Teacher Education," Mental Health and Teacher Education, Yearbook of the Association for Student Teaching (Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. Brown Co., Inc., 1967). 107D. R. Cruickshank, "Simulation: New Directions in Teacher Preparation," Phi Delta Kappan, 48:23-24 (September, 1966). 108 Garvey, op. cit., p. 11. 1°91bid., p. 8. 40 Without using the other, previously defined, terms Tansen and Unwin stated, "Simulation is a simplified ver- sion of an actual situation in which it is possible to 110 Simulations arrange occurrences as they are needed." are simplifications and purposely so. They are abstractions of reality presented to the learner so that the learner can perceive the situation with more clarity than exists in the referent system.111 The function of an educational simulation is to provide realistic instruction and to allow an individual to apply gained knowledge in this life-like, problem solving situation.112 Raser has pointed out that among its advantages simulation is cheaper, costly mistakes can be avoided, more phenomena are observable and with clarity, a mani- pulatable system is presented and the learners are pro- 113 tected in safety. . Other advantages are that the simu- lator can compress or expand real time, and the experi- menter can study process in ways that nature prohibits.114 Also, a recent study showed that: 110P. J. Tansen and D. Unwin, "Simulation Gaming: Bridge Between Theory and Practice," The Times Educational Supplement, June 21, 1968, p. 2077. 111Raser, op. cit., p. 10. 112Ogunniyi, op. cit., pp. 154, 156. 113Raser, op. cit., pp. 15-18. 114Dawson, op. cit., pp. 12, 13. 41 'Practicing' in a simulated environment gave some players greater confidence in their ability to control social situations, at the same time that they acquired a more realistic view of what the situation was like and saw the necessity for further learning about it.1 Summary of Experiential Learning Although efforts have been made in the preceding paragraphs to distinguish role playing, sociodrama, games and simulation from each other, their similarities should also be remembered: 1. Each one utilizes a symbolic model 2. Each one requires the student to define the pro- blem, to determine the available alternative solutions and the possible consequences of those alternatives 3. Each one enables the student to receive practice in decision-making devoid of dan- ger if an incorrect judgement is made . . 1 5 Boocock, in an illuStrative paragraph pointed out a connection between what is being done today in educational simulation as being based in the philosophy of John Dewey: The core principles of the technique--e.g. the active and simultaneous participation of all students in an educational game, with the teacher in the role of aid rather than judge; the internal rather than external locus of rewards, and thus motivation, in a game; and the linking of the student to the outside world through the simulated environment, which, by ‘1158. S. Boocock, "An Experimental Study of the Learning Effects of Two Games with Simulated Environments," in Simulation Games in Learning, ed. by S. S. Boocock and E. O. Schild (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, Inc., 1968), p. 129. 116Garvey, op. cit., p. 9. 42 'reproducing the conditions of real life' within the classroom allows him to practice taking the kinds of roles and making the kinds of decisions he will face in his own later life--can all be traced to one or another of Dewey's works.117 Attitude Change It was assumed for this study that the conditions under which attitude change were to take place would have to be of a non-threatening nature and secondly that the medium for inducing affective change would have to be itself primarily affective. The latter part of this assumption is supported by Will, who stated that: Qualities such as responsibility, sensitivity, openness to experience, and acceptance of self and others . . . are developed when the individual witnesses or is involved in emotionally charged situations with meaningful others.1 A study by King and Janis indicated that when a person is given a role to defend and is further encouraged to improvise new supporting ideas in defense of this View, that person will gain in understanding of that point of . 119 v1ew. Researchers in the field of attitudinal changes have recognized the non-threatening manner of experiential learning where role playing is involved. Abt pointed out 117S. S. Boocock, "From Luxury Item to Learning Tool--An Overview of the Theoretical Literature on Games," in Simulation Games in Learning, ed. by S. S. Boocock and E. O. Schild (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, Inc., 1968), P. 57. 118 Will, op. cit., p. 472. 119B. T. King and I. L. Janis, "Comparison of the Effectiveness of Improvised Versus Non-Improvised Role Playing in Producing Opinion Changes," Human Relations, 9:177-186 (1956). 43 120 Boocock referred to the the risk-free nature of games. relative safety of role playing,121 while Cruickshank mentioned that simulation offered a realistic setting in which student teachers could make decisions without fear 122 of censure or failure. In a study by Lindquist, it was inferred that those participating in a simulation reacted in a less threatening manner.123 Summary After reviewing the literature in the pertinent theoretical traditions it is concluded that: l) The need for affective preparation of inner city teachers is cru- cial; 2) Although the research on empathy has been diverse, certain ways for operationalizing the concept have advan- tages over others; 3) Sociodramatic games involving simulated environments and role playing offer an emotionally charged, yet non-threatening setting for allowing affective change to occur; and 4) A careful examination of studies in the field of inner city teacher education has shown that there have been no studies attempting to bring about 120Abt, op. cit., p. 13. 121Boocock, "From Luxury Item to Learning T001," op. cit., p. 59. 122Cruickshank, op. cit., p. 23. 123G. W. Lindquist, "Utilization of Simulation and Group Counseling in the Training of Prospective Elementary School Teachers" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University, 1969). 44 changes in empathic ability in prospective inner city teachers, nor any studies using the sociodramatic or simulation method of role playing to increase empathy in teachers. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY This chapter presents descriptions of the general methods, the sample and population, the instrument and measures, the experimental design, treatment procedures, research hypotheses, the analysis method, and the limita- tions of the study. General Methods In the investigation and development of this research problem on the effectiveness of a method for developing the empathic ability of prospective inner city teachers, the following methods were used. After deter- mining the study problem, the author reviewed the publica- tions in the areas of empathy, simulation, sociodrama and inner city teacher education. As a result of finding a dearth of research and methods used to develop this affec- tive quality of empathy in teachers, the writer was con- vinced that a method should be refined and assessed for its effectiveness in the educational preparation of pros- pective inner city teachers. 45 46 The study was based upon an analysis of data gathered from subjects who participated in the Washington Heights Simulation Game (WHSG), from subjects of control groups and from a norm group of inner city residents. The results of this analysis are used to make recommendations and to draw implications for further research. Sample The sample for this study was drawn from a popula- tion of prospective inner city teachers. This included students enrolled in graduate and undergraduate courses in the College of Education at Michigan State University, and students enrolled in an undergraduate course at Flint Junior College. All those taking part in the runs of the WHSG as part of this study, expressed an interest in the inner city, and voluntarily participated in the game. The population is defined as prospective inner city teachers, in that, at the time when the subjects participated in the WHSG they were all potential candidates for teaching in the inner city. The sample drawn from this population consisted of nine groups. Eight groups were composed of students enrolled in courses in the College of Education at Michi- gan State University; three groups were students enrolled in the final undergraduate education course in the profes- sional sequence, School and Society; two groups were stu- dents enrolled in the Secondary Methods block of the under- graduate sequence; one group from a graduate education 47 course in Social Studies Methods; one group from a graduate education course in Crucial Issues. One group was composed of students from an undergraduate Sociology course at Flint Junior College. Instrument and Measures A review of the literature turned up no adequate instrument which assesses the degree of empathy on the part of prospective inner city teachers for inner city residents. Nor is there available an adequate instrument which measures generalized empathy of an individual for a group. In the Sixth Mental Measurements Yearbook, Bray- field said that there had been "insufficient and inadequate data to believe that the construct 'empathy' had been isolated in the 'Diplomacy Test of Empathy."l In the Fifth Mental Measurements Yearbook, Thorn- dike said that "'The Empathy Test' cannot be recommended as either a useful practical device or contribution to the description and understanding of an individual."2 Therefore, the construct of empathy was operational— ized, using the responses of treatment, control and norm groups to an attitude inventory. 1A. H. Brayfield, "Review of the Diplomacy Test of Empathy," in Sixth Mental Measurements Yearbook, ed. by O. K. Buros (Highland Park, N.J.: The Gryphon Press, 1965), p. 187. 2R. L. Thorndike, "Review of The Empathy Test," in Fifth Mengal Measurements Yearbook, ed. by O. K. Buros (Highland Park, N.J.: The Gryphon Press, 1959), p. 52. 48 The instrument used in this study was developed specifically for this study by the author and is named the Flynn Attitude Inventory (FAI). Fifty items were written by the author (see Appendix B). The items were statements of attitudes pertaining to the conceptions of minority people with a special emphasis on black peOple and the milieu of the inner city. Instructions directed respon- dents to agree or disagree with the statements on a six point scale. The original fifty items were tested on a group of thirty-four inner city residents of the city of Detroit. This group ranged in age from 18 to 35. The group was 95 per cent black, and included both males and females. Members of this group came from areas of Detroit known as "hard core" sections of the city. Of the original fifty items tested, twenty items were finally chosen (see Appendix C). These items were chosen on the basis of the least in-group variability. Simply stated, the items finally chosen were ones on which there was the most agreement as to the response among members of the group (items having the least standard deviation within the group). Treatment The following is a brief description of the Wash- ington Heights Simulation Game. A complete description can be found in Appendix A. 49 The Washington Heights Simulation Game (WHSG) is a sociodramatic learning experience designed to develop in prospective inner city teachers a feeling for powerless- ness and its accompanying frustrations, similar to that felt by people of minority groups in the inner cities of America. Players act out the roles of Xenoes, a minority group, and try to better the social, living conditions of their community, Washington Heights. Participants fre- quently say that following the game they feel that they have a better understanding, emotionally, of the plight of blacks in the inner city, whereas before their awareness was primarily intellectual. Experimental Desigp The eXperimental design consisted of nine treatment groups with matching control groups. Each group responded to the FAI twice. The first time respondents were told to respond in keeping with their personal beliefs. The second time they were told to respond the way they thought inner city people would respond. (For an exact wording of the directions see Appendix D.) Both sets of responses were gathered from eight of the groups following participa- tion in the WHSG. One more group that received the treat- ment responded to the FAI twice before and twice after participation in the WHSG. This group was part of the total design of the study, but was also used to gather data to determine whether the administration of the FAI prior to the WHSG would bring about an increased empathy on the part 50 of the group. Each time the game was run, the following responses for each item on the FAI were gathered from each group: Treatment Control Self x y Inner City xx yy The self (x,y) responses and inner city (xx,yy) responses were compared with the norm group (n) and the self and inner city responses were compared with each other. This information was calculated for each item as follows: to determine similarity3 n-x n‘Y to determine projection4 x-xx Y'YY to determine raw empathy5 n-xx n‘YY to determine refined empathy6 (x-xx) - (n-xx) (Y’YY) ' (n’YY) 3For operational definitions of these terms see Chapter I. 4 5 6 Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. 51 In each of the four measures the item-by-item deviations were totaled giving a single number for each measure for each group. Control groups were then com- pared with experimental groups for each measure. Procedures Each experimental group participated in the Wash- ington Heights Simulation Game (WHSG).7 This included a briefing session covering the objectives of the game, the actual playing of the game and a debriefing session follow- ing the game. The instrument used for gathering data was administered following the playing of the game and before the debriefing session. This decision was made since the debriefing sessions are somewhat personalized and since it is more likely that this part of the experience is less predictable and more spontaneous. Statistical Hypothesis To evaluate the effectiveness of the WHSG in the development of empathic ability on the part of the pros- pective inner city teachers taking part in the study, five statistical hypotheses were generated and tested. Each null hypothesis is presented. Null Hypothesisl: No difference will be found between the mean similarity scores of experimental groups and control groups as measured using the FAI. 7A complete description of the WHSG is found in Appendix A. Symbolically: Null Hypothesisz: 52 U = U T C No difference will be found between the mean pro- jection scores of experimental groups and control groups as measured using the Symbolically: Null Hypothesis3: No difference empathy scores of the as measured using the Symbolically: Null Hypothesis4: No difference empathy scores of the as measured using the Symbolically: Null Hypothesiss: No difference FAI. will be found between the mean raw experimental groups and control groups FAI. will be found between the mean refined experimental groups and control groups FAI. will be found between the mean scores of that experimental group which received a pre-test and those experimental groups which did not. Symbolically: The group was “T(1.2,3...8) = “Tm Analysis used as the unit of measure due to the interaction of the subject participants in the simula- tion game. Inbar has pointed out that the impact of a 53 game "seems very much to be a group phenomenon rather than a purely individual learning process."8 The responses to the FAI were used to assign scores for the operational definitions to each group. For example, all the responses for the people in Group 1 (the first experimental group) to item #1 on the FAI, when they were asked to respond in keeping with their personal beliefs, were added in order to obtain the mean response for that group to that item. The mean response (call it x1) was then compared with the mean response of the norm group on that item (call it n1) to obtain the similarity measure. Next, the mean response, x1, was compared with the mean response of the same group when they responded the way they thought inner city people would respond, xxl, in order to gain the projection measure. Following this the xx1 response was compared with how the inner city people actually did score on that item, n1, in order to gain the raw empathy measure. The refined empathy measure was obtained by subtracting the raw empathy measure from the projection measure. Each of these measures for each item was totaled for each group yielding a single number to be known respectively as the similarity score, the projection score, the raw empathy score and the refined empathy score. The mean scores of the treatment groups and the control 8M. Inbar, "Individual and Group Effects on Enjoy- ment and Learning in a Game Simulating a Community Dis- aster," in Simulation Games in Learnipg, ed. by S. S. Boocock and E. O. Schild (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, Inc., 1968), p. 182. 54 groups were then compared by using a correlated t-test and using the .05 level of significance. This meant that the researcher would tolerate a 5 per cent probability of being wrong when stating that a difference existed. Limitations This study has certain limitations that should be recognized if the data presented are to be intelligently interpreted. One obvious limitation is that measuring attitudes or a characteristic such as empathy immediately following a two and one-half hour experience may not indicate a permanent change in attitudes or the ability to predict the attitudes of others. The generalizability of the pOpulation is limited to prospective inner city teachers of at least college age. The treatment designed for this study, the WHSG, was not meant for use with high school age students or for peOple who are not interested in education for the inner city. Any implications drawn from the results of this study for the application of this method for dealing with the problem of affective inner city teacher education to other areas of study would have to be drawn with the greatest care and caution. Every attempt has been made in this study to recog- nize these limitations, to minimize their effect whenever possible, and to draw conclusions and implications from the data in view of these limits. 55 Summary In this study nine experimental groups were administered a treatment, the Washington Heights Simula- tion Game, in order to test the effectiveness of this game in developing an empathic response on the part of prospec- tive inner city teachers for residents of the inner city. Following participation of each group in the WHSG, data was gathered through the use of the Flynn Attitude Inven- tory. In the case of one experimental group the FAI was also administered before participation in the WHSG, in order to determine whether the administration of the FAI increased the empathic ability beyond that of the other experimental groups. The same data was gathered from control groups that did not participate in the WHSG. The data was measured to obtain similarity, projection, raw empathy and refined empathy scores for each group. Com- parisons were made between those groups of prospective inner city teachers who participated in the WHSG and those which did not using a correlated t-test and the .05 level of significance. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE DATA In this chapter information regarding the con- struction of the instrument, the gathering of the data, the testing of the null hypotheses, and further results are presented. Inventory Items The implementation of the design of this study began with the testing of items for the Flynn Attitude Inventory (FAI) on a norm group of inner city people. Following testing, items were selected on the basis of their standard deviation. In most cases inventory items are selected because their responses have a high standard deviation indicating a wide range of attitudes expressed by respondents. For the purposes of this study, however, the items selected were the ones having the lowest standard deviation within the norm group. This was done because later in the study subjects were asked to predict how inner city people (the norm group) would respond to the items. Therefore, it was important to select items 56 57 that the inner city people agreed upon. The mean responses to each of the twenty items on the FAI by the norm group can be found in Appendix C. Also, in constructing the FAI care was taken to balance the number of items eliciting agreement with items eliciting disagreement and to mix these items with each EiaJ other. Following participation in the Washington Heights ‘_ Simulation Game (WHSG) subjects were seated and asked to i complete the FAI. They were told that the information gathered from the inventories would be used for research purposes only and that it would in no way influence grades or evaluations for the course they were enrolled in. Subjects were given a copy of the FAI which had been marked "S" for "Self" and were asked to fill it out in keeping with their personal beliefs. After collecting the "S" inventories, subjects were given another copy of the FAI, but this one was marked "I" for "Inner City." Subjects were told to respond to this copy of the FAI as they thought a resident of the inner city might respond to it. The same procedures were used for collecting data from control groups. When subjects responded to the items on the FAI they did so by placing an "X" in a box next to an item indicating agreement or disagreement on a six-point scale. Each point on the scale was designated verbally: 58 "STRONGLY AGREE," "SLIGHTLY AGREE," "AGREE," "DISAGREE," "SLIGHTLY DISAGREE," "STRONGLY DISAGREE." These boxes were assigned numbers from one to six, e.g., STRONGLY AGREE = 1, and STRONGLY DISAGREE = 6. Testing the Null Hypotheses Data were gathered from nine experimental groups and their associated control groups. The mean responses for each group on each item were found by coding the data (e.g., an "X" under SLIGHTLY AGREE becomes a "2"), punch- ing the data onto cards and programming it into the 3600 computer at the Michigan State University Computer Center. The means from each group for each item were recorded. Treatment groups were then compared with control groups for differences.* A t-test was selected as the appropriate method of analysis since a comparison of the dependent means of two groups was being carried out. The level of significance was set at p < .05, indicating that the writer was willing to tolerate a 5 per cent chance that the differences shown occurred by chance alone. Null Hypothesisl: No difference will be found between the similarity scores of experimental groups and control groups. Alternate Hypothesisl: Groups receiving the experimental treatment will have higher similarity scores *Raw scores and differences by group can be found in Appendix D. 59 as measured using the FAI than groups not participating in the WHSG. Difference (Treatment-Control) Time in Similarity Scores 1 1.63 2 12.04 3 5.04 4 6.05 5 6.66 6 10.71 7 7.32 8 2.70 9 5.88 The above scores were calculated using a t-test with seven degrees of freedom: Xd/n t = 7df [:1de - (Zd)2 n(n - 1) fr;— The mean difference of 5.78 on similarity scores was sufficient to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternate hypothesis at the .001 level of significance with seven degrees of freedom. Null Hypothesisz: No difference will be found between the mean projection scores of experimental groups and control groups as measured using the FAI. 60 Alternate HypothesisZ: Groups receiving the experimental treatment will differ from groups not par- ticipating in the WHSG on projection scores as measured using the FAI. Difference (Treatment-Control) Time in Projection Scores 1 -4.64 2 -5.06 3 -6.15 4 -6.55 5 -4.64 6 -9.04 7 -6.71 8 -1.14 9 -3.04 The above scores were calculated using a t-test with seven degrees of freedom. The mean difference of -6.87 on projection scores was sufficient to reject the null hypothesis at the .001 level of significance with seven degrees of freedom. Upon investigation it was shown that experimental groups had higher projection scores than control groups. Null Hypothesis No difference will be found 3: between the mean raw empathy scores of the experimental groups and control groups as measured using the FAI. 61 Alternate Hypothesis Groups receiving the 3: experimental treatment will differ from groups not parti- cipating in the WHSG on raw empathy scores as measured using the FAI. Difference (Treatment-Control) Time in Raw Empathy Scores 1 .06 2 1.40 3 1.24 4 1.04 5 .09 6 - .02 7 .32 8 2.03 9 - .57 The above scores were calculated using a t-test with seven degrees of freedom. The mean difference of 1.80 on raw empathy scores is significant at the .2 level and therefore was not sufficient to reject the null hypothesis at the .05 level of significance. An investi- gation showed that experimental groups had slightly higher, although not significantly higher, raw empathy scores than control groups. Null Hypothesis No difference will be found 4: between the mean refined empathy scores of the experi- mental groups and control groups as measured using the FAI O 62 Alternate Hypothesis Groups receiving the 4: experimental treatment will differ from groups not par- ticipating in the WHSG on refined empathy scores as measured using the FAI. Difference (Treatment-Control) Time in Refined Empathy Scores 1 -3.26 2 -3.66 3 -5.60 4 -6.94 5 -4.02 6 —9.19 7 -5.48 8 -2.48 9 -2.11 The above scores were calculated using a t-test with seven degrees of freedom. The mean difference of -3.84 on refined empathy was sufficient to reject the null hypothesis at the .01 level of significance with seven degrees of freedom. Upon investigation it was shown that experimental groups had lower refined empathy scores than control groups. Null Hypothesiss: No difference will be found between the mean scores of that experimental group which received a pre-test and post-test and those experimental groups which received the post-test only. 63 Alternate Hypothesis The group receiving the 5. pre-test and post-test will have higher similarity and refined empathy scores than those groups which received the post-test only. An inspection of the data cells as given in this chapter indicated that the null hypothesis was tenable. A further calculation beyond the stated hypo- theses provided more results. The researcher selected ten items from the attitude inventory which more than others pertained to the WHSG. The items selected were: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 16, 17, 19, and 20. Item number 3 reads, "Special provision should be made for participation of minorities in government." Item number 16 reads, "Inner city residents should have community control of their schools." The mean differences were obtained using a t-test as was done for hypotheses 1-4. These differences are presented with levels of significance for comparison with the data for all the items: Raw Refined Similarity Projection Empathy Empathy lvl. lvl. lvl. lvl. dif. sig. dif. sig. dif. sig. dif. sig. All 5.78 .001 -6.87 .001 1.80 .2 -3.84 .01 Items Selec- ted 6.66 .001 -6.40 .001 1.62 .2 -2.49 .05 Items 64 It can be observed that the similarity difference is stronger in the direction of hypothesis 1 when con- sidering selected items. While the projection and raw empathy appear to have held at their significance levels, the refined empathy difference has moved in the direc- tion of control groups having somewhat lower differences. Summary The data was gathered using the FAI, the items of which were field tested on an inner city norm group and selected on the basis of the lowest standard deviation. In gathering the data subjects remained anonymous and were assured that the information would be used for research purposes only. A correlated t-test was used to analyze the data. This test was found to be acceptable in this study which is comparing the dependent means of treatment and control groups. The level of significance was set at p < .05. Tests were made of the null hypotheses of the study, and were accepted or rejected on the basis of the data collected at the level of significance. A restate- ment of the hypotheses is now made, followed by a statement of support or non-support. Hypothesis 1 Groups of prospective inner city teachers which participated in the Washington Heights Simulation Game (WHSG) will respond to the Flynn Attitude Inventory (FAI) 65 more similar to the way a group of inner city people respond to the FAI than groups of prospective inner city teachers which do not participate in the WHSG. The hypothesis was supported. Hypothesis 2 Groups of prospective inner city teachers which participated in the WHSG will not project as much when responding to the FAI the way they think inner city people would respond to the inventory, as groups which did not participate in the WHSG. The hypothesis was not supported. Hypothesis 3 Groups of prospective inner city teachers which participated in the WHSG will express greater raw empathy for inner city people than will groups which did not participate in the WHSG. The hypothesis was not supported. Hypothesis 4 Groups of prospective inner city teachers which participated in the WHSG will express greater refined empathy for inner city people than will groups which did not participate in the WHSG. The hypothesis was not supported. 66 Hypothesis 5 A group of prospective inner city teachers who received the FAI as a pre-test before participation in the WHSG will have higher similarity and refined empathy scores than those groups of prospective inner city teachers who participated in the WHSG and received the FAI as a post-test only. This hypothesis was not supported. Further calculation of selected items of the FAI, which were considered by the researcher to be particularly pertinent to the objectives of the WHSG, showed the dif- ferences of the refined empathy scores of the control groups to be not as strong as when considering all items. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS In this chapter a summary of the study, a dis- cussion of the findings and recommendations for further study are presented. The Study The purpose of this study was to assess the effectiveness of an original, sociodramatic game, the Washington Heights Simulation Game, in developing the empathic ability of prospective inner city teachers. Since the theoretical basis of empathy is new, and since there is little or no methodology for preparing teachers in this most crucial affective ability, this study util- ized a refined conceptual definition of empathy in an experiment that might add to the small supply of methods conducive to cross-cultural understanding in the teaching/ learning situation. After reviewing the literature in the pertinent theoretical traditions it was concluded that the need for affective preparation of inner city teachers is 67 68 crucial. Although the research on empathy has been diverse, certain ways for operationalizing the concept have advantages over others. Sociodramatic games involv— ing simulated environments and role playing offer an emotionally charged, yet non-threatening setting for allowing affective change to occur. A careful examination of studies in the field of inner city teacher education has shown that there have been no studies attempting to bring about changes in empathic ability in prospective El \ inner city teachers, nor any studies using the socio- dramatic or simulation method of role playing to increase empathy in teachers. In this study nine experimental groups were administered a treatment, the Washington Heights Simula- tion Game, in order to test the effectiveness of this game in developing an empathic response on the part of prospective inner city teachers for residents of the inner city. Following participation of each group in the WHSG, data were gathered through the use of the Flynn Attitide Inventory. The preliminary items of the FAI were field tested on an inner city norm group and the final items were selected on the basis of the lowest stan- dard deviation. In the case of one experimental group the FAI was also administered before participation in the WHSG, in order to determine whether the administra- tion of the FAI increased the empathic affect beyond that 69 of the other experimental groups. The same data were gathered from control groups that did not participate in the WHSG. The data were measured to obtain similarity, projection, and raw and refined empathy scores for each group. Comparisons were made, using a correlated t-test and the .05 level of significance, between those groups of prospective inner city teachers who participated in the WHSG and those which did not. The correlated t-test was found acceptable in this study which is comparing the dependent means of treatment and control groups. Tests were made of the null hypotheses of the study and were accepted or rejected on the basis of the data collected at the level of significance. Groups which participated in the WHSG were significantly differ- ent from control groups in their similarity to the inner city norm group. Treatment groups also projected more than control groups when responding to the FAI as they thought inner city people would respond to the items. Although treatment groups expressed a greater raw empathy than control groups, the difference was significant at the .2 level and therefore not sufficient to reject the null hypothesis. Experimental groups had lower refined empathy scores than control groups. Administering the FAI to an experimental group before playing the WHSG showed no differences, when compared with other experi- mental groups, on the similarity and refined empathy SCOI’GS . 70 Further calculation of selected items of the FAI, which were considered by the researcher to be particularly pertinent to the objectives of the WHSG, showed the dif- ferences of the refined empathy scores of control groups to be less significant than when considering all items. Discussion of the Findings The results of the test of the first hypothesis of this study indicated that the Washington Heights Simu- lation Game, a sociodramatic method involving a simulated environment and role playing, is an effective technique for inducing groups of prospective inner city teachers to express attitudinal responses similar to those of inner city people. After testing the second hypothesis it was inferred that experimental groups projected significantly more than did control groups. The results of the projection hypo- thesis may be attributed to a number of factors. First, a case was made in Chapter II that projection is non- adaptive behavior. This conclusion had been arrived at when considering the empathic response between two associates. In order to correct for projection, Bender and Hastorf recommended separating the projection score from the raw empathy score, resulting in a refined empathy score.1 However, in the present study the empathic 1Bender and Hastorf, op. cit. 71 response was observed between dissimilar people. Pro- jection was the difference between how a group personally responded to an item on the FAI and how they thought inner city people might respond to the FAI. The smaller the difference, the greater the projection. No allowance was made for accurate projection. Bender and Hastorf recognized the severity of this method of analysis in their study.2 Perhaps this is too rigorous a method when dealing with dissimilar viewpoints, especially when there is an anticipated change in one of the viewpoints. Secondly, projection was used as the base from which to subtract raw empathy (the accuracy of a group's predictions for inner city people) in order to obtain a refined empathy score. Therefore, it is suggested that refined empathy could also be considered to be the dif- ference between raw empathy and projection with a cor- rection for accurate projection, or a perceived similarity that is real. Operationally then, refined empathy would equal raw empathy minus the difference between projection and similarity. Why did the subjects, who participated in the WHSG, project so much more than their control group associates? One guess is that they perceived that they were in the same state of mind, at the time of testing, that inner city people are in as a normal course of 2Ibid. 72 events. And what is more, the subjects were accurate in their projection. Although projection is normally thought of as non-adaptive behavior, the subjects recognized that the experience that they had just undergone had put them in a state of mind, although probably temporarily, like that of inner city people. Therefore, when filling out the inventories they filled them out for inner city people much in the same way as they filled them out for themselves and in this way registered a high amount of projection. The testing of hypothesis 3 showed that treatment groups did not score significantly different on raw empathy from control groups. In measuring raw empathy a number of observations were made. An examination of the data cells showed that treatment groups would go from their own views beyond the mean of the norm group when predicting how inner city people might respond to the FAI. In some cases, treatment groups were expressing more strongly an attitudinal statement accepted by the norm group, but in doing so exhibiting less of an empathic response. For example, the mean norm group response to item number 7 on the FAI was 1.69. The mean response of one of the treatment groups to item number 7 was 1.22, indicating agreement in the same direction as the norm group. The control group in this case responded in agreement with the statement, but not quite as 73 strongly as either the norm group or the treatment group, registering a mean response of 1.78. The control group, therefore, had the greater accuracy, or raw empathy score. Based on the testing of hypothesis 4 the mean refined empathy scores of treatment groups were not as high as those of the control groups. The refined empathy score was determined by subtracting the raw empathy score from the projection score. The raw empathy scores of treatment groups were only slightly, not significantly, higher than control groups. When the raw empathy scores of treatment and control groups were subtracted from the projection scores (recalling that, the lower the projec- tion score the greater the projection) what slight dif— ferences the treatment groups had over control groups were lost because the treatment groups had projected so much. The testing of hypothesis 5 showed that adminis- tering the FAI to an experimental group before as well as after participating in the WHSG does not sensitize the group to the point of expressing greater similarity or refined empathy scores than those experimental groups that are given no pre-test. Recommendations The findings of this dissertation are only a beginning in the area of finding and refining effective methods of affective inner city teacher education. This 74 thesis was limited to a beginning study of only one tech- nique for developing attitudinal understanding on the part of prospective inner city teachers. Suggestions for further research include: 1. a replication of this study using the redefined concept of empathy as outlined in this chapter under "Discussion of Findings"; 2. a measurement of the effect of the WHSG following the talk down, rather than before as was done in this study; ;l 3. a study of the attitudinal changes in indivi- ~ duals affected by the WHSG, especially long-range attitudinal change; 4. a refinement of the concept of cross-cultural empathy in order to provide an experimental model for its develOpment in prospective inner city teachers; 5. a comparison of the effectiveness of other simulations compared with the WHSG in developing cross- cultural understanding; 6. a comparison between the effectiveness of the WHSG with in-service teachers in the inner city and with undergraduate education majors; 7. a testing of the WHSG for its effectiveness as part of a series of activities of role playing and simulation specifically designed to prepare inner city teachers; 75 8. The development of methods and techniques to help inner city residents empathize with teachers, thus developing reciprocal empathy. The findings of such studies as briefly outlined above would no doubt contribute substantially to the supply of methods available for the affective preparation Ea of inner city teachers. BIBLIOGRAPHY 76 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books ‘ Abt, C. C. Serious Games. New York: The Viking Press, 1970. ~.Boocock, S. S. and E. O. Schild, eds. Simulation Games in Learnipg. Beverly Hills: Sage PublicatIOns, Inc., 1968. Buros, O. K., ed. Fifth Mental Measurements Yearbook. Highland Park, N. J.: The Gryphon Press, I959. , ed. Sixth Mental Measurements Yearbook. Highland Park, N. J.: The Gryphon Press, 1965. Coleman, J. S. Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington: U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, 1966. JCoplin, W. D., ed. Simulation in the Study of Politics. Chicago: Markham Publishing Co., 1968. Coser, L. A. and B. Rosenberg, eds. 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"Some Comments to the Trichotomy, Tele- Transference-Empathy." Group Psychotherapy, 5:87-90 (1952). R. D. and P. Ainsworth. "The Relationships Among Projection, Empathy, Reality and Adjustment, Operationally Defined." Journal of Consultipg Psychology, 18:53-58 (1954). R. D. and W. C. Leiding. "The Relationship Between Measures of Individual and Mass Empathy." Journal of Consulting Psychology, 20:79-82 (February, I956). C. "On Adult Empathy with Children." Psychoanaly- tic Study of the Child, 8:111-126 (1954). Olsen, E. G. "Teacher Education for the Deprived: A New Pattern." School and Society, 95:232-234 (April 1, 1967). Ornstein, A. C. "Reaching the Disadvantaged." School and Parker, Passow, Society. 96:214-216 (March 30, 1968). . "Improving Teachers for Slum Schools." ImprovinngOllege and University Teaching, 16:120- 123 (Spring, 1968). . "Anxieties and Forces which Mitigate Against Ghetto School Teachers." Journal o§_§econdary Education, 43:243-254 (October, 1968). C. A. "Empathy." Personnel and Guidance Journal. 34:89-93 (October, 1955). A. H. "Diminishing Teacher Prejudice." New York State Education, 55:6-10 (February, 1968). 83 Redfield, R. "The Study of Culture in General Education." Social Education, 11:259-264 (1947). Remmers, H. H. "A Qualitative Index of Social-Psychological Empathy." American Journal of Orthopeychiatry. 20:161-165 (January, 1950). Speroff, B. J. "Empathy and Role Reversal as Factors in Industrial Harmony." The Journal of Social Pey- chology. 37:117-120 (February, 1953). Stewart, D. A. "The Psychogenesis Of Empathy." The Ps — choanalytic Review, 41:216-228 (July, 1954). Strunk, O. "Empathy: A Review of Theory and Research." Psychological Newsletter, 9:47-57 (1957). s/Tansen, P. J. and D. Unwin. "Simulation Gaming: Bridge Between Theory and Practice." The Times Educa- tional Supplement, 2770:2077, June 21, 1968. Travers, R. M. W. "A Study of the Ability to Judge Group Knowledge." AmericapJournal of Peychology, 56:54-65 (January, 1943). «Twelker, P. A. "Classroom Simulation and Teacher Prepara- tion." School Review, 75:197-204 (Summer, 1967). Van Zelst, R. H. "Validation Evidence of the Empathy Test." Educational and Psychological Measurement, 13:474- 477’(Autumn, 1953). Wallen, R. "Individuals' Estimates of Group Opinion." Journal of Social Psychology, 17:269-274 (1943). Will, R. Y. "The Education of the Teacher as a Person." The Journal Of Teacher Education, 18:471-475 TWinter, 1967). Wisniewski, R. "Urban Teacher Preparation Programs." Social Education, 33:77-82 (January, 1969). Wolf, R. and H. A. Murray. "An Experiment in Judging Per- sonalities." Journal of Psychology, 3:345-365 (1937). Wozniak, J. M. "Some Trends in Teacher Education." National Catholic Education Association Bulletin, 63:262-266 (August, 1966). 84 Yearbooks~ American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. Changing Dimensions in TeacherjEducation. Twenti- eth Yearbook. Washington, D. C., 1967. . Teacher Education[ Issues and Innovations. Twenty-first Yearbook. Washington, D. C., 1968. Association for Student Teaching. Mental Health ape g Teacher Education. Dubuque, Iowa: wm. C. Brown, . Co., Inc., 1967. : Dissertation and Monographs Anikeeff, A. M. Reciprocal Empathy: Mutual Understanding Among Conflict Groups. Lafayette, Indiana: Pur- due University DiviSion of Educational Reference, 1951. Campbell, R. J. "The Development and Validation of a Multiple Choice Scale to Measure Affective Sensi- tivity (Empathyhfl' Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1967. Chapman, J. L. "The Development and Validation of a Scale to Measure Empathy." Unpublished Ph.D. Disserta- tion, Michigan State University, 1966. JCunningham, L. L. "Simulation and the Preparation of Educational Administrators." Paper read at the University Council on Educational Administration Conference, October, 1966, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Diskin, P. "A Study of Predictive Empathy and the Ability of Student Teachers to Maintain Harmonious Inter- personal Relations in Selected Elementary Class- rooms." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1956. Erb, D. L. "Racial Attitudes and Empathy: A Guttman Facet Theory Examination of Their Relationships and Determinants." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969. F099, W. E. "The Development of Teacher Sensitivity to Pupil Sensitivity." Unpublished Ph.D. Disserta- tion, University of Southern California, 1956. /Gaffga, M. R. "Simulation: A Method for Observing Student ‘ Teacher Behavior." Unpublished Ed.D. Dissertation, University of Tennessee, 1967. 85 CGarvey, D. M. Simulation, Role Playing, and Sociodrama in the Sociai Studies. The Emporia State Research Studies, NO. 16, December, 1967. Goodman, H. "Self-Insight, Empathy and Perceptual Dis- tortion: A Study of the Relationships Between Measures of Self-Insight, Empathy and Perceptual Distortion as Defined by Ratings Made by Individuals." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, New York University, 1952. JEustafson, K. L. "Simulation of Anxiety Situations and its Resultant Effect on Anxiety and Classroom Inter- action of Student Teachers." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969. Halchin, L.F.C. "Identifying Factors in Early Home and Family Life Which May Contribute to the Empathic Development of Teachers." Unpublished Ph.D. Dis- sertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1965. Henry, P. M. "The Relationship Between Empathic Behavior and Personality Variables Among Teachers." Unpub- lished Ed.D. Dissertation, University of Buffalo, 1961. \jLindquist, G. W. "Utilization of Simulation and Group Counseling in the Training of Prospective Elemen- tary School Teachers." Unpublished Ph.D. Disser- tation, Arizona State University, 1969. ‘VMiller, G. M. "An Attempt to Determine Certain Effects of Laboratory Classroom Simulation Training on Sel- ected Dimensions of Teacher Behavior." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Oregon, 1967. Mills, S. A. "A Study of the Effects of Teacher Empathy and of Situational Structure on Pupils' Perform- ance." Unpublished Ed.D. Dissertation, University Of Alabama, 1965. Moreno, J. L. Sociodrama. Psychodrama Monograph #1. New York: Beacon House, 1944. . Psychodrama and the Psychopathology of Inter- personal RelatiOns. Psychodrama Monograph #16. Beacon, New York: Beacon House, 1945. Motto, J. "An Investigation of Some Personality Correlates of Empathy in College Teachers." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1956. 86 Myers, C. L. H. "An Experiment in the Development and Measurement Of Empathy in Social Work Students." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Washington Univer- sity, 1966. \JOgunniyi, O. "The Methodology of Education Simulation and Design Of a Simulated Instructional Model for Occupational Education." Unpublished Ph.D. Dis- sertation, Michigan State University, 1969. Roell, C. L. "A Study of Empathic Relationships Between Pupils and Student Teachers in Physical Education." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University Of Mich- igan, 1957. .JRoss, J. L. "An Experimental Use of Simulation as a Training Technique for Collective Negotiations for Teachers." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Univer- sity Of California at Los Angeles, 1968. Underhill, R. G. "The Relationship of Elementary Student Teacher Empathy (Affective Sensitivity) Change to Supervising Teacher Empathy and Student Teaching Success." Unpublished Ed.D. Dissertation, 1968. Waldman, H. "Correlates of Empathy in Family Life Teachers." Unpublished Ed.D. Dissertation, Columbia University, 1961. White, R. "Effects of Teacher Empathy, Non-Possessive Warmth and Genuineness on Achievement of Mentally Retarded Students." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1968. APPENDICES 87 -".‘ APPENDIX A THE WASHINGTON HEIGHTS SIMULATION GAME 88 ' l I I. II THE WASHINGTON HEIGHTS SIMULATION CANE C0pyright Peter F. Flynn 1970 . 9......- .«rL THE WASHINGTON HEIGHTS SIMULATION GAME by Peter Flynn The objective of the game is to communicate the struggle, in the midst of powerlessness, that people of the inner city are going through in their move for community control. In developing the game, some things were kept in mind. First, what was being communicated is a fundamental problem in the inner cities of America. Second, that this problem is one of powerlessness, resulting in alienation, of the residents of black ghettos and barrios. Socio-drama, coupled with some roléiiaying, and the flavor of a simulation game combined to give the result that the members of the group playing the game would hopefully develop an empathic feeling for Black people in the inner city, who are struggling for self-determination. The game has been played by up to 75 players, but it is probably best played with 16-36. With 24 players, four people are needed to run the game. One of the four people running the game (call him Leader #1) takes the group for a briefing session before the start of the game. During the briefing session Leader #1 tells the participants that the object of the game is simply,- " If you like the situation that you find yourself in, do everything you can to enhance and maintain it. If, on the other hand, you find yourself in undesirable circumstances, do everything you can to change your situation. Generally, the rules of this game are the rules of the game of life. " The participants are further told that they should try to forget their actual identities and backgrounds, and that they will be given cultural, economic and sociological data about their identities for the game. Leader #1 then asks for questions and avoids doing any more than saying what he has already said in different words. After about five minutes of 'non-answers' the participants are told that there are a few more rules. “'There will be no smoking; Secondly, players are not allowed to wear watches or timepieces during the game;(This is done for a couple of reasons- to deprive them of a little personal liberty and also, to somewhat disorient them in terms of time) Thirdly, the person assigned to your group is your only source of information or resources of any kind. " Hhile the briefing session is going on, the other three leaders should be setting up the room. The set-up is crucial to the success of the game. (See Diagram of ROOM SET-UP) For 24 players, chairs are set up six in a straight row facing into each of the four corners of the room.'rhis is done to impede inter- and intra-group communication. Around each of the rows of chairs masking tape is put down on the floor. The players are told that this represents the boundary for their residential area. If there is a clock in the room, it should be covered. In the middle of the room a work table is placed for the leaders, on which are placed the materials for the game.'rhis table also serves as a meeting place for the leaders. A record player is also set up on which at loud, but not unbearable volume, ‘ a modern jazz record is played. The remaining chairs in the room are over- turned and piled on top of each other, establishing separations between residential groups. Each area is strewn with wadded newspapers and available litter. Meanwhile, back in the briefing session, the watches have been collected, and people have ceased smoking. (It's quite allright if the leaders are smoking; in fact, if they have the filthy habit, it's encouraged!) At this point the players are told that there is a time limit- they are not told what this time limit is, because in fact there is not a hour and minute prescribed time involved - and that they should play with that in mind. Each loader is assigned to a group. The players are told that the game is sectioned into reaction periods and information periods. The playing of music and the dimming of lights indicates that a reaction period is going on and that they should play with the game objective in mind. When the music stops and the lights are up it is an information period. Finally, the group is told to stay in the room until the game is over. The room is dimly lit and the record is turned on and one group at a time the players are led into the room and seated in their residential area by their group leader. When everyone in the group is seated, the leaders meet at the table which they have set up in the middle of the room.‘rhey talk quietly with one another,:laking sure that the members of their residential group do not talk with each other or turn around or move their chairs. If there is any of this 'deviant behavior' the group leader quietly asks the 'deviant' if there is any problem or if there is anything that the leader can do. After a few minutes of quiet squirming, each leader goes to his group, the music is stopped, the lights turned up and Information Period #1 begins with the group leader passing out the following message to each player: " GREETINGS: You are a member of a minority group known as Xenoes. The community you are living in is Washington Heights, a predominantly Xeno area of the inner city. Most of the housing is sub-standard. Those people who are employed, are involved in menial labor.The schools in the community are outdated and are not serving the needs of the students.. The school board is appointed and elected city-wide and has one Xeno member out of 15, and he lives in a suburban area. The people who are in charge, including your group contact person, are majority. Majority is the term used to describe the ethnic cluster which makes up the majority of the country's population. Try to think of yourself not as the only Xeno in.Washington Heights, but rather as if you were acting in behalf of a large number of people living in your neighborhood. What you do affects the lives of other Xenoes! This completes the first information period. ” The group leaders reconvene at the work table and a reaction period begins,- lights dim; record player up. After a couple of minutes, or less if the residents become anxious, each leader goes to his group and tells them that he understands their plight, that he is there to take care of them and they should sit tight because in a moment he will have some more information for them. Any type of suggestion on the part of a player should be partied with the idea that they should wait for some more information;‘" Get all the facts first .“y-before doing anything. Then with the lights up and the music down another information period begins. Information Period #2 "Community Facts" One at a time the following facts are handed to each player on a slip of paper: ' Community Fact: Apartment houses, stores, businesses, bars, concessions and theaters are for the most part owned by persons who live outside your community and they take their profits home, of course. ”Community Fact: Maternal mortality rates at birth are four times higher for non-Majority people. ” " Community Fact: The infant mortality rate in your community is three times that of most suburban areas. “ " Community Fact: Most of the 14,000 rat-bite cases in 1969 came from neighborhoods like yours. " “ Community Fact: The crime rate in your community is double the national average; crimes against persons in your district are thirty-five times that of high income Majority districts. " ” Community Facts In your community the juvenile delinquency rate is two and one-half that of New York City as a whole; 162 of the people have venereal disease; almost 50% of the children are on Aid to Dependent Children; and 252 of the adults are on public assinance. ” As the members of each group react to situations by making requests or demands, the group leader should appear to be very open and concerned. Leaders should squelch any move for change, by glossing over the matter. The importance of a request should be played down. In some instances, the leader should even refuse to bring the request before the group of leaders for consideration. The leader should ask the group or the person requesting something whether the request reflects a personal need or a community need. Constantly, the leader should keep his group aware that he is going to take good care of 'his people' and that he wants them to get ahead in the game. The leader should be calming, and tell his group that they don't have anything to worry about. From this point on into succeeding reaction periods the game leaders need to be very alert and do quite a bit of ad-libbing, because the players will most likely begin to ask questions and make demands. A leader can always bring the concern of his group before the other leaders around the work table for their advice in handling the problem. Information Period #3 "Survey News" News Item: Survey shows: Average Xeno college graduate makes a little less than the average Majority high school graduate. " News Item: Survey shows that poor Xenoes have lower incomes than poor Majorities. ” News Item: The gap between.Xeno and Majority family income has increased over the past five years. " News Item: 0f the 900 counties that are covered by the 1964 Civil Rights voting law, less than 100 to date have abided by the law. ” News Item: The unemployment rate for Xenoes has remained double that of Majorities since 1947. " Reaction Period Information Period #4 "Disturbing News“ News Item: Moon Flights costing $15 Billion $3 Billion Poverty Program Aiding Xenoes Cut “ News Flash: Vice-President sees clear and present danger in Xeno militancy. Says therc~ is no reason not to enforce the McCarran Act and use detention camps. ” News Item: Food stamp program out in southern states. 3.5 million Xenoes affected. Federal officials today cut back the food stamp program in ten southern states. The spokesman for the Senate investigating committee said that the program, which was controlled by local elected officials, who are all Majority, was grossly mis-managed. In at least two instances local offi- cials absconded with large quantities of stamps and federal funds. A prominent member of the Xeno movement said that in his opinion this was another atrocity in a systematic attempt at Xeno genocide by the Majority. " News Item: Decentralization of schools defeated in state legislature. ” News Item: Senator Westland paid $157,000 yearly not to grow cotton. Unfortunately, his unemployed Xeno plantation workers are given only $35 weekly in unemployment compensation. ” Reaction Period Information Period # S "Radical News” News Item: Youths riot in Newark as temperature soars to 107. Xeno spokesman blames unemployment. ” News Flash: Radical Xeno group raided by police on suspicion of maintaining an arsenal. Four Xenoes dead. No guns found. " " News Item: " News Item: " News Item: “ News Item: ” News Item: " News Item: Reaction Period National Xeno Convention hears call to Xeno Power: Liberal Majority members bow out calling remarks inflammatory and racist. ” Organizer sentenced to thirty years. Lee Otis Johnson, young Xeno organizer at Texas Southern University, was sentenced to thirty years in jail for possession of marihuana. The possession allegedly took place six months prior to the indictment. This was Johnson's first offense. Johnson was active in the Xeno movement and spoke with increasing frequency at meetings over the past two months. " Xenoes move for community community control of schools in Chicago. " Xenoes seize municipal buildings in Los Angeles. ” Xenoes declare war on state of California; Electrical power failure linked to Xeno move. Ron Caluga, leader of the Organized Xenoes for Equality, presented Governor D.Valley with the formal declaration of , war via telegram today. ' Now in it's twelfth day the power blackout has crippled the entire west coast. A spokesman for the Pacific Power Company stated that the failure is due to a break in a major cable line in the Etsel Forest. This location has been determined since all other cables have been inspected. Presently, a small group of armed Xeno revolutionaries have surrounded the spot where the suspected cable break is and are preventing power company workmen from getting to the break. " Xeno radicals 'nationalize'local industries. A small group of Xeno radicals seized several grocery, liquor and clothing stores and three small factories in the predominantly Xeno section of Atlanta early yesterday morning. The radicals are reportedly heavily armed, and will talk to or permit entry only to Xenoes. Mayor Sellers, who is Majority, has threatened to call in the National Guard. " Information Period #6 “Personal Setbacks“ ”Personal Message: We are sorry to inform you that your request for public assistance has been denied. ” ” Personal Message: We are sorry to inform you that because of overqproduction and reduced sales, the section in which you work must be temporarily shut down. We sincerely hope that you can make other arrangements for gainful employment. " " Personal Message: This is to inform you that your child has been suspended from school for inciting to riot. That is, he was among a group of speakers at a noon rally, which broke into fistfights and property destruction of the school. He will not be readmitted until you accompany him to the principal's office and show cause why he should be allowed to return to school. ” Reaction Period Information Period # 7 "Grievance Responses" As group members become upset with their conditions, they begin to make requests and demands. These demands are countered with personal messages from the central group of leaders. They go in this sequence: " Personal Message: Your request for action on the issue you mentioned has been considered. You will be pleased to know that the matter has been referred to the proper committee and we will informyyou of any decision. ” ” Personal Message: The committee has made recommendation on the matter you inquired about. The administration is considering the recom- mendations for feasibility. We will let you know of the outcome in due time. ” " Personal Message: The administration has taken the recommendations of the committee under careful consideration. The administration finds the recommendations impossible to implement at this time.'This does not mean that the matter is dropped. He will continue investigation. Thank you for your concern. " " Personal Message: we fully understand and empathize with your situation. We are doing everything in our power to arrange a meeting to 'clear the air.‘ Meanwhile we will attempt to rectify the situation. Please be patient. " ” Personal Message: There will be a meeting to hear the grievances. The meeting will convene in three minutes. A represenative from the main office will be present. Please be prepared to present your case. Please be prompt. " After the meeting, an attempt to committeeize the matter is again made. If the Xenoes don't go along with this, and try anything like a demonstration, they are given the following: " Personal Message: The event which you request is in violation of ordinance 983.12. We urge you not to proceed with this event or we will be forced to arrest you and anyone with you. At this point you will be deprived of your rights under the 'rules of the game.' ” If they persist and do anything disruptive they are given this: " Personal Message: We regret to inform you that you are hereby placed under game arrest. From this point on you will remain in your seat and not particpate in any way in this game. “ To keep groups in line it may be necessary to provide some sanctions for deviant behavior and some positive reinformcement for conforming behavior. The next set of handouts are designed with these purposes in mind. They are called "Give and Take" Give- “ News Item: Oneuhundred Xenoes accepted into job training program in Washington Heights. " “ News Item: Xeno appointed to administrative advisory committee. Liberals acclaim the move as a major breakthrough. Militant Xenoes call it tokenism. ” Take- ” Personal Message: We regret to inform you that the schools in your district will be closed indefinitely. Please do not send your children to school. ” " News Flash: Drugs Kill YOuth 74th Xeno here in 1970 17 year old‘Hashington.Heights Boy added to roll that includes 143 adults. " ” Personal Message: We are sorry to inform you that your building has been chosen for an urban renewal site. It will be necessary for you to vacate immediately. ” ” News Item:'Three Reno girls killed in church bombing. Federal Marshall; suspects Klan. ” Other sanctions and reinforcements can and should be ad-libbed by the group leaders. For instance, a group leader might improve sanitation services or open a health clinic. But these changes should come about slowly and be used to stave off (or provoke) the rebellion. In all fairness, it should be pointed out that by this point, most groups are no longer paying any attention to their group leader and in some cases, are tearing up the slips of paper before reading them. Usually within a half-hour or forty-five minutes the groups break down and are milling around. The groups find out eventually that they are all Xenoes and they will probably try to 'elect' leaders to bring things to order and give direction to the players of the game.4At this point, those of us running the game take on the roles of agitators and move in and out of the large group, pointing out that the conditions in their communities have not changed and will 10 not change until the residents return to their communities and take their seats. The leaders also point to the elected leaders and call them 'demagogues' . bower-hungry militants' and 'self-seeking dictators' . 'The players usually go for their watches, which have been left in a box in plain view, and light up cigarettes. These actions of 'self-indulgence' make for good points to question their sincerity in improving the conditions of Xenoes. The players will also probably want to turn the record off. When the point has been made, - things are relatively chaotic, the players are experiencing anxiety from their powerlessness, an impasse has been reached- time should be called. Then comes what is probably the most important part of the learning experience, the 'talk down'. During this session, everyone gets some coffee and puts the chairs in a circle and the players are encouraged to talk about their experiences, cognitive and affective awarenesses derived from playing the game. In the past people have expressed hostility, self-directed and especially towards those who were running the game. ( During one running of the game a woman in her early thirties punched one of the leaders during the agitation phase. On other occasions the leaders have been bodily put out of the room, while the players talk things over.) This section of the game has lasted as long as two hours, following a structured session of less than an hour. People should be urged to talk about how they relate this game to real life experiences of other people. Avoid having the players comment on the game as an educational device or its technical aspects until everything else that needs to be said is said. (It might be helpful to point out that all the information used in the game is based on fact, taken from newspapers and resources suchas the Kerner Commission Report.) 11 Still the 'talk down' should concentrate on the inner states of the players. Caution: At times things will not go as they have been outlined here. Therefore it is necessary for those running the game to be able to create responses and conditions for the players. But this cannot be done capriciously. It must be done out of a consistent and well thought out sensitivity to the movement of Black and Brown people for liberation in the inner cities of America. APPENDIX B ATTITUDE INVENTORY (PRELIMINARY) 101 .m>wuw8flna ma moamm< mo mummamo use .OH .muammwmmu muflo Honda MOM umm om ammo mum upon .m .mxomHm mo cowumuwoamxm man do wauumm mm>flunu .m.D on» no hfiocoom use 102 .m .mmsmo amass m ma a“ mom .mamomm mufio Honda. may «0 mmsmo map How xuo3 Ham canonm 03 .5 . .mamomm xomam ou ucm>mamuua mm moansfid mufi£3 an mmcwmmm mm Hmmuo can 3mg .w .m>o& om mucus 0:3 unmmwmmu memo Hanna mnu How mnmn3ham manuawm>m ma mcwmnom .m .mnumnmm map cw mm poem no men ammo momma mnu cw mmofl>umm huAGSEEoo one .v .mmuwz3 cosy Hm3oa mw Amcmoflumaflumc one 9‘88 5a 6 agre e qhtlY stro pi e Disagre Slightly Dis 511 A919 .m .N .mumfloom umfloou n ma mowumam nqu astee Beige .mamomm amnnmnsm mm mowufiafloow swaps; mo coax menu man mum on mans on masosm mummmflmmu ammo HmccH stro .H AMMZH mQDBHfifid 103 e tro :19 agree slightxy A918 A9136 strongly Agree .qmumawso Hflmnu How mamom Hocowu Imosmm mow: m>o£ u.com mucmumm ammo HmmcH .Hm .mmwuwcmasoo Hams» :H manomm Momam mmflnnou mum mmsmmmmwmmn spank .om .mfioomfl mmmucmummw m cm>flm ma masonm .mQOm on mum mums» 50:3 How mucmmwmmn muwo Hmacfl moons .mH .mOHHom an aanamm common» one muemuaame somam .mH .m0fl905¢ aw mummmflmmu ammo macaw How mmmmmoum mo mod n coma no: muons .nH .acoHoo use ma mownmfid xomHm .mumcsoo umnuos on» ma mowumam muwnz .ma .mamomm ammo Hmcmw mo Hanson Ga maaxuoz mom who moaaom use .ma .muumfiumucw on momma: one agenda sou semen Ham ma pH .eH .Emcu mmsaocw 0» meme on masonm manommm ammommm .Hoosom Ho mach mom monomamm haamumuoc mom was mmwmwnocflfi mumnz .ma .mamomm mmoao mamwflfi mxHH mg on umm3 mamomm Hoom .NH .mHmomm unflo nomad mo momma mnu nufls mmfluu on masonm mucmfiflummxm mfiom .HH s . my .ocmoflno Ho xooam on masonm .ocoowzo xomam hammos who soasz .maoonum mo mnoumuumficwem< .mm .mHoonom nonhuman mm mmummmmpm mEom ms» m>mn masonm mHoonom ammo HchH .Nm .mHoonom muwo.umccw How cumonoo upmammesfl cm on pamonm moflumnmmumH .Hm .mmz unmwu us» me has name» use» me museums» mmmao oases: .om .moflmmfim on mc0flumnflHUGOU uncommwcmwm mmmfi uoc m>mn m0dmoaso can xomam .mm .maamowfiocoom mm mm>ammsm£u Adam ou woman: an» on com: mocmownu mam mxomam .mN .mucmmflmmu auwo umacw How mcaxuo3 mam ammo mum mmcmno “mono mcflmcwma How mamccmmo use .hm 4 .wmwufluocwfi mommmnmmo mum mommownu can mxomHm .mm m .hummmmomc mammE mam ma humo yucca mam aw usonm usmsonn on ou no: mmmmno .mm .qun no musuomuum 0c pom :mHUHwno huflo Hman .vm .cmumaflso Hoosom ammo momma mnu mo mucmnmm may kn Umpumamm on masonm mumnommu huflo HmcmH .mm . .mummmmpm mmmao mampwfi sufl3 haao20fluoom©m mummfioo ou muwawnm amusumc mam m>o£ u.com muamomum mufio Hman e e was & wue w" w» dzw, «w ttdw .t e e mwe w.a a mwa mwe a five .3 s s t t «tr «ta, .1 .i.i .L d. d. t.9 “D 0 $0 $3 A as .NN .mumuflso mafia? Eoum pocflumflm mam uumummmm ma musuamo xomam on musuomuum Hmzom mufi£3 m 105 .mv .sonn summoned nu mo ummumumw mam cw pom mw aw mmsmomn monumnm m>mn m3 agtee 5 strongxy '01. 3 Dig 39:6 39138 Onng 38 s’cr as‘ .vv .moflumfi< cw mamomm xomam mcfl>umm no: man m3ma use .mw .Houucoo Hmooa How mmnwammucmomp on on comm mmfluflo momma mo mucmecum>om one .Nv .u:mE¢um>om aw mmwufinocflfi mo mowummflo :Hummm you once on vamonm cowmw>oum Hmwommm .Hv .mmwuwcmafioo Hausa mo Houumoo Hmowuwaom m>mn wamonm mucmmwmmn muwo HmccH .o¢ .Howuwmmcmn can Hummamm who womaom use .mm .mwmwOOm aw aw mxmfi ou >m3 wane mnu mm moans esp an mmwhmam .mm .ucmeaoufi>cm mama» an cumsmo mum muamcflmmn ammo yucca mo mEmHnoum one .hm .mumcmmma 30am mum amuwawno osmowso was xomam .mm .m>flmmmummm .mmaflu Ham um Hoonom ca =£mflamcm Humoums maaonsuo: who mmmoum hufluocwe mo :mumawno xmmmm on moms on masosm mucmmsum muflo HmcmH .mm .vm 106 e e v, v. 9 1w. w 1m. U. 1 3. s. 3,. a; a, 3., a: m, mm m...» m um cup 0 do ask, as .90% nmmno Ham; Emummm mnu .mmum on on any 50» “H .om .mHoonom conusnmm mm ESHDOAHH90 mEom may m>m£ pamonm maoosom huwo HmccH .zocmu moan ohms: humeEEoo mam aw m>HH masonm mHoonom ammo Hmcmfl mo mumsommm use .mv .mv .Eooummoao wmusuommmm magma: m mum: compawzo huflo Hmch muflcsfifioo m>ms masonm mucmwfimmn huwo HmGGH .h¢ .mHoonom Hflmnu mo Houucoo .wv APPENDIX C FLYNN ATTITUDE INVENTORY 107 .mmuwz3 cmsu.um3oa ma woodmano mam mxomam mo mocmwwaamumw m>fiumc use .oa .mo> nmmuo Hafiz Emummm may .mmum on 0v may 50% NH 108 .m .mowdom man an uauflmm coupon» mum mummuwafifi xomam. .m .mmwuflmmasoo Hausa mo Honucoo HMOHuwHom m>m£ masosm musmmwmmn Muflo Hman .h .mumeOm unwomu m ma oowumam .m .mummpflmmu huflo momma mom umm on ammo mum mnOH .m .moaumfid e Dis agie 39133 Ga manomm xomam mcfl>umm no: mum m3ma one .v .ucmemum>om cw mmwuflnocwe mo cowpmmwo Ifiuumm How mama ma masozm cowmw>0Hm HMflommm .m .mnmcnmmH 30Hm mum Guam :Hflgu Accumuw54IGMOMxmzv osmownu mam Momam .N 13 0119 96‘ ee M‘ .haofloo on» ma moanmad xomam .mupcsoo nuance on» ma moflumfim muwgz .H .ummfimumum 50mm How mmxon map no one ma =x= cm mnflomam an mucmsmumpm mnfizoaaom on» nufl3 mmummmflc Ho mmHmd NMOBZW>ZH MDDBH984 ZZNAM 109 aqtee 5f." 0.“le 6 01 n9138 Ongi‘l tr $19196 .mamomm cmnumnmm mm mmfluwafloom guano: mo mcwx memo map mm: o» mane on pamonm mucmmwmmu hump HmmmH .ON .Emnu mumnmnfid o» musuosuum Hmsom muw£3 03¢ mo ummwmucw us» :w you ma we mmmmomn mouuonm m>ms 03 .mH .HMHowmmcmn mam Hammams mum mowaom use .ma .mnnmnmm man cw mm @000 mm mum muwo Momma on» ma mm0fl>umm mpwnsafioo one .hH .mHoonom Hams» mo Howumoo huflmsEEoo m>ms mamosm mucmpflmmn muflo HuacH .mH .m>o& on mpcm3 0:3 ucmmwmmn mufio Hmccfl map How mum£3ham manuaflm>m ma mcfimmom .mH .m>mum&mna an avenue mo massage was .ea .mummmmomm mammfi man an huwo Momma mam :H msono uzmsomn on on no: mommnu .MH .mamomm muwo Honda mo madman CH mcflxuo3 no: mum mowaom use .NH .mmwuficmssoo mama» aw mamomm xomam maflnnon mum :mEmmmcflmsn spank .HH 110 Means and Standard Deviations of Responses of Norm Group to FAI Item \o m ~J m U1.e dare H w FJFH H F‘F‘ H FJPH H +4 c>\o o>~u o‘cn n.to N +4 0 Mean 2.21 5.56 1.68 1.77 5.24 1.21 1.69 5.53 1.71 5.59 1.68 1.62 2.06 5.21 5.50 1.71 5.06 4.75 1.27 1.35 A.-,'m_ ‘ APPENDIX D INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING "FLYNN ATTITUDE INVENTOR " 111 INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING "FLYNN ATTITUDE INVENTOR " Tell the Subjects: "The information gathered from this inventory will be used for research purposes only. It will in no way influence your grade or evaluation in any course." Pass out the Inventories Marked "S" for "Self" and Tell the Subjects: "Please respond to this attitude inventory in keep- ing with your personal beliefs. Mark an "X" for each item and place the "X" totally within the box which you choose." When the Subjects have Completed the Inventory, Collect the "S" Inventories. Next Pass Out the Inventories Marked "I" for "Inner City" and Tell the Subjects: "This time respond to the attitude inventory as you think a resident of the inner city would respond to it. Again, mark an "X" for each item and place the "X" completely within the box which you choose." 112 113 Raw Scores and Differences of Item by Item Deviations On All Items of the FAI for Treatment and Control Groups Time Similarity Projection Raw Empathy Refined . Empathy Score Dif .Score Dif Score Dif Score Dif T 12.11 10.63 7.08 3.37 l 1063 -4064 006 . -3026 C 13.74 15.27 7.14 6.63 T 9.55 8.20 7.21 .99 2 12.04 -5.06 1.40 -3.66 C 21.59 13.26 8.61 4.65 T 21.64 20.30 5.69 14.37 3 5.40 -6.15 . 1.24 -5.60 C 27.04 26.45 6.93 19.77 , T 18.96 17.14 6.38 10.45 4 6.05 -6.55 3.02 -6.94 C 25.01 23.69 6.40 17.39 T 11.28 13.40 6.50 7.43 5 6.66 -4.64 .09 -4.02 C 17.94 18.04 6.59 .11.45 T 7.73 9.00 6.61 2.26 6 10.21 -9.04 - .02 -9.19 C 17.94 18.04 6.59 11.45, T 12.93 12.81 6.99 5.40 7 7.32 -6.71 .32 -5.48 C 20.25 18.10 7.31 10.88 ' T 11.04 14.13 5.11 9.11 8 2.70 -1.14 2.03 2.48 * C 13.74 15.27 7.14 6.63 T 7.86 12.23 7.71 4.52 9 5.88 -3.04 - .57 -2.11 C 13.74 15.27 7.14 6.63 114 Raw Scores and Differences of Item by Item Deviations On Selected Items of the FAI for Treatment and Control Groups Time Similarity Projection Raw Empathy Refined Empathy Score Dif Score Dif Score Dif Score Dif T 5.29 4.55 3.10 1.25 1 .95 -3.32 .53 -1.15 C 6.24 7.87 3.63 2.40 T 4.10 4.31 2.83 1.48 2 6028 -1077 1063 - 014 C 10.38 6.08 4.46 1.62 T 9.52 9.95 2.42 7.53 3 4.07 -2.98 1.14 -2.84 C 13.59 12.93 3.56 10.37 T 8.26 7.79 2.55 5.24 4 3.95 -3.81 .16 -3.75 C 12.21 11.60 2.71 8.99 T 4.69 6.72 3.61 3.09 5 4.49 -2.42 .35 -2.79 C 9.18 9.14 3.26 5.88 T 3.88 4.18 3.28 .80 6 5030 -4096 .02 -5008 C 9.18 9.14 3.26 5.88 T 5.79 6.97 2.90 4.07 7 2.85 -2.72 .21 -2.54 C 8.64 9.69 3.11 6.61 T 4.51 7.40 2.53 4.97 8 1.73 - .47 1.10 2.57 C 6.24 7.87 3.63 2.40 T 2.70 5.75 4.33 1.42 9 3054 -2012 s70 - .98 C 6.24 7.87 3.63 2.40 HICHIGRN STRTE UNIV. 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