This is to certify that the thesis entitled "A History of Telecommunication: The Telegraph"; An Instructional Unit for Television presented by Jeanette Bopry has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Arts degree in Telecommunication (."‘ (I k- , I \. (AC—A,V;l Major professw'r Date July 26, 1978 0—7639 © Copyright by JEANETTE BOPRY 1978 "A HISTORY OF TELECOMMUNICATION: THE TELEGRAPH"; AN INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT FOR TELEVISION By Jeanette Bopry A THESIS Submitted to Nfichigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of NMSTER OF ARTS Department of Telecommunication 1978 ABSTRACT "A HISTORY OF TELECOMMUNICATION: THE TELEGRAPH"; AN INSTRUCTIONAL UNIT FOR TELEVISION By Jeanette Bopry This project is an attempt to create the first of a series of teaching modules for TC 120, "Telecommunication in the U.S.", for the Department of Telecommunication. TC 120 is aimed at non-major freshmen students at Michigan State University. Instructional development techniques have been applied to the televison medium in an attempt to create an effective history unit covering the development of the telegraph from 1790 to about 1890, or from the optical telegraph through the development of the electric telegraph. The text includes a Basic Script for the entire unit, and a Production Script for a section on the optical telegraph. This section is in the process of production at this writing and will be used as a pilot to support application for funding to complete the series of modules for TC 120. Dedicated to Garwood P. Hansen iii AC IQIOWIEDGMEN TS I wish to express my sincere appreciation to the following persons for their support throughout this project: Dr. Thomas A. Muth, Dr. Kent Creswell, Dr. Kent Gustafson, Dr. Colby Lewis, and Mr . Larry McMullen . iv INTRODUCTION . CHAPTER I. CHAPTER II. CHAPTER III. CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER V. TABLE OF CONTENTS Instructional Development The First Prototype. The Second Prototype Producing the Pilot. Basic Script, "A History of Telecommunication: The Telegraph" . . . . . Production Script, "A History of Telecommunication: The Semaphore" . Summary. Page IO 17 20 102 120 INTRODUCTION "Telecommunication in the U.S.", or TC 120, is a survey course offered in the Department of Telecommunication for non-majors with an interest in telecommunication media. The course covers the following areas: history of telecommunication; effects of media; programming; economics of broadcasting; international telecommunication; and the technology of telecommunication. Information gathered from students during the life span of the course indicates that it reaches a number of students from varying majors. For example, an in-class survey taken in 1976 indicates no less than 22 different majors enrolled in TC 120, Plus a large group of no- preference students. The course reaches a large number of Communication Arts and Sciences students in fields like Journalism, communication, advertising, etc. This is consistent with course goals of servicing other departments which offer major areas of study closely related to telecommunication. For various reasons, there has been a thrust to mediate as much of the course as possible. First of all, this would allow the student to experience much of the media he studies; he would be learning about media through.media. For example, the student might learn about tele- vision by watching television. Secondly, the Department of Telecommuni- cation has been faced with problems related to the course. These fall into two classifications: lack of personnel and lack of financial l resources. The course has not had the benefit of a single permanent instructor. The Department of Telecommunication is in the unfortunate position of a 70:1 student to faculty ratio. Graduate students have, therefore, taken over a major responsibility for teaching the course, and no one graduate student has provided instruction for more than three terms. These individuals are generally Ph.D. candidates in the Mass Nbdia Program, who are required to gain teaching experience as part of their curriculum. Facilities and financial resources have remained limited, a major problem in an area requiring substantial capital investment. Course continuity has therefore suffered. Attempts to develop structured course content have also suffered due to this same lack of financial resources. The department has determined that the establishment of a structured, mediated course content could give TC 120 the consistency that has been sought after. It is also hoped that Ph.D. candidates with a minimal amount of content knowledge would be able to instruct such a course with little orientation. A second goal of the project is to eventually have a mediated course that can be offered to the general public as a teaching tool for those interested in gaining an understanding of the field of telecommunication. Given the fact that telecommunication media occupy large portions of consumer time, and produce significant social and cultural effects, the need for making educational oppor- tunities available in this area of study is critical. In this context, due to the opportunities for consumer influence and use, the education of the public on the uses of telecommunication media is a matter of public policy concern. It is hoped that this education will have significant economic effects, especially in utilization of new technology by the general public. To these ends, the Department of Telecommunication received an MSU Educational Development Program Grant, implemented October 1, 1976. However, the project ran into difficulties when the project director was required to take a medical leave of absence. During Winter Term, 1977, the project director, Thomas A. Muth, Associate Professor of Telecommun- ication, dictated a preliminary script for the history unit and collected a number of slides for use as visual material. After that, a number of scripts were drafted for the history and technology portions of the course. None were satisfactory, and testing during the summer of 1977 led the project director to the conclusion that some modification of the means of approach to the project should be made. In Fall Term, 1977, a decision was made to identify an individual with interest and capability in instructional design theory as applied to the media, to design and write scripts. The project director concluded that this would create effective teaching tools. Shortly thereafter, I was approached by the director of the project, Dr. Muth, who suggested that I write a script based upon the first history unit. The instructional design, script, and subsequent video tape production would fulfill the theSis requirement for my Master of Arts degree. The video tape could also be used to support application for grants to produce the balance of the project. As indicated earlier, funding sources are being investigated. The department hopes to successfully apply for federal aid to continue research and production on all units of the course. If successful, the department will have realized its goal of a turnkey course for non- majors that can be taught by incoming Ph.D. students with little training in teaching methods. Secondly, the course will be ready to offer to the general public as a form of consumer education in the telecommunication media. As such, it could be incorporated into the lifelong learning program at a university, taught in a community college or high school setting, or transmitted over a cable television system to members of the general public in their homes. CHAPTER I Instructional Development As discussed in the Introduction, a number of attempts were made at drafting scripts for this project before Fall Term, 1977; none were successful and the project became my responsibility in the late fall of 1977. A systemmatic approach was needed in order to successfully complete the project. The use of instructional design and development techniques was decided upon since it would provide that systemmatic approach and since it would help us effectively transmit information in the classroom. From December 1977 through March 1978 I worked on developing and writing a prototype, or model of a final product. After testing that prototype, the project director and I decided to scrap it and start over. The months to the present, August 1978, have been dedicated to the development and writing of a second prototype. So, the Basic Script that follows in Chapter III is by no means the first script to reach completed form. The instructional development model implemented in the preparation of this project is based upon one designed by Dr. Kent L. Gustafson,l and described in his article, "Toward a Definition of Instructional Development: A Systems View", and one designed by the Instructional Development Institute and described in its publications. Broken down, lDr. Gustafson is an Associate Professor in the departments of Family IMedicine and Secondary Education and Curriculum. In 1978 he was appointed Coordinator of the Instructional Development and Technology Program in the College of Education at Michigan State University. 5 both models suggest the following procedure: defining the problem, developing a prototype, and evaluating the prototype. Both these plans for instructional development assume that such development is a process. The problem has been to find an effective means of instructing non-major freshmen students in TO 120, given a high rate of instructor turn over in the course and substantial lack of financial resources with which to develop the course. The First Prototype: The script, as originally dictated by the project director, was in slide/tape form. This seemed to be a mediated format that would work well with the subject area, the history of telecommunication. The slide/tape was arranged chronologically and was divided into European and U.S. events of importance. An audio tape of the script was provided. In order to develop the project, I first came up with objectives that would serve the project director's purpose in teaching this unit in TO 120. They are as follows: 1. The student will be able to identify electricity as the most important technological development in the history of telecommunication. 2. The student will be able to discuss, systemmatically, aspects of telecommunication history as they relate to the development of technology or social change. 3. The student will be able to explain why electric technology easily superceded earlier forms of telecommunication. 4. The student will utilize questions and answers from the lecture to construct a history of telecommunication, identifying what he/she considers major historical occurences. Once these objectives were written, it became obvious that the script as originally dictated contained a certain amount of extranneous material, that while interesting, contributed to the overloading of an already information packed script. It also became apparent that all information in the original script was given equal weight, with no hint to the learner as to what he was expected to remember. There was also no indication to the student if he was expected to learn facts or concepts. Examinations in TC 120 were generally objective in nature and tended to test information recall more than conceptual understanding. The project director, however, expressed a desire to stress conceptual learning over information recall. Taking this into consideration, I decided that the best approach was to gear the design of the project to an essay examination post-test that could easily test the student's understanding of concepts dealt with in the lecture. The unit was aimed at non-major freshmen students at Michigan State University, enrolled in TC 120, "Telecommunication in the U.S.". However, even at this point, consideration was given to the possibility of expanding the project to include persons with an avocational rather than professional interest in telecommunication. At any rate, the unit as designed assumed a high school education. Based upon this information, a preliminary prototype was created to test the instructional instrument. The project was left in slide/tape format. A great deal of extranneous material was deleted from the script and a new audio tape was recorded. In writing the first proto- type, I attempted to create a program that would make the student aware of general trends in the history of telecommunication. Instruc- tional strategies of repetition and feedback were utilized. A series of open ended questions were asked at the end of each unit to heighten interaction between the student and the slide/tape. These also helped the student weigh and determine the importance of information delivered in the slide/tape presentation. The open ended questions were geared toward a post-test of the essay type. Students were required to use information learned from the slide/tape to construct histories and determine causes with greatest influence on the development of early telecommunication history. A test group was gathered to evaluate the prototype. It consisted of currently enrolled majors who were taking TC 310. The test group was small, nine students. Students in TC 310, "Basic Telecommunication Policy", are generally juniors or seniors. Entry behavior was not tested for, since none of them had had specific course work in the history of telecommunication. The first section of the slide/tape, dealing with basic telecommunication theory, was used to prepare the learner for the history unit. Students were instructed to use paper and pencil to take notes during the presentation and to answer any questions asked during the presentation. They were also asked to inform the proctor if they did not have enough time to finish answering a questions before the answer was given. The post-test was completed without the assistance of notes. Upon completion of the post-test, each student completed a questionnaire called the "Student Reactionnaire". The slide/tape was not successful. Students were generally unhappy with the format because they considered slide/tape too static and uninteresting. They also felt that too much information was covered too rapidly. However, performance on the post-test ranged from adequate to excellent with scores from 73% to 100%. According to test subjects, the post-test did a good job of testing what they had learned from the slide/tape; this reinforced our decision to gear the unit toward an essay post-test. The design strategies of repetition and feedback were considered quite helpful. However, the subjects found the content very boring, with the exception of the section on the optical telegraph. IMost expressed the belief that the subject of the slide/tape was of little or no concern to them. This probably stems from the general attitude toward history expressed in the "Student Reactionnaire". IMost students, then, had no interest in the subject area coming into the presentation, and the slide/tape did not increase their interest. While these problems generally fall into the affective or attitudinal domain, they were still considered of great importance since some mass distribution of the product is anticipated at a later date. A.need was therefore determined to make the product more interesting and more related to student perceived needs. Evaluation of the first prototype led the project director to the conclusion that it should be recycled before it could be used in the classroom. So it was sent back to rewrite. Further evaluation by Dr. Gustafson brought the advisability of including higher order objectives 10 to our attention. The Second Prototype: The first step in developing the second prototype was the rewriting of objectives. At this point, objectives were broken down into two categories, terminal objectives and enabling objectives. Terminal objectives describe those behaviors that are expected of a learner upon the completion of the learning activity. Enabling objectives describe the knowledge or skills prerequisite to achieving terminal objectives. Enabling objectives are as follows, given that the student will be able to: l. Correctly define telecommunication. 2. Correctly define feedback. 3. Give an example of noise that may occur when communicating with smoke signals. 4. Explain what a semaphore is. 5. Explain Galileo's contribution to the optical telegraph. 6. Explain how the French.Revolutionary Government contributed to the development of the optical telegraph. 7. List the disadvantages of the semaphore. 8. Describe the modern uses of the semaphore. 9. Explain how C;M; contributed to the electric telegraph. 10. Correctly describe how the earliest electric telegraph systems were designed. ll. Explain the contribution of Galvani and Volta to the electric telegraph.’ 11 12. Discuss the effect of the deflecting needle on the electric telegraph. 13. Describe the use of the Cooke-Wheatstone Telegraph in England. 14. Name Morse's two contributions to the electric telegraph. 15. Describe the contribution of Hiram Sibley to the growth of telegraph in the U.S. 16. Specify the events that kept the U.S. government from pur- chasing the Morse patents. 17. Discuss the contribution of general agents like Kendall and Smith to the growth of the telegraph in the U.S. l8. Explain how Kendall and Smith used control of the Morse patents to encourage telegraph development in the U.S. 19. Discuss the problems caused by the split in geographical control by Kendall and Smith. 20. Describe how Western Union created a power base for itself. 21. Explain how western Union consolidated the minor companies into a national monopoly. 22. Discuss the impact of "lightning" information on life in the U.S. 23. Identify those organizations that initiated news service in the U.S. and Europe. 24. Describe how the development of news services in the U.S. influenced economic control of the telegraph. 25. Name the material used to insulate the transatlantic cable. 26. Draw a cross-sectional diagram of a transatlantic cable. 12 27. Explain why Cyrus Field dropped the transatlantic project after the third attempt. 28. Identify the cause of most unsuccessful layings of the transatlantic cable. 29. Describe the primary responsibility of the ITU. 30. Name the two major telegraph unions formed before 1865. 31. Describe how international messages were sent before the joinder of lines. 32. Explain why the Morse Code was generally accepted as an international code. 33. List the three major points of the 1852 treaty between France and Prussia. 34. Chronologically list the system of priority established by the 1865 Convention of Paris. 35. Discuss the three important decisions made at the Paris Convention. 36. List the defects of the Morse Telegraph system. Terminal objectives have been divided into classifications that identify the level of learning. There are five basic classifications of objectives: identify, name, describe, order, construct. To identify means that the student, given the name of a class will be able to tell whether a specified object, event, or characteristic belongs in that class. To name means that the learner will be able to supply a label for a given characteristic, object, or event. In order to describe, the student must give the properties or characteristics of an object, characteristic or event. To order means 13 that the student will arrange two or more objects or events in a specified sequence. Finally, to construct means that the student will create a product using given specifications. The product may be a drawing, an essay, or a three dimensional object. Terminal objectives for this unit follow: IDENTIFY: 1. Shown examples of different types of semaphore systems presently used and other telecommunication systems, and given the word semaphore, the student will be able to correctly identify the semaphore systems. NAME: 2. Shown examples of different types of telegraph systems, the student will be able to correctly label each as a semaphore, electro- chemical, or electromagnetic telegraph system. DESCRIBE: 3. The student will be able to explain the inherent disadvantages of the semaphore system when compared with the electric system. 4. The student will be able to correctly explain the difference between voltaic and frictional electricity and the advantage of the former over the latter in terms of the telegraph. 5. The student will be able to discuss the social effects of rapid communication in the mid 19th Century. 6. The student will be able to discuss the need for a trans— atlantic cable, the need to develop new technology to implement it, and the causes of unsucceszul attempts. l4 7. The student will be able to explain the advantages and disadvantages of the Mbrse system when compared to other systems. 8. The student will be able to discuss the international implications of the U.S. system of telegraphy (private sector develop— ment) as it conflicts with the European system (public sector develop- ment) in terms of the ITU and U.S. representation in that organization. ORDER: 9. The student will be able to list in chronological order those technological developments that made the electric telegraph practical. 10. The student will be able to recount the chronology of Western Union's development into a national monopoly. 11. The student will be able to chronologically explain the development of the semaphore telegraph. 12. The student will be able to give a step by step description of how the transatlantic cable was constructed. CONSTRUCT: 13. Given modern policy decisions in international telecommuni- cation, the student will be able to write an essay relating them to policy decisions made by the Convention of Paris, 1865, and the France and Prussia Treaty, 1852. 14. The student will be able to construct a history of the effect of war on the development of the telegraph. 15. The student will demonstrate his understanding of the tele- communication model by fitting an example of a telecommunication system into that model. One terminal objective has been provided in the affective domain. 15 This simply means that we are looking for an attitudinal change on the part of students toward the subject of history. AFFECTIVE: 16. The student will demonstrate an increased interest in the history of telecommunication by so indicating on the "Student Reaction- naire", and by indicating interest in further application of history to the understanding of the present. After rewriting the objectives, even more material was determined to be extranneous and was deleted from the script. Consideration will be given to this material should a documentary be produced, since much of this information is interesting and contributes to a depth of understanding. Once objectives were established, strategies for reaching those objectives were devised. The major instructional strategy is that delivery of material will be expository. The material will reach the student via video tape; this will facilitate the use of movement to direct the student's attention. Also, within the means of presentation, the strategies of repetition and feedback will continue to be used, since they seemed helpful to the test group in the previous prototype. Each unit will contain a review to give the student an idea of the emphasis placed on various information. Questions asked at the end of each unit will give the student an idea of what he is expected to know, as well as some practice in recalling that information. Each question is answered immediately in order to give the student immediate feedback on how well he recalls the information. The student will be provided a workbook that he can use to record 16 correct answers, thereby giving him/her a well structured study guide. Students will continue to use a basic history text compiled by the project director, Dr. Muth, and several graduate students, as a reference and study aid for the history modules of TC 120. It is expected that the use of support materials of this nature will alleviate student problems with the amount of information delivered in the video tape production. While the second prototype has been developed, production will not occur at this point in time due to financial limitations on the Depart- ment of Telecommunication. Instead, a pilot, as discussed in the next chapter, will be produced and used to support application for outside funding to complete the project. Once production of the entire Basic Script as presented in this text has been completed, it will be tested and evaluated. Since this completed production is not anticipated for another year, no evaluation will appear in this text. CHAPTER II Producing the Pilot Due to the fact that the script presented in this text is part of a project to develop a university course, the project director, Dr. Thomas Muth, decided to use the facilities of Instructional and Public Television at Michigan State University. The original plan was to complete production of the entire Basic Script, but after discussions with IPTV representatives the decision was made to prepare a pilot, which could accompany grant applications. Both IPTV's schedule and the amount of money needed to complete the entire script were taken into consideration in making the decision. Also a mitigating factor in the decision to produce only a small part of the Basic Script was the perceived potential difficulty in acquiring adequate visual material. Because of the antiquity of the historical period, much material is simply no longer available. Visuals that are available are often confusing and those that could be used often require costly license or a complex process of clearance by copyright holders. Therefore, the visual column of the Basic Script includes only suggested visual information. An indication of the type of medium to be used is made where possible. The audio column is paragraphed in such a way as to indicate when there is a change in visual information. The small segment of the script in.production is included in this text as the Production Script and is complete in its visual information. 17 18 The problem of finding adequate visual information has plagued this project throughout the pre-production stage of the pilot. The best visuals available have often had to be rejected due to copyright problems or inability to reach the source. Attempts will continue to be made between the production of the pilot and the production of the complete script to gain access to this material. An early problem encountered in creating the Basic Script was whether or not to direct it specifically to MSU students as was originally planned, or to create a documentary on the subject that could be directed to the general public. Discussions with Robert Muhlbach, IPTV Program Manager, led us to the conclusion that perhaps two productions could be created in the final editing stage, one an instructional unit and one a documentary for mass distribution. Mr. IMuhlbach suggested that the two could then be tested against one another for teaching effectiveness. In addition, the Basic Script was designed in such a way that it could, with minimal trouble, be converted into a two-way interactive program, for use over a cable television system. Discussion with my IPTV contact, Larry MbMMllen, Producer/Director, led to a division of job responsibilities. I am acting as writer and producer of the project and he is filling the responsibilities of director. I have been charged with supplying IPTV with the visual and audio material they need to convert the script into a viable tele- vision production. IPTV will be used for all production services. In order to defray costs, the Department of Telecommunication has granted me access to a small account fund to absorb any production costs that cannot be assumed by IPTV. 19 At the time of this writing, all visual material has been collected for the pilot. A carpenter has been located who will build models of telegraph systems used in the late 18th Century, making it possible to demonstrate how the optical telegraph worked. Graphics are being produced by IPTV in order to clarify many of the concepts dealt with. we are in the process of considering audio material. A recording session was held in late May of this year for the purpose of supplying background music for this production. The artists, a jazz group called "Common Bond" created original music to use for this purpose. A narrator has not yet been found, but selection is expected in the near future. The production deadline is presently set for mid-September. Upon completion, a copy of the video tape will be available for viewing through the Department of Telecommunication. CHAPTER III Basic Script "A History of Telecommunication: The Telegraph" #l MONTAGE: VARIOUS MEDIA OF TELECOMMUNICATION #2 GROUP USING TWO—WAY INTERACTIVE CABLE #3 CHILDREN VIEWING VIOLENT PROGRAMMING #4 FIBER OPTICS The media of telecommunication are tremendously important to our every- day lives. As their importance grows, so does their potential for influencing our lives. As a result, we, as a society, need to better understand these media in order to manipulate them to suit our needs, and in order to deal with any possible detrimental effects. The goal of this series of programs is to help you understand how the technology and policy of present day telecommunication developed. We want you to understand how and why telecommunication has reached its present state of development. 20 #5.MONTAGE: EUROPEAN AND ASIAN TELEVISION USE #6 TELEPHONE SWITCHING #7 SATELLITE/PHONE USAGE #8 CABLE POTENTIAL. NEWSPAPER DELIVERY, LIBRARY TELECAST, ETC. #9 VARIOUS TELECOMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT FROM ALL ERAS 21 You should be able to recognize that the U.S. system of telecommunication is different than most systems in the world and this difference has grown out of historic events as they occurred in the U.S. and in Europe. You should understand how the tech- nology works and how each new development depends upon previous technology. You should also understand how social and political policy has evolved from the earliest stages of telecommunication. Finally, you should be able to predict where telecommunication is likely to go in the future. Until recently there has been little compilation of the history of tele- communication. We will, therefore, attempt to familiarize you with that history. First of all, we need to 22 define some terms. #10 GRAPHIC: SOURCE The point of origin of all communi- cation is called the source. #11 GRAPHIC: MESSAGE The source produces a message #12 GRAPHIC: CHANNEL which is transmitted on a channel #13 GRAPHIC: RECEIVER to a receiver. #14 GRAPHIC: SfiMfilfR ' This is a basic communication model. #15 TWO PERSONS CONVERSING What occurs when two persons have a conversation? The source produces a message - in other words, #16 GRAPHIC: SOURCE+ENCODER one person encodes a message into some form of language. #17 GRAPHIC: SOURCE+ENCODER+ This encoded message is transmitted CHANNEL across a channel, usually sound waves, #18 GRAPHIC: SOURCEeENCODER» and the message is then decoded by CHANNEL+DECODER»RECEIVER the receiver. Obviously, both the 23 source and receiver must understand the code. #19 RECIVER GIVING CUE - NOT The receiver returns cues to the UNDERSTANDING source indicating whether or not he understands the message. #20 GRAPHIC: FEEDBACK This is called feedback. #21 GRAPHIC: Feedback, according to Sydney Head, + +-MESSAGE +- + has a circular and continuous SOURCE RECEIVER + + FEEDBACK +' + character. Information about how recipients are reacting comes back to the source. This allows the source to modify subsequent messages to gain the desired reaction. If feedback indicates that the receiver understands the message, all is well; however, interference may make it difficult or impossible for the receiver to decode the message. #22 GRAPHIC: NOISE This interference is called noise. #23a LACK OF UNDERSTANDING For example: the receiver may not understand the source's code, the #23b PREOCCUPATION #23c DISTRACTION #24 GRAPHIC: "NOISE" SOURCE +-+-+-+-+-RECEIVER #25 GRAPHIC: #26 GRAPHIC: #27 GRAPHIC: FEEDBACK TELECOMMUNICATION SHANNON-WEAVER MODEL NOISE DETAIL 24 receiver may be preoccupied with other matters, or may be distracted by some environmental factor. Feedback should make it possible for the source to detect that noise. The definition of telecommunication is simply: to communicate across or at a distance. This is the Shannon-Weaver model of telecommunication developed at Bell Laboratories in 1947. It is the basis for most contemporary telecommunication applications. Notice that the noise factor is built into this model. we are developing our own model of telecommunication for use in this series of programs. This model is based upon the Shannon-weaver model, but will be broken down into more specific parts. #28 GRAPHIC: SOURCE+ENCODER+ CHANNEL+DECODER+RECEIVER #29 GRAPHIC: SOURCE+COMMUNICATION ENCODERfiTELECOMMUNICATION ENCODER» CHANNEL+TELECOMMUNICATION DECODER+ COMMUNICATION DECODER 25 First of all, we need to translate the Shannon-Weaver model into our terms. The element called the transmitter in the Shannon-weaver model is what we call the encoding element and the signal is the chan- nel. The receiver will be referred to as the decoding element. Shan- non-Weaver is a technical model; the terms transmitter and receiver refer to the electrical devices, radio transmitter, radio receiver. In telecommunication, the encoding and the decoding elements of the model are complex. IModern telecom- munication depends upon the trans- formation of information into elec- trical impulses. The message is: encoded into human language, then encoded into electrical impulses, relayed across the physical channel, electronically decoded by TV or ra- dio receiver, or by computer read- out terminal, then decoded by the human hearing or sight mechanism. #30 GRAPHIC: TELECOM TELECOM ENCODERfiCHANNEL+DECODER + +-+-+-+-+-+-+—+ #31 GRAPHIC: COMM TELECOM TELECOM ENCODERfiENCODERfiCHANNELfiDECODER+ COMM . DECODER #32 GRAPHIC: S+CE+TE+C+TD+CD+R 26 Feedback, in the telecommunication sense, generally will refer to elec- trical information sent from the telecommunication decoding component to the telecommunication encoding component. One form of such feed- back is the howl that occurs if a microphone is set up too closely to speakers. However, feedback is not always negative. Station engineers continually monitor equipment that tells them if transmission is going as it should. Remember, in a telecommunication model, two types of encoding and decoding occur simultaneously. The telecommunication encoding and decoding are what we are primarily concerned with. From this point on, the terms encoding and decoding will refer to the telecommunication process, unless otherwise indicated. This is the model of telecommunica- tion we will be using. #33 TRANSMITTER TOWER #34 GRAPHIC: SPECTRUM WITH RADIO WAVES, LIGHT WAVES, AND SOUND WAVES INDICATED #35 MONTAGE: EXAMPLES OF VARIOUS ENCODING DEVICES #36 GRAPHIC: S+CE+TE+C+TD+CD+R 27 Generally, modern telecommunication employs electronic systems, radio waves and possibly light waves to transmit information. Radio waves and light waves are simply waves in the radio and light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Notice the location of the radio and light portions of the spectrum as opposed to the sound wave portion of the spectrum. Throughout the history of telecom- munication, a number of sources, codes, channels, receivers, and modes of feedback have been employed to communicate across distances. All conform to this basic model of telecommunication. This telecommunication model can be broken down as follows: the source codes a message into human language, it is then coded into electronic #37 GRAPHIC: TRANSMITTER, RADIO WAVES, ETC., IN PROPER PART OF MODEL #38 DEFINE TELECOMMUNICATION. 28 impulses, transmitted on a physical channel, either natural or man made; it is decoded by a receiving mechanism and translated into meaningful language for the receiver. Noise, or interference, is relayed from the decoding mechanism to the encoding mechanism, where corrections can be made. A radio station transmitter is thus part of the encoding process, the radio waves upon which the message is transmitted are the channel, the radio receiver is the decoding mechanism and the receiver is the consumer. The source may be considered the station in general, the disc jockey, the recording artist, or the advertiser whose message is being transmitted. iMUSIC UNDER 29 #39 TELECOMMUNICATION: TO COMMUNICATE AT OR ACROSS A DISTANCE. #40 WHAT IS FEEDBACK? #41 FEEDBACK IS INFORMATION SENT FROM THE RECEIVER TO THE SOURCE (IN COMMUNICATION) OR FROM THE DECODER TO THE ENCODER (IN TELE- COMMUNICATION). IT INDICATES RECIPIENT RESPONSE 0R LOCATES NOISE ALONG THE CHANNEL, SO THAT THE SOURCE OR THE ENCODER MAY MAKE NEEDED CORRECTIONS IN TRANSMITTING INFORMATION. #42 REPRODUCE THE TELECOMMUNICATION MODEL AND GIVE AN EXAMPLE FOR EACH COMPONENT PART. #43 SENDER: RADIO STATION. COMM ENCODER: DISC JOCKEY'S VOICE. TELECOM ENCODER: STATION TRANS— METTER. CHANNEL: ,RADIO WAVES. TELECOM DECODER: RADIO RECEIVER. COMM DECODER: HEARING MECHANISM OF LISTENER. RECEIVER: #44 MONTAGE: VARIOUS NONWESTERN SOCIETIES #45 AFRICAN DRUMMER #46 GRAPHIC: SOURCE+ MESSAGE DRUM SOUND PLAIN +BEATS+WAVES+ LANGUAGE TRAINED ‘MESSAGE INTENDED LISTENERfiPLAIN *RECEIVER LANGUAGE LISTENER. 3O MUSIC OUT In nonwestern civilization, various encoding devices have been employed to transmit information considerable distances. The relay of drum signals was used extensively, especially in Sub- Saharan Africa. How does the use of drums fit into the telecommunication model? What would be the encoding device? What about possible feed- back? Possible noise? The source determines his message, encodes it by a drum code (the drum is the encoding device). Sound waves are the channel. The decoding device is anyone that understands the drum code. The decoder may or may not be the intended receiver. 31 Noise might occur in the guise of a thunderstorm, or any loud activity between the source and intended receiver. Feedback may or may not occur, and is not very likely. The source, if aware of noise along the channel would be unlikely to attempt communication. #47 FILM: PIGEONS FLYING OVER A The Persians sometimes released MOSQUE homing pigeons to disseminate a common message to many parts of their Empire. #48 PAINTING: .AMERINDS USING> Many tribal societies used smoke SMOKE SIGNALS from fire to encode messages which could be transmitted from one high point to another. What might be an example of noise, when communicating with smoke signals? #49 GRAPHIC: WIND Noise: wind. #50 DRAWING: ROMAN SIGNAL FIRES In early western history, the use of signal fires was also utilized by the Greeks and Romans, #51 RIDER ON HORSEBACK #52 GALILEO AT TELESCOPE #53 DRAWING: HOOKES DESCRIBING OPTICAL TELEGRAPH #54 CHAPPE'S FIRST VISUAL SYSTEM 32 but until the invention of the tele- scope, the speed of communication was generally limited to the speed of the fastest runner or horse, about twenty miles per hour maximum. In 1611, Galileo took a Dutch invention, the telescope, modified it, and began to use it to observe the planets. He had opened the potential for rapid visual telecommunication. Seventy years later, Robert Hookes, an English physicist and chemist provided an outline for a system of visual telegraph. ,Although Hookes provided details for such a system, none Was attempted. Throughout the early history of telecommunication, the English are rarely innovators, perhaps held back by their social and political conservatism. Hooke's system provided a model for the French engineer, Claude Chappé, #55 PAINTING: BATTLEFIELD #56IMAP: PARIS TO LILLE 33 who worked on various types of opt- ical possibilities before developing an efficient telegraph between 1790 and 1795, more than 150 years after the development of the telescope. This is the first Optical telegraph developed by Chappé. The absolute Size of the clock face and pointer was the major limitation to this form of telegraphy. Unfortunately, as is often the case in the field of telecommunication, the first practical use of the optical telegraph was destined to be during warfare. The 1790's found France in the midst of the French Revolution, and sur- rounded by enemy European forces. The French Revolutionary Government recognized the battlefield advantage of rapid communication with its arm- ies. Knowing of Chappé's work, they commissioned him, in 1793, to dev- elop a telegraph between Paris and #57 CHAPPE #58 DETAIL #59IMAP: IN FRANCE '8 SEMAPHORE TELEGRAPH SYSTEM 34 Lille, about 230 kilometers. This is the telegraph that Chappé developed. He used existing or Specially constructed wooden towers and placed a vertical upright on top. A horizontal beam which could be moved into various angles by ropes was attached to the vertical upright, and at each end of the beam, two movable arms were attached. As you can see, this type of apparatus provides a wide range of possible configurations which permit signalling in code. The French called this system a semaphore system. A semaphore is simply a visual telegraph. When finally superceded by electric telegraphy, Chappé's system covered France with a network of 556 sema- phore stations covering a total distance of 4800 kilometers. #60 REFERENT MATERIAL: 1790 #61 MURRAY'S TELEGRAPH #62 U.S. SEMAPHORE ENGLAND 35 Once the system's inherent value was proven, the English became very interested. Reports of Chappé's telegraph reached England in the autumn of 1794, about the time that the first messages of military successes were being transmitted on the original Paris/Lille line. Realizing its military significance, Lord George Murray proposed a system of visual telegraph to the British Admiralty. This is Murray's telegraph. Each of these boards contains six large circular holes which can be Opened and closed by wooden shutters. Murray's telegraph system remained in use in England until 1847. The first visual telegraph built in the U.S. was designed by Jonathan Grout in 1800 and signalled arrivals of ships to Boston, from Martha's Vineyard. This painting shows a similar system on Staten Island that 36 announced ship arrivals to the city of New York. What types of "noise" would you expect with a visual telegraph system? #63 GRAPHIC: VISUAL INTERFERENCE Examples are fog and rain. You may have thought of others. 'Many things interfere with visual communication. #64 SOLDIERS READING SEMAPHORE On clear days, the visual telegraph provided the fastest means of communication in its day. #65 MAP: LONDON - PLYMOUTH For example, a signal was transmitted from London to Plymouth and back in three minutes, a distance of 500 miles. #66 GRAPHIC: LIST OF There are disadvantages to the sema- DISADVANTAGES phore system other than the obvious visual interference; they required several men to operate each station, making them very expensive; and they were seen as having only one purpose — military defense, so were not open for use by the general public as a #67 MARITIME SEMAPHORE #68 TRAIN SEMAPHORE #69 GALILEO AT TELESCOPE #70 CHAPPE'S TELEGRAPH #71 THE DIRECTORY 37 common carrier. However, semaphore systems are still used today. Signals passed between ships at sea are often optical, using flags or lights, and metal flags and lights are used to signal train engineers of traffic conditions on the track. Galileo's adaptation of the tele- scope for scientific purposes made the visual telegraph feasible. Robert Hookes provided the idea for the visual telegraph, his designs were developed by the French engin- eer, Claude Chappé. It is appropri- ate to note that the designs for a visual telegraph.were available for nearly one hundred years before they were put to use, and that the caty- list for implementation was war. The French Revolutionary Government #72 BRITISH SEMAPHORE #73 AMERICAN SEMAPHORE #74 SOLDIERS READING SEMAPHORE 38 capitalized upon Chappé's work on the visual telegraph when they real- ized that it would give them a mili- tary advantage if they could commun- icate with their armies more rapidly than their enemies could. They put the semaphore to use to their advan— tage during the period of war at the height of the French Revolution. Seeing a good thing, other countries soon followed suit. Because it was first used for war and because of its expense, this telegraph is primarily associated with defense. Within six years of its initial use, both the British and the Americans had utilized the idea, again, for military or quasi-military purposes. The disadvantages of the semaphore system are: its expense, potential for interference - it cannot be used at night - and its one purpose orientation. 39 #75 RAILWAY SEMAPHORE Semaphore systems are still used today on ships and by the railways. MUSIC UNDER #76 WHAT IS A SEMAPHORE? #77 A SEMAPHORE IS A VISUAL TELEGRAPH. #78 WHAT WAS GALILEO'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE VISUAL TELEGRAPH? #79 GALILEO DEVELOPED THE TELESCOPE FOR SCIENTIFIC PURPOSES, OR FOR VIEWING AT GREAT DISTANCES. #80 HOW DID THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY GOVERNMENT.AID THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TELEGRAPH? #81 THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT RECOGNIZED THE MILITARY ADVANTAGE OF RAPID COM- MUNICATION WITH ITS ARMIES. CHAPPE WAS COMMISSIONED TO DEVELOP A LINE OF 40 SEMAPHORE TELEGRAPH. ITS SUCCESS CONVINCED OTHER COUNTRIES TO FOLLOW SUIT. #82 WHAT ARE THE MAJOR DISADVANTAGES OF THE SEMAPHORE SYSTEM? #83 EXPENSIVE, PRONE TO INTERFERENCE AND CONFINED TO THE PUBLIC SECTOR FOR DEFENSE PURPOSES. #84 WHERE IS THE SEMAPHORE STILL USED TODAY? #85 RAILWAYS AND.AT SEA. #86 FIT AN EXAMPLE OF SEMAPHORE USE INTO THE TELECOMMUNICATION MODEL. #87 SOURCE: FRENCH GOVERNMENT. TELECOM ENCODER: SEMAPHORE. CHANNEL: LIGHT WAVES. TELECOM DECODER: TELESCOPE. RECEIVER: FRENCH ARMIES. FEEDBACK: ,MAN WITH TELESCOPE IN lsT STATION CAN SEE 2ND STATION'S MESSAGE AND KNOWS IF IT IS CORRECT. #88 CHAPPE . s TELEGRAPH #89 GRAPHIC: CLM.'S TELEGRAPH 41 MUSIC OUT The optical telegraph was useful, but was rapidly superceded by the electric telegraph since electricity has a greater capacity for speed and because a semaphore system of telegraph is inherently dependent upon good visibility. The earliest mention of electric telegraphy predates the American Revolution and is recorded in a 1754 edition of Scots thazine. The author, identified only as C.ML, suggests the stringing of a wire for each desired character between two stations. Then, when electrical impulses are sent through the desired combinations of characters, balls attached to each of the wires at the receiving end will indicate which letters or characters are being transmitted. #90 STATIC ELECTRICITY MACHINE #91 GRAPHIC: 18TH CENTURY MODEL #92 LEYDEN JARS #93 SIR RONALD'S TELEGRAPH 42 The proposal by C.M; would have undoubtedly relied upon a machine of this nature. This is a simple friction machine which produces electrostatic energy. An 18th Century version would have consisted of a glass cylinder rotated rapidly by hand against a leather cushion. In 1787, a Spaniard named Betancourt used Leyden Jars, the predecessor of batteries, and static electricity to send telegraphic messages between 'Madrid and Aranjuez. It is believed that this type of system was used by the Spanish Royal Family, to communicate between the two cities. A number of static electricity tele- graph systems were worked on, but ended in failure because frictional electricity is erratic and unstable. For example, one was proposed to the British.Admira1ty as early as 1816, #94 MURRAY'S SEMAPHORE #95 BOLT OF LIGHTNING #96 PHYSICS ExPERIMENT 43 but the inventor was told that the present system of semaphore tele- graph was far superior. The British could not forsee any possible use of a telegraph system other than the one presently in use and that only during warfare; they were at peace. Despite the British Admiralty's resistance to the electric tele- graph, basic scientific experiments were being done on electricity that would make the electric telegraph an outstanding success. Of primary importance is the work by.Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani. They were able to develop electricity of a much lower pressure than that of the frictional variety. Frictional electricity attempts to seek ground as rapidly as possible, and therefore dissipates rapidly and often with a great surge of energy, thus making it very diffi- cult to control and very dangerous. #97 PHYSICS EXPERIMENT #98 PHYSICS EXPERIMENT #99 SOEMMERRING DEMONSTRATING HIS TELEGRAPH 44 Voltaic electricity is best compared to direct current batteries as we know them today. The current is direct, constant, slow to dissipate, and easy to control. An early phenomenon observed with voltaic electricity is the decom- position of water into its component parts: hydrogen and oxygen. This led to the proposal that the rise of hydrogen bubbles might be used to send telegraphic messages, thus pro- posing an electrochemical telegraph. S.T. von Soemmerring demonstrated such a telegraph system to the IMunich Academy of Science in 1809. The column to the right is a voltaic pile; the electric current travels from it to the chosen keys, then to the water tank to your far left, where hydrogen bubbles rise from stimulated electrodes at the bottom of the tank. #100 SOEMMERRING TELEGRAPH #101 LESAGE TELEGRAPH #102 STATIC ELECTRICITY MACHINE #103 WHAT WAS THE CONTRIBUTION OF C.M.? 45 Soemmerring's telegraph, and most early telegraph systems proposed the use of a single wire for each letter of the alphabet and any punctuation. Thus, most systems contemplated the use of 35 or more wires, in a bundle, for transmission. This is a consistent feature of early electric telegraphy until the development of the deflecting needle. Earliest attempts at electric telegraphy also employed frictional electricity. 'Volta's and Galvani's work on electricity of a lower pressure made the electric telegraph feasible, since this type of electricity was more controllable. MMSIC UNDER 46 #104 C.M. PUBLISHED A LETTER IN THE SCOTS MAGAZINE DESCRIBING HOW AN ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH COULD BE BUILT. THIS IS THE FIRST MENTION OF ELECTRICAL TELEGRAPHY. #105 WHAT CONTRIBUTION DID GALVANI AND VOLTA MAKE? #106 GALVAN I AND VOLTA EDCPERIMENTED ON ELECTRICITY OF A LOWER PRESSURE THAN FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY. THIS FORM WAS MORE CON TROLLABLE , THEREFORE SAFER . #107 THE USE OF A SINGLE WIRE TO TRANSMIT ENTIRE TELEGRAPHIC MESSAGES WAS NOT EVIDENT IN EARLY ELECTRICAL TELEGRAPHY . HOW WERE THESE EARLY SYSTEMS DESIGNED? #108 MOST EARLY SYSTEMS CALLED FOR STRINGING A WIRE FOR EACH LETTER OF THE ALPHABET AND PUNCTUATION . ABOUT 35 WIRES WOULD HAVE TO BE STRUNG FROM ONE STATION TO THE NEXT TO RELAY A MESSAGE. #109 SOEMMERRING TELEGRAPH #110 OERSTED EXPERIMENT 47 MUSIC OUT A number of persons were involved with experiments on the development of electric telegraph systems prior to Samuel Morse. S.T. von Soemmer- ring, you remember, demonstrated an electrochemical telegraph as early as 1809. An observer of that demon- stration was a Russian, Pavel Schilling. Schilling conducted experiments that attempted to use the principles of the Soemmerring telegraph to develop an electro- magnetic telegraph. About 1820, a professor at the Uni- versity of Copenhagen observed the movement of a compass needle when surrounded by electric current. Schilling learned of this discovery and within fifteen years had utiliz- ed an electromagnetic or deflecting #111 SCHILLING TELEGRAPH #112 COOKE TELEGRAPH 48 needle for the purpose of sending telegraphic messages. By controlling the flow of electricity around the needle, messages could be sent. The development of the deflecting needle opened the door for single wire telegraphy. Czar Nicholas I of Russia estab- lished a commisssion to look into the possiblity of erecting a Schilling telegraph line between Peterhoff and St. Petersburg in 1837; however, Schilling died and the project was postponed. Englishman William F. Cooke saw a demonstration of Schilling's telegraph in 1836 and constructed several variations which he hoped to use on the Liverpool- Manchester Railroad. Cooke met many difficulties and so formed a partnership with Professor Charles Wheatstone of King's College, London, to develop the #113 MAP: LONDON-WEST DRAYTON #114 TRAINS IN MOTION #115 SUPER BOBBY OVER COOKE TELEGRAPH 49 telegraph. They secured a patent in 1837. The Liverpool-Manchester Railroad was not interested, but directors of the Great Western Railway were impressed with the Cooke-Wheatstone experiments and commissioned the two to install a telegraph line between Paddington Station in London and West Drayton, a distance of 21 kilometers. The telegraph was operating by July 1839. Other railroads followed suit, and by 1845, the partnership was receiving substantial royalties for the patents on its telegraph. The railway telegraph was used to transmit information on traffic conditions and arrivals and depart- ures from one station to the next. In January 1845, the Paddington-West Drayton telegraph line was used to apprehend a murder suspect who #116 MAP: TELEGRAPH IN ENGLAND #117 PORTRAIT OF MORSE #118 MORSE CURCUIT 5O happened to board the train. The ability of the electric message to travel faster than the 45 mph train made the incident the talk of London and the telegraph more acceptable. The Cooke-Wheatstone telegraph continued operation on the British Railway system, and by 1852 was operating some four thousand miles of telegraph lines. Samuel F.B. Mbrse was known as an American painter of historical scenes and had gained some distinction by the early 1830's During a voyage from Europe where he studied art, he learned of electro- magnets from a demonstration by a fellow passenger. IMOrse was impressed with the device and sketched various ideas for using an electromagnet as the receiver for an electric telegraph. #119 MORSE TELEGRAPH #120 PORTRAIT OF VAIL #121 MORSE CODE 51 MOrse planned to use the passage of electric current through an electro— magnet in such a way as to mark on a moving strip of paper. This would permit permanent recordings of tele- graphic messages, a distinct new contribution to the telegraph. However, Morse lacked the mechanical expertise to construct a telegraph transmitter/receiver, so in 1837 he joined with Alfred Vail to develop the telegraph. Not only did the two improve the mechanical workings of the telegraph but they developed a simple signal code, the Morse Code, to make message transmission easier. Many suspect that the MOrse Code is really the work of Vail. It uses a basic statistical principle by assigning the Simplest of code symbols to the most frequently used letters of the alphabet. #122 PAINTING: OPENING OF LINE #123 PORTRAIT OF SIBLEY 52 In the early 1800's, Congress became interested in developing a telegraph. Legislators were most interested in developing a semaphore telegraph system to use for defense purposes. However, by 1843, Mbrse was able to obtain a thirty thousand dollar subsidy to construct an electric telegraph from Washington, D.C. to Baltimore. This line opened in 1845 and was acquired by private interests in 1847. For the next fifteen years, intensive competition developed among a large number of private telegraph companies as telegraph lines grew. These eventually merged into an oligopoly of six major corporations. The cOmpetition made communication difficult and expensive. In 1856, Hiram Sibley formed the western Union Telegraph Company. The previous years of competition had not resulted in rapid growth of the telegraph, and it was not until 53 the monopolistic growth of Western Union that the telegraph became a success in the United States. #124 TELEGRAPH LINES By 1866, Western Union owned or Operated 225 hundred offices and had expanded systems from 562 miles to 75 thousand miles. #125 SCHILLING TELEGRAPH Pavel Schilling applied the principles of S.T. von Soemmerring's electrochemical telegraph to his work on an electromagnetic telegraph. He used the discovery that a compass needle would deflect when surrounded by electric current to develop an electromagnetic needle for the purpose of sending telegraphic messages. #126 DEFLECTING NEEDLE EXPERIMENT By controlling the electric current around the needle, the movement of the needle could be controlled; the Schilling experiment set the stage for single wire telegraphy. #127 COOKE-WHEATSTONE TELEGRAPH #128 MORSE TELEGRAPH #129 MORSE CODE 54 Though Schilling died before his telegraphic system could be put into effect in Russia, his ideas were picked up by Cooke and Wheatstone in England. They were able to sell their idea for a telegraphic system to the Great Western Railway. This telegraph was used to send information of train arrivals and departures, and decreased the liklihood of collision. Samuel Mbrse made two major contri- butions to the electric telegraph. He was able to devise a way to use an electromagnet so that as the electricity flowed through it, it deflected a pen or pencil which in turn marked a message on a piece of moving paper. This made permanent recordings of messages possible. MORSE CODE UNDER Secondly, he devised with the help of Alfred Vail, the MOrse Code. #130 TELEGRAPH LINES #131 HOW DID THE UTILIZATION OF THE DEFLECTING NEEDLE CONTRIBUTE TO THE 55 The code gave Mbrse's one wire telegraphy one advantage over the Cooke-Wheatstone five wire system; less complex receivers could be used. The code also would have international implications because of its Simplicity. MORSE CODE OUT Hiram Sibley contributed to the electric telegraph in a social and political manner. Sibley's form- ation of western Union consolidated the growth of the electric telegraph in the U.S. and made it a successful means of communication. Competition in the area of telegraph had slowed growth and the success of Sibley's monopoly made it the prototype for future monopolies. MUSIC UNDER 56 DEVELOPMENT OF TIE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH? #132 TIE DEFLECTING NEEDLE MADE SINGLE WIRE TELEGRAPHY PRACTICAL. #133 WHAT WAS TIE PRIMARY USE OF TIE COOKE-WIEATSTONE TELEGRAPH BY TIE ENGLISH RAILWAYS? #134 TIE RAILWAYS USED TIE TELEGRAPH TO RELAY ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES, AND TO SEND EMERGENCY INFORMATION TO DECREASE TIE LIKLIHOOD OF COLLISION . #135 MORSE MADE TWO MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS T0 TIE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. WHAT WERE TIEY? #136 PERMANENT RECORDINGS OF TELE- GRAPHIC MESSAGES WERE POSSIBLE WITH MORSE 'S DEVELOPMENT OF A MOVING STRIP OF PAPER PASSING UNDER A DEFLECTING PEN. TIE MORSE CODE, A SIMPLE MEANS OF TRANSMITTING MESSAGES 57 DEVELOPMENT OF TIE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH? #132 TIE DEFLECTING NEEDLE MADE SINGLE WIRE TELEGRAPHY PRACTICAL. #133 WHAT WAS TIE PRIMARY USE OF TIE COOKE-WHEATSTONE TELEGRAPH BY TIE ENGLISH RAILWAYS? #134 TIE RAILWAYS USED TIE TELEGRAPH TO RELAY ARRIVALS AND DEPARTURES, AND TO SEND MRGENCY INFORMATION TO DECREASE TIE LIKLIHOOD OF COLLISIONS . #135 MORSE MADE TWO MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS TO TIE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. WHAT WERE TIEY? #136 PERMANENT RECORDINGS OF TELE- GRAPHIC MESSAGES WERE POSSIBLE WITH MORSE ' S DEVELOPMENT OF A MOVING STRIP OF PAPER THAT PASSED UNDER A DEFLECTING PEN. TIE MORSE CODE, A SIMPLE MEANS OF TRANSMITTING MESSAGES 58 WAS DEVELOPED WITH ALFRED VAIL. #137 WHAT NOTABLE CONTRIBUTION DID HIRAM SIBLEY MAKE? #138 SIBLEY FORMED WESTERN UNION, WHICH SUCCESSFULLY CONSOLIDATED TELEGRAPHIC SYSTEMS IN THE U.S. WESTERN UNION DEVELOPED INTO THE FIRST NATIONAL MONOPOLY IN THE U.S. #139 FIT AN ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH SYSTEM INTO THE TELECOMMUNICATION MODEL. #140 SOURCE: MESSAGE ORIGINATOR. COMM ENCODER: TELEGRAPH EMPLOYEE. TELECOM ENCODER: TELEGRAPH KEY. CHANNEL: TELEGRAPH WIRE. TELECOM DECODER: TELEGRAPH RECEIVER. COMM DECODER: TELEGRAPH EMPLOYEE. RECEIVER: MESSAGE DESTINATION. MUSIC OUT #141 REFERENT MATERIAL: U.S. IN MID 19TH CENTURY #142 MONTAGE: WESTWARD MOVEMENT #143 PORTRAIT OF KENDALL #144 PORTRAIT OF SMITH 59 From its inception in 1844, telegraphy grew to interconnect the United States in twenty short years. Originally, Mbrse and his associates hoped the U.S. government would pur- chase the Morse patents and operate telegraphy as an arm of the Post Office, as was done in Europe. Congress, however, was preoccupied with the Mexican and Indian wars, as well as with.westward movement, and did not take Morse's offer to sell his patents. Ownership of the U.S. telegraph developed in private hands until ultimately becoming a national monopoly as western Union. Mbrse, Vail, and several associates, most notably Amos Kendall, former Postmaster General under Jackson, and Maine congressman, F.0.J. Smith, Chairman of the House Commerce Committee, formed a partnership to develop a telegraph system. #145 MONTAGE: 19TH CENTURY TELEGRAPH EQUIPMENT #146 PUBLIC SUBSCRIPTION DRIVE 60 In exchange for financial and organizational support, the Morse associates participated in the ownership of a sizable portion of telegraphic systems constructed under Mbrse patent licenses. .As technology improved, entrepreneurs and organizers were attracted. Generally, these individuals were licensed to use the MOrse patents to develop telegraph routes throughout the eastern U.S. Some of the Morse associates also served as general agents for MOrse and Vail. They promoted the telegraph by forming companies and raising capital through public stock subscription drives. Kendall and Smith both functioned in this capacity. The first such company, "The Magnetic Telegraph", opened in January 1846 and transmitted messages from wall Street to Phila- delphia. Telegrams were carried part way by boat Since underwater 61 technology had not yet been developed. #147 GRAPHIC: LICENSING 0F Kendall was agent for 75% of the PATENTS Mbrse patents and Smith agent for 25%. They, in turn subcontracted the patents by licensing individual proprietors in various parts of the country to construct and operate telegraph lines. #148 MAP: GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION Kendall was to concentrate on devel- OF DEVELOPMENT opment in the south and New England, Smith in the north and west. The system was to be headquartered in New York. This approach caused numerous conflicts among sUbli- censees for communities and routes. #149 BAIN, HOUSE, HUGHES When conflicts became intense, they EQUIPMENT often turned to inventors of tele- graph systems competing with MOrse, like Bain, House, or Hughes. Mhny companies were undercapitalized, mismanaged, and technically unsound. The future of the telegraph looked #150 PORTRAIT OF SIBLEY #151 TRANSCONTINENTAL TELEGRAPH ROUTE 62 pretty dim. However, by 1856 some consolidation and reconstruction of original firms had taken place. In the process, many pioneering firms collapsed and were acquired by larger consolidated interests. In 1856, Western Union Telegraph Company was chartered by Hiram Sibley. He went to work picking up failing companies and by 1876 had created the most powerful corp- oration in the United States. In 1860, Congress decided to en- courage the development of a trans- continental telegraph with passage Of the Pacific Telegraph Act. The act authorized the Secretary of the Treasury to seek bids for sealed proposals to construct a telegraph line from the western boundry of Nflssouri to San Francisco. The lowest bid was to be accepted provided it did not exceed forty thousand dollars per year. The 63 act provided that the successful bidder would be paid for ten years. #152 CONTEMPORARY PHOTOS OR The government would provide public PAINTINGS: FRONTIER TELEGRAPH land for rights of way, poles, and stations. In exchange, the federal government established a maximum rate of three dollars per ten word message, and was to be allowed to transmit up to forty thousand dollars of messages free per year at that rate. #153 CONTEMPORARY PHOTOS OR Sibley's interests succeeded in PAINTINGS: BUILDING THE TRANS- securing the transcontinental CONTINENTAL TELEGRAPH construction contract despite the fact that three lower bids were submitted. All three bidders with- drew and it is assumed that they were bought out by Western Union. This contract gave Western Union more bargaining power and ability to accumulate smaller companies. By 1861, California was linked with New York by telegraph, seven years before transcontinental railways #154 MONTAGE: CIVIL WAR SCENES #155 RUNNING THE TELEGRAPH WIRE (1863) 64 were completed. The intervention of war once again established the need for rapid communication. The Civil War proved telegraphy critical to warfare. Message volume increased astonishingly during the war. However, companies concentrating on north/south service, like Cyrus Field's prestigious American Telegraph Company, lost revenue and their commercial base was destroyed. In contrast, east/west lines flourished and grew; Military dispatches were coordinated with commercial messages and the Union.Army constructed over fifteen thousand miles of line during the war. ,Anson Stager, Chief of the United States Military Telegraph also happened to be general manager of Western Union, thus furthering the corporation's interests. #156 GRAPHIC: EXPANSION OF WESTERN UNION CONTROL GEOGRAPHICALLY #157 GENERAL PUBLIC USING TELEGRAPH STATION 65 One by one, Western Union acquired its competitors. Originally, Sibley and others had encouraged the consolidation of all the minor companies into the North American Telegraph.Association. Once established, six major corporations divided the bulk of the nation's telegraph business between them. Gradually, however, through the Civil war, Western Union absorbed all competition until it stood alone as a national monopoly. There were no laws to deal with western Union's predatory potential until the passage of the Sherman Act in 1890. The impact of the telegraph on the nation's social and economic life was profound. The tempo of life increased as the "lightning" information transmissions destroyed barriers of time and distance. The dissemination of ideas throughout the country was stimulated and 66 accelerated. Telegraph revolution- ized the management of railways by instantaneous signalling. #158 NEW YORK NEWSPAPER FRONT It dispatched fresh news and it PAGE resulted in the formation of the Associated Press by New York newspapers. The AP in turn, became a monopoly in wire service. #159 MAP: TELEGRAPH COVERAGE OF Stock quotations were transmitted U.S. from one market to another, and the continent was connected in such a way as to assure national control by the federal government. #160 MONTAGE: WAR, WESTWARD Because the U.S. government was MOVEMENT preoccupied with the Mexican War, the Indian wars, and Manifest destiny or the westward movement, it turned down.Mbrse's offer to sell his patents. This meant that the telegraph would develop in private hands in the U.S., unlike the telegraph in Europe. #161 SUBSCRIPTION DRIVE #162 GRAPHIC: LICENSING OF PATENTS #163 MAP: GEOGRAPHIC DIVISION OF KENDALL AND SMITH 67 General agents like Kendall and Smith provided an important impetus to private development by forming small companies and selling stock to the general public to raise capital. In return for their financial and organizational support, Smith and Kendall retained ownership of a portion of the telegraphic systems constructed under Mbrse patents. They were also given control over a percentage of the Morse patents. They subcontracted their patent rights to individuals, who built telegraph systems in various geographical areas. Kendall and Smith had split up the country into four geographical areas and each had control of two. This created competition among subcon- tractors for geographical areas; when competition became too intense, the subcontractors turned to other #164 PORTRAIT OF SIBLEY #165 CIVIL WAR TELEGRAPH LINES 68 patent holders for licenses. This form of competition did nothing to promote the telegraph as a form of communication, and by 1856 some attempts were already being made to consolidate the minor companies into corporations. Western Union was formed by Hiram Sibley in 1856; his major objective was to consolidate as many companies as possible into one solid corporation. Western Union grew because it was able to gain the government contract for the transcontinental telegraph, giving it a stable income; and because it was in the right position when the Civil war came along to get its general manager appointed chief of military telegraph operations for the Union Army. ‘Western Union managed to become a monopoly by absorbing all of its competition. #166 MAP: GEOGRAPHICAL EXPANSION OF WESTERN UNION #167 PUBLIC USE OF THE TELEGRAPH #168 FRONT PAGE OF NEWSPAPER 69 First of all, Hiram Sibley and others managed to round up most of the competing companies into a Single association. At this point in time, most of the telegraphic business of the United States was being handled by six major corp- orations. Western Union picked up any small independents it could, and through the Civil war, was able to absorb the other five major corporations, one by one. The telegraph and its "lightning" information transmission had a tremendous effect on the social and political scene in America. The U.S. government was assured of cen- tralized control of the entire nation. Even California, three thousand miles west, couldn't separ- ate itself from the U.S. government. Ideas and news were disseminated rapidly to all parts of the country, making the man in Chicago as well 7O informed about the workings of Congress as the man in washington. #169 RAILWAY USE And the railways could be operated more efficiently and more safely because of the ability to signal instantaneously. This revolution- ized railway management. MUSIC UNDER #170 WHAT EVENTS KEPT THE U.S. GOVERNMENT FROM AGREEING TO PURCHASE THE MORSE PATENTS AND OPERATE THE TELEGRAPH, AS WAS GENERALLY DONE IN EUROPE? #171 THE U.S. GOVERNMENT WAS PREOCCUPIED WITH THE MEXICAN WAR, THE INDIAN WARS, AND THE MOVEMENT OF SETTLERS WESTWARD. #172 HOW DID GENERAL AGENTS LIKE KENDALL AND SMITH CONTRIBUTE TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TELEGRAPH IN THE U.S.? 71 #173 GENERAL AGENTS PROMOTED THE TELEGRAPH BY FORMING SMALL COMPANIES AND SELLING TELEGRAPH STOCK TO THE GENERAL PUBLIC TO RAISE CAPITAL. #174 KENDALL CONTROLLED 75% OF THE IMORSE PATENTS AND SMITH CONTROLLED 25%. HOW DID THEY ENCOURAGE THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TELEGRAPH THROUGH THIS CONTROL? #175 KENDALL AND SMITH SUBCONTRACTED THE MORSE PATENTS BY LICENSING INDIVIDUALS TO CONSTRUCT AND OPERATE TELEGRAPH LINES IN SPECIFIED GEOGRAPHICAL AREAS. #176 WHAT PROBLEMS WERE CAUSED BY SPLITTING THE NATION GEOGRAPHICALLY BETWEEN KENDALL AND SMITH? #177 INTENSE COMPETITION DEVELOPED AMONG THE SUBCONTRACTORS AND MANY TURNED TO MORSE PATENT COMPETITORS FOR LICENSES. 72 #178 HOW WAS WESTERN UNION ABLE TO CREATE A POWER BASE FOR ITSELF? #179 WESTERN UNION WAS ABLE TO WIN THE BID FOR THE TRANSCONTINENTAL TELEGRAPH LINE, GIVING THE CORPOR— ATION TEN YEARS OF STABLE INCOME. AND, DURING THE CIVIL WAR, WESTERN UNION'S GENERAL MANAGER ALSO ACTED AS CHIEF OF THE U.S. MILITARY TELEGRAPH, FURTHER PROMOTING THE CORPORATION'S INTERESTS. #180 HOW DID WESTERN UNION CONSOLIDATE THE MINOR TELEGRAPH COMPANIES INTO A NATIONAL MONOPOLY? #181 HIRAM SIBLEY AND OTHER MEMBERS OF WESTERN UNION ENCOURAGED THE FORMATION OF THE NORTH AMERICAN TELEGRAPH ASSOCIATION. ONCE FORMED, SIX MAJOR CORPORATIONS DIVIDED 'I'HE BULK OF THE U.S. TELEGRAPH BUSINESS BETWEEN THEM. WESTERN UNION TOOK OVER ANY SMALL INDEPENDENTS, AND THROUGHOUT THE CIVIL WAR BEGAN TO ABSORB ITS FIVE MAJOR COMPETITORS. #182 HOW DID THE TRANSMISSION OF "LIGHTNING" INFORMATION EFFECT LIFE IN THE UNITED STATES? 73 #183 DISSEMINATION OF IDEAS AND NEWS THROUGHOUT THE COUNTRY WAS ACCELER- ATED. AS THE TELEGRAPH BECAME MORE ACCEPTED, THE PAGE OF LIFE INCREASED. CENTRALIZED GOVERNMENT CONTROL WAS ASSURED. AND, RAILWAY MANAGEMENT WAS REVOLUTIONIZED. #184 GRAPHIC: ASSOCIATED PRESS AND REUTERS NEWS SERVICE #185 TELEGRAPH LINES ALONG RAILROAD MUSIC OUT The development of telegraphic news services made a major contribution to the development of the telegraph. Mbst important are the Associated Press in the U.S. and Reuters News Service in Europe. In the United States, the use of telegraph lines by news services ensured the economic control of the #186 MORSE SENDING lsT MESSAGE #187 PIGEON W/CODED WING 74 telegraph remained in the private sector. In Europe, while the con- trol of the telegraph never left public domain, a primary source of revenue was the newspapers. The same day that Samuel Morse sent his first telegraphic message in 1844, the telegraph in the U.S. be-. gan to be used for the transmission of news. By 1848, the publishers of the six major New York papers reached and agreement "to procure foreign news by telegraph from Boston in common". Thus the group saved money by not paying for duplicated services. By the 1860's this group was generally known as the Aesociated Press. Syndicated news service was initi- ated in Europe by Julius Reuter with his pigeon post. Prior to 1850, shipping arrivals, news releases, and stock quotations were transmit- ted throughout Europe by pigeons. #188 TELEGRAPH EQUIPMENT #189 MAP: POSSIBLE DISSEMINATION #190 MAP: FIRST LINES AND DATES #191 REPORTERS USING TELEGRAPH 75 You should be able to fit the pigeon post into the telecom- munication.model. Reuter's use of the pigeon post was quickly transferred to the use of the telegraph once the technology was available. News services were interested in the rapid collection and distribu— tion of news. By the middle of the 19th Century, it was possible to transmit news stories throughout the United States and Europe. The first telegraph line was completed in the United States in 1844, in France in 1845, Germany in 1849, Switzerland in 1852, and Russia in 1853. The development of telegraphic news service was primarily responsible for the economic success of the telegraph. #192 PIGEON #193 GENERAL PUBLIC USING TELEGRAPH #194 WHAT ORGANIZATION INITIATED NEWS SERVICE IN THE UNITED STATES? IN EUROPE? #195 THE ASSOCIATED PRESS IN THE UNITED STATES AND REUTERS NEWS SERVICE IN EUROPE. #196 HOW DID THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE NEWS SERVICES IN THE U.S. INFLUENCE THE ECONOMIC USE OF THE TELEGRAPH? #197 IN THE U.S. THE NEWS SERVICES ENSURED THAT THE ECONOMIC CONTROL 76 The idea comes from Reuter's pigeon post. By the mid 19th Century, communication throughout the U.S. and throughout Europe was possible. In the United States, the develop- ment of the news services ensured that the control of the telegraph remained in the private sector. MUSIC UNDER 77 OF THE TELEGRAPH REMAINED IN THE PRIVATE SECTOR. THUS, A ONE PURPOSE USE OF THE TELEGRAPH (DEFENSE) NEVER DEVELOPED IN THE U.S. TO THE SAME EXTENT AS IT DID IN EUROPE. MUSIC 9_U_T #198 CALIFORNIA TERRITORY Nations saw the telegraph as an efficient means of establishing effective central control by government, even in nations like the U.S. where territories had expanded as much as three thousand miles from the seat of government. #199 TRAINS IN MOTION Railroads discovered that the telegraph could assure safety and rapidity in operations. #200 FRONT PAGE OF NEWSPAPER And commercial users such as news- papers realized that rapid dissem- ination of financial quotations and political events gave a newspaper with.wire service a distinct #201 TELEGRAPH KEY #202 SEA #203 MAP: lST INSTALLATION #204 GRAPHIC: UNDERWATER CABLE 78 advantage over its competitors. The telegraph was here to stay. In 1850, the sea remained the major obstacle to all telecommunication. The technology needed to make undersea cable was not developed until 1847, when a substance called gutta percha was applied to copper wires and provided the needed insulation. The first undersea cable was laid between Cap Gris-Nez in France and Cape Southerland in England by a tug boat, The Goliath, in August 1850. This cable transmitted only a few messages before it was entangled in the trolling hooks of a fisherman who severed a piece and displayed it in his home port as a rare type of seaweed filled with gold. From this point on, undersea cable was made thicker and stonger - a 79 protective armor of galvanized iron wires was added. The second under- water cable was laid across the Eng- lish Channel in 1851, and remained in operation for a number of years. This cable proved that telegraph communication across short expanses of water was feasible and even practical. Thus, numerous cables were installed over short reaches of open sea around the world. #205 MAP: WALES, SCOTLAND - Wales and Scotland to Ireland, 1852; IRELAND #206 MAP: ENGLAND - BELGIUM, across the North Sea to link England DENMARK with Belgium and Denmark, 1853; #207 MAP: ITALY - CORSICA - Italy with Corsica and Corsica SARDINIA with Sardinia, 1854. #208 MAP: INDIA - CEYLON By 1857, Ceylon was linked to India, #209 MAP: AUSTRALIA - TASMANIA and by 1859, Tasmania was linked with Australia. #210 MAP: ENGLAND - INDIAN CONTINENT #211 MAP: ROUTE OF TRANSATLANTIC CABLE #212 CROSS SECTION OF TRANS- ATLANTIC CABLE 80 By 1860, there was a telegraph network between Great Britain and the Indian Continent. In the fifteen years from 1845-1860, the electric telegraph had become an international system. The critical span yet to be installed was the transatlantic cable, the principle proponent of which was American Cyrus W. Field. The cable produced for this expanse was nearly 12.2mm thick before being armored. Its central conductor was seven pure copper wires stranded together to form a single conductor. It was covered with three layers of gutta percha, then a thin layer of hemp and yarn, then was armored with eighteen, seven strand wires of thin iron wire. The first two attempts at laying the cable ended in defeat when the cable aboard the English ship Agamemnon snapped. #213 PIECE OF TRANSATLANTIC CABLE #214 GALVANOMETER USED FOR ‘VICTORIA - BUCHANAN TELEGRAM 81 The third attempt was successful, The Agamemnon met the U.S. Ship, Niagra in mid ocean, each loaded with about one thousand miles of cable; they spliced their cables together and each proceeded toward its respective port. By August 5, 1858 a total of 2025 miles of cable had been laid. The Agamemnon was anchored at Valentia, Ireland and the Niagra_at Trinity Bay, Newfoundland. The first trans- atlantic message was sent from the Agamemnon informing the Niagra_that She had successfully laid her cable. The directors of Field's Atlantic Telegraph Company were elated. This galvanometer received messages on the first cable when Queen Victoria sent a wire to President Buchanan upon the opening of the line. Over 400 messages were sent during the month the cable was in operation. An operator caused a malfunction through an abnormal increase in the #215 PORTRAIT OF FIELD #216 GREAT EASTERN #217 MAP: CABLE ROUTE 82 voltage the cable could handle, and all communication came to a halt. The advent of hostilities during the American Civil war terminated Field's attempt to maintain trans- atlantic cable communication. Field owned the north/south telegraph lines which were cut at the onset of the war, causing Field's operation substantial loss of revenue. After the war, Field's Atlantic Telegraph Company raised new capital and commissioned a cable three times heavier than the earlier version. A giant ship constucted Of iron, the Great Eastern was chosen to lay the cable, since it was the only ship then afloat capable of carrying the entire 2312 miles of cable necessary in order to avoid having to splice the cable. On July 23, the Great Eastern left valentia, Ireland with noted #218 GREAT EASTERN 83 scientist, Lord Kelvin, aboard to check the electrical behavior of the cable. About 1200 miles out, a defect was found, and attempts to retreive the cable and discover the fault caused excessive strain and the cable snapped. The ship returned to Ireland. Final success came in 1866, when the Great Eastern layed a secure cable from Valentia to Trinity Bay. Since then, transatlantic cables have been a normal means of communication. The Great Eastern rounded off her success that year by finding the cable lost the previous year, splic- ing a new length to it and complet- ing a second cable for use as a back Up. The initiation of long distance telegraphic communication undersea required development of an entirely new branch of mechanical and electrical engineering. The development of undersea cable communication was dependent upon 84 the development of technology that could insulate against the corrosive effects of salt water, and the mechanical apparatus to lay a cable. #219 GRAPHIC: APPLICATION OF The first cable developed was made GUTTA PERCHA TO WIRES simply by the application of gutta percha to copper wires; this form of cable did not last long because it was too vulnerable to the trolling hooks of fishermen. #220 GRAPHIC: ADD IRON ARMOR A second cable was developed that added a coat of tarred hemp and an armor of galvanized iron wires. #221 GRAPHIC: CROSS SECTION OF The transatlantic cable required TRANSATLANTIC CABLE layers Of gutta percha over pure copper wires, which were covered by hemp and yarn and armored with multiple wire stands of thin iron wire. The first transatlantic cab- les were approximately 12.2mm thick; the successful cables laid after the Civil war were about three times the thickness. The first two attempts #222 GALVANOMETER #223 GREAT EASTERN 85 at laying a transatlantic cable were completely unsuccessful, due to breakage. The third attempt succeeded in transmitting about 400 messages before an electrical overload des— troyed its transmitting capacities. The transatlantic venture was financially supported by American Cyrus W. Field, who because of loss of revenue during the Civil war, was unable to support the project through hostilities. Once the war was over, capital was raised, and the Great Eastern was commissioned to lay the cable in one piece. Her second attempt was successful, and she was able to salvage her first attempt failure by finding the broken cable and splicing it to a new length, creating a back up cable. IMUSIC UNDER 86 #224 WHAT MMTERIAL WAS USED AS INSULATION FOR THE TRANSATLANTIC CABLE? #225 GUTTA PERCHA. #226 DRAW A CROSS SECTIONAL DIAGRAM OF A TRANSATLANTIC CABLE. #227 GRAPHIC: CROSS SECTION #228 WHY DID CYRUS FIELD DROP THE TRANSATLANTIC PROJECT AFTER THE THIRD.ATTEMPT? #229 HIS COMPANY LOST REVENUE WHEN THE NORTH/SOUTH TELEGRAPH LINES WERE CUT AT THE ONSET OF THE CIVIL WAR IN THE U.S. #230 WHAT GENERALLY CAUSED UNSUCCESSFUL LAYINGS OF THE TRANSATLANTIC CABLES? #231 BREAKAGE. 87 MUSIC OUT #232 ITU AT U.N. BUILDINGS IN The International Telecommunication GENEVA Union is a branch of the United Nations. Its primary responsibility is for convening treaties between nations regarding telecommunication. It administers treaties on tele- phone, telegraph, and the use of the radio spectrum, including satellite applications. The ITU is much older than the United Nations. #233 MAP: POLITICAL EUROPE IN In the mid 19th Century, electrical THE MID 19TH CENTURY telegraphy was a tremendous success within each nation of Europe. How- ever, most telegraph lines stopped at national frontiers. Each country had its own code or language with which it sent telegraphic messages. There was also a desire by many governments to keep certain inform- ation secret from its neighbors. #234 MAP: PRUSSIA — AUSTRIA Once electrical telegraphy became TELEGRAPH an established means of 88 communication, the need for inter- national collaboration became obvious. In 1849, Prussia and Austria agreed upon an inter— connected system. #235 MAP: PRUSSIA.- AUSTRIA, Prussia became the catylist in SAXONY, BAVARIA TELEGRAPH SYSTEM forming other such agreements; Saxony, 1849 and Bavaria, 1850. Later in 1850, all four states signed an agreement creating the Austro-German Telegraph Union. #236 MAP: FRANCE - SPAIN - In 1855, France, Spain, and Switzer- SWITZERLAND TELEGRAPH SYSTEM land formed the West European Telegraph Union. #237 FRONTIER STATION Until 1851, there was no joinder of telegraph lines across national borders; instead, operators at each national frontier would transcribe a message and hand it to a corres- ponding operator across the border. With the agreement to join such lines came the need to standardize means of transmission. #238 MORSE CODE #239 MAP: FRANCE - PRUSSIA TELEGRAPH #240 GRAPHIC: THREE POINTS #241 MAP: SIGNING COUNTRIES 89 Generally, the MOrse Code was adopted for such purposes because of its simplicity. In 1852, France and Prussia agreed to allow telegraph lines to pass their borders without interruption. They also agreed to recognize the right of every individual to use the international service upon the pay- ment of established charges at the point of origin. Thus, the birth of an international common carrier. The secrecy of telegrams was guaran- teed and refunds were to be made in cases of loss and undue delay. The 1852 agreement between Prussia and France was eventually signed by eleven countries. Even so, tele- graphic exchange on an international level was difficult. A telegram could be subjected to as many as three sets of regulations before reaching its destination. #242 PHOTO: DELEGATES ATTENDING #243 MAP: COUNTRIES PARTICI- RATING #244 GRAPHIC: PRIORITY LIST 90 So, in 1865, the French Imperial Government invited all major European countries to attend a conference in Paris for the purpose of negotiating a uniform inter- national telegraph system. Twenty states accepted the invitation, and their delegates met in Paris from Mbrch to May, 1865. They endorsed the first International Telegraph Convention, the ratification of which marked the beginning of the International Telegraph Union. The Convention of 1865 established uniform rates for all members of the convention, determined by the value of a single monetary unit. And established the order of priority of messages still upheld by the ITU today: 1) those of the state, 2) those of the telegraphic administration, and 3) those of private paying customers. #245 MORSE TELEGRAPH SYSTEM #246 HUGHES-LIKE SYSTEM 91 Because of its simplicity, the Mbrse Code was accepted as the standard code and used by all countries with the exception of England. However, as the use of the international system grew, the inherent defects of the Mbrse Code became obvious - the code was Slow at about 25 words per minute - it required a relatively strong current to operate the electromagnet, and the strip of paper with dots and dashes enscribed on it had to be translated into plain language, which required additional staff and even more time. As a result, the ITU began to look into forms of telegraphy that trans- mitted in plain language. The Hughes Telegraph, invented in 1855, is one of these. This telegraph was not accepted initially because it was complex and prone to breaking down, but it could transmit messages at about 45 words per #247 EDISON DUPLEX EQUIPMENT 92 minute or 20 words per minute faster than the MOrse system. This is an example of this type of telegraph system. IMessages were typed out on this keyboard, and received by this continuously rotating wheel, which printed out the message on a moving strip of paper. Even though not a member of the ITU, most technological advances came from the United States. Thomas Alva Edison, for example, took out a num- ber of patents on duplex systems. They allowed the transmission of two messages Simultaneously across the same wire, one in each direction. By 1874, he had developed a quadra- plex system, allowing two messages in each direction. The ITU informed its members about new technologies, and as they became established and proven they were accepted by the ITU. Thus, inventions in the field of telecommunication are interna- tionally shared through the ITU. #248 WESTERN UNION BUILDING 93 Western Union joined the ITU in 1885, increasing the line of communication between the U.S. and the ITU. However, many international difficulties arose that are still with us today. Western Union is a private corporation. The telegraph in the United States developed in the private sector, unlike in Europe, where development occurred in the public sector. European governments administered the telegraph. The position of western Union, then becomes tenuous. Can a private corporation represent the interests of a nation and negotiate a treaty? Can a corporation sign an International Convention? In this sense, the U.S. system was, and still is out of step with the rest of the world. The problem must be solved every time the U.S. is faced with the need to negotiate an international agreement in telecommunication. 94 #249 MONTAGE: TELEGRAPH, The conference of Paris in 1865 TELEPHONE, RADIO, TELEVISION started at least one hundred years SATELLITES of international cooperation in the field of telecommunication. The International Telegraph Union became the International Telecommunication Union is 1932. #250 MONTAGE: TELEGRAPH, The principle responsibility of the TELEPHONE, SATELLITES International Telecommunication Union is the convening of treaties between nations. Such treaties in- clude those on the telephone, tele- graph and use Of the radio spectrum. #251 MMP: AUSTRO-GERMAN TELEGRAPH Two major telegraph unions were SYSTEM created in Europe before the Inter- national Telegraph Union because of the need to communicate across national lines. These were the Austro-German Telegraph Union, created in 1850, #252 MAP: WEST EUROPEAN and the West European Telegraph TELEGRAPH SYSTEM Union, created in 1855. 95 #253 FRONTIER STATION Until 1851, telegraph lines were not joined across national borders; instead, a telegraph operator of one country had to hand copy the message and pass it across the border to a fellow operator. MORSE CODE UNDER #254 MORSE CODE The Morse Code was accepted inter- nationally as a means of telegraph transmission because of its simpli- city. The Morse Code would become the international standard for the telegraph in 1865, at the Paris Convention, for the same reason. MORSE CODE OUT #255 MAP: FRENCH - PRUSSIAN France and Prussia agreed to allow CONNECTION telegraph lines to pass over their borders in 1852; #256 THREE POINTS, 1852 TREATY they also made three important decisions about the use of inter— national telegraph systems at that #257 PHOTO: #258 GRAPHIC: DELEGATES MESSAGE PRIORITY 96 time. The international telegraph was to be used to send messages by anyone that could afford to pay the charges incurred at the sending station. Secrecy of telegrams was to be guaranteed, and refunds were to be made in cases of loss or undue delay. This agreement was later signed by eleven other countries, indicating the interest in cooperation in this area. The Paris Convention of 1865 marks the birth of the International Telegraph Union. This convention established a system of priority for sending messages on the international lines: 1) messages of state, 2) messages from the telegraph administration, 3) messages from paying customers. The MOrse Code was also established as the international code of the international system and was used by every country but Great Britain. #259 GRAPHIC: DEFECTS OF THE MORSE SYSTEM #260 TELECOMMUNICATION #261 WHAT IS THE PRIMARY RESPONSIBILITY OF THE ITU TODAY? #262 THE ITU CONVENES TREATIES REGARDING TELECOMMUNICATION BETWEEN NATIONS. #263 BEFORE 1865, THERE WERE TWO MAJOR TELEGRAPH UNIONS. NAME TIEM. 97 As the number Of messages sent increased, inherent defects of the Mbrse system became apparent; it was slow, about 25 words per minute; it required a strong current to operate the electromagnetic mechanism; and, it required a staff to transcribe messages into plain language from the MOrse Code. The Convention of 1865 marked the beginning of more than 100 years of international cooperation in the area of telecommunication. MUSIC UNDER 98 #264 THE AUSTRO-GERMAN TELEGRAPH UNION AND THE WEST EUROPEAN TELEGRAPH UNION. #265 UNTIL 1851, THERE WAS NO JOINDER OF TELEGRAPH LINES ACROSS NATIONAL BORDERS. HOW WERE INTERNATIONAL MESSAGES SENT? #266 AN OPERATOR WOULD PHYSICALLY HAND THE MESSAGE TO ANOTHER OPERATOR ACROSS THE BORDER. #267 WHY WAS THE MORSE CODE GENERALLY ACCEPTED AS THE STANDARD FOR SENDING MESSAGES IN THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM? #268 IT WAS THE SIMPLEST TELEGRAPH CODE AVAILABLE. #269 WHAT WERE THE THREE MAJOR POINTS OF AGREEMENT OF THE 1852 TREATY BETWEEN FRANCE AND PRUSSIA? #270 1) ANY INDIVIDUAL THAT COULD 99 PAY COULD SEND INTERNATIONAL MESSAGES, 2) SECRECY OF TELEGRAMS WAS GUARANTEED, 3) REFUNDS WERE MADE IN INSTANCES OF UNDUE DELAY OR LOSS. #271 THE PARIS CONVENTION OF 1865 IS THE BEGINNING OF THE INTERNATIONAL TELEGRAPH UNION. WHAT OTHER IMPORTANT DECISIONS WERE MADE AT THAT CONVENTION? #272 THE MORSE CODE WAS ACCEPTED AS THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD FOR COMMUNICATION. A PRIORITY SYSTEM FOR MESSAGES WAS ESTABLISIED. #273 WHAT WAS THE PRIORITY SYSTEM DEVISED BY THE 1865 CONVENTION OF PARIS? #274 1) MESSAGES FROM THE STATE, 2) MESSAGES FROM THE TELEGRAPH ADMINISTRATION, 3) MESSAGES FROM PAYING CUSTOMERS. 100 #275 WHAT DEFECTS OF THE MORSE SYSTEM MADE TIE ITU INVESTIGATE OTHER POSSIBLE SYSTEMS? #276 IT WAS INHERENTLY SLOW, REQUIRED RELATIVELY STRONG CURRENT, AND NEEDED EXTRA STAFF FOR THE TRANSCRIBING OF MESSAGES FROM THE CODE TO PLAIN LANGUAGE. MUSIC OUT #277 PHOTO: ITU BUILDING The ITU still exists today as an example of the potential for international cooperation. #278 MONTAGE: TELEGRAPHS AND The early history of telecommuni- TELEPHONES cation, the history of the telegraph, gave us the basis for technology we know today; the telephone is simply an extension of research into the telegraph. #279 MONTAGE: 19TH CENTURY LIFE Our social and political lives were completely changed by the ability to transmit messages instantaneously. #280 MONTAGE: TELECOMMUNICATION EQUIPMENT IN REVERSE CHRONOLOGY 101 The pace of living was increased. Many policies that still govern the field of telecommunication were written to govern the use of the telegraph. The International Telecommunication Union, for example, still abides by some policy decisions made in the mid 19th Century. MOdern telecommunication is a product of its past. MMSIC UNDER AND UP/CREDITS/TO BLACK CHAPTER IV Production Script "A History of Telecommunication: The Semaphore" FADE IN #1 MONTAGE (TELECOMMUNICATION MEDIA) SUPER TITLES, CREDITS CUT TO #2 VIDEO TAPE (GROUP USING TWO-WAY INTERACTIVE CABLE) CUT TO #3 SLIDES (CHILDREN VIEWING VIOLENT FADE IN AUDIO MONTAGE AND ELECTRONIC MUSIC FADE OUT AUDIO MONTAGE, FADE MUSIC UNDER The media of telecommunication are tremendously important to our every- day lives. ,As their importance grows, so does their potential for influencing our lives. FADE MUSIC OUT As a result, we, as a society, need to better understand these media in order to manipulate them to suit our needs. we need to understand these media in order to deal with any possible 102 PROGRAMMING) CUT TO #4 SLIDES (FIBER OPTICS) CUT TO #5 SLIDES AND ANIMATION (EXAMPLES) CUT TO #6 GRAPHIC (COI'leUNICATION MODEL) SOURCE+ENCODER»CHANNEL+DECODER+ ENCODER CUT TO #7 GRAPHIC (ENCODING COMPONENTS) COMM TELECOM TELECOM ENCODER+ENCODER+CHANNEL£DECODERH 103 detrimental effects. The goal of this series of programs is to help you understand how the technology and policy of present day telecommunication developed. We want you to understand how and why telecommunication has reached its present state of development. Telecommunication is defined simply as communication over a distance. When examining a simple communi- cation model, it becomes apparent that the element of distance is not taken into consideration. Here, the source encodes a message into his native tongue, it is transmitted across sound waves, and decoded by the receiver. In telecommunication, the encoding and decoding processes are complex. What occurs is a communication 104 COMM encoding process, then a telecommun- DECODER ication encoding process. CUT TO #8 GRAPHIC A disc jockey encodes a message into (DJ+TRANSMITTER&RADIO WAVES+RADIO language, that message is encoded RECEIVER) into electrical impulses that travel along the physical channel, radio waves, to the telecommunication decoding device, where the electric- al impulses are decoded into human language, then decoded by the human hearing mechanism of the listener. CUT TO #9 VIDEO TAPE At times, messages are not properly (VIDEO AND AUDIO NOISE) received by the listener because of interference. This interference is called noise. Noise can be detected through feedback. For example, television station engineers continually monitor equipment that tells them if noise is occurring along their lines. They do this by viewing a television.monitor - a part of the decoding component. Noise, then is transmitted by feedback from the decoding mechanism 105 to the encoding mechanism, in this case, an engineer. This allows the encoder to make necessary modifications for the proper trans- mission of information. CUT TO #10 GRAPHIC We then, have this basic model of (TELECOMMUNICATION MODEL) telecommunication. Due to the S+CE+TE+C+TD+CD+R content of the course we are most concerned with the telecommunication encoding and decoding components; CUT TO #11 GRAPHIC therefore, from this point on, (TELECOMMUNICATION MODEL W/O references to the encoding and COMM ENCODING AND DECODING decoding processes will refer to the COMPONENTS) telecommunication process, unless otherwise stated. CUT TO #12 SLIDES The electric telegraph was one of (ELECTRIC TELEGRAPHS) the first means of mass tele- communication because it linked many nations and continents. However, it was preceded by many forms of telecommunication. ,After a brief discussion of early telecommunication forms, an CUT TO #13 SLIDE (NONWESTERN SOCIETIES) ESTABLISHING SHOT ZOOM IN TO #14 (AFRICAN DRUMMER) CUT TO #15 GRAPHIC MESSAGE DRUM SOUND PLAIN +BEATS+WAVES+- LANGUAGE TRAINED MESSAGE INTENDED LISTENERfiPLAIN +RECEIVER LANGUAGE 106 investigation will be made into the immediate predecessor of the electric telegraph, the optical or semaphore telegraph. In nonwestern civilization, various encoding devices have been employed to transmit information considerable distances. The relay of drum signals was used extensively, especially in Sub- Saharan Africa. How does the use of drum Signals fit into the tele- communication model? What would be the encoding device? What about possible feedback? Possible noise? The source determines his message, encodes it by a drum code (the drum is the encoding device). Sound waves are the channel. The decoding device is anyone that understands the drum code. The decoder may or may not be the intended receiver. Noise might occur in the guise of a 107 thunderstorm, or any loud activity between the source and the intended receiver. Feedback may or may not occur, and is not very likely. The source, if aware Of noise along the channel would be unlikely to attempt communication. CUT TO #16 SLIDE The Persians sometimes released (WOMAN AND PIGEON IN FRONT OF homing pigeons to disseminate a MOSQUE) common message to many parts of their Empire. CUT TO #17 SLIDE Mbny tribal societies used smoke (SMOKE SIGNALS) from fire to encode messages which could be transmitted from one high point to another. What might be an example of noise, when communicating with Smoke signals? CUT TO #18 GRAPHIC Wind. (WIND BLOWING SMOKE) SUPER'WIND CUT TO #19 SKETCH In early western history, the use (ROMAN SIGNAL FIRES) of signal fires was also utilized by 108 the Greeks and Romans, CUT TO #20 SLIDE But until the invention of the tele- (RIDER ON HORSEBACK) scope, the speed of communication was generally limited to the speed of the fastest horse or runner, about twenty miles per hour maximum. CUT TO #21 SLIDES In 1611, Galileo took a Dutch (GALILEO) invention, the telescope, modified (STARS TAKEN THROUGH TELESCOPE) it, and began using it to observe the planets. He had opened the potential for rapid visual telecommunication. CUT TO #22 DRAWING Seventy years later, Rober Hookes, (HOOKES DESCRIBING OPTICAL an English physicist and chemist TELEGRAPH) provided an outline for a system of visual telegraph. Although Hookes provided details for such a system, none was attempted. Throughout the early history of telecommunication, the English are rarely innovators, perhaps held back by their political and social conservatism. CUT TO #23 DRAWING (CHAPPE'S FIRST OPTICAL SYSTEM) CUT TO #24 SLIDE (LIBERTY LEADING THE PEOPLE) CUT TO #25 GRAPHIC (NMP OF PARIS TO LILLE) 109 Hooke's system provided a model for the French engineer, Claude Chappé, who worked on various types of opt- ical possibilities before developing an efficient telegraph between 1790 and 1795, more than 150 years after the development of the telescope. This is the first optical telegraph developed by Chappé. The absolute size of the clock face and pointer was the major limitation to this form of telegraphy. Unfortunately, as is Often the case in the field of telecommunication, the first practical use of the optical telegraph was destined to be during warfare. The 1790's found France in the midst of the French Revolution, and sur- rounded by enemy European forces. The French Revolutionary Government recognized the battlefield advantage Of rapid communication with its arm- ies. Knowing of Chappé's work, they CUT TO #26 SKETCH & MODEL (CHAPPE'S SEMAPHORE) CUT TO #27 ANIMATED GRAPHIC (TELEGRAPH SYSTEM IN FRANCE) 110 commissioned him, in 1793, to dev- elop a telegraph between Paris and Lille, about 230 kilometers. This is the telegraph that Chappé developed. He used existing or specially constructed wooden towers and placed a vertical upright on tope. A horizontal beam which could be moved into various angles by ropes was attached to the vertical upright, and at each end of the beam, two movable arms were attached. As you can see, this type of apparatus provides a wide range of possible configurations which permit signalling in code. The French called this system a semaphore system. A semaphore is simply a visual telegraph. When finally superceded by electric telegraphy, Chappe's system covered France with a network of 556 sema- phore stations covering a total distance of 4800 kilometers. CUT TO #28 SLIDES (ENGLAND 1790) CUT TO #29 SKETCH (MURRAY'S TELEGRAPH) CUT TO #30 SLIDE (U.S. SEMAPHORE) 111 Once the system's inherent value was proven, the English became very interested. Reports of Chappé's telegraph reached England in the autumn of 1794, about the time that the first messages of military successes were being transmitted on the original Paris/Lille line. Realizing its military significance, Lord George Murray proposed a system of visual telegraph to the British Admiralty. This is NMrray's telegraph. Each of these boards contains six large circular holes that can be opened and closed by wooden shutters. jMurray's telegraph system remained in use in England until 1847. The first visual telegraph built in the U.S. was designed by Jonathan Grout in 1800 and signalled arrivals of ships to Boston, from.Mhrtha's Vineyard. This painting shows a similar system on Staten Island that SUPER #31 GRAPHIC ANIMATION (VISUAL INTERFERENCE) CUT TO #32 SLIDE (SOLDIERS READING SEMAPHORE) CUT TO #33 GRAPHIC (MAP, LONDON - PLYMOUTH) CUT TO #34 SLIDE SUPER OVER MODEL (LIST OF DISADVANTAGES) 112 announced ship arrivals to the city of New York. What types of "noise" would you expect with a visual telegraph system? You.may have though of others. Many things interfere with visual communication. On clear days, the visual telegraph provided the fastest means of communication in its day. For example, a signal was transmitted from London to Plymouth and back in three minutes, a distance of 500 miles. There are disadvantages to the sema- phore system other than the obvious visual interference; they required several men to operate each station, making them very expensive; and they were seen as having only one purpose, - military defense, so were not open for use by the general public as a CUT TO #35 SLIDES (MARITIME SEMAPHORES) CUT TO #36 SLIDE (RAILWAY SEMAPHORE) CUT TO #37 GRAPHIC (REVIEW) CUT TO #38 SLIDE (GALILEO ) CUT TO #39 MODEL (CHAPPE'S TELEGRAPH) 113 common carrier. However, semaphore system are still used today. Signals passed between Ships at sea are often optical, using flags or lights, and metal flags and lights are used to signal train engineers of traffic conditions on the track. Now, for a brief review. NEW NARRATOR Galileo's adaptation of the tele- scope for scientific purposes made the visual telegraph feasible. Robert Hookes provided the idea for the visual telegraph, his designs were developed by the French engin- eer, Claude Chappé. It is appropri- ate to note that the designs for a visual telegraph were available for nearly one hundred years before they CUT TO #40 SLIDES (FRENCH REVOLUTION) CUT TO #41 MODEL (NMRRAY'S SEMAPHORE) CUT TO #42 SLIDE (U.S. SEMAPHORE) CUT TO #43 SLIDE 114 were put to use, and that the caty- list for implementation was war. The French Revolutionary Government capitalized upon Chappé's work on the visual telegraph when they real- ized that it would give them a mili- tary advantage if they could commun— icate with their armies more rapidly than their enemies could with theirs. They put the semaphore to use in the period of war at the height of the French Revolution. Seeing a good thing, other countries soon followed suit. Because it was first used for war and because of its expense, this telegraph is primarily associated with defense. Within six years of its initial use, both the British and the Americans had utilized the idea, again, for military or quasi-military purposes. The disadvantages of the semaphore 115 (SOLDIERS READING SEMAPHORE) system are: its expense, potential for interference - it cannot be used at night - and its one purpose orientation. CUT TO #44 SLIDE Semaphore systems are still used (TRAIN SEMAPHORE) today on Ships and by the railways. CUT TO #45 GRAPHIC Finally, please turn to your work- (REVIEW) book and answer the following questions as rapidly as you can. MUSIC UNDER CUT TO #46 CHARACTER GENERATOR (CG) (WHAT IS A SEMAPHORE?) CUT TO #47 CG (A SEMAPHORE IS A VISUAL TELEGRAPH.) CUT TO #48 CG (WHAT WAS GALILEO'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPTICAL TELEGRAPH?) CUT TO #49 CG 116 (GALILEO DEVELOPED THE TELESCOPE FOR VIEWING AT GREAT DISTANCES.) CUT TO #50 CG (HOW DID THE FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY GOVERNMENT AID THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TELEGRAPH? ) CUT TO #51 CG (RECOGNIZING THE MILITARY ADVANTAGE OF RAPID COMMUNICATION, THE FRENCH GOVERNMENT COMMISSIONED CHAPPE TO DEVELOP A LINE OF SEMAPHORE TELEGRAPH.) CUT TO #52 CG (WHAT ARE THE MAJOR DISADVANTAGES OF THE SEMAPHORE SYSTEM?) CUT TO #53 CG (EXPENSIVE, PRONE TO INTERFERENCE, CONFINED TO THE PUBLIC SECTOR FOR DEFENSE PURPOSES.) CUT TO #54 CG (WHERE IS THE SEMAPHORE STILL USED TODAY?) 117 CUT TO #55 CG (RAILWAYS AND AT SEA. ) CUT TO #56 CG (FIT AN EXAMPLE OF SEMAPHORE USE INTO THE TELECOMMUNICATION MODEL.) CUT TO #57 CG (SOURCE: FRENCH GOVERNMENT. TELECOM ENCODER: SEMAPHORE. CHANNEL: LIGHT WAVES. TELECOM DECODER: TELESCOPE. RECEIVER: FRENCH ARMIES. FEEDBACK: NMN WITH TELESCOPE IN lST STATION CAN SEE 2ND STATION'S MESSAGE AND KNOWS IF IT IS CORRECT.) CUT TO VIDEO MONTAGE, SUPER MUSIC OUT, ELECTRONIC MUSIC UP CREDITS, FADE TO BLACK AND OUT CHAPTER V Summary The future of the project at this point in time is uncertain. The video tape, once completed, will be used to support application for outside funding to produce the Basic Script included in this text and later, the balance of the TC 120 project. Dr. Muth and I are just beginning to investigate possible sources of funding. Once this is achieved, two productions will be made from the scripts as they are developed, as per agreement with IPTV. This will involve very little extra Shooting time, but will certainly take extra editing time. The second production will involve the creation of a documentary. Once both productions are complete, they will be tested against one another to determine if either is a better teaching tool. The second production will be promoted for mass distribution. If the first production, employing instructional design and development techniques, is used as a teaching unit to reach learners in their homes via two-way interactive cable, some modification of the script will be needed. The question and answer sections at the end of each unit will have to be reworked to culminate in an objective post- test. The questions, themselves, will have to be reworked into an objective format, since open ended questions cannot be readily evaluated on a two-way interactive system. Should funding be granted, at least two years would be necessary to prepare and prodUce the TC 120 modules; the editing procedure would take 118 119 another two to three months. Any extra modification of the product would also increase the amount of time needed to complete the project. Attempts are also being made to organize the project as it now stands, so that it can be taken over with very little difficulty, should another person be required to step into the project. LIST OF REFERENCES LIST OF REFERENCES CITED Gustafson, Dr. Kent L. "Toward a Definition of Instructional Develop- ment: A Systems View", unpUblished article. Harries, Thomas E. "The Application of General Systems Theory to Instr- uctional Development: A Self-Instructional Program", National Special Media Institute, 1972. GENERAL HISTORY REFERENCES Briggs, Charles F., and Maverick, Augustus. The Story of the Telegraph. New York: Rudd & Carleton, 1858. Carter, Samuel, III. Cyrus Field: Man of Two Worlds. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1968. Dibner, Bern. The Atlantic Cable. Norwalk, Connecticut: Burndy Library, 1959. Durham, John. Telegraphs in Victorian London. Cambridge: The Golden Head Press, 1959. Hubbard, Geoffrey. Cooke and Wheatstone and the Invention of the Electric Telegraph. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1965. Johnson, Isabelle Field. Cyrus W. Field; His Life and Work. New York: Harper and Brothers PubliShers, 1896. Lardner, Dr., and Bright, Edward B. The Electric Telegraph. London: John Walton, 1867. Nbrland, E.A. Early Electrical Communication. New York: Abelard- Schuman, Ltd.,l964. Michaelis, Dr. Anthony R. From Semaphore to Satellite. Geneva: International Telecommunication Union, 1965. lMorse, Edwin Lind. Samuel F.B. Mbrse: His Letters and Journals in Two Volumes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1914. 120 121 Thompson, Robert Luther. Wiring a Continent. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947. Williams, A.N. "What Hath GOD Wrought!" May 24, 1844. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1944. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONAL DEVELOPMENT REFERENCES Davis, Robert H., Alexander, Lawrence T., and Yelon, Stephen L. Learning System Design. New York: IMcGraw-Hill Book Company, 1 974 o Gronlund, Norman E. Stating Behavioral Objectives for Classroom Instruction. New York: The MacNfillan Company, 1970. Gerlach, Vernon, and Ely, Donald P. Teaching and Media. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1971. Weisgerber, Robert A.,ed. Instructional Process and.Nbdia Innovation. Chicago: Rand MbNaIIy & Co., 1968.