AN APPRAISAL OF NEEDS OF
AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL~AGED STUDENTS
ATTENDING SELECTED. OVERSEAS
SCHMLS:

Dissertatien for the Degree of Ph. D.
MEEHIQAN STATE UNIVERSITY
moms: FRANCIS KELLY
1975

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AN APPRAISAL OF NEEDS OF AMERICAN HIGH
SCHOOL-AGED STUDENTS ATTENDING
SELECTED OVERSEAS SCHOOLS

presented by

Thomas Francis Kelly

has been accepted towards fulfillment
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ABSTRACT

AN APPRAISAL OF NEEDS OF AMERICAN HIGH
SCHOOL-AGED STUDENTS ATTENDING
SELECTED OVERSEAS SCHOOLS

By
Thomas Francis Kelly

More than 300,000 American school-aged children live beyond
the boundaries of the United States. Many of them are there as a
result of their parents' assignment to an overseas job. The children
attend a variety of schools that include those administered by the
United States Department of Defense, multi-national corporations,
missionary groups, proprietary or private interests, host country
governments and, finally, those 139 schools assisted by the Office
of Overseas Schools (A/OS)1 of the United States Department of State.

The author of this study concerned himself with students
attending the latter schools. During the l974-5 school year, 73,940
students attended A/OS-assisted schools--an increase of 62 percent
over a ten year period. Of that total, 35,l3l (47.5 percent) were
United States citizens. The schools are operated to meet the needs
of the attending Americans. But just what are their needs?

It was not the author's intent to evaluate the schools nor

their operation, but rather to use them as a convenient medium for

Thomas Francis Kelly

conducting the study. Using the five geographic regions of the world
as defined by A/OS, i.e., Europe, Africa, Near East/South Asia, East
Asia, and Central/South America, four schools were selected from each
region. The schools chosen represented those with the largest and
smallest enrollments as well as those that fell evenly between-~at
approximately the twenty-fifty and seventy-fifth percentiles.
Respondents selected were the chief school administrators; chairman

of boards 0f education; presidents of parent organizations; presidents
of teacher associations; and senior students who were class or student
body presidents.

A list of needs, based on Phi Delta Kappa's eighteen goals
and objectives of education, was amplified by overseas educators to
include a dimension that was believed to be unique to overseas
students. The resulting document, listing twenty-two needs, was sent
to the twenty selected schools where it was distributed to the one
hundred respondents. Sixty usable responses were returned.

The respondents were asked to check each need that they felt
to be important. Then they were asked to re-read the checked needs
and to select those that were of greater importance. This procedure
was repeated four times with the result that some needs, not considered
important, were not checked; while others, considered of greatest
importance, received five checks.

The needs as rated were ranked by mean score. General con-

currence of ranking among groups resulted. A multivariate analysis

Thomas Francis Kelly

of variance revealed no significant difference (at alpha = .05) be-
tween groups in their ranking. A measurement (obtained by squaring

the Spearman rho correlation) between the students and each of the

other four groups, revealed that the greatest overlapping of opinion
occurred between the students and teachers (59 percent). The least
overlapping occurred between the students and administrators (32 per-
cent). All groups ranked as highest those needs classified as

academic. The overseas dimension of needs, which had been anticipated
to be most important, was ranked lower than the academic, socio-political
and personal needs by the adult groups. The students ranked the over-
seas needs as third after academic and socio-political needs. A one-way
analysis of variance for difference among dimensions yielded no signi-
ficant difference (alpha = .05) between groups.

Using the mean score as a decision point to separate the
ranked needs into more and less important groups, there was complete
agreement with the placement of the first eight ranked needs in the
more important category, although there were certain differences in
the priorities within ranks. The need ranked highest was the need to
develop good character and self-respect. There was also total agree-
ment with the placement of the last ten needs within the less important
category--again, with certain differences in priorities within ranks.
Lowest ranked was the need to develop skills to enter a specific field

of'work.

Thomas Francis Kelly

From the study, the conclusion was reached that there was
general agreement in the ranking of needs and that there was no signi-
ficant difference (alpha = .05) among the selected five groups of
overseas school leaders in their rank ordering of a pre-ordained list

of American overseas high school student needs.

 

1Within the table of organization of the United States
Department of State, the Office of Overseas Schools is listed as,
"Administration/Overseas Schools (A/OS)," hence the terms "Office
of Overseas Schools," and "AIDS" are used interchangeably.

AN APPRAISAL 0F NEEDS OF AMERICAN HIGH
SCHOOL-AGED STUDENTS ATTENDING
SELECTED OVERSEAS SCHOOLS

By

Thomas Francis Kelly

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration and Higher Education

1975

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Customary acknowledgment is extended to Doctoral Committee
members: Drs. Cole S. Brembeck, Richard L. Featherstone, Samuel A.
Moore, II, and Ruth Hill Useem.

The trouble with custom is that it becomes commonplace, thus
losing much of its intended value. Many unseen and often unrecognized
contributions add more to a study of this nature than customary
participation. Thus, the author acknowledges with gratitude Chairman
Moore's opening his home at all odd hours and sharing what should
have been his holidays to advise and encourage. Dr. Useem's chance
meeting with the author at a conference, along with her enthusiasm
and perceptive questioning, led to this study. Dr. Ernest O. Melby,
at the last moment, augumented the Committee while Dr. Featherstone
was out among the schools like those considered in this study.

Perhaps they considered it routine, but appreciation must
be extended to the Michigan State University library staff who always
seemed to have time and patience for unusual and unclear requests.
They are nameless to me as I am to them, but the essence of their
willingness to help lies in the fact that among 40,000 students I
always felt my work was most important to them.

May radio station WOOD-FM in Grand Rapids play forever--
especially in the lonely hours of the morning when every strikeover

on the typewriter is erased by pleasant music.

ii

Finally, Mark, Paul and Sue. Though he was always present,
the boys didn't have a dad. Now we will have the time. Words are

unnecessary for Sue. She simply knows; she really knows!

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES ........................ vi
Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ..................... l

Statement of the Problem .............. 1

Purpose ...................... 5

Need for the Study ................. 5

Importance of the Study .............. ll

Theoretical Foundations of the Study ........ l3

Definition of Terms ................ l9

Delimitation of the Study . . . . ......... 2l

II. DESIGN OF THE STUDY .................. 23

Population and Sample ............... 24

Assumptions . . . ................. 25

Instrumentation .................. 27

Data Collection .................. 30

Data Analysis ................... 32

III. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ............. 33

Student Needs ................... 33

Educational Aims, Goals and Objectives ....... 42

Overseas Schools and Adolescent Needs ....... 49

Needs Appraisal Systems .............. 55

IV. PRESENTATION OF DATA ............... . . 58

Collected Data ................... 63

Ranking by Dimensions ............... 65

Multivariate Analysis of Variance ......... 74

Unsolicited Responses . . . . ........... 76

V. SUMMARY. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....... 80

Introduction ......... . .......... 80

Summary ...................... 8l

Conclusions .................... 85

iv

Chapter Page

Recommendations .................. 90
General Implications ............... 91
Implications for Overseas School Administrators . . 94
Theoretical Considerations ..... . ...... lOO
APPENDICES . .................. . l03
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ......... . .......... l22

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. Overall Ranked Order of Student Needs .......... 6O
2. Summary of Ranking by Groups .............. 62

3. Disagreement in Placement of Needs Into More
Important and Less Important Categories . . . . . . . 63

4. Comparisons of Students' Ranking with the

Other Four Groups ....... . .......... 64
5. Classification of Need Dimensions and

Ranking by Groups .................. 66
6. Ranking by Group by Dimension . . . . . ......... 67

7. Analysis of Variance for Difference Among
the Dimensions . . . ................. 70

8. Contingency Coefficient Measure of Relationships
Among the Dimensions ....... . . . . . ..... 72

9. Chi Square Derivation of Need Items #4 and #7 . . . . . . 73

l0. Analysis of Variance Table for Differences
Among Groups . . ................... 75

ll. Percentage of Voluntary Comments by Group . . ...... 76
l2. Comparison of Students and Administrator Groups

in Schools with Highest U.S. and Highest
Non-U.S. Enrollment ................. 93

vi

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Statement of the Problem

When the principal wage earners of American families are
assigned, by their employers, to work in foreign countries a series
of familial adjustments and accommodations must take place--not the
least of which is the education of school-aged children. The author
of this study sought to appraise the needs of American high
school-aged adolescents who, as a result of their families' move,
find themselves attending an American-sponsored overseas school.

Compulsory education laws in the United States imply that
the compelled shall have an educational program, if not a school,
available to them. Each of the fifty states is responsible for the
implementation of whatever educational programs are necessitated by
adherence to their concept of compulsory attendance. The states,
except Hawaii, delegate their authority through the medium of county,
city, or community (local school district) organizational units.

Each unit, in its own way, sets about defining how it shall meet the
needs of the compelled.

The organizational pattern by which the state diffuses and
assigns responsibility to the individual school would appear, on the
surface, to be an ideal manner in which to assure educational progress.

Conflict demonstrates differently. Not that conflict is bad, nor that

1

progress cannot occur concurrently with conflict, but the concern
remains as to whether harmony might not allow for better educational
progress. The least that may be said for the system is that it is
there-~it does provide a base, a forum, from which ideas may be
generated. It allows, for example, for a systemized organization
and search for an appropriate approach designed to define student
needs. Someone can also be held accountable when needs are neither
defined nor met.

But what if no such system exists? Seeking one answer to
that question is what this study is about. Outside the boundaries
of the fifty states, there are more than 300,000 school-aged
American children.1 No law compells their school attendance. The
agencies employing the students' parents, in the interest of the
agencies' continuance, must assume a degree of responsibility
ordinarily reserved for civic authorities. Schools are established
to fulfill that responsibility but there is no organizational
structure patterned after the models of the various states to
account for how the schools operate. In the absence of such an
educational authority, this study was designed to investigate one
segment of that overseas school-aged population--the American youth
attending 20 of the l39 schools assisted by the Office of Overseas
Schools (A/OS) of the United States Department of State, in an effort

to describe their needs.

 

1Ruth Hill Useem. "Third Culture Children: An Annotated
Bibliography," Studies of Third Culture A Continuing Series.
(Institute for International Studies in Echation, MiChigan State
University, l975), p. i.

While some researchers have studied the administrative
functions of these schools, no evidence has been found that the
students themselves have been studied. Instead of adding to the
accumulating knowledge about the operation of the schools, it was
the author's intent to look at the needs of the students in the
hope that, once identified, the listed needs could help in decision-
making and future-planning.

Though not directing its attention specifically at youth but
more at the total educational enterprise, the House of Representa-
tives demonstrated its genuine concern when, for just one example,
on Saturday, May 7, 1970, the Honorable Alphonso Bell, a member of
the House Sub-Committee on Education, inquiring into, "The Needs of
Elementary and Secondary Education for the Seventies," introduced
to the committee members the final witness of the day, Mr. Mel Suhd
of the faculty of Pacific Oaks College:

Mr. Suhd. Thank you. If I may proceed in any way I like, I
would like to share two reactions I have. First, it is tough
to be last, because it is 5 o'clock on a Saturday and you must
be tired.

Mr. Bell. You just take your time.

Mr. Suhd. And I just wonder if you have the guts to generate
another half hour. And second, I really get a feeling that I
don't want to be a politician, because I could not sit and
listen to the variety of thoughts, ideas, and actions that
people have regarding a subject like education and pull it to-

gether in some way that would satiéfy constituents or representa-
tives in this pluralistic society.

 

2U.S. Congress. House. Committee on Education and Labor.
Needs of Elementary and SEcondary Education for the Seventies Hear-
ings before the General Subcommittee on Education. 9lst Congress,
lst sess.,Tl969, p. 1298.

Earlier in the day, the Honorable Roman C. Pucinski, the Sub-Committee
Chairman had observed:

We have a tendency of working ourselves into corners. It be-
comes popular to talk about accountability and everybody is
talking about accountability, and all of a sudden you discover
nobody knows what they are talking about; yet it has profound
effect on legislation.3

The introduction of this research project is begun in this
manner to enable, in an analogous way, the making of several observations.
l. A Congressional Sub-Committee was sufficiently concerned
about the educational needs of American youth that it willingly
worked late on a spring Saturday in hopes of being able "to deter-
mine what are the educational needs of the l970's, in the opinion of
the people who know the problems best."4
2. Assessment of needs is complex as attested to by the
fact that the Committee received policy papers,
. . prepared at the invitation of the SubéCommittee by a
distinguished group of people of more than lOO university
faculty members and administrators, industrialists and business-
men, journalists, social philosophers, professional educators,
educational researchers, scientists, and other prominent citi-
zens from every part of the United States, reflecting perhaps
every shade of opinion about education . . . . This collection
of papers represents perhaps the most extensive survey of
educational needs of the seventies that has been attempted
to date.5
3. Consensus is hard to achieve because there is such wide

diversity of opinion.

 

3 4

Ibid., p. 1287 Ibid., p. 1.

5Ibid., p. v.

4. When using the word, "needs," as in Pucinski's statement
about accountability, it is all of a sudden discovered that, "nobody

knows what they are talking about."6

Purpose

The author's purposes in this study were to establish a
useable description of the term, "needs," and then to determine what
those needs might be for American high school-aged students attending
selected overseas schools that receive assistance from A/OS. Other
purposes were:

l. to provide information about how certain specific groups
in selected overseas school communities view the needs
of the high school—attending youth;

2. to establish a data base which might be used by schools,
parents, and sponsoring agencies in their decision-making
processes related to students;

3. to add to the fund of knowledge of a segment of American
youth about whom little research has been undertaken;
and

4. to establish areas for further study.

Need for the Study

Alvin Toffler, in his book, Future Shock7 devotes his fifth
chapter to describing what he calls, "The New Nomads." Among other

thoughts, he points out:

 

61bid.

7Alvin Toffler, Future Shock. (New York: Bantam Books, Inc.,
1970), pp. 74-94.

We are witnessing a historic decline in the significance of
place to human life. We are breeding a new race of nomads,
and few suspect quite how massive, widespread and significant
their migrations are . . . (p. 75).

In each year since l948 one out of five Americans changed his
address . . . (p. 78).

. . . top management regards frequent relocation of its potential
successors as a necessary step in their training. (p. 82).

. throughout the nations in transition to superindustrialism,
among the people of the future, movement is a way of life, a
liberation from the constrictions of the past, a step into the
still more affluent future. (p. 87).

. . . relocation of one's home . . . entails a series of diffi-
cult psychological adjustments. (p. 88).

Thus, it might be said that commitments are shifting from
place-oriented social structures (city, state, nation, or
neighborhood) to those (corporation, profession, friendship
networks) that are themselves mobile, fluid, and, for all
practical purposes, place-less. (p. 93).
Toffler's attempt was to alert his readers to the necessity of pre-
paring for a rapidly approaching future. What he might have observed
is that the future, as he depicts it, has already arrived for many of
those residing outside the geographic boundaries of their native land.
They are actually living the future which Toffler proclaims is on its
way. If it is argued that the future may have arrived for some, but
not for others, perhaps it can be admitted that the youth of today
who are residing overseas, albeit "temporarily," are the harbingers
of Toffler's future. Their lives may be more in accord with his pro-
jections than they are parallel to their peers residing in the United

States. It may be inappropriate to refer to them as "typical American

kids." Their lifestyle makes them atypical.

They are sufficiently different that Useem has coined the
phrase, "Third Culture Kids" (TCKs),8 in an attempt to explain their
uniqueness. She proposes that continued absence from their native
environment alienates them from their basic culture, while temporary
residence in other lands does not allow them to adopt nor adapt to
the cultures in which they reside. The result is that the overseas
youth constitute a group unto themselves-~a group existing in what
Toffler calls a state of "transience," which he defines as, "the rate
of turnover of the different kinds of relationships in an individual's
life."9

The question immediately arises that if these youth are
different in some way from their Stateside counterparts, are their
needs different? Are traditional methods of socializing, child-rearing
and education appropriate for their up-bringing? Werkman raised this
point when he warned of the potential dangers inherent in raising
children in the overseas setting.10

The difficulty heretofore has been that researchers attempt-

ing to analyze the American-assisted overseas schools have devoted

 

8Ruth Hill Useem, "Third Culture Factors in Educational Change,"
in Cole 5. Brembeck and Walker H. Hill, Cultural Challenges to Educa-
tion: The Influence of Cultural Factors in School Learning. (Lexington,
Mass.: D. C. Heath, 1973), p. l2l.

9Toffler, Future Shock, p. 46.

10Sidney Werkman, "Hazards of Rearing Children in Foreign
Countries." Address before the American Psychiatric Association,
Washington, D. C., 3 May l97l.

their efforts to the analysis of problems related to either the pro-
‘ grams or the staffs of the schools, but not to the needs of the

students. Thus, Manninon proposed a system for improving the

12 described how admin-

13

support given to the overseas schools. Bentz

istrators must work in the midst of crises. Churchman analyzed

the values and faults of the School-to-School partnerships. Vest14

15

and Schackow studied selected personality characteristics of over-

16

seas schools' teachers and administrators. King sought to define

methods of selecting and recruiting teachers for overseas service.

 

nErnest N. Mannino, "The Overseas Education of American
Elementary and Secondary Schools Pupils with Application for Ameri-
can-Sponsored Schools Overseas: A Diagnosis and Plan for Action."
(Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1970).

12Carlton Bentz, "The Chief School Administrator in Selected
American-Sponsored Schools: A Study in Crisis Management." (Ph.D.
dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972).

13David Churchman, "A Needs Assessment Evaluation of the
School-to-School Program in Europe, The Near East, South Asia and
the United States." (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California,
Los Angeles, 1972).

14Thomas J. Vest, "Selected Personality Characteristics of
the Successful Overseas School Administrator." (Ph.D. dissertation,
Miami University, l97l).

15Carl F. Schackow, "Selected Personality Characteristics of
the American Overseas Teacher." (Ph.D. dissertation, Miami University,
l97l .

16Bob King, "The Recruitment, Selection, and Retention of
Teachers for Overseas Schools." (Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State
University, 1968). ‘

17
18

Helms solicited patrons' reactions to the schools' operation, while

Flora devoted his efforts to examining innovative practices in the

overseas schools. Simmons19

however, demonstrated the similarity of
values between Stateside and overseas early-adolescents. He and
Werkman appear to have been the only researchers who have concerned
themselves with the needs of youngsters, whereas others have concen-
trated their efforts on the personnel and programs of the schools.
Neither the existence of the schools nor their efficacy has yet to be
challenged. Nor have researchers sought to examine the clientele

and their needs.

To question the existence of the schools might well be only
an academic exercise in the face of the fact that "Excluding the
several hundred United States Department of Defense schools operated
for the children of military personnel assigned abroad, the list

compiled by International Schools Services of Princeton, New Jersey,

has just over three hundred."20 Their value can be inferred if for

 

17V. Donald Helms, "Community Approval and Disapproval of
American Overseas School Programs." (Ph.D. dissertation, University
of Toledo, l972).

18Ronald Flora, "An Investigation of Innovative Practices
in American Overseas Schools." (Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Toledo, l972).

19Dale D. Simmons, "Early Adolescent Personal Values in
American-Sponsored Extra-Territorial and Stateside Schools." (Eugene,
Oregon, 1973). (Mimeographed).

20Donald K. Phillips, "Next Stop: Bucaramanga--Or Kuala
Lumpur?" in American EducationAbroad, ed. William G. Thomas (New
York: Macmillan Information, l974), p. 6. .

10

no other reason than the fact that the nomadic mobility of American
parents, especially in the service of the United States Government,
usually requires at least a commonality of language. Students cannot
reasonably be expected to rotate among schools that demand different
basic language proficiencies. This is not to suggest that some other
system of education could not be devised, but it is to recognize that
matriculation in a school of the host country presents too formidable
a barrier to the student who may change residence every two or three
years. Thus, the overseas schools as they now exist do serve a vital
function.

It seems reasonable to question, however, whether these
schools are meeting the needs of American students in attendance.
To accomplish that purpose some indication must be found as to what
are those needs. Put a different way, Kelly posed the question,
"Who's The Kids' Advocate?" He opines that the agencies have estab-
lished procedures to care for their employees, but not for their
dependents for " . . . too often the overseas kid is much the same
as baggage; he has to be accounted for and carefully checked, but he
is a passive part of the system at a time in his life when he should

"2] An assessment of

be learning to assume active responsibility.
the needs of the students, rather than further investigation of the

schools' operation, would appear to be in order.

 

_ 2lThomas F. Kelly, "Who's The Kids' Advocate?" Foreign
Serv1ce Journal 50 (September T973): l8.

1]
Importance of the Study

At least five important effects may result from this study.
First, though mobility and a nomadic life are anticipated and accepted
by overseas American youth and their parents as part of their job
assignment, little information is available about their needs
especially as related to overseas residence.

Second, overseas schools' philosophies of education, as well
as position descriptions of school personnel, call for their "meeting
the needs of the students," e.g., " . . . administer the development
of an education program to meet the needs of the students and the

community,"22

but nowhere is there available a statement defining
what is meant by "needs."

Third, Mannino recommended an alteration in the United States
Department of State's organization that resulted in the establishment
of the present structure of the Department's Office of Overseas

23 but A/OS24 is unique in its organizational function.

Schools,
While it does provide financial and some educational assistance to

the schools, it does not possess the rational-legal authority of the

 

22American-Nicaraguan School, Position description of the
Director, Managua, l975, p. 2. (Mimeographed.)

23Mannino, "Overseas Education of American Elementary and
Secondary Pupils."

24Within the table of organization of the United States
Department of State, the Office of Overseas Schools is listed as,
"Administration/Overseas Schools" (A/OS), hence the term "Office
of Overseas Schools" and "A/OS" are used interchangeably.

12

scalar type as described by Weber when he writes of the administra-

tive principle of hierarchy.25

A/OS does not impinge upon nor direct
the educational programs in the 139 schools which come under its pur-
view except to the extent that, to qualify for its financial support,
A/OS requires that the schools provide demonstrable evidence that
they are meeting, or attempting to meet, American standards. No
direct evaluative control is exercised, though in providing financial
support to those schools that meet American standards, A/OS may, in
effect, be exerting a measure of tacit control over the schools'
operation. In the final analysis, however, the schools are left to
themselves in determining what is "American-type“ education and how
they are to achieve "American standards." A list of overseas American
student needs might well go a long way in helping the schools arrive
at that determination.

Fourth, schools operate as a part of a system and the system
helps people define goals. In the case of the A/OS-assisted overseas
schools no such system exists. Each of the l39 schools is relatively
autonomous, leaving an organizational void throughout the school net-
work as a whole. Within each of the A/OS regions, the school adminis-
trators have organized themselves into professional associations, e.g.,
European Council of International Schools (ECIS), Association of

American Schools of South America (AASSA), which serve the informal

 

25Max Weber, "Legitimate Authority and Bureaucraey," Organi-
zational Theory, ed. D. S. Pugh (Baltimore: Penguin Books, Inc.,
l973), p. 18.

13

function of centralizing and standardizing various activities within
the region. As such, they do not have the bureaucratic authority
normally ascribed to school systems. It becomes conceivable, then,
that the students themselves, moving among schools, may well provide
the kind of linkage not otherwise existing in the absence of a tightly-
knit administration. Determining what students need may help build a
framework for school leaders to use as they construct their programs.
As a corollary, a conmon feature of the overseas school is instability,
causing future-planning by administrators to be an uncertain task.

The assessment of student needs listed in a priority ranking may pro-
vide an important device for forecasting.

Finally, the schools themselves offer a measure of security
to both parents and students who seek some element of stability in
their otherwise mobile lives. Asking the parents, students, and
others directly associated with the schools to offer their suggestions,
provides them an opportunity to be a part of the planning process.

In turn, they develop a feeling of confidence in and affiliation with

what the school is doing.

Theoretical Foundations of the Study

If there were one best way of trying to characterize the
A/OS-assisted overseas schools it would probably be by their diversity.
A brief look at the distribution of their enrollment reveals not only
rapid growth, but also an increment of large proportions in the increase
of non-Americans. Details of enrollment and its distribution are in

Appendix A. Within the past ten years, enrollment has increased

14

62 percent--from 46,l27 to 73,940. The number of dependents of United
States' citizens has increased from 25,082 to 35,l3l, while the
non-United States' students have increased from 2l,045 to 38,809.

Not only do the United States' students come from various environments

within the United States, but the non-United States' students represent

26

the diverse backgrounds of ninety different countries. The implica-

tions of such growth and variety are compounded by the transient nature

27

of the student population and as much as a 50 percent annual school

staff turnover.28 Considering the facts of rapid growth, cultural
diversity, and student and staff turnover, the establishment of goals
and definition of needs can become a perplexing matter.

Speaking to the participants at the annual conference of the
Association for the Advancement of International Education (AAIE), Dr.
Sidney Marland pointed out:

I would think that no group has more to tell us than you educa-
tors here today about the cultural limitations of American
education. Your students live in two worlds. You see them
learning one way of life while living amidst another. You are
in an excellent position to judge whether these students are
being prepared to understand and cherish their own values

while respecting equally the values of other cultures. You have
the unique opportunity of observing, in your daily work, the

 

26U.S. Department of State, "Fact Sheet," Washington, D.C.,
Overseas Schools Advisory Council, l974-5, p. l. (Mimeographed.)

27Thomas F. Kelly, "The Overseas School: Administrative
Creativity Put to the Test," in American Education Abroad, p. 85.

28John M. Bahner, I'Fund Raising and Staff Development:

Problems and Solutions Regarding Two Major Concerns of Overseas
Schools," Ibid., p. l65.

15

flashes of insight and understanding that reassures us of our

common human bond across vast cultural gaps.29
Marland simply adds to the recognition that there is vast cultural
diversity which is observable, but he does not suggest how to meet
student needs nor how to establish educational goals within that
rich milieu. Leach has long proposed the concept of an International
Baccalaureate as a means of unifying the direction which he feels
the schools ought to take.30

At the moment, however, despite the fact that for the first

time in their history the A/OS-assisted schools have a larger per-
centage of non-United States' students than United States' students
in attendance, the direction of the schools is still dominated by
needs of Americans. Heywood laments this fact when he writes:

I feel that an optimum mix of national and international

curriculum in the overseas schools would enhance the inte-

gration of the world community and is on the side of peace

and brotherhood. To encourage insularity is a contraversion

of the idea that the really civilizing ingredient in any pro-

gram of study is that which allows us to see the other man as

relevant to ourselves, and equal to ourselves, even though

different.31

As forceful as any argumentation might be for the revision of

the schools' curriculum; as efficacious as it may seem to try to

 

29Association for the Advancement of International Education,
"Report of the l973 Annual Convention," Atlantic City, p. 24.

30Robert J. Leach, "International Schools, a Reflection," in
American Education Abroad. Ibid., p. 7l.

3lEdwin T. Heywood, "American Overseas Schools." A term paper
for Ed 882, Third Culture, Michigan State University, 1971, p. 23.

16

internationalize the staff, it is equally appropriate to draw back
and look dispassionately at the occupants of the schools and try to
build a data base to establish some theoretical foundations which
would have as their focus the needs of the attending students rather
than the organizational or staffing functions of the schools.

The agency in the best position to accomplish such a task is

the Office of Overseas Schools, but it, as Luebke explains, "does

d."32

not operate schools abroa It does, however, establish norms

which must be met to qualify for its financial assistance. Luebke
defines these norms:

Spelled out in Volume II, Section 600, of the Foreign Affairs
Manual (referred to as 2 FAM 600), the criteria governing
assistance, in simplest terms, requires that a school seeking
assistance provide adequate educational opportunity (similar

to that available in schools in the United States) for dependent
children of U.S. Government personnel stationed abroad and that
it foster mutual understanding between the people of the United
States and the people of other countries through its admission
policies, professional staff, program of instruction, and
activities. The finer points include additional requirements:
the school must have been founded by and be operated by American
citizens or by groups including Americans; there must be an appro-
priate number of U.S. Government-dependent children enrolled;
local and third country children should be included in the en-
rollment if local laws and regulations permit; the language of
instruction is to be English or both English and the host-country
language if the school is a bi-national school; the curriculum

is to be based on American patterns or at least be bi-national

in content and methods; textbooks and other instructional materials
are to be primarily American; the school must provide evidence of
sound management; other similar qualifications may be required.33

 

 

32Paul T. Luebke, "American-Sponsored Overseas Schools Assisted
by the Office of Overseas Schools," in Overseas Opportunities for
American Educators, eds. Lorraine Mathies and William G. Thomas. (New
York: CCM Information, Inc., 1973), p. 7.

33Luebke, ibid., p. 4.

17

There should be little doubt, from this definition, that the
schools are intended to meet the needs of American personnel. But are
these schools succeeding? To find out, one must define the elusive
term, "needs." Unfortunately, in education, needs have persisted in
having a variety of meanings.

In the late 1930's and early 1940's, needs were qualified
by the adjective "felt" and they became associated with wants or
desires.34 Thompson maintained that, "The older child, as well as
the adult, needs social recognition, social status, a feeling of

social belonging, affection, security in inter-personal relations,

35

and so forth." Hall related needs to the occupancy of space, the

36

study of which he called, "Proxemics." Erikson's classic Childhood

and Society developed "The Theory of Infantile Sexuality."37

"38

Havighurst's "developmental tasks, and the NEA's "Ten Imperative

h’u39

Needs of Yout are prototypic standards. Two of the more

 

34Boyd H. Bode, Progressive Education at the Crossroads.
(New York: Newson & Co., 1938).

35George G. Thompson, Child Psychology. (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin Co., 1952), p. 130.

36Edward T. Hall, The Hidden Dimension. (Garden City:
Doubleday & Co., Inc., 1966), p. 1.

37Erik Erikson, Childhood and Society. (New York: W. W.
Norton & Co., 1950), p. 44 ff.

38Robert J. Havighurst, Human_Development and Education.
(New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1953).

39Educational Policies Committee, Education for All American
Youth. (Washington, D.C.: NEA, 1944).

18

influential works have been Bloom's ”Taxonomy of Educational

Objectives,"40 "4]

and Maslow's "Hierarchy of Prepotent Needs.
The surfeit of concepts, even their disparity, among some
of the more renowned theorists in the educational profession can
lead to digression, if not confusion, since no one definition alone
seems to describe all situations. Needs are always personal and
individual. Suffice it to say that the delineation taken by the
author was to relate needs to the demands and expectations that
are placed upon an adolescent. They are the tensions, wants, or
desires that each person tries to satisfy within the constraints
set by the cultural, social and physical environments in which one
interacts. To be an active member of a society, one must meet the
demands which that society places upon him/her and within the bounds
that it sets. In the case of the overseas adolescent whose needs
are to be satisfied within diverse societies and environments, it
is posited that it has become the school's task, as an adjunct to
the family, to help its students become competent in meeting their
needs in societally and parentally approved ways. To accomplish
this, the school establishes goals, presumably to meet student needs
and, insofar as it is able to fulfill its goals, it is meeting the

needs of its student clientele. To appraise the needs of American

 

40Benjamin S. Bloom, ed. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.

 

Handbook 1: Cognitive Domain. (New York: McKay, 1956).

41Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality. (New
York: Harper and Brothers, 1954).

19

youth attending A/OS—assisted schools, then, it becomes essential

that some assessment of their expressed goals be attempted.

Definition of Terms

American Association of School Administrators (AASA). The professional
organization generally belonged to by Stateside chief school
administrators. Often the spokesman for superintendents.

American-Sponsored Overseas Schools (ASOS). Non-profit, non-sectarian
schools that are eligible for United States Government support.
Existing under the permission of the host country, the schools
are open to host country students as well as third country
students where local laws permit. American textbooks, curricula
and teaching methods are used. Sometimes used interchangeably
with A/OS-assisted schools.

Association for the Advancement of International Education (AAIE).
Originally an active sub-committee of AASA (q.v.), now an inde-
pendent organization catering to those interested in overseas I
schools.

Association of International Schools in Africa (AISA). A regional
organization for school administrators of A505 in sub-Saharan
Africa.

ALQS, Office of Overseas Schools. Also known as O/OS. Within the
United States Department of State's organizational chart,

"Administration/Overseas Schools," is its designation.

20

Diplomatic Pouch. Written communications between the United States
Department of State and overseas embassies are carried by
couriers in the diplomatic pouch in lieu of using other mail
services.

299, The United States Department of Defense.

European Council of International Schools (ECIS). A regional organi-
zation for school administrators of schools located in Europe.

Host-Country National (HCN). One residing in his own country.
“Natives," "locals," and "indigenous persons," used synonymously
by some.

International Baccalaureate. An internationally administered
university entrance examination designed to allow secondary
school graduates to be eligible for entrance to universities
throughout the world.

International Schools Association (ISA). Private organization of
educators associated with international schools. Presently
promoting the concept of the International Baccalaureate. A

International Schools Services (ISS). Originally a United States
Department of State-funded organization. Now privately operated
as a support agency for overseas schools. Also operates over-
seas schools under contract to business corporations.

0 OS. See A/OS.

School-to-School Program. A formal but voluntary partnership between
a Stateside school district and an overseas school set up for the

purpose of mutual sharing.

21

Sponsor or Sponsoring Agency. The organization that is responsible
for the employment of an overseas American.

Third Country National (TCN). A person from a country other than the
one in which he/she is residing. Used to distinguish between
two groups of expatriates. In this study, TCNs are non-United
States' citizens residing in a country not of their citizenship.

Third Culture Kids (TCKs). A designation originating with Professor
Ruth Hill Useem of Michigan State University to denote the de-
pendent minors of overseas nationals who represent some larger
organization. Those who live out of their native culture for

protracted periods. Tourists' children are not included.

Delimitation of the Study

American students residing outside the geographic boundaries
of the United States are enrolled in schools that have been estab-
lished by a variety of organizations. These include missionary
groups, the DOD, multi—national corporations, and private entre-
preneurs. The author did not seek to include students enrolled in
those schools, but rather, the study was limited to American students
attending schools which meet the definition for United States Depart-
ment of State assistance as outlined in 2 FAM 600. (See p. 16, above.

According to enrollment figures for the school year, 1974-75
as shown in Appendix A, 73,940 students attended l39 A/OS—assisted
schools. Of this number, 47.5 percent were American children; 32.5
percent were children of the 82 countries in which the schools are
located, and 20.0 percent were children of other countries. Only that

portion of the schools' population that is American was studied.

22

To attempt to assess the needs of all the children, aged
five to eighteen, who attend the schools would have been an unmanageable
task. Additionally, since opinions of the students themselves were
solicited, the likelihood was greater that older students would be
more capable of articulating their needs. The focus, therefore, was
directed to the needs of high school seniors.

This study was limited to the identification of expressed
needs. The point to be underscored is that neither the operation
nor the administration of the schools was a key factor in the investi-
gation. The schools were chosen as a convenient medium for studying
the problem. The successful determination of needs should not imply
that the schools have the sole or principal responsibility for attend-

ing to the needs.

CHAPTER II

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

Sensitively collecting data is always an arduous task. When
the respondents being solicited are spread throughout the world, the
process becomes all the more difficult. When the schools operate
autonomously, within no pre-established organizational pattern,
access to them as a means of seeking an appraisal of student needs
is tenuous. Initially, a forecasting method known as the Delphi
Technique1 was considered to be a most desirable method for dealing
with the diversity and dispersal of the schools. It had to be re-
jected, despite its potential, because it requires a minimum of
three rounds of solicitation and modification, which would be im-
practical in view of losses that could occur in the mail or as a
result of the respondents' transiency. Prescinding from the possible
loss factors, the time element could easily extend the study beyond
a normal school year. In the end, the selected Phi Delta Kappa
program provided a screening and review approach not unlike that used

in the Delphi Technique. It had the distinct advantage that it could

be completed in a single contact.

 

1For details describing the origin and use of Delphi, the
reader is referred to: R. C. Judd, "Delphi Method: Computerized
Oracle Accelerates Consensus Formation," Collegg‘and University
Business. 49 (Summer 1970): 30.

 

23

24

Population and Sample

The population used for the study was comprised of the high
school seniors who were dependents of Americans living overseas and
attending selected A/OS-assisted schools. To identify the needs of
these American adolescents, five groups were chosen as being in an
appropriate position to be able to make worthwhile judgments: (l)
the students themselves, (2) parents of students, (3) the chief
school administrators, (4) teachers, and (5) board of education
members.

To account for differences that might occur because of locale
and environment, an equal number of schools was selected from five
geographic regions of the world as defined by AIDS, i.e., Europe,
Africa, Near East/South Asia, East Asia, and Central/South America.
From these schools respondents were selected. To assure diversity
within each region, the schools chosen were located in different
countries and are located far apart geographically.

A stratified sample of four schools from each region was
drawn according to size of enrollment. Chosen were the largest and
smallest as well as two that fell in between--at approximately the
25th and 75th percentiles. The function of this choice was to re-
duce the possibility of student needs being more associated with
problems related to the size of the individual schools than to indi-

vidual needs.

25

Assumptions

The choice of participants was restricted to those presumed
to be most closely related to the activities of the schools, because
it was assumed that the schools are the agencies that are most per-
sistently setting their goals with the principal intent of meeting
the needs of students. It was further assumed that those most
actively participating in the schools' functioning: (1) would be
able to make knowledge-based choices, and (2) would be willing to
identify student needs, as discovered through the schools' operation,
regardless of any other agencies' policies to the contrary. This
latter point may be amplified in an analogous way by some statements
of the International Civil Service Advisory Board:2

The international civil servant must accept special restraints
in his public and private life . . . . (p. 15).

Integrity, international loyalty, independence and impartiality

and the subordination of private interests to the interests of

the organization, are daily requirements. (p. 14).

Not only must the international civil servant be careful and

discreet himself, but he should impress upon members of his

household the necessity of maintaining a similar high standard

of conduct. (p. 15).

Respondents chosen were those who were experienced enough to

be able to render a valuable judgment. Because of their extended ex-
posure, students and parents who have been associated with the

schools for the longest time or who have demonstrated the most active

 

2International Civil Service Advisory Board, Re ort on
Standards of Conduct in the International Civil Servant. (New York:

United Nations, 1954).

26

interest in the schools were considered the most likely candidates

for inclusion in the sample. Selected, also, were the chief school
administrators, teachers, and board of education members because it
was assumed that the very nature of their school-related activities
should cause them to be cognizant of student needs.

An additional factor in the selection was that the
respondents be Americans presently serving the schools in some
kind of leadership capacity. If no such persons were available,
length of time overseas in their present role was used in lieu of
leadership responsibility. The assumption for this choice was that
leadership activities, and/or length of time overseas, though cer-
tainly not a guarantee, should cause the respondents to be more
conversant with the needs of American overseas students than those
not having had such experiences.

The actual selection of the individual respondents was
accomplished by the chief school administrator based on instructions
received from the researcher (Appendix B, p. 108) which stated:

To select the subjects, proceed as follows:

1. Enclosed are five envelopes, the contents of which are the
same except for color coding. One is addressed to you. The
others are for the: 1) Board of Ed chairman, 2) President
of your PTO or like group, 3) President of your teachers'
association, and 4) President of the senior class.

2. If each group exists at your school and is headed by an
American, you simply have to get the envelopes out to the

proper people and urge their quick return to you for mailing.

3. If non-Americans are leaders, select the next ranking person
who is American.

27
4. In the absence of organizations representing the named groups,
proceed as follows. To get a:

Parent -- Select one who has demonstrated the most con-
sistent and cooperative concern for high school kids and
the school.
Teacher -- Choose one from the high school (9-12) whose
experience in overseas education, in your judgment, quali-
fies that person as being most aware of the needs of U.S.
kids.
Student -- Pick an American senior in any student-elected
position, or the senior who, you feel, is the outstanding
spokesman for the students.

5. None of the respondents should be related.

In summary, the respondents were selected from twenty schools
--four from each of the five A/OS geographic regions of the world.
Five persons identified with each school brought the number of potential
respondents to one hundred--twenty each of administrators, board of
education members, parents, students, and teachers. Since prior per-
sonal contact had been made with each of the schools' administrators,
whose enthusiastic support was received, excellent response was

expected.

Instrumentation

In a program sponsored by Phi Delta Kappa, Harold Spears

gathered together sixty representatives of twenty-two colleges and

3

universities at an educational goals conference. They ranked in

 

3Harold Spears, "Kappans Ponder the Goals of Education,"
Phi Delta Kappan. LV (September 1973): 29.

28

order of importance eighteen goals of education which had originated
at the Program Development Center at California State University,
Chico.4 The same series of goals was then sent to a random sample
of 1,020 PDK members. From that number, 609 returns were used to
compare with the goals originally ranked by the representatives at
the goals' conference. Each of the eighteen goals was clarified by
having three or four explanatory statements listed with it. Subse-
quent field testing indicated that the goals, as established by Chico
State and substantiated by PDK members, were complete. No additions
were found to be necessary.

In addition to the eighteen goals established by PDK, an
overseas dimension was included in this present study. Four needs
that were considered unique to the overseas students were derived
in two ways: .

1. At the annual conference of the Association for the
Advancement of International Education (AAIE), fifty-eight survey
forms, exhibited in Appendix B, were circulated among those in
attendance who represented overseas schools. The participants were
asked to complete the following statement.

Like students everywhere, high school-aged dependents of U.S.
citizens living overseas, have specific needs. Among the needs
of the overseas students attending A/OS-assisted high schools,

the one most important need that must be singled out for attention
during the next five years (1975-1980) will be to . . .

 

4Keith 8. Rose, ed. Educational Goals and Objectives.
Distributed by the Commission on Educational Planning, Phi Delta
Kappa, l973.

29

From the forty-seven responses received, duplications were
discarded and those suggestions that were already included in the
PDK list were eliminated. The remaining contributions were grouped
into a category that formed the overseas dimension. There were:

Learn How to Adjust to a Mobile Life

Such as: Develop an understanding of the process that leads
to frequent transfers. Develop techniques for living with-
out a feeling of permanence. Establish warm friendships
that may be temporary.

Understand the Pressures of Being an American in a Foreign
Country

Such as: Develop an understanding of the lack of privacy
and/or anonymity that comes with being an American. Develop
an awareness of the responsibilities of being seen as a
representative of the United States. Develop a knowledge

of and willingness to follow host country laws and customs.

Develop Skills Needed for Re-entry to Living in the U.S.

Such as: Develop background to be able to adjust to social

changes occurring in the U.S. Develop knowledge of specific

information about current economic and political climate.

Develop an understanding of the process of successful

entrance and attendance in college.

Learn the Value of Multi-cultural Experiences

Such as: Develop an understanding of the changing image of

Americans as perceived by non-Americans. Develop the ability

to judge people according to their standards and cultural

mores. Develop an awareness of local culture by active
participation in it.

2. Graduate students and professors at Michigan State Uni-
versity who have had experience in the overseas schools were shown the
same survey form used at the AAIE conference and asked to make addi-
tional contributions. From among fourteen reviewers, no other needs

were proposed.

30

The combined total of twenty-two needs was considered to be
sufficient, but space was provided for each of the overseas respondents
to add needs which they believed were not included. Appendix C con-

tains the final needs appraisal form.

Data Collection

To each of the twenty school administrators who had been
personally contacted at the Dallas AAIE Conference was sent a packet
of materials (see Appendices B and C) containing:

1. Instructions for selection of respondents as well as
directions for the distribution and return of the
survey instruments.

2. Five envelopes addressed to the persons holding leader-
ship responsibilities as described in #1 above. Each
envelope, containing the survey instruments, was
identical except for color coding.

3. A self-addressed return envelope.

4. A personal letter re-affirming the personal contact
made at the AAIE Conference.

Each respondent was asked to read the unranked statement of
twenty-two principal needs and the similar needs listed beneath them.
Having read all the needs, the respondents were asked to place an "X"
in the first column next to each need they believed to be important.
Since all of the needs had been previously identified by large groups
as being important and perhaps all-inclusive, it was anticipated that
each need would be checked at least once by each respondent. However,
the instructions did specify that it would not be necessary for all
need statements to be checked. The assumption was that by not selecting
a given need at least once, the respondent, by omission, would be

describing that need as unimportant.

31

Next, the respondents were instructed to re-read each of
the needs checked in column one, determine which of those were more
important, and to place an "X“ in column two to indicate their greater
degree of importance.

The next step was to repeat the process but this time a
separation was to be made by finding the most important items in
column two and checking them by an appropriate mark in column three.
That same procedure was repeated twice so that, in the end, at least
one of the needs would be checked in column five. Those checked in
column five would be considered most important.

The rationale for the choice of this process was threefold:

1. The original design of the PDK program called for a like
process to be followed, but it was accomplished in groups which met
over a period of several days to discuss the needs and the selection
process. The final choice, however, was always arrived at individually
and privately. The overseas respondents replicated the PDK process
but without the benefit of group meetings and discussions.

2. The response procedure used elicited a consensus-like
result which is similar to the Delphi approach, but has the advantage
of being completed in a single solicitation.

3. The result produced a Likert-type scale for statistical
analysis without the disadvantage of causing the respondents to try
to separate, by magnitude of importance, needs previously identified

as being essentially important.

32

Returns were received from thirteen of the twenty schools--a
65 percent response rate. One of the schools did not return forms
from students and parents. Another school did not return a board
member's form. One school did not include the administrator's
selections. In the case of one teacher, instructions to rate at
least one need in column five were ignored. Neither the fourth nor
fifth columns had any checks. This teacher's form was rejected as
invalid. The resulting usable documents numbered sixty--a 60 percent
return factor. Fortunately, there were an equal number of responses
from each of the five groups which permitted a more robust statistical

treatment.

Data Analysis

A ranking of needs demonstrating where each of the five
groups placed its priorities was considered sufficient to accomplish
the author's purpose. The research design, however, was conceived
to permit a multivariate analysis of variance, a Spearman rank-order
correlation (rho), and a chi square test, so that specific compari-
sons could be made.

The study was intended to be descriptive; therefore, absolute

inferences were not drawn, but speculative judgments have been offered.

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A review of the literature was treated in two categories:
(1) a discussion of the generic concepts of needs, especially as
they relate to schools, and (2) a summary of the growth of the over-

seas schools and their role in meeting adolescent needs.

Student Needs

In attempting to determine the needs of overseas American
youth, or needs of any youth for that matter, one is immediately
faced with a complex problem of definition. The complexity occurs
because of a general usage of the word "needs" without recourse to
definition.

It is difficult to define human needs. They naturally include
all the physical necessities of life, but in many cases can be
legitimately extended to encompass things desired as necessities.
In part, peoples' needs are conditioned by their aspirations.

It will certainly be agreed that non-material needs, such as
education and culture, are as real as material needs, such as
food, water, and protection against the cold. Some needs are
not consciously perceived at all, others are only vaguely
perceived, and still others awaken only on contact with new

ways of life. Recent decades have been marked by a multiplica-
tion of inter-cultural contacts. As a result, many latent needs
have been revealed for the first time and many new needs have
been created.1

 

1George Sicault, ed., The Needs of Children: A Survey of the
Needs of Children in DevelopinggCountries (New York: Glencoe Free
Press, 1963), p. 11. ‘

33

34

It is not uncommon to hear used the expression that the function of
school is to meet the needs of students. The concept of providing
for individual differences among students would seem to connote
that there are concomitant individual needs that must also be taken
into account. Yet it would not be improper to counter that the
function of the schools may not be so much to meet the needs of
students as it is to be responsive to parental needs, i.e., to
serve a care—taking role; or to suggest that the purpose of the
schools is to meet the needs of the labor structure by keeping
students out of the labor market. It could be noted, for example,
that Horace Mann's humanitarian concern for child labor laws and
compulsory attendance occurred at about the same time that there was
a decreasing need for child labor.

When one speaks of the needs of youth, a wide range of
specific needs can be summoned to mind. From the moment of birth
an infant is confronted with physiological needs. Subsequently,
there are, to suggest a few, psychological, sociological, environ-
mental, and academic needs. Just what, then, is meant by "meeting
the needs of youth"? Whatever one gives or accepts as an answer,
its terminus or focus is very likely to be found in the school--in
the American scheme of child-rearing. Whether by accident or intent,
whatever relates to children seems to have been ascribed to the
domain of the schools. Thus, the schools find themselves involved
in health appraisals, food services, home-making, driver education,
family-life education and a myriad of other activities that could

be argued are not a function of education. Brembeck puts it another

35

way when he writes, "We assume that the schools are capable of ful-

filling our expectations. We do not ask: can they?"2

It is not
the author's intent to enter into the argument, but rather to make
the observation that schools do, one way or another, become the foci
for children's activities. As such, the schools, if they are to
participate actively in the lives of the children, ought to know
what are the children's needs.

"The great challenge of the seventies, therefore, is to
find ways of attuning the educational system to constantly changing
conditions, including emerging needs and wants of the people. The
difficulty in achieving this virtuous goal is in deciding when a
given practice does or does not correspond to a need or a want."3
What becomes problematic is determining whether "educational,"
"curricular," "financial," etc., needs do have as their base the
needs of students. This delineation is important because critics

5

such as Illich4 and Jencks would suggest that children's needs

might be better met in the absence of schools as we know them today.

 

2Cole S. Brembeck, "On Learning What Schools Are Good For,"
(East Lansing, Michigan, October 1973), p. l. (Mimeographed.)

3Marvin Adelson, "Some Elementary and Secondary Educational
Needs of the Seventies," Needs of Elementary and Secondary Education
for the Seventies. A compendium of pdlicy papers presented to the
House Committee of Labor and Education, March 1970, p. 6.

4Ivan Illich, Deschooling Society. (New York: Harper and
Row, 1970).

5Christopher Jencks, Inequality: A Reassessment of the Effect
of Family and Schoolingin America. (New York: Harper Colophon Books,
1972).

36

The expression ”student needs," has been used regularly
throughout this study as a generic term to indicate the full spectrum
of the needs of adolescent youth. Confusion arises because no
definition seems to have a single universal meaning. The word "need"
may be, and in the case of the schools often is, what adults think
children need. Thus, for example, the House of Representatives
Sub-Committee on Education held twenty-two hearings from October 2,
1969, to June 4, 1971, and published a compendium of 106 different
policy papers composed by "a distinguished group of . . . prominent
citizens from every part of the United States, reflecting perhaps
every shade of opinion about education."6 Formal statements before
the Sub-Committee, as well as the submitted essays, ranged among
such subjects as educational finance, school construction, research
and development, educational technology, evaluation and account-
ability, planning and management, reading, school governance, the
application of systems analysis techniques to education, aid to
private schools, and the selection, training and compensation of
teachers and paraprofessionals. Topics such as these are educational
needs and were appropriately submitted to a committee investigating
such needs. In the absence of other evidence, it is ordinarily pre-
sumed that those submitting their contributions did so after having

previously determined student needs. But such a presumption may

 

6U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Education and Labor,
Needs for the Seventies, p. 287.

37

not be valid. Gittell suggested that the educators' proposals were
based on their desire to maintain the status quo,7 while Payzant pro-
posed that the schools are system-oriented and that, to succeed, they
must become more child-centered.8

In 1968, under the auspices of the Office of Overseas
Schools and the American Association of School Administrators,
Engleman and Rushton conducted a field survey of selected American-
sponsored overseas schools with the purpose of noting "the over-all
effectiveness of the overseas education programs, to observe changes
since 1963, to assess the influence of the Office of Overseas
Schools, and to submit recommendations toward further development

"9

of those schools. Of the twenty-one recommendations offered, each

dealt with suggestions to improve the administration and the opera-
tion of the schools. The authors observed that the overseas schools
being quite barren of specialists were not very likely to be able to

10

identify problems. As specialists in the field of educational

 

7Marilyn Gittell, "Educational Goals and School Reform,"
Needs of Elementary_and Secondary Education for the Seventies. A
Compendium of Policy Papers, p. 287.

8Thomas W. Payzant, "Education in the Seventies--More of the
Same Will Not Be Good Enough," ibid., p. 638.

9Finis E. Engleman and Edward W. Rushton, American-Sponsored
Schools: A Second Look. (Washington, D.C.: American Association of
School Administrators, 1969), p. iii.

 

10Ibid., p. 18.

38

administration, it is not surprising that Engleman and Rushton's
recommendations contained suggestions for the improvement of the
administration of the schools, but not for the importance of student
needs as being a prerequisite to the identification of educational
needs.

One of the functions of Engleman and Rushton in their study
was to conduct a re-appraisal—-to observe changes which may have
occurred following a prior visit in 1963. They did report observable
differences. "In 1963 the administrators were generally mediocre,
thus reflecting the schools. In 1968, although some administrators
have much to be desired in professional background, the great

1] Other

majority represent vast improvements over five years ago.“
changes and improvements were noted, but neither in 1963, nor in
1968 were recommendations made regarding systematic methods to
identify student needs. It is to be noted thatno additional re-
appraisals have occurred since the 1968 visit. If changes were
noted during the five year period between appraisals, it seems
reasonable to assume that changes likewise may have occurred in sub-
sequent years. Most importantly, ought not one to consider that
student needs shall have undergone some kind of alteration during
that same period that educational needs changed?

Earlier in this study (p. 18), needs were defined as per-

sonal, individual tensions, wants or desires that each person tries

 

HEngieman, ibid., p. 10.

39

to satisfy within the constraints set by the cultural, social and
physical environment in which one interacts. A vital element con-
tained in this definition is that the milieu of interaction sets
some constraints. A difficulty arises when, during periods of rapid
social change, the constraints are altered or adjusted. Political
confrontations, social contradictions, and economic imbalances hey
serve to create sharp differences in societal viewpoints. Especially
is this clear when educational programs are adjusted to allow for
new social realities. Different conceptions arise as to what kind
of society is desirable, or in a pluralistic society, whose sets of
constraints are to be followed.
There are those who would contend that the school serves as
an instrument for the democratic reconstruction of society; that
. . . the American people are entering a new age, and that our
schools must accept moral responsibility for undertaking to
nurture a human being prepared to live in this new age--a per-
son no longer patterned in the pioneer individualism of a
self-sufficient agrarian America, but one who is equipped to
live in a world marked by global interdependence, by control
over the energies of the atom, by a disturbing and expanding
scientific method and mentality, and by a mgre socialized and
cooperatively planned system of democracy.

Smith supports this position. ". . . the first duty of the public
"13

school is to maintain and promote the democratic way of life.

 

12John L. Childs, Educatiog and Morals. (New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, Inc., 1950), p. 107.

13B. Othanel Smith et al., Fundamentals of Curriculum
Development. (Yonkers: World Book Company, 1950), p. 187.

4O

Dewey agreed that "the schools do have a role--and an important one--

"14 Derr offers an excellent ex-

15

in the production of social change.
position and history of the social purposes of schools.
Other writers contend that the role of the school is to
emphasize personal needs and social processes-~"to give all types of
practical help which youth need in order to 'get along' adequately."16
The time-honored conception of school as a place to disci-
pline the mind persists. Hutchins referred to students' needing "a

17 while Adler insisted that

18

common stock of fundamental ideas,"
immersion in the Great Books would serve to meet student needs.
Maritain argued that "Education must remove the rift between
the social claim and the individual claim within man himself . . .
and exert authority for the general welfare and the respect for the

humanity of each individual person."19

 

14John Dewey, "Education and Social Change," Social Frontier,
III (May 1937): 236.

15Richard L. Derr, A Taxonomy of Social Purposes of Public
Schools. (New York: David McKay Co., Inc., 1973).

16Harold C. Hand, "The Case for the Common Learnings Program,"
_§gience Education, 32 (February 1948): 10.

17Robert M. Hutchins, The Higher Learning in America. (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1936), p. 67.

18Mortimer J. Adler, "The Crisis in Contemporary Education,"
Social Frontier, V (February 1939): 63.

19Jacques Maritain, Education at the Crossroads. (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1943), p. 90.

41

Two views that have staunch adherents are those which
describe education as a vehicle of social mobility and those which
see education's function as one that should prepare students for a
career. The former position is advocated by Warner--"The School in
America, whether we like it not, must function to make democracy work

"20 The

in a status system that is only partially equalitarian.
career education movement has received recent impetus from United
States Commissioner of Education, Terrell Bell, who "has thrown his
weight behind the HEW drive to make career education a new major
emphasis . . . . He is the first U.S. Office of Education (USOE)
spokesman to comment on the new three-departmental drive (HEW, Labor,
and Commerce) to integrate the world of work and education."21
Conant proposed that " .N. . the educational experience of youth
should fit their subsequent employment. There should be a smooth
transition from full-time schooling to a full-time job, whether that
transition be after grade ten or after graduation from high school,

"22

college, or university. Proponents of career education as a

means of meeting student needs rely upon mobilization of public and

 

20W. Lloyd Warner, Who Shall Be Educated? (New York: Harper
and Brothers, 1944), p. 146.

21Education, USA, (Washington: National School Public
Relations Association, November 4, 1974), p. 79.

22James B. Conant, Slums and Suburbs. (New York: McGraw
Hill Book Co., 1961), p. 40.

42

. . . 23 .
private resources to improve educational systems. Venn summarizes

the career education position:

This country faces a choice. If we want an educational system
less and less relevant to more and more students and taxpayers,
all we need do is relax; we are drifting that way. If we want
an educational system designed to serve each individual, then
we have work to do and attitudes to change.24

Unless far more and far better education on the semi-professional,
technical, and skilled levels is soon made available to greater
numbers of citizens, the national economy and social structure
will suffer irreparable damage.25

Gardner's oft-quoted opinion serves as a post-script to the career

educators' viewpoint:

An excellent plumber is infinitely more admirable than an incom-
petent philosopher. The society which scorns excellence in
plumbing because plumbing is a humble activity and tolerates
shoddiness in philosophy because it is an exalted activity will
have neither good plumbing nor good philosophy. Neither its
pipes nor its theories will hold water.26

Educational Aims,_Goals and Objectives

In the absence of auniversally'accepted definition of needs,

what seems to have occurred is that whatever the schools have attempted

 

23For an extended exposition of the career education position
the reader is referred to the work of the State Career Education Ad-
visory Commission of the State of Michigan, especially its document,
"Career Education Concept Paper," dated January 8, 1975.

24Grant Venn, Man, Education, and Manpower. (Washington:
American Association of School Administrators, 1970), p. 16.

251bid., p. 23.

26John W. Gardner, No Easy Victories. (New York: Harper and
Row, 1968), p. 66.

43

to do has become synonymous with needs. School leaders, educational
sociologists, philosophers and theorists, in their continuing de-
bate about the function of education, have informally classified
student needs by trying to define what the schools ought to be
accomplishing.

The aphorism that children should be seen and not heard was
the apparent guideline of education in the early years of American
schooling. The schools were subject-matter oriented. Children
studied what parents determined was desirable. Pandora's box was
opened, however, in 1913 when the National Education Association
established its Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Educa-
tion_with the charge to consider, among other things, the vocational

needs of youth.27

Concern had arisen that the reports of two prior
NEA Commissions--The Committee of Ten on SecondaryASchool Studies
(1893), and The Committee of Fifteen on Elementary Education (1895)--
had outlived their usefulness. In the words of Cohen, they "had

taken on the charm of period pieces . . ."28

In 1918, five years
after its formation, the Commission on Reorganization issued its
Report which right from the beginning served notice to its readers

that it was proposing a new approach to American education.

 

27Edward Krug, "Public High School, United States," The
Encyclopedia of Education, (New York: The Macmillan Co., 197YT:—
v61. 7, p. 311.

28$01 Cohen, "The Transformation of the School," in Founda-
tions of Education. George F. Kneller, ed. (New York: John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 1971), p. 26.

44

Its opening sentence proclaimed that secondary education should
be determined by the needs of society, the character of the
students to be educated, and the knowledge of the best educa-
tional theory and practice available at that time.29

The Commission stated the goals of education in what became
known as the Seven Cardinal Principles of Education. These were:
(1) Health, (2) Command of fundamental processes, (3) Worthy home
membership, (4) Vocation, (5) Citizenship, (6) Worthy use of leisure,
and (7) Ethical character. In listing these principles, the
Commission broadened the limited goals of education which previously
had been confined to college entrance requirements and subject-matter
mastery. The Commission additionally extended the concept of school
attendance to include all youth up to the age of eighteen. In one
document, the Commission redirected the future of education in
three important areas. First, it rejected the narrowness of the
curriculum and recommended a new set of educational objectives-~the
Cardinal Principles. Second, it broadened the concept of who should
attend school. Third, it redirected educational thought from
subject-centered schools to a philosophy that would henceforth in-
clude some consideration of student and societal needs. Its concern
for youth was underscored when Commission Chairman Clarence Kingsley
stated that the responsibility of the high school was “ . . . nothing

"30

less than complete and worthy living for all youth . . . The

 

2916id., p. 34

30Cohen, ibid.

45

precedent was set--Pandora's box opened--and consideration of student

needs would persist to the present day when the courts have extended

the concept of needs to include rights.3]

Vredevoe summarizes some of the objectives developed by

major committees and commissions which appeared following the publi-

cation of the Cardinal Principles:32

Committee on Standards for Use in the Reorganization of
Secondary school Curricula (1920)

Ultimate Objectives:

To maintain health and physical fitness

To use leisure in right ways

To sustain successfully certain definite social
relationships: civic, domestic, community, etc.

To engage in exploratory vocations and vocational
activities.

-5 com—4

American Youth Commission (Secondary Education for Youth in
Modern America) (1937)

Objectives:

1. Citizenship 2. Home membership 3. Leisure life
4. Physical and mental health 5. Vocational efficiency
6. Preparation for continued learning

Progressive Education Association (The Eight-Year Study) (1938)
Needs of Youth:
1. Physical and mental health 2. Self-assurance

3. Assurance of growth toward adult status 4. Philosophy
of life 5. Wide range of personal interests 6. Aesthetic

 

3IMichael Simmons, Jr., "The Law and the Courts," in Foundations
of Education, ibid., p. 190.
For more detailed information on the impact of court decisions
as they have affected schools, the reader is referred to Leroy J.
Patterson, The Law and Public School Operation. (New York: Harper and
Row, 1969).

32Lawrence E. Vredevoe, "Secondary Education," in Foundations of
Education, ibid., p. 523 ff.

 

 

46

appreciation 7. Intelligent self-direction 8. Progress
toward maturity in social relations with age mates and with
adults 9. Wise use of goods and services 10. Vocational
orientation 11. Vocational competence

Education Policies Commission (Purposes of Education in American
Democracy) (1938)'

Objectives:

1. Self-realization 2. Human relationships 3. Economic
efficiency 4. Civic responsibility

Education Policies Commission (Education for All American Youth)
1952)

Objectives which will equip youth to:

1. Enter an occupation suited to his abilities 2. Assume
responsibilities of American citizenship 3. Attain and
preserve mental and physical health 4. Stimulate intel-
lectual curiosity 5. Think rationally 6. Develop an
appreciation of ethical values

White House Conference on Education (1955)
Objectives which will develop:

1. Fundamental skills of communication, arithmetic, and
mathematics 2. Appreciation for our democratic heritage
3. Civic rights and responsibilities 4. Respect and
appreciation for human values 5. Ability to think and
evaluate constructively 6. Effective work habits and
self-discipline 7. Social competency 8. Ethical be-
havior 9. Intellectual curiosity lO. Aesthetic
appreciation 11. Physical and mental health 12. Wise
use of time 13. Understanding of the physical world

14. Awareness of our relationship with the world community

Upon review of these various objectives of the different groups,
Vredevoe concluded that they can all be reduced to four general head-
ings: citizenship, language arts, vocational competence and physical

33

fitness; yet he goes on to suggest that:

 

33Vredevoe, ibid., p. 522.

47

. . fundamentally the needs of the secondary school student

can be stated as follows:

Language Arts--ability to read, write, observe, think
logically, listen and communicate

Health and physical fitness-- mental and body health

Vocational correctness--proper attitudes, craftmanship,
creativeness and adjustability

Domestic competence—-ability to live successfully as a member
of a family group or as a leader

Social confidence--appreciation and understanding of man's
progress and potential in solving political, social and
economic problems

Moral and spiritual depth--value judgment and recognition
of the need fbr self-discipline and service to others.34

Different authorities, groups and committees appear to be more
in agreement than disagreement. Sometimes priorities rather than sub-
stantial differences would seem to suggest apparent disparity in
goals as when Harris says, " . . . without a doubt the biggest task
facing the American high school today is to make its curriculum
meaningful to students. For hundreds of thousands of boys and girls
this meaning must be found in subjects and curriculum related to the
world of work."35 Jencks might simply add that minimum expectations
ought to be no less than " . . . the ability to use language easily

and accurately, the ability to understand and make logical inferences

 

34Vredevoe, ibid., 523.

35Norman C. Harris, "Meeting the Post-High School Education
Needs of the Vast 'Middle Group‘ of High School Graduates," an address
before the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools,
Committee on Articulation and Colleges, Chicago, March 19, 1963.

48

from printed materials, the ability to use numbers with facility,

and the ability to absorb and retain miscellaneous information."36

Gordon infuses the word "survival" and seemingly adds a measure of
urgency when he states that " . . . the minimum educational goals
are defined by the prerequisites for meaningful participation [in
society] or for economic, social and political survival."37 Payzant

reduces goals to three major categories: learning for literacy,

38

learning for human skills and learning for a career. Lieberman

adds his concepts of goals, but interposes a new dimension by
suggesting that means not ends are the source of confusion.

I believe that the American people are in substantial agreement
that the purposes of education are the development of critical
thinking, effective communication, creative skills and social,
civic, and occupational competence.

If there is widespread agreement on the broad purposes of
education, why do so many people believe that disagreement in
this area is so pervasive? The most important reason is the
confusion over what are the purposes and what are the means of
achieving them.39

The research, then, would suggest four general points of

agreement. First, there is concurrence in what educational goals

 

36Jencks, Inequality, ibid., p. 84.

37Edmund W. Gordon, "Toward Defining Equality of Educational
Opportunity," in On Equality_of Educational Opportunity. Frederick
Mosteller and Daniel P. Moynihan, eds. (New York: Vintage Books,
1972), p. 431.

38Payzant, "Education in the Seventies," p. 637.

39
Myron Lieberman, "What the Problem is Not," in Nature,
Aims, and Policy. Adrian Dupuis, ed. (Urbana: University of Illinois
Press, 1970), p. 211.

49

and aims ought to be. Second, they revolve around what the patrons
of the schools would have them be. Third, disparity relates more to
disagreement as to how to achieve the goals than as to what the
goals ought to be. Heald and Moore caution, however, that:
It is important to note that only rarely is mention made of
specifically what the educated citizen is to become--attention
is focused on hgm_he is to get that way. The immense social
supposition here is that through the attainment of educational
objectives, people will become what they should become--and,
they will behave in a manner which ii complementary to the
society. (Italics in the original.) 0
Fourth, people, and hence*their needs, do change. Any proposition
designed to meet needs must come under regular review.
. . needs refer to ends or aims . . . . In a democratic
system of education the center of the plot must always be
continuous rebuilding of the scheme of values, the underly-

ing philosophy or social outlook, by the pupil, as a basis
for determining his needs.41

Overseas Schools and Adolescent Needs

While it may be demonstrable, from the literature, that the
goal of education is to provide, somehow, experiences that are
appropriate to the contemporary needs of American youth, it is not
clear that "contemporary needs" are (l) the same for Stateside and

overseas youth, or (2) seriously considered when educational planning

 

40James E. Heald and Samuel A. Moore, The Teacher and Admin-
istrative Relationships in School Systems. (New York: The Macmillan
Company, 1968), p. 26.

41Boyd H. Bode, "The Concept of Needs in Education," Pro-
gressive Education. 15 (January 1938): 7.

50

takes place. A review of the development of the overseas school
phenomenon might help to give some additional perspective to the
needs of overseas youth.

Traditionally, Americans have preferred to keep schools
close to home and to maintain local control. In a non-mobile society
such goals are readily attainable. With the exodus of many Americans
to foreign countries following World War II, the concept of the
neighborhood school had to be abandoned by those living in the land
of their new assignment. That is, the American school, designed to
meet the contemporary needs of American youth, was not available.

As with their British predecessors, five options were open: (1)
School-aged children could be an impediment to foreign service
assignments, (2) The children could be left at home with relatives,
(3) The children could be sent to boarding schools, (4) Tutoring
could occur in the overseas home. In fact, the Calvert School, be-
gun in 1904, developed a complete home-study course that, since its
inception has provided home—guided instruction for 125,000 kinder-

42 (5) Local schools could be

garten through eighth graders.
attended.

Each of these options had its disadvantages. If the
children were an impediment, the agencies wishing to place personnel
overseas would lose the value of key people. Families would be split

if the children could not be taken along. The success of tutoring

 

43"Calvert School," Foreign Service Journal. 52 (June 1975):

32.

51

would be directly proportional to the skill and availability of
tutors. Families, attempting to guide the tutorial process them-
selves, felt inadequate beyond a certain academic level. The
termination of Calvert's program at the eighth grade level might
be an indication of the point at which parents did not feel com-
petent. Attendance at a locally available school was problematic
for a variety of reasons. First, and most_obvious, was a language
barrier. Second, children who rotated among foreign countries
could not be reasonably expected to develop sufficient proficiency
in the language to matriculate at local schools. Third, a local
school would be designed to accomodate the needs of local residents,
not Americans--and in some countries, the possibility might not be
open to attend the local schools.

A new option emerged from these disadvantages. An American
school could be established. The precedent existed in the form of
American schools that were primarily church-related or established
by private business companies. The earliest record of an American

43 was the Woodstock School in

school, according to Deutchman,
Mussoorie, India, founded in 1854 by missionaries. The American
military establishment can trace the beginning of the DOD school
system to 1821, when Congress enacted into law regulations providing
for the financing and administration of the education of dependents,

followed in 1838, by authorization for the post chaplain to teach,

 

43Paul Deutchman, "American Schools Abroad," Holiday. 42
(October 1967): 107.

52

as added duty and for extra pay, the children of servicemen. In
1904, a Canal Zone school was funded by Congress and in 1936, the

44 What is

United States Navy opened schools in Cuba and Samoa.
presently known as The American School Foundation of Mexico City
had its beginning in 1888, when funding was provided by "an American
woman resident of Mexico City in order to provide an American school
for her fellow citizens."45
The paucity of literature related to the earlier years of
American-sponsored overseas schools leaves room for the conjecture
that their existence was related to the need to keep families to-
gether when the parents were assigned overseas. The Smith-Mundt
Act in 1948, began federal support for non-DOD schools when it
established qualifications for governmental aid. Schools were re-
quired to be non—sectarian, non-profit, maintained primarily by
United States citizens, taught primarily in English and, where
possible, to enroll students from host and third countries. After
1962, Public Law 87-195 (the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961) which
established the Agency for International Development (USAID), pro-

vided federal assistance to overseas schools which educated children

 

44Anthony Cardinale, "Overseas Dependent Schools of the
DOD," Phi Delta Kappan. 48 (May 1967): 460 ff.

45American Association of School Administrators. "The
Mission Called O/OS," (Washington: American Association of School
Administrators, 1966), p. 31.

53

of personnel carrying out the Act as well as dependents of other
United States Government personnel abroad.46
Beginning in the late 19605, the reasons for the establish-
ment of the overseas schools became clearer. President Johnson, in
his February 4, 1966, message to Congress, cited three reasons for
supporting overseas schools. They should: (1) be showcases for
excellence in education, (2) help make overseas service attractive
to our own citizens, and (3) provide close contact with students and
teachers of the host country.47 Schools being a "showcase for
excellence in education," might also be seen as evidence of excellence
of all things American at a time when American international influence
was expanding. Two years previously, Texas Oil Corporation's vice-
president for Indonesia, R. H. Hopper, had proclaimed, "Our ability
to keep good American employees is very much dependent on the educa-

tion we can offer."48

John Gardner, the then Secretary of HEW, in
an appearance before the House Committee on Education and Labor,

emphasized the importance for Americans to increase their knowledge

 

46Paul T. Luebke and Ernest N. Mannino, "American-sponsored
Overseas Schools," Exthange. (Washington: U.S. Advisory Commission
on International, Educational and Cultural Affairs, Summer, 1970),
pp 0 56-66 0

47U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Education and Labor,
Hearings Before the Task Force on International Education, March
and April, 1966. (Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office,
1966 , p. 9.

48"Industry Rings the School Bell," BUSINESS WGGK- JUIY 4.
1964, p. 39.

54

of other peoples.49

The political and economic implications for the
existence of the schools, as opposed to emphasis on student needs,
began to emerge.

During the year 1966, the year that began with President
Johnson's urging the improvement of overseas education, the DOD re-

vamped its truncated school program.50

A/OS was streamlined and,
in 1967, an Overseas Schools Advisory Council, composed of educators,
governmental officials and leaders of American corporations and
foundations having overseas operations, was formed.51 In 1968, the
Council selected the Institute for Development of Educational
Activities (I/D/E/A), an affiliate of the Charles F. Kettering
Foundation, to implement a plan known as, "Fair Share,“ which en-
abled American businesses to participate in bettering educational
programs available to their children.52
No evidence has been found of either vocal or financial
encouragement during the Nixon administration, nor the early months

of the Ford administration. The schools have remained 139 individual

districts with their own boards of directors, policy-making authority,

 

49U.S. Congress, House, Committee on Education and Labor,
HearingsoBefore the Task Force on International Education, p. 461.

50Cardinale, “Overseas Dependent Schools," p. 461.

51U.S. Department of State. "Overseas Schools Program Strives
for Excellence," Department of State Newsletter. 83 (March 1968): 11.

52Institute for Development of Educational Activities. "Over-
seas School Project," Annual Report 1972, p. 1.

55

and staffing procedures. Tuition is the principal source of income.
Problems are many,53 yet the schools continue to grow in attendance--
from 46,127 to 73,940 (62 percent) during the ten year period from
1964 to 1975, as can be seen in Appendix A. In a study conducted

in 1971, Helms reported community approval of the overseas school
programs in staffing, curriculum, student discipline and counsel-

54 but no examination was made of student needs. Satisfaction

ing.
was expressed with what gas_happening, but no investigation was made
of what the school community thought should be happening, which is

an essential part of an appraisal program.

Needs Appraisal Systems

The identification of student needs, establishment of con-
sequent goals and objectives, as well as the determination of whether
the needs are being met, are vital parts of the process required for
sound decision-making and future-planning. One must begin with
needs:

When a school says that it exists 'to meet the needs of students,‘
what is it really saying? That it has assessed 111 the needs of
its students and can meet them? Or just some of the needs? If
so, which ones? Perhaps 'needs' could be dissolved into a state-
ment about the aim of education as seen and practiced by School

X. Or perhaps the word means nothing at all. (Italics in the
original.)55

 

53Albert A. Chuder, "The International School Principal," in
American Education Abroad, p. 117 ff.

54V. Donald Helms, ”Community Approval and Disapproval of
American Overseas School Programs."

55George F. Kneller, "Logic and Analysis," in Foundations of
Education, p. 277.

 

56

Assuming that the word does have meaning and, indeed, that
needs can be described and given priorities, some kind of forecasting
or appraisal system is called for. Coffing et al., have developed
what they call, "Needs Assessment Methodology," which is a carefully
detailed ten step process outlining their suggested procedure. They
take considerable care in defining the importance of knowing, "Who
needs what as defined by whom?"56

The Center for the Study of Evaluation at the University of
California at Los Angeles, has developed a needs assessment kit which
uses a Q-sort technique and contains a goal taxonomy.57

Spears reported a systematized goal study in the Phi Delta

58 which has been used as the basis for this present study.

Kappan.
Several elements of commonality way be identified among the
three:
1. Establishment of a collective viewpoint by including a broad
cross section of opinion, not the least of which is the con-
tribution of the students.

2. Carefully defined needs even to the degree of providing a
preordained list to which additions may be offered.

3. Priority ranking completed by the respondents.

4. Delimitation of the types of needs to be defined.

 

56Richard T. Coffing et al., A Needs Analysis Methodology_for
Education of the Handicapped. (North Haven, Connecticut: Area
Cooperative Educational Services, 1973).

I

i. 57Ralph Hoepfner, National Priorities for Elementary Education.
(Los Angeles: University of California Center for the Study of Evalua-
tion, 1973 .

58Spears, "Kappans Ponder Goals of Education."

57

Costar has proposed the use of a follow-up study not only
as an evaluative technique, but as continuing method of appraising
student needs through the schools' products--former students.59

In needs assessment systems, the actual assessment is
considered to be only the first step in a process that will subse-
quently include the establishment of goals based on the ranked
needs; the creasion by the professional staff of specific objectives
which evolve from the goals; and ultimately, an evaluation process
that determines how successfully the objectives have been achieved.

The author of this study set out to complete the first step. The

remaining steps are left to the 139 A/OS-assisted schools.

 

, 59James W. Costar, The Follow-up Study. (East Lansing:
Michigan State University, Institute for International Studies in
Education, 1974).

CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION OF DATA

This study was conducted in three phases:

Phase I -- Amidst the uniqueness, divergence, and dispersal
of the overseas schools, it was predicated that an obvious, but per—
haps overlooked element of similitude was the student. Though the
schools themselves may be located in a wide variety of countries
and sites; though they be subjected to discordant pressures; though
they be administered in differing styles, their very existence as
American schools would seem to be gg_j§gto_evidence that prime among
their goals must be the meeting of needs of American students.

A search of the literature revealed that among the various
methods of defining the goals of education, the Phi Delta Kappa
(PDK) system yielded the one that was best backed with current re-
search data and most likely to produce a usable ranking of student
needs.

Phase II -- The PDK approach, however, was developed for
and validated in Stateside schools. An additional dimension was
added, therefore, to allow for the expression of needs that would be
attributable to overseas residence. Through the use of a survey

instrument, opinions were solicited from administrators, board of

58

59

education members, parents, students, and teachers presently associated
with twenty selected overseas schools equally distributed throughout
the world.

Phase III -- The data were collected, organized by ranking,
and subjected to statistical analysis.

As originally conceived, a simple ranking of needs showing
where each of the five groups placed its priorities would have been
sufficient to accommodate the purpose of the study. The most important
needs would be those with the highest priorities, as determined from
a 0-5 scale, while acute differences between groups would serve to
lay the groundwork for subsequent analysis and evaluation by future
researchers. This was done (Table 1), but it was not enough.

Reliance upon such a simple exposition could be misleading
if there are differences existing among the schools and the groups
within the schools. Therefore, a determination had to be made
whether such differences existed, while, at the same time care had
to be taken not to manipulate the data in a way that would present
an analysis with which the respondents would disagree. Said another
way, if the data are interpreted differently from what the respondents
had anticipated, their original responses might have been different.
This is not to say that interpretation must conform to some antici-
pated result, but rather that if respondents expect a straight-forward
ranking, they react accordingly. If they know something other than a
ranking will occur, their response might be different. This point is

crucial because the researcher extended the original concept of mere

60

Table 1. Overall Ranked Order of Student Needs.

 

Item Mean
No.* Description of Needs Rank Rating

 

.72
.63
.62**
.62
.48
.42
.38

21 Develop Good Character & Self-Respect l
19 Pride in Work & Feeling of Self-Worth 2
4 Skills in Reading/Writing/Speaking/Listening 3
13 Desire for Learning Now and in the Future 3
7 How to Examine & Use Information 5

Get Along w/People w/Whom We Work & Live 6
2 Get Along w/People Who Think/Act/Dress Differently 7
8
9

3

3

3

3

3

3

3
22 Gain a General Education 3.33
20 Learn the Value of a Multi-Cultural Experience 2.85
3 Understand Changes That Take Place in the World 10 2.80

Be a Good Citizen 11.5 2.57**

17 Appreciate Beauty & Culture in the World 11.5 2.57
Practice Democratic Ideas and Ideals 13 2.53
10 Being an American in a Foreign Country 14 2.38
14 How to Use Leisure Time 15 2.10
12 How to Manage Money/Property/Resources 16 2.08
15 Prepare for Re-entry to Living in the U.S. 17 2.03
8 Practice Skills of Family Living 18 1.97
18 Information Needed to Make Job Selections 19 1.95
5 Adjust to a Mobile Life 20 1.92
16 Practice Ideas of Health & Safety 21 1.83
11 Skills to Enter a Specific Field of Work 22 1.60

 

*On the survey documents used in the study, no numeration was used so
as to avoid any appearance of pre-ranking. For convenience of exposi-
tion, the needs as originally listed have been numbered, post hoc,
from 1-22 and are referred to as "Item Numbers."

**In cases of tied scores, the mid-point between them was used to denote
position of rank.

61

ranking by comparing groups through statistical measures, but in so
doing, care was taken to underscore the fact that absolute inferences
are not and, in fact, cannot be drawn.

The overseas population is so diverse and subject to such
mobility that some question can be raised as to how accurately or
universally their opinions can be projected. Not only are the
various programs difficult to measure, but they are subject to ex-
tensive variation from one year to the next. Change is an essential
variable that must be borne in mind when conclusions are drawn and
recommendations are offered.

Finally, note must be taken by the reader that the appraisal
of needs is normally the first step in a three part process; the
remaining two being the establishment of objectives designed to
meet the needs, and an evaluative process that seeks to determine
if the objectives have been accomplished. Thus, the determination
of needs can be so thoroughly related to a specific time and place,
that the true value of any research study about overseas students
may not lie in the conclusions drawn but rather in the method that has
been suggested for appraising needs and that some kind of ranking has
been established for comparative purposes.

This researcher, then, sought not only to rank student needs
as submitted by five selected groups of people, but also analyzed the
rankings with the intention of demonstrating different techniques of

using the collected data.

62

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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63

Collected Data

As seen in Table 2, there was general agreement among the
five respondent groups in their rankings, though there are certain
differences in the priorities within ranks. For analytic purposes, the
midpoint of the mean scores of the total ranking (2.66) was chosen to
establish a decision point to separate the more important from the less
important needs. In this manner it can be seen that there is complete
agreement among the five respondent groups with the placement of the
first eight needs in the top ten. Likewise there is total agreement
with the placement of the last ten needs in the less important cate-
gory.

The area of disagreement occurs among those needs ranked
nine, ten, and the tie for eleven. Among those, only three would
appear to be sufficiently disparate to warrant noting.

Table 3. Disagreement in Placement of Needs Into More Important and
Less Important Categories.

 

 

Overall Adminis- Board
Ranking trators Members Parents Students Teachers
9 16.5 13 - - -
lO - 11 12.5 - -
Decision
Point ———————————————————————————————
11.5 9 9 9 - -

11.5 - - - 7.5 -

 

64

Administrators placed the ninth ranked need in sixteenth
place; the students ranked the eleventh place need in seventh place,
while the board members put the ninth ranked need in thirteenth
place.

To look more closely at these data to get a measure of
relationship between the ranks, a rank order correlation using a
Spearman EDQ formula was calculated. The students' ranked list of
needs was compared with each of the other four groups. Statistical
significance was found at the .01 level in all cases. A true rela-
tionship, that is, concurrence of opinion among all the groups, may

be accepted with confidence.

Table 4. Comparison of Students' Ranking With the Other Four Groups.

 

 

r t - statistic
Students vs. Administrators .57 3.102
Students vs. Board Members .67 4.036
Students vs. Parents .64 3.725
Students vs. Teachers .77 5.397
df = 20;, .01 = 2.845 .05 = 2.086

 

Using the same information obtained from Table 4, further
substantiation of general concurrence of ranking may be noted by
squaring the obtained r's. The result was an approximation of the

degree of concurrence. Thus:

65

.572 = .3249; .672 = .4489; .642 = .4096; .772 = .5929

It was found that there existed an overlapping of opinion in the rank-

ings by groups as follows:

1. Students and Administrators -- 32 percent
2. Students and Board Members -- 45 percent
3. Students and Parents -- 41 percent
4. Students and Teachers -- 59 percent

Ranking_By Dimensions

It will be remembered that the original list of educational
goals as composed by PDK numbered eighteen (See page 28ff). To those
were added four needs that were specifically related to overseas stu-
dents, thus constituting an overseas dimension. Upon examination of
the original eighteen, it appeared that they, too, fell into four
readily classifiable dimensions. The five dimensions did not consti-
tute a priority ranking, but rather they serve as a classification
system that allowed additional analysis as well as provided a con-
venient method for discussing results that will follow in Chapter V.
The Classification System and its rankings can be seen on Table 5.

Using the mean score of each group on each of the five
dimensions it was observed that all the respondents are in accord in
rating the academic dimension as first priority, with the socio-political
being second. With the exception of the administrators who ranked it
fourth, the management dimension was considered last, as is shown on

Table 6.

66

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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67

Table 6. Ranking by Group By Dimension.

’DVeralT Adminis- Board

Need Dimension Ranking tration Members Par- Stu-

ents dents Teachers

 

Academic 1 1 l l l l
Socio-Political 2 2 2 2 2 2
Personal 3 3 3 3 4 3
Overseas 4 5 4 4 3 4
Management 5 4 5 5 5 5

 

Another difference can be seen. While the academic dimension
of needs was agreed upon as being the highest priority, two needs with-
in the personal dimension received the highest overall priority.

Academic Dimension

1. From Table 5 it can be seen that the adult respondents
(administrators, board members, parents, and teachers) assigned a con-
siderably higher priority to the basic skills than did the students.

In fact, for the parents, the development of basic skills was their
highest priority.

2. The school people (administrators and teachers) considered
the need to know how to examine and use information as their highest
priority. The parent group of both board members and parents placed it
lower while the students placed it yet further down the list of priorities.

3. Parents placed the acquisition of basic skills and gaining

a general education in a higher category than any of the others.

4. Teachers designated a lower priority to the need to learn

now and in the future than did any other group.

68

Socio-Political Dimension

General agreement was found within this dimension with one
exception--the students ranked the need to be a good citizen close to
their lowest priority in twentieth place, while the adults saw it as
tied for eleventh.

Personal Dimension

1. Board members, parents, and teachers agreed in the
placement of the development of good character and self-respect in
first or second priority while administrators and students ranked
the same need in sixth and seventh place respectively.

2. Students rated the need to appreciate beauty and
culture in the world higher than did any of the adult groups.

3. Concern for the need to understand and practice ideas
of health and safety ranked among the lowest needs for each of the
groups but the administrators who saw it as twelfth in rank.

Overseas Dimension ‘

Greater discrepancies between the student and adult groups
occurred in the overseas dimensions than in any of the other ddmenéioas.

l. The students ranked as foremost in importance the need
to learn the value of multi-cultural experience as well as the need
to respect and get along with people who think, dress, and act
’differently. These two needs are probably closely interrelated but
are separated in dimension because of the arbitrariness in the re-

searcher's division of sub-groups.

69

2. Student concern for adjusting to a mobile life received
considerably higher priority than it did for administrators, board
members and parents. Students ranked mobility higher than did
teachers, but the difference was not so great as it was for the other
three groups.

Managoment Dimension

Uniform concurrence of low priority occurred in the manage-
ment dimension except that administrators placed higher priority on
management of money, property, and resources than did the others,
while parents showed greater concern for the need to develop skills
to enter a specific field of work.

Simple observation of the rankings within each of the
dimensions does demonstrate that there are differences of ranked
needs. As has been observed within the personal dimension, for ex-
ample, the board members, parents, and teachers ranked as first and
second the need to develop good character and self-respect, while
the students ranked the same need as tied for seventh. How important
is that difference and how important are the other differences that
can be noted among the five respondent groups?

To determine this, a one-way analysis of variance was com-
puted to disclose whether there was a significant difference among
them. Table 7 shows that, in all cases, no differences were found
at the .05 level of significance.

The application of both the Spearman ghg_and the one-way

analysis of variance to the collected data demonstrated that there

70

Table 7. Analysis of Variance for Difference Among the Dimensions.

 

Need Dimension Source SS df ms F p

 

Academic Total 763 59 -
Between Groups 79 4 19.75 1.59 >.05
Within Groups 684 55 12.43 - -

Socio-Political Total 1308 59 - -
Between Groups 52 4 13.00 .559 >.05
Within Groups 1256 55 22.83 -

Personal Total 1428 59 - -
Between Groups 71 4 17.75 .719 >.05
Within Groups 1357 55 24.67 -

Overseas Total 1211 59 - - -
Between Groups 69 4 17.25 .830 >.05
Within Groups 1142 55 20.76 - -

Management Total 704 59 - -
Between Groups 13 4 3.25 .258 >.05
Within Groups 691 55 12.56 -

 

df = 4, 55; F @ .05 = 2.61

 

is no significant difference among the groups. Yet, the fact remains
that there appears to be a difference in priorities across the groups
on some of the needs. This apparent contradiction may be the result
of the fact that the use of rankings as a method of determining
priorities has the effect of creating the appearance that the lowest
rated needs are of little consequence. Such, of course, is not the
case. Ranking indicates a higher priority when respondents are
forced to choose among the given needs. What ranking does not allow
for is an indication of noy_important any one of the needs might be.

Thus, the students' composite placement of the need to develop skills

71

in reading, writing, speaking and listening, as their tenth priority
should not imply that they feel this need to be unimportant. It
simply means that, forced to choose, the students placed higher
priorities on other needs. The difference in importance between
needs ranked first and tenth could be slight, while the difference be;
tween ten and twelve, as an example, could be great. Ranking does
not demonstrate this difference in importance.

One method of examining the difference is the application
of the chi square test to each of the needs. To accomplish this, the
groups were collapsed to three as follows:

Group I, combined administrators and teachers into a
category called, "staff."

Group II, students.

Group III, combined board members and parents into a
group called, "parents."

The preferences selected by the groups were then divided
into a three dimensional range related to the respondents' choices on
each of the needs. A frequency count was made of their votes accord-
ing to the following scale:

Low -- Choices 0, l, and 2

Medium-- Choice 3

High -- Choices 4 and 5
The basic chi square formula, X2 = Z (O-E)2 was then applied to the

E

resulting observed contingency table. Use of the chi square technique

on each of the twenty-two needs yielded the following results:

72

Table 8. Contingency Coefficient Measure of Relationship Among Needs.

 

 

Item # X2 Item # X2 Item # X2
l. 2.04 8. 2.12 15. 2.95
2. 5.80 9. 2.18 16. 5.81
3. 5.57 10. 0.96 17. 6.35
4. 10.31* 11. 1.16 18. 0.98
5. 4.94 12. 0.68 19. 1.27
6. 7.41 13. 4.53 20. 8.66
7. 19.06* 14. 1.59 22. 4.46

 

* Significant at .05 level. df = 4; a .05 = 9.50

 

Two needs (Learn skills in reading, writing, speaking, and
listening; and, Learn how to examine and use information), were identi-
fied as having ranks which differed significantly at the .05 level of
confidence, which means that staff, parents, and students differed
significantly in their placement of these two needs. An examination
of Table 9 shows the derivation of chi square for these two needs and
indicates where the difference lies.

In each case, it was the student group that disagreed with
the staff and parent group. The need to learn how to examine and use
information received more high responses from staff and parents, while
the need to learn basic skills received a considerably lower frequency
of response from students.

As discussed previously, this difference between groups cannot
be inferred to mean a lack of interest in the specific need on the part
of the student group, but it can serve to demonstrate a difference of

priority between the students and adult groups.

73

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 9. Chi Square Derivation of Need Items #4 and #7.
Need Item 4: Learn Skills in Reading, Writing, Speaking & Listening.
LOW MEDIUM HIGH
O-E 2 O-E

0 E E E E
Gr°up 1 6 6 o o o 4 8 13 2 25
(staff) ' ' ' ° ’
Group 2
(students) 6 3.0 3.0 2.4 6.6 3.21
Group 3
(parentS) 3 6.0 1.5 H 4.8 13.2 .59
Need Item 7: Learn How to Examine and Use Information.

LOW MEDIUM HIGH
O-E 2 O-E 2 0-E

0 E E 0 E
GP°UP 1 3 5 5 1 14 5 2 1 97 19 13 2 2 55
(Staff) 6 o o o o o
Gr°up 2 4 2 8 51 2 6 7 45 1 6 6 4 75
(students) ’ ' ' ' ' '
Gr°up 3 7 5 5 41 5 2 28 13 13 2 00
(parents) ' ' ° ° ' '

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

74

Multivariate Analysis of Variance

One last inspection of the data was undertaken to determine
whether significant differences might be found about the means. Multi-
variate analysis of variance was chosen to accomplish this task for
three reasons. First, the computer facilities at Michigan State
University were available with a prepared program for this standard
research technique.1 Second, observed effects may be accepted with
reasonable confidence as not being due to outside or "nuisance" factors.
Third, such a design offers the potential for extended interpretative
capabilities.

A summary of the findings of the analysis is shown in Table
9. The F-ratio for the test of no difference among the twenty-two
needs was .8874. A p of less than .7257 was found. It may be con-
cluded that no difference exists among groups.

Statistically, the finding of no difference is the terminal
point in the analysis. Practically, however, the observation is offered
that needs four, seven, and twenty (Learn how to examine and use in-
formation; Learn skills in reading, writing, speaking, and listening;
Learn the value of multicultural experience) did achieve p-values that
were not only low, but were markedly different from all the others.
These bear a noteworthy relationship to the chi square values reported

on page 72.

 

1The program selected to analyze the data was Jeremy Finn,
Multivariance: Univariate and Multivariate Analysis of Variance,
Co-Variance and Regression (Fortran IV) 4th ed. (Buffalo: State
University of New York, June, 1968).

75

Table 10. Analysis of Variance Table for Differences Among Groups.

 

F-Ratio for Multivariate Test of Equality of Mean Vectors = .8874
D.F. = 88 & 136.9199; p Less Than .7257

 

Tests for differences among groups on student needs:

 

 

Need Mean a
Item Square Error F p<
1 3.2250 1.6395 1.1998 .3214
2 3.0667 1.3067 1.7959 .1428
3 2.4417 1.3872 1.2689 .2934
4 3.8583 1.2845 2.3384 .0666
5 1.2500 1.2904 .7507 .5619
6 .7750 1.6940 .2701 .8961
7 4.1833 1.1774 .0175 .0255
8 .4833 1.4142 .2417 .9135
9 .6250 1.3217 .3578 .8376
10 .2750 1.6129 .1057 .9801
11 .7250 1.2898 .4358 .7822
12 1.0833 1.3635 .5827 .6765
13 .3583 1.3932 .1846 .9455
14 .8083 1.2661 .5043 .7328
15 .2333 1.4832 .1061 .9800
16 1.9583 1.0829 .6699 .1702
17 .9333 1.4585 .4387 .7801
18 .3167 1.1248 .2503 .9083
19 .3583 1.2828 .2178 .9275
20 6.6417 1.3422 .6867 .0100
21 3.4000 1.4307 1.6610 .1723
22 1.7500 1.2957 .0424 .3939

 

.05

76

Unsolicited Responses

Is usable information received from individuals who have to re-
spond to a preordained list of statements? Based on the responses
on the open-ended portion of the survey instrument, it appeared that
the respondents understood the process. No comments were received
indicating a lack of clarity, but an examination of the comments that
were made may offer some insights about how the statement of needs
was interpreted. Initially, a summary of which groups volunteered

comments shows high student interest.

Table 11. Percentage of Voluntary Comments by Group.

 

Number of Number of

 

Group Returns Comments Percent
Administrators 12 l 8
Board Members 12 4 33
Parents 12 2 17
Students 12 8 67
Teachers 12; __2_ ]_7_
Total 60 17 28

 

Comments, reproduced exactly as written, were as follows:
Administrators
1. Out of twelve seniors sampled, nine indicated questions con-

cerning career choices and further education were the most
important unanswered questions for them.

77

Board Members

1. Adolescents, wherever they live, have most of these needs,
in my opinion. I have given five crosses to those needs
which may be of particular value to the overseas student.

Two other needs I would add are a greater need for security
and structure, available largely in family and school only
in a foreign culture, and a greater need to know another
language than his own.

2. The survey was difficult for me to answer. I find the
questions too strongly focused on social aspects or learning
experiences and substantially lacking on academic content
emphasis. I thought Dewey was dead!

3. In item "Understand and practice Democratic Ideas and Ideals",
a person must accept or learn about the responsibilities that
go with the rights and privileges of our American democracy.

4. Questions are put according to criteria of present educa-
tional community. I feel that our present technological
culture, reflected in our education, has so emphasized
specialization and compartmentation, that a special effort
should be made in our educational institutions to impart
the need always to relate to the whole. We need also an
understanding of selection of objectives; approaches to
problem solving; planning and action.

Parents

1. I agree generally with the questions--but do think you're
getting to the children about 10 years late.

2. Related to several of the above but worthy of specific men-
tion is the importance of learning the foreign languages
that overseas living exposes the student to. This is the
key to many other things, yet many American teenagers over-
seas tend to live in "American Ghettos" which effectively
insulate them from the local culture, language, and value
system.

Some items are rated low not because they are seen as unim-
portant but because they seem to be almost automatic and
need little special attention. All items seem important.
Those rated lowest seem to take care of themselves fairly
well.

78

Students
1.

I don't think it is possible to be an American! You must do
what you think or believe to be right, regardless of where
you come from.

It is absolutely impossible to understand or practice democracy
in a private school. For a private school is based upon the
'reserve the right,’ idea. The majority does not rule what

so ever. Thus in light of this, students become more disillu-
sioned with the system of democracy. Instead they are more
likely to become more aware of the way the school (private)

is run or set up--dictatorship or totalitarian, possibly
communism-~certainly not democratic.

Somehow, I don't feel that "temporary warm friendships" will
be a gain. I believe that any friendship suffers in parting
and once at the level of warm can't or shouldn't be "temporary".

Under the statement Learn how to be a good manager of money,
property and resources, the need statement "Develop skills
in management of natural and human resources" is highly im-
portant in today's world. I feel that students in overseas
schools should be made more aware of this. If this were a
separate statement I would give it five marks.

I think that "understanding of the process of successful
entrance and attendance in college" is very important for
higher secondary students. As a senior, I would like to see
this listed as a separate point.

In an American school overseas, tact is a very important
factor of international living. Di lomac might be the
correct word. You have to be willing to accept the other
person's opinions without making him feel too different. If
he acts differently, you have to take it as it is and not
laugh or chide. That's what makes life overseas so interest-
ing and meeting new people so exhilarating.

Also, it's important to mix in with everybody and not stick
with one group or clique. If you stay with your own kind, (be
it the same nationality, religion, or interests) you rarely
get to meet those wonderful people around you.

In the foreign countries I have lived, the native people have
been very receptive and friendly. This friendliness is some-
times taken advantage of by foreigners and in time, develops
the arrogant American.

79

6. Develop working knowledge of parliamentary procedure or other
form of group decision making.

Develop active interest and awareness of religious differences
(as well as cultural).

7. These answers ought to vary from country to country and in
each country, from person to person. I answered in my opinion
though I feel that other people in this high school may feel
other things are more important. For example, new people
here would probably find language is their obstacle where I
have lived here long enough to be fluent in I'm
basically worried about how to readjust to the American style
of living independently.

is a fairly easy country for Americans to adjust
to since it's easy to feel close to the people here. Many
of this country's problems are similar to those in the U.S.
I'm mostly concerned about how the impact of returning to my
home country will affect me.

 

One question that may prove useful to a survey such as this
one would be: What is your main obstacle in your overseas
country.

8. What Americans must realize is that they will not be exalted
among other people of the world. What many of us (Americans)
don't realize is that not everything American is necessarily
good. One can appreciate the value of an experience--such
as living abroad--more than the average American student can
appreciate the institutions he participates in. Living
abroad is good if one keeps his Americanism in perspective
and takes some insights as to why democracy doesn't exist in
every country of the world.

Teachers

1. Most interesting! Great perception has been shown in this
survey.

2. Become as fluent as possible in at least one foreign language.

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction

Historically, the end of World War II heralded a new era--
an era characterized by change. While change had always been a part
of human society, what was new and different was the rapidity of
change. Whereas telecommunications could bring people together in
one instant, jet transportation could separate them again in the next.
The direct influence of colonialism declined and in its place new
nations struggled with their independence and self-identity. Techni-
cal and economic assistance flowed from developed countries, serving
to midwife the arrival of newly born nations. Industrial organiza-
tions seized fresh opportunities to market their products across
international boundaries. A mass of people, glacier-like, broke free
and became an avalanche of movement.

In their concern about gross national product, import-export
balance, trade agreements, political and ideological advantage, nations
sent their representatives to new and different lives throughout the
world. Almost unnoticed in the sudden shift was the fact that transient
people brought along with them their families. What happens to the

dependents of the Japanese automaker who moves from Tokyo to Tucson?

80

81

To the family of the Venezuelan oil man moving from Maracaibo to Man-
hattan? To Americans severing traditional ties with Tahoe for Taipai?

The author of this study sought answers to such questions,
though on a far less grandiose scale. The direction that the research
took was based upon the logic that those people who leave the familiarity
of their native environment might be expected to have a different set
of behavioral needs than if they had remained at home and different
from those people indigenous to the country of their new residence.

One way of addressing the questions, “What happens to de-
pendents?" and, "Do they have special needs?" would be to investigate
one small segment of that population. The author observed that in the
case of Americans assigned overseas, they not only take along their
families, but, in effect, their schools go along too. In the Ameri-
can tradition of child-rearing, the schools share in the responsibility
of the children's upbringing. It seemed reasonable, then, to use the
schools as a means of studying one portion of the overseas population--

the students--and to investigate their needs.

Summar

To establish a sample, respondents were chosen from among
those residing throughout the world, which was divided into five geo-
graphic regions. To reduce the possibility of responses being dis-
torted by environmental or school considerations, sites were geographi-
cally far apart within each of the five regions and schools were equally

distributed according to size. To determine who might best be

82

conversant with students and their needs, five groups of people were
deemed most likely candidates:

l. School administrators, whose job it is to build a program
around the needs of students.

2. Board of education members, who determine policies in view
of student needs.

3. Parents of students.
4. Students themselves.

5. Teachers, whose prime function is based upon an understanding
of individual needs.

A search of the literature uncovered little research related
to the needs of overseas school-attending youth. Concurrence among
researchers as to a definition of needs was not found, but most gener-
ally needs have been used interchangeably with educational goals.

Phi Delta Kappa was found to have a current and well-tested goals
assessment process which included eighteen basic statements defining
educational goals. An additional set of four needs was identified by
administrators presently assigned to overseas schools. The combined
total of twenty-two needs was circulated among the lOO selected re-
spondents, who were requested to indicate their preferences through

a paring process that resulted in a five point Likert-type scale.
Respondents from thirteen of the twenty schools (65 percent) replied.
Four of the replies omitted survey documents from one of their re-
spondents, while one respondent's return was rejected for failure to
follow directions. The resulting number of usable documents amounted

to sixty (twelve each from five groups) or a 60 percent response.

83

The concern of the author was not to determine whether stu-
dents have needs, but rather with the relative importance that indivi-
duals place on specific needs within a preordained needs system. Such
importance would seemingly be reflected in a priority ranking of needs
from more important to less important. What had been anticipated was
that there would, indeed, be differences of opinion; that the differences
would be reflected in a high priority placement of the needs within the
overseas dimension and that student opinions would vary markedly from
the four other groups.

Mean ratings were used to rank needs in degrees of more and
less importance. It was found that, in general, there was concurrence
among the groups in the separation between more and less important.
Despite the overall agreement in ranking, it was noted that there were
differences between groups in the priority given to certain needs, as
for example, the students' ranking tenth what the total group placed
third; the students' ranking in a tie for first what the total group
considered seventh and ninth; or the parents' ranking sixteenth what
the others put last. Other inter-group discrepancies were visible as
when the students listed first what the administrators placed sixteenth
and the teachers placed tenth. To test the significance of the observed
differences, the most robust test applied was the multivariate analysis
of variance. No statistical difference was found at the .05 level of
confidence.

To determine whether there was a difference across groups, a

chi square test was applied to the frequency of the low, medium and high

84

responses given by staff, student, and parent groups. Students rated
the need to learn skills in reading, writing, speaking, and listening
significantly lower than the staff and parent groups. On the other
hand, staff and parents rated the need to learn how to examine and
use information significantly higher than students.

The matter of whether students as a group differed from the
other four groups was examined by means of the Spearman rhg_formula.
A true relationship, that is, concurrence of opinion, was found at
the .01 level of confidence.

The twenty-two needs could be conveniently divided into five
groupings called, "dimensions," i.e., academic, socio-political, per-
sonal, overseas, and management. When listed by rank, concurrence
occurred except that administrators ranked the overseas dimension
lower (fifth) than the other groups, while the students ranked it
higher (third). A one—way analysis of variance was applied to the
dimensional rankings. No significant differences were found.

From the various rankings which were observed there appeared
to be differences among the groups, but when statistical tests were
applied, no differences were found using the .05 level of confidence.
Some doubt remains about the differences observed in three of the
needs:

Learn skills in reading, writing, speaking and listening.

Learn how to examine and use information.

Learn the value of multi—cultural experience.

85

Students did differ perceptibly from the other groups in their rating
of these three needs. Explanation of the apparent discrepancy might

be attributable to the ranking process itself which forces choice with-
out allowing the respondents to specify the degree of importance

they place on their choices.

Conclusions

l. The overriding conclusion that must be reached is that,
at the .05 level of confidence and among the five groups used in this
study, there is no statistically significant difference in the rank-
ing of student needs. A finding of no statistical difference, of
course, is a positive finding, hence the study might be terminated
at this point with the simple statement that there is no difference.
Yet, it may be anticipated that the weight of contrary expectations
to the finding calls for some discussion of the question, "Why was
there no difference?"

2. On the basis of the so-called "generation-gap" alone,
one might have expected that students should have differed consider-
ably from the adults. Open to doubt, however, is the validity of the
existence of a generation-gap. The fact that students did, in general,
agree with adults might well call into question whether, in the over-
seas setting, such a "gap" exists. In conversations with overseas
administrators prior to the start of this study, the author found that
they were willing to predict that any study of overseas school—attending

high school youth would uncover two all-pervasive concerns. One would

 

86

relate to the students' deep worry about returning to permanent resi-
dence in the United States. The other would be their compelling
anxiety about being accepted into college and their fear of adjusting
to its rigors once accepted. The evidence from this study clearly
indicates neither of these needs to be of significant priority.

If the finding of no significance is to be doubted, perhaps
the first place to look is at the research method. It is to be re-
iterated that from the sample and size of response no statistical in-
ferences about a larger population may be drawn. What has been
reported can only be looked upon as a measure of the opinions of the
respondents. The size of the response, however, points to a warning
that must be given to subsequent researchers who may wish to work with-
in the same or a similar milieu. The problem of having to depend
upon the mail is intense. Textbooks persistently warn researchers of
their being overly-optimistic about responses, but in the instance of
this study, the personal assurance on the part of the overseas adminis-
trators of their desire to participate, went beyond a cursory non-
commital agreement. They do want to have some data to assist in their
judgments. As specific examples of the mail problems, three vignettes
apply:

l. A letter was received from one of the administrators in the
sample two weeks after the data had been analyzed. In it
was his voting summary sheet and an explanation that the re-
search packet, originally mailed from the United States on

April 22nd, did not reach him until June 20th when school
had closed.

87

2. One of the respondents is a close personal associate of the
researcher of twenty-five years standing. He is one of the
many who encouraged this particular study. It is incompre-
hensible that his school's response has not been forthcoming
for lack of interest.

3. A medical officer in the United States Department of State,
whose responsibility it is to work with overseas youth, sent
an appeal through the diplomatic pouch (which is notorious
for its delay) to non-respondents offering his support to
this study and urging quick response. Neither he nor the
author has yet to receive replies.

Thus, while the response was less than anticipated there is no reason
to reject the finding of no difference.

3. The research instrument itself and the ranking process may

have affected the results, but it would be conjectural to say whether
such affect may have been positive or negative. Some discussion of

the instrumentation may be helpful.

Based upon the unsolicited responses on the open-ended por-
tion of the survey instrument, it appeared that the respondents
understood the process. No comments were received indicating lack
of clarity, but an examination of the remarks that were made may
offer some insights about how the statement of needs was viewed.
Interpretations or judgments related to the specific comments them-
selves are left to the reader. Insofar as they help in an evaluation
of the survey instrument, three observations can be made. First, the
need to learn a foreign language received an almost subliminal place-
ment on the survey form as part of the larger need to appreciate
beauty and culture in the world. In view of the fact that most of

the respondents are living in a country wherein English is not the

88

official language, the need to know that language is a pragmatic
problem. It would seem safe to assume that had language learning
received greater emphasis through its placement on the form, it may
have been given a high priority. Second, there was some indication
that since all of the needs were important, some individuals may have
rated the needs on the basis of how well they were being met rather
than how important they were, e.g., "Some items are rated low not be-
cause they are seen as unimportant but because they seem to be almost
automatic and need little special attention." Third, some of the
items listed as "similar" needs beneath the principal needs statements
may not have been seen as amplifying but rather as distorting.

Whether or not the survey instrument itself created problems
of response is unclear. Lacking any specific critical comments to
the contrary, the instrument will be assumed as having been adequate
to appraise student needs.

4. It must be borne in mind that although four specific needs
were designed to be particularly appropriate to overseas residence,
the other eighteen were designed specifically for Stateside use. It
is not inconceivable that some of the eighteen, looked at from the
overseas perspective, could lead to misinterpretation. It should also
be noted that the PDK assessment process calls for group meetings to
discuss the implications of the statements as well as to gain general
agreement of meaning of the similar needs before any of the paring
Vtakes place. As an example, the two lowest ranked needs were: To

Practice and Understand the Ideas of Health and Safety, and to Develop

 

89

Skills to Enter a Specific Field of Work. Of the former it will be
noted that the intended explanatory needs suggest effective physical
fitness programs, and a concern for public health and safety, which
may appear to have~their end in galvanizing community action. Ameri-
cans, as guests in foreign countries, do not exert influence on
community action which might be interpreted as interfering in local
affairs. A low priority on the health and safety need, therefore,
should not imply that Americans are unconcerned about health-~espec-
ially diseases; or safety--specifically as it might apply to political
turmoil. During the course of this study, for example, the school

in Vientiane, Laos, was closed following the shake-up of the coalition
government by the Pathet Lao. Three years ago, a coup resulted in the
closing of the school in Kampala, Uganda. Even as this is being
written, political unrest has brought about fighting and/or death in
such cities as Athens, Beirut, and Tehran. Health and safety, as
described on the form may be quite different from the health and
safety as understood by the overseas residents.

In like manner, preparation for entering a specific field of
work as it appears on the survey form suggests that employment is an
immediate goal upon the completion of high school. Matriculation in
college is more of an immediate goal for overseas youth than specific
work. Not so much what will be studied at college as getting into
college is what counts. The danger of misinterpretation lies in
equating lack of interest in specific work with the importance of

career education. In view of current Stateside interest, as well as

90

emphasis from the Department of Health, Education and Welfare, it is
appropriate to suggest that low priority given to both the need to
prepare for a specific field of work as well as the need to gain in-
formation needed to make job selections, might be contrary to the
purposes of the A/OS requirement that the overseas schools be exemplars
of current United States educational thinking and practices. More
importantly it could be evidence of the postponement of career con—
siderations that will not become easier in college. The low priority
of this need might well be one of those items that "seem to be almost

automatic and need little special attention." But do they?

Recommendations

1. Subsequent researchers should give consideration to
alternate methods of collecting data other than by mail. Visitations
are costly and would require special underwriting. Should the use of
the mail be the only alternative, an extended time line would be ad-
visable. Again, it can be costly, but telephone follow-ups would
serve to improve results. Another practical suggestion would be to
include in all contacts a form, to be returned to the researcher, to
indicate that the research materials have been received.

2. Consideration ought to be given to another refinement of
the modified PDK process used in this study. Other systems of assess-
ment, modified for overseas use, would also be acceptable. Specifically,

the methods proposed by Coffing1 or by Hoepfner2 would work well but

 

1Coffing, A Needs Analysis Methodology.

2Hoepfner, National Priorities.

91

have improved chances for success when the researcher directs them
personally on site.

3. In view of the rate of turnover in the overseas schools,
A/OS ought to conduct or contract to have conducted cyclical repeti-
tions of an assessment of student needs.

4. The process and findings of this study could have valu‘
able application at each of the l39 A/OS-assisted schools, if the
ischool personnel would use the material for their own assessment of
their students' needs. Those wishing to conduct such an appraisal

will find the Costar follow-up study plan4

ideal. Particularly
appropriate would be not just the delineation of needs, but the dele-
gation of the responsibility of meeting those needs that could be
just as well accomplished by others as by the school. In the final
analysis, the investigation of student needs, the establishment of
goals, the assignment of groups to be responsible for analyzing and
meeting the needs, would have the wholesome effect of focusing
attention on the students with the consequent hope that plans would

evolve from such a coordinated effort that would fill a void that

now exists.

General Implications

In a social science research effort, it is sometimes difficult

to determine what is a proper balance between statistical and practical

 

3Costar, The Follow-up_Study.

 

92

significance. In this present study, the author found little statis-
tical significance, other than high correlation of opinion both with-
in and among the five groups. A statistician might stop at that
point. Yet, there is the possibility that too great an adherence to
statistical procedures might obscure some signposts that could well
point the way to meaningful observations of a practical nature or
could suggest areas of additional study.

In a post hoc review of the data, the author compiled a
series of comparative rankings which can be found in Appendix D.3
The discovery, in the original design, of concurrence of opinion among
groups lead to the question of whether that agreement would hold up in
schools of different sizes and/or different proportions of American
and non-American enrollment. Schools with the highest proportion of
United States student enrollment (Tehran, 100%; London, 95%; Athens,
87%; Singapore, 85%; Buenos Aires, 76%) and the highest proportion of
non-United States student enrollment (San Salvador, 74%; Manila, 52%;
Brasilia, 50%; Mexico City, 48%; Jakarta, 47%) were chosen for further
examination. Since students and administrators had the lowest level
of concurrence (see page 64), they were tested by means of the Spearman

rho formula. It was found that, at the .05 level of confidence, students

 

4Following the completion of the statistical analysis, partial
returns from two schools were received with notes stating that the
missing documents would be forthcoming. Complete returns were received
from another school. All usable returns were added to the originals
and a new computation was completed. The additions did not alter any
of the original findings as reported in Chapter IV.

93

agreed with students (r = .74; t-statistic = 4.97) and administrators
agreed with administrators (r = .52; t-statistic = 2.39), but in a
comparison between students and administrators a difference occurred.
Whereas there was a significant correlation of opinion between the
students and administrators in those schools with the highest non-
United States student enrollment (r = .50; t-statistic = 2.59),

there was no significant correlation between students and adminis-
trators in schools with the highest proportion of United States
student enrollment (r = .35; t-statistic = l.69).

Table l2. Comparison of Students and Administrator Groups in

Schools with Highest U.S. and Highest Non-U.S.
Enrollment.

 

Highest U.S. Enrollment Highest Non-U.S. Enrollment r t-statistic ,

 

 

 

 

 

Administrators Administrators .52 2.392
Students Students , .74 4.969
Students vs.
Administrators .50 2.586
Students vs.
Administrators .35 l.686
df = 20 .05 = 2.086

 

The immediate inference to be drawn might well be that the
greater the United States student population, the more likelihood there
will be that the relationships among individuals will approximate that
of Stateside schools where differences of opinions may be expressed

more openly.

94

Implications for Overseas
School Administrators

A further analysis of the data using additional statistical
methods might uncover, as shown immediately above, some significant
differences. In the end, however, each school leader is going to
have to decide how the evidence provided by this study will have
practical application to the uniqueness of his/her individual school.
The author has advanced the argument that diversity of operations
and imposition of outside constraints renders each school different
from others, yet he uses normative data to measure the diversity.
The obvious contradiction may be explained by the fact that neither
the schools themselves nor their administrations have been assessed.
What is suggested is that the very ambiguities of operation, dis-
tinctions of pressures and differing styles of administration are
precisely the factors that must be considered at each school--if
student needs are to be met. Thus, a problem arises if students
consider important (as they did) the need to "learn how to respect
and get along with people who think, dress and act differently,"
while, at the same time, they are residing in a culture that tends
to reject that same value as being an intrusion on their desire for
separateness. On the other hand, a nation that seeks to embrace
strangers, desiring to encourage cross-cultural interaction would be
rendering a valuable assist to the schools attempting to meet this

specific student need.

95

Each school leader might seek to analyze the concept of
whether perceptions of the perceivers came about as a result of their
role or their observations. Did they report what they felt, or what
they thought others expected them to feel? Perceptions do not necessar-
ily predict behavior. Teachers who rank first the need to "learn how
to examine and use information," might well be expressing more the ex-
pectations of their role as teachers than a. real need of students.
Likewise, parents who rank first the need to "learn skills in reading,
writing, listening and speaking," might be reflecting their own inter-
est in basic skills and their own desire for their students' matricula-
tion in college than they are expressing what is an actual student
need. Subsequent study of the material presented in this research
might call for a delineation that would separate perceived needs from

accomplished needs. An example:

 

 

 

 

. 1;, 2 3 4 5
Should be,
Learn How to Adjust to a Mobile Life ‘
Is r
Should be
Learn How to Use Leisure Time
Is ;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The relationship of perceptions based upon role can be examined
by comparing those needs in which there was a difference in preference
of more than one mean score and analyzing the widest discrepancy of
opinion within that need. In the present study, eight such needs were

identified.

96

 

Need Adminis- Board
Item trators Members Parents Students Teachers
l 3.00 l.67
2 2.92 4.08
3 2.25 3.42
4 4.33 2.75
7 2.75 4.l7
20 2.25 4.08
2l 4.l6 2.83
22 3.75 2.75

 

It may be observed that board of education members differed
from the others only on one need. That disagreement was greatest with
students on the need to “learn how to respect and get along with
people who think, dress and act differently. Students deal, on a day
to day basis, with new and different people, cultures and environments.
It is to be expected that they would have a high degree of concern about
adjustment. Board members, in their daily non-board activities, are
more likely to be working with the status quo--with people much like
themselves in job orientation. Thus board members rate higher the
need to get along with people with whom they work.

Administrators differed from the other groups in their per-
ceptions of two needs. These differences were most extreme with the
students. In the case of the need to "learn how to be a good citizen,"
the administrators considered it more important than did the students,
but the students rated the need to "learn the value of a multi-cultural
experience," higher than the administrators. These choices, from the
viewpoint of role, would indicate that the administrators, in preparing
students for American citizenship, might minimize the need for a multi-

cultural experience. The students, who spend so much of their lives

97

beyond the boundaries of the United States, do not necessarily feel
the same attachment to America that the administrators do. Periodic
return to the United States by the students may be insufficient to
establish a strong sense of American identity. Their rotation among
other nations, or even their lengthy residence in the same country,
brings about a need to adjust to different cultures. Students may
assume their Americanism, therefore, they place greater importance
on their interaction with peoples among whom they rotate.

The teachers' areas of greatest disagreement were two-~one
with parents on the need to "learn about and try to understand changes
that take place in the world," and with students on the need to
"learn how to examine and use information.“ The disparity between
the parents and teachers is understandable in terms of the parents
wanting to have their children reflect what the parents liked about
the United States. This is a past-orientation. The teachers are apt
to be future-oriented in that what they teach has as much, if not
more, application in the future as the past. The difference between
the teachers and students is harder to reconcile unless it reflects
the teachers' concern with daily role.

Aside from those already discussed, three additional dis-
parate views between the students and the other groups were most
pronounced with parents. These were: (1) learn skills in reading,
writing, speaking and listening, (2) develop good character and self-
respect, and (3) gain a general education. In all three cases, par—

ents rated each need higher than did the students. Parents, living

98

overseas as a result of a job assignment, do not see their residence

as permanent. One day they do expect to return to the United States.
They also expect that their students will return to the United States
for college. Their immediate concern for college entrance is reflected
in their desire to have the schools be academically oriented. They
worry if the school is not accredited; they hope for high student
scores on the College Board exams. This is not to say that the
students are not similarly concerned. They simply place higher
priority on other, and perhaps more immediate, needs.

Other possibilities exist for understanding the fact that
students concurred more with teachers than administrators. Most ob-
vious would be that closer day-to-day relationships are possible be-
tween students and teachers. Generally, class loads in the overseas
schools are extremely low. Teachers have greater opportunity for
close interaction with students, hence greater individual attention
can be extended. On the other hand, overseas administrators are
known to have an unusually heavy responsibility for non-instructional
problems that steal time from their activities at school. Such dis-
tractions as teacher housing, procurement of visas and work permits,
long range requisition of supplies, meetings with local ministries,
as well as currency and language adaptations add a burden to the
administrators that keeps them from establishing close relationships
with students. The recruitment process of finding and importing
Stateside teachers is another factor that usurps extensive time.

One complete month's absence from the school is not unusual. In

99

deference to the administrators, it should be pointed out that even
though unusual distractions may keep them from building close direct
contacts with the students, the fact that teachers do have close
relationships might well be a reflection of the administrators'
success in absorbing and solving time-consuming problems that free
the teacher to spend time with students. The apparent result is
that teachers receive a higher correlation in a survey, but the
actual result is that administrative action provides, through the
teacher, for student needs to be met.

General concurrence of opinion among students, board mem-
bers and parents in the overseas setting is not unusual. Children,
at an early age, learn to associate well in adult groups. The
absence of college-aged Americans leaves peer groups and adults as
the principal option for teen-ager's association. The lack of
traditional American social outlets, especially the use of an auto-
mobile, reduces adolescent choices to participation in adult activi-
ties. The family unit tends to be closer with vacation and leisure
time being accepted as part of normal family living. Traditional
social and moral values characterize overseas American living. With
ties to adults closer than occurs in the United States, it is reason-
able to expect close correlation in the perception of needs.

One observation, previously made, must be reiterated. This
study was restricted to the assessment of overseas American high
school-aged students as perceived by Americans. The growing number

of non-United States students attending A/OS-assisted schools may have

 

99

deference to the administrators, it should be pointed out that even
though unusual distractions may keep them from building close direct
contacts with the students, the fact that teachers do have close
relationships might well be a reflection of the administrators'
success in absorbing and solving time-consuming problems that free
the teacher to spend time with students. The apparent result is
that teachers receive a higher correlation in a survey, but the
actual result is that administrative action provides, through the
teacher, for student needs to be met.

General concurrence of opinion among students, board mem-
bers and parents in the overseas setting is not unusual. Children,
at an early age, learn to associate well in adult groups. The
absence of college-aged Americans leaves peer groups and adults as
the principal option for teen-ager's association. The lack of
traditional American social outlets, especially the use of an auto-
mobile, reduces adolescent choices to participation in adult activi-
ties. The family unit tends to be closer with vacation and leisure
time being accepted as part of normal family living. Traditional
social and moral values characterize overseas American living. With
ties to adults closer than occurs in the United States, it is reason-
able to expect close correlation in the perception of needs.

One observation, previously made, must be reiterated. This
study was restricted to the assessment of overseas American high
school-aged students as perceived by Americans. The growing number

of non-United States students attending A/OS-assisted schools may have

100

an impact on the methods that will be required to meet the needs of
United States students. The curriculum may have to be expanded to
include more planning to account for host country and third country
students' needs. The exclusive concern with entrance into United
States colleges may have to be modified to include entrance into
host country colleges. Lack of interest in preparation for specific
work, which persistently ranked lowest in this study, may have to be
re-considered in view of some of the HCN's desire to enter their own
labor market immediately upon graduation. What will have to occur
will be a regular review of American student needs, as well as the
needs of others, and careful consideration of precisely what student
needs are the direct and sole responsibility of the schools and what

needs can be more appropriately assumed by others.

Theoretical Considerations

In the introduction to Future Shock, Toffler discusses the
difficulty of making credible and/or acceptable his predictions about
the future:

The inability to speak with precision and certainty about the
future, however, is no excuse for silence. Where 'hard data'
are available, of course, they ought to be taken into account.
But where they are lacking, the responsible writer--even the
scientist--has both a right and an obligation to rely on other
kinds of evidence, including impressionistic or anecdotal data
and the opinion of well-informed people.5

He suggests that it might be more important to be imaginative

and insightful than to be one hundred percent right. "Theories do

 

5Toffler, Future Shock, p. 5.

 

101

not have to be 'right' to be enormously useful. Even error has its
uses."6

The writer of this present study has felt similar pangs of
concern since so much of the information about overseas schools is
more opinionated than factual. Useem puts it another way in the pre-
face to her Third Culture Children: An Annotated Bibliography:

The bibliography is spotty, but it is not because we haven't
tried. Much of it has come from circuitous routes--ranging
from magazines left in airports to trying to gather proceed-
ings of conferences held in out-of-the-way places. Most of
the pertinent material in this area simply has not been pub-
lished--it remains buried in the memories of individuals,
penned in diaries and letters, written in term papers, dittoed
in school board minutes, and filed in reports to home offices,
or recorded in the privileged notes of psychiatrists and psy-
chologists.

In this brief statement, Useem has summarized a fundamental
problem encountered by those who seek to understand something about
the lives of adolescents living beyond the boundaries of the United
States. There simply is no central source of information. Yet in
casual conversations, personal letters, and conferences among over-
seas educators, a common concern is regularly reiterated: How and
when will some arrangement be made to provide some basic data that
will assist those who must plan and make sound judgments about the
needs of overseas American youth?

Presently, the schools offer the sole source of information,

but each school is unique. Its operation is so dominated by local

 

51mm, p. 6.

7Useem, Third Culture Children, p. i.

102

conditions that comparative analysis about how it meets its students'
needs is at best abstruse. The very uniqueness of the schools ren~
ders questionable comparative judgments about its clientele. An
enigma is evident--those interested in developing the schools'
potential for meeting student needs seek pertinent information that
might assist them in organization and planning, yet they are quick
to point out that their dissimilar problems prevent comparative
appraisal.

Hoepfner, et al., faced a similar dilemma in reporting
their National Priorities for Elementary Education:

The authors assumed that the more piecemeal approach to
analysis, both more feasible and understandable, would not
fail to uncover the major findings of interest to educa-
tors. While this belief is still held, sophisticated re-
searchers may question the comprehensiveness of the reported
findings.

Bearing in mind Toffler's, Useem's, and Hoepfner's observa-
tions that what data exist are hard to come by, that what does exist
ought to be presented and relied upon despite reservations that may
be raised by sophisticated researchers, the author presented his
findings and analyses not as absolute differences nor similarities
in needs preferences, but rather as a base for consideration of the

relationships among rhetorical, theoretical, and observable needs.

More than anything, it represents a beginning.

 

8Hoepfner, National Priorities, p. 65.

APPENDIX A

STUDENT POPULATION DISTRIBUTIONS
AND ENROLLMENT

103

 

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APPENDIX B

CORRESPONDENCE AND DIRECTIONS
SENT TO RESPONDENTS

106

TO : AAIE CONFEREES FROM OVERSEAS SCHOOLS 02/19/75

FROM : T. F. Kelly (Former Superintendent, ACS, Monrovia, Liberia;
Presently Ph.D. Candidate, MSU)

SUBJECT: Needs Assessment of American Students in A/OS Schools

If you would like to contribute just one idea to a proposal that could
provide you with some data that would have impact on your future plan-
ning, please read on. It should only take about two or three minutes
of your time.

I am preparing a study designed to assess the future needs of high school
students who are dependents of U.S. citizens and attending A/OS-assisted
schools. To accomplish this goal I will use the Delphi Technique in the
following way:

I. AAIE Conferees representing overseas schools will write what they
feel to be the single most important high school student need to
be met in the next five years.

2. A composite list of these suggestions will be sent to a stratified
sample of A/OS—assisted schools.

3. The list will be refined and voted upon twice and, in the end, we
will have a ranked list of the views of administrators, teachers,
parents, students, and board members that will forecast the needs
of one segment of your school population.

It is assumed that the finished list will be a valuable tool as you plan
the future of your school. I'll be around during the conference to
answer any questions you may have, but for now, won't you please com-

plete the following statement?
Thanks,
9%
Tom Kelly

(Return to me or to A/OS Headquarters Room 548, Statler Hilton)

Like students everywhere, high school-aged dependents of U.S. citizens
living overseas, have specific needs. Among the needs of the overseas
students attending A/OS-assisted high schools, the one most important
need that must be singled out for attention during the next five years
(l975-l980) will be to . . .

 

 

 

(Title of Your Present School Role, e,g,,
Superintendent, Principal, Board Member)

Check the region in which your school is located:
____Africa; .___ Europe; ___NESA; ____E. Asia; ____Cent/So. Amer.

107

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

Institute for International Studies East Lansing .‘Michigan

College of Education 48824 - USA

April 22, l975
Dear

I can't believe that two months have gone by since we
spoke together in Dallas!

As you will recall when we discussed my proposal to
appraise the needs of American kids in the overseas schools, I
said that I would have material waiting for you when you returned
home from the AAIE conference. Several problems came up that
necessitated a change in the research design--but not in the
topic.

The result is that there will now be a lot less for you
to do than we originally agreed upon, but the resulting delay
threatens the completion of the study on schedule.

You can bail me out if you can get this survey instru-
ment to the respondents and back to me as fast as possible. It's

asking a hell of a lot, I know, but you can't imagine how grate-
ful I will be if you can come through for me.

Appreciatively,
,7” %W J’%

Thomas F. Kelly

108

DIRECTIONS TO CHIEF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS
FOR DISTRIBUTION AND RETURN OF SURVEY INSTRUMENTS

First of all, let me remind you that my goal is to appraise the needs
of overseas American high school-aged students by soliciting the opin-
ions of administrators, board members, parents, students and teachers.
To accomplish this, Americans have to be the respondents.

To select the subjects, proceed as follows:

1.

Enclosed are five envelopes, the contents of which are the same
except for color coding. One is addressed to you. The others

are for the: l) Board of Ed chairman, 2) President of your PTO
or like group, 3) President of your teachers' association, and

4) President of the senior class.

If each group exists at your school and is headed by an American,
you simply have to get the envelopes out to the proper people
and urge their quick return to you for mailing.

If non—Americans are leaders, select the next ranking person who
is American.

In the absence of organizations representing the named groups,
proceed as follows. To get a:

Parent--Select one who has demonstrated the most consistent
and cooperative concern for high school kids and the school.

Teacher--Choose one from the high school (9-12) whose
experience in overseas education, in your judgment, quali-
fies that person as being most aware of the needs of U.S.
kids.

Student--Pick an American senior in any student-elected
position, or the senior who, you feel, is the outstanding
spokesman for the students.

None of the respondents should be related.

Collect both the "Voting Summary Sheet," and the "Statement of
Needs," instruments from all the respondents, including your own,
and mail them to me in the enclosed envelope.

I don't anticipate that selection of the respondents will be difficult,
but urging their prompt response, collecting the survey forms, and
getting them to me will be the biggest imposition on your time. I can
only hope your enthusiasm for this project will excuse the last minute
pressure. My thanks!

109

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

 

. Institute for International Studies East Lansing . Michigan

College of Education 48824 - USA

April 22. 1975

Dear

For a long time now, many of use who are vitally interested in
the needs of overseas students have often discussed among ourselves
the importance of actually finding out more about these students and
their needs. Unfortunately, vast distances and complex networks tend
:0 discourage the collection of the information that we would like to

ave. '

I am attempting to do something about the situation, if only in
a small way, by trying to determine what are the needs of American
high school-aged students who live overseas. To do so, I am asking
for the opinions of those, like yourself, who are in a position to
know the most about the subject. May I count on your help to assist
in this study?

The procedure is simple and should only take a few minutes of
your time. Attached is a Statement of Needs formulated by researchers
in California and modified by me to include suggestions Offered by
overseas school administrators. It has been used by thousands of
people, so is thought to be quite complete. Keep in mind that we are
concerned with the needs of adolescents. We are not trying to deter-
mine, in this study, whose responsibility it is to meet the needs.

You are asked to do four things:

1. Read the Directions for Completing the Needs Appraisal
Survey

2. Following the directions, express your opinion by checking
the appropriate boxes on the Statement of Needs form. Space
has been provided for you to add any needs that you think
may have been missed.

110

Page 2.

3. Transfer your choices to the Summary Voting Sheet.

4. Return the completed forms immediately to the administrator
who gave them to you. This is vital so that the returns get
back to me in time for inclusion in the study.

That's all there is to it! In the end, the results gathered from
around the world, can be of untold value to those who have to make de-
cisions that involve students.

Won't you take time, right now, to participate?

Sincerely yours,

$49 {1252/

Thomas F. Kelly

111

DIRECTIONS FOR COMPLETING THE NEEDS APPRAISAL SURVEY

Read the "Statement of Needs." As you read each need statement
carefully, read the similar needs listed beneath it. The similar
needs are important for understanding the need statement.

Place an "X" in the box labeled #1 for each statement that you
feel is important.

Reread the need statements. For the needs you believe to be
more important than those already marked, add an "X" in the
column labeled #2.

Read the need statements that have two (2) "X's" beside them.
For those needs that you believe to be much more important than
the others, place an "X" in the column labeled #3.

Read the need statements that have three (3) "X's" beside them.
For those needs you believe to be much more important than the
others, place an I'X" in the column labeled #4.

Read the need statements that have four (4) "X's" beside them.
For those needs you believe to be of extreme importance, place
an "X" beside them in the column labeled #5.

Review your choices and keep in mind the following:

a. At least one need statement must have five (5) "X's"
beside it.

b. It is not necessary for a need statement to have an
"X" beside it.

When you have completed all 22 need statements, transfer your
"X's" to the "Voting Summary Sheet." This will give you an
opportunity to rearrange your original choices if you wish and
will give you the chance to check for accuracy.

Return your completed "Voting Summary Sheet," and "Statement of
Needs," forms to the administrator who gave them to you. Time
is crucial, so please do your best to return the forms right
away.

APPENDIX C

NEEDS APPRAISAL INSTRUMENT AND
VOTING SUMMARY SHEET

112

STATEMENT OF NEEDS
OF AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOL-AGED STUDENTS
ATTENDING OVERSEAS SCHOOLS
(Not listed in any order of importance)

LEARN HOW TO BE A GOOD CITIZEN 1 2 ‘ 3 4 5

 

Such as: Develop an awareness of civ1c rights and responsibi11t1es.
Develop attitudes for productive citizenship in a democracy. Dev-
elop an attitude of respect for personal and public property.
Develop an understanding of the obligations and responsibilities
of citizenship.

LEARN HOW TO RESPECT AND GET ALONG 1 2 3 4 5

WITH PEOPLE WHO THINK, DRESS. AND ACT [:1 [:1 [:1 1:! [:1

DIFFERENTLY

Such as: Develop an appreciation for and an understanding of other
people and other cultures. Develop an understanding of political,
economic and social patterns of the rest of the world. Develop
awareness of the interdependence of races, creeds, nations, and
cultures. Develop an awareness of the processes of group rela-
tionships.

LEARN ABOUT AND TRY TO UNDERSTAND THE 1 2 3 4 5

CHANGES THAT TAKE PLACE IN THE WORLD [:1 [:1 [:3 1:] [:1

Such as: Develop ability to adjust to the changing demands of
society. Develop an awareness and the ability to adjust to a
changing world and its problems. Develop understanding of the
past, identify with the present, and ability to meet the future.

LEARN SKILLS IN READING, WRITING, 1 2 3 4 5

SPEAKING AND LISTENING [:1 [:1 [:1 I: [:1

Such as: Develop ability to communicate ideas and feelings
- effectively. Develop skills in oral and written English.

LEARN HOW TO ADJUST TO A MOBILE LIFE 2 3 4 5
Such as: Develop an understanding ofIE-ESIEJ process t at lea s tljo::I
frequent transfers. Develop techniques for living without a
feeling of permanence. Establish warm friendships that may be
temporary.

 

 

 

 

113

UNDERSTAND AND PRACTICE DEMOCRATIC 1 2 3 4 5
IDEAS AND IDEALS [III ! l I 1 LI J L__J

 

 

 

Such as: Develop loyalty to American democratic ideals. Develop
patriotism and loyalty to ideas of democracy. Develop knowledge
and appreciation of the rights and privileges in our democracy.
Develop an understanding of our American heritage.

LEARN HOW TO EXAMINE AND USE _1__ 2 3 4 5
INFORMATION L__1 | I I l l 1 l |

 

 

 

 

Such as: Develop ability to examine constructively and creatively.
Develop ability to use scientific methods. Develop reasoning
abilities. Develop skills to think and proceed logically.

UNDERSTAND AND PRACTICE THE SKILLS 1 2 3 4 5
OF FAMILY LIVING [:j} [“l [“l [“l [“1

Such as: Develop understanding and appreciation of the principles
of living in a family group. Develop attitudes leading to accept-
ance of responsibilities as family members. Develop an awareness
of future family responsibilities and achievement of skills in
preparing to accept them.

LEARN TO RESPECT AND GET ALONG WITH 1 2 3 4 5
PEOPLE WITH WHOM WE WORK AND LIVE IZZZ] I 1 I l L l L__J

 

 

Such as: Develop appreciation and respect for the worth and
dignity of individuals. Develop respect for individual worth

and understanding of minority Opinions and acceptance of majority
decisions. Develop a cooperative attitude toward living and
working with others.

UNDERSTAND THE PRESSURES OF BEING 1 2 3 4 5
AN AMERICAN IN A FOREIGN COUNTRY [:j} L__J [‘_j l 1 LE 1

 

 

 

Such as: Develop an understanding of the lack of privacy and/or
anonymity that comes with being an American. Develop an awareness
of the responsibilities of being seen as a representative of the
United States. Develop a knowledge of and willingness to follow
host country laws and customs.

DEVELOP SKILLS To ENTER A SPECIFIC 1 2 3 4 5
FIELD OF WORK l"'l F"l T-‘l [2:] [2:]

Such as: Develop abilities and skills needed for immediate employ-
ment. Develop an awareness of opportunities and requirements
related to a specific field of work. Develop an appreciation of
good workmanship.

 

 

114

LEARN HOW TO BE A GOOD MANAGER OF 1 3 4 5

2
MONEY, PROPERTY. AND RESOURCES [j I: [:1 CI [:1

Such as: Develop an understanding of economic principles and re-
sponsibilities. Develop ability and understanding in personal
buying, selling, and investment. Develop skills in management
of natural and human resources and man's environment.

DEVELOP A DESIRE FOR LEARNING NOW 1 2 3 4 5

AND IN THE FUTURE [:l [:1 [:1 [:1 C]

Such as: Develop intellectual curiosity and eagerness for life-
long learning. Develop a positive attitude toward learning.
Develop a positive attitude toward continuing independent education.

LEARN HOW TO USE LEISURE TIME l 2 3 4 5
DECIDE]
Such as: Develop ability to use leisure time productively.
Develop a positive attitude toward participation in a range of
leisure time activities--physical, intellectual, and creative.

Develop appreciation and interest which will lead to wise and
enjoyable use of leisure time.

DEVELOP SKILLS NEEDED FOR RE-ENTRY 4 5

1 2 3
TO LIVING IN THE UNITED STATES [:1 [:3 [:1 [:J [:1

Such as: Develop background to be able to adjust to social changes
occurring in the U.S. Develop knowledge of specific information
about current economic and political climate. Develop an under-
standing of the process of successful entrance and attendance in

co lege.

PRACTICE AND UNDERSTAND THE IDEA 5

1 2 3 4
OF HEALTH AND SAFETY 1:] 1:] E] II] [:1

Such as: Establish an effective individual physical fitness pro-
gram. Develop an understanding of good physical health and well
being. Establish sound personal health habits and information.
Develop a concern for public health and safety.

APPRECIATE CULTURE AND BEAUTY 1

2
IN THE WORLD [:2] [:1 l__3_I If] [53

Such as: Develop abilities for effective expression of ideas and
cultural appreciation (fine arts). Cultivate appreciation for
beauty in various forms. Develop creative self-expression through
various media (art, music, writing, £33,). Develop special talents
in music, art, literature, and foreign languages.

115

GAIN INFORMATION NEEDED TO MAKE 1

J 2 3
JOB SELECTIONS J l [I J I

4 5
I [oil I J

Such as: Promote self-understanding and self-direction in relation
to occupational interest. Develop the ability to use information
and counseling services related to the selection of a job. Develop,
a knowledge of specific information about a particular job. Develop
a knowledge of specific information about a particular vocation.

DEVELOP PRIDE IN WORK AND A 1 2 3 4 5
FEELING OF SELF-WORTH L, J L’l [ J J J I |

 

 

 

Such as: Develop a feeling of pride in achievements and progress.
Develop self-understanding and self-awareness. Develop a feeling
of positive self-worth, security, and self-assurance.

LEARN THE VALUE OF MULTI-CULTURAL 1 _ 2 3 4 5
EXPERIENCE L__J J J I _J l J L__J

Such as: Develop an understanding of the changing image of Ameri-
cans as perceived by non-Americans. Develop the ability to judge
people according to their standards and cultural mores. Develop
an awareness of the local culture by active participation in it.

DEVELOP GOOD CHARACTER AND 1 2
SELF-RESPECT I J [7:] L

 

3 5

4
JLJL]

Such as: Develop moral responsibility and a sound ethical and
moral behavior. Develop capacity to discipline self to work,
study, and play constructively. Develop a moral and ethical
sense of values, goals, and processes of free society.

 

GAIN A GENERAL EDUCATION 1 2 3 5
l J l l IT‘J [ J [’7]
Such as: Develop background and skills in the use of numbers,

natural sciences, math and social studies. Develop a fund of
information and concepts. Develop special interests and abilities.

4

 

OTHER

Please add any suggestions that you feel have been overlooked. Or
if you have any other comments that you would like to make, feel
free to do so.

When finished, please transfer your choices to the Summary Voting Sheet.

116

VOTING SUMMARY SHEET

Directions: Transfer to this sheet the choices you made on the State-
ment of Needs form by placing "X's" in the appropriate columns.

NEEDS STATEMENTS RATINGS
1 2 3 4 5

 

 

LEARN TO BE A GOOD CITIZEN

LEARN HOW TO RESPECT AND GET ALONG WITH PEOPLE
WHO THINK, DRESS, AND ACT DIFFERENTLY

LEARN ABOUT AND TRY TO UNDERSTAND THE CHANGES
THAT TAKE PLACE IN THE WORLD

LEARN SKILLS IN READING, WRITING, SPEAKING
AND LISTENING

LEARN HOW TO ADJUST TO A MOBILE LIFE

UNDERSTAND AND PRACTICE DEMOCRATIC IDEAS
AND IDEALS

LEARN HOW TO EXAMINE AND USE INFORMATION

UNDERSTAND AND PRACTICE THE SKILLS OF
FAMILY LIVING

LEARN TO RESPECT AND GET ALONG WITH PEOPLE
WITH WHOM WE WORK AND LIVE

UNDERSTAND THE PRESSURES OF BEING AN
AMERICAN IN A FOREIGN COUNTRY

DEVELOP SKILLS TO ENTER A SPECIFIC FIELD
OF WORK

LEARN HOW TO BE A GOOD MANAGER OF MONEY,
PROPERTY AND RESOURCES

DEVELOP A DESIRE FOR LEARNING NOW AND IN
THE FUTURE

LEARN HOW TO USE LEISURE TIME

DEVELOP SKILLS NEEDED FOR RE-ENTRY TO
LIVING IN THE U.S.

PRACTICE AND UNDERSTAND THE IDEAS OF HEALTH
AND SAFETY

APPRECIATE CULTURE & BEAUTY IN THE WORLD
GAIN INFORMATION NEEDED TO MAKE JOB SELECTIONS

DEVELOP PRIDE IN WORK & A FEELING OF
SELF-WORTH

LEARN THE VALUE OF MULTI-CULTURAL EXPERIENCE

DEVELOP GOOD CHARACTER AND SELF-RESPECT
GAIN A GENERAL EDUCATION

OTHER
As soon as completed, return forms to administrator who gave them to you.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX D

POST HOC DATA ANALYZING STUDENT AND
ADMINISTRATOR OPINIONS BY MEANS OF
THE SPEARMAN RANK-ORDER CORRELATION

117

RANKINGS BY ADMINISTRATORS
COMPARED WITH TOTAL SAMPLE

 

 

A B C 0
Need (N = 60) (N = 12) (N = 5) (N = 5)
Item Rank Rank Rank Rank
l 11.5 9 2 15*
2 7 8 10.5 l
3 10 10.5 13.5 11 5
4 3.5 4.5 l 5
5 20 21 20 21.5
6 13 10.5 3.5 21.5*
7 5 2 7.5 2.5
8 18 19 13.5 15
9 6 4.5 5.5 5
10 14 16.5 16 11.5
11 22 22 22 20
12 16 12 18 7.5*
13 3 5 2 5.5 7 5
14 15 15 16 18
15 17 20 20 18
16 21 12 10.5 9
17 11.5 12 9 18*
18 19 18 20 15
19 2 2 3.5 5
20 9 16 5 16 11.5*
21 l 6 7.5 2.5
22 8 7 12 11.5*
Column A = Composite Ranking of All Respondents.
Column B = Ranking by All Administrators.
Column C = Ranking by Administrators From Five Schools w/Highest
U.S. Enrollment (Tehran, 100%; London, 95%; Athens, 87%
Singapore, 85%; Buenos Aires, 76%).
Column 0 = Ranking by Administrators From Five Schools w/Highest

Non-U.S. Enrollment (San Salvador, 74%; Manila, 52%;
Brasilia, 50%; Mexico City, 48%; Jakarta, 47%).

*In statistical tests, Significant correlation of ranking was found.
Obvious observed differences, however, would seem to warrant further
analytic study not attempted in this present research.

118

SPEARMAN RANK-ORDER CORRELATION COMPARING
TWO GROUPS OF ADMINISTRATORS

 

 

 

 

Need (A) (B) 2
Item Test Criterion Diff. D
1 2 15 -13 169
2 10.5 1 9.5 90.25
3 13.5 11.5 2 4
4 1 5 -4 15
5 20 21.5 -1.5 2.25
5 3.5 21.5 -18 324
7 7.5 2.5 5 25
8 13.5 15 -1.5 2.25
9 5.5 5 .5 .25
10 15 11.5 4.5 20.25
11 22 20 2 4
12 18 7.5 10.5 110.25
13 5.5 7.5 -2 4
14 15 18 -2 4
15 20 18 2 4
15 10.5 9 1.5 2.25
17 9 18 -9 81
18 20 15 5 25
19 3.5 5 -1.5 2.25
20 15 11.5 4.5 20.25
21 7.5 2.5 5 25
22 12 11.5 5 .25
SD = o 202935.50
p = 1 - 5202 = 1 - 5513 = .4718

N(N -1) 10626

t = rho N-2 = .4718 22 - 2 = 2.39
‘/ 2
"rh° 1-.2225
df = 20
0.05 = 2.086
Column A = Ranking by Administrators From Five Schools
With the Highest U.S. enrollment.
Column B = Ranking by Administrators From Five Schools

With the Highest Non-U.S. enrollment.

119

RANKING WITH STUDENTS COMPARED
WITH COMPOSITE RANKING

 

 

A11 Highest Highest Diff.
Composite Students U.S. Enroll Non-U.S. Betw. 2
Need A B C D C & D 0
Item N = 60 N = 12 N = 5 N = 5
1 11.5 20 17 22 -5 25
2 7 1.5 2 2 O 0
3 10 6 6 5 1 1
4 3.5 10 9 8 1 l
5 20 12.5 15 9 5 5.5 30.25
6 13 14.5 9 l7 -8 64
7 5 10 12 7 5 25
8 18 18.5 17 17 O 0
9 6 5 9 3.5 5.5 30.25
10 14 12.5 13.5 14 -.5 .25
11 22 22 22 21 1‘ l
12 l6 l6 9 l7 -8 64
13 3.5 3 3 6 -3 9
14 15 17 13.5 11 5 2 4
15 17 14.5 19 17 2 4
16 21 21 20 20 O 0
17 11.5 7.5 21 9.5 11.5 132.25
18 19 18.5 17 17 O 0
l9 2 4 4.5 3.5 1 1
20 9 1.5 1 1 O O
21 1 7.5 9 13 -4 16
22 8 10 4.5 11.5 -7 ~49
ZD=O ZDZ=457
p = 1 - 5202 = 1 - 5 x 457 = .7420
N(N2-1) 22(484-1)
t = rho N-2 = .7420 22-2 = 4.969
1-rh02 1-.5506
df = 20

0.05 = 2.09

120

SPEARMAN RANK-ORDER CORRELATION COMPARING
STUDENT AND ADMINISTRATOR RANKINGS

In Schools With the Highest U.S. Enrollment

 

 

Need
Item Admin. Students Diff.
1 2 17 -15
2 10.5 2 8.5
3 13.5 5 7.5
4 1 9 -8
5 20 15 5
5 3.5 9 -5.5
7 7.5 12 -4.5
8 13.5 17 -3.5
9 5.5 9 -3.5
10 15 13.5 2.5
11 22 22 O
12 18 9 9
13 5.5 3 2.5
14 15 13.5 2.5
15 20 19 1
15 10.5 20 -9.5
17 9 21 -12
18 20 17 3
19 3.5 4.5 1
20 15 1 15
21 25 9 -1.5
22 12 4.5 7.5
zD=O
p = 1 - 5202 = 1 - 5 x 1145 = 1 - 5875 = .3529
N(N2-1) 10525 10525

t = rho N-2 = .3529 20 = 1.587
l-rhoz 1—.1245

Df = 20
0.05 = 2.086

.25
.25

.00

121

SPEARMAN RANK-ORDER CORRELATION COMPARING
STUDENT AND ADMINISTRATION RANKING

In Schools With the Highest Non-U.S. Enrollment

 

Need
Item Admin. Students Diff.
1 15 22 -7
2 1 2 -1
3 11.5 5 5.5
4 5 8 -3
5 21.5 9.5 12
5 21.5 17 4.5
7 2.5 7 -4.5
8 15 17 -2
9 5 3.5 1.5
10 11.5 14 -2.5
11 20 21 -1
12 7.5 17 -9.5
13 7.5 5 1.5
14 18 11 5 5.5
15 18 17 1
15 9 20 -11
17 18 9 5 8.5
18 15 17 -2
19 5 3 5 1.5
20 11.5 1 10.5
21 2.5 13 -1O.5
22 11.5 11 5 0
zD=O
p = 1 - 5202 = 1 - 6(885) = 1 - .4997 = .5003
N(N2-1) 10525
t "h° /————”‘2 2 = .5003 20 = 2.585
"rh° 1-.2503
Df = 20

0.05 = 2.086

 

42.25
20.25
20.25

2.25
6.25

90.25
42.25

 

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

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Bainbridge, John, Another Waygof Living; A Gallery of Americans
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Bloom, Benjamin 5., ed., Taxggomy of Educational Objectives Hand-
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Bode, Boyd H., Progressive Education at the Crossroads. New York:
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Brembeck, Cole S. and Hill, Walker H., Cultural Challenges in Educa~
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Childs, John L., Education and Morals. New York: Appleton-Century-
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Coffing, Richard T.; Hodson, William A., and Hutchinson, Thomas E.,
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122

123

Conant, James B., Slums and Suburbs. New York: McGraw Hill Book
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Costar, James W., The Follow-Up Study. East Lansing: Michigan State
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Derr, Richard L., A Taxonomy of Social Purposes of Public Schools.
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Educational Policies Committee, Education for All-American Youth.
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Engleman, Finis E., and Rushton, Edward W., American-Sponsored Over-
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Erickson, Erik H., Childhood and Society. New York: W. W. Norton
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Esman, Milton J., Needed: An Education apd Research Base to Support
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Gardner, John W., No Easy Victories. New York: Harper & Row, 1968.

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Guither, Harold, and Thompson, W. N., Mission Overseas: A Handbook
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Hahn, Robert 0., and Bidna, D.B., Secondary Education,,0rigins And
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Havighurst, Robert J., Human Develppment and Education. New York:
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124

Hoepfner, Ralph, National Priorities for Elementarnyducation. Los
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Hutchins, Robert M., The Higher Learning in America. New Haven:
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Jencks, Christopher, Inequality A Reassessment of the Effect of
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Krug, Edward, "Public High School, United States," The Encyclopedia
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Kvaraceus, William C., "The Behavioral Deviate in the Culture of the
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Luebke, Paul T., "American-Sponsored Overseas Schools Assisted by
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129

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Typed and Printed in the U.S.A.
Professional Thesis Preparation
Cliff and Paula Haughey

, , 144 Maplewood Drive
1 East Lansing. Michigan 48823
3' Telephone (617) 337-1627

 

  

Typed and Printed in the U.S.A.
Professional Thesis Preparation
Cliff and Paula Haughey

144 Maplewood Drive

1 East Lansing, Michigan 48823

Telephone (517) 337-1527

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