A CQMFAEA‘FIVE CUL'E‘UR’ES APPRCACH
TO THE TEACHING OF VOCATIONAL
AME CWEZENSHEP EDUCATIQN 1N
SECGNDARY SCHOGLS

Thesis for flu Dogma of DE. D.
MECBEGAN STATE ENEVERSETY
Dale L. B-mbaker

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ABSTRACT
A COMPARATIVE CULTURES APPROACH TO THE TEACHING OF

VOCATIONAL AND CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION
IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

by Dale L. Brubaker

In this study the effects of two different approaches
to the teaching of vocational and citizenship education in
ninth grade social studies are evaluated. The study was con-
ducted during the 1964—65 academic year at Pattengill Junior
High School, Lansing, Michigan. Two classes were experimen-
tal and two classes were control. Control classes received
treatment in accordance with traditional procedures. In
citizenship education the traditional approach involved a
structural study of the three levels of government (local,
state, and federal) within the context of American history.
In vocational guidance the traditional approach involved the
study of particular occupations with self—analysis emphasized
to prepare students to make wise vocational choices. The com—
parative cultures approach consisted of a study of basic
social sciences concepts, e.g., culture, and cultural analy-
ses of particular societies varying in technological complex—
ity. Good citizenship was the main goal for both approaches.

It was hypothesized that significant attitudinal changes

Dale L. Brubaker

would occur in the experimental classes but would not occur
in the control classes. As a result of the treatment, exper-
imental group students should have been less discriminatory
toward minority groups, more tolerant toward nonconformist
views and behavior, more libertarian, less authoritarian,
less absolutistic, less ethnocentric, less prone to use
stereotypes, less apathetic, and more confident in the indi-
vidual's power to effect change. It was also hypothesized
that appreciable gains would occur in the experimental group
in regard to self-concept, critical thinking, occupational
aspiration and information whereas such gains would not be
made in the control group.

The main instruments used were of two types, attitu-
dinal and informational. Attitudinal tests were given be—
fore and after the treatment. A single informational instru-
ment was devised to test students on subject matter content.
Critical thinking, self-concept, and occupational aspiration
instruments were also administered pre and post. Student
questionnaires and interviews provided additional data used
to evaluate student attitudes.

On the basis of the objective pencil and paper
instruments employed, it was generally the case that signif—
icant changes did not occur between pre and post tests in
either the experimental or control group. The two scales on

which significant changes did occur were individual political

Dale L. Brubaker

potency and civil liberties ”A.” Both experimental and con—
trol groups significantly increased their faith in the indi—
vidual's power to solve important problems and were more
libertarian on the civil liberties ”A” scale. In regard to
the information test, the control group did nearly as well
on the experimental group's information test as the experi-
mental group. Likewise, the experimental group did nearly
as well on the control group's information test as the
control group.

With respect to interviews and questionnaires, exper—
imental group students related that activities which they
participated in were interesting and valuable.

In sum, there is no objective evidence that the
experimental approach was more effective than the tradi-
tional approach or vice versa according to the instruments
employed in this study. The basic hypothesis of the dis-

sertation was not substantiated.

A COMPARATIVE CULTURES APPROACH TO THE TEACHING OF
VOCATIONAL AND CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION

IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS

By

Dale L. Brubaker

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Education

1965

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express his appreciation to his
thesis director, Dr. Cole S. Brembeck, for his encouragement
at all stages of the graduate program; to Dr. Charles
Blackman for his counsel on this thesis and throughout the
doctoral program; to Dr. Ernest Melby for his encouragement
and aid; and to Dr. Gilman Ostrander for his work with the
writer and the writer‘s students at Okemos High School,
Okemos, Michigan.

The writer also wishes to acknowledge the help of
Mrs. Kay Howell and her principal, Mr. Gary Fisher. The
Lansing Public School System was most cooperative and toler-
ant of the investigator's study.

Dr. Wilbur Brookover, Director of the Social Science
Teaching Institute, was most helpful in regard to the re—

search design and project coordination.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l

The Problem 3
Orientation to Study 4
Limitations of Study 6

II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . 9
Citizenship Education . . . . . . . . . 10
Vocational Guidance Education . . . . . . . 21

III. PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Population and Sample . . . . . . . . . . . 3O

Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Data and Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . 32

IV. DESCRIPTION OF TREATMENTS . . . . . . . . . . 39
The Traditional Approach . . . . . 39

The Comparative Cultures Approach . . . . . 51

V. PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS . . . . . . . . . . . 62

VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 79
LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

iii

Table

LIST OF TABLES

Number of students in control and experi-
mental groups by class hour and sex at
time of pre and post testing . . . . .

Experimental and control groups compared as
to grade point averages: mean scores
given . O 0 O O O O O O I O O O 0

Control group versus experimental group as
to intelligence quotient scores . . . .

Control group versus experimental group:
intelligence quotient scores given by
class hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Control group versus experimental group as
to socio-economic background: occupation
of major wage earner in home in which
student resided . . . . . . . . . . .

Control group versus experimental group as
to socio-economic background: occupation
of major wage earner in home in which
student resided, according to class hours

Control group versus experimental group as
to reading vocabulary and comprehension
scores 0 O O O O I O O O O O O O I O 0

Control group versus experimental group as
to reading vocabulary and comprehension
scores given by class hours . . . . .

Control group versus experimental group:

net differences between students' before
and after aggregate scores . . . . . .

iv

Page

177

177

178

178

179

179

180

180

181

Table Page

10. Control group versus experimental group:
before and after measurement of occupa-
tional aSpiration, self-concept, critical
thinking, social questions I, and social
questions II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183

11. Control group versus experimental group
according to class hours: before and
after measurement of occupational
aSpiration, self-concept, and social
questions I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

12. Control group versus experimental group
according to class hours: before and
after measurement of social questions
II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185

13. Control group versus experimental group
according to class hours: before and
after measurement of individual polit—
ical potency, group political potency
and ethnocentrism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

14. Control group versus eXperimental group:
before and after differences as to
percent of students improved, the same,
or worsened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

15. Mean scores of control and experimental
groups as to information tests ”A,”
IIB,?I and I'C” - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188

16. Control group versus experimental group:
questionnaire results indicating students'
rating of activities as to interest . . . . 189

17. Control group versus experimental group:
questionnaire results indicating students'
rating of activities as to value . . . . . 191

Appendix
A.
B.

C.

LIST OF APPENDICES

EVALUATIVE INSTRUMENTS USED
SCORING PROCEDURES

TABLES

vi

Page
89
136

176

BIOGRAPHICAL SUMMARY

Dale L. Brubaker was born July 16, 1937, in Ann Arbor,
Michigan. He graduated from Albion College in 1959 with a
major in history. In 1960 he received a Master of Education
degree from Michigan State University with a major in social
foundations of education.

Mr. Brubaker taught social studies classes, grades
nine through twelve, at Okemos High School, Okemos, Michigan
from 1961-64. In 1964—65, he held a graduate assistantship
in the Social Science Teaching Institute at Michigan State
University.

Mr. Brubaker has accepted a social science education
position at the University of California, Santa Barbara for

the 1965-66 academic year.

vii

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Secondary school social studies courses in American
schools have been primarily history oriented. Social
studies teachers usually have a major or minor in history
and consider themselves history teachers.1 Although in
recent years the behavioral sciences have made small inroads
into the social studies curriculum area, obstacles to such
efforts are many including lack of teacher preparation in
the behavioral sciences.

Ninth grade civics courses usually emphasize the
structural study of local, state, and federal government.
The three branches of government are studied within the con-
text of American history so that the Constitution, for exam—
ple, is seen in light of historical events leading to its
adoption. Problems of interpretation and implementation of
the Constitution are also studied in historical perspective.

In the case of the ninth grade vocational guidance

course, psychological testing and studies of particular

 

lRichard Gross and William Badger, ”Social Studies,”
-Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Chester Harris, editor
(New York: The Macmillan Co., 19607, pp. 1296-1313.

 

occupations are aimed at helping the student understand him-
self so that he can make intelligent decisions concerning
his future. Members of counseling departments frequently
teach these courses so that the orientation to such courses
might well be labelled psychological.

The difficulties encountered in acquiring a quali-
fied teacher to teach both a semester of vocational guidance
and a semester of civics are many. Counselors may or may
not have a background in history and political science where—
as teachers of civics are not likely to have a counseling
background. Semester vocational guidance courses are fre-
quently taught by counselors having a guidance orientation
whereas semester civics courses are taught by teachers with
a history orientation. However, compromises are frequently
made in the hiring and placement of teachers so that a teach-
er or counselor might well find himself teaching both civics
and guidance thereby slighting the area in which he is ill-
prepared. For, although it does not logically follow that
the teacher with adequate training in an area will teach
that which he has learned, it does logically follow that the
teacher without adequate training in an area cannot teach
that which he has not learned.

It is only natural then that the ninth grade social
studies area frequently becomes the battleground where dis-

satisfaction and discontent culminate in controversies

between teachers and counselors, teachers and teachers,
teachers and administrators, and counselors and administra—
tors. On one point, however, all involved seem to agree:
vocational guidance and citizenship education to assist
youth in becoming active and participating members of soci-
ety are responsibilities of the public school system. How—
ever, proposed changes are met by many different interest
groups. Some people want to retain the status quo, some
want to make slight changes, and some want to adopt an
entirely different approach. Studies such as this one may
serve an important function in gauging which approach best

achieves desired outcomes.

The Problem

 

The problem is simply that very little systematic
research has been done to give a clear picture of the effects
of different approaches to the teaching of vocational guid-
ance and citizenship education. Objectives, cognitive and
affective, for each approach need to be conceptualized and
methods to reach such objectives must be evaluated with
reSpect to their effectiveness in reaching these objectives.
Demands on the public school teacher are so great that he
has little time to conceptualize objectives, let alone eval-
uate methods in any systematic manner. It is also true that

the public school teacher is so bound up in the process of

teaching that an objective analysis of his particular
approach is virtually impossible. However, the need for
such objective analysis is implicit in the teacher's respon-
sibility to give the student the best education possible.

It is the purpose of this study to provide such an analysis.

Orientation to Study

 

The present study has grown out of a controversy
between two groups advocating different approaches to the
teaching of vocational guidance and citizenship education-—
the kind of controversy alluded to in the beginning of this
chapter. A small but articulate minority wants to abandon
the commonly used approach to ninth grade social studies in
favor of a comparative cultures approach which is oriented
in the behavioral sciences; the majority group wants to
retain the status quo with some minor revisions.

Previous work related to this study came from a 1963-
64 experiment at Pattengill Junior High School, Lansing,
Michigan. Three ninth grade social studies classes were
introduced to the nature of language as a tool of analysis,
the function of concepts, behavioral science concepts, and
the technique of cultural analysis by means of presentation
of cultural profiles of the Hopi and Eskimo cultures. In
turn, student groups carried out cultural analyses of soci-

eties varying in degree of technological complexity — Semang,

Eskimo, Iroquois, Japanese — culminating with American
culture.

During the first semester the emphasis was on self-
understanding. The major concepts studied included culture,
group, role, status, personality, and socialization. Within
this context, the required interest and aptitude testing and
senior high school planning were carried out. During the
second semester the dimensions of social organization were
explored with particular emphasis on the economic and polit—
ical structure and problems of American culture as illumi—
nated by the perSpective acquired by previous cultural analy—
ses.

The 1963-64 program was launched to get some sense
of possible merit or lack of merit in this new kind of
approach to the teaching of vocational and citizenship
education.

The majority of teachers of ninth grade social
studies in the Lansing School System follow an approach sim-
ilar totfluaone described in the early part of this chapter.

The broad objective of this thesis is to report the
development of what is thought to be a more effective in-
structional program to teach vocational and citizenship edu-
cation in the public schools. Such a program should provide
students with knowledge of vocational and citizenship roles,

appropriate attitudes involving participation in these roles,

and a social science framework for the analysis and further
understanding of such roles in a changing society.

A Specific objective of this thesis is to evaluate
the effectiveness of the traditional2 way of teaching voca-
tional and citizenship education as compared to the pilot
course which will be explained in detail in the procedure
section of the thesis. The major hypothesis of this thesis
is that the new course will achieve the objectives indicated
more effectively than the usual course of one semester of
vocational guidance and one semester of civics.

To date no other study has had the precise objectives
of this study although a number of studies have developed
parallel and related issues. Such studies are reviewed in

the following chapter.

Limitations of the Study

 

An eXploratory study such as this lends itself to
criticism from many quarters. A discussion of some of the
limitations of the study should clarify some of the points

of contention.

 

2Traditional as used here refers to traditional ap—
proaches used in citizenship and vocational education. In
citizenship education the traditional approach involves a
structural study of the three levels of government (local,
state, and federal) within the context of American history.
‘In vocational guidance the traditional approach involves the
study of particular occupations with self-analysis emphasized
to help students make wise vocational choices.

To tighten the experimental design it was necessary
for the same teacher to teach both experimental and control
groups. A major criticism of such an approach is that the
teacher's biases constituted a significant factor which gave
the experimental group an unfair advantage. The teacher
obviously felt that the experimental treatment was better
for the students than the treatment received in the control
group. The major check on the teacher was classroom obser-
vation by the researcher. Everything from the teacher's
patience in class to bulletin board space was carefully
noted. However, it still seems valid to assume that the
teacher's prejudices influenced the two treatments to some
extent. This is one good reason why follow up studies are
needed.

A time limitation was also significant, for the pres—
ent study was limited to one academic year, 1964-65. Other
major studies attempted to evaluate students for longer
periods of time.

It was also necessary to limit the scope of this
study to treatment given in four social studies classes, two
control classes and two experimental classes. Cocurricular
and extracurricular activities were not included in the eval-
uation. In short, the present study did not focus on the
entire school system as did some of the studies discussed in

the following chapter.

An important limitation in bringing in an investiga-
tor or evaluator from outside the school system is that the
evaluator frequently does not get the basic and important
reasons for the actions of school personnel. The innovator,
for example, may decide that it is better not to tell the
whole story about what he plans to do, or he may by tacit
consent agree with the opposition on some dubious points so
that his program is at least given a chance to be tried out
in the school system.

On the surface, agreement between factions is appar—
ent to the investigator whereas in fact disagreement exists.
This was the case in the present study in regard to specific
objectives for the two approaches, experimental and control.
There was agreement in regard to the general objective, good
citizenship. However, although there appeared to be agree-
ment as to specific objectives for the two approaches, there
was in fact disagreement. Therefore, this study is limited
by the fact that the Specific objectives for the experimental
approach have not been conceptualized and expressed in any
SOphisticated manner.

The relationship between attitudinal and behavioral
change is crucial but beyond the limited scope of this study.
The main problem is that behavioral change appears to be more

difficult to gauge than attitudinal change alone.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Our fathers and our fathers' fathers know what we're
talking about when we discuss civics courses, for somewhere
along the road of formal education they have taken a civics
course. They would probably be able to give us a rather
good approximation of the content of civics courses today,
starting with the general framework of the three branches
of government.

Such would not be the case with vocational guidance
education for this field is relatively new with many school
systems doing virtually nothing in this area today.

The reader will find a good deal of prescriptive
literature in both citizenship education and vocational
guidance education while at the same time finding little
systematic evaluation of the effects of particular programs
in these two areas. In both areas, but expecially vocational
guidance education, objective evaluation procedures are in

their infancy.

lO

Citizenship Education

 

In 1916 the Committee on Social Studies made the
following recommendations with regard to a sequence of

course offerings in secondary schools:

Grade Nine . . . Community Civics

Grade Ten . . . European (or World) History
Grade Eleven . . American History

Grade Twelve . . American Social, Economic and

Political Problems.l

Thus, civics has been the model course offering for the

ninth grade for approximately fifty years.2 In the State of

 

1National Education Association, Commission on the
Reorganization of Secondary Education. The Social Studies
in Secondary Education, U.S. Bureau of Education, Bulletin
1916, No. 28 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,
1916), pp. 1-63 as cited in Erling N. Hunt, "Changing Per-
Spectives in the Social Studies," High School Social Studies
Perspectives (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1962), p. 14.

2The following facts give some indication of civics
as a required course plus time devoted to content areas in
civics courses. In a random sample of 207 public schools,
74 per cent required civics for graduation whereas in a ran—
dom sample of 188 public schools, 78 per cent required Amer—
ican government for graduation. Of the sample (N =207) 93
per cent taught two or more weeks of national government;
92 per cent taught two or more weeks of state government;
and 93 per cent taught two or more weeks of citizenship and
political action. Corresponding figures for the American
government course (N==188) are: 97 per cent taught two or
more weeks of national government; 93 per cent taught two or
more weeks of state government; and 93 per cent taught two
or more weeks of local government. S. B. Anderson, D. F.
Ahrens, R. Russell and D. A. Trismen, Social Studies in
§§condary Schools: A Survey of Courses and Practices
(Princeton: Educational Testing Service, 1964), pp. 1-20.
See also: Emlyn Jones, "Social Studies Requirements in an

 

 

 

11

Michigan, the two high school curriculum areas in social

studies required by law are civics (one semester) and the

Constitution of the United States and the State of Michigan.3
The course title, civics, should not be interpreted

to mean that there is general agreement as to what should be

taught in this subject area. The course actually includes

a variety of topics ”. . . ranging from government to voca-

tions and boy—girl relationships.”4

 

Age of Science and Mathematics,” Social Education, January,
1963, pp. 17 and 18; Willis D. Moreland, “Curriculum Trends
in the Social Studies," Social Education, February, 1962,

pp. 73—76 and 102; Bertram A. Masia, "Profile of the Current
Secondary Social Studies Curriculum in North Central Associa—
tion Schools," North Central Association, 1963, pp. 1-12;
Jack Sjostrom, "An Appraisal of the Curriculum Status, Trends,
and Techniques Used in Social Studies Curriculum Revision in
Selected North Central Accredited High Schools," Unpublished
Doctoral Thesis, University of Colorado, 1964; What High
School Pupils Study. Office of Education, U. S. Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare. Bulletin No. 10, 1962;
and Frederick R. Smith, ”The Social Studies Curriculum,"
Current Research in Social Studies, Bulletin of the School

of Education, Indiana University, Vol. 40, No. 2, March,
1964, pp. 13-30.

3Act 205 was passed in 1931. A civics course is not
required for students who have enlisted or been inducted into
military service. State of Michigan General School Laws
(Lansing, Speaker Hines and Thomas, 1960), p. 334. See also:
"Application for Approval for Collection of Tuition for Non-
resident High School Students,” Form No. TA—l, State of Mich-
igan Department of Public Instruction, Lansing, Michigan,
September, 1964.

 

 

 

 

4Richard Gross and William Badger, Encyclopedia of
,ggucational Research, pp. cit., p. 1301. See also: Anderson,
Ahrens, Russell and Trisman, op. cit. In the latter study a
random sample of 80 public schools with a grade twelve size
0f 200 or more was used. The following was discovered: 68
PEr cent of the schools teach civics as a separate course and

 

12

In surveying the literature on citizenship education
one realizes that ”it is doubtful if any one word - with the
possible exception of sin - has been talked about more than
citizenship."5 Objectives, other than ”good” citizenship,
are limitless and often contradictory. They are frequently
pious hopes and platitudes.6 Most of the literature is pre—
scriptive with little or no attention given to any kind of
systematic evaluation. There is, however, substantial agree-
ment that such evaluation is necessary and that appropriate
behavioral change is the most reliable proof of an effective
citizenship education program. Likewise it is generally
felt that appropriate behavioral change depends on corre-
Sponding attitudinal change which in turn is dependent on

the acquisition of appropriate information or knowledge.

 

19 per cent teach guidance, adjustment, orientation, counsel-
ing, vocational guidance as a separate course. In a 1963
random sample of 388 public schools, 62 per cent taught
civics as a separate course whereas 26 per cent taught civics
as a combination course. Eighteen per cent taught guidance,
adjustment, orientation, counseling, vocational guidance as a
separate course whereas 40 per cent taught the course as a
combination course.

5William J. Flynn, ”Citizenship Growth Through Youth
Activities in Youth-Serving Organizations,” Education for
Democratic Citizenship, National Council for the Social
Studies 22nd Yearbook, 1951, p. 125.

6Lee J. Cronbach, ”Evaluation for Course Improvement,”
New Curricula, edited by R. Heath (New York: Harper and
Rowe, 1964), p. 235.

 

 

 

13

Disagreement as to the objectives or goals of citi—
zenship education represents but one area of contention.
There is a good deal of controversy as to the kinds of eval-
uative instruments appropriate to most validly judge citizen—
ship education programs. Even greater disagreement concerns
those interested in citizenship education in regard to whom
should do the evaluating.

The relationship between attitudinal change and
behavioral change is crucial to all of the studies. It is,
of course, hoped that change in appropriate attitudes will
result in change in corresponding behavior. However, it
would be naive to assume that all changes in attitudes would
result in corresponding changes in behavior. All that can
be safely assumed is that attitudinal change increases the

possibility for corresponding change in behavior. The

 

7George Stern, ”Measuring Noncognitive Variables in

Research on Teaching," Handbook of Research on Teaching, N.
L. Gage, editor (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963), p. 404. A
distinction between actual attitudinal change and superficial
change, which occurs because one feels that the situation
demands such change, may be helpful. See: Jacob Getzel,
"The Question-Answer Process: A Conceptualization and Some
Derived Hypotheses for Empirical Examination,” Public Opinion
anrterly, 18, 1954, pp. 80—91; and Leon Festinger, ”Social
Psychology and Group Processes," Annual Review of Psyghology,
6, 1955, pp. 187-216. Festinger's thesis is that ”.

public compliance without private acceptance occurs under
conditions of threat of punishment for noncompliance." S. B.
Sells and D. K. Trites, ”Attitudes,” Encyclopedia of Educa-
tuional Research, op. cit., p. 104. It must be noted that
iruflividual-situation interaction analysis with respect to
at'titudinal change has produced controversial and frequently

 

l4

extreme difficulties in evaluating behavioral changes after
exposure to a particular citizenship program are recognized
in all of the major studies.8 Efforts to evaluate such
changes over a long period of time have been quite futile.
Some studies weigh what they consider to be tangible evi-
dence, e.g., the breakage of school windows and street lights.
Other studies use more subtle methods.

A school may use the following channels with reSpect
to citizenship education: classroom instruction; cocurricu—
lar and extracurricular activites; and community groups and
activities.9 The scope of evaluation is determined by the
channel or channels focused on in a particular citizenship

education program. The Detroit Citizenship Education Study,

 

contradictory experimental evidence. Contrast, for example,
Festinger's thesis with the following statement by W. B.
Brookover: "Apparently the students like the friendly
teachers better, but they learn more when taught by the more
authoritarian ones." W. B. Brookover, A Sociology of Educa-
tion (New York: American Book Company, 1955), p. 300. The
writer is in agreement with Brookover who feels that “from
the limited data available we cannot make valid generaliza-
tions concerning the response of students to the various
roles of the teacher in the classroom." Ibid., p. 305. See
also the Second Edition, 1964, p. 425. Sells and Trites
appear to have reached a similar conclusion in recommending
the taxonomy of situational variables. Sells and Trites,

op. cit., p. 104.

8See, for example, Stanley Dimond, Schools and the
Development of Good Citizens (Detroit: Wayne University
.Press, 1953), p. 177.

 

 

gEdith Pence and Stephen Smith, "What Are the Best
[Va375 to Evaluate Citizenship Education?" Bulletin of the
National Association of Secondary-School Principals, 37,
ATDIEil, 1953, pp. 134-138.

 

15

for example, devoted itself to an examination of the total
functioning of eight school buildings from 1945-50.10 Four
elementary, two intermediate, and two high schools were
chosen.

The sc0pe of evaluation is also determined by the
length of time during which evaluation takes place. The
Detroit Citizenship Study was a five year project; the
Syracuse Citizenship Education Conferences began in 1924
and are still being carried on as is also the case with the
Columbia University Citizenship Education project which was
established in 1949. The latter is primarily a service
rather than a research enterprise.

Different studies aim their treatments at different
kinds of students. The Detroit Study, the Columbia Univer—
sity Study, the Kansas Study, and the Stanford Social Educa-
tion Study were designed to deal with heterogeneous groups.
The Syracuse Study is aimed at a select group, those two or
four Seniors in cooperating high schools as elected by their

fellow students.

 

10Dimond, op. cit., p. 172.

llErling M. Hunt, "Recent Program for Improving
Citizenship Education,” Education for Democratic Citizenship,

02. cit., p. 120.

16

Evidence as to attitudinal changes invoked by citi-
zenship education programs is Sparce and discouraging. The
Kansas Study of Education for Citizenship illustrates a com-
prehensive type of evaluation. The following instruments
were employed:

Social Beliefs (4.31) Progressive Education Asso—

ciatIOn. Made available by the University of
Chicago.

 

Examination in Civics (Civilian Form) United States
Armed Forces Institute. Cooperative Test Service.

 

Examination in Problems of Democracy (Civilian Form)
United States Armed Forces Institute. Cooperative
Test Service.

Cooperative Community Affairs Test (Form R) Coopera—
tive Test Service.

Watson-Glaser Test of Critical Thinking: Battery I.
Testsl, 2, 3, 4; Battery II. Tests 6 and 8.
World Book Company.

Interest and Activity Checklist. The Kansas Study
for Citizenship.

The following implications for citizenship education

resulted from the evaluation instruments employed:

1. There was a growth in knowledge about government
and about the communities in which pupils lived.

2. Progress in acquiring skill in critical thinking
did not seem to be very great.

3. High school pupils are likely to retain attitudes,
good or bad, which they have when entering high
School. Attitudes change, usually in a desirable
direction, if students are uncertain at the time
of entering school.

17

4. Many high school pupils had not acquired the
habit of keeping informed on public issues.

It seemed safe to predict that as citizens they
would likely form opinions and vote on public
issues without adequate information.

5. Most of the high school pupils were acquiring
the habit of participating in social groups and
activities.

The Kansas Study is especially crucial in that the
generally accepted relationship between knowledge and atti-
tudes is not confirmed. Knowledge about government and the
communities in which the pupils lived did not produce corre-
sponding attitudinal changes in a desirable direction unless
students were uncertain with respect to attitudes tested at
the time of entering school.

The evaluation program of the Detroit Citizenship
Study tried to answer two questions: (1) Did the procedures
employed by the Study bring about changes in the citizenship
education programs of the participating schools? (2) Did
the changes result in a better quality of citizenship of
boys and girls? The answers to these questions are most
revealing:

The evidence is clear that the procedures em—

ployed did bring changes in the philosophy,
organization, methods, and materials of the

 

12E. G. Wheeler and O. F. Showalter, An Evaluation
of Citizenship Education in the High School (Manhattan,
Kansas: Kansas State College Press, 1950), p. 36 as cited
in H. H. Cummings, "Evaluation of Citizenship Education,"
Education for Democratic Citizenship, op. cit., p. 105.

 

18

Schools. The answer to the second question is

that we think the changes improved the citizen-
ship of the boys and girls, but adequate objec—
tive evidence does not exist.

The Columbia University Citizenship Project cites
improvement in students' attitudes toward politics and poli-
ticians and interest in public affairs.14 The most valuable
instrument employed was the Student Terminal Appraisal. The

Columbia University evaluation staff asked some of the fol-
lowing questions of students:
1. What did you yourself do in connection with
this practice?
2. How did you benefit from this practice?

3. What weaknesses did you find in the laboratory
practice method of study?

4. Tell me about some opinions or attitudes that
you have now which you did not have before doing
this practice.15

Citizen education projects which consider evaluation

an important phase of their operations must commit themselves

in answering the important question, ”Who should do the eval—

uating?"

l3See Stanley Dimond, op. cit., pp. 174-175. See
P. 183 which points out the lack o attitudinal change.

. 14Stanley Dimond, ”Explorations in Citizenship Educa—
tion," Educating for American Citizenship, National Associa—
Atlon.of School Administrators 32nd Yearbook, 1954, p. 380.

_ 15William S. Vincent et a1., Building Better Programs
$£~jgitizenship (New York: Teachers College, Columbia Univer-
Sltiy, 1958), p. 135. '

 

19

One answer to this question is given by G. Weston:
Evaluation (of a school's program or any of its
activities) is to be done by the school and par-

ticularly by the group of people who are working
with the activity.16

Teachers played a large part in the Detroit Study in
evaluating students' reactions to various treatments. Obser—
vations of such reactions were then categorized.

Another point of view is held by L. J. Cronbach:

I do not agree that the experienced history

or mathematics teacher who tries out a course

gives the best possible judgment on its effec-

tiveness. Scholars have too often deluded them-

selves about their effectiveness as teachers -

particularly, have too often accepted parroting

of words as evidence of insight - for their un-

aided judgment to be criticized.17
A study by J. W. Gates substantiates Cronbach's claim. Gates
found that employers consistently rated seniors higher than
teachers rated them as to citizenship, which leads one to
reason that a difference of standards, evaluative skill,
motivation, or reward exists. He concludes that "some of
the qualities which make for a satisfactory employee might

as easily make a student a problem in a classroom situation."18

 

16G. Weston et al., Democratic Citizenship and Devel-
opment of Children (Detroit: Wayne University Press, 1949)
as cited in ASSA Yearbook, op. cit., p. 343.

17L. J. Cronbach, op. cit., p. 239.
18John Wesley Gates, The Civic Competence of High

§ghool Seniors (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945),
p. 125.

20

This study suggests that ”good” citizenship in school may
not be "good" citizenship at all in the world of work.
Another study by T. J. Mahan expounds the same thesis.

Students' concepts of the characteristics of

good citizenship do not conform with those of

representative adult citizens. Children leave

school with the expectation of encountering

very different duties and responsibilities than

those reported by adult representative citizens

as most important.19

Some projects have all evaluation done by an outside

evaluation team. The main problem, however, in bringing in
an evaluation team from outside the school system is commu—
nication between the two parties.

The total anti-evaluation line is all too fre—

quently a rationalization of the anxiety pro-

voked by the presence of an external judge

whereas . . . the opposite extreme is represented

by the self—perceived toughminded operationalist

evaluation. .20

The enormous costs involved in providing an adequate

program of systematic evaluation of a program act as another
barrier. This is one of the reasons why evaluation of citi—

zenship programs is still in the infancy stage. As H. H.

Cummings has remarked, ”Except for the mastery of content,

 

19Thomas Jefferson Mahan, An Analysis of the Charac—
teristics of Citizenship (New York: Columbia University,
1928), p. 43.

20Michael Scriven, The Methodology of Evaluation.
Paper of the Evaluation Project of the Social Science Educa-
tion Consortium supported by the United States Office of
Education, 1965, p. 7.

21

faith rather than continuous evaluation is used to judge the

- 1
effectiveness of the program."2

Vocational Guidance Education

 

Vocational education may be defined as ”. . . educa-
tion designed to develop skills, abilities, understandings,
attitudes, work habits, and appreciations needed by workers
to enter and make progress in employment on a useful and pro-
ductive basis.H22 Vocational guidance education should help
students develop the qualities cited in the above definition
of vocational education. The term work as used in the defi-
nition of vocational education may range from manual tasks
to highly abstract intellectual activities.

To assume that the schools have a corner on the
teaching of vocational education is pure fallacy, for busi—
ness, industry, labor, religious organizations, agriculture,
and other groups also guide people in thinking about voca—
tions and help such peOple develop the qualities necessary
to obtain positions.

However, studies in the area of vocational education

recognize the unique opportunities open to the schools in

 

21Howard H. Cummings, "Evaluation of Citizenship
Education," Education for Democratic Citizenship, op. cit.,
p. 106.

22Ralph C. Wenrich, Encyclopedia of Educational
Research, op. cit., p. 1555.

 

22

providing education ”. . . prior to employment for the pur—
pose of preparing a person to enter employment."23 Other
services in vocational guidance education, e.g., in-service
education, are not relevant to the present study.

Most of the literature concerning vocational guidance
education cites the special challenge and reSponsibility for
such education in a democracy. The heterogeneous nature of
American schools provides school personnel with a multi-
faceted task. This task is of special significance to
teachers of ninth grade classes in vocational guidance for
some students in these classes are future drop—outs just
biding their time.

The need for vocational guidance is clear. D. C.
Doane in research on vocational guidance education found
Special concern among high—school students as to vocational
choice and placement. He also discovered a ”. . . signif-
icant tendency for boys, as their age increased, to become
increasingly concerned about problems of preparation for
employment.“24

A fact commonly emphasized in relevant literature is

that vocational guidance education at the secondary level

 

23Ibid.

24Donald C. Doane, The Needs of Youth (New York:
Wenrich Teachers College, 1942) as cited in Encyclopedia of
Educational Research, op. cit., p. 1556.

 

 

23

should be but one exposure to such guidance. Throughout the
individual's life he will need vocational guidance.25 Two
trends have accelerated the need for greater emphasis on
vocational guidance: a larger percentage of youth seeking
more years of education; and the increasing complexity of
our social and political organizations as a result of tech-
nological developments in business, industry, and agricul—
ture.26 The former trend has caused junior colleges and
technical institutes to provide vocational guidance programs,
whereas the latter trend makes it impossible for a single
organization, such as the public schools, to have an ade-
quate knowledge of vocational possibilities. The latter
trend is also eSpecially significant with respect to teach-
ers' attitudes and understandings in courses dealing with
occupational planning and guidance.

What then is a good vocational guidance program?
Ralph Wenrich says it is a program ”. . . which helps youth
discover their special interests, aptitudes, and limitations,
provides opportunities for exploring the world of work,
assists students in finding suitable training opportunities

finally helping . . . them in making the transition

 

25See, for example, Robert J. Havighurst, Human

Development and Education (New York: Longmans, 19535.

26Wenrich, op. cit., p. 1559.

24

from School to job. . . ."27

Research concerning personnel involved in guidance
in general and vocational guidance in particular gives one
little hope for excessive optimism. Since most of this
research has been carried on by people in the guidance field
rather than by outsiders, such criticism is tantamount to
self—criticism. One reason for this self—criticism is ”.
the alacrity with which schools have instituted such services
without waiting for fully qualified persons to become avail-
able."28 C. W. Grant, Director of the Graduate Guidance Pro—
gram at Syracuse University, investigated nine secondary
schools in central New York to determine seniors' reactions
to counselors, other school personnel, and non-school people
as to help in the following areas: (1) educational planning;
(2) vocational planning; (3) the personal-emotional area.29
He discovered the following:

1. The counselor is not seen by students as
being an effective or at least an acceptable

source of help in the broad area of personal-
emotional problems.30

 

27Ibid., p. 1562.

28T. Ernest Newland, ”Psychological Services--
Elementary and Secondary,” Encyclgpedia of Educational Re-
search, op. cit., p. 1073.

 

29Claude W. Grant, ”How Students Perceive the Coun—
selor's Role,” Personnel and Guidance Journal, March, 1954,
pp. 386-388.

3OIbid., p. 388.

25

2. The students polled perceived the counselor
as being most able to make acceptable
contributions to them in the vocational and
educational planning area.31
Other school personnel played a minor role in the latter
area whereas non-school people were important in helping in
this area.

Generally, however, ”statements of the desirable per-
sonal characteristics of individuals who are to render psy-
chological services in the schools have been based on opin-
ion more often than research findings."32 Robert Travers
concurs by saying that ”. . . the chief evidence of the
effectiveness of guidance is the subjective evidence which

the counselor accumulates as a result of his experience with

clients.”33 Wishful thinking plays a primary role in evalu-

ation of guidance according to Robert Travers. “Objective
evaluations . . . are disappointingly limited in number and
scope."3

Research indicates that materials used in vocational
guidance, e.g., films and pamphlets, are less than satisfac—

tory. Materials presently used emphasize the functional

 

3lIbid.

 

32Newland, op. cit., p. 1071.

33R. M. W. Travers, ”A Critical Review of Techniques
for Evaluating Guidance,” Educational and Psychological Mea-
Surement, No. 9, 1949, p. 223.

 

34Newland, o . cit., p. 1072; see also, William C.
Cottle, ”The Evaluation of Guidance Services,” Review of
Egpcational Research, No. 27, 1959, pp. 229-235.

 

26

aspects of the work day rather than looking at style of life
and the twenty-four-hour-day. "Samler indicates that the
need is to balance this picture of economic man with a por-
trayal of Psychological and Sociological Man.”35 Elizabeth
Drews agrees with Samler saying that for many people voca-
tional choice is a process rather than an event.36 Although
her work has mainly dealt with gifted students, many of the
ideas She presents are relevant to the general field of voca-
tional guidance education. Her research has been eSpecially
important in demonstrating the inadequacy of much of the
media used in vocational guidance.

If students relied only upon social studies

texts and career pamphlets they would find them—

selves always five years (a very long time in an

Atomic Age) behind the times and usually with a

tunnel vision rather than a multiple alternative

view.37
We then come to the crucial question: ”How do we know
whether or not a particular vocational guidance program is
successful?" The student's satisfaction, success on the job

as gauged by employers‘ reports, number of achievements,

number of forced shifts, wages earned, and the counselor's

 

35Elizabeth Drews and Douglas Knowlton, ”Style of
Life Career Films," Paper in the writer's possession, 1965,
p. 2; see also Drews and Knowlton, ”The Career Film Comes to
Life," Audiovisual Instruction, January, 1963, pp. 29-32.

36

 

Ibid.

37Ibid., p. 14.

27

opinion have all been used to evaluate vocational guidance
programs.38 All methods of evaluation in this field haVe
serious weaknesses - weaknesses deserving of the attention

of educational research.

Summary

Citizenship evaluation programs are quite varied as
to personnel involved in the evaluation, the scope of the
evaluation, subjects to be treated, and instruments or pro-
cedures which determine the effectiveness of a particular
program.

The Detroit Citizenship Education Study (1945—50)
was unique in its reliance on teachers' observations as a
major evaluation procedure. The Kansas, Columbia University,
and Stanford Studies primarily relied on evaluation experts
not involved in public school teaching.

The Detroit Study concerned itself with the total
functioning of school systems whereas most of the other
projects worked within the social studies area. All studies
emphasized the need for long term programs for effective

changes to be made.

 

38For a discussion of these techniques see E. G.
Williamson and E. S. Bordin, ”The Evaluation of Vocational
and Educational Counseling: A Critique of the Methodology
of Experiments," Educational and Psychological Measurement,
January, 1941, pp. 5-24.

28

The Syracuse Project was unique in dealing with a
select group, those two or four seniors in cooperating high
schools as elected by their fellow students. All other
projects dealt with heterogeneous groups.

Behavioral changes in the appropriate direction are
considered the ultimate goal of all of the projects. How-
ever, most studies recognize the difficulties which presently
exist in evaluating behavior in citizenship terms. Studies
indicate an increase in information as gauged by objective
instruments after exposure to various treatments, but sim-
ilar advances in attitudinal change were not recorded via
objective tests. Behavioral changes were not noted except
by the gathering of subjective opinions.

That there is a need for and special challenge to
vocational guidance education in a democracy is recognized
in all of the relevant studies. Such education is not seen
as a terminal secondary level need but as a life long need.

There is little objective evidence as to the desir-
able counselor characteristics necessary to good vocational
guidance. However, in a major study by C. W. Grant, it was
discovered that counselors were not considered effective by
seniors in the area of personal-emotional problems but made
more acceptable contributions in vocational and educational

planning.

29

Research indicates that materials used in vocational
guidance, e.g., pamphlets and films, are less than adequate.

Present methods of evaluating the effectiveness or
lack of effectiveness of a particular vocational guidance

program are not satisfactory.

CHAPTER III

PROCEDURE

AS a result of exploratory work done during the 1963—
64 school year, the groundwork was established for a system—
atic implementation on a trial basis of a new course using
relevant social science concepts within a comparative cul-
tures framework. This pilot program was carried out during

the 1964—65 school year.

Population and Sample

 

The sample selected was drawn from the total popula—
tion of ninth grade students in the school where the study
was conducted, all of whom were required to take a full year
of social studies-—one semester of vocational guidance and
one semester of civics. One hundred and four students were
randomly drawn from this pOpulation by the data processing
procedure presently employed by the school, and each student
was randomly assigned to one of four classes, as equal in
size as possible. These four classes have been compared
with reSpect to psychological and socio-economic indexes to

verify inter—group comparability.1

1See Appendix C.

30

31

Two of these classes were treated as experimental
groups and subjected to the experimental program. The other
two were control groups and exposed to the traditional in—
structional techniques. The choice as to which groups were
to be experimental and which were to be control was randomly

made.

Variables

 

The variables evaluated were of two main types,
informational and attitudinal, to determine if the experimen-
tal groups differed from the control groups. On an informa-
tional level, a single instrument concerned with core infor-
mation was developed. On an attitudinal level, adapted
scales from previous studies dealing with such dimensions as
occupational aspiration, self-concept, authoritarianism,
stereotypy, anomie, absolutism, tolerance, and ethnocentrism
were used.

The ”treatment” or independent variable of this
study was the instructional approach employed. With exper-
imental groups the comparative cultures approach was used.
With control groups the traditional instructional pattern
based upon teaching practices employed throughout the school
system for a number of years was used. Instruction was by
the same teacher.

‘

2See Appendix A.

32

Measures were taken both before and after the differ-
ent instructional experiences. Designed to tap the depen—
dent variables of the program, i.e., students' understanding
of the society of which they are a part and of their opportu-
nities, rights and responsibilities as they prepare for the
world of work and for their roles as responsible citizens,
these measures have provided data indicative of the effects

of the independent variable.

Data and Instrumentation

 

Attitudinal, critical thinking, and informational
instruments administered to experimental and control groups
have provided data used in this study. The measurement of
attitudes and critical thinking occurred before and after
the application of the different instructional approaches.

Measurement of informational content was made at the
end of the 1964-65 school year and consisted of a single
instrument containing core information.3 The results of
this test were categorized4 and are discussed in the chapter
entitled "Analysis of Findings.”5

Attitudinal measurements employed consisted of in—

struments previously used in other studies appropriately

 

3See Appendix A. 4See Appendix C.

5See Chapter V.

33

adapted to the population of the study.6 The attitudinal
instruments used in this study were compiled by Herbert M.
Hyman, Charles R. Wright, and Terence K. Hopkins. In 1955
these evaluation experts were faculty members in the Bureau
of Applied Social Research at Columbia University. Adopting
an eclectic approach, they assumed the task of building
appropriate instruments to evaluate a particular social

7 From 1955-

action program, the Encampment for Citizenship.
59, the evaluation experts analyzed instruments and proce-
dures to see if they stood the test of time and repeated
application. Those instruments deemed appropriate were used
in the present study.

Social Questions I8 provided scores on authoritarian—
ism, democracy, political-economic conservatism, and stereo-
typy. A six point continuum from ”I agree a little" to "I
disagree very much" was used. Social Questions II9 produced

scores on the Constitution, civil rights, action-apathy,

anomie, civil liberties, absolutism, tolerance, individual

 

6See Appendix A.

7The Encampment for Citizenship brings together each
summer about a hundred persons from many parts of the United
States and exposes them to experiences designed to increase
skills in democratic living and inculcate values necessary
for such living. See Herbert Hyman, Charles Wright, Terence
Hopkins, Application of Methods of Evaluation-University of
California Publications in Culture and Society (Berkeley:
‘University of California Press, 1962).

 

 

8See Appendix C. 9See Appendix C.

34

political potency, group political potency, and ethnocen-
trism. The first seven scales were on a four point contin-
uum from "a great deal" to ”hardly anything." The ethnocen—
trism scale was on a three point continuum from "thoroughly
democratic" to "thoroughly undemocratic."

It is in deciding whether or not significant changes
have occurred between pre and post measurement that contro-
versies occur. The investigator is predominantly in agree—
ment with the thesis of Professors Hyman, Wright, and
Hopkins. "Effectiveness is represented in our studies as
net change on a series of variables after exposure to the
program."10 The Columbia University researchers were aware
of criticism concerning such an approach by those who sup-
port the use of tests of significance.

No such tests are presented in the text, and
this may appear a strange departure from conven-
tional research practice. It should be noted,
however, that tests of significance in social
research have recently become the subject of
much controversy, and that responsible opinion
has been marshalled against their uncritical
use.

Therefore, judgment in appraising effectiveness is
Clearly on the researcher. In this case judgment is based
On the eXperience of the Columbia University researchers and

10Hyman, Wright, and Hopkins, 0 . cit., p. 69.

llIbid.

35

comparisons between experimental and control groups. In sum,
the main criterion for judgment as to significance of change

in this study is the net differences between students' aggre-
gate scores at two different times on a series of variables,

e.g., ethnocentrism.

To supplement the technique of evaluation mentioned
above, mean scores of experimental and control groups were
also compared.12 Percentages as to students improved, the
same, and worsened on each variable were also given as
supplementary evidence.

The tests labelled General in pre and post tables
concern occupational aspiration, self-concept, and critical
thinking. Haller's Occupational Aspiration Scale was used
with raw scores converted to T-scores.14 The Self-Concept
scale was devised by the Michigan State University Bureau of

15 The Michigan State University

. . . . 16
Cr1t1cal Thinking Test was also used pre and post.

Educational Research.

Grade point averages of experimental and control
classes were recorded in the following manner: mean scores
of total seventh and eighth grade grade point averages in

the four main subjects (English, mathematics, science, and

12See Appendix C. 13See Appendix C, Table 14.

15

14See Appendix B. See Appendix B.

16See Appendix B.

36

social studies) for the experimental group and the control
group were compared.17

Questionnaires and interviews were used to supple-
ment other instruments. A five step program was followed to
acquire needed information.

Early in the year Lansing teachers of Ninth Grade
Social Studies who had a minimum of five years in teaching
the course were interviewed. They were asked open—ended
questions to acquaint the interviewer with the Ninth Grade
Social Studies course and its effectiveness as perceived by
the teachers being interviewed. The results of these inter-
views may be found in the section of Chapter IV entitled
"The Traditional Approach.”

On the basis of the interviews mentioned above, a
pilot questionnaire18 was administered to both experimental
and control groups to get their reactions to ideas held by
teachers employing the traditional approach. Other items
were also included. Although some items were acceptable,
the instrument as a whole was considered quite defective.

Therefore, a check list was administered to both
experimental and control groups so that students could rate
activities engaged in as to their interest and value as per—

ceived by them. The results of this study are categorized

 

17See Appendix C, Table 2.

18See Appendix A.

37
in Tables 16 and 17, Appendix C.19
A random sample of ten students from the control
group and ten students from the experimental group was made
and these students were interviewed individually to get at
information not acquired in previous instruments. Results
are discussed in the Chaptercn1"Analysis of Findings.”20
Finally, small group interviews were conducted for
reactions to ideas acquired in individual interviews. These

interviews were taped and are discussed in the Chapter on

"Analysis of Findings.”21

Summary

Two experimental and two control classes were estab-

lished via random sampling with inter-group comparability
established by psychological and socio-economic indexes.
The experimental classes received the comparative cultures
treatment whereas the other two classes were taught tradi-
tionally by the teacher. Teaching of both groups was done
by the same teacher.

Informational and attitudinal variables were eval—
uated with attitudinal scales used before and after. Atti—

tudinal scales were adopted relying on the long experience

19See Appendix C.
20See Chapter V.

21
See Chapter V.

38

in using such scales by evaluation experts at Columbia
University. These scales tested the following variables:
authoritarianism; democracy; political-economic conservatism;
stereoypy; constitution; civil rights; action-apathy; anomie;
civil liberties; absolutism; tolerance; individual and group
political potency; and ethnocentrism.

Occupational aspiration, critical thinking and self—
concept instruments were also administered before and after.
Questionnaires were given to students with interviews with

teachers and students also held.

CHAPTER IV
DESCRIPTION OF TREATMENTS

This chapter is designed to give the reader a flavor
of what actually went on in the experimental and control
groups. A day by day account is impossible to give; however,
a discussion of the main activities engaged in and resources
used to carry out such activities acts as a representative

description which may be of value to the reader.

The Traditional Approach

 

Unlike the comparative cultures approach, the tradi-
tional approach was based on the division of subject matter
into two separate semester long courses. During the first
semester vocational education or guidance was taught with
citizenship education or civics taught during the second
semester. At Pattengill the same teachers have the same stu-
dents for both semester courses.l Because the traditional

approach calls for a semester of guidance and a semester of

1More Specialization exists at two of the other
junior high schools in Lansing in regard to ninth grade
social studies. The team teaching approach is used so that
'a team teaches either guidance or civics with new students
each semester.

39

4O

civics the semester courses will be discussed separately.

One of the teachers interviewed was quite proud of
the fact that Lansing has been recognized as one of the
nation's leaders in public school vocational guidance for
the last fifteen years.2 All but one of the teachers inter—
viewed felt that a counseling background and orientation
should be necessary to qualify for teaching vocational edu-
cation. The majority of the teachers interviewed also felt
that a minimum of three years experience in the Lansing Pub—
lic School System was a necessary qualification. All but
one of the teachers interviewed felt that the vocational
course as it is presently being taught by most teachers is
an excellent course. They advocated minor revisions only.
One teacher felt that there was something drastically wrong
with the course. She felt for one thing that it was too
long and could be taught in Six weeks. She favored moving
to the comparative cultures approach used in the two

Pattengill classes.3

 

2Only those teachers were interviewed who had at
least five years experience in teaching ninth grade social
studies. The average number of years taught was eight. All
of the teachers interviewed were counselors at one time
except one. This teacher had a strong behavioral science
background in college.

3This teacher's background was in the behavioral
_sciences, i.e., in sociology and anthropology.

41

According to the curriculum guide there are four
main areas to be covered in the guidance course: self-analy-
sis; occupations; educational planning; and economics (the
American system of free enterprise).4 It is also suggested
that current events be covered one day a week.

Self-analysis is aided by aptitude, achievement, and
personality testing plus the study of the student's own
school record. Students fill out a pupil profile sheet
which summarizes important data about themselves.

The second main part of the guidance course is a
survey of occupations. Educational planning is closely
linked to the study of occupations. Students are expected
to consider in a serious and intelligent way their educa—
tional and vocational plans and also develop a wholesome
appreciation for the world of work.

The final unit, the American system of free enter-
prise, is given a suggested time allotment of five weeks.

It was discovered via interviews that the large majority of
teachers Spend very little, if any, time on this unit. Most
teachers interviewed felt that such a subject had little

relationship to the basic part of the course, guidance.

 

4Curriculum Guide, Junior High School Social Studies,
Lansing Public Schools, Lansing, Michigan, 1962, p. 60.

5Ibid., p. 57.

6Ibid., p. 60.

42

One teacher introduces the course with the statement that
this course is "guidance with a little economics.” The
teachers felt that economics had implications throughout
the course but should not be tagged on the end of the course
as is suggested in the curriculum guide.

The following list of expected learning experiences
and activities is indicative of teachers‘ expectations and

methods employed to realize such expectations.

Learning Experiences for
Developing Fundamental Skills

Absorbing facts to use in logical reasoning

Critical thinking

Construction of a bibliography

Developing attitudes toward and an understanding
of taking standardized tests

Interviewing

Listening skills

Oral and written expression

Outlining

Participating in panel discussions

Planning and its importance

Reading for understanding

Reading of graphs

Research

Socialized discussion

Spelling

Understanding of percentile ranking

Use of community resources

Use of library resources

Vocabulary building.

 

7Ibid.

43

Typical Activities

 

Proper motivation for standardized tests

Taking standardized tests

Keeping a student file on standardized tests and
educational plans

Constructing a profile sheet

Writing an autobiography

Planning a senior high school tentative program

Teacher-student planning

Teacher—parent conferences

Survey of field of work

Career days using resource persons

Interviews

Panel discussions

Preparation of a research paper

Group dynamics—-Interviewing Conduct on the Job

Writing letters of application

Films

Bulletin boards

Development of a file of vocational and educational
materials

Maps, charts, and graphs

Radio and television

Study of current events: Use of the neWSpaper;
Current affairs paper; Periodicals

Wide reading, making special use of school library
facilities

Class discussion and drill

Oral reports

Notebook activity: Class notes; Current events;
Film summaries; Outlines; Vocabulary.8

The textbook used in the course is Citizenship in

 

Action by Painter and Bixler.g The book was adopted by the

Lansing School System in 1960. All of the teachers inter-

viewed except one felt the reading level was proper for the

 

8Ibid., p. 57.

9Fred B. Painter and Harold H. Bixler, Citizenship

 

‘ip Action (New York: Charles Scribner‘s Sons, 1958).

 

44

students. One teacher felt the text was too difficult for
many students. None of the teachers interviewed felt the
content of the book was satisfactory. All felt that some
chapters were good but the book was not comprehensive enough.
All criticized the book for being out of date. The edition
of the text used talks about the forty-eight states and
Speaks of Dwight Eisenhower as the President of the United
States. It is also interesting to note that no pictures in
the book are of American Negroes. Supplementary materials
chosen by individual teachers are used much more than the
text. Only the six guidance chapters are used by the major-
ity of the teachers interviewed.

It was discovered that most teachers use very few
audio visual materials, for such materials are considered
inadequate or hard to get. Field trips in the guidance
course are virtually non—existent, but individual interviews
between students and employers are used to some extent. Bul—
letin boards are used a good deal at all schools. Supplemen—
tary materials available to students were in all teachers'
rooms.

Radio and television were rarely used and current
events were discussed Sporadically, depending on the teach—
er's background and interest in a particular event. For
example, one teacher had taken a course from a professor who
was an expert on Viet Nam and therefore devoted a good deal

of time to current events in Viet Nam.

45

It Should be noted that there has heretofore been no
systematic research as to the effects of the traditional ap-
proach on the students previously exposed to such an approach.
However, it is only natural that those teachers employing
such an approach assume that the course contributes certain
significant things to the student.

The majority of teachers interviewed felt that the
most important thing the students learned to do during the
course was to write a research paper on a particular occupa-
tional area. "The skills learned will be of immeasurable
value to them [the students] as they are assigned similar
tasks in the senior high school."10 AS one teacher said,
"even the poor students carry note cards around with them";
thus, it is generally felt by those employing the traditional
approach that the writing of a term paper gives the student
good intellectual discipline. As a matter of fact, most of
the teachers interviewed felt that this was the distinctive
characteristic of the traditional course as contrasted to the
comparative cultures approach employed at Pattengill. Most
teachers employing the traditional course readily admitted
that the experimental course might be more interesting to
the students, but these teachers felt that the traditional

approach would be of far greater value to the students.

 

10Curriculum Guide, op. cit., p. 54.

46

Teachers also felt the course helped students under—
stand themselves as individuals. The pupil profile Sheet
was considered most helpful in accomplishing such a self-
understanding. Another significant contribution cited by
most teachers was the ability to make decisions concerning
high school. The student learned to plan his high school
schedule, according to these teachers. Students also
learned because of the guidance course to think about
careers. As one teacher said, "students learn to shop for
careers, not buy a career.” Most teachers employing the
traditional approach felt that the class established a close
teacher-parent relationship which was helpful to the student
in planning his future. Parent-teacher conferences, where
all the information was available, e.g., pupil profile
sheets, on a student were considered especially beneficial
by the teachers interviewed. All of these contributions
were cited by teachers interviewed in answer to the question,
"What do you consider to be the main contribution or contri—
butions this class makes to the students you have in class?"

Civics was taught during the second semester in the
control classes at Pattengill. The main aim of the course
was to prepare the students of Lansing to become active and

- . . 11
1nformed members of our democratic soc1ety. It was

 

11Curriculum Guide, op. cit., p. 108. This is like-
wise the main aim of the experimental classes.

47

assumed that the course properly taught would act as a cata-
lyst to create in the student the desire to be an active cit-
izen and accept the responsibilities of self-government.

If one looks at the curriculum guides of most schools,
he sees that a unit of civics is taught at the seventh grade
level, a semester or year of civics is taught at the ninth
grade level, and a semester or year of civics is taught at

12 . . .
the twelfth grade level. The critic1sm commonly 1eV1ed is
that there is a great deal of duplication of material taught.
According to the Lansing Junior High Curriculum Guide such
criticism does not hold for Lansing.

Since the subject American Government, required
of all students in the 12th grade in Lansing
senior high schools, deals with a detailed
description of the machinery and services of
government, especially on the state and national
levels, it is felt that grade 9 Community Civics
should stress the community, its government, his—

tory, and problems.1

The following time schedule outline is recommended:

 

 

Units of Study Suggested Time Allotment
Introduction to "Government of
the People" . . . . . . . . . . . One Day
Unit 1. Local Communities . . . . Approximately 8 Weeks
Introduction . . . . . . . Approximately 1 Week
Ingham County . . . . . . Approximately 2 Weeks

 

12See footnote 2, Chapter II for research on this
subject.

13Curriculum Guide, op. cit., p. 108.

48

Units of Study Suggested Time Allotment

Township . . . . . . . . . Approximately 3 Weeks
Lansing . . . . . . . Approximately 2 Weeks
Municipal Government
Public Schools
Live Issues

Unit 11. The Elective Process . . . Approximately 2 Weeks
Unit III. State Government . . . . . Approximately 3 Weeks
Unit IV. Federal Government . . . . Approximately 3 Weeks
Unit V. Taxation . . . . . . . . . Approximately 1 Week

Unit VI. Live Issues of State
and Nation . . . . . . . Approximately 1 Week

Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . One Day

Review and Examination . . . . . . . Approximately 1 Week

It was discovered via interviews and classroom obser-
vation that in fact, teachers rarely follow the recommended
time schedule. Some teachers spent very little time on
community government and instead emphasized ”pet” units, e.g.,
six to eight weeks on communism. These teachers found mate-
rials on local government inadequate.

It was also discovered that county and township
government were virtually neglected. As one teacher remarked,
"there is nothing left of Lansing Township because of annexa-
tion." County government was seen as of little importance

because of its dwindling power.

 

14Ibid., p. 115.

49

The elective process and taxation were frequently
given little attention. One teacher felt that such topics
were a waste of time for ninth grade students. Inadequate
background study in economics on the part of the teachers
was cited as one reason for the slighting of the unit on
taxation.

There were four subjects covered at all schools:
city government, federal government, state government, and
so-called live issues of state and nation (current events).
The last three areas are also taught in American government.

To cover the subject areas recommended, the follow—
ing learning experiences and typical activities are given in
the curriculum guide:

Learning Experiences for
Developing Fundamental Skills

 

 

Absorbing facts to use in logical reasoning
Critical thinking

Listening skills

Note taking

Oral and written expression
Outlining

Panel discussion participation
Reading for understanding
Research

Socialized discussion

Spelling

Use of community resources

Use of library resources
Vocabulary building

50

Typical Activities

 

Class discussion

Drill

Notebook: Class notes; Current events; Film
summaries; Outlines; Vocabulary

Individual written and oral reports

Teacher—student planning

Community surveys (Typical outline, Text: Page 74)

Panel discussions

Debates

Group dynamics: Mock elections; Trials; Council
meetings; Socio-dramas, etc.

Field trips

Resource persons

Films

Radio and television

Bulletin boards

Maps and charts

Development of a file of civic materials for class—
room use

Study of current events: Use of newspaper; Current
affairs paper; Periodicals; Radio and television

Evaluation: Unit test; Marking of various projects;
Citizenship participation; Student self-
evaluation.l

 

15Ibid., p. 110.

51

The Comparative Cultures Approach

 

The basic approach employed in the experimental
classes at Pattengill Junior High School was anthropolog—

ical.16

The comparative cultures approach was used only
after the students were introduced to key basic social sci-
ence terms, e.g., culture. The first culture studied was

that of the Hopi Indians. The teacher interested the stu—

dents by Showing a movie, Hopi Indian. With the study of

 

Eskimo culture the movie Nanook of the North was used.

 

After interest was stimulated, the students were
guided to materials which gave the students more back—
ground. All of the students read about the Hopi Indians

in a paperback entitled Four Ways of Being Human, by Gene

 

Lisitzky. Appropriate television programs were recommended

by the teacher when such programs were available. Magazines

 

16The comparative cultures approach was first used
by the anthropologist, E. G. Taylor, who presented a paper,
"On a Method of Investigating the Development of Institu—
tions; Applied to Laws of Marriage and Descent,” at the
Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain. John W.
M. Whiting, "The Cross-Cultural Method,” in Handbook of
Social Psychology, Gardner Lindzey, editor (Cambridge,
Massachusetts: L. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1954),

Vol. I, p. 523.

Although the comparative cultures method has been
used by university anthropologists since 1889, its use in
other academic disciplines at the university level can be
described as limited. The use of the comparative cultures
approach in public schools in any systematic manner has been
'virtually non-existent. One can therefore see the innovative
nature of the experimental ninth grade social studies course
at Pattengill Junior High School.

 

 

52

with relevant information were also recommended. Students
were urged to understand that there is no definitive source
on a particular culture. Each Friday the students had time
to work at tables in class on a project concerning the par—
ticular culture being studied. They then shared their find—
ings with other students.

When the teacher felt that the students were fairly
well-acquainted with the first culture, she gave them the

following summary sheet to complete individually:

CULTURE

I. GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT
Location: A
Climate:

Condition of Soil:

Terrain

NUOUUIP

Precipitation:
F. Other Important Factors:

II. ECONOMY (How are the material needs met)

A. Food:

B. Clothing:

C. Shelter:

D. Tools and Weapons:

E. Division of Work: (Inside and outside family)
F. Is there specialization in production? If so,

 

how is it exchanged between producers and
consumers?

III.

IV.

G.

53

Is there lack of or abundance of wealth?
What effects does this have on the over—all
culture?

FAMILY ORGANIZATION

A.

MODE!

'1']

What practices regulate marriage which
establishes the family unit? (Who may marry
and what is involved in the ceremony?)

Who makes up the family unit?

How are family groups related to each other?
Who is head of the household?

What practices regulate divorce?

When is a child in the family considered an
adult?

LANGUAGE

How do they communicate with each other?

What means of communication is used other
than the spoken word? For example, drums,
smoke signals, newspaper, etc.

Is there a special vocabulary in their lan-
guage for those things most important in the
culture? For example, the Eskimoes have
many words for snow.

RELIGION

A.

B.

How do they explain the origin of man?

How do they explain death and life after
death if any?

What are the basic or most important rituals
used in religious practices?

Does the geography affect their religion in
any way?

What are some of the major or most important
beliefs in their religion?

What religious ceremonies are used to recog—
nize the important stages of life?

54

VI. RULES FOR LIVING TOGETHER - CODE OF CONDUCT

A. What are the rules of conduct between various
members of the family?

B. What are the things that give people prestige
in the society?

C. Are some groups more important than others?
If so, which are the most important groups?

D. Do they have a government to organize ppp
the leaders will be and how members of the
society will be controlled? If no govern—
ment, how are leaders chosen and how are
peOple controlled?

 

E. Is religion involved in the code of conduct?
If so, how?

 

VII. AESTHETICS (Artistic Expression)
A. What means are used for personal expression
— dance, decoration of body, clothing,
utensils, music, etc.

B. Does religion have any effect on the artistic
expression? If so, how?

C. Do the various means of aesthetic expression
serve any purpose other than pleasure?

D. If you like Show illustrations of art forms.
Note: Please include any other information you would like
concerning the culture.

Many students had trouble filling out the summary
sheet1flu3first time. However, in following this same pro-
cedure for other cultures throughout the year the students
became much more proficient. The point to be made is that
the comparative cultures method was not used to any great
extent until the students first had a good understanding of

the particular culture they were studying.

55

When the teacher discussed a culture, e.g., the
Eskimos, she made frequent comparisons with American culture.
As more cultures were studied the comparisons became much
more diverse. The students had learned to use social sci-
ence concepts, e.g., culture, groups, status, and role,
cross—culturally. The following summary of a class period
gives one an idea how such concepts were explored.

Teacher: Do all cultures provide for differences in
status for their members?

Students: Yes. We can't think of any exception.

Teacher: Different societies determine what will
determine status and what will give its mem-
bers prestige. One‘s status dictates the
role he is supposed to play. Isn't it true
that you are expected to play a certain role
as a member of your family?

Students: Yes.

Teacher: What is the role and how does it differ accord-
ing to whether or not you are a boy or girl?

Girl: As a girl I am expected to help my mom with
the dishes.

Boy: I'm expected to help my dad with work around
the yard.

Teacher: True. And in your homes certain people have
more prestige than others. For example, who
in your home has the most prestige?

Student: My dad (one boy said, his mother).

Teacher: In our school we all play certain roles and
these roles give us certain status and pres-
tige. The teacher, the custodian, the prin—
cipal, and you students have certain status
because of the roles we play. There is a
hierarchy of prestige. My status is higher

Student:
Student:

Teacher:

Student:
Teacher:
Student:

Teacher:

Student:
Student:

Teacher:

Student:

Teacher:

Student:

Teacher:

Student:

56

than that of the custodian and the principal‘s
status is higher than mine. What happens when
we step out of our roles? What would happen,
for example, if I acted in the role of the
principal and told other teachers how they
should act?

You would be fired.

There would be a lot of conflict.
True. We are expected to stay within our roles.
This leads me to the next question. What
determines status in our society? What gives
one prestige?

Money.

What else givescnmzprestige?

Education.

What determines status and gives prestige to
the Eskimo man?

To be a good hunter.
To be a good fisherman.

What determines status and gives prestige to
the Eskimo woman?

To have her teeth worn down. This means that
She chews her husbands boots well so that they
are soft and keep out the water.

What do we think in the United States if a
woman has wrinkled hands?

Dishpan hands.

What do we think in the United States if a
woman looks old?

It's bad. Women use dye to keep their hair
dark. In the United States it is better to
be young than old.

57

Teacher: I believe that you now understand how status
and role are related and how prestige is
greater in some roles than in others. An
important idea that I want you to write down
is that prestige is based on what is valued in
a culture and different cultures value differ-

ent things.

Throughout the academic year, the teacher and stu-
dents explored the advantages and disadvantages or problems
in using the comparative cultures approach.

The teacher tried to make the students aware of the
fact that the knowledge they acquired was not definitive but
a starting point from which they could study more extensively
in the future, in many cases in a particular college disci—
pline.

Students also learned that the comparative cultures
Scholar should always be precise and discuss that which is
abstracted in relation to the context from which it has been
abstracted. For example, the students were discussing
whistling as a form of behavior practiced at American foot-
ball games and at Spanish bullfights. Whistling at a foot—
ball game in the United States is complimentary whereas at
a bullfight it is a form of denunciation. To use the compar-
ative cultures approach students learned that one must first
know what a particular act, e.g., whistling, means in a par-
‘ticular context and then relate the act to the context from

'vfliich it came in communicating about this behavior to other

people.

58

The teacher and her students were faced with the
problem of deciding which accounts of behavior were most
reliable. It might well be argued that a secondary school
student is not capable of making such difficult decisions.
One might further argue that students have not been allowed
to make such intellectual decisions previously and there-
fore are not prepared to make such decisions now. It is
precisely at this point that the teacher must have the
sensitivity of an artist and help students learn to be dis-
criminate and make wise decisions. ”In a society of free
man, the proper aim of education is to prepare the individual
to make wise decisions."17 The teacher must also have an
excellent subject matter background so that he can recommend
certain sources which the student might use. The teacher
also needs the Spirit of the learner and must be a serious
scholar himself. Such a spirit is contagious.

The good teacher encourages the formulation of
hypotheses and attempts to test them.18 This stimulates
student interest for students are naturally inquisitive
about people in other cultures who live in ways quite dif-

ferent from their own.

 

l7Paul Woodring, A Fourth of a Nation (New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1957), p. 111.

18Victor Barnouw, Culture and Personality (Homewood,
Illinois: The Dorsey Press, 1963), p. 525.

59

When the students become inquisitive they learn to
search through the various social science disciplines for
answers. In short, the comparative cultures approach may
act as a catalyst whetting the intellectual appetites of
the students.

It was designed to give the students a wider per-
Spective thus hopefully making them less provincial.19 In
watching a movie on the Eskimo way of life many questions
were raised comparing their way of life to the American way
of life. One boy said, "Why is it that Americans are so
odour conscious?” Another student asked, ”Does the cold
weather make the Eskimo more industrious?” Students learned
that that which is different is not necessarily laughable.
At the first of the year many of the students in the ninth
grade experimental classes snickered when members of an
African society were lightly clad in a movie the students
watched. With time it was observed that differences in dress
habits were accepted without snickering. The students had
reached a more objective vantage point and learned to be at

least tolerant if not appreciative of the idiosyncrasies of

people in other cultures as well as their own idiosyncrasies.

 

19See Chapter V for the results of such widening
experiences.

60

Experimental group students learned to identify the
differences between cultures as well as the similarities.
Rather than being bound to a single culture, the student's
findings related to human behavior in general.20 Students
learned that all men have certain needs in common, e.g.,
food, although they meet these needs in different ways.

They also found that the Species homo sapiens is unique from
other forms of life because of similarities which all men
have in common. For example, man has learned to symbolate
via language.21 In this he is distinct from other forms of
life.

In summary, the comparative cultures approach served
". . . as a useful supplement to the intensive study of par-

ticular cultures."22

Summary
'The traditional approach to the teaching of Ninth

Grade Social Studies consists of a semester of vocational
guidance education and a semester of citizenship education.
The majority of the teachers teaching the course feel that

it is basically a good course but needs some minor revisions.

 

20Whiting, o . cit., p. 524.

21Leslie A. White, ”Culturological vs. Psychological
Interpretations of Human Behavior,” The Bobbs-Merril Reprint
Series in the Social Sciences, Number 309.

 

 

22Barnouw, op. cit., p. 358.

61

During the first semester self—analysis and occupa-
tional and educational planning are taught. Economics and
current events are given little attention. Scholarly re—
search, planning for the future, and better understanding of
one's self are the basic aims of the course.

Civics, which is taught during the second semester,
is aimed at helping the student become an active participat—
ing citizen of our democratic society. The three branches
of government are studied with some duplication of Eighth
Grade American History. Much of the material will also be
taught once again in twelfth grade government classes.

The comparative cultures approach is basically
anthropological. After learning to use certain key social
science terms, e.g., culture, particular cultures were
studied. The Semang, Eskimo, Navaho, Iroquois, Japanese,
and American cultures were studied.

The major concepts applied to each culture were group,
status, role, personality, and socialization. Within this
context, the required interest and aptitude testing and
senior high school planning were carried out. During the
second semester the dimensions of social organization were
explored with particular emphasis on the economic and polit—

ical structure and problems of American culture.

CHAPTER V
PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

It should be noted that there was overt agreement
among those who teach ninth grade social studies in Lansing
as to the main objectives of citizenship and vocational
education. All agreed, for example, that good citizenship
was the main goal. The main disagreement concerned the
approach one should use to reach the objectives. The con-
trol group was governed by the idea that the traditional
approach best realized the objectives. The experimental
group was based on the idea that the comparative cultures
approach best realized the objectives. The instruments used
in this study should have given us an indication as to which
approach was most valid.

It was assumed that the data processing procedures
would give us a random sample whereby experimental and con-
trol groups would start out on an equal or nearly equal foot-
ing. To see whether or not this was really the case each
student's previous junior high grade point average in the

. l .
four major subjects was exam1ned. Reading vocabulary and

 

1See Table 2.

62

63

comprehension scores were also studied.2 The most recent
intelligence quotient scores were likewise considered.3
Attitudinal pre test scores were another indicator as to
whether or not experimental and control groups started out
on an equal footing.4

It was discovered that the experimental and control
groups began the year on a nearly equal level.5 There was
no significant difference between experimental and control
groups as to total seventh and eighth grade grade point aver-
ages or total seventh and eighth grade grade point averages
in social studies. Likewise, there was no significant dif—
ference in the two groups as to reading, critical thinking,
intelligence quotient, socio—economic background, and atti-
tudinal test scores. Thus, the validity of the random sam-
pling method employed was substantiated.

There were four conclusions which were possible:

1. Significant differences between pre and post

tests occurred in the experimental group but
did not occur in the control group
2. Significant differences between pre and post

tests occurred in the control group but did not

occur in the experimental group

 

3See Tables 3 and 4.

2See Tables 7 and 8.
4Seetiah1es 9 through 14.

5SeeAppendix C.

64

3. Significant differences occurred between pre and
post tests in both the experimental and control
groups

4. Significant differences did not occur between
pre and post tests in either the experimental
or control group.

On the basis of the objective paper and pencil instruments
employed in this study,6 the fourth conclusion most accurate-
1y describes the results obtained. For the most part, sig-
nificant changes did not occur between pre and post tests in

either the experimental group or the control group.

General Tests

 

It was hypothesized that the experimental group
would change significantly as a result of the treatment,
thereby having better scores on the following tests: occupa—
tional aspiration; self-concept; critical thinking; and in—
formation. Such a change did not occur according to the
instruments used.

The occupational aspiration instrument had a theoret-
ical low of twenty (lowest occupational aspiration) and a

theoretical high of eighty (highest occupational aspiration).

 

6See Appendix A.

65

Pre-test mean scores were 49.10 in the control group and
48.84 in the experimental group. Corresponding post test
scores were 49.88 and 50.42. Mean score changes were +.78
in the control group and +1.58 in the experimental group.
In light of the sixty point scale employed, the change was
not significant.

The self—concept scale ranged from eight (lowest
self—concept) to forty (highest self-concept). A positive
change of .62, from 28.02 to 28.64, was effected in the con-
trol group. A positive change of .24, 26.11 to 26.35,
occurred in the experimental group. The change in mean
scores was not significant.

A theoretical low of zero and a high of fifty-two
were possible on the critical thinking test employed. Pre
test mean scores were low: 18 in the control group and
17.76 in the experimental group. Corresponding post test
scores were 20.59 and 17.23. Mean score changes were +2.59
in the control group and -.53 in the experimental group——
still insignificant.

An information test was given to see how each group
scored on information supposedly learned in the other group
as well as information supposedly learned in its own group.
Results indicate that each group did nearly as well on infor-
mation given to the other group as it did on information

given to its own group. The control group had a mean score

66

of 38.76 on information based on the traditional approach
whereas the experimental group had a score of 24.09 on the
same test. The experimental group had a mean score of 38.38
on information based on the experimental approach whereas
the control group had a Score of 36.58 on the same test.
Each test had a possible maximum score of 50.

Changes in Salient Social Attitudes
and Opinions

 

 

The tolerance scale (from one, greatest tolerance,
to five, least tolerance) was designed to measure students'
attitudes toward nonconformist views and behavior. Net
aggregate change in the experimental group was —7 (more
tolerant) with absolutely no change in the control group.
Mean score changes were -.09 (2.23 to 2.14) in the control
group and +.04 (2.33 to 2.37) in the experimental group.
Changes which occurred were insignificant thus failing to
substantiate the hypothesis that the experimental group
would demonstrate more tolerance than the control group as
a result of the treatment.

It was hypothesized that the experimental group
would gain appreciably in the area of civil rights and civil
liberties. Such a gain would have meant that they would
have been less discriminatory and more libertarian than con-
trol group students as a result of the treatment. Three

scales were used: civil rights (zero, least discriminatory,

67

to ten, most discriminatory); civil liberties "A” (zero, most
libertarian, to twelve, least libertarian); and civil liber—
ties "B” (zero, most libertarian, to ten, least libertarian).
Less discrimination occurred in both experimental and control
groups. Net aggregate differences of -6 and -38 occurred in
control and experimental groups respectively. When coupled
with the mean score changes (-.21 in the control group and
-.36 in the experimental group), changes were relatively
minor. With the civil liberties ”A" Scale, both experimen-
tal and control groups improved significantly. The control
group's net aggregate change was -40 (222 to 182) whereas
the experimental group's change was also -40 (317 to 277).
No significant change occurred on the basis of the civil
liberties "B" scale. A net aggregate change of —9 (more
libertarian) was effected in the control group whereas +9
(less libertarian) was the result in the experimental group.
The democracy scale ranged from fifteen (most demo—
cratic) to 105 (least democratic). It was hypothesized that
the experimental group, although exposed to the comparative
cultures treatment, would become more democratic and less
authoritarian. A net aggregate change of —17 (2903 to 2886)
occurred in the control group with a change of ~99 (3442 to
3343) occurring in the experimental group. Mean score
changes were +.23 (control) and -2. (experimental). The

experimental group's gain on the democracy scale was offset

68

by its loss on the authoritarianism scale (eleven, least
authoritarian, to seventy-seven, most authoritarian). A net
aggregate change of +437 (2539 to 2976) occurred in the
experimental group with a +8 (2515 to 2523) result in the
control group. Mean scores give us a somewhat different pic—
ture. Both groups gained in authoritarianism: .44 in the
control group and .81 in the experimental group. Change was
therefore very minor. Likewise, both groups demonstrated
insignificant change on the absolutism scale. There was a
net aggregate change of +28 (more absolutistic) for the con-
trol group and +9 for the experimental group. CorreSponding
mean scores were +.75 and +.32. The absolutism scale ran
from zero, least absolutistic, to twelve, most absolutistic.
In light of the possible point Spread in the scales used,
changes on the basis of the democracy, authoritarianism, and
absolutism scales were relatively minor. The Constitution
scale (zero, pro Constitution, to fourteen, anti—Constitu-
tion) results substantiate the claim made in the previous
sentence. Mean score changes (control, .06 and experimental,
.38) were slight as well as net aggregate changes (control,
+4 and experimental, +14).

The experimental group, it was hypothesized, would
be appreciably less ethnocentric as a result of the treat-
ment than the control group. The hypothesis was not substan-

tiated by results on the ethnocentrism scale (zero, least

69

ethnocentric, to nine, most ethnocentric). A net aggregate
gain of —26 (184 to 158) occurred in the experimental group
whereas a gain of —12 (133 to 121) occurred in the control
group. Mean score changes were —.35 in the control group
and —.45 in the experimental group. A small but relatively
minor change occurred in the experimental group.

The two groups changed their scores little in regard
to political—economic conservatism. A low score of ten,
least conservative, to a high Score of twenty, most conserva—
tive, provided the range of possible scores. The control
group's net aggregate change was -68 (1796 to 1728); the
experimental group's change was -28 (2267 to 2239). Mean
score changes were -1.55 in the control group and -.25 in
the experimental group. It was hypothesized that the exper—
imental group would become less conservative in the polit—
ical-economic area as a result of the treatment.

Because of the comparative cultures approach, the
experimental group Should have used stereotypes less. On
the stereotypy scale (nine, lease use of stereotypy, to six—
ty—three, greatest use of stereotypy), the control group had
a mean score change of -.15 whereas the experimental group‘s
change was +.l4. Net aggregate changes were —2 (1368 to
1366) in the control group and -23 (1678 to 1655) in the
experimental group. No significant change occurred in

either group on the basis of this scale.

7O

Changps in Action Orientation

 

It was hypothesized that the treatment given the
experimental group would make the students less apathetic
and more prone to carry out ideas acquired. The resulting
Scores ran from a theoretical low of zero (least apathetic)
to a theoretical high of ten (most apathetic). A net aggre-
gate change of +18 (230 to 248) occurred in the control
group; a change of +5 (295 to 300) occurred in the experi-
mental group. Mean score changes were +.34 in the control
group and +.10 in the experimental group. In Short, no
significant change occurred in either group.

The only major change on the basis of the scales
employed in this study occurred in regard to individual
political potency. Both control and experimental groups
gained with reSpect to students' faith in the individual's
power to resolve important problems. Net aggregate changes
were +100 (177 to 277) in the control group and +62 (218 to
280) in the experimental group. The scale ran from zero,
minimum potency, to ten, maximum potency. Mean score
changes were +2.28 in the control group and +1.18 in the
experimental group. A similar change did not result with
reSpect to the group political potency scale (zero, minimum
potency, to ten, maximum potency). The control group had a
net_aggregate change of +7 (320 to 327) whereas the experi-

mental group had a change of -2 (371 to 369).

71

One might suSpect that the change on the individual
political potency scale would mean a corresponding change on
the anomie scale (zero, least anomie, to sixteen, most ano-
mie). Such was not the case. As was hypothesized, no sig-
nificant change occurred on this variable. The control
group's net aggregate score decreased from 209 to 191 (-l8)
whereas the experimental group's Score decreased from 275 to
259 (-l6). Mean score changes were -.70 in the control

group and -.15 in the experimental group.

Supplementary Findings

 

Questionnaires and interviews were used to supple-
ment objective pencil and paper tests. The following pro—
cedure was employed:

1. Interviews were held with Lansing teachers of
Ninth Grade Social Studies who had a minimum of
five years of teaching the course to get their ’
impressions of the traditional and experimental
approaches, and an interview was held with the
teacher who employed the experimental approach
to get her impressions.

2. A pilot questionnaire was administered to both
experimental and control groups. Although some
items were acceptable the instrument was con-
sidered to be quite defective on the whole.

3. A check sheet was administered to both experimen-
tal and control groups whereby students rated
activities as to interest and value.

4. A random sample of ten students from the control
group and ten from the experimental group was
made and these students were interviewed individ-
ually.

72

5. Small group interviews were conducted for reac-
tions to major ideas acquired in individual
interviews. These student interviews were taped.

As a result of the procedure discussed above, the
following opinions are available: opinions of teachers who
have taught Ninth Grade Social Studies for a minimum of five
years; opinions of an innovator, the teacher who employed
the experimental approach; and opinions of the students.

The results are summarized as follows:

1. Teachers who have taught Ninth Grade Social
Studies for a minimum of five years felt that
the traditional approach was much more valuable
to the students than the experimental approach
even though they surmised that students might
well have considered the traditional approach
less interesting.

2. The teacher who employed the experimental ap—
proach at Pattengill Junior High School felt
that such an approach was both more interesting
and more valuable to the students than the tradi-
tional approach.

3. Students in the experimental group felt that the
activities in which they participated were more
interesting and more valuable than did control
group students in reacting to similar activity
categories.

In regard to student opinions, those activities which
they perceived to be interesting were also perceived to be

valuable.

 

7See Appendix C, Tables 16 and 17.

73

The control group felt that filling out the pupil
profile sheet was more interesting and valuable than did the
experimental group. Individual and group interviews substan-
tiated this. A good deal more time and energy were exerted
in this activity in the control group than in the experimen-
tal group. Control group students referred to a particular
unit in which they studied personality; experimental group
students saw the whole year's course as an introspective
venture.

The experimental group found the following activ-
ities more interesting and valuable than the control group:
class discussions; reading assigned materials; watching
films; field trips; and current events study. Interviews
revealed similar results. Students in the experimental
group felt that they could Speak in class at any time and
did so freely. The outdated textbook and career pamphlets
used in the control classes were considered to be boring and
of little value by the students. The opposite was the case

in the experimental classes. The book, Four Wgys of Being

 

prpp, was interesting and valuable according to experimen-
tal group students. Fewer films and poorer films were shown
in the control classes whereas in the experimental classes
films were up—to—date and very interesting. This seems to

substantiate Elizabeth Drews‘ claim that current films

74

and pamphlets in occupational guidance are quite inadequate.
The Cranbrook field trip which the experimental group took
was better received than the Oldsmobile field trip taken by
the control group students.

Significant differences of student opinion as to
interest and value of activities did not occur concerning
the following activities: individual projects; writing
papers; making decisions concerning high school; learning to
understand one‘s self; and group projects. Role playing and
listening to tapes were activities done only in the experi—
mental classes.

In sum, students in the experimental classes per-
ceived activities participated in to be more interesting and
more valuable than control group students found their activ-
ities to be. All of the teachers interviewed thought that
experimental class students would perceive class activities
to be more interesting than students exposed to the tradi-
tional approach. The teacher employing the experimental
approach surmised that students in the experimental classes
would rate activities higher as to their value than would
students in the control classes. This was supported in the
findings. Teachers who employed the traditional approach

made no judgment as to students' preceptions of activities

 

8Elizabeth Drews and Douglas Knowlton, ”Style of
Life Career Films,“ paper in the writer's possession, 1965,
p. 2.

75

as to value.

If one assumes that students perform better because
they consider that which they are doing to be interesting
and valuable, there is still the question of whether or not
the activity engaged in is worth performing. There is
little objective evidence that students are good judges of
teaching procedures or classroom activities.9 Likewise,
there is little evidence that the fact that students rate
activities high as to interest and value means that they are

learning more than students who rate such activities lower.10

Interpretation of Findings

 

The crucial question is, ”Why didn't the changes
hypothesized occur?" The following answers were considered:

1. The instruments used were inappropriate, thus
failing accurately to measure what teachers
expressed as desired outcomes for both tradi-
tional and experimental approaches.

2. The treatment was inappropriate for the sample.
The students exposed to the comparative cultures
approach were of the wrong age level or the
heterogeneous nature of the sample lowered the
treatment's effectiveness.

 

9See John Withall and W. W. Lewis, ”Social Interac—
tion in the Classroom," Handbook of Research on Teaching,
N. L. Gage, editor (Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1963),
p. 690; and W. B. Brookover, "Person-to-Person Interaction
Between Teachers and Pupils and Teaching Effectiveness,"
Journal of Educational Research, 34, April, 1953, pp. 272—
287.

 

 

lOIbid.

 

76

3. The teacher did an ineffective job in using both
the traditional and experimental approaches.

4. Materials used in the experimental and control
groups were inappropriate.

5. A particular class in the experimental group,
i.e., first or third hour, pulled down the
scores of the other class.

6. The treatment was limited by temporal consider—
ations. The treatment only consisted of one
hour a day, five days a week, for one academic
year.

7. A basic assumption of the researcher was that
the manipulation of substantive content or knowl-
edge would probably lead to a corresponding
change in attitudes which would likely invoke a
corresponding change in behavior. The results
of the study fail to substantiate this basic
assumption. The assumption may be fundamentally
unsound.

Let us examine each of the foregoing possibilities.

An immediate inclination is that instruments used

were inappropriate to measure effects of both the compara-
tive cultures approach and the traditional approach. When
questioned about the tests, students who received the two
treatments said that the critical thinking test was too
difficult for them. These students said that the other
instruments used had a vocabulary appropriate for them. It
is quite possible that new instruments will have to be devel-
oped to measure accurately what teachers express as desired
outcomes for both approaches. This will mean that goals or

objectives for each approach will have to be conceptualized

in a much more sophisticated manner.

77

Whether or not the treatment was appropriate for
the sample is an open question which will be answered only
with replication of both treatments on different samples.

The teacher‘s performance in using the comparative
cultures approach and the traditional approach is open to
question. It is possible that in trying to use the tradi-
tional approach in the best possible way she did not per—
form at her best in either group.

It would be informative to find out how the use of
different materials affects students in both experimental
and control classes.

Mean scores were recorded by class to see whether or
not a particular class was quite different in terms of the
treatment's effects. Table 13 demonstrates that a particular
class, i.e., first or third hour, did not pull down the
scores of the other class.

A possible limitation of the comparative cultures
treatment was that the treatment consisted only of one hour
a day, five days a week, for one academic year. This limi-
tation was not imposed on the "Encampment for Citizenship”
from which the Scales used in this study were taken. It was
the thesis of the Encampment evaluation team that the formal
education program without the community living afforded by

the camp experience would not provide for sufficiently strong

78

dynamic to produce appropriate attitudinal changes.

The exact relationship, if any, between substantive
content or knowledge, attitudes, and behavior is as yet
unsubstantiated in research. It was a basic assumption of
this dissertation that appropriate knowledge would probably
change attitudes which would likely invoke behavioral change.
At first glance, the results of this study seem to reveal
that such an assumption is unsound. However, there are
other factors to consider. Perhaps the substantive content
was not appropriate for the sample. Perhaps the instruments
used were invalid thereby not expressing the true relation-
ship between substantive content and attitudinal change.

All that can validly be said is that the relationship be-
tween knowledge, attitudes, and behavior provides a vast

area deserving of sophisticated research.

 

llHerbert Hyman, Charles Wright, and Terence Hopkins,
Application of Methods of Evaluation - University of Califor-
nia Publications in Culture and Society (Berkeley: Univer—
sity of California Press, 1962), p. 170.

 

 

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary and Conclusions

 

In this study the effects of two different approaches
to the teaching of vocational and citizenship education in
Ninth Grade Social Studies are evaluated. The study was con-
ducted during the 1964—65 academic year at Pattengill Junior
High School, Lansing, Michigan. Two classes were experimen-
tal and two classes were control. Control classes received
treatment in accordance with traditional procedures. In
citizenship education the traditional approach involved a
structural study of the three levels of government (local,
state, and federal) within the context of American history.
In vocational guidance the traditional approach involved the
study of particular occupations with self-analysis emphasized
to prepare students to make wise vocational choices. The
comparative cultures approach consisted of a study of basic
social sciences concepts, e.g., culture, and cultural analy—
ses of particular societies varying in technological complex—
ity. Good citizenship was the main goal for both approaches.
It was hypothesized that significant attitudinal changes

would occur in the experimental classes but would not occur

79

80

in the control classes. AS a result of the treatment, exper-
imental group students Should have been less discriminatory
toward minority groups, more tolerant toward nonconformist
views and behavior, more libertarian, less authoritarian,
less absolutistic, less ethnocentric, less prone to use
stereotypes, less apathetic, and more confident in the indi—
vidual's power to effect change. It was also hypothesized
that appreciable gains would occur in the experimental group
in regard to self-concept, critical thinking, occupational
aSpiration and information whereas such gains would not be
made in the control group.

The main instruments used were of two types, attitu-
dinal and informational. Attitudinal tests were given before
and after the treatment. A single informational instrument
was devised to test students on subject matter content.
Critical thinking, self—concept, and occupational aspiration
instruments were also administered pre and post. Student
questionnaires and interviews provided additional data used
to evaluate student attitudes.

On the basis of the objective pencil and paper
instruments employed, it was generally the case that signif-
icant changes did not occur between pre and post tests in
either the experimental or control group. The two Scales on
which significant changes did occur were individual political

potency and civil liberties "A." Both experimental and

81

control groups significantly increased their faith in the
individual's power to solve important problems and were more
libertarian on the civil liberties ”A” scale. In regard to
the information test, the control group did nearly as well
on the experimental group's information test as the experi—
mental group. Likewise, the experimental group did nearly
as well on the control group's information test as the con—
trol group.

With reSpect to interviews and questionnaires,
experimental group students related that activities which
they participated in were interesting and valuable.

In sum, there is no objective evidence that the
experimental approach was more effective than the tradition-
al approach or vice versa according to the instruments em-

ployed in this study.

Recommended Research

 

The effects of the comparative cultures approach as
applied to different population samples Open many new vistas
for future research. The following questions have been
raised as a result of the exploration done in this thesis,
and may be suitable lines of inquiry for further research.
1. How would a different age group, e.g., high
school seniors, reSpond to the comparative cul-
tures treatment? Perhaps students in this
study's sample were too young to profit from
the treatment.

2. How would a select group of ninth grade students

reSpond to the comparative cultures treatment?
Select in this case could mean students with

82

high reading scores or high grade point averages.

3. How would students respond if exposed to the com-
parative cultures approach for a longer period of
time, e.g., four years? In this way learning
would be reinforced each year.

4. How would students respond if given a comprehen—
sive exposure to the comparative cultures treat-
ment? For example, if other courses in the
curriculum, e.g., English, used a similar ap-
proach or if seminars and other extra—curricular
activities were employed?

5. How would students respond to the comparative
cultures approach as employed by different
teachers? For example, if two different teachers
within a school system used the comparative cul—
tures approach?

6. A fundamental assumption underlying both ap—
proaches was that the manipulation of substantive
content would probably invoke correSponding
changes in attitudes which would probably invoke
corresponding changes in behavior. How would
students respond if this underlying assumption
was declared fundamentally unsound and other
relationships between content, attitudes, and
behavior were established? For example, one
might assume that the teacher's personality is
the key to attitudinal change or that students
must behave in a certain situation so that atti-
tudes change. The two approaches could then be
structured on the basis of one of these underly-
ing assumptions at a time.

7. How effective would different instruments be in
measuring students' responses to the two treat—
ments' goals or objectives as stated by teachers?
Such instruments would probably have to be newly
constructed.

It is hoped that this dissertation will provide orientation
for research which will help answer previously mentioned

questions and postulates. The Social Science Teaching

83

Institute at Michigan State University is committed to

research for the 1965—66 academic year which will complement
the present study. A research grant from the United States
Office of Health, Education, and Welfare will provide neces-

sary funds.

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Brookover, W. G. "Person—To-Person Interaction Between
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Cronbach, Lee J. ”Evaluation for Course Improvement,"
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Cummings, H. H.. "Evaluation of Citizenship Education,”
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85

Doane, Donald C. The Needs of Youth. New York: Teachers
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Drews, Elizabeth and Douglas Knowlton. "The Career Film
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Festinger, Leon. VSocial Psychology and Group Processes,"
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Flynn, William J. ”Citizenship Growth Through Youth
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Frankel, Charles. "Needed Research on Social Attitudes,
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Gates, John Wesley. The Civic Competence of High School
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Getzel, Jacob. "The Question-Answer Process: A Conceptual-
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Grant, Claude W. ”How Students Perceive the Counselor's
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Gross, Richard E. and William V. Badger. ”Social Studies,"
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Havighurst, Robert J. Human Development and Education.
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Hunt, Erling N. ”Changing Perspectives in the Social
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86

 

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APPENDIX A

EVALUATIVE INSTRUMENTS USED

9O

OCCUPATIONAL ASPIRATION SCALE

1. This set of eight questions concerns jobs.

2. Read EACH QUESTION carefully. They are not always the

same .

3. YOU ARE TO CHECK ONE JOB IN EACH QUESTION. MAKE SURE

IT IS THE BEST ANSWER YOU CAN GIVE TO THE QUESTION.

4. Answer every question. Do not omit any.

5. If you do not know what one of the jobs is, just ignore it.

6. On the next page there are two practice questions. Let's

try them.

Name:

 

Last First Middle

School:

 

Teacher:

 

DO NOT TURN THIS PAGE UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO

91

To the teacher: All questions, including the occupations, are
to be read aloud.

Practice Question A. Of the jobs listed in this question, which
is the BEST ONE you are REALLY SURE YOU
CAN GET when your SCHOOLING IS OVER?

A.

A.

A.

> 3> I> > 3> :> >

1

.2

.3

9

10

watchmaker

senator

public relations man
ditch digger
news-stand operator
beautician

fireman

boxer

Secretary

movie star

Practice Question B. Of the jobs listed in this question, which
ONE would you choose to have when you are
30 YEARS OLD, if you were FREE TO HAVE ANY
of them you wished?

DO NOT TURN THIS

Ul-b

wwwwwwwwww

.1

.2

.10

file clerk

steeple jack

floor walker in a store
ambassador to a foreign country
grocery clerk

wrestler

nurse

T.V. Sports announcer

forest ranger

music teacher

PAGE UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO

Question 1.

Question 2.

92

Of the jobs listed in this question, which is the
BEST ONE you are REALLY SURE YOU CAN GET when your
SCHOOLING IS OVER?

1

1

1

1

.1

.2

.9

.10

welfare worker for a city government
United States representative in Congress
United States Supreme Court Justice
sociologist

filling station attendant

night watchman

policeman

corporal in the Army

County agricultural agent

lawyer

Of the jobs listed in this question, which ONE
would you choose if you were FREE TO CHOOSE ANY
of them you wish when your SCHOOLING IS OVER?

2.

2

NNN

NNNN

1

.2

.10

Singer in a night club

member of the board of directors of a
large corporation

railroad conductor

railroad engineer

undertaker

physician (doctor)

clothes presser in a laundry

banker

_accountant for a large business

machine operator in a factory

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

Question 3.

Question 4.

93

Of the jobs listed in this question which is the
BEST ONE you are REALLY SURE YOU CAN GET when your
SCHOOLING IS OVER?

3

3

3

.1

.2

.10

dock worker

owner-operator of a lunch stand
public school teacher

trained machinist

scientist

lumberjack

playground director

shoeshiner

owner of a factory that employs about
100 people

dentist

Of the jobs listed in this question, which ONE would
you choose if you were FREE TO CHOOSE ANY of them
you wished when your SCHOOLING IS OVER?

4

b

4
4.
4

hob-Db

.1

.2

.10

restaurant waiter

electrician

truck driver

chemist

street sweeper

college professor

local official of a labor union

building contractor

traveling salesman for a wholesale concern

artist who paints pictures that are
exhibited in galleries

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

Question 5.

Question 6.

94

Of the jobs listed in this question, which is the
BEST ONE you are REALLY SURE YOU CAN HAVE by the
time you are 30 YEARS OLD?

5.1 farm hand

5.2 mail carrier

5.3 County judge

5.4 biologist

5.5 barber

5.6 official of an international labor union
5.7 soda fountain clerk

5.8 reporter for a daily neWSpaper

5.9 State governor

5.10 nuclear physicist

Of the jobs listed in this question, which ONE would
you choose to have when you are 30 YEARS OLD, if you
were FREE TO HAVE ANY of them you wished?

6.1 janitor

6.2 head of a department in state government
6.3 cabinet member in the federal government
6.4 musician in a symphony orchestra

6.5 carpenter

6.6 clerk in a store

6.7 coal miner

6.8 psychologist

6.9 manager of a Small store in a city

6.10 radio announcer

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

95

Question 7. Of the jobs listed in this question, which is the
BEST ONE you are REALLY SURE YOU CAN HAVE by the
time you are 30 YEARS OLD?

7

7.

7

7

.1

2

.9

.10

mayor of a large city

milk route man

captain in the army

garbage collector

garage mechanic

insurance agent

architect

owner-operator of a printing Shop
airline pilot

railroad section hand

Question 8. Of the jobs listed in this question, which ONE would
you choose to have when you are 30 YEARS OLD, if you
were FREE TO HAVE ANY of them you wished?

8.

8

000000

1

.2

.10

civil engineer
author of novels

diplomat in the United States Foreign
Service

taxi driver

newspaper columnist

share cropper (one who owns no livestock
or farm machinery, and does not manage
the farm)

plumber

bookkeeper

streetcar motorman or city bus driver

Minister or Priest

DO NOT TURN THIS PAGE UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO

96

Place an ”X" in front of the statement which best answers
each question. For each question mark only ONE answer.

Answer every question.

1. How do you rate yourself in school ability compared with

your close friends?

b. I am

c. I am

the best
average
below average

the poorest

2. How do you rate yourself in School ability compared
with those in your class at School?

a. I am
b. I am
c. I am
d. I am

e. I am

3. Where do you think you would
graduating class?

among the best
above average.
average

below average

among the poorest

rank in your high school

a. among the best

b. above average

c. average

d. below average

e. among the poorest

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

97

4. Do you think you have the ability to complete college?

a.

b.

yes, definitely
yes, probably

not sure either way
probably not

no

5. Where do you think you would rank in your class in

college?
a. among the best
b. above average
c. average
d. below average
e. among the poorest
6. In order to become a doctor, lawyer, or university

professor, work beyond four years of college is necessary.
How likely do you think it is that you could complete

such advanced work?

very likely
somewhat likely

not sure either way
unlikely

most unlikely

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

7.

8.

10.

98

Forget for a moment how others grade your work. In your
opinion how good do you think your work is?

a. my work is excellent

b. my work is good

c. my work iS average

d. my work is below average

e. my work is much below average

What kind of grades do you think you are capable of
getting?

SD

mostly A's
b. mostly B‘s
c. mostly C‘s
d. mostly D‘s

e. mostly E's

What occupation do you now think you want to enter?

 

What area within this occupation do you want to
Specialize in?

 

PLEASE CHECK YOUR PAPER TO SEE IF YOU HAVE ANSWERED

ALL THE QUESTIONS

99

Cooperative Study of Evaluation in General Education
of the

American Council on Education

A TEST OF CRITICAL THINKING

Form G

Read these directions before beginning the test.

Improvement of your ability to think critically and effec-
tively is one of the aims of general education. This test
is designed to provide a measure of your competence in deal-
ing with a variety of problems, all of which require some
kind of critical thinking. The test does not cover all
aspects of critical thinking, but it does involve several
important types of thinking.

Within the test you will find directions for groups of items.
Read these directions carefully so that, before you answer
an item, you know just what is being asked.

You are expected to complete the test within 50 minutes.
Your score will be the number of items you answer correctly.

You may, in some cases, come across words which are not
familiar to you. If you do, don't worry about it. The un-
familiarity of Such words will not prevent your answering
the items.

Your answers to the items are to be recorded on a separate
answer sheet. Fill in the blank spaces on the side of your
answer Sheet (your name, the date, etc.). For Name of Test,
write Critical Thinking. For Part, write Form G.

 

Mark only the ONE BEST ANSWER 32 each item.

 

22 not make any marks pp this test booklet. Use scratch
paper if necessary.

 

Copyright, 1952, by the American Council on Education

100

Items i through 9 refer to the following story and conclusion:

In a radio broadcast the following story was told: "The

people in a little mining town in Pennsylvania get all their
water without purification from a clear, swift-running moun-
tain stream. In a cabin on the bank of the stream about

half a mile above the town, a worker was very sick with

typhoid fever during the first part of December. During his
illness his waste materials were thrown on the snow. About

the middle of March the snow melted rapidly and ran into the
stream. Approximately two weeks later typhoid fever broke

out in the town. Many of the people became sick and 114 died.”

Conclusion: The Speaker then said that this story showed how
the sickness p£_this man caused wideppread illness and the
death p£ over one hundred people.

 

 

 

 

Items A through 6 are statements which might appear in a
discussion of this conclusion. Assuming that the story as
told was true, mark each statement according to the follow-
ing Scale:

1. The statement argues £2; the conclusion.

2. The statement argues against the conclusion.

3. The statement argues neither for nor against the

conclusion.

1. Typhoid fever organisms have been known to survive for
several months at temperatures near the freezing point.

2. Good doctors should be available when an epidemic hits a
small town.

3. There may have been other sources of contamination along
the stream.

4. Typhoid organisms are usually killed if subjected to
temperatures near the freezing point for a period of
several months.

5. Sickness and death usually result in a great economic
loss to a small town.

6. There may have been other sources of typhoid fever germs

in the town, such as milk or food contaminated by some
other person.

*****

101

Not long ago Dr. Smithson of the Observatory stated at a
public gathering:

IF OXYGEN IS RARE ON MARS, MARS HAS NO ANIMAL LIFE

Some people, who were discussing this statement afterward,
made the comments given in items 1 through lg. Mark each
of these comments according to the following scale:
1. That means just the same thing Smithson said.
2. No! That can't be true if Smithson is right.
3. You can't tell from what Smithson said whether it
is true or not.

7. Oxygen is rare on Mars; Mars has no animal life.

8. Either there isn't any animal life on Mars, or oxygen
is not rare there.

9. If Mars has no animal life, oxygen is rare there.

10. Either there is animal life there, or oxygen is rare
on Mars.

*****

Select the one best answer to the following items (ll-16).

11. A stock breeder plans to ship 50 horses, 50 cows,
50 goats, 50 sheep, and 50 pigs to a new location.
In order to make a fairly accurate estimate of the
total weight of his animals, which of the following
would be most useful to him?

1. The total weight of 50 animals from his stock,
selected at random.

2. The average weight of 50 animals from his stock,
Selected at random.

3. The total weight of one horse, one goat, one cow,
one pig, and one sheep, each selected at random.

4. The combined average weights of 5 pigs, 5 Sheep,
5 goats, 5 horses, and 5 cows, all selected at
random.

5. The average weight of the first 125 animals to
enter the barn.

12.

13.

14.

102

"There are women Eskimos. How do I know? Because
everyone knows some men are not adult Eskimos, and this
means some adult Eskimos are not men. That's how I
know there are women Eskimos." This argument is

1. acceptable reasoning, because the conclusion is true.

2. faulty reasoning, because it is not true that if they
are not men they would have to be women.

3. acceptable reasoning, because "some men are not adult
Eskimos" does mean "some adult Eskimos are not men”
and it is true that if they are not men they would
have to be women.

4. faulty reasoning, because we can believe "some men
are not adult Eskimos” without believing also that
"some adult Eskimos are not men."

5. acceptable reasoning, because the conclusion,
regardless of its truth, certainly follows from the
reasons given.

Suppose it is known that all Russians are required to
vote and that no Bulgarians are Russians. One Should
conclude that

1. it is certain that Bulgarians are required to vote.

2. it is probable but not certain that Bulgarians are
required to vote.

3. it is certain that Bulgarians are not required to
vote.

4. it is probable but not certain that Bulgarians are
not required to vote.

5. the evidence does not justify any conclusion
regarding Bulgarians and requirements that they vote.

Assume that we know it to be true that if diplomatic
relations with Zadonia have been broken, then our
Ambassador to Zadonia will return to the United States.
If we also know that our Ambassador to Zadonia is now
on his way back to the United States, then we

1. can be certain that diplomatic relations with Zadonia
have been broken.
2. can be certain that diplomatic relations with Zadonia

have not been broken.

3. can be sure that there is a high probability that
diplomatic relations with Zadonia have been broken.

4. can be sure that there is a high probability that
diplomatic relations with Zadonia have not been
broken.

5. cannot tell from the given information whether
diplomatic relations with zadonia have or have not
been broken.

103

15. Assume that all great business men began with small
salaries. I am beginning with a small salary, and so
I can conclude

nothing.

that I am not a great business man.

that I shall become a great business man.
that I ought to be a great business man.
that my salary will grow larger.

Ul-bbJNH

16. In Mark Twain‘s Huckleberry Finn, Huck makes this
argument: "Jim said bees wouldn't sting idiots; but
I didn't believe that, because I had tried them lots
of times myself, and they wouldn't sting me.” Which
of the following statements most nearly expresses what
Huck is trying to prove?

 

Bees won’t sting me.

I am an idiot. '

I am not an idiot.

Bees will sting idiots.
Bees will not sting idiots.

Ul-DOJNH

*****

Items i1 through 2; concern definitions of problems. Each
item is a brief description of a situation, followed by five
possible statements of the problem involved. Select from
the five statements the one which

a. faces the problem, and
b. is broadest and most inclusive.

The statement you select need not be the wisest one or the
one you would personally accept. You are to select only on
the basis of whether the statement faces the problem and is
broader and more inclusive than the other statements.

 

 

17. The Kemp family wishes to repaint its living room walls.
Their problem is

1. What color and kind of paint will best fit the
family's use of the room and budget of time and money.

2. What color goes best with the rugs and curtains.

3. How best to time the painting in relation to the
baby's Sleep, Jane's birthday party, and other events
scheduled for the house.

104

What kind of paint -— water or oil base, etc. --
is cheaper in the long run, immediate area covered
and washability and durability all considered.
Whether they Should use wallpaper since it will be
cheaper and more colorful.

18. "Where are you going to settle?” one graduate asked
another. Which of the following responses Shows the
best perception of the problem.

19.

l.
2.

3.

"Albany. That's where my best job offer is."

"We're not going to settle right away. First we‘ll
see a bit of the world and then maybe look for a job."
"Somewhere in the Southwest. We prefer the country
and people, and the wife's asthma isn't so bad there."
"I can make a living anywhere, so we'll probably live
near Washington, D. C. It's interesting to be near
the center of political activities.

"Millie likes the mountains, and I like the seashore;
the best jobs are in the Midwest; so we've decided to
cross that bridge when we come to it.”

A third-year student is considering whether to borrow
money to finish college or to drop out and work before
continuing. Which of the following best reflects his
problem?

1.

"Why not give up getting a degree? With your manual

skills and the wages of skilled labor today, together
with the risks of borrowing, you'd be secure and
save lots of time and expense by starting in now
while the demand is high.”

"I don't know. Does your vocational choice reflect
your best judgment of your interests, abilities,
and needs?"

"What is the real question here? Is it which way
is least expensive? Or is it a choice between
vocations, or draft and marriage versus education,
or the best way to prepare for your vocation, or
some of these against others?"

"It's a bad business getting in debt. What if you
get sick or meet accidental death? Or what if you
want to cut loose and have a big adventure of some
kind?

"The year out would be good preparation for your
vocation, wouldn't it? And with all the advantages
in terms of avoiding debt and worry, I‘d think you
have your answer."

105

20. A number of cases of typhoid fever appeared in widely
Scattered parts of a city. The problem of the City
Board of Health was:

1. To trace the causes of the individual cases to the
same or different sources and to base preventive
steps on the outcome of the investigation.

2. To determine whether each patient had typhoid fever
and to get the doctors‘ records on all typhoid
patients.

3. To find and inoculate the carrier with whom all the
cases could have come in contact.

4. To find a means of investigating the local dairy more
thoroughly.

5. To search for means of transmission other than milk
or water or human carriers, and to take whatever
preventive steps would then Seem wisest.

21. A mechanic is repairing an automobile motor and needs to
remove a bolt which is relatively inaccessible. His
problem is:

1. To get a wrench which will fit the bolt and get it
out with the least work.

2. To remove the part of the motor that is in the way
of a direct simple access to the bolt and then take
the bolt out.

3. To find out why manufacturers make motors with such
inaccessible bolts and to try to get them to remedy
this difficulty.

4. To use a wrench with which he can reach and turn the
bolt without dropping it and without removing other
parts.

5. To use the method which will get the bolt out with
the least time, effort, and risk added to his job.

*****

Items 22 through 3i refer to the following newspaper adver—
tisement:

"Wanna buy a duct? If you‘re planning to install a warm air
hea1ring system, ask your contractor about the advantages of
Blalce Aluminum for duct-work. Many have already found it
SaVEBS money because it‘s easier for workmen to handle, gives
more: long-run satisfaction because it never rusts, never
“Secis painting, is always neat. Aluminum‘s natural insula-
tlotl prevents excessive heat loss; sound is deadened too.
Applfoved for FHA financing."

106

In this advertisement the writer makes a number of claims
for his product. He also takes for granted a number of
ideas about it, about prospective buyers of heating systems,
etc. Mark each of the statements 22 through 2;, according
to this scale:

1. The writer states this, although maybe not in just
these words.

2. The writer does not state this, but he does state
something which shows that he took it for granted.

3. The writer does not state this, nor does it have any
relation to his argument.

4. The writer does not state this, and it would weaken
his argument if he did state it.

22. Installation expense is a significant item in considering
the cost of heating equipment.

23. Some people are thinking of installing warm-air heating
systems.

24. Aluminum ducts cost more than galvanized iron ducts.

25. Brick houses take a different shape of heating duct
than do frame houses.

26. Blake Aluminum ducts do save money for the buyer.

27. Delivery on orders for aluminum products is slow at
present.

28. FHA approval for a building product is an asset.

29. Blake Aluminum ducts may not be the best aluminum ducts
on the market today.

30. A house in which sound is deadened is usually preferred
to a house in which sound is not deadened.

31 Ordinary galvanized ducts don‘t need to be painted

anyway.

*‘k‘k‘k‘k

107

In items 22_through 2g each item gives art of an argument,
followed by five sentences. One of the five sentences
completes the argument in such a way as to justify the
conclusion. Select this 923 sentence in each case.

32. He is very pompous, so I know he will not stand your
criticism.

. Some peOple cannot stand criticism.

Some pompous peOple cannot stand criticism.

Some people who cannot stand criticism are pompous.
All peOple who cannot stand criticism are pompous.
No pompous people can stand criticism.

Ln-D-WNl-i

33. It has been argued that Russia does not want peace
because She is promoting revolutions in other countries.

1. All nations which want peace promote revolutions in
other countries.

2. No nation which wants peace promotes revolutions in
other countries.

3. All nations which do not want peace promote revolu-
tions in other countries.

4. Not all nations which want peace promote revolutions
in other countries.

5. Most nations which want peace do not promote revolu-
tions in other countries.

34. Russelson is not an American. It follows, therefore,
that he is not truly democratic.

Americans are truly democratic.

All Americans are truly democratic.

Only Americans are truly democratic.

Some Americans are truly democratic.

Some non-Americans are not truly democratic.

Ln-bOJNH

*‘k***

In items 35 through 37 each item is an argument which

involves an unstated_Essumption. For each argument, select
fronlthe list the assumption which is left unstated.

Assumptions:

1. Luxuries are never good for you.

2. Some habit-forming things are good for you.

3. Habit-forming things are never good for you.

4. Some things which are good for you are luxuries.
5. Some luxuries are habit-forming.

35.

36.

37.

108

You must agree that some habit—forming things are not
good for you, for you admit some of them are luxuries.

Since luxuries are never good for you, it follows that
some habit-forming things are not luxuries.

Some luxuries are not habit-forming. This is certain

because nothing which is habit-forming is ever good for
you.

*‘k*~k*

Items 38 through 49 form a sequence based on a developing
SituatiOn. In answering an item, consider only the informa-
tion given in it and in the preceding items. DO not consider
information presented in later items. (The correct choice in
one item may appear to be incorrect if you consider informa—
tion presented in later items.)

38

You find yourself stranded late at night in the deserted
waiting room of a Balkonian airport. You are hungry.
You find a large vending machine about which you know
nothing. It has no diSplay windows or pictures, and the
directions are written in the Balkonian language, which
you cannot understand at all. Beside the machine is a
waste basket containing a few discarded food wrappers
and beverage cups. On the front of the machine you find
a coin slot the size Of a Balkonian dollar, a delivery
chute, and a panel of buttons arranged as follows:

6). @ ® 6)
"(DO (3) GD 6)
(Z)

You must depend upon your own ingenuity to operate the
machine.

You insert a Balkonian dollar in the coin slot, 223
nothing happens. On the basis of the little information
you now have about the machine, which of the following
explanations of the machine‘s failure to Operate would
most likely be true? (NOTE: In answering, do not con-
sider information presented in later items.)

29.

40.

109

1. You did not insert the right kind of coin.

2. You must push one or more of the buttons to make
the machine operate.

3. You must push the button marked(:>to make the
machine Operate.

4. The machine is out of order.

5. The machine is empty.

You push the button marked <:) and nothipgrhgppens; then
you push the button and still nothing happens.
Finally you push the <:) button, and the machine promptly
delivers a package of peppermint chewing gum and three
Balkonian quarters. On the basis of the little informa-

 

 

 

 

tion given you up to and including this item (do not
consider later items), which is the most likely explana—
tion of the machine‘s behavior?

1. The machine will not Operate unless the (:> button
is pushed.

2. The machine will not Operate unless the (:> button
is pushed.

3. You must push a numbered button to make the machine
Operate.

4. The order in which the buttons are pushed determines
whether the machine will Operate.

5. The machine contains only chewing gum.

another dollar, push, in order, buttons and

get a package of Elephant cigarettes, but no change. At
this point which of the following is the most likely
explanation of the machine‘ 5 behavior? (NOTE: the
choice you should mark is the one for which you now have
the most evidence; the correct choice here may not prove
to be the true explanation later.)

Since the gum does not satisfy your hunger,<y§u insert

 

l. The numbered buttons determine the type of product
(gum, 0cigarettes, etc. ) delivered.

2. The tton au es change to be returned.

3. Buttons M<f><f> E determine the type of product
deliv red.

4. The button causes change to be returned.

5. The machine contains only gum and cigarettes.

41.

42.

110

You are still hungry. Againé inser a dollar and
push, in order, only buttons and and you get a
package of Lion cigarettes (a oifferen brand) and no

 

change. For which of the following explanations do— you
have the most evidence at this point?

1. The machine contains only cigarettes and gum.

2. The button must be pushe to secure change.

3 Pushing or not pushing the (:5 button determines the
particular brand or flavor 0 product dispensed.

4. The numbered buttons determine the particular brand
or flavor of uc sp nsed.

5. The buttons ®6©C®® determine the particular

brand or flav r of produc diSpensed.

You are ti 1 ungry.. You push, in order, the buttons
marked and you get a package of Wintergreen
chewing gum (a different flavor) and three Balkonian
guarters in change. The evidence now in hand points
most strongly to the theory that

 

 

 

1. different brands or flavors of products are delivered
purely by chance.

2. the numbered buttons determine the brand or flavor of
product delivered.

3. the order in which the buttons are pressed determines
whether or not change is returned.

4. chan is returned only when the button is pushed.

5. the button must be pressed in order to get change.

The results you have obtained so far are summarized below. A
dollar was inserted each time.

Buttons Pushed

 

®
CD

(:> <:) 1 pkg. peppermint gum and 3 quarters

(:) (:) 1 pkg. Elephant cigarettes, but no change

1 pkg. Lion cigarettes, but no change

(9

(:> (:> 1 pkg. Wintergreen chewing gum and 3
quarters

The machine promptly delivers a cup of steaming,

43..<E§i l<:§ngry, you try again. You push, in order, buttons

unswee ened black coffee and two Quarters. On the basis
of this information, the best explanation of the machine's
operation is:

 

44.

45.

46.

l-'

You
not
You
You
You
You

(11wa

111

get change according to the price of the product,

according to
must push the
must push the
must push the
must push the

operate.

You push buttons

no chan

The
You
You
You
You

Ul«b(4~.)[\)li-‘1

the buttons
® button

button
button
button

and <:) and

you push.

to get change.

to get change.

to get coffee.

to make the machine

get a ham sandwich but

 

__ e. Which one of the following explanations is
most likely?

machine contains only one variety of sa dwich.
do not get a sandwich if you push the button.
must buy coffee before you can get a sandwich.

must push the
must push the

C) button

to get a sandwich.

C? ‘button to get a sandwich.

One sandwich is not enough. You try buttons (g)

and get another ham sandwich and one Quarter in c an e.
The evidence you now have points clearly to which of the
following explanations of how change is delivered?

1. Change isoreturned automatically by the machine
according to the price of the product; the buttons
have nothing to do with it.

2. Change is returned accordin
product, but only when the

3. The order in which the buttons are pushed determines

the

change.

to the price of the
button is pushed.

4. You must push one of the odd-numbered buttons to get

change.
5. You must

You have now
Which of the
now on hand,

button?

1. Handkerchiefs

2. Pocket-size books
3. Coffee with cream
4. Candy

5.

A third brand of cigarettes

***‘k‘k

push buttons @ or to get change.

tried all of the lettered buttons except .
following products, according to the evidence
is most likely to be controlled by this

112

Upon entering the Air Force, an enlistee was given a series
of tests in which he was to press the correct keys in suc—
ceeding rows of keys with as few mistakes as possible. When-
ever he pressed the correct key, a buzzer would sound. He
was told that on the first few rows of each test he would
have to proceed mainly by guessing, but that he would be

able to detect a scheme or plan which would indicate which
keys were likely to be correct in the succeeding rows.

 

 

Your problem in items 47 through 52 is to choose correct
keys, as the enlistee had to do. You will be given some of
the information which he had to find by guessing.

 

In his first test, the enlistee was given the following rows
of keys, and he found that the keys in parentheses were the
correct ones in the first three rows.

Row 1. A (B) C

Row 2. A B (C) D E

Row 3. A B C (D) E F G

Row 4. A B C D E F G

Row 5. A B C D E F G H I

Noticing that in each row the middle key was the correct one,
he pressed D in Row 4, but the buzzer did not sound. Then he
noticed that another scheme might account for his results in
the first three rows: that in each succeeding row the cor—
rect key was one step farther from the left end of the row.

Applying this scheme, he pressed E 1n Row 4, but— aga1n h1s
choice was incorrect.

 

 

 

47. There is still another scheme which will explain the
correct keys in the first three rows. According to this
scheme, which key would be correct in Row 4?

Lnbtnm)H
amount»

48. If your choice in Row 4 is correct, then which key should
be pressed in Row 5?

A

MAWNH

C
D
E
I

113

The enlistee's second test included the following five rows,
and he found that the keys in parentheses were correct in
the first three rows.

Row 1 (A) B C

Row 2. A (B) C D B

Row 3. A B (C) D E F G

Row 4 A B C D E F G

Row 5 A B C D E F G H I

He tried 2 in ow 4, but found it incorrect.

 

49. Which of the following keys might be the correct one in
Row 4?

uwbcnugw
mmmw>

50. If your choice in item 49 is correct, which key should
be pressed in Row 5?

Umbcom>H
O

51. Which of the following keys might also be the correct
one in Row 4?

UIbLDRJH
Clmrn63>

52. If your choice in item 51 is correct, which key should be
pressed in Row 5.

ULDCAR)H
CDthC)>

114

SOCIAL QUESTIONS I

This is a section of what people think about a number of
social questions. The best answer to each statement below
is your personal opinion. We have tried to cover many
different points of view. You may find yourself agreeing
strongly with some of the statements, disagreeing just as
strongly with others, and perhaps uncertain about others.
Whether you agree or disagree with any statement, you can
be sure that many other people feel the same way you do.

Mark each statement in the left margin according to how much
you agree or disagree with it. Please mark every one. Write
in +1, -+2, cu'+'3;or -JW -—2, -3,depending on how you feel
in each case.

+'1: I AGREE A LITTLE -.1: I DISAGREE A LITTLE
+2: I AGREE PRETTY MUCH -23: I DISAGREE PRETTY MUCH
4'3: I AGREE VERY MUCH -I3: I DISAGREE VERY MUCH

1. Human nature being what it is, there will always
be war and conflict.

2. Obedience and respect for authority are the most
important virtues children should learn.

3. Generally speaking, Negroes are born with more
musical talent than white people.

4. It is up to the government to make sure that
everyone has a secure job and a good standard of
living.

5. No weakness or difficulty can hold us back if we
have enough will power.

6. Farmers are more self—sufficient than city people.

7. Science has its place, but there are many important
things that can never possibly be understood by
the human mind.

8. Young people sometimes get rebellious ideas, but
as they grow up they ought to get over them and
settle down.

9. City people are less friendly than small—town
people.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

115

The government should own and operate all public
utilities (railroads, gas, electricity, etc.).

Usually it is not feasible for all members of a
group to take an equal interest and share in the
activities of the group.

City people are more radical than country peOple.

Almost any job that can be done by a committee
can be done better by having one individual
reSponsible for it.

Most labor union officials are the sons of
immigrants.

Men like Henry Ford or J. P. Morgan, who over-
came all competition on the road to success, are
models for all young men to admire and imitate.

In case of disagreement within a group the
judgment of the leader should be final.

Most of the Mexicans in Lansing came from poor
farm families in Mexico.

The only way to eliminate poverty is to make
certain basic changes in our political and
economic system.

You can recognize a New Yorker by his aggressive
manner.

The best way to judge any technique for dealing
with other people is in terms of how efficiently
it will get the job done.

What this country needs most, more than laws and
political programs, is a few courageous, tireless,
devoted leaders in whom the peOple put their
faith.

There are often occasions when an individual who
is a part of a working group should do what he
thinks is right regardless of what the group has
decided to do.

Southerners are generally lazy.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

116

In a new tax program it is essential not to
reduce the income taxes on corporations and
wealthy individuals.

In most practical situations, the more experi-
enced members of a group should assume responsi-
bility for the group discussion.

In general, full economic security is bad; most
men wouldn't work if they didn't need money for
eating and living.

Most Midwesterners are isolationists.

Sometimes one can be too open-minded about the
possible solutions to a problem that faces a
group.

There should be some upper limit, such as
$25,000 per year, on how much any individual
can earn.

In a group that really wants to get something
done, the leader should exercise friendly but
firm authority.

The true American way of life is disappearing so
fast that force may be necessary to preserve it.

Discipline should be the responsibility of the
leader of a group.

It is sometimes necessary to use autocratic
methods to obtain democratic objectives.

Most of the present attempts to curb and limit
unions would in the long run do more harm than
good.

It is essential for learning or effective work
that our teachers or bosses outline in detail

what is to be done and exactly how to go about

it.

It is not always practical to try to be consistent

with one's ideals in every day behavior.

The businessman and manufacturer are probably
more important to society than the artist and the
professor.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

117

Fighting to put one's ideals into practice is a
luxury that only a few can afford.

Generally there comes a time when democratic
group methods must be abandoned in order to solve
practical problems.

Some leisure is necessary but it is good hard
work that makes life interesting and worthwhile.

In a democratic group, regardless of how one
feels, he should not withdraw his support from
the group.

When you come right down to it, it's human nature
never to do anything without an eye to one's own
profit.

Sometimes it is necessary to ignore the views of
a few peOple in order to reach a decision in a
group.

I would like to see a child of mine go into
politics.

Generally speaking, the less government we have
the better off we will be.

When a person has a problem or worry, it is best
for him not to think about it, but to keep busy
with more cheerful things.

47.

48.

49.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

58.

118

SOCIAL QUESTIONS II

The general public is not really
qualified to vote on today‘s
complex issues . . . . . . .

Only trained and competent people
should be permitted to run for
public office. . . . . . . .

People of different races should not
dance together . . . . . . . . .

Most peOple cannot be trusted . .

Allowing just anyone—-including
uneducated people--to serve on a
jury is a poor idea . . . . . . . .

Swimming pools should admit people of
all races and nationalities to swim
in the same pool . . . . . . . . .

Since 1890 peOple's ideas of morality
have changed a lot, but there are
still some absolute guides to
conduct. . . . . . . . . . .

Decisions to protect the government
may have to be made even at the
expense of one person. . . . . . .

People who talk politics without
knowing what they are talking about
should be kept quiet . . . . . . .

There should be laws against marriage
between persons of different races

Nobody cares whether you vote or not
except the politicians . . . . . .

Unrestricted freedom of Speech leads
to mass confusion. . . . . . . . .

Agree

Disagree

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68,

69.

70.

119

Agree .Disagree

 

Pressure groups are useful and
important features of representa-
tive government. . . . . . . . . . . . A D

Hotels are right in refusing to admit
people of certain races or national—
ities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A D

Sending letters to Congressmen has
little influence upon legislation. . . A D

Nobody cares whether you attend
church or not except the clergy. . . . A D

If a person is uncertain how to vote,
it is better if he does not vote . . . A D

Whether a democracy or a dictatorship,
every nation has a right to its own
kind of government . . . . . . . . . . A D

Pupils of all races and nationalities
should attend School together every-
where in this country. . . . . . . . . A D

People talk a lot about being decent

to Negroes and other minority groups,

but when it comes right down to it

most people don't really care how

you treat these groups . . . . . . . . A D

In passing laws about issues like

price controls and taxation, Congress

should pay more attention to what the

experts say than to what the public

says, when they differ . . . . . . . . A D

The average citizen is justified in
remaining apart from dirty politics
that may exist in his community. . . . A D

Democracy depends fundamentally on
the existence of free business
enterprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A D

Cheating on income tax is nobody‘s
business but the government's. . . . . A D

?

71.

72.

73.

74.

75.

76:

77.

78.

79.

80.

120

Agree Disagree

 

Whatever serves the interest of the
government best is generally right . . A D

What really made Dr. Salk work so

hard on the polio vaccine was the

thought of the money or fame he

would get . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A D

Certain groups should not be allowed

to hold public meetings even though

they gather peaceably and only make

Speeches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A D

A person who wants to make a Speech
in my community against churches and
religion should be allowed to Speak. . A D

Dr. Salk made his name with his dis—

covery of the polio vaccine and the

hope of publicity was what really

led him to experiment in the first

place. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A D

In some criminal cases, a trial by
jury is an unnecessary expense and
shouldn't be given . . . . . . . . . . A D

Persons who refuse to testify against

themselves (that is, give evidence

that would Show that they are guilty

of criminal acts) Should either be

made to talk or severely punished. . . A D

Some of the petitions which have been
circulated Should not be allowed by
the government . . . . . . . . . . . . A D

Slum housing is the cause of most
juvenile delinquency . . . . . . . . . A D

In some cases, the police Should be

allowed to Search a person or his

home even though they do not have a

warrant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A D

?

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

91.

121

A book favoring government owner-
ship of all the railroads and big
industries should be removed from
the public library if someone in
the community suggests this.

Lack of education is the cause of
most race prejudice. . . . . . . . .

NeWSpapers and magazines should be
allowed to print anything they want
except military secrets. . . . . .

Biased news coverage is mainly due to
the pressures of advertisers . .

If a person is accused of a crime he
should always have the right to know
who is accusing him. . .

I would stop buying the soap adver-
tised on a radio program which had

an admitted Communist as the singer,
if someone suggested this to me. . .

An admitted Communist should be put
in jail. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Popular taste would be raised
tremendously if the producers of
radio and television had some
decent programming . .

In some criminal cases, a trial by
jury is an unnecessary expense and
shouldn't be given . . . . . . .

A book against churches and religion
should be removed from the public
library if someone in the community
suggests this. . . . . . . . . . .

Class distinctions would disappear if
economic opportunities were made more
equal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Agree

Disagree

?

92.

93.

94.

122

Agree Disagree

A community-wide mass media (radio,

TV, neWSpaper) campaign could really

sell the public on the goals of the

UN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A D

A person who wants to make a Speech

in my community favoring government

ownership of the railroads and big

industries Should be allowed to

Speak. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A D

The right of some working groups to

call a strike should be abolished,

as it is a threat to democracy and

not in the general interest of

society. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A D

bu

123

INDIVIDUAL POLITICAL POTENCY TEST

In general, do you think that the individual citizen can do a
great deal, only a moderate amount, or hardly anything at all
about the following matters?

A great A moderate Hardly
deal amount anything

95. Prevention of war

96. Reduction of corruption in
national government .

97. Reduction of corruption in
local government

98. Improvement of housing.
99. Improvement of race
relations . . . . . .

GROUP POLITICAL POTENCY TEST

How about groups of people or clubs? Can they do a great deal,
only a moderate amount, or hardly anything at all about these
matters?

A great A moderate Hardly

deal amount anything

100. Prevention of war
101. Reduction of corruption in

national government . .
102. Reduction of corruption in

local government . . . .
103. Improvement of housing.
104. Improvement of race

relations

124

ETHNOCENTRIC IMAGE OF DEMOCRACY TEST

In some democracies there are certain customs or laws which you
personally might or might not regard as democratic. Look over
the following list and check whether each practice appears thor—
oughly democratic, somewhat undemocratic but tolerable in a de-
mocracy, or thoroughly undemocratic in your personal opinion:
THIS PRACTICE SEEMS TO ME

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105. In Australia, every citizen is required
by law to vote . . . . . . . . . . .

106. Until recently, in Sweden, most babies
were automatically registered as members
of the Lutheran church, the state
religion . . . . . . .

107. Until recently, in Sweden, the amount of
alcohol that a person could buy each
month was regulated by law . . . .

108. In France you must pay for a license in
order to have a radio set in your home

109. In the United States all children must
be vaccinated against smallpox

110. In Great Britain, under the law, doctors
no longer collect their fees from
patients but bill the government . .

111. In Norway, any Jesuit is prohibited by
law from entering the country. . .

112. In Japan, all school children wear
uniforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
113. In the United States, one may legally
have only one husband or wife at a
time . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.
ll.
l2.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

125

True or False
Information Test A

 

One of the basic problems in economics is deciding what
to produce, for man's wants are greater than the re-
sources to provide them.

Some people say that the population eXplosion has hindered
economic development in many countries.

Working conditions in factories have improved little since
the beginning of the 20th century.

The American Federation of Labor is a trade union.

Economics is the study of production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services.

Intrastate commerce is trade between states.
Wildcat strikes are usually approved by union officials.

The condition of your hair is part of your physical
personality.

Your family background has had some effect on your
personality.

Health is a factor in your physical personality.
Self-confidence is a common enemy of your personality.
A common enemy of your personality is interest in others.

You received a grade on the way you performed on the
standardized tests.

One goal of the standardized testing program is to select
one job for you for the rest of your life.

It is easier to develop aptitudes than interests.

It is not necessary to have a Social Security card to get
a job until you pass the age of sixteen.

Your attitude has a great deal to do with the Success of
your job interview.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

126

Today in the United States we have an abundance of part—
time employment for young people in the age group fifteen
to eighteen.

All students must take subjects within one of four courses
of study offered in Lansing Schools.

The four courses of study in the Lansing Schools are:
College Preparatory, Business Education, Industrial, and
General Academic.

Aptitude tells you how much you have learned in a given
field.

The school day at the senior high school consists of
eight periods.

Personality is inherited.

When going for a job interview, call the employer by his
first name, be sure to dress neatly, and be polite.

Some subjects require prerequisite courses.

10.

11.

12.

13.
14.

15.

16.

127

True or False
Information Test B

 

A voter in the City of Lansing need not be a citizen of
the United States.

A voter in the City of Lansing must have lived in Lansing
for six months.

A voter in the City of Lansing must be registered before
he can vote.

There are council-at-large positions in Lansing.

To run as a ward councilman, you must live in the ward
in which you run.

To be a candidate for mayor in Lansing you must be at
least 45 years old.

The mayor acts as the legislative branch of our city
government.

The city-council normally holds its meetings on Wednesday
night.

The Australian Ballot is used only in England and her
colonies.

There are fifteen council positions in Lansing.

The councilmen represent the executive branch of govern-
ment in the City of Lansing.

The executive branch of government in Lansing is repre-
sented by the municipal judges.

Lansing has recently elected a new mayor.
One must pay a poll tax to vote in Lansing.

Lansing has no pressure groups which try to influence
city government.

The three branches of government are executive, legisla-
tive, and judiciary.

17.

18.
19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

128

A voter in Lansing must have his registration form on
file with the city clerk.

Lansing is well-known as a shipping and port city.
Lansing is well—known as a manufacturing city.

Most people in Lansing are more interested in city
politics than federal politics.

The policies of the Lansing Public Schools are formed
by the school principals.

Lansing uses an open primary election.

Vice Presidents are elected in an open election by people
throughout the United States.

The township level of government is becoming less
important.

Lansing Township has grown a great deal in land area
in the last few years.

129

True or False
Information Test C

 

Directions: In the Space mark A if the sentence is more

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

true than false and if the sentence is more
false than true mark B.

Social studies includes only the study of history.

A concept classifies things according to what those
things have in common.

Social science is concerned with asking and finding out
why people do what they do.

It is easier to understand a culture if you use a small,
less complex group of people to study.

Every society is marked off into different kinds of
statuses or positions.

In our society there are some persons who have no role
to play.

Children need other people in growing up to develop
qualities that we distinguish as human.

All of us live our lives within groups from the moment
we are born to the moment we die.

The family is the most important group for passing on
the culture.

We know that there is more than one way of being human.

Some societies do not distinguish between high and low
status. .

Statuses and roles help us to live with other people
because we understand what our relations to others will
be.

To understand a role you need to know what is expected
of you.

It is unnecessary to concern yourself with the norm of
a role.

15.

16.

17.
18.
19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

130

All of culture is learned.

More of the culture is learned in the family than at
School.

Groups and process of communication are interdependent.
Jazz music tells us a folk story.
We tend to see only those things we have words for.

Some things can be both a Sign and a symbol at the
same time.

Folk music is highly theoretical and hard to understand.

Because we have more words to describe "car" than the
Hopi's do, we must be more intelligent.

The ability to realize how old you are shows that
language reflects age.

The music of India and Japan does not sound as good as
our music because our music is better developed.

Because we believe strongly in monagamy in our culture
we have laws covering bigamy.

In cultures having clans, it is found that the clan
members are very close to each other and interact with
fellow clan members regularly.

All societies recognize divorce, but no society approves
of it.

The term "brother” or ”sister” in our culture may mean
something quite different in another culture.

The family group is made up of many roles and statuses
and helps us to learn how to live with other peOple.

The socialization process does not begin until the child
goes to school.

Man is distinguished as a human being because he can use
Signs.

Man is distinguished as a human being because he has
grasping abilities with his hands.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.
44.
45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

131

Man is distinguished as a human being because he walks
in an upright position.

Man is distinguished as a human being because of his
ability to communicate in a highly sophisticated manner.

Helen Keller has given man knowledge about the communi-
cation process.

All people have the same kind of art.

To say that art is universal means that all people
search for beauty.

All men are like all other men in some respects.

It is the nature of a group to distinguish itself from
non-members.

The concept culture may be defined as the total way of
life of a group of people.

Ethnocentrism may apply to a small group of people or a
nation.

People who try to keep Orientals from entering the
United States are not usually ethnocentric.

Ethnocentrism may be revealed in art.
Drums may be used as a method of communication.
Language does not reflect culture.

One can predict behavior in the physical sciences but
cannot do so in the social sciences.

Man can communicate in silent ways.

Your self-concept is determined to a large extent by
what you think other peOple think about you.

Concepts are used to classify objects, experiences,
attitudes, and ideas.

Anthropologists and archaeologists study the history of
people.

Instr

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132

QUESTIONNAIRE - NINTH GRADE SOCIAL STUDIES

Instructions: Fill out the questionnaire by checking the
appropriate box. This questionnaire will not
be seen by your teacher or teachers. Do not
Sign your name to the questionnaire.

 

1. Do you feel that filling out the pupil profile sheet was

[:3 [:1

boring interesting

2. Do you feel that filling out the pupil profile sheet was

[:1 [:l

of value to you not of value to you

3. Is your textbook, Citizenship in Action,

[:1 [:1 [I]

too difficult too eaSy about right
to read to read to read

 

4. Is your textbook, Citizenship in Action,

 

[:3 [:1

interesting boring

5. Is your textbook, Citizenship in Action,

 

[:1 1:!

up to date out of date

6.

133

IS this course

E: C: [:1

not at all not interesting very
interesting interesting

7.

10.

CI]

interesting

Do you think that in the future this course will be

[:3 1:]

not useful useful

Do you feel that this course has
intellectual discipline?

[:1 :1

yes no

Do you feel that this course has

CI] [:1

interesting boring

What activities this semester in
were most helpful to you.

[:3

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given you good

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APPENDIX B

SCORING PROCEDURES

137

Michigan State University

Critical Thinking Test

There are five alternatives for each question, and only one

alternative may be checked. Tests were machine graded.

'The resulting sum ran from a theoretical low of 0 (lowest
number of correct answers) to a theoretical high of 52

(highest number of correct answers).

138

Occupational Aspiration Scale

All eight questions are scored the same. There are ten
alternatives for each question, and only one alternative may

be checked. The scores for each alternative are as follows:

Alternative Score
1 7
2 4
3 8
4 2
5 9
6 0
7 6
8 3
9 5

10 l

The total score is the sum of the scores for each of the
eight questions. T-scores ran from a theoretical low of 20
(lowest occupational aspiration) to 80 (highest occupational

aspiration).
Normalized Data for O.A.S. Raw Scores

The normalized data for the O.A.S. scores were computed by
the method given by Edwards.* The data entitled ”observed Z”
represents equivalent scores having a mean of zero and a
starudard deviation of 1.0. However, the form of the "ob-

serwJed 2" distribution is the same as that for the raw Scores.

 

_ *A. L. Edwards, Statistical Methods for the Behavioral
5C1€fh3§§ (New York: Rinehart and Company, Inc., 1954).

139

The cumulative frequencies below a given raw score plus one-
half of the frequencies of that score were converted to
cumulative percentages (or proportions of total N). These
cumulative percentages were used to find the 2 score value
corresponding to the point in a theoretical normal distribu—
tion by referring to a table of the unit normal curve. These
normalized 2 scores also have a mean of zero and a way as to
normalize the distribution. Also, the cumulative percentages
were converted to equivalent T-scores by means of a table of
T—scores. Essentially, a T—score equals a normal Z score
multiplied by 10 and the product added to 50. Hence, the
T-Scores have a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.0.
fitandard scores enable us to compare measurements from vari—
ous distributions of comparable form since we have reduced

the measurements of each distribution to a common scale.

Raw Scores: Mean = 36.2
S.D. = 12.99

N = 441
T—Scores: Mean = 50.0
S.D. = 10.0

140

CONVERSION SCALE FOR OCCUPATIONAL ASPIRATION TEST
-Raw Scores To T-Scores-

 

 

 

Observed Normal
score f 2 cf cp Z T-Scores

(l) 2 1 —2.63 0.5 .0011 -3.07 20

(2) 10 2 —2.02 2.0 .0045 -2.61 23

(3) 13 3 -1.79 4.5 .0102 -2.32 27

(4) l4 2 —1.71 7.0 .0159 -2.15 28
(5) l6 6 -1.56 11.0 .0250 -l.96 30

(6) l7 8 -l.48 18.0 .0409 -l.74 33

(7) 18 3 —1.40 23.5 .0533 -l.61 34

(8) 19 7 -1.32 28.5 .0647 -1.52 35
(9) 20 8 -l.25 36.0 .0817 -1.39 36
(10) 21 11 -1.17 45.5 .1033 -1.26 38
(11) 22 8 -1.09 55.0 .1248 -1.15 38
(12) 23 15 -1.02 66.5 .1510 -l.03 40
(13) 24 12 —0.94 80.0 .1816 -0.91 41
(14) 25 12 —0.86 92.0 .2088 -0.81 42
(15) 26 10 ~0.78 103.0 .2338 ~0.73 43
(16) 27 15 -0.71 115.5 .2622 -0.64 44
(17) 28 13 -0.63 129.5 .2940 -0.54 45
(18) 29 22 -0.55 147.0 .3337 -0.43 46
(19) 30 17 -0.48 166.5 .3780 -0.31 47
(20) 31 13 —0.40 181.5 .4120 -0.22 48
(21) 32 10 —0.32 193.0 .4381 —0.16 48
(22) 33 8 -0.25 202.0 .4585 -0.10 49
(23) 34 11 -0.17 211.5 .4801 —0.05 50
(24) 35 16 -0.09 225.0 .5108 0.03 50
(25) 36 8 -0.02 237.0 .5380 0.10 51
(26) 37 12 0.06 247.0 .5607 0.15 52
(27)' 38 8 0.14 257.0 .5834 0.21 52
(28) 39 9 0.22 265.5 .6027 0.26 53
(29) 40 13 0.29 276.5 .6276 0.33 53
(30) 41 10 0.37 288.0 .6538 0.40 54
(31) 42 8 0.45 297.0 .6742 0.45 55
(32) 43 9 0.52 305.5 .6935 0.51 55
(33) 44 13 0.60 316.5 .7184 0.58 56
(34) 45 5 0.68 325.5 .7389 0.64 56
(35) 46 7 0.75 331.5 .7525 0.68 57
(36) 47 9 0.83 339.5 .7707 0.74 57
(37) 48 10 0.91 349.5 .7934 0.82 58
(38) 49 8 0.99 358.0 .8127 0.89 59
(39) 50 4 1.06 364.0 .8263 0.94 59
(40) 51 11 1.14 371.5 .8433 1.01 60

 

. . x \I\1¢.‘1\(Il|\lll\(lnl\

141

 

 

 

Raw Observed Normal

score f 2 cf cp Z T-scores
(41) 52 9 1.22 381.5 .8660 1.11 61
(42) 53 4 1.29 388.0 .8808 1.18 62
(43) 54 5 1.37 392.5 .8910 1.23 62
(44) 55 5 1.45 397.5 .9023 1.29 63
(45) 56 8 1.52 404.0 .9171 1.39 64
(46) 57 9 1.60 412.5 .9364 1.53 65
(47) 58 4 1.68 419.0 .9511 1.66 67
(48) 59 3 1.76 422.5 .9591 1.74 67
(49) 60 7 1.83 427.5 .9704 1.89 69
(50) 61 5 1.91 433.5 .9840 2.15 71
(51) 62 1 1.99 436.5 .9908 2.36 74
(52) 63 1 2.06 437.5 .9931 2.46 75
(53) 64 2 2.14 439.0 .9965 2.70 78
(54) 65 1 2.22 440.5 .9999 3.70 80

142

Self-Concept Scale

 

All eight questions are scored the same. There are five
alternatives for each question, and only one alternative
may be checked. The scores for each alternative are as
follows:

Alternative Score

Ul-bbJNI-i
l-‘Nbl-D-Ul

The total score is the sum of the scores for each of the
eight questions. Scores run from a theoretical low of 8
(lowest Self-concept level) to a theoretical high of 40

(highest self-concept level).
Authoritarianism Score

This Score is the Sum of the scores of the eleven items
below. Subjects responded to these items on a 6—point scale
as follows:

4-1: I Agree A Little -.1: I Disagree A Little

-+2: I Agree Pretty.Muoh -2: I Disagree Pretty Much

1'3: I Agree Very Much -Z3: I Disagree Very Much
The Sign of the response to the starred item (*) was reversed.
The number 4 was then added to each response to avoid nega-
tive values. (Occasional unanswered items were scored as 4.)
Whenever the reSpondent had written in two numbers, the first

was used. When large blocks of questions had been left un-

answered, the score was calledlflf(unascertainable).

143

The resulting sum ran from a theoretical low of 11
(least authoritarian) to a theoretical high of 77 (most

authoritarian).

Human nature being what it is, there will always be war and
conflict

Obedience and respect for authority are the most important
virtues children should learn.

No weakness or difficulty can hold us back if we have enough
will power.

Science has its place, but there are many important things
that can never possibly be understood by the human mind.

Young people sometimes get rebellious ideas, but as they
grow up they ought to get over them and settle down.

What this country needs most, more than laws and political
programs, is a few courageous, tireless, devoted leaders
in whom the people can put their faith.

It is essential for learning or effective work that our
teachers or bosses outline in detail what is to be done
and exactly how to go about it.

Some leisure is necessary, but it is good, hard work that
makes life interesting and worthwhile.

When you come right down to it, it's human nature never to
do anything without an eye to one‘s own profit.

*Generally speaking, the less government we have the better
off we will be.

When a person has a problem or worry, it is best for him
not to think about it, but to keep busy with more cheer-
ful things.

144

Democracy Score

This score is the sum of the scores of the fifteen items
below. The response categories and the scoring are identical
to those described for the authoritarianism score. The Sign
of the reSponse to the starred item (*) was reversed.
Here the resulting sum ran from a theoretical low of
15 (most democratic) to a theoretical high of 105 (least
democratic).
Usually it is not feasible for all members of a group to take
an equal interest and share in the activities of the
group.

Almost any job that can be done by a committee can be done
better by having one individual responsible for it.

In case of disagreement within a group the judgment of the
leader should be final.

The best criterion for judging any technique for dealing with
other people is in terms of how efficiently it will get
the job done.

There are often occasions when an individual who is part of
a working group should do what he thinks is right regard-
less of what the group has decided to do.

In most practical situations, the more experienced members of
a group Should assume reSponsibility for the group
discussion.

Sometimes one can be too open-minded about the possible solu—
tions to a problem that faces a group.

In a group that really wants to get something done, the
leader should exercise friendly but firm authority.

IDiscipline should be the responsibility of the leader of a
group.

145

It is sometimes necessary to use autocratic methods to
obtain democratic objectives.

It is not always feasible to try to be consistent with one's
ideals in everyday behavior.

Fighting to put one‘s ideals into practice is a luxury that
only a few can afford.

Generally there comes a time when democratic group methods
must be abandoned in order to solve practical problems.

*In a democratic group regardless of how one feels, he should
not withdraw his support from the group.

Sometimes it is necessary to ignore the views of a few
people in order to reach a decision in a group.

Political-Economic Conservatism Score

This score is the sum of the scores of the ten items below.
The reSponse categories and scoring are identical to those
described for the authoritarianism score. The signs of
responses to the starred item (*) were reversed.
The resulting sum ran from a theoretical low of 10
(least conservative) to a theoretical high of 70 (most con-
servative).
*It is up to the government to make sure that everyone has a
secure job and a good standard of living.

*The government Should own and operate all public utilities
(railroad, gas, electricity, etc.).

Men like Henry Ford or J. P. Morgan, who overcame all compe—
tition on the road to success, are models for all young
men to admire and imitate.

*The only way to eliminate poverty is to make certain basic
changes in our political and economic system.

*In a

In g

*The

The

*M05

The

Th
Th

06

146

*In a new tax program it is essential not to reduce the income
taxes on corporations and wealthy individuals.

In general, full economic security is bad; most men wouldn't
work if they didn't need money for eating and living.

*There Should be some upper limit, such as $25,000 per year,
on how much any individual can earn.

The true American way of life is disappearing so fast that
force may be necessary to preserve it.

*Most of the present attempts to curb and limit unions would
in the long run do more harm than good.

The businessman and the manufacturer are probably more
important to society than the artist and the professor.

Stereotypy Score

This score is the sum of the scores of the nine items below.
The reSponse categories and scoring are identical to those
described for the authoritarianism score.
The resulting sum ran from a theoretical low of 9

(least use of stereotype) to a theoretical high of 63 (great-
est use of stereotype).
Generally speaking, Negroes are born with more musical talent

than white people.
Farmers are more self-sufficient than city people.
City people are less friendly than small-town people.
City people are more radical than country people.
Most labor union officials are the sons of immigrants.

Most of the Puerto Ricans in New York City came from poor
farm families on the island.

147

You can recognize a New Yorker by his aggressive manner.
Southerners are generally lazy.

Most Midwesterners are isolationists.

SOCIALgQUESTIONS 11:

 

Constitution Score

The score is the sum of weights assigned as indicated to
responses to the seven items below. When large blocks of
questions were left unanswered, the score was called Y
(unascertainable). A score of 10 or higher was called X.
The resulting sum ran from a theoretical low of 0
(pro-Constitution) to a theoretical high of 14 (anti-Consti-

tution).
No
Agree Disagree ? answer

The general public is not rally
qualified to vote on today's
complex issues. . . . . . . . . 2 0 l l

Allowing just anyone-~inc1uding
uneducated people-~to serve on
a jury is a poor idea . . . . . 2 0 1 1

Decisions to protect the govern—
ment may have to be made even
at the expense of one person. . 2 0 l l

Unrestricted freedom of Speech
leads to mass hysteria. . . . . 2 0 l 1

In passing laws about issues like
price controls and taxation,
Congress Should pay more atten-
tion to what the experts say
than to what the public says
when they differ. . . . . . . . 2 0 l l

148

Agree Disagree

Democracy depends fundamentally
on the existence of free
business enterprise . . . . . 2 0

Whatever serves the interest of

the government best is
generally right . . . . . . . 2 0

Civil Rights Score

?

No
answer

This score is the sum of weights assigned as indicated to

reSponses to the five items below. When large blocks of

questions were left unanswered, the score was called Y

(unascertainable). A score of 10 was called X.

The resulting score ran from a theoretical low of 0

(least discriminatory) to a theoretical high of 10 (most

discriminatory).
Agree Disagree

People of different races Should
not dance together. . . . . . . 2 0

Swimming pools Should admit people
of all races and nationalities
to swim in the same pool. . . . 0 2

There should be laws against mar-
riage between persons of dif-
ferent races. . . . . . . . . . 2 0

Hotels are right to refuse to
admit people of certain races
or nationalities. . . . . . . . 2 0

Pupils of all races and national-
ities should attend school to-
gether everywhere in this
country . . . . . . . . . . . . 0 2

?

No
answer

149

Action—Apathy Score

This score is the sum of weights assigned as indicated to
reSponses to the items below.

The resulting score ran from a theoretical low of 0
(least apathetic) to a theoretical high of 10 (most apathetic).

No
Agree Disagree ? answer

Sending letters to congressmen
has little influence on
legislation. . . . . . . . . . 2 0 1 1

If a person is uncertain how to
vote, it is better if he does
not vote . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 1 l

The average citizen is justified

in remaining aloff from dirty

politics that may exist in

his community. . . . . . . . . 2 0 l 1
Pressure groups are useful and

important features of

representative government. . . 2 0 l 1
Whether a democracy or a dictator-

ship, every nation has a

right to its own kind of
government . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 l 1

Anomie Score

This score is the sum of weights assigned as indicated to
responses to the eight items below. When large blocks of
questions were left unanswered, the score was called Y

- (unascertainable). A score of 10 or higher was called X.

150

The resulting score ran from a theoretical low of 0
(least anomie) to a theoretical high of 16 (most anomie).

No
Agree Disagree ? answer

Most people cannot be trusted. . . 2 0 1 1

Since 1890 peOple's ideas of
morality have changed a lot,
but there are still some .
absolute guides to conduct . . 0 2 l l

Nobody cares whether you vote or
not except the politicians . . 2 0 l l

Nobody cares whether you attend
church or not except the
clergy . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 l 1

People talk a lot about being
decent to Negroes and other
minority groups, but when it
comes right down to it, most
people don't really care how
you treat these groups . . . . 2 0 1 l

Cheating on income taxes is no-
body‘s business but the
government's . . . . . . . . . 2 0 1 1

What really made Dr. Salk work so
hard on the polio vaccine was
the thought of the money or
fame he would get. . . . . . . 2 0 1 l

Kinsey made his name with his
report on sexual behavior, and
the hope of publicity was what
really led him to study sex in
the first place. . . . . . . . 2 0 l l

151

Civil Liberties ”A”

This score is the sum of weights assigned as indicated to

responses to the six items below.

tions were left unanswered, the score was called Y.

of 10 or higher was called X.

When large blocks of ques—

A score

The resulting score ran from a theoretical low of 0

(most libertarian) to a theoretical high of 12 (least liber-

tarian).

Only trained and competent peOple
should be permitted to run
for public office. . . . .

People who talk politics without
knowing what they are talking
about should be kept quiet .

Certain groups should not be
allowed to hold public meet-
ings even though they gather
peaceably and only make
Speeches . . . . .

In some criminal cases, a trial by
jury is an unnecessary expense
and shouldn't be given

Persons who refuse to testify
against themselves (that is,
give evidence that would Show
that they are guilty of crim-
inal acts) should either be
made to talk or be severely
punished . . .

VSome of the petitions which have
been circulated Should not
be allowed by the government

Disagree

?

No
answer

152

Civil Liberties "B"

Score

This score is the sum of weights assigned as indicated to

responses to the five items below.

questions were left unanswered, the score was called Y.

A score of 10 was called X.

When large blocks of

The resulting score ran from a theoretical low of 0

(most libertarian) to a theoretical high of 10 (least lib-

ertarian).

In some cases the police should

be allowed to Search a per—
son or his home even though
they do not have a warrant.

NeWSpapers and magazines should

be allowed to print any—
thing they want except
military secrets.

If a person is accused of a crime

he should always have the
right to know who is accus-
ing him . . . . . . . . .

In some criminal cases, a trial

The

by jury is an unnecessary
expense and Shouldn‘t be
given . . . . . . .

right of some working groups
to call a strike should be
abolished, as it is a threat
to democracy and not in the
general interest of society

Agree

Disagree

?

No
answer

153

Absolutism Score

This score is the sum of weights assigned as indicated to

responses to the six items below.

questions were left unanswered, the score was called Y.

score of 10 or higher was called X.

When large blocks of

A

The resulting score ran from a theoretical low of 0

(least absolutistic) to a theoretical high of 12 (most abso-

lutistic).

Slum housing is the cause of
most juvenile delinquency.

Lack of education is the cause
of most race prejudice .

Biased news coverage is mainly due
to the pressure of adver-
tisers O O O C C C O C 0

Popular taste would be raised
tremendously if the pro—
ducers of radio and tele-
vision had some decent
programming. . . . . .

Class distinctions would dis-
appear if economic opportuni-
ties were made more equal. . .

A community-wide mass-media cam-
paign could really sell the
public on the goals of the
UN . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Disagree

?

No
answer

154

Tolerance Scale

To obtain this score, weights were assigned as indicated to

responses to the six items below. Their sums were trans-

formed as follows:

15, 14, 11, 10 . . .
l3,12,9,8.
7,6,5,3,2

4,1

0

Lil-humid

If there were more than three ”no” answers, responses

were scored anyway and double-punched with X. If there was

no answer to the entire scale, the score was called Y.

A

final score of 1 indicated greatest tolerance, and of 5,

least tolerance

Agree Disagree

A person who wants to make a
speech in my community against
churches and religion should
be allowed to speak . . . . . l 0

A book favoring government owner-
ship of all the railroads and
big industries should be re-
moved from the public library
if someone in the community
suggests this. . . . . . . . . 0 4

I would stop buying the soap
advertised on a radio program
that had an admitted Communist
as the singer if someone sug-
gested this to me. . . . . . . 0 4

An admitted Communist should be
put in jail. . . . . . . . . . 0 1

?

No
answer

155
No
Agree Disagree ? answer
A book against churches and
religion should be removed
from the public library if
someone in the community
suggests this. . . . . . . . 0 1 0 0
A person who wants to make a
Speech in my community favor-
ing government ownership of
the railroads and big indus-

tries should be allowed to
Speak. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 0 0 0

Individual Political Potency Score

This score is the sum of weights assigned to responses to
the question below. The answer "A great deal" is given the
weight of 2, ”A moderate amount” is weighted as 1, and
"Hardly anything" as O.

The resulting sum ran from a theoretical low of 0
(minimum potency) to a theoretical high of 10 (maximum
potency).

If the whole question was omitted, the score was not
computed. Unanswered parts of the question were scored 0.
In general, do you think that the individual citizen can do
a great deal, only a moderate amount, or hardly anything at
all about the following matters?

A great A mod. Hardly
deal amount anything

Prevention of war . . . . . . . . . 2 1 0

.Reduction of corruption in nation-
al government . . . . . . . . . 2 1 0

156

A great A mod. Hardly

deal amount anything
Reduction of corruption in local
government . . . . . . . . . . 2 l 0
Improvement of housing . . . . . . 2 l 0
Improvement of race relations. . . 2 1 0

Group Political Potency Score

This score is the sum of weights assigned to responses to
the question below. The answer “A great deal" is given the
weight of 2, "A moderate amount" is weighted as l, and
"Hardly anything" as 0.

The resulting sum ran from a theoretical low of 0
(minimum potency) to a theoretical high of 10 (maximum
potency).

If the whole question was omitted, the score was not
computed. Unanswered parts of the question were scored 0.
How about groups of people, or clubs? Can they do a great
deal, only a moderate amount, or hardly anything at all

about these matters?

A great A mod. Hardly

deal amount anything
Prevention of war. . . . . . . . . 2 l 0
Reduction of corruption in
national government. . . . . . 2 1 0
Reduction of corruption in
local government . . . . . . . 2 1 0
Improvement of housing . . . . . . 2 l 0

Improvement of race relations. . . 2 l 0

157

Ethnocentric Image of Democracy Score

This score is the sum of the weights assigned to responses
to the question below.

The resulting sum ran from a theoretical low of 0
(least ethnocentric) to a theoretical high of 9 (most ethno-
centric).

If the whole question was omitted, the score was not

computed.

In some democracies there are certain customs or laws which
you personally might or might not regard as democratic. Look
over the following list and check whether each practice ap-
pears thoroughly democratic, somewhat undemocratic but toler-
able in a democracy, or thoroughly undemocratic but tolerable
in a democracy, or thoroughly undemocratic in your personal
opinion:
This practice seems to me
Thor. Undem.but Thor.
Dem. tolerable Undem.

In Australia, every citizen is
required by law to vote. . . . 0 0 1

Until recently, in Sweden, most
babies were automatically
registered as members of the
Lutheran Church, the state
religion. . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 1

Until recently, in Sweden, the
amount of alcohol that a per-
son could buy each month was
regulated by law. . . . . . . . 0 0 1

In France, you must pay for a
license in order to have a
radio set in your home. . . . . 0 0 l

IIn the United States, all children
must be vaccinated against
smallpox. . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 l

158

This practice seems to me
Thor . Undem . but Thor .
Dem. tolerable Undem.

In Great Britain, under the law,
doctors no longer collect
their fees from patients but
bill the government. . . . . . 0 0 1

In Norway, any Jesuit is prohib-
ited by law from entering the
country. . . . . . . . . . . . 0 0 1

In Japan, all school children
wear uniforms. . . . . . . . . 0 0 1

In the United States, one may
legally have only one husband
or wife at a time. . . . . . . 0 0 l

159

Socio-Economic Index and Equivalent NORC Prestige Score for
Occupations in the Detailed Classification of the Bureau of
the Census: 1950

By: Dr. Otis Dudley Duncan, Associate Director
Population Research and Training Center
University of Chicago
November 1959

(See end of table for explanation of ”Notes”)

 

 

 

 

. . . Socio- Equiv.
Occupat1ons, by major occupation
econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score
Professional, technical, and
kindred workers

Accountants and auditors . . . . . . 78 80 a
Actors and actresses . . . . . . . 60 74
Airplane pilots and navigators . . . 79 81 a
Architects . . . . . . . . . . 90 86 a
Artists and art teachers . . . . . . 67 76 b
Athletes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 71
Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 80 a
Chemists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 81 a
Chiropractors. . . . . . . . . . . . 75 79
Clergymen. . . . . . . . . . . . 52 71 a
College presidents, professors,

and instructors (n.e.c.) . . . . . 84 83 a
Dancers and dancing teachers . . . . 45 69
Dentists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 93 a
Designers. . . . . . . . 73 79
Dietitians and nutritioniSts . . . . 39 67 d
Draftsmen. . . . . . . . . . 67 76
Editors and reporters. . . . . . . . 82 82 a
Engineers, technical . . . . . . . . 85 83 c

Aeronautical . . . . . . . . . . . 87 85

Chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 87

Civil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 83 a

Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 83

Industrial . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 84

Mechanical . . . . . . . . . . 82 83

Metallurgical, and metallurgists . 82 82

Mining . . . . . . . 85 83

Not elsewhere .claSsified . . . . . 87 85

160

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score

Entertainers (n. e. c. ). . . . . . 31 64
Farm and home management advisors. 83 83 b
Foresters and conservationists . . 48 70
Funeral directors and embalmers. . 59 74 a
Lawyers and judges . . . . . . . . 93 89 a
Librarians . . . . . . 60 74
Musicians and music teacherS . . . 52 71 b
Natural scientists (n.e.c.). . . . 80 81 b
Nurses, professional . . . . . 46 70
Nurses, student professional . . . 51 71 d
Optometrists . . . . . . . . . . . 79 81
Osteopaths . . . . . 96 93
Personnel and labor relations

workers. . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 83
Pharmacists. . . . . . . . . . . . 82 82
Photographers. . . . . . . . 50 71
Physicians and surgeons. . . . . . 92 89 a
Radio Operators. . . . . . 69 77
Recreation and group workers . . . 67 76 b
Religious workers. . . . . . . 56 72
Social and welfare workers,

except group . . . . . . . . . . 64 75 a
Social scientists. . . . . . . . . 81 82 b
Sports instructors and officials . 64 75
Surveyors . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 70
Teachers (n. e. c. ). . . 72 78 a
Technicians, medical and dental° . 48 70
Technicians, testing . . . . . . . 53 72
Technicians (n. e. c. ) . . . 62 74
Therapists and healers (n. e. c. ). . 58 73
Veterinarians. . . . . . . . 78 81
Professional, technical, and

kindred workers (n.e.c.) . . . . 65 75

Farmers and farm managers
Farmers (owners and tenants) . . . 14 53 b
Farm managers. . . . . . . . . . . 36 66

 

161

 

 

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score
Managers, officials, and
proprietors, exc. farm
Buyers and department heads, store . 72 78
Buyers and shippers, farm prod. . . 33 65
Conductors, railroad . . . . . . . . 58 73 a
Credit men . . . . . . . 74 79
Floormen and floor managers, store . 50 71
Inspectors, public administration. . 63 75 c
Federal public adm. and postal
service. . . . . . . . . . . 72 78
State public administration. . . . 54 72
Local public administration. . . . 56 72
Managers and superintendents, bldg . 32 65
Officers, pilots, pursers, and
engineers, Ship. . . . . . . . 54 72
Officials & adm. (n. e. c. ), public
administration . . . . . . . . 66 76 c
Federal public adm. and postal
service. . . . . . . . . . 84 83
State public administration. . . . 66 76
Local public administration. . . . 54 72
Officials, lodge, society, union,
etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 73 b
Postmasters. . . . . . 60 74
Purchasing agents and buyers(n. e. c. .) 77 80
Managers, officials, and pro-
prietors (n.e.c.) salaried . . . . 68 77 c
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . 60 74
Manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . 79 81
Transportation . . . . . . . . . . 71 78
Telecommunications, and utilities
and sanitary services. . . . . . 76 80
Wholesale trade. . . . . . . . . . 70 77
Retail trade . . . . . . . . 56 72 c
Food and dairy prod. stores,
and milk retailing . . . . 50 70
General merchandise & five &
ten cent stores. . . . . 68 77
Apparel and accessories storeS . 69 77
Furniture, home furn. &
equipment stores . . . . . 68 77

Motor vehicles and accessories
retailing. . . . . . . . . . . 65 75

162

 

 

Socio— Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score
Gasoline service stations. . . . 31 65
Eating and drinking places . . . 39 68
Hardward, farm implement, and
bldg. material retail. . . . . 64 75
Other retail trade . . . . . . . 59 74
Banking and other finance. . . . . 85 84
Insurance and real estate. . . . . 84 83
Business services . . . . . . . . 80 81
Automobile repair services and
garages. . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 70
Miscellaneous repair services. . . 53 71
Personal services. . . . . . . . 50 71
All other industries (incl. not
reported). . . . . . . . . . . . 62 74
Manager, officials, & propr‘s
(n.e.c.) self employed . . . . . . 48 70 c
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . 51 71 a
Manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . 61 74 a
TranSportation . . . . . . . . . . 43 69
Telecommunications, and utilities
and sanitary services. . . . . . 44 69
Wholesale trade. . . . . . . . . . 59 74
Retail trade . . . . . . . . . . 43 69 a,c
Food & dairy prod. stores, and
milk retailing . . . . . 33 65
General merchandise and five &
ten cent stores. . . . . . . 47 70
Apparel & accessories stores . . 65 75
Furniture, home furn. and
equipment stores . . . . . . . 59 73
Motor vehicles and acc. retail . 70 77
Gasoline service stations. . . . 33 65
Eating and drinking places . . . 37 67 b
Hardware, farm implement, &
bldg.material retail . . . . . 61 74
Other retail trade . . . . . . . 49 70
Banking and other finance. . . . . 85 84
Insurance and real estate. . . . . 76 80

Business services. . . . . . . . . 67 76

163

 

 

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score
Automobile repair services and
garages. . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 66
Miscellaneous repair services. . . 34 65
Personal services. . . . . . . . 41 68
All other industries (incl. not
reported). . . . . . . . . . . . 49 70
Clerical and kindred workers
Agents (n.e.c.). . . . . . . . . . . 68 77
Attendants and assistants, library . 44 69 d
Attendants, physician's and
dentist's office . . . . . . . . . 38 67 d
Baggagemen, tranSportation . . . . . 25 61
Bank tellers . . . . . . . . . . . . 52 71
Bookkeepers. . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 71 a
Cashiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 69
Collectors, bill and account . . . . 39 68
DiSpatchers and starters, vehicle. . 40 68
Express messengers and railway
mail clerks. . . . . . . . . . . . 67 76
Mail carriers. . . . . . . . . 53 71 a
Messengers and office boys . . . . . 28 63
Office machine operators . . . . . . 45 69
Shipping and receiving clerks. . . . 22 60
Stenographers, typists, and
secretaries. . . . . . . . . . . . 61 74
Telegraph messengers . . . . . . . . 22 59
Telegraph operators. . . . . . . . . 47 70
Telephone operators. . . . . . . . 45 69
Ticket, station, and express agents. 60 74
Clerical and kindred workers (n.e.c.) 44 69
Sales Workers
Advertising agents and salesmen. . . 66 76
Auctioneers. . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 68
Demonstrators. . . . . . . . . . 35 66
Hucksters and peddlers . . . . . . 8 46
Insurance agents and brokers . . . . 66 76 a
.Newsboys . . . . . . 27 63
Real estate agents and brokers . . . 62 74

Stock and bond salesmen. . . . . . . 73 79

164

 

 

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score
Salesmen and sales clerks (n.e.c.) . 47 70 c
Manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . 65 75
Wholesale trade. . . . . . . . . . 61 74 b
Retail trade . . . . . . . . 39 67 1 a
Other industries (incl. not re-
ported). . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 71
Craftsmen, foremen, and
kindred workers
Bakers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 60
Blacksmiths. . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 55
Boilermakers . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 65
Bookbinders. . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 67
Brickmasons, stonemasons, and tile
setters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 62
Cabinetmakers. . . . . . . . . . . . 23 60
Carpenters . . . . . . . 19 58 a
Cement and concrete finishers. . . . 19 58
Compositors and typesetters. . . . 52 71
Cranemen, derrickmen, and hoistmen . 21 59
Decorators and window dressers . . . 40 68
Electricians . . . . . . . . . . 44 69 a
Electrotypers and stereotypers . . . 55 72
Engravers, except photoengravers . . 47 70
Excavating, grading, and road
machinery operators. . . . . . . . 24 61
Foremen (n.e.c.) . . . . . . . . . . 49 70 c
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . 40 68
Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . 53 71 c
Metal industries . . 54 72
Machinery, including electrical. 60 74
TranSportation equipment . . . . 66 76
Other durable goods. . . . . . . 41 68
Textiles, textile products, and
apparel. . . . . 39 68
Other nondurable goods (incl.
not specified mfg. ). . . . . . 53 72
Railroads and railway express serv. 36 66
TranSportation, except railroad. . 45 69
Telecommunications, and util—
ities and sanitary services. . . 56 73

Other industries (incl. not
reported). . . . . . . . . . . . 44 69

165

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score

Forgemen and hammermen . . . . . 23 60
Furriers . . . . . . . . . . . 39 67
Glaziers . . . . . . . . . . . 26 62
Heat treaters, annealers, and

temperers. . . . . . . . . . . 22 60
Inspectors, Scalers, and graders,

log & lumber . . . . . . . . . . . 23 60
InSpectors (n. e.c.). . . . . . . . . 41 68 c

Construction . . . . . . 46 70

Railroads and railway express serv. 41 68

Transport, exc. r. r., communica-

tion, & other public util. . . . 45 69
Other industries (incl. not
reported). . . . . . . . . . . . 38 67

Jewelers, watchmakers, goldsmiths,

and silversmiths . . . . . . . . 36 66
Job setters, metal . . . . . 28 63
Linemen and servicemen, telegraph,

telephone, and power . . . . . . . 49 70
Locomotive engineers . . . . . . . . 58 73 a
Locomotive firemen . . . . . 45 69
Loom fixers. . . . . . . . . . . . 10 49
Machinists . . . . . . . . . . 33 65 a
Mechanics and repairmen. . . . . . . 25 61 c

Airplane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 70

Automobile . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 58 a

Office machine . . . . . . . . . . 36 66

Radio and television . . . . . . . 36 66

Railroad and car shop . . . . . 23 60

Not elsewhere classified . . . . 27 62
Millers, grain, flour, feed, etc.. 19 58
Millwrights. . . . . . . . . . . . 31 65
Molders, metal . . . . . . . 12 51
Motion picture projectionists. . . 43 69
Opticians, and lens grinders and

polishers. . . . . . . . . . 39 67
Painters, construction and

maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . 16 56
Paperhangers . . . . . 10 48
Pattern and model makers, except

paper. . . . . . . . . . . . 44 69
photoengravers and lithographers . . 64 75

166

 

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score

Piano and organ tuners and

repairmen. . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 67
Plasterers . . . . . . . 25 61
Plumbers and pipe fitters. . . . . . 34 66 a
Pressmen and plate printers,

printing . . . . . . . . 49 70
Rollers and roll hands, metal . . . 22 60
Roofers and slaters. . . . . . . . . 15 54
Shoemakers and repairs, except

factory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 51
Stationary engineers . . . . 47 70
Stone cutters and stone carvers. . . 25 61
Structural metal workers . . . . . . 34 66
Tailors and tailoresses. . . . . . . 23 60
Tinsmiths, coppersmiths, and sheet

metal workers. . . . . . . . . . 33 65
Toolmakers, and die makers and

setters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 71
Upholsterers . . . . . 22 60
Craftsmen and kindred workers

(n...ec). 32 65
Members of the armed forces. . . . . 18 56

Operatives and kindred workers
Apprentices. . . . . . . . . . . . 35 66 C
uto mechanics . . . . . . . . . 25 61

Bricklayers and masons . . . . . . 32 65

Carpenters . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 64

Electricians . . . . . . 37 67

Machinists and toolmakers. . . . . 41 68

Mechanics, except auto . . . . . . 34 66

Plumbers and pipe fitters. . . . . 33 65

Building trades (n.e.c.) . . . . . 29 63

Metalworking trades (n.e.c.) . . . 33 65

Printing trades. . . . . . . . . 40 68

Other Specified trades . . . . . . 31 64

Trade not specified. . . . . . . 39 67
Asbestos and insulation workers. . . 32 65
Attendants, auto serv. & parking . . 19 58
Blasters and powdermen . . ll 50
Boatmen, canalmen, and lock keepers. 24 61
Brakemen, railroad . . . . . . . . . 42 69

Bus drivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 61

167

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score

Chainmen, rodmen, and axmen,

surveying. . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 61
Conductors, bus and street

railway. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 64
Deliverymen and routemen . . . . . . 32 65
Dressmakers and seamstresses,

except factory . . . . . . . . . . 23 60
Dyers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 51
Filers, grinders, and polishers,

metal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 59
Fruit, nut, & veg. graders and

packers, exc. factory. . . . . . . 10 48
Furnacemen, smeltermen, and pourers. 18 57
Heaters, metal . . . . . . . . . . 29 64
Laundry and dry cleaning operatives. 15 54 b
Meat cutters, except slaughter and

packing house. . . . . . . . . . . 29 63
Milliners. . . . . 46 70 d
Mine operatives and. laborers (n. e c. ) 10 49 c

Coal mining. . . . . . . 2 25 a

Crude petroleum and natural gas

extraction . . . . . . 38 67

Mining and quarrying, except fuel. 12 51
-Motormen, mine, factory, logging

camp, etc. . . . . . . . . . 3 28
Motormen, street, Subway, and

elevated railway . . . . . . . . . 34 65
Oilers and greasers, except auto . . 15 54
Painters, except const. & maint. . . 18 57
Photographic process workers . . . . 42 68
Power station operators. . . . . . . 50 71
Sailors and deck hands . . . . . . . 16 55
Sawyers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 39
Spinners, textile. . . . . . . . . . 5 39
Stationary firemen . . . . . . . . . 17 56
Switchmen, railroad. . . . . . 44 69
Taxicab drivers and chauffeurs . . . 10 49 a
Truck and tractor drivers. . . . . . 15 54 a
Weavers, textile . . . . . . . . . 6 42

Welders and flame— cutters. . . . . . 24 61

168

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
Score
Operatives & kindred workers (n.e.c.) 18 57 c
Manufacturing. . . . . . . . . . . 17 56 a,c
Durable goods
Sawmills, planing mills, &
misc. wood products. . . . . 7 44 c
Sawmills, planing mills and
mill work. . . . . 7 44
Miscellaneous wood products. 9 46
Furniture and fixtures . . . 9 48
Stone, clay, and glass prod. . 17 56 c
Glass and glass prod. . . 23 60
Cement, & concrete, gypsum,
and plaster products . . . 10 48
Structural clay products . . 10 48
Pottery and related prod.. . 21 59
Misc. nonmetallic mineral
and stone products . . . . 15 54
Metal industries . . . . . . . 16 55 c
Primary metal indus. . . 15 54
Blast furnaces steel works
and rolling mills. . . . 17 56
Other primary iron and
steel industries . . . . 12 51
Primary nonferrous ind.. . 15 54
Fabricated metal ind. (incl.
not spec. metal) . . . . 16 55
Fabricated steel prod. . . 16 55
Fabricated nonferrous
metal products . . . . . 15 54
Not Specified metal ind. . 14 53 d
Machinery, except electrical . . 22 60 c
Agricultural mach. & tractors. 21 59
Office & store mach. and
devices . . . . . . . . 31 64
Electrical machinery, equipment,
and supplies . . . . . . . . . 26 62
Transportation equipment . . . 23 60 c
Motor vehicles and motor
vehicle equipment. . . . . 21 59
Aircraft and parts . . . 34 65
Ship & boat bldg. & repair. 16 55

Railroad & misc. transporta-
tion equipment . . . . . - 23 60

169

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
Score
Professional & photographic
equip. , & watches. . . . 29 63 c
Professional equipment and
supplies . . . 23 60
Photographic equipment and
supplies . . . . 4O 68
Watches, clocks, & clock—o
work-operated devices. . . 28 63
Miscellaneous manufacturing
industries . . . . . . . . . 16 55
Nondurable goods
Food and kindred products . . 16 55 c
Meat products . . . . . . . 16 55
Dairy products . . . 22 59
Canning & preserving fruits,
vegetables & sea foods . . 9 47
Grain-mill products. . . . . 14 53
Bakery products. . . . . . . 15 54
Confectionery & related prod. 12 51
Beverage industries. . . . 19 58
Misc. food preparations and”
kindred products . . . . . ll 50
Not Specified food ind. . . 19 57
Tobacco manufactures . . . . . 2 26
Textile mill products . . . . 6 42 c
Knitting mills . . . 21 59
Dyeing & finishing textiles,
exc. knit goods. . . . . 8 45
Carpets, rugs, and other
floor coverings. . 14 53
Yarn, thread, & fabric mills 2 26
Miscellaneous textile mill
products . . . . . . . . . 10 49
Apparel and other fabricated
textile products . . . . . . 21 59 c
Apparel and accessories. . . 22 60
Miscellaneous fabricated
textile products . . . . . 17 56
Paper and allied products. . . 19 57 c

Pulp, paper, & paperboard
mills. . . . . . . . . . . 19 58

170

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score
Paperboard containers and
boxes. . . . . . 17 56
Miscellaneous paper and
pulp products. . . . 19 58
Printing publishing and
allied industries. . . . 31 64
Chemicals and allied products. 20 59
Synthetic fibers . . . 9 47
Drugs and medicines. . 26 62
Paints, varnishes, and
related products . . 15 54
Miscellaneous chemicals and
allied products. . . 23 6O
Petroleum and coal products. 51 71 c
Petroleum refining . . 56 72
Miscellaneous petroleum and
coal products. . . . 14 53
Rubber products. . . 22 60
Leather and leather products 16 55 c
Leather: tanned, curried,
and finished . . . . . 10 49
Footwear, except rubber. 9 47
Leather products, except
footwear . . . . . 14 53
Not Specified manufacturing
industries . . 16 55
Nonmanufacturing industries (incl.
not reported). . . . . . . . 18 57 c
Construction 18 57
Railroads and railway express
service . . . . 15 54
TranSportation, except railroad. 23 60
Telecommunications, & utilities
and sanitary services. . . . 21 59
Wholesale and retail trade 17 56
Business and repair services 19 57
Personal services. . . . . . ll 50
Public administration. . . . . 17 56
All other industries (incl. not
reported). 20 59

171

 

 

 

 

 

Socio— Equiv.
OC(upations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score
Private household workers
Housekeepers, private household. . . 19 58 c
Living in. . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 49 d
Living out . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 59
Laundresses, private household . . . 12 51 d
Living in. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. d
Living out . . . . 12 51 d
Private household workers 9(n e. c. ) . 7 44 c
Living in. . . . . . . . , . . . . 12 51
Living out . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 42
Service workers, except
private household
Attendants, hospital and other
institution. . . . . . . 13 52
Attendants, professional and
personal service (n e. c. ). . . 26 62
Attendants, recreation and amusement 19 58
Barbers, beauticians, & manicurists. 17 56 a
Bartenders . . . 19 58 a
Boarding and lodging house keepers . 3O 64
Bootblacks . . . . . . . . . . 8 46 a
Charwomen and cleaners . . . . 10 48
Cooks, except private household. . . 15 54 a
Counter and fountain workers . . . . 17 56 a
Elevator operators . . . . . . . . 10 48
Firemen, fire protection . . . . 37 67
Guards, watchmen, and doorkeepers . 18 57 a
Housekeepers and stewards, except
private household. . . . . . . . . 31 65
Janitors and sextons . . . . . . . . 9 47 a
Marshals and constables. . . . . . . 21 59
Midwives . . . . . . . . . 37 67 d
Policemen and detectives . . . . . . 39 68 c
Government . . . . . . . . . . . . 4O 68 a
Private. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 66
Porters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 36
Practical nurses . . . . . . . . . 22 59
. Sheriffs and bailiffs. . . . . . 34 66
Usher5 recreation and amusement . . 25 61
Waiters and waitresses . . . . . 16 55 a

Watchmen (crossing) and bridge
tenders . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 56

172

 

 

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score
Service workers, except private
household (n.e.c.) . . . ll 50
Farm Laborers and foremen
Farm foremen . . . . . . . . . . 20 59
Farm laborers, wage workers. . . . 6 42 b
Farm laborers, unpaid family workers 17 56
Farm service laborers, self- employed 22 6O
Laborers, except farm and mine
Fishermen and oystermen. . . . . 10 49 b
Garage laborers, and car washers
and greasers . . . . . . . . 8 46
Gardeners, except farm, and grounds-
keepers. . . . . . ll 50
Longshoremen and stevedores. ll 50 b
Lumbermen, raftsmen, and wood
choppers . . . . . . 4 36 b
Teamsters. 8 46
Laborers (n.e.c.)
Manufacturing. . . . . . . 8 45 c
Durable goods
Sawmills, planing mills, &
misc. wood products. . . 3 33 c
Sawmills, planing mills,
and mill work. . . . . 3 34
Misc. wood products. . . 2 23
Furniture and fixtures 5 40
Stone, clay, & glass prod. 7 43 c
Glass & glass products 14 53
Cement, & concrete, gypsum,
and plaster products . . 5 39
Structural clay products 5 39
Pottery & related products 7 44
Misc. nonmetallic mineral
and stone products 5 38
Metal industries . . . . . . 7 44 c
Primary metal industries . . 7 44 c
Blast furnaces, steel works,
and rolling mills . 9 46
Other primary iron and steel
industries . . 4 37
Primary nonferrous ind 6 42

173

 

 

Socio— Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score
Fabricated metal ind. (incl.
not Spec. metal) . . . . . . 7 44 c
Fabricated steel products. . 7 44
Fabricated nonferrous metal
products . . 10 49
Not specified metal ind. . 9 46 d
Machinery, except electrical ll 50 c
Agricultural machinery and
tractors . . . . . . . . 14 53
Office and store machines
and devices. . . . . . 17 56 d
Miscellaneous machinery. 10 48
Electrical machinery, equipment,
and supplies . . . 14 53
TranSportation equipment 11 49 c
Motor vehicles and motor
vehicle equipment. 13 52
Aircraft and parts . . . 15 54
Ship and boat bldg. & repairing 2 28
Railroad and miscellaneous
transportation equipment . . 8 45
Professional and photographic
equipment, and watches 11 50
Professional equipment and
supplies 10 49 d
Photographic equipment and
supplies . . . . . lo 55 d
Watches, clocks, and clock-
work-operated devices. . . . .. .. d
Miscellaneous manufacturing ind. 12 50
Nondurable goods
Food and kindred products. . . . 9 47 c
Meat products. . . . . . . . 8 45
Dairy products . . . . 13 52
Canning & preserving fruits,
vegetables, and sea foods. 6 42
Grain— mill products. . . 6 42
Bakery products. 10 48
Confectionery and related prod 10 48
Beverage industries. . . lo 55
Misc. food preparations and
kindred products . . . 5 40
Not Specified food industries. 14 53

174

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
score
Tobacco manufactures . . . . . O 20 f
Textile mill products. . 3 33 c
Knitting mills 4 36 d
Dyeing and finishing textiles,
exc. knit goods. . . . . . 9 46 d
Carpets, rugs, and other floor
coverings. . . . 14 53
Yarn, thread, and fabric mills l 22
Miscellaneous textile mill prod. 6 41 d
Apparel and other fabricated
textile products . . . . . 9 47 c
Apparel and accessories. . ll 49
Miscellaneous fabricated textile
products . . . . . . . 6 42 d
Paper and allied products. . . 7 43 c
Pulp, paper, and paperboard
mills. . . . . . . . 6 41
Paperboard containers and boxes: 10 48
Miscellaneous paper & pulp prod. 8 45
Printing, publishing, and allied
industries . . . . . . 23 60
Chemicals and allied products. 8 45 c
Synthetic fibers . . . . . . . . 4 37
Drugs and medicines. 22 60 d
Paints, varnishes, and related
products . 8 46
Miscellaneous chemicals Gando
allied products. . 8 45
Petroleum and coal products. 22 60 c
Petroleum refining 26 62
Misc. petroleum & coal products. 3 28
Rubber products. . . . . . . . 12 51
Leather and leather products 6 43 c
Leather: tanned,curried, and
finished . . . . . . . . . . . 2 28
Footwear, except rubber. . . . 10 49
Leather prod. except footwear 12 51 d
PQot specified manufacturing ind. 8 45

175

 

 

Socio- Equiv.
Occupations, by major occupation econ. NORC Notes
group index prestige
Score
Nonmanufacturing industries (incl.
not reported). . . . . . . . . . . 7 44 b,c
Construction . . . . . . . . . . . 7 43
Railroads & railway express serv.. 3 34
TranSportation, except railroad. 9 47
Telecommunications, and utilities
and sanitary services. . . . . . 6 43
Wholesale and retail trade . . . . 12 51
Business and repair services . . 9 47
Personal services. . . . . 5 39
Public administration. . . . . 7 43
All other industries (incl. not
reported). . . . . . . . . 6 41
Occupation not reported. . . . . 19 57

 

Explanation of Notes:

 

a. One of 45 occupations used in deriving socio-economic
index from predictors of NORC prestige ratings.

b. One of 16 occupations poorly or partially matched to
NORC titles.

c. Occupation omitted from statistical analysis of 425
detailed occupations, because it is a grouping of
Specific titles listed below it.

d. Occupation omitted from statistical analysis of 425
detailed occupations because census data are based on
fewer than 100 sample cases (corresponding to an esti-
mated population of fewer than 3,000 males).

e. Occupation omitted from statistical analysis. The census
data do no: pertain to current members of the armed forces,
but to currently unemployed civilians whose last occupa-
tional experience was in the armed forces. The data for
this occupation do not, therefore, describe soldiers,
sailors, and related occupations.

f. The computed value of the socio-economic index for this
occupation was —3. To avoid the inconvenience of having
an index value with a negative Sign, this index value was
arbitrarily changed to zero, which remains the lowest
value in the table.

APPENDIX C

TABLES

177

Table 1. Number of students in control and experimental
groups by class hour and sex at time of pre and
post testing

 

 

 

 

Before After
Group Male Female Total Male Female Total
Control
2nd Hour 11 12 23 9 9 18
6th Hour 9 16 25 8 16 24
Total 20 28 48 17 25 42
Experimental
lst Hour 15 12 27 14 10 24
3rd Hour 18 10 28 18 10 28
Total 33 22 55 32 20 52

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 2. Experimental and control groups compared as to
grade point averages: mean scores given

 

 

 

 

 

Experimental Classes lst Hour 3rd Hour Total
7th & 8th Grade N = 26 N = 28 N =54
Total G.P.A* 1.9 2.0 1.95
7th & 8th Grade N = 26 N = 28 N==54
Soc. Stud. G.P.A. 1.81 1.88 1.84

Control Classes 2nd Hour 6th Hour Total
7th & 8th Grade N = 24 N = 23 N==47
Total G.P.A.* 2.39 2.0 2.2
7th & 8th Grade N = 24 N = 23 N==47
Soc. Stud. G.P.A. 2.31 1.86 2.08

 

*Subjects included in the computations were English,
mathematics, science, and social studies. The mean scores
which are given are based on a 4 point Scale with 4 points
for an A, 3 points for a B, 2 points for a C, and 1 point
for a D.

178

Table 3. Control group versus experimental group as to
intelligence quotient scoreS*

 

 

Control Group Experimental Group

 

Item N f 47 N j 55
X X
Intelligence Quotient
Score . . . . . . . 108.23 100.85

 

 

 

*The most recent California Mental Maturity test was
used for each student. In most cases this was taken during
their sixth grade year, 1960-61.

Table 4. Control group versus experimental group: intelli-
gence quotient scores given by class hourS*

 

 

Control Group Experimental Group

 

 

Item
2nd Hour 6th Hour lst Hour 3rd Hour
N i 23 N i 24 N = 27 N 5 28
x X 32' x
Intelligence Quotient
Score 108.35 108.13 102.89 98.89

 

 

 

 

 

*The most recent California Mental Maturity test was
used for each student. In most cases this was taken during
their sixth grade year, 1960—61.

179

 

 

 

Table 5. Control group versus experimental group as to
socio-economic background: occupation of major
wage earner in home in which student resided*

Control Group Experimental Group
Item N i 47 N E 55
X X
Duncan Socio-Economic
Index 35.74 27.51
Equivalent NORC
Prestige Score 65.64 58.96

 

 

 

*See Appendix B, pp. 159—175 for conversion table
used.

Table 6. Control group versus experimental group as to

socio—economic background: occupation of major
wage earner in home in which student resided,
according to class hourS*

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Control Group Experimental Group;
Item 2nd Hour 6th Hour lst Hour 3rd Hour
N i 23 N f 24 N 5 27 N 5 28
X X X X
Duncan Socio-Economic
Index . 38.78 32.83 24.96 29.96
Equivalent NORC
Prestige Score 69.91 61.54 58.00 59.89
*See Appendix B, pp. 159-175 for conversion table

used.

180

 

 

 

Table 7. Control group versus experimental group as to
reading vocabulary and comprehension scores*
Control Group Experimental Group
Item N f 47 N E 55
X X
Reading Vocabulary 9.04 8.11
Reading Comprehension 9.35 8.70

 

 

 

*The California Reading Test was given to the stu-
dents in October, 1964. At that time the students Should
have reached a reading vocabulary and comprehension level of
9.2. -

Table 8. Control group versus experimental group as to
reading vocabulary and comprehension scores given

by class hours*

 

 

 

 

Control Group Experimental Group
Item 2nd Hour) 6th Hour lst Hour 3rd Hour
N i 23 N 5 24 N i 27 N f 28
X X X X
Reading Vocabulary 8.9 9.17 8.05 8.16
Reading Comprehension 9.39 9.31 8.48 8.92

 

 

 

 

 

*The California Reading Test was given to the stu-
At that time the students should
have reached a reading vocabulary and comprehension level of

dents in October,

9.2.

1964.

Table 9.

aggregate scores

181

Control group versus experimental group:
differences between students'

net

before and after

 

 

 

 

 

Before After Change Direction of Change
Social Questions I
Authoritarianism
Control Group (N=42) 2515 2523 +8 More authoritarian
Exp. Group (N=52) 2539 2976 +437 More authoritarian
Democracy
Control Group (N=42) 2903 2886 -17 More democratic
Exp. Group (N=52) 3442 3443 —99 More democratic
Stereotypy
Control Group (N=42) 1368 1366 —2 Less use of stereo.
Exp. Group (N=52) 1678 1655 -23 Less use of stereo.
Political-Economic

Conservatism

Control Group (N=42) 1796 1728 -68 Less conservative
Exp. Group (N=52) 2267 2239 -28 LeSS conservative
Social Questions II
Constitution
Control Group (N=42) 304 308 +4 Less pro—Constitution
Exp. Group (N=52) 387 401 +14 Less pro-Constitution
Civil Rights
Control Group (N=42) 83 77 -6 Lesslliscrimination
Exp. Group (N=52) 163 125 —38 LeSSIDiscrimination
Action Apathy
Control Group (N=42) 230 248 +18 More apathetic
Exp. Group (N=52) 295 300 +5 More apathetic
Civil Liberties "A"
Control Group (N=42) 222 182 —40 More libertarian
Exp. Group (N=52) 317 277 -40 More libertarian

 

 

 

 

182

Table 9—-Continued

 

 

 

 

Score Before After Change Direction of Change

Civil Liberties "B"
Control Group (N=42) 146 137 —9 More libertarian
Exp. Group (N=52) 180 189 +9 Less libertarian
Anomie
Control Group (N=42) 209 191 —18 Less anomie
Exp. Group (N=52) 275 259 —16 Less anomie
Absolutism
Control Group (N=42) 282 310 +28 More absolutistic
Exp. Group (N=52) 353 362 +9 More absolutistic
Tolerance
Control Group (N=42) 90 90 -0 No change
Exp. Group (N=52) 130 123 —7 More tolerant
Individual Political

Potency
Control Group (N=42) 177 277 +100 More potency
Exp. Group (N=52) 218 280 +62 More potency
Group Political

Potency
Control Group (N=42) 320 327 +7 More potency
Exp. Group (N=52) 371 369 -2 Less potency
Ethnocentric Image

of Democracy
Control Group (N=42) 133 121 —12 Less ethnocentric
Exp. Group (N=52) 184 158 -26 LeSS ethnocentric

 

 

 

 

 

183

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 10. Control group versus experimental group: before and
after measurement of Occupational ASpiration, Self-
Concept, Critical Thinking, Social Questions I, and
Social Questions II
Control Group Experimental Group
Scale Before After Change Before After Change
N_=_48 N_=_42 N_=_55 N552
X X X X
General
Occupational Asp.* 49.10 49.88 + .78 48.84 50.42 +1.58
Self-Concept 28.02 28.64 + .62 26.11 26.35 + .24
Critical Thinking 18.00 20.59 +2.59 17.76 17.23 - .53
Social Questions I
Authoritarianism 59.63 60.07 + .44 56.42 57.23 + .81
Democracy 68.48 68.71 + .23 66.29 64.29 -2.00
Stereotypy 32.67 32.52 - .15 31.69 31.83 + .14
Political-Economic
Conservatism 42.69 41.14 -l.55 43.31 43.06 - 25
Social Questions II
Constitution 7.27 7.33 + .06 7.33 7.71 + .38
Civil Rights 2.04 1.83 - .21 2.76 2.40 - .36
Action Apathy 5.56 5.90 + .34 5.67 5.66 + .10
Civil Liberties "A” 5.27 4.33 — .94 5.98 5.33 - .65
Civil Liberties "B" 3.60 3.26 — .34 3.46 3.63 + .17
Anomie 5.24 4.55 - .70 ‘5.13 4.98 - .15
Absolutism 6.63 7.38 + .75 6.64 6.96 + .32
Tolerance 2.23 2.14 - .09 2.33 2.37 + .04
Individual Political
Potency 4.32 6.60 +2.28 4.20 5.38 +1.18
Group Political
Potency 7.60 7.79 + .19 7.09 7.10 + .01
Ethnocentric Image .
of Democracy 3.23 2.88 — .35 3.49 3.04 - .45
*T-Scores as converted from raw scores. See pp. 140

and 141.

Table 11.

184

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Control group versusexperimental group according to
class hours: before and after measurement of
Occupational Aspirations, Self-Concept and Social
Questions I
7 Control Group Experimental Group
Scale Second Hour Sixth Hour First Hour Third Hour
Pre N==23 Pre N = 25 Pre N = 27 Pre N = 28
Post N = 18 Post N=24 Post _N_=24 Post I_\l_=28
X X X X
General
Occupational ASp.*
Before 48.83 49.36 49.59 48.11
After 50.44 48.71 50.79 50.11
Change +1.61 - .65 +1.20 +2.00
Self-Concept
Before 28.70 27.40 25.44 26.75
After 29.50 28.00 26.29 26.39
Change + .80 + .60 + .85 — .36
Critical Thinking
Before 19.17 16.16 16.70 18.79
After 22.35 19.23 15.21 19.25
Change +3.18 +2.07 -1.49 + .46
Social Questions I
Authoritarianism
Before 58.61 60.56 57.70 55.18
After 59.89 60.21 59.96 54.89
Change +1.28 - .35 +2.26 - .29
Democracy
Before 68.22 68.72. 67.15 65.46
After 66.94 70.04 62.33 65.96
Change -1.28 +1.32 —4.82 + .50
Stereotypy
Before 31.78 33.44 32.74 30.68
After 30.89 33.75 32.92 30.89
Change - .89 + .31 + .18 + .21
Pol.-Econ. Cons.
Before 43.35 42.08 44.15 42.46
After 42.89 39.83 43.63 42.57
.Change — .46 ~2.25 - .52 + .11
*T-Scores as converted from raw scores. See pp. 140

and 141.

185

Table 12. Control group versus experimental group according to
class hours: before and after measurement of Social
Questions 11

 

 

 

 

 

Control Group CTTI Experimental Group
Scale Second Hour Sixth Hour First Hour Third Hour
Pre N =23 Pre N = 25 Pre N = 27 Pre N = 28
Post N = 18 Post N_=24 Post _N_=24 PoSt N=28
X X X X
Social QuestionSI
Constitution
Before 7.26 7.28 7.81 6.86
After 7.06 7.54 7.63 7.79
Change -.20 +.26 —.18 +.93
Civil Rights
Before 2.26 1.76 2.67 2.86
After 1.72 1.92 2.17 2.61
Change -.54 +.16 -.50 -.25
Action Apathy
Before 5.30 3.80 5.63 5.71
After 5.33 6.33 6.33 5.46
Change +.03 +2.53 +.70 —.25
Civil Liberties "A“
Before 5.52 5.04 6.33 5.64
After 3.94 4.63 5.33 5.32
Change -1.58 —.41 -1.00 -.32
Civil Liberties "B‘1
Before 4.08 3.16 3.33 3.57
After 3.00 3.46 4.04 3.29
Change —1.08 +.30 +.71 -.28
Anomie
Before 5.48 5.04 4.96 5.28
After 3.72 5.17 4.63 5.29
Change -1.76 +.13 -.33 +.01
Absolutism
Before 6.96 6.32 6.74 6.54
After 7.39 7.38 7.38 6.61
Change +.43 +1.06 +.64 +.70
Tolerance.
Before 2.22 2.24 2.56 2.11
After 2.17 2.13 2.46 2.29
Change -.05 -.11 -.10 -.18

 

 

 

 

 

 

186

 

 

 

 

Table 13. Control group versus experimental group according to
class hours: 'before and after measurement of
Individual Political Potency, Group Political Potency
and Ethnocentrism
Control Group Experimental Group
Scale Second Hour Sixth Hour First Hour Third Hour
Pre N =23 Pre N = 25 Pre N = 27 Pre N = 28
Post N = 18 Post N = 24 Post N = 24 Post N = 28
Y X Y X
Individual Polit-
ical Potency
Before 3.87 4.72 4.70 3.79
After 6.67 6.54 5.79 5.04
Change +2.80 +1.82 +1.09 +1.25
Group Political
Potency
Before 7.61 7.60 7.11 7.07
After 8.17 7.50 7.54 6.71
Change +.56 - 10 +.43 -.36
Ethnocentric Image
of Democracy
Before 3.22 3.24 3.11 3.86
After 2.72 3.00 3.08 3.00
Change -.50 —.24 -.03 -.86

 

 

 

 

 

 

187

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 14. Control group versus experimental group: before and
after differences as to percent of students improved,
the same, or worsened

Control Group Experimental Group
Scale
Improv. Same Worsen. Improv. Same Worsen.

Generai

Occupational Asp. 100.00 .......... 100.00 ..........

Self—Concept 47.62 11.91 40.47 51.92 11.54 36.54

Critical Think. 37.50 8.33 41.67 45.45 11.91 43.64

Social Questions I

Authoritarianism 57.14 4.76 38.10 51.92 00.00 48.08

Democracy 45.24 2.38 52.38 59.61 1.92 38.46

Stereotypy 40.48 7.14 52.38 48.08 5.77 46.15

Pol.-Economic

Conservatism 59.53 9.52 30.95 50.00 3.85 46.15
Social QuestionSII

Constitution 42.86 23.81 35.72 40.38 15.38 44.23

Civil Rights 38.10 42.86 19.05 42.31 26.92 30.77

Action Apathy 33.33 14.29 52.38 38.46 17.31 44.23

Civil Liberties'VV‘ 59.53 14.29 26.19 51.92 15.38 32.69

Civil Liberties‘fi?‘ 47.62 16.67 35.72 30.77 26.92 42.31

Anomie 47.62 14.29 38.10 48.08 15.38 36.54

Absolutism 33.33 9.52 57.14 48.08 11.54 40.38

Tolerance 33.33 23.81 42.86 30.77 30.77 38.46

Individual Polit-

ical Potency 71.43 14.29 14.29 63.46 11.54 25.00

Group Political

Potency 45.24 30.95 38.10 38.46 25.00 36.54
Ethnocentric Image
of Democracy 40.48 33.33 26.19 42.31 30.77 26.92

 

188

Table 15. Mean scores of control and experimental groups as

 

 

 

 

to Information Tests ”A," ”B,” and ”C“*
Information Test Based on
Traditional Approach Information Test

Vocational Citizenship ”C” Based on

Education Education Experimental

Test "A” Test ”B” Total Approach
Control Group

(N==42) 20.08 18.68 38.76 36.58

Experimental
Group (N=52) 16.91 17.18 34.09 38.38

 

 

 

 

 

*Maximum score possible on Information Test ”A" was 25;
maximum score possible on Information Test ”B” was 25; maximum
score possible on Information Test ”C” was 50.

189

 

 

 

 

 

 

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