A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF TWO TYPES OF
GROUP EXPERIENCES ON THE ACADEMIC
ACHIEVEMENT 0F COLLEGE
UNDERACHEEVERS

“was“ for I've Degree of DH. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
Darren H. Hart
1963

THESIS ' - - _

This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

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presented by

DARRELL I? . HART

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph. D. Education

de ee in
gounsel’ing Psychology)

Major professor

Date August 1, 1963

 

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LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

 

ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF TWO TYPES OF GROUP
EXPERIENCES ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
OF COLLEGE UNDERACHIEVERS

by Darrell H. Hart

This study was concerned with the effects of two
types of group experiences on the academic achievement of
college underachievers. One experience termed cognitive
placed an emphasis on material concerned with specific in-
tellectual problem areas related directly to scholastic
achievement, and-the other experience termed affective em-
phasized material stressing topics dealing with personal
problems and personality dynamics.

The rationale for employing the two types of group
experiences was derived from two theoretical positions on
the nature of underachievement: (1) underachievement is re-
lated to inadequate study-skills, and (22 underachievement
is related to personality dynamics and personal problems.

The analysis sample was 96 volunteers from a popu-
lation of 561 freshman students who were Judged to have high
ability for college achievement but who received unsatis-
factory grades in their first term at Michigan State
University.

The design of the study was based on a two-factor
treatment plan. Twelve groups were equally divided between

two counselors who each led three groups in a cognitive

Darrell H. Hart

experience and three groups in an affective experience. A
third group was included in the experiment to serve as a
control. The design employed the principles of randomization
by assigning the 96 students to the three treatment condi-
tions and replication by duplicating the experimental methods.
Students in the two treatment groups who were included in

the analysis attended five to seven group sessions which

were held for one hour once a week.

A pre-treatment analysis of the previous grade-point

averages and the scores of the College Qualification Test

revealed no differences between the three treatment groups.
A post-treatment survey was conducted to determine students'
opinions about the type of group experience they had received.
There was complete agreement among students in each treat-
ment group that their experiences were primarily cognitive
or primarily affective according to the design of the
experiment.

An analysis of variance was conducted on the criterion
measure of grade-point average for winter and spring term
to determine the effects of the two types of group experi-
ences immediately following the experiment and three months
after completion of the experiment. Duncan's New Multiple
Range Test was employed to further analyze data which were
indicated by the analysis of variance to be significant.
The 5 per cent level of confidence was chosen for accepting

or rejecting the null hypotheses.

Darrell H. Hart

The findings from the analyses indicate that the
students who attended five to seven sessions of the affec-
tive group experience earned significantly higher grade-
point averages during the term in which the experience
occurred than students who received no group experience. No
significant differences were found for the term in which the
experiment was conducted or three months after the experiment
between the grade-point averages of students who received a
cognitive group experience and the students who received an
affective group experience. Three months after the experi-
ment, no significant differences in grade-point averages
were found among students who experienced a cognitive or
affective type of group experience and students who re-
ceived no group experience.

Upon examination of the results it was concluded that
a personal-emotional group experience can have an immediate
effect in improving the academic achievement of college
underachievers, but continued increase in academic achieve-

ment after termination of the experience is questionable.

A STUDY OF THE EFFECTS OF TWO TYPES OF GROUP
EXPERIENCES ON THE ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
OF COLLEGE UNDERACHIEVERS

By

Darrell H? Hart

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
College of Education

1963

9 vv

:5 :/l alt/"lo ‘f

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My sincere appreciation is expressed to the many
people who have made the following study possible.

To Dr. William W. Farquhar, my major advisor, for his
invaluable assistance in the problems of experimental design
and statistical methodology and for his helpful criticism
of the manuscript.

To Dr. Norman Kagan for his creative suggestions and
help in the development of the group counseling approaches
used in this study.

To. Dr. Harry A. Grater for his advise and assistance
with the many technical problems involved in setting up the
experiment and for his continued encouragement throughout
the course of the project.

To Dr. Bill L. Kell for his supervision and support
during the experimental period.

To Dr. Gwendolyn Norrell for her valuable assistance
with the problems which were encountered in the group counsel-
ing processes and for the hours spent reviewing the tapes of
the counseling sessions.

To Robert L. Betz for his willingness to employ his
talents and skills as co-counselor in the experiment.

To my wife, Shirley, for her assistance with the many
clerical tasks which were associated with the project and
especially for her understanding and encouragement throughout
the course of the study.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
LISTOFTABLES.................... v

Chapter
I. The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . 2
The Importance of the Study . . . . . . . . . 2
Theoretical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Definition of Terms- . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Organization of the Study . . . . . . . . 11

II. Review of Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

The Effects of Study-Skills Courses on

Academic Achievement . . . . 12
The Effects of Group Counseling on Academic
Achievement . . . . 18

Comparative Effects of Different Methods of
Counseling on Academic Achievement . . . . . 28
Slmmary . 0 O O O O O 0 C O O 0 O 0 O O O O O 37

III. Design and Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Dealgn O O O O 0 0 O O 0 o 0 O O O 0 O O O O 0 39

The Pepulation . . . . . . 40

Random Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
COunseling Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
The Counselors . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Consistency and Verification of Counseling . 54
The Null Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Statistical Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Summary .p. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

IV. Analysis of Experimental Results . . . . . . . . 61

Analysis of Variance of the Winter Term
Grade-Point Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Hypothesis One . . . . . . . . . .>. . . . . 61
Hypotheses Two, Three, and Four . . . . . . 64

iii

Chapter Page

Analysis of Variance of the Spring Term
Grade-Point Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Hypothesis Five . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Hypotheses Six, Seven, and Eight . . . . . . 67

Fall, Uinter, and Spring Term Grade-Point
Average Means . . . . . . . .'. . . . . . . 69
summary 0 O O O O O O O O O o O O O O o 0 O 0 70

V. Summary, Conclusions, Discussion, and
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . 81

Bibliography 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 0 O 0 ° 83
Appendix A O 0 O O O o 0 O O 0 0 0 O O 6 O O O O O 0 O 87

iv

Table

3.1
3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

3.6

4.3
4.4
4.5

4.6

LIST OF TABLES

Summary of Basic Design of the Experiment .

Number and Sex of Students in Each Treatment
Group Who Are Included in the Analysis . .

Total Raw Score Means for the College Quali-
fication Test for Each Group and Counselor .

Mean Fall Term Grade-Point Averages for
Each Group and Counselor . . . . . . . .

Analysis of Variance of Fall Term Grades
Point Average of the Randomly Assigned
Students 0 O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 0

Cognitive and Affective Experience Scores
by Treatment Groups to the Treatment Survey

Analysis of Variance of Winter Term Grade-
Point Averages for the Cognitive, Affective,
and Control Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Duncan's New Multiple Range Test of Winter
Term Grade-Point Averages for the Cognitive,
Affective, and Control Groups . . . . . . .

Analysis of Variance of Winter Term Grade-
Point Averages for Treatment, Counselor, and
Interaction Effects . . . . . . . . .‘. . .

Analysis of Variance of Spring Term Grade-
Point Averages for the Cognitive, Affective,
and Control Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Analysis of Variance of Spring Term Grade-
point Averages for Treatment, Counselor, and
Interaction Effects . . . . . . . . . . . .

Fall, Winter, and Spring Term Grade-Point
Average Means for the Students in the Three
Treatment Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page
39

46

46

47

49

56

62

63

65

66

68

69

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM

Since the early part of the 20th Century when group
counseling was introduced on the American scene as a treat-
ment for emotionally disturbed individuals, there has been
a gradual accumulation of knowledge concerning group methods,
techniques, and suitable treatment populations.1 In the
last decade increasing attention has been given to the role
group counseling might play in assisting college students who
have personal or academic problems. Among the students re-
ceiving attention from the group counselors are the under-
achievers, those students who have the measured ability to
achieve a level of academic success significantly above that
which they actually obtain.

Most research efforts investigaflng group counseling
with underachievers have been expended in evaluating the
effectiveness of the experience. The criteria frequently
used have been increased personal adjustment and self-

awareness as measured by personality inventories or rating

_A

1H. Mullan and M. Rosenbaum, Group Psychothergpy:
Theory and Practice (New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1962).

scales and behavior change as indicated by academic achieve-
ment or reduced drop~out rate. The nature of the particular
group counseling program designed to produce the changes,

, however, has received little attention. The factor of vari-
ability of content of counseling experiences and the differ-
ential effect which it may have upon the outcome has been
neglected by researchers. The present investigation is de-
signed to provide information about this important variable
by analyzing the effects of two types of group counseling as
they influence the academic achievement of college under-

achievers.

Statement of the Problem
This study is an investigation of the effects of two
types of group counseling experiences on the academic achieve-

ment of college underachievers. One experience places an

emphasis on material designed to deal with specific intel-
lectual problem areas related directly to scholastic achieve-
mentJand the other emphasizes material stressing topics

dealing with personal problems and personality dynamics.

The Importance of the Study
Recent national and international circumstances have
focused attention upon the waste of existing talents and

abilities of a vital portion of the pepulation of the United

States--the underachieving college student.2 It is becoming
increasingly essential that educational institutions develop
effective methods of helping these students reach their full-
est potential. One approach to the problem used by most
colleges and universities is that of counseling where psycho-
logically trained personnel provide assistance in the areasi
of academic adjustment, personal-social difficulties and
educational-vocational planning. But with a rapidly growing
student papulation and a corresponding increase in student
problems, the demands upon counseling centers are increasing
to the point where the conventional one to one relationship
between student and counselor is not always possible. As a
partial solution, group counseling has been posited, and many
institutions have begun to investigate the ramifications of
such a program.

The application of group counseling to the college
setting is in its infancy. Full effectiveness from the group
processes cannot be expected without appropriate experi-
mental evaluation of available methods, techniques, and

theories.

i_

2Educational Policies Commission, Manpower and Edgea-
tion (Washington, D. C.: National Education Association of
the United States of America Association of School Adminis-
tration, 1956). ‘ 1'

This study is designed to give information about
different kinds of group counseling experiences which will
be helpful to the underachieving college student. The fact
that no study of the relative effectiveness of different
content approached in group counseling with underachievers
has yet been reported in the literature further emphasizes

the need for research in this area.

Theoretical Background

The etiology of academic underachievement has caused
wide speculation and, to a lesser extent, efforts in the
direction of a systematic analysis. A review of the liter-
ature suggests two general areas which have been explored
as possible variables relating to underachievement: (1)
scholastic factors, such as aptitude, study habits, reading
ability, part-time work schedules, and curriculum choice;
and (2) personal and social factors characterized by self-
concept, relationship to parents, expression of impulses,

social adjustment, academic motivation, and anxiety level.3'4’5

 

3Charles L. Diener, "Similarities and Differences
Between Overachieving and Underachieving Students," Personnel
and Guidance Journal, 1960, 38, 396-400.

4Charles D. Spielberger, "The Effects of Manifest
Anxiety on the Academic Achievement of College Students,"

Mental Hygiene, 1962, 46, 420-6.

5w. W. Farquhar, M tivation Factors Related to Academic
Achieve ent, Cooperative Research Project S46, January, 1963
(East Lansing: Office of Research and Publications, College
of Education, Michigan State University).

Each of these two areas will be reviewed briefly.

The concern about underachievement and inadequate
scholastic skills became evident in the 1920's when the "how-
to-study" courses were introduced in the college curriculum.6
As early as 1955 Wrenn7 cited various factors which distin-
guished high ability college students who were achieving in
school from equally high ability but underachieving students.
He noted that underachievers wrote lengthy class notes,
failed to get the main points in the material, budgeted
their time poorly, read slowly, outlined the text inade-
quately, and failed to review for examinations properly.

More recently the trend in research in the study-
skills area has been toward develOping study habits in-
ventories which reflect characteristics of achievers and
aid in predicting academic success. The importance of study
mechanics and adequate planning has been pointed up by the
findings of Carter8 and Chahbazi9 in their work with study

habit inventories.

 

6
Francis P. Robinson, Effective S ud (Rev. Ed.; New
York: Harper and Brothers, 19 1

7c. Gilbert Wrenn, "Aiding the Fit," Jgurnal of
Higher Education, 1935. 6. 357- 63. ‘

8H. D. Carter, ”Mechanics of Study Procedure," Cali-
fornia Journal of Educational Research, 1958, 9, 8-13.

9P. Chahbazi, "Analysis of Cornell Orientation In-
ventory Items of Study Habits and Their Relative Value in
Prediction of College Achievement," Journal of Educational

Research, 1957, 51, 117-28.

The increasing tendency in the past ten years for
colleges to offer courses in study techniques further attests
to the theory that there is a relationship between academic
achievement and study skills. A survey conducted in 1953 by
Blake10 indicated that over 90 per cent of the colleges in the
United States offered some kind of study-skills course.

The personal and social variables which may be related
to underachievement represent the second general approach to
the problem. Kirk's11 study of the academic performance in
malfunctioning students led her to hypothesize an unconscious
motivation among underachievers. She suggests that the
underachiever is unable to express negative feelings directly
toward appropriate authority figures and thus retains his
hostility. His underachievement satisfies an unconscious
motive which is often directed toward the family member who
demands success of him.

The most recent theorizing which has been published on
underachievement has been done by Roth and Meyersburg.12

They have postulated a "non-achievement syndrome" which is

reveiled through the following symptoms: poor academic

 

10V. 3. Blake, Jr., "Study-Skills Programs," Journal
of Higher Education, 1955, 26, 97-9, 114.

11Barbara Kirk, "Test versus Academic Performance in

Malfunctioning Students," Journal Consulting Psychology,
1952, 16, 213-5. '

12R. M. Roth and H. A. Meyersburg, "The Non-
Achievement Syndrome," Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1963,
41, 535-46.

achievement, general self-deprecation, lack of recognition

of pleasure at "being," no clear systems of personal goals

or values, vulnerability to disparagement by others, immature
relations with parents, frequent depressions, lack of in-
sight about self and others, and free-floating anxiety. In

their formulation of the problem, poor achievement does not
arise from an incapacity to achieve but is an expression of
the student's choice. His choice for poor achievement re-
lates back to inadequate parent-child relationships where
parents payed no attention at all to the accomplishments or
failures of the child or where they attended only to his
failures and rarely to his successes.

Taylor, in Farquhar's final report,13 made an exhaus-
tive review of the general personality characteristics of
over and underachievers. His findings give support to the
theorizing of Kirk and Roth and Meyersburg. From the review,
the underachiever might be characterized as having much
underlying aggression, strong feelings of inferiority,
negative attitudes toward education, lack of confidence in
themselves, defensive behavior about abilities, weak ego‘

control, and hostile behavior patterns.

Pursuing an investigation of over and underachievement
further, Farquhar14 directed a comprehensive study of the
motivational factors underlying achievement of eleventh

grade high school students and found underachieving students

 

13Farquhar, op. cit. 14 id.

to have low self-concept, a generalized free floating anxiety
which is reflected in activity level or hostility, incapacity
for time delay, values of conformity to the group, and in-
volvement with simple tasks from which chances for success
are great.

It is evident that considerable work has been done in
studying the relationship between underachievement and such
factors as scholastic skills and personality variables. The
literature suggests two approaches which are being taken by
educational institutions to provide constructive aid for the
underachieving student. The first is the study skills or
orientation course where the major emphasis is upon specific
intellectual problem areas related to scholastic achievement.
The second is the individual and group counseling opportuni-
ties which are often designed to provide help with the
underlying personality dynamics of underachievement. There
is, of course, some overlapping of material in each of these
programs.

The question which arises, and which has not been
studied in a group counseling context, is the relative ef-
fectiveness of a study-skills approach and a personality
dynamics approach to the problem of underachievement.

Will high ability underachieving students benefit
more from a group counseling eXperience which has as its
major focus the cognitive improvement of scholastic skills

than from a group counseling experience which attempts to

deal with the more affective material of personal problems

and personality dynamics? Will the students receiving

either of these experiences make more improvement in their
academic achievement than students who do not receive such
experiences? In this investigation, answers to these questions
are to be sought in a group counseling design which provides
for a comparison of the effects of the two different treat-
ments and a comparison of the effects of either treatment

with a control group receiving no treatment.

The Hypotheses
The study was designed to investigate the following
two hypotheses: i

1. The academic achievement of students who have ex-
perienced group counseling will be greater at the
completion of the experiment and three months
following the completion of the experiment than
the academic achievement of students who did not
participate in group counseling.

2. There will be differences in academic achievement
at the completion of the experiment and three
months following the completion of the experiment
between students experiencing two types of group

counseling.

10

Definition of Terms

For purposes of clarification, three terms which are

frequently used throughout the report of this investigation

are defined.

1.

2.

3.

15

Underachiever: An individual who scores at or
above the 50th percentile on the College Qualifi-
cation Test and receives less than a C average

in his first term of college work.

Cognitive group counseling: An experience, shared
by a group of students and a counselor, which
places a cognitive emphasis on material dealing
with specific intellectual problem areas related '
directly to scholaStic achievement. Study skills,
techniques in test taking, and educational in-
formation are examples of the topics discussed.15
Affective group counseling: An experience,

shared by a group of students and a counselor,
which places an affective emphasis on material
dealing with personal problems and personality
dynamics. Feelings of depression, expression of
hostility, and feelings about self are examples

of the areas discussed.

It is rec0gnized that the material discussed in the

cognitive experience is similar to that which is discussed in
a class on study-skills,and the process of giving specific
information is similar to teaching. However, many of the
techniques employed in the cognitive experience are similar
to techniques employed in group counseling. For the purposes

11

Organization of the Study
The general plan of the study is to present in the
following chapter a review of research which is related to
the problem of aiding underachievers through group pro-
cedures. In Chapter III the design of the study will be
described with reference to sampling procedure, method of
treatment, the null hypotheses, and the type of analysis.

The results of the analysis is reported in Chapter IV.

f

of this study, the cognitive group experience is referred

to as cognitive group counseling and encompasses objectives
and processes which might also fall under the label of small
group teaching.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

To review the literature on group methods for improv-
ing academic achievement is a complex task because the
boundaries of the problem are vague,and the research has
been scattered throughout the broad areas of education and
psychology. For the purposes of the review, only those
studies which are closely related to the,problem of this in-
vestigation will be considered. These have been categorized
into three different classifications:

1. Studies which have investigated the effects of
study-skills courses upon academic achievement,
primarily at the college level.

2. Studies which have investigated the effects of
group counseling or guidance upon academic
achievement, primarily at the college level.

3. Studies which have been concerned with the
comparative effects of different methods of
counseling on academic achievement, primarily

at the college level.

The Effects of Study-Skills Courses on.Academic Achievement

Because much of the content included in one type of

12

13

treatment beingeinvestigated in the present study is similar
to that which is presented in study-skills courses, it is
appropriate to briefly review the effectiveness of such con-
tent upon the academic achievement of students. A great
number of studies have been conductedito evaluate the
effectiveness of how-to-study programs. Rather than examin-
ing each study separately, reference is made to two reviews
and one carefully designed investigation which report the
research in the area of study-skills.

Farquhar1 reviewed the literature to determine the
longnterm effects of how-to-study courses. His review made
reference to studies by Crawford2 and Book3 which were repre-
sentative of many early investigations. These two researchers
Optimistically found that students who took training in
study-skills stayed in college longer and made better grades
than students who did not take such training. Farquhar
noted that the two studies did not employ control groups or

observations over a period of time and that many subsequent

1W. w. Farquhar, An Investigation of the Relationship
of Three T achin Methods to Student Behavior in a How To
Study Course Zunpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, University of
Minnesota, 1955).

 

2C. C. Crawford, "Some Results of Teaching College
Students How to Study," School and Society, 1926, 23, 471-2.

3W. F. Book, "Results Obtained in a Special Course
Given to College Students," School and Society, 1927, 26,
529-34.

l4

investigations which included these essentials in design did
not substantiate the findings of Crawford and Book.

Farquhar's review, which covered the literature up to
1954, pointed to inconclusive results regarding the effective-
ness of the how-to-study courses,and he cited a need for more
research based on modern research tools where adequate control
groups take into account motivational differences as well as
other background factors.

A review by Entwisle? which was published six years
after Farquhar had examined the literature, shows evidence
of improvement in the general designs of research investigat-
ing study-skills courses. She points out, however, that
inadequate criteria for evaluating the effects of the study
programs and lack of control for motivation are among the
common weaknesses of the studies reviewed.

In addition to improvement in methodology, the more
recent studies are more consistent in showing effective re-
sults from study courses. After examining the results of
22 studies, Entwisle concludes that academic improvement
following a study-skills course seems to be the rule. She
notes that the improvement varies from a very slight amount
to a considerable amount and seems to be related to voluntary
selection of the study course. In studies controlling for

motivation, it was found that students wishing to take a

 

4
D. R. Entwisle, "Evaluations of Study~Skills Courses:
A Review," Journal of Educational Research, 53 (March, 1960),
247-51.

15

study-skills course, but prevented from doing so,failed to
show significant improvement.

In her review, Entwisle overlooked an investigation
by Krumboltz and FarquharS which was designed to examine the
effects of three teaching methods on achievement and motiva-
tional outcomes in a how-to-study course. Because the Krum-
boltz and Farquhar study represents a marked improvement in
design and methodology over other investigations of study-
skill courses, the exclusion of the study from Entwisle's
review marks a serious shortcoming in the review.

The population used by Krumboltz and Farquhar for
their investigation consisted of 177 University of Minnesota
students who elected to take a two credit how-to-study course.
Of the 177 who registered for the course, 112 were randomly
assigned to one of three teaching methods. Two instructors
each taught three different class sections where a different
teaching method was employed in each section.

The three teaching methods were instructor-centered,
student-centered, and eclectic. The instructor-centered
method placed an emphasis on intellectual content and
instructor-directed activities. The student-centered ap-
proach was primarily student-directed with committee work

and student-led discussions of study problems receiving

1

5.1. D. KrumbOltz and w. w. Farquhar, "The Effect of
Three Teaching Methods on Achievement and Motivational Out-

comes in a How-To-Study Course," Psychologicpl Monographs,
71:14, 1957.

16

major emphasis. The eclectic method consisted of a combina-
tion of the instructor and student-centered approaches and
emphasized instructor-led class discussions which were inter-
spersed with a variety of teaching techniques.

Five criterion instruments were employed to test the
effectiveness of the three teaching methods. The final
examination for the 30-session course was used to test know-
ledge about the course content. The Survey of Study Habits
and Attitudes was used to obtain students self-rating of
study habits and attitudes. The p Achievement Test was em-
ployed to measure achievement motivation. The Opinion
Attitude and Interest Survey which was developed to measure
certain non-intellectual personality factors important in
academic success was also used to measure motivation. And,
the Survey of Opinions-Attitudes was designed to measure
student attitudes toward class.

No significant differences in scores on the final
examination were found between the students receiving
instruction by the three different teaching methods. An
examination of the post-treatment results of the other
criterion measures revealed: (1) students in the eclectic
classes were most highly motivated as measured by the p
Achievement Test, (2) the method which was most successful
in pleasing the students under one instructor was not most

successful under another instructor, and (3) regardless of

17

the type of instruction the students actually received, stu-
dents who originally expressed a preference for a more
cognitive-type instruction increased their self-ratings of
study habits and attitudes where the opposite occurred with
the students who originally desired a student-centered type
of instruction.

A number of methodological techniques were employed
by Krumboltz and Farquhar to strengthen the design of the
study. They employed randomization in assigning students to
treatment, replication by including two instructors who both
taught all three methods, and control by having each method
of teaching become a control on the other. They also em-
ployed a check on the consistency of instruction by each
instructor in each method. A weakness in the design of the
study is the use of pre-treatment measures which might have
had a contaminating effect on the treatment and the post-
treatment measures.

The Krumboltz and Farquhar study is more similar to
the present study than most investigations of the effects of
study-skills courses because it examined the effects of three
teaching approaches on selected criteria. The material dis-
cussed in the classes taught under the three methods is
similar to that which is discussed in the cognitive counsel-
ing approach used in the present investigation. And, the
teaching procedures followed in the eclectic method are

similar to many of the counseling procedures employed in the

18

cognitive counseling group. A major difference is that none

of the three teaching methods were designed to explore the
affective domain outlined in the affective group counseling
approach of the present study.

The reviews by Farquhar and Entwisle and the investi-
gation by Krumboltz and Farquhar point to two trends in the
research of the effects of study-skills courses: (1) increased
concern by investigators in the precision of their experi-
mental efforts, and (2) more consistent results showing im-
provement from study-skills courses. This later trend is
striking when one considers the variation in kind of courses
listed under the "study-skills" rubric and the disparate kinds

of students enrolled in the courses.

The Effects of Group Counseling on Academic Achievement
A review of the studies of group counseling as it af-

fects academic achievement will provide a broad perspective
of the methods, findings, and problems involved in group
counseling research. The first three studies reviewed in
this section have used young adolescents as subjects and
have been concerned with personal adjustment as well as
academic achievement. The remaining five reports are of in-
vestigations employing college populations and are, therefore,
more directly related to the problem of this investigation.

Broedel and associatesé studied the effects of group

 

5:. Broedel, et al., "The Effects of Group Counseling
on Gifted Underachieving Adolescents," Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 7, 1960, 163-70.

19

counseling on 29 freshman high school underachievers. The
students were selected On the basis of high aptitude for
scholastic work as measured by the California Test of Mental
Maturity and low grade-point averages. An assigment of the
students to two experimental and two control groups was done
by use of random numbers. The experimental groups received
16 sessions of group counseling while the control groups re-
ceived no treatment. At the completion of the treatment of
the experimental groups, the control groups were counseled
for 16 sessions. This experimental design provided a
control for both treatment and time effects.

The criteria used for evaluating the effects of the
group counseling were grade-point increase, improved scores
on the California Achievement Test, and increased personal
adjustment as assessed by a special picture story test and
the Mooney Problems Check List. Conclusions reached from
an analysis of the criteria after treatment were that group
counseling did not improve academic performance, but did aid
the students in acceptance of self and others. Two follow-
up investigations conducted four and 18 months after treat-
ment revealed no changes in the original outcome.

Strengths of the study which are not often found in
the research on group counseling are the design which con-
trols for both treatment and time effects and the follow-up

evaluation of the effects of treatment. Weaknesses of the

study-are failure to apply appropriate sampling techniques in

20

the selection of the subjects, including some students in
the experiment who objected to the experience, and failure
to include a description of the treatment conditions.

7 examined the effects of group counseling on

Caplan
the self-concept and academic performance of junior-high boys
who had long-term records of frequent conflict with school
authorities and regulations. Thirty-four students were
divided into six groups, three experimental and three con-
trol. The three experimental groups met with regular school
counselors weekly for ten 50-minute sessions. These sessions
were conducted in a permissive manner with only minimal
limits on behavior. The counselor was a non-evaluating
sounding board for feelings of hostility against school in
general, particular teachers, and parents.

Changes in the self-concept and ideal self-concept
were assessed by pre- and post-experimental administration
of Q-sorts. Honor point ratios were used in evaluating the
academic performance. Caplan reports that changes between
the self-concept and the ideal self-concept were highly
significant for each experimental sub-group and within the
total experimental group; whereas, no such changes took

place within any control sub-group nor within the total con-

trol group. After an analysis of the post-treatment grades

 

7S. W. Caplan, "The Effects of Group Counseling on
Junior High School Boys' Concepts of Themselves in School,"

Journal of Counseling Psychology, 4, 1957. 124-8.

21

of the experimental and control groups, Caplan states that
no conclusion can be made regarding the effectiveness of
group counseling on academic achievement.

The following criticisms are made of Caplan's study:
he does not report how his subjects were selected or that
they were randomly assigned to treatment groups, no pre-
treatment assessment of the homogeneity of the groups on
ability and previous grades was made, the students were
allowed to receive individual counseling during the experi-
mental period if they so desired, and no assessment was made
of the differential effects which the three counselors might
have on the criteria.

The third study involving young adolescents was con-
ducted by McCarthy.8 She evaluated the effects of non-
directive group counseling on grade improvement and attitude
change. Twenty-four boys with the greatest discrepancy
between ability and academic achievement from 17 Boston
'high schools were non-randomly assigned to two experimental
and two control groups of equal number. A check on the
homogeneity of the groups revealed equal variances in
aptitude, achievement, and personality variables.

The counselor in the experimental groups began each

session by introducing a disguised case study resembling an

 

8M. V. McCarthy, The Effeptiveness of a Modified
Counselin Procedure in Promotin Learnin Amo_ Bri ht Under-
achieving Adolescents, Research Project ASE- 401 (Washin ton,
D.C.: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1959 .

22

underlying problem of a student in the group. Once the

material was presented, the counselor assumed a non-
directive role and left most of the direction of the sessions
to the students. The students attended the groups once a
week for six weeks. Grade improvement was determined by
grade-point averages,and attitude change was assessed by a
Q-sorts and a sentence completion test.

At the completion of the experiment, McCarthy con-
cluded that the type of group counseling offered the 12
experimental subjects was ineffectual in improving grades or
changing attitudes. The experimental group did not differ
from the control on these criteria. Any conclusions from
this study concerning the effectiveness of group counseling,
however, are extremely tenuous due to a very small sample,
non-random assignment to treatment, no attempt to control
for motivation of the students for counseling and failure to
replicate by using a different counselor in each of the two
experimental groups. The commendable aspect of the study
was a clear description of the type of treatment involved.

Winborn and Schmidt9 investigated the effectiveness
of short-term group counseling upon the academic achievement
of potentially superior but underachieving college freshmen

at Indiana University. On the basis of high aptitude scores

 

93. Winborn and L. s. Schmidt, "The Effectiveness of
Short-Term Group Counseling Upon the Academic Achievement of
Potentially Superior but Underachieving College Freshmen"
Journal of Educational Research, 55, 1962, 169-73.

23

and low first semester grade-point averages, they selected a
population of 135 students from which a random sample of 68
students was drawn and randomly assigned to an experimental
or control group. The groups were found to be equivalent
prior to treatment. The experimental group was broken down
into six sub-groups and given six counseling sessions by two
counselors who were considered skilled in techniques of
counseling.

The criteria used for evaluating the effectiveness of
the experience were change in grade-point average and change
on three selected scales of the Psychological Inventory.
After treatment, differences in mean grade-point averages
between the experimental and control groups were found to be
significant. The students in the control group had higher
grade-point averages than those in the experimental group.
No.differences were found between the experimental and the
control groups on any of the three scales measuring person-
ality change.

For help in understanding the negative results of the
Winborn-Schmidt experiment, a careful report is needed of
the nature of the treatment which was administered to the
experimental group and the motivation of the students for
such an experience. This criticism can justifiably be made
of the majority of the studies reviewed.

One of the earliest doctoral dissertations reporting

an investigation of group counseling with college students

24

was written by Anderson.10 The objective of the study was
to enhance the students academic performance and facilitate
the solution of personal problems. Sixty freshman students
in a woman's college were assigned at random to an experi-
mental and control group. The equivalence of the two groups
was determined by statistical analysis prior to counseling.
The treatment, which lasted for eight sessions, was un-
structured with the direction of the discussions left, for
the most part, to the wishes of the students. Rating scales
were used to evaluate the effects of counseling on the re-
duction of problems. Grades were compared for assessment of
academic performance.

An analysis of the results led Anderson to conclude
that group counseling of no more than eight sessions can be
effective as a method for helping students deal with personal-
social and college adjustment problems, but that there was
no evidence that it helps increase academic achievement.

The validity of the first conclusion depends upon the accur-
acy of non-validated rating scales and the students judgments

about effects of treatment.

11

A doctoral study conducted by Duncan assessed the

effects of required group counseling on academic achievement.

10R. L. Anderson, Ap Experimental Investigation of
Grouprounselingpwith Freshmenpln a woman s College un-

published Ph.D. Dissertation, NewfiYork University. 1956).

 

11D. R. Duncan, Effects of Re uired G oup Counseling
with College Students in Apademic Difficulty (unpublished
Ed.D. Dissertation, University of Florida, 1962).

25

He selected 62 students who were on academic probation at the
University of Florida and randomly assigned them to experi-
mental and control groups. The students were required to
attend 12 sessions which were conducted by three doctoral stu-
dents. Each counselor had a group of nine to 11 students.

The criteria for improvement were increase in grade-point
average and attitude change on a self-rating scale.

In analyzing his data, Duncan found no differences
between his two groups in either of the two criteria and con-
cluded that there was little effect from requiring group
counseling with students in academic difficulty. Duncan's
efforts lend further support to the notion that in order
for counseling to be effective, the students must desire to
participate in the experiment. This consideration has been
neglected in many research designs by not equating experi-
mental and control groups on the variable of motivation.
Often, the students in the experimental group have desired
counseling while those in the control group have not.

Another dissertation dealing with academic probationary
students has been written by Maroney.12 Fifty-two transfer
students who were admitted on academic probation were randomly
assigned to an experimental and a control group. The two

groups were found to be homogeneous in ability and academic

 

12K. A. Maroney, Effectiveness of Shprt-term Group
Qgidppge with a Group of Transfer_§tudents Admitted on
Academic Probation (unpublished Ed.D. Dissertation, North
Texas State University, 1962).

26

achievement. The experimental group was divided into four

sub-groups., One counselor led all four sub-groups in semi-
structured group discussions of educational and vocational

information, study techniques, and information regarding the

mechanics of academic probation. The treatment lasted six
weeks and included 13 sessions.

The criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of the
study were improved grade-point averages and changes on
scales of the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule. The
analysis at the conclusion of the experiment revealed a
greater but non-significant increased grade-point average of
the experimental subjects than of the control subjects.
Minor changes on the personality schedule were also inter-
preted as irrelevant.

A number of research problems are present in the
Maroney study. The students in the experiment were a whole
population which was unique in its characteristics, thus
any generalizations of the results of the study are limited
to a similar population. Thirteen group sessions were
held, but the range in number of sessions attended by the
students was very large. Because the experimental and
control groups were both informed of the experiment prior
to treatment, an extraneous variable was introduced into the
study. And, competence of the single counselor was not

taken into account in interpreting the results.

27

Spielberger, Veitz and Denny13 conducted an elaborate
study of the effects of group counseling on the academic
performance of anxious college freshmen at Duke University.
From a population of 565 male liberal arts freshmen, 112 met
the selection criteria of high anxiety and high ability as
determined by standardized personality and aptitude tests.
Fifty-six of these 112 students volunteered for group
counseling. They were matched on factors, such as ability,
major field of study, and type of high school attended, and
hthen assigned to an experimental and control group. The
experimental group was broken down into four sub-groups.

The groups were conducted by two faculty members who
were experienced in counseling and clinical work. Students
were encouraged to bring up problems of any sort; the tOpics
most favored included methods of study, vocational goals, and
academic difficulties. The treatment ranged from eight to
11 sessions. Academic achievement as assessed by grade-point
average provided the principle objective-criterion for evalu-
ating the effects of the counseling. Data were also col-
lected on factors which might relate to academic performance
and thereby provide alternative explanations for any obtained
effects of group counseling. Measures of these factors were

class attendance, results of the survey of Study Habits and

 

13C. D. Spielberger, et 51., "Group Counseling and
the Academic Performance of Anxious College Freshman,"

Journal of Coupseling Psychology, 9, 1962, 54-61.

28

Attitudes, and personality patterns determined by the Minne-
sota Multiphasic Personality Inventory.

In contrast with the non-significant findings of the
previous studies, the Duke investigation revealed that the
counseled students showed greater improvement in academic
performance than thenon-counseled students (p <:.05). They
also found that there was a positive relationship between
the number of counseling sessions attended and grade improve-
ment. Although it was possible to isolate a personality
pattern which uniquely characterized the students who at-
tended the counseling sessions regularly, those with the same
personality pattern in the control group did not show compar-
able academic attainment.

An examination of the Spielberger, Heitz and Denny
study reveals three experimental procedures seldom found in
the research of group counseling. Motivation was controlled
by including only volunteers in both experimental and
control groups, an analysis was conducted on the length of
treatment variable, and the influence of personality patterns

which may have influenced the-results was examined.

Comparative Effects of Different Methods of Counseling
on Academic Achievement
Five studies have hgen reported in the literature
which deal with the comparative effects of different methods
of counseling on academic achievement. One of the recent

investigations is a comparison of three methods of assisting

29

underachieving high school students reported by Baymur and
Patterson.14 These researchers selected as subjects for
their study, 32 high school juniors who were considered
underachievers on the basis of a large discrepancy between
scores on an aptitude test and school grades. These students
were matched on selected variables and assigned to one of
four groups. The assignment was not completely random due

to scheduling conflicts.

Three experimental variables were applied to three
different groups: individual counseling at weekly intervals
for a maximum of 12 weeks, group counseling for nine sessions,
and one-session motivational group counseling. The fourth
group served as a control and received no counseling. The
approach used by the counselor was described as client-
centered for the individual and group counseling. The one-
session motivational treatment was designed to bring the
students to an awareness of their underachievement and the
value of applying themselves to their school work. A weak-
ness in the report is a failure to include a more detailed
description of any of the treatment variables. The major
criteria for evaluating the counseling methods were improved>
personal adjustment as measured by a carefully prepared Q-
sort, increased scores on the Brown-Holtzman Survey of Study

Habits and Attitudes, and increased grade-point average.

 

14F. A. Baymur and C. H. Patterson, "A Comparison of
Three Methods of Assisting Underachieving High School Stu-

dents," Journal of Counseling Psychology, 7, 1960, 83-9.

30

The results of the experiment were inconclusive.

With regard to improvement in grades, the analysis of vari-
ance was not significant. However, when the two counseling
groups were combined and compared with the one-session
motivational group and the control group, the improvement by
the counseling groups was significantly greater than that of
the non-counseled groups. The same two-step analysis pro-
duced similar results with personal adjustment scores from
the Q-sort. The authors recognized the weakness in the
analysis procedure and thus make no conclusions about the
effectiveness of any of the treatment conditions. Limitations
of the study are similar to those found in many investi-
gations previously cited in this review; they are lack of
follow-up beyond experimental period, small sample size, non-
motivated students, and dependence upon the skills and
personality of one counselor.

For his doctoral dissertation, Marx15 reports a study
which was designed to evaluate the comparative effects of
individual and group counseling on academic achievement. A
group of 181 freshman students were identified as under-
achievers on the basis of a large discrepancy between
aptitude and first semester grade-point average. From the
population of 181 underachievers, 46 students were selected

15G. L. Marx, A Com arison of the Effectiveness of
Two Methods of Counsefi—L———————7— gwithmiemicUmier-achieversun-
232;)?hed Ph.D. Dissertation, State University of Iowa,

 

31

to receive group counseling, 58 were to be seen as individual
counseling clients, and 24 were to serve as a control group.
The experimental subjects volunteered to receive counseling,
but the control group was given no chance to volunteer. This
weakness in the sampling procedure leaves the question of
equal motivation for all groups unanswered. .A second control
group of 53 students who declined the opportunity for counsel-
ing was also included in the design.

Two criteria were used in the experiment, grade-point
average increase, and number of credit hours which were
completed during the semester in which treatment was offered.
The number of interviews or group sessions attended by the
counseled students ranged from one to four. The counseling
in both groups focused on study-skills and educational-
vocational planning and was done by three doctoral students.

Marx concludes, upon analysis of his post-treatment
data, that the results pertaining to the effectiveness of
counseling with academic underachievers must be considered
inconclusive. No differences were found between either of
the counseled groups and the control group which had no
opportunity to volunteer. The group of control subjects who
refused counseling received significantly lower grade-point
averages than the students who received individual counsel-
ing. In a comparison of the two counseled groups, Marx noted
significant differences in the grade-point improvement

between students who participated in individual counseling

32

and students who received group counseling. These differ-
ences were in favor of the individually-counseled subjects.

The results of the Marx study would be more informa-
tive and conclusive if the investigator had controlled for
motivation, increased the number of treatment interviews,
and reduced the variance in students' attendance at inter-
views.

Speegle16 recently completed a study evaluating the
effectiveness of individual and group counseling with stu-
dents on academic probation. The subjects for his investi-
gation were selected from 180 second semester college fresh-
men who were on academic probation. The selected subjects
were assigned to one of three groups; one received individual
counseling, another group counseling, and a third served as
a control group. The treatment consisted,for both groups,of
two to five contacts with a counselor in which study habits
and skills were discussed. Grade-point average and eligi-
bility to remain in school were the two principal criteria
used in the study. The results of the treatment show no
statistically significant differences in grade-point average
among any of the three groups. However, more students who
received group counseling were able to remain in school be-
cause of acceptable grades than students receiving individual

counseling or students in the control groups.

 

16F. T. Speegle, The Effectiveness of Two Techniques

of Counseling with Students on Academic Probation (unpublished
Ed.D. Dissertation, North Texas State University, 1962).

33

A careful review of Speegle's dissertation reveals a
number of weaknesses in his study. The control group was
not selected from the students who volunteered for counsel-
ing. Although the students receiving treatment were sorted
into two general categories according to high and low ability,
no assessment was made of the pre-treatment equivalence of
the treatment and control groups on ability or first semester
grade-point averages. Two counselors were used in the experi-
ment, but no estimate was made of this variable on the ef-
fects of the treatment. The number of treatment interviews
was very few and the variability of the students' attend-
ance at the interviews was large.

The studies which have been reviewed in this chapter
thus far have dealt with the effectiveness of study-skills
courses, group counseling, and individual vs. group counsel-
ing in improving academic achievement. Although these
studies are related to the problem of the present investi-
gation, none have compared the effects of different types
of group counseling nor have they investigated the compara-
tive effects of different types of content presented in
either a counseling or study-skills class experience. The
following two studies are not identical to the present in-
vestigation in that they do not employ two types of group
counseling, but they have a more direct relationship than
those already cited because the content of the treatment

variables has been compared.

34

DeWeese17 completed a doctoral study in which the
academic achievement of students receiving group counseling
was compared with the academic achievement of students taking
a remedial reading course. His report includes two experi-
ments, the first was a pilot study and the second was an
attempt to clarify the results of the first. The subjects
for both experiments were low achieving first semester
college freshmen. In both experiments DeWeese controlled for
motivation, assigned students randomly to the treatment and
control groups,and verified the homogeneity of the groups on
ability and grades.

The students assigned to the reading groups were in-
cluded in a regularly taught reading class offered by the
Reading Institute of the university. The students receiving
group counseling focused upon such topics as study skills,
reading habits, and educational planning.

In analyzing the results,DeWeese states that there
were no significant differences in grade-point averages in
either experiment between the counseling and reading groups.
However, the grades of the students in the counseling groups
improved encugh so that significantly more counseling stu-
dents were permitted to remain in college than reading stu-

dents.

17H. L. Deweese, The Extent to fipich GrouptCounseling
Influences the Academic Achievement, Academic Potential, and
Personal Adjustment of Predicted Low-Achieving First Semester
College Freshmen (unpublished Ed.D. Dissertation, University
of Illinois, 1959).

 

35

Although the DeWeese study is more carefully designed
than many previously reviewed, the following limitations are
noted: sample sizes ranged from six to 16 students, treat-
ment effects were contaminated, and length of treatment
varied within and between experimental groups.

Sheldon and Landsman18 investigated the comparative
effects of nondirective group counseling and conventional
classroom instruction on academic achievement, reading
skills, and personality change of college students. Twenty-
eight freshmen, whose academic performance during their first
semester of college was below expectation, were invited to
participate in a course in academic methods. Using a matched
pair technique, these students were divided into two classes.
The classes were judged to be homogeneous in ability, reading
skills, and personality.

The treatment consisted of a lecture on study-skills
and reading improvement which was given to the combined
classes three times a week. Twice a week the two classes
were separated; one continued to be taught by the same
instructor in a conventional lecture and discussion method,
the other class participated in nondirective group therapy
sessions led by a competent nondirective therapist. While

study-skills continued to be taught in the conventional

—k

18 ‘
W. D. Sheldon and T. Landsman, "An Investigation of
Nondirective Group Therapy with Students in Academic Diffi-

culty, Journal of Consulting Psychology, 14, 1950, 210-5.

36

class, the therapy group often explored personal and social
problems introduced by the group members. The treatment

lasted for one term. The criteria for evaluating the ef-
fectiveness of the two treatment methods were improvement in
grade-point average, reading skills, and personality character-
istics. The reading and personality variables were measured

by the Iowa Silent Reading Test and the California Test of
Personality.

Sheldon and Landsman report that the members of the
nondirective group had significantly higher grade-point
averages at the conclusion of the semester in which treatment
was administered than the students taught in a conventional
manner. No differences between the groups were noted on
the reading and personality measures.

The results of the investigation are tenuous due to
weaknesses in the design. No mention was made in the report
of how the 28 students were selected and what their motiva-
tion for assistance was. The method of treatment variables
were not isolated; the counseled group received both types
of treatment. The fact that one group saw a skilled
therapist and the other did not introduced a variable which
was not controlled. The effects of two experimental vari-
ables, content of treatment and method of treatment, were not
separated.

In considering the design of the study, very little

can be concluded about the effectiveness of the two types

37

of content. The major emphasis of the study was on method--

lecture vs. nondirective therapy.

Summary

The review of the literature pertinent to the present
investigation was centered on the studies which evaluated
(1) the effects of study-skills courses on academic achieve-
ment, (2) the effects of group counseling on academic achieve-
ment, and (3) the comparative effects of different counseling
approaches on academic achievement. The major findings of
the review are summarized in the following paragraphs.

The results of early investigations of the effective-
ness of study-skills courses have been inconclusive. The
trend of the more recent studies has been for the results to
indicate that study-skills courses do have some effect on
improving academic achievement. The improvement is not al-
ways statistically significant, however.

The hypothesis that group counseling has a measurable
effect upon academic achievement has been rejected in all
but two of the studies reviewed. And, due to the limitations
of the Sheldon and Landsman19 study, only the experiment of
Spielberger, Weitz and Denny20 clearly indicates that group
counseling measurably improves academic achievement.

No studies have been conducted which evaluate the ef-

fects of different types of group counseling where the

 

19

20Spielberger, et al., op. cit.

Sheldon and Landsman, op. cit.

 

38

content of the group sessions has been the.treatment vari-
able. .

Experimentation in group counseling is beset with fre-
quent weaknesses in design and methodology which impede con-
sistent results.. The most common weaknesses are:

1. Failure to use appropriate sampling techniques.

2. Failure to control for motivation.

3. Failure to use large enough sample sizes from

which generalizations can be made.

4. Failure to reduce the variance among students in

the number of sessions-attended.

5. Failure to clearly define the treatment variable.

6. Failure to isolate the treatment conditions.

7. Failure,to make follow-up evaluations.

8 Failure to provide treatment of reasonable length

for changes to occur.

No study reviewed was comparable to the present investi-
gation. Little attention has been given to the variable of
content of group counseling sessions, and no researcher has
evaluated the comparative effects of a cognitive and an ef-
fective group counseling approach to improve academic achieve-
ment. This study is designed to make such a comparison.

And, in designing and conducting the experiment an attempt
has been made to correct the frequent weaknesses which are

found in many of the studies reviewed.

CHAPTER III
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

The experiment is designed to test the relative ef-
fectiveness Of two types of group counseling experiences on
the academic achievement of college underachievers as mea-
sured by grade-point average. Randomization, replication,
and control are incorporated in the experiment to meet the

three essentials of modern design.

Design
The design of the study is a two-factor treatment plan1
consisting of a two-way classification with equal frequencies

within sub-classes (summarized in Table 3.1).

Table 3.1

Summary of Basic Design of the Experiment

 

Method
Counselor Cognitive Affective Control Group
- Three Three
Counselor A groups groups
No treatment
Three Three
Counselor B groups groups

 

1William S. Ray, An Introduction to Ex erimental
Design (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960).

39

40

The twelve counseling groups were divided equally
between two counselors and two types of group counseling,
cognitive and affective. (The two types of counseling are
described later in this chapter.) Students were assigned on
a random basis to the various treatment groups. Replication
was obtained by duplicating the counseling methods. The
third level of the design, the control group, received no
treatment, but served to provide data for testing the research
hypothesis that group counseling did in fact improve the stu-
dent's academic performance.

The criterion used to measure the outcome of the
experiment was grade-point average for winter and spring
terms of the 1962-1963 school year. The winter term grade-
point averages provided an assessment of the effectiveness
of group counseling during the term in which treatment was
administered. The spring term grade-point averages provided
a follow-up assessment of the effectiveness of group

counseling three months after completion of the experiment.

The Population
0f the freshmen who entered Michigan State University

fall term 1962, there were 561 students who had obtained a

raw score on the total scale of the College Qualification

2

Test of 137 or higher and who had received a fall term

 

2The College Qualification Test is published by the
Psychological Corporation and consists of three ability tests
labeled verbal, information, and numerical. It is ad-
ministered to all entering freshmen as part of their admission

41

grade-point average which was below a 2.00. For this parti-
cular class, a raw score of 137 falls at the 50th percentile.
The grading system used at Michigan State University is
based on a four-point system. An average grade of C is
equivalent to a 2.00. For the purposes of this study, any
student scoring above the 50th percentile on the C.Q.T. and
receiving a grade average of less than a C is considered an
underachiever.

Letters were sent to the 561 underachieving students
during the four-day winter term registration period inviting
them to come to the M.S.U. Counseling Center and participate
in a group counseling eXperience (a copy of the letter is
included in Appendix A). They were told that the experience
was designed to help students who were in academic diffi-
culty and would take place once a week for approximately
eight weeks. There were 152 students who returned a card
indicating their willingness to participate in the group
counseling. Nine of these students sent cards in after the
counseling had begun, thus they were not included in the
groups. Eight other letters of the original 561 were re-

turned because the student had withdrawn from school.

Random Assignmept

The random assignment of subjects to treatment groups

was executed in the following way: cards which were returned

 

to the University and is considered the best present index Of
college ability used at Michigan State University. (Personal
contact with Arvo E. Juola, Evaluation Services, M.S.U.)

42

by the students to indicate a willingness to participate in
group counseling also included a list of times when the
groups would meet. Before returning the card, the student
was asked to check four or five available hours which might
be considered in assigning him to a group. The 143 students
who had volunteered during the first week of winter term
were alphatetized and then numbered. Using a table of
random numbers, the students were assigned to one of the
three treatments: cognitive, affective, or control. The
assignment to one of the six groups within each treatment
was made according to the student's preference,as indicated
on his returned card,as often as possible. The two
counselors were each assigned three affective and three
cognitive groups by the flip of a coin.

There were seven students who could not be available
at a time when their treatment groups were scheduled and thus
were excluded from the experiment. Two of these were to be
assigned to the cognitive groups and five were to join the
affective groups. The breakdown of students at the beginning
of the experiment is as follows: 45 were assigned to the
six cognitive groups, 43 to the six affective groups, and
48 made up the no-treatment control group.

The control group was informed that due to the large
number of students who desired to participate and the
limited staff available, it was impossible to assign them to
groups, but that plans were being made that in the future

they too might be able to have the experience.

43

Sample
Before describing the characteristics of the 96 stu-

dents used in the experimental analysis, it is apprOpriate
to account for 40 students who were initially included in
the groups but not included in the analysis.

Although the experiment was designed to include
eight group sessions, only seven were held; the eighth
would have been during final exam week,and it was decided to
terminate the experience before the exam period. The stu-
dents who are included in the analysis attended the groups
a minimum of five times. This point was chosen for two
reasons. The first was that it was a natural breaking point;
most students who were not involved in the experience enough
to come at least five of the seven times came only two or
three times. The second reason was that if only those stu-
dents who had attended all seven sessions had been included,
the numbers would have been out below the point where a rea-
sonable analysis could have been made. By using the five to
seven criterion, a margin was provided for illness and other
prohibiting circumstances.

The three cognitive groups assigned to Counselor A
at the beginning of the experiment contained a total of 22
students, seven in two groups and eight in the third. Three
Of these students failed to attend the group sessions a
minimum of five times. Two did not even report for the

first session and another was excluded from the analysis

44

because he was also being seen in individual counseling.
This left a total of 16 students in the cell for analysis.
Counselor B was assigned three cognitive groups with a total
of 23 students, eight in two groups and seven in another.
There were 17 from these groups who attended at least five
sessions. 0f the six excluded from the analysis, three at-
tended fewer than five times, two failed to report to the
first session, and one had received two hours of eucational-
vocational counseling during the last month Of the preceed-
ing term. A

The three affective groups led by Counselor A began
with a combined total of 22 students; 17 were available for
analysis. Two students failed to attend a minimum Of five
times, two were seeing a counselor on an individual basis,
and one was taking a "Methods of Study" course from the
Department of Psychology. There were 16 students available
for analysis from the affective groups of Counselor B. Of
his original 21 students, four attended fewer than five times
and one did not report for the first session of counseling.

An examination of the number of students who met the
five sessions criterion and who were not involved in other
counseling or study programs shows 16 students receiving
cognitive treatment from Counselor A, 17 students receiving
cognitive treatment from Counselor B, 17 students receiving
affective treatment from Counselor A, and 16 students receiv-

ing affective treatment from Counselor B. In order to

45

facilitate the analysis, one student from the cognitive group
of Counselor B and one student from the affective group of
Counselor A were randomly excluded. Each of the four cells
thus contained 16 students.

There were 48 students who had been assigned to the
control group at the beginning of the experiment. Four of
these students received individual counseling during the
term,and two were enrolled in the "Methods of Study" class.
From the 42 remaining control subjects, ten were randomly
excluded from the experiment in order to establish equal
cells in the three levels of treatment.

A slight modification was made in the sample for the
analysis of spring term grade-point averages. It was found
that one male student in the control group had received
individual counseling during spring term and another male
student in the control group had dropped out of school at
the end of winter term. Two of the original ten students
who had been randomly excluded from the control group were
randomly selected to replace the ineligible students in the
spring term analysis. NO changes were necessitated in the
cognitive and affective groups.

In Table 3.2 is summarized the number and sex of the
students in each treatment group who are included in the
analysis. Although there is a disproportion in the number
of male and female students, approximately the same ratio,

4.L existed for the original 561 students who were sent letters.

46

Table 3.2

Number and Sex of Students in Each Treatment Group Who
Are Included In the Analysis

 

 

“— N =_96
Counselor Cognitive Affective Control
A 11 Males 13 Males
5 Females 3 Females
24 Males
B 13 Males 13 Males 8 Females
3 Females 3 Females
Total 24 Males 26 Males 24 Males
8 Females 6 Females 8 Females

 

Although assignment of the students to the various
treatment groups was on a random basis and pre-experimental
equivalence may be assumed, data in Tables 3.3 through 3.5

give further support to the assumption.

Because the criterion used in the experiment is the
student's grade-point average, the similarity of academic
ability of the students in each treatment group is essential.
Table 3.2 is a summary of the group means of the total raw

scores obtained on the College Qualification Test.

Table 3.3

Total Raw Score Means for the College Qualification
Test for Each Group and Counselor

 

 

. N=9§
Counselor Cognitive Affective Control
A . 153.88 154.38
153.44
B. 153.31 154.01

Total 153.60 154.19 153.44

 

47

An examination of the total raw score means of the
College Qualification Test for each treatment group reveals
similarity among the groups. Because there was only a
difference of one point between the raw score means of the
three treatment groups, no statistical comparison was made,
and the groups were treated as being equal on this variable.
A total raw score of 154 falls at the 75th percentile. It
is clear that the average group scores are in the above-
average range of the total 1962 freshman class.

A second consideration in determining the pre-
experimental equivalence of the groups is the fall term grade-
point average. If post-experimental conclusions are to be
drawn attributing differences between groups to a particular
treatment, then the groups must be similar at the onset of
the experiment. The mean fall gradeepoint average for each

group is reported in Table 3.4.

Table 3.4

Mean Fall Term Grade-Point Averages for Each Group
and Counselor

 

 

Counselor Cognitive Affective Control
A 1.3369 1.5556
1.4806
B 1.5318 1.4888

Total 1.4344 1.5222 1.4806

 

48

Inspection of the data reveals differences among the
three treatment groups which, because of random assignment,
are assumed to have occurred by chance. To test this
assumption, the null hypothesis that there is no difference
between treatment groups on fall term grade-point average
was tested by analysis of variance.3

Before calculating the analysis of variance, the
homogeneity of the sample variances was tested by Bartlett's
test. The chi-square value of .0027 was so small that the
null hypothesis of equal group variability was accepted.

The results of the analysis of variance of the three
treatment groups are summarized in Table 3.5. The null hypo-
thesis was accepted,and it was concluded that therewereru)
statistically significant differences between the three treat-
ment groups. Apparently those differences which appear in
Table 3.4 are of a magnitude that could be expected by chance

variation.

Treatmept
The two types of treatment used in this study evolved

from theoretical positions described in the literature re-
garding possible ways of helping the underachiever. One
type of treatment has been labeled, for the purposes of this

study, cognitive and is concerned with providing information

 

3Allen L. Edwards, Egperimental_2esign in Psychological
Research (Rev. Ed.; New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
19 0 .

49

Table 3.5

Analysis of Variance of Fall Term Grade Point Average
of the Randomly Assigned Students

 

 

 

m m M
Source of Hypothesis
Variation SS D.F. V. F. Tested
Between

Treatment .1236 2 .0618 .5863 Accepted
Within

Treatment 9.8030 93 .1054

Total 9.9266

 

and develOping special skills which are deemed necessary for
adequate performance in school but which are thought to be
often lacking in the underachiever. The material explored
in the cognitive treatment is quite similar to the material
covered in many college orientation or effective-study courses.
The second type of treatment has been called affective and
deals primarily with emotional needs of the students which
are thought to be underlying factors causing underachievement.
The issue under examination is not which method of counseling,
non-directive, psychoanalytic, etc. is most effective with
underachievers, but rather what kind of content or type of
material dealt with in the group sessions is most helpful
in improving the student's academic standing.

Seven tOpics for each type of treatment were selected
from the literature on underachievement. The cognitive

treatment which was designed to deal with specific intellectual

50

problem areas related directly to scholastic achievement in-
cluded the following topics: examination of vocational ob-
jectives, patterns of interests, interest and personality
test interpretation, developing a study schedule, reading
habits, techniques in preparation for exams, and techniques
in taking exams.

In contrast with the cognitive emphasis, the affective
treatment stressed seven topics dealing with personal problems
and personality dynamics which are hypothesized to be related
to underachievement. These problem areas are: feelings of
hostility, unconscious motivation, feelings of depression,
pressure from outside sources, feelings about self, family
relationships, and feelings of guilt.

The method of counseling used by the group leaders to
effect the two types of treatment would be best described
as ecledflc with the specific techniques being determined
primarily by the nature of the material under discussion.

For example, the cognitive groups were Often leader-centered
with the counselor frequently giving factual information
while the affective groups, working with material heavily
laden with emotion, included more exploration and interpreta-
tion by the group members themselves.

Due to the eclaxic nature of the method of counseling,
a few broad guidelines were developed to assist the counselor
in understanding his role in the group and assuring accom-

plishment of the treatment Objectives. In the cognitive

51

groups the leader introduced the topics for discussion and
determined the time spent on each topic. The leader en-
couraged cognitive discussions of the prescribed topics by
responding to content rather than affect and by shifting
emphasis away from any of the emotional areas outlined for
the affective group. Interpretation was acceptable but was
primarily Of cognitive material. The leader was given free-
dom to suggest specific learning situations and group experi-
ences. such as interest testing, discussion of case studies,
and period of practice on certain study techniques from which
the group members could draw insights.

The following two excerpts, taken from tape recordings
of two cognitive group sessions, will illustrate the content

and counselors' role in the cognitive experience.

Excerpt I
Student 1: "Yeh--just messed up on a chem exam."

Student 2: "In Chem 112?--Know what ya mean, I
couldn't pass one of those beasts if I
had tot"

Counselor: "Sounds as if you're having trouble with
chemistry exams, I wonder how you'd go
about studying for them. We talked about
essay--"

Student 2: "But these aren't essay, you have to ap-
proach them from another angle."

52

Excerpt II

Student 1: "Ya know, if I'd get out of engineering
I'd be a lot better off. I--

Student 2: "Boy, you're right; I think that's half
my problem. Do high marks over here in--
a--group eight mean that you'll do Ok in
business--say marketing?"

Student 3: "No, that's more like selling, group nine."

Counselor: "You're interested in the business area,
aren't you, Don? That's quite different
from math. You're in business administra-
tion, Carl: what is it like?"

In the affective groups the leader allowed the discus-
sion to follow the lines determined by the group when they
were in accordance with one or more of the prescribed treat-
ment topics. He Often interceded with clarification, sum-
marization, and direction when it was necessary for continued
.productivity. The designated tOpics were continually under
consideration as the leader responded primarily to affect
and the emotionally laden material presented by the students.
He was given the freedom to remain silent, pursue individual
and group dynamics, or make extensive interpretation of
affective material.

Excerpts III and IV are taken from two affective group
sessions.

Excerpt III
Student 1: "Got another letter from my mother today.
I wish she'd get off my back--so damned

concerned about my grades."

Student 2: "Ignore her. When my ol'lady gets bitchy
1""

53

Student 3: "NO you don't, you sit and take it like
the rest of us!"

Counselor: "YOu sound disgusted, Paul. Can you tell
us a little more how you feel about this--
a--not doing anything or--a pressure?"

Excerpt IV

Counselor: ”You've been real quiet, Sandy, can you
tell us about it?"

Student 1: "No--I--it's just that things are--I
feel like the way you did last week,
Barbara. I'm never going to make it."

Counselor: "You're really feeling low--like giving
up? 11

Student 1: "Yeh."
20 second pause
Counselor: "These feelings Of depression seem to be

pretty common among all of us. Can we
localize 'em?"

Counseling Settipg
Ten of the 12 counseling groups held their group

sessions in a conference room which is designed for small
group work in the Michigan State University Counseling Center.
Due to a scheduling conflict of the conference room, one
counseling group met in a group counseling room in the
College of Education building and another group met in the
Counseling Center office of one of the counselors. All three
rooms were free from outside distractions.

The students in all groups sat in a circle facing

one another. The conference room had a table in the center

54

around which the students sat, but the other two rooms were
to small to include a table. Seats were not assigned, but
most students sat in the same chairs each week unless the
group leader happened to sit in their accustomed place.
During two sessions of each group, a tape recording
was made for counselor use in evaluating the similarities
and differences between the two counselors and between the

two types of counseling.

The Counselors

Both of the counselors of the investigation were
doctoral candidates with majors in counseling psychology.
At the time of the investigatiOn one counselor was an
assistant instructor in the Counseling Center and the other
was an assistant instructor in the Department of Guidance
and Personnel Services. One of the counselors has had a
total of six years teaching and counseling experience at the
high school and college levels; the other counselor has had
a total of three years of college teaching and counseling

experience.

Consistency and Verification of Counseling

Because an essential element of the design is replica-
tion, it was necessary that the two types of group counseling
be followed by both counselors. Further, the design demands
that the content of the group sessions be different between

the two counseling treatment groups.

55

The objectives of the two different types of treatment
and the functions which the counselors were to perform were
thoroughly discussed and agreed upon by the two counselors
before the initial sessions. To assure similar and appro-
priate treatment, the counselors met biweekly during the
seven weeks of treatment to review objectives, listen to
group tapes, and discuss problems which arose in any of the
groups.

Although the counselors were in agreement that the
cognitive and affective groups actually received the prescribed
treatment, an assessment of the students' Opinions about the
type of experience they felt they had was obtained by ad-
ministering a one-page treatment survey at the end of the
seven group sessions. (A cOpy Of the treatment survey may be
found in Appendix A.)

The survey consisted of fourteen topics or content
areas which were to be available for discussion in the two
types of groups. Seven from the cognitive groups were
interspersed with seven from the affective groups. The survey
was presented to each student with instructions to check
seven items which best describe what was discussed in his
group. The opinions of each student were scored as a
cognitive experience if more than half of the items checked
were cognitive and as an affective experience if more than

half of the items checked were affective.

56

Table 3.6 is a summary of the results of the treatment
survey. It can be noted that the two types of counseling
were followed by both counselors and that there was complete
agreement among students in each treatment group that their
experiences were primarily cognitive or primarily affective

according to the design Of the experiment.

Table 3.6

Cognitive and Affective Experience Scores by
Treatment Groups to the Treatment Survey

 

Counselor A Counselor B
Type of Cognitive Affective Cognitive Affective
Treatment Experience Experience Experience Experience

 

Cognitive
Groups 16 0 16 0
Affective
Groups 0 16 0 16

 

The Null Hypotheses
The basic research hypotheses of the investigation

are broadly stated in Chapter I. A more specific formulation
of these hypotheses as they relate to the design of the ex-
periment considers the counselor variable and interaction
factor.

One-way Analysis of Variance of Winter Term Grades. The
analysis of the winter term grade-point averages of the stu-
dents in the cognitive, affective, and control groups is made

by a one-way analysis of variance.

57

Null Hypothesis One: There are no differences in
academic achievement at the completion of the
experiment between the students who have ex-
perienced group counseling and the students
who did not participate in group counseling.

1:0 by Two Analysis of Variance of Winter Term Grades. The
analysis of the effects of two types of counseling, two
counselors, and an interaction between type of counseling
and counselor on the winter term grade-point average of the
students receiving group counseling is made by a 2 x 2
analysis of variance.

Null Hypothesis Two: There are no differences in the
academic achievement of the students at the
completion of the experiment attributable to
different types of counseling.

Null Hypothesis Three: 'There are no differences in
the academic achievement of the students at
the completion of the experiment attributable
to different counselors.

Null Hypothesis Four: There are no differences in
the academic achievement of the students at
the completion of the experiment attributable
to an interaction'between type of counseling
and counselor.

One-way Analysis Of Variance of Spring Term Grades. The

analysis of the spring term grade-point averages of the stu-
dents in the cognitive, affective, and control groups is made
by a one-way analysis of variance.

Null Hypothesis Five: There are no differences in
academic achievement three months following
the completion of the experiment between the
students who have experienced group counseling
and the students who did not participate in
group counseling.

 

Two by Two Analysis of Variance of Spripg Term Grades. The

analysis of the effects of two types of counseling, two

58

counselors, and an interaction between type of counseling
and counselor upon the spring term grade-point average Of
the students receiving group counseling is made by a 2 x 2

analysis of variance.

Null Hypothesis Six: There are no differences in the
academic achievement of the students three
months following the completion of the experi-
ment attributable to different types of
counseling.

Null Hypothesis Seven: There are no differences in
the academic achievement of the students three
months following the completion of the experi-
ment attributable to different counselors.

Null Hypothesis Eight: There are no differences in
the academic achievement of the students three
months following the completion of the experi-
ment attributable to an interaction between
type of counseling and counselor.

Statistical Treatment
The analysis of variance is the appropriate technique
to test the null hypotheses of the present study. It is de-
signed to differentiate variation between the number of
means according to different causes and to interpret the
significance of the variation.4 Prior to testing the hypo-
theses, a major assumption of the analysis of variance model,

homogeneous sample variances is, tested by calculating

Bartlett's test of homogeneity of variance.5

.—

4 .
Ray, Op. cit.

5Edwards, op. cit.

59

It was decided that, because of the limited sample size,
a more meaningful test of the first and fifth hypotheses could
be made if the six counseling groups within each treatment
level were combined to make a total of 32 students in each
major group. A one-way analysis of variance is employed to
compare the three treatment level effects. The data for the
other six hypotheses were Obtained by combining the three
counseling groups receiving similar treatment from the same
counselor. This procedure gives four cells with 16 students
in each cell. A 2 x 2 analysis of variance is employed for
comparison of the effects of treatment, counselor, and inter-
action. The control group is not included in the analysis of
hypotheses two, three, four, six, seven, and eight.

When the experiment was designed, the level of signifi-
cance for rejecting or accepting the null hypotheses was set
at the 5 per cent level of confidence. It was also decided
that the results from Bartlett's test of homogeneity of vari-
ance would be accepted or rejected at the 5 per cent level

of confidence.

Summary
The experiment is based on a two-factor treatment
plan. Twelve counseling groups were equally divided between
two counselors who each led three groups in a cognitive
counseling experience and three groups in an affective
counseling experience. The design contained randomization,

replication, and control.

60

The analysis of variance is the statistical technique
used to analyze the data. By this method it is possible to
assess the variation due to the specific causes and to
analyze the effects of two or more variables and their
interaction at one time. The 5 per cent level of confidence
was chosen for accepting or rejecting the null hypotheses

and the results of Bartlett's test of homogeneity of vari-

ance.

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Chapter IV is a report of the analysis Of the winter
and spring term gradeepoint averages which were computed for
each of the 96 students in the sample. Each of the eight
experimental null hypotheses are tested by an analysis of

variance technique which was reported in Chapter III.

Analysis of Variance of the Winter Term Grade-Point
Averages
The first four null hypotheses, which are concerned
with the immediate effects of treatment, are tested by the

analysis of variance of the winter term grade-point averages.

Hypothesis One

Hypothesis one is restated in null form:

1. There are no differences in academic achievement
at the completion of the experiment between the
students who have experienced group counseling
and the students who did not participate in group
counseling.

The students in the six counseling groups within each

treatment were combined to make a total of 32 students in
each treatment group. The first hypothesis is tested by

comparing winter term grade-point average means of the

cognitive, affective, and control groups.

61

62

Bartlett's test of homogeneity of variances resulted
in a non-significant chi-square value of .0817. The
assumption of equal variance is verified and the use of
analysis of variance is justified. The results of the

analysis are summarized in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1

Analysis of Variance of Winter Term Grade-Point Averages
for the Cognitive, Affective, and Control Groups

 

 

 

—_l r I: :-
Source of Sum of Mean Hypothesis
Variation Squares d.f. Squares F Tested
Between

Treatments 2.3115 2 1.1558 3.7538 Rejected
Within

Treatments 28.6352 93 .3079

Total 30.9467 95

 

Inspection of the table reveals an F value of 3.7538
_ which is significant at the .05 level. The hypothesis that
there are no differences in academic achievement at the com-
pletion Of the experiment between the students who have ex-
perienced group counseling and the students who did not
participate in group counseling is rejected. Differences as
large as these would occur by chance less than five times in
one hundred.

In order to determine how the three groups differ,

Duncan's New Multiple Range Test described by Edwards1 for

1Edwards, op. cit.

63

use in making multiple comparisons in the analysis of vari-
ance is employed. This test is used to determine which of
the differences between the three means are significant and
which are not. The .05 level of confidence was again
established as the criterion for evaluating the differences.
The results of Duncan's New Multiple Range Test are found

in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2

Duncan's New Multiple Range Test of Winter Term Grade-
Point Averages for the Cognitive, Affective, and
Control Groups

 

A B 7 C 1 Shortest
Control Cognitive Affective Significant
Means 1.9066 2.1203 2.2856 Ranges
A Control 1.9066 .2137 .3790* R2 = .2775
B Cognitive 2.1203 .1653 R3 = .2919

C Affective 2.2856

 

~—ww

*Significant at the .05 level.

An examination of the means reported in Table 4.2 in-
dicates that the mean for the cognitive group is higher than
the mean of the control group but not as high as the mean of
the affective group. The difference between the mean of the
affective group and the mean of the control group is large
enough to be significant at the .05 level of confidence.

There were no other differences which were significant.

54

The results of the analysis of variance and Duncan's
test indicate that the students who received affective group
counseling made significantly higher grades than the students
in the control group but not significantly higher grades than

the students who received cognitive group counseling.

Hypotheses Two, Three, and Fbur

These hypotheses are restated in null form:

2. There are no differences in the academic achieve-
ment of the students at the completion of the
experiment attributable to different types of
counseling.

3. There are no differences in the academic achieve-
ment of the students at the completion of the
experiment attributable to different counselors.

4. There are no differences in the academic achieve-
ment of the students at the completion of the ex-
periment attributable to an interaction between
type of counseling and counselor.

These three hypotheses are tested by a 2 x 2 analysis
of variance design. The three sub-groups receiving similar
treatment from the same counselor were combined. This pro-
cedure gave four cells in the design with 16 students in
each cell. The control group was not included in the
analysis.

Bartlett's test of homogeneity of variance Of the
winter term grades resulted in a chi-square value of .2281
which is non-significant. The assumption of equal variance

is met and the analysis of variance is permitted. The re-

sults of the analysis are summarized in Table 4.3.

65

Table 4.3

Analysis of Variance of Winter Term Grade-Point Averages
for Treatment, Counselor, and Interaction Effects
1 _
Source of Sum of Mean Hypotheses
Variation Squares d.f. Squares F Tested

 

Between Treatment .4372 1 .4372 1.5303 Accepted
Between Counselor .0385 1 .0385 .2348 Accepted

Interaction .0185 1 .0185 .0648 Accepted
Error 17.1403 60 .2857
Total 17.6345 63

 

The null hypotheses two, three, and four are accepted.
The grade-point average differences, which are indicated by
the three F values in Table 4.3, between students of differ-
ent treatment conditions are so small that they are attributed
to chance variation rather than to different types of counsel-
ing, to different counselors, or to an interaction Of type

of counseling and counselor.

Analysis of Variance of the Spring Term Grade-Point
Averages
The remaining four hypotheses, which are concerned
with the effects of treatment three months after the experi-
ment, are tested by the analysis of variance of the spring

term grade-point averages.

66

Hypothesis Five

Hypothesis five is restated in null form:

5. There are no differences in academic achieve-
ment three months following the completion of
the experiment between the students who have
experienced group counseling and the students
who did not participate in group counseling.

The procedures followed in testing hypothesis five are
identical to those used to test hypothesis one. The students
in the six counseling sub-groups within each treatment were
combined to make a total of 32 students in each treatment
group. The fifth hypothesis is tested by comparing the
spring term grade-point average means of the cognitive,
affective, and control groups.

The homogeneity of variances was checked by use of
Bartlett's test. The chi-square value of .1577 indicates

that the variances are homogeneous and the analysis of vari-

ance is permitted. The results are summarized in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4

Analysis of Variance of Spring Term Grade-Point Averages
for the Cognitive, Affective, and Control Groups

Source of Sum of Mean Hypotheses
Variation Squares d.f. Squares F Tested

 

Between Treatments .1076 2 .0538 .2168 Accepted
Within Treatments 23.0946 93 .2483
Total 23.2022

 

67

An examination of the table indicates an F value which
is so small that the differences in grade-point averages
between the students in the cognitive, affective, and control
groups are likely to have occurred by chance. Therefore,
the null hypothesis that there are no differences in academic
achievement three months following the completion of the
experiment between the students who have experienced group
counseling and the students who did not participate in group
counseling is accepted. Although there are significant
grade-point average differences between the students in
these three groups at the completion of the experiment as
shown in Tables 4.1 and 4.2, no significant differences

exist three months following the period of treatment.

Hypotheses Six, Seven, and Eight

These hypotheses are restated in null form:

 

6. There are no differences in the academic achieve-
ment of the students three months following the
completion of the experiment attributable to
different types of counseling.

7. There are no differences in the academic achieve-
ment of the students three months following the
completion of the experiment attributable to
different counselors.

8. There are no differences in the academic achieve-
ment of the students three months following the
completion Of the experiment attributable to an

interaction between type of counseling and
counselor.

The procedure for testing these three hypotheses is
identical to the procedure used in testing hypotheses two,

three, and four. A 2 x 2 analysis of variance design is used.

68

Three sub-groups receiving similar treatment from the
same counselor were combined to give four cells in the
design with 16 students in each cell.

The chi-square value of .5924 obtained by Bartlett's
test of homogeneity of variance of spring term grade-point
averages is non-significant and the assumption Of homogene-
ous variances is supported. The results of the analysis of
variance of the spring term grades, which is designed to
test hypotheses six, seven, and eight, are reported in

Table 4.5.

Table 4. 5

Analysis of Variance of Spring Term Grade-Point Averages
for Treatment, Counselor, and Interaction Effects

 

 

Source Of Sum of . Mean Hypothesis
Variation Squares d.f. Squares F Tested
Between Treatment .0588 1 .0588 .2689 Accepted
Between Counselor .1024 1 .1024 .4682 Accepted
Interaction .4796 1 .4796 2.1929 Accepted
Error 13.1202 60 .2187

Total 13.7610 63

 

The three null hypotheses of no differences between
different types Of counseling, no differences between differ-
ent counselors, and no differences between type of counseling

and counselor are accepted. The F values reported in Table

69

4.5 for the three variables are smaller than the criterion
value of 4.00 and it is concluded that any differences which
exist between the grade-point averages of the students in
the various treatment conditions are attributable to chance

variation.

Fall, Winter, and Spring Term Grade-Point Average Means
The analyses Of the winter and spring term grade-point

averages of the students in the three treatment groups have
been reported in the preceding pages. The analysis of vari-
ance tables which are employed to report the results of the
analyses preclude presentation of the grade-point average
means of the groups which are being examined. The fall,
winter, and spring term grade-point average means for the
students in the cognitive, affective, andcontrol groups

are reported in Table 4.6.

Table 4.6

Fall, Winter, and Spring Term Grade-Point Average Means
for the Students in the Three Treatment Groups

 

 

 

Treatment
Term . Cognitive Affective Control
Fall 1.4344 1.5222 1.4806
Winter 2.1203 2.2856 1.9066

Spring ~ 2.2115 2.1509 2.1334

 

70

An inspection of the grade-point average means re-
ported in Table 4.6 reveals an improvement in winter term
grade-point averages over fall term grade-point averages by
all three groups. Both treatment groups improved more than
the control, and the difference between the affective and
the control groups was significant. Three months after
treatment, however, the differences between the grade-point
averages of the groups had decreased so that a significant

difference between any of the groups was not found.

Summary

An analysis of variance was conducted on the winter
and spring term gradewpoint aVerages in order to test the
eight null hypotheses. The first null hypothesis was re-
jected, the remaining seven were accepted.

Duncan's New Multiple Range Test for making multiple
comparisons was employed to further test the first hypo-
thesis. It was concluded that the grade-point averages of
students receiving affective group counseling were signific-
antly higher upon completion of the experiment than those of
students who received no counseling. There were no signific-
ant differences in gradeepoint averages at the completion of
the experiment between the students in the cognitive and
affective groups or between the cognitive and control groups.
The analysis of the grades three months later revealed no
significant differences between grade-point averages of the

students in any of the three groups. The difference which

71

was noted in the winter term grade-point averages was not
present in the spring term grade-point averages.

When the analyses of type of treatment, counselor,
and interaction variables were examined, it was concluded
that no significant differences existed in the grade-point
averages of the students in the different treatment condi-
tions upon completion of the treatment or three months
following completion of the experiment which could be
attributed to differences in the type of counseling, to the
different counselors, or to interaction between types of

counseling and counselor.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, DISCUSSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

The problem of this study was to investigate the ef-

fects Of two types Of group counseling experiences on the

academic achievement of college underachievers.

The subjects of the investigation for analysis pur-

poses were 96 volunteers from a population of 561 freshman

college students who were judged to have high ability for

college achievement but who received unsatisfactory grades

in their first term at the university.

The basic hypotheses of the study were:

Hypothesis I

Hypothesis II

The academic achievement of students

‘who have experienced group counseling

will be greater at the completion of
the experiment and three months follow-
ing the completion of the experiment
than the academic achievement of stu-
dents who did not participate in group
counseling.

There will be differences in academic
achievement at the completion of the
experiment and three months following
the completion of the experiment
between students experiencing two
types of group counseling.

The two types of group counseling used to test the

hypotheses of the investigation evolved from two theoretical

positions described in the literature regarding possible

72

73

methods of helping the underachiever. One type Ofxtreatment
has been labeled, for the purpose of the study, cognitive,
and was concerned with providing information and developing
special skills which are deemed necessary for adequate per-
formance in school but which are thought to be lacking in
the underachiever. The material explored in the cognitive
treatment was quite similar to the material covered in many
college study-skills courses. The second type of treatment
was called affective and dealt primarily with emotional
problems and personality dynamics of the students which are
thought to be underlying factors causing underachievement.
The material explored in the affective treatment included
discussions Of feelings of depression, unconscious motivation,
and expression of hostility.

The design of the investigation is based on a two-
factor treatment plan. Twelve counseling groups were equally
divided between two counselors who each led three groups in
a cognitive counseling experience and three groups in an
affective counseling experience. In addition to the two
treatment groups, a third group was included in the experi-
ment to serve as a control.

Assignment of the students to the three treatment
groups, cognitive, affective, and control, was accomplished
by use of a table of random numbers. The students to re-
ceive cognitive or affective group counseling were assigned

to one of the counseling groups within their treatment

74

according to available time on their course schedule. The
two counselors used in the investigation were each assigned
three counseling groups from each treatment by the flip of a
coin. The students in the control group received no counsel-
ing.

The students included in the analysis attended from
five to seven group counseling sessions which were held
winter term 1963. Eleven of the 12 counseling groups met
once a week in the Michigan State University Counseling
Center. The other counseling group met once a week in a
special group counseling room in the College of Education
building.

There were 40 students from the original 136 who were
not included in the analysis. Five students failed to attend
the first counseling session, 12 students failed to attend
a minimum of five counseling sessions, 11 students were con-
commitantly receiving individual counseling or attending a
study-skills course, and two students from the treatment
groups and ten students from the control group were randomly
excluded in order to Obtain equal size treatment samples.
There were 96 students included in the analysis, 32 from
each treatment and 32 from the control.

The winter term grade-point averages were the
criterion of academic achievement at the completion of the
experiment. The spring term grade-point averages were the

criterion of academic achievement three months following the

75

administration of the treatment. In a check of the pres
treatment equivalence of the groups, an analysis of variance
of the fall term grade-point averages of the three groups
revealed no significant differences between the groups on
academic achievement. The means of the total raw scores on
the College Qualification Test for the three groups were
examined and judged to be equivalent.

In order to establish that those students receiving
group counseling actually discussed the material designated
for the particular treatment to which they were assigned, a
treatment survey was administered at the conclusion of the
last group session. The results Of the treatment survey re-
vealed that the two types of counseling were appropriately
followed by both counselors and that there was complete
agreement among students in each treatment group that their
experiences were primarily cognitive or primarily affective
according to the design of the experiment.

The analysis of variance was used to test the hypo-
theses Of the investigation. The assumption of homogeneity
of variances was tested by Bartlett's test for each analysis
of variance. It was decided when the investigation was de-
signed that the Bartlett's test and the null hypotheses
would be rejected or accepted at the 5 per cent level of
confidence. In every analysis the variances were found to

be homogeneous.

76

The first four null hypotheses were designed to test
the effect of treatment immediately after completion of group
counseling. The first null hypothesis that there are no
differences in academic achievement at the completion of the
experiment between the students who have experienced group
counseling and the students who did not participate in group
counseling was rejected. The significant F of the analysis
of variance of grade-point averages of the students in the
cognitive, affective, and control groups justified the use
of Duncan's New Multiple Range Test for determining how the
three groups differed. It was found that the students who
received affective group counseling made significantly
higher grades than the students in the control group, but
not significantly higher grades than the students who re-
ceived cognitive group counseling. There were no other
differences which were significant between the three groups.

The second, third, and fourth null hypotheses that
there are no differences in the academic achievement of the
students upon completion of the experiment attributable to
different types of counseling, to different counselors, and
to an interaction between type of counseling and counselor
were accepted. The differences which occurred were too
small to be significant.

The second set of four null hypotheses were posited
for follow-up evaluations three months after the treatment

had been given. The fifth null hypothesis that there are no

77

differences in academic achievement three months following
the completion of the experiment between the students who
have experienced group counseling and the students who did
not participate in group counseling was accepted. No
significant differences were found between the cognitive,
affective, and control groups three months after treatment.
The sixth, seventh, and eighth hypotheses that there
are no differences in the academic achievement of the stu-
dents three months following the completion Of the experi-
ment attributable to different types of counseling, to differ-
ent counselors, and to an interaction between type of counsel-
ing and counselor were also accepted. The follow-up data re-
vealed no significant differences due to any of the three

variables.

Conclusions

The analysis of the data permits the following con-

clusions:

1. The students who experienced five to seven
sessions of affective group counseling earned
significantly higher grade-point averages during
the term in which the counseling occurred than
students who received no counseling.

2. No significant differences were found for the
term in which group counseling was experienced or
three months after counseling between the grade-

point averages of students who received cOgnitive

78

group counseling and the students who received

affective group counseling.

 

3. Three months after the experiment no significant
differences in grade-point averages were found
between students who experienced a cognitive or
affective type of group counseling or between
students in either treatment group and.students

who received no counseling.

Discussion

The study was designed to answer questions about the
effectiveness of two different types of material which might
be discussed during group counseling sessions with under-
achievers. The use of the cognitive approach was based upon
the theory that the underachiever needs to improve scholastic
skills such as study habits, techniques of test taking, and
reading proficiency. The affective approach, which is con-
cerned with such subjects as self concept, feelings of
hostility, and family relationships was develOped from the
theory that underachievement is related to underlying
emotional problems and personality dynamics.

Any conclusions based upon the results of the experi-
ment regarding the effectiveness of these two approaches are
tentative and in need of further experimental evidence. The
students receiving the affective experience significantly im-

proved their grades more when they were receiving treatment

79

than the students in the control group. An examination of
the data reveals that some improvement in winter term grade-
point averages over fall term gradeapoint averages was made
by all three groups. Both treatment groups improved more
than the control; the differences between the affective and
control groups were large enough to be significant, but the
differences between the cognitive and control groups were
not. When the two treatment groups were compared, the
differences between them were not large enough to be signifi-
cant.

The spring term data revealed that the students in the
affective group had maintained, but not increased, the grade-
point averages which they had obtained winter term while
the students in the cognitive and control groups had con-
tinued to improve their grade-point averages. By the end of
spring term all three groups had greater than a 2.00, or C,
grade-point average and there were no significant differences
between them.

A number of questions are raised by the results of
the study. If the period of treatment was longer, would im-
provement in the grade-point averages of the students in the
affective group continue? .1 five-to seven-session treatment
period is a short time to work through the psychodynamic

problems which are hypothesized to be causes of under-
achieVement. And, students in four of the six affective
counseling groups expressed a desire to continue the experience

throughout the following term.

80

Is it possible that the nature of the affective group
satisfied dependency needs of the freshman students and that
no real change took place? For freshman students at a large
university, the content of the group counseling experience
may be of secondary importance. The primary value may be
the Opportunity of identifying with a small group of students.
If academic improvement is related to satisfied dependency
needs, experiences in affective group counseling will be
more helpful to the students than those available in cognitive
group counseling where the expression of affect and personal
involvement is not encouraged or required.

Will the study-skills.and educational information
gained by the students in the cognitive group have a continu-
ing effect upon academic achievement? Non-significant grade-
point average gains were made during both winter and spring
terms; it is possible that as the skills and information
become more a part of the student's academic life, a greater
congruence between achievement and ability is obtained. This
question can only be answered by periodic follow-up evaluations
throughout the college career of the student.

Do underachieving students have different types of
personality patterns which may serve as guide-lines in
determining the type of group counseling experience that
will be most beneficial for each student? Twelve of the
original 136 students failed to attend a minimum of five

group counseling sessions, yet they all had attended at

81

least one. If the experience had been different for the

12 students, they may have become more involved. Even among
the students who attended the sessions regularly, there may
have been acme who would have benefited more from another
type of experience. The effectiveness of group counseling
for helping the underachiever will be enhanced when the type
of experience which is most appropriate for the needs of
each student is provided.

Is it possible that the study did not examine the ef-
fects of two types of group experiences but rather the effects
of promising a group experience and then withdrawing the
opportunity to receive the experience?‘ No assessment was
made of the effects of informing the control group that the
group experience was no longer available to them due to the
large number of students who desired the experience and the

limited staff available to conduct the experiences.

Recommendations

It is suggested that the study be replicated to
further test the effectiveness of the cognitive and affective
group counseling approaches in improving academic achievement
of college underachievers. Additions to the present study
which are suggested for inclusion in the design of the
replication study are:

1. A period of treatment which exceeds the five to

seven session period of this study to determine

if the academic achievement of the students

82

will continue to improve with extended treatment.
Personality evaluations for determining patterns
and dynamics of individuals who might benefit
more from one type of treatment than from an-
other.

Measures of behavior and personality change which
are hypothesized to be related to the two types
of treatment.

Follow-up evaluations two and three years after
the group counseling experience to determine
possible gains which may not be apparent immedi-
ately after treatment.

A third type of group counseling which combines
both study-skills material and personal-emotional

material.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Anderson, R. L. "An Experimental Investigation of Group
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Unpgblished Ph. D. Dissertation, New York University,
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Baymur, F. B., and Patterson, C. H. "A Comparison of Three
Methods of Assisting Underachieving High School Stu-

dents," Jgurnal of Cougseligg Psychology, 1960, 7,
pp.“ 83-90 "

Blake, U. 3., Jr. "Study-Skills Programs," Journal of Higher
"322221222. 1955. 26. pp. 97-9. 114.

Book, W.F."Resu1ts Obtained in a Special COurse Given to

College Students," School and Society, 1927, 26, pp.
529- -34.

Broedel, J., et al. "The Effects of Group Counseling on
Gifted Underachieving Adolescents," Journal of Counsel-

igg Psychology, 1960, 7, pp. 163-70.

Caplan, S. ‘W. "The Effects of Group Counseling on Junior
High School Boys Concepts of Themselves in School,"

Journalof Counseling Psychology, 1957, 4, pp. 124-8.

Carter, H. D. "Mechanics of Study Procedure," California
Jgurnal of Educational Research, 1958, 9, pp. 3-13.

Chahbazi, P. "Analysis of Cornell Orientation Inventory
Items of Study Habits and Their Relative Value in

Prediction of College Achievement," Journal of Edu-
cational Research, 1957, 51, pp. 117-2 . '
Crawford, C. C. "Some Results of Teaching College Students

How to Study," School and Society, 1926, 26, pp.
71-2e

DeWeese, H. L. "The Extent to flhich Group Counseling Influ-
ences the Academic Achievement, Academic Potential,
and Personal Adjustment of Predicted Low-Achieving
First Semester College Freshment." Unpublished Ed.D.
Dissertation, University of Illinois, 1959.

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84

Diener, Charles L. "Similarities and Differences Between
Over Achieving and Underachieving Students," Personnel
and Guidance Journal, 1960, 38, pp. 396-400.

Duncan, D. R. "Effects of Required Group Counseling with
College Students in Academic Difficulty." Unpublished
Ed.D._Dissertation, University of Florida, 1962.

Educational Policies Commission. Manpower and Education.
Washington, D. 0.: National Education Association
of the United States of America Association of School
Administrators, 1956.

Edwards, Allen L. Experimental Design in Psychological
Research. Revised Edition. New York: Holt, Rine-

hart and Winston, 1960.

Entwisle, D. R. "Evaluations of Study-Skills Courses: A
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1960), pp. 247- 51.

Farquhar, W. H. "An Investigation of the Relationship of
Three Teaching Methods to Student Behavior in a How
To Study Course." Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation,
University of Minnesota, 1955.

Motivation Factors Related to Academic Achievement.
Cooperative Research Project January, 19 3 .
East Lansing: Office of Research and Publications,
College of Education, Michigan State University.

, Payne, D. A., Chubb, W. H., and Thorpe, M. D.
"Summary of Characteristics of Over- and Under-
achievers." East Lansing, Michi an: Michigan State
University. (Unpublished paper.%

Kirk, Barbara. "Test versus Academic Performance in Mal-

functioning Students,"'Journal of Consulting Psychology,
1952, 16’ pp. 213-60

Krumboltz, J. D., and Farquhar, i.‘W. "The Effect of Three
Teaching Methods on Achievement and Motivational Out-

comes in a How-to-Study Course," zsychological Mono-
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Maroney, K. A. "Effectiveness of Short-Term Group Guidance
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Marx, G. L. "A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Two Methods
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McCarthy, M. V. The Effectiveness 0;:a Modified Counseling
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Mullah, H. and Rosenbaum, M. Group Psychotherapy: Theory
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Robinson, Francis P. Effective Study. Revised Edition.
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APPENDIX A

88

Michigan State University East Lansing

Counseling Center

December 31, 1962

Dear

You are one of a group of students whose academic performance has
not reached the level we would have expected from your orienta-
tion test scores. It is recognised that many factors may be in-
volved in your performance. The factors frequently listed by
other students who have been in academic difficulty are study
techniques, reading skills, personal problems and family re-
lationships. ‘We here at the Counseling Center are certain that
counseling can be of significant aid in helping you deal with
some of these problem areas providing you are willing to make

an honest effort. We have therefore arranged a group counseling
experience similar in nature to those which have shown en-
couraging results at a number of other large universities.

The experience we are suggesting requires that you attend a
small discussion group one hour a week for eight weeks during
this Winter term. The group will meet at the Counseling Center
and will be composed of freshmen students having similar diffi-
culties. It will be led by one of our counselors.

As you decide to join one of our groups, we would like to point
up the necessity of continuing throughout the whole eight weeks
as the helpful group experience is dependent upon a sustained
attendance of each member.

Please indicate on the enclosed form the hours which you will

be available for counseling and return it to us as soon as you
have completed registration. For those who live on campus, the
return envelope needs no postage; just hand it to the reception-
ist in your residence hall and have him put it in the "campus
mail." Yen will be contacted by us as to the hour which best
fits both of our schedules.

Sincerely yours,
/s/ Rowland R. Pierson

Rowland R. Pierson
Acting Director

RRP/cj

89

Treatment Survey

Name{"
The purpose of this survey is to determine your opinions
about the group experience. Please check seven items out
of the following list which best describe what was discussed
in your group.

Examination of vocational objectives

Techniques in taking exams

Feelings of depression

Patterns of interest

Family relationships

Feelings of hostility

Techniques in preparation of exams

Reading habits

Unconscious motivation

Test interpretation

Feelings of guilt

Developing a study schedule

Pressure from outside sources

Feelings about self.

ROOM USE ONLY.

 

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