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A Job Club For Older Workers And Retirees:
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Denis 0. Gray

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A JOB CLUB FOR OLDER WORKERS AND RETIREES:

AN EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION OF OUTCOME AND PROCESS

BY

DENIS O. GRAY

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Psychology

1980

ABSTRACT
A JOB CLUB FOR OLDER WORKERS AND RETIREES:
AN EXPERIMENTAL EVALUATION
OF OUTCOME AND PROCESS
By

Denis O. Gray

Unemployment among older workers and "retirees" is
a significant but neglected contemporary social problem.
Large numbers of unemployed older individuals are not
counted in aggregate Department of Labor statistics, includ-
ing discouraged older job seekers, middle-aged and older
women just entering the workforce and retirees who desire
part-time employment. It is estimated that 4 million people
over 65 would like to work for money and are not being con-
sidered among the unemployed (NCOA, 1975).

The present study focused on one contributor to
unemployment among older individuals -- less than optimum
job search performance. The specific vehicle for enhancing
job search competence was a modified version of the Job
Club program. This social learning based program, which
relies on mutual help and support among job seekers, has
been proven effective and cost efficient with other hard-to-
place groups.

Older individuals (50 and older) who sought employ—
ment assistance at a local Older Worker-Retiree Employment
Service were randomly assigned to receive normally available

services (Control) or the Older Worker-Retiree Job Club (Job

Denis O. Gray
Club). The Job Club involved a half day training workshop
and ongoing biweekly Job Club meetings. Over a six month
span a total of 48 participants received either Job Club or
Control employment assistance.

The study attempted to provide answers to three
major research questions. The first question asked, "Is the
Job Club program an effective method for increasing employ-
ment among the target population?" The second question asked,
"How (through what mechanisms) does the Job Club help people
find employment?" The final question asked, "What is the
individual's subjective psychological reaction to the job
search experience and the intervention they experience?"

The measurement strategy used to provide answers to these
questions was both longitudinal and multivariate. Personal
interviews were held with participants when they first sought
assistance, just prior to receiving assistance (Premeasure),
and four, eight and twelve weeks after Premeasure.

The results provided strong support for the
effectiveness of the Job Club program with older job seekers.
After twelve weeks 74% of the Job Club and 22% of the Control
group were employed. The Job Club placement rate was
significantly higher than the Control after 4 weeks (39%
versus 4%). In addition, by eight weeks the average Job
Club S had earned significantly more income ($203 versus $20)
and worked more hours (46 hours versus 6 hours) for the pre-
ceding month than the average Control S. Among other find-

ings, process results indicated that Job Club participants

Denis 0. Gray
had become better job seekers and felt more people were help-
ing them find work.

These results indicate that meaningful increases in
the employment rates of older job seekers can be achieved by
careful implementation of a job club program tailored to the
needs of this group. However, the relatively low status of
many of the obtained placements should serve as a signal
that real progress in this area will only come about through

systems level changes in the economy and the workplace.

To my late mother, Catherine

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study, which took the better part of two
years to plan and carry out, could never have been realized
without the support and assistance of a large number of
peOple. On a professional and personal level, I owe a great
deal of thanks to my friend and advisor, Bill Davidson.
Despite a constantly "booked" schedule Bill always made time
when I needed advice and counsel and never doubted my
ability to pull off this research, even when I had my doubts.
In addition, I owe a great deal of thanks to my other
committee members, Esther Fergus, John Fry, and Neal Schmitt.
Each has made a significant contribution to this study and
my professional growth.

On a personal and emotional level the completion
of this study is a testament to the love and support I
received from my wife, Jenifer. Despite many lonely hours
and unanticipated winters in Michigan, she never faltered in
her support. When circumstances necessitated she became an
interviewer, helped me organize my codebook and did the
graphics on my figures. But most importantly, she listened
and encouraged me when it seemed this study would never end.

Although many other individuals were instrumental

in the implementation of the Job Club program, I must offer

iii

special thanks to Roxanna O'Connor and the Tori County Office
on Aging. The typical service administrator would have
shuddered at the thought of giving carte blanche to a
graduate student with a program evaluation agenda. However,
Roxanna saw a service vacuum, trusted my judgement, and let
me have a free hand in developing the Older Worker-Retiree
Job Club.

The marriage of service and research which reached
fruition in this study, depended on the loyalty and diligence
of a good number of assistants. However, more than anyone,
Millie Riddle deserves recognition for the day to day over-
sight of the Job Club. Her enthusiasm and genuineness were
critical ingredients in the success of the Job Club. I must
also acknowledge my research interviewers, Devi Pierce,

Janis Shuboltowski, Rhett Frinet, and Laura Michelson. I
fail to include John McVeigh in this list because his
curiosity and commitment to this study elevated his role to
one of colleague. In addition, I wish to acknowledge the
efforts of my secretary, Cathy Growchowski. From the first
day this study began to the day I finished my final disserta-
tion draft, Cathy has been a hard worker and a good friend.

I owe a final word of thanks to some people who
cannot be named individually. I wish to thank the Administra-
tion on Aging and its representatives for the dissertation
research grant which made this study possible. I would also
like to thank the Michigan Department of Labor and its

representatives for seeing fit to provide funding which will

iv

continue the work begun by the Job Club service. Finally,
I wish to offer my special gratitude to the individuals who
unselfishly and graciously agreed to participate in this
study. Their efforts and wisdom at our Job Club meetings

was a living testament to the value and worth of the older

worker.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

II.

Unemployment Among Older Workers and
Retirees . . . . . . . .
Adopting a Focus for Intervention . . . .
Traditional Individual Level Interventions
An Alternative Intervention Based on
Learning Principles . . . . . .
Factors Affecting Job Search Success . . .
Securing Information About Job Openings
Intensity of the Job Search . .

Determinants of Job Search Intensity .
1. Income . . . . . . . .

2. Attitudes and Expectancies . .
Methods of Job Search . . . . . . . .
The Screening Process — The Interview .
Summary . . . . . .
Review of Job Search Training Interventions
Studies Without Placement Follow Up .
Summary . . . . . .
Studies With Placement FollOw Up . . . .
Summary . . . . .

Applicability of Job Search Training To
Older Job Seekers . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . .
Experimental Model — The Job Club . . .
The Current Research . . . . . . . . . .

METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Context of the Research . . . . . . . . .
Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vi

Page
ix
xi

xii

Chapter

II.

III.

(Continued)
Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recruitment . . . . . . . . .
Intake and Informed Consent . . . . . .

Assignment to Conditions . . . . . . . .
Matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . .
Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Control Condition: Information and

Referral . . . . . . . . . . . .

Experimental Condition. Job Club
Job Club Workshop . . . . . .
Job Club Meeting . . . . . . .

Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Scale Construction . . . . . . . . . .

Participant Measures . . . . . . . . .

Primary Outcome Measures . . . . . . . .
Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Income/Hours . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Secondary Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . .
Placement Descriptors . . . . . . . .
Job Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . .

Process Measures - Sources of Treatment
Efficacy . . . . . . . .
Knowledge About Job Seeking . . . . .
Job Search Activity . . . . . . . . .
Job Search Network . . . . . . . . . .
Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Program Description . . . . . . . . .
Job Club Processes . . . . . . . . .

1. Attendance . . . . . . . . . .
2. Sociometric Measure . . . .
Process Measures - Subjective Psychologi-

cal Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . .
Life Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . .
Optimism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

RESULTS 0 O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O C O .

Primary Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Employment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Income . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Secondary Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . .

Process Measures - Sources of Treatment
Efficacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

Page

49
49
51
51
53
55
56

56
57
58
59
61
61
63
64
64
64

65
65
65

66
66
67
7O
7O
72
75
75
75

76
76
78

85

85
85
87
89
91
93
93

97
97

Chapter

III. (Continued)

Job Search Activity/Day . . . . .
Placement - Source of Job Lead . .
Job Search Network . . . . . . .
Job Search and Work Expectations .
Job Club Processes . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . .
Process Measures - Subjective Psychological
Reactions . . . . . . . .
Life Satisfaction - RDI . . . . . .
Optimism . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . .

IV. DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Program Effectiveness . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . .
Sources of Treatment Efficacy . . . .
Intensity of Job Seeking . . . . . .
Method of Job Search . . . . . . . .

Support and Encouragement . . . . .
Expectations . . . . . . . .
Replication With Variation . . . . .
Summary . . . . .
Subjective Psychological Reactions . .
Successful Job Seekers . . . . . .
Unsuccessful Job Seekers . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . . .
Research Implications . . . . . . . .

Implications and Conclusions . . .
Major Questions Raised by the Study
Subjective Psychological Reactions
Sources of Treatment Efficacy .
Program Effectiveness . . . . .

REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

viii

Page

99
100
103
105
105
107

107
108
111
116

119

120
123
124
124
126
128
130
130
131
132
132
134
136
136
139
139
139
142
145

149

158

Table
1.

2.

10.
11.
12.
13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

LIST OF TABLES

Summary of Job Search Training Studies . . . . .

Measures by Assessment Area and Assessment
waves 0 O o 0 e o o o e O o O o O o O o O o o

Knowledge-Internal Consistency Analysis . . .

Job Search Activities/Day-Internal Consistency
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Expectations-Internal Consistency Analysis . .

Retirement Descriptive Index Subscales-Internal
Consistency Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Optimism Subscales-Internal Consistency Analysis
XZ-Condition by Success-Failure . . . . . . .
Employment-Group Means and Analysis of Variance
Income-Group Means and Analysis of Variance . .
Hours-Group Means and Analysis of Variance . .
X2 and ANOVA Secondary Outcome Measures . . . .

Knowledge-Group Means and Analysis of Variance

Job Search Activity/Day-Group Means and Analysis
of Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sources of Job Leads for Placements-Frequencies
and Chi-square o o o o o o o e o o o o e o 0

Job Search Network-Number of People-Group Means
and Analysis of Variance . . . . . . . . . .

Correlation of Job Club Process Measures with
Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

RDI-Activities-Group Means and Analysis of
Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ix

Page
23

62
68

71

73

79
83
86
88
9O
92
94
98

101

102

104

106

109

I’I‘I'J

'l.
'1’

Table

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

Page

RDI-Financial-Group Means and Analysis of

Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
RDI-Health-Group Means and Analysis of

Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Personal Optimism—Group Means and Analysis of

Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
External Optimism-Group Means and Analysis of

Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Programatic Optimism-Group Means and Analysis of

Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

III C
{ALP-.77 IT‘
A . | i
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I ~
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I ‘

 

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page

1. Research Design, Measures and Subject Waves
by Time 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 50

2. Flow Chart of Program Entry . . . . . . . . . . 52

xi

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix Page
A. Administrative Agreement . . . . . . . . . . . A-l
B OWRES Consent Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B-1
C. Instructions to Participants . . . . . . . . . C—1
D. Agenda-Job Club Workshop . . . . . . . . . . . D-l
E Premeasure Intercorrelations of Process Scales E-l
F Follow Up 1 (F1) Intercorrelations of Process

scales 0 o e o o o o o o o o o o o e o e o o F-l

G. Follow Up 2 (F2) Intercorrelations of Process

scales 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o G-l
H. Premeasure Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . H-1
I. Follow Up Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1

xii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The implications of employment in our society are
far reaching. It is widely held that employment is the
single most reliable means of achieving the benefits and
privileges available to members of society.

Because employment is the source of many societal
benefits and privileges unemployment is a significant con-
temporary social problem. The societal and personal con-
sequences of unemployment are so obvious and so profound that
such an assertion hardly needs to be supported by the empiri-
cal findings and well considered testimony of social science.
However, such support is prolific and telling. Unemployment
has been Cited as the major cause of social strain in our
contemporary society, as a cause of feelings of uselessness,
an engenderer of a sense of chaos for American males who find
themselves out of work, and a primary cause of aggression
(Nietzel et al., 1977). It has further been associated with
poverty (Ferguson, 1971), higher crime rates (Johnson, 1964),
increased incidence of alcoholism (Plant, 1967), and more
frequent institutionalization (Hollingshead and Redlich,
1958). In fact there is evidence, based on 60 years of data,
of a reliable relationship between rates of unemployment and

first admissions to mental hospitals (Brenner, 1973).

2

The obvious and serious repercussions of unemploy—
ment have not gone unnoticed by agents of society. Numerous
social programs exist to combat unemployment. Further elim-
ination of unemployment is a national priority, legislatively
articulated in the Humphrey—Hawkins Bill.

What is the social scientist's role vis-a-vis this
national goal? In general the social sciences have played a
rather passive role in the solution of social problems
(Fairweather, 1972). Typically, problems are studied and
analyzed but action is not taken. In contrast, proponents
of a relatively new field within psychology, ecological or
community psychology, have promoted an active problem solving
role for social scientists. (Fairweather and Tornatzky,
1977; Rappaport, 1977). The current research will approach
the unemployment problems of a frequently neglected group --
the older worker and retiree -- from such a perspective.

Specifically, the present study will: examine and
document the unemployment problem of older individuals, sug—
gest and focus on one possible source or cause for their
problem, develop the rationale for adopting a new approach
to overcoming this impediment to employment, review extant
examples of this approach, and suggest application of a
promising specific program to a population of older job
seekers. The proposed intervention will be carried out
experimentally in a field setting and its effectiveness

evaluated.

3

Unemployment Among Older Workers and Retirees

There has been very little research focused on the
circumstances which foster unemployment among older workers
and retirees nor on possible avenues of reducing it.
Although such neglect may have seemed benign during a time
when federal mandatory retirement laws and social security
rules attempted to encourage older individuals to get out
and stay out of the workforce in deference to new young job
force entrants, such neglect can no longer be viewed as
benign. Current circumstances, including a smaller and dis-
proportionately older labor pool, galloping inflation, a
critically overtaxed social security system, evidence which
documents the productivity of older workers (Meier and Kerr,
1976), evidence that involuntary and reluctant retirees
suffer untoward personal and medical repercussions from job
loss (NCOA, 1975; Strieb, 1956; Cobb and Kasl, 1972), and
increased advocacy on behalf of older individuals in general,
dictate that we take a fresh look at the employment related
needs of our older citizens and possible mechanisms of pro-
moting employment in this group.

Present day neglect of the employment problems of
the older worker and retiree may have as much to do with an
ignorance of the scope of the problem, in part fostered by
deceptively rosy aggregate labor market statistics, as with
the more purposeful benign neglect of the past decades. In

fact, based on a casual review of recent labor market events

4

and trends, one could easily be led to argue against the
existence of an employment problem among older workers and
retirees (NCOA, 1975; Jaffee, 1978; Sheppard, 1970). Such a
position would likely be fostered by an awareness of the fol-
lowing facts: mandatory retirement is now prohibited until
after age 70 in most occupations, unemployment rates among
older workers are much lower than among young workers, and
over the past several decades people have been "choosing" to
retire at younger and younger ages. While these facts are
persuasive and essentially accurate, a more careful examina-
tion of labor market rates, recent national opinion surveys
and studies by social scientists build an exceedingly strong
alternative argument: large numbers of older individuals
do want to work, do face significant barriers to obtaining
employment and actually experience high rates of unemployment.
The facts supporting this argument will now be presented.
While the recent delay in mandatory retirement age
has been a step in the right direction, it by no means has
been a panacea for older workers. For instance, this legis-
lation provides little or no protection for the large number
of older individuals who are employed in dying industries or
who possess obsolete skills (Riley and Foner, 1968; Axelbank,
1972). Further during economic downturns there is reason to
believe that a number of factors including, the higher
salaries and the higher insurance and pension rates paid on
older workers may favor their furlough. Sheppard (1970)

reports a study of defense companies with skilled and

professional employees where age was acknowledged to be a
significant factor in layoff decisions. Similar to job
losers, the increasing number of workforce entrants among
middle-aged and older women (NCOA, 1975) find little solace
in the liberalized mandatory retirement law.

The failure of unemployment statistics to reflect
high unemployment rates among older individuals seems to
contradict the validity of the foregoing facts. The expla-
nation of this contradiction may lie in the way unemploy—
ment rates are computed. Since only those individuals who
are actively looking for work are considered in unemployment
rates and research shows that older indivudals are dispro-
portionately represented among workforce dropouts (NCOA,
1975), it is widely believed that actual unemployment for
older adults is substantially higher than reported rates
suggest (NCOA, 1975; Schram and Osten, 1978; Meier, 1975;
Riley and Foner, 1968).

A more telling picture of the employment situation
of older workers can be gained by examining long term
unemployment figures. For instance, while the mean term
of unemployment at age 35-44 is 17.4 weeks (males)-and 14.1
weeks (females), it rises at age 45-54 to 18.9 (males) and
16.4 (females); at 55-64 unemployment rises to 20.1 weeks
(males) and 18.1 weeks (females) (Schram and Osten, 1978).
Among men 45 and over, once unemployed, long term unemploy-
ment is almost twice as likely than for younger unemployed

(Jaffee, 1978).

The poor prospects for finding new employment may
also play a substantial part in the apparent trend toward
retirement at younger ages. Reports from a number of social
scientists suggest that many early retirees leave the
workforce reluctantly. For instance, Liebhafsky (1966) and
Kreps (1966) suggest that the early departure of many
older individuals for the labor force is in part due to the
frustration experienced in the course of job seeking --
the so-called discouragement reaction. Some evidence
exists which indirectly supports this position. Axelbank
(1969) found that early retirees had less continuous employ-
ment and lower life-time earnings and concludes these indi—
viduals are using retirement as an alternative to long term
unemployment. Similarly, Lauriat and Rabin (1970) found that
the majority of nonworking men who claimed social security
benefits prior to age 65 were unemployed for over a year.
Regrettably this decision will relegate these men to actuar-
ially reduced social security benefits for the rest of their
lives.

There is additional support for the belief that
older individuals would like to remain employed, at least
part-time, in several recent public opinion surveys.
Pollster Louis Harris (NCOA, 1975) has reported that 30% of
retired respondents expressed an interest in working.

Among the lowest income groups (below $3000), this rate

grew to 43%. A more recent Harris poll (State Journal, 1979)

reported that half of all employees interviewed expect to
stay working past 65, and a majority of recent retirees
wish they could have continued working. While some in

this group actually cannot work because of poor health,
reports of this excuse far exceed independent reports of
poor health and have been interpreted as another manifesta-
tion of discouragement (NCOA, 1975; Axelbank, 1972) or
retirement precipitated hypochondria and depression (Strieb,
1956; Axelbank, 1972; Cobb and Kasl, 1972). It has been
estimated that 4 million people over 65 would like to work
for money and are not being considered among the unemployed
(NCOA, 1975). Beyond any doubt the scope and untoward
financial and psychosocial consequences of unemployment for

older individuals necessitates action.

Adopting A Focus For Intervention

 

As with other marginal groups, a number of forces
foster unemployment among older workers including
structural unemployment forces, age discrimination (NCOA,
1975) and less than optimal job search performance (Sheppard
and Belitsky, 1966). However, traditionally society has
looked to economists and labor market specialists for
solutions to unemployment. The appropriateness of such
efforts are clear. There is little doubt that unemployment
is to a large extent caused by economic and labor market

factors, specifically the distribution, supply and demand of

/

L

/

jobs and work skills (Wolfbein, 1965). Older individuals,
who frequently have less education and technological skills,
obviously experience the structural unemployment caused by

the recent emphasis on automation and high technology

  
      

(Riley and Foner, 1968; Eckstein, 1966). On the other h nd
it is clear that current economic and labor market so tions
to unemployment (i.e. efforts to stimulate the eco omy, sub-
sidized employment and job training programs, etdFT have
only had limited, if questionable, impact on unemployment
(Nietzel, et al., 1977). Particularly in the short run, it
seems unlikely that extant efforts in this realm will have
much impact on the employment needs of today's older job
aspirants.

However, there is mounting evidence that individual
level variables related to job search performance also
affect success in securing employment and, in contrast to
economic and labor market factors, such parameters appear
to be easily and quickly modified.

Although it seems certain that individual job
search performance is only one of several contributors to
unemployment, the potential for realizing quick cost-effi-
cient gains in employment by targeting this area, appears to
justify focusing the efforts of the current study on this
area.

At this point it should be noted that a number of

authors have rightfully criticized the preponderance of

person—centered explanations of and solutions to social
problems in contrast to situational and system level expla—
nations and solutions (Caplan and Nelson, 1973; Ryan, 1976).
However, others have acknowledged the importance of viewing
complex social problems at multiple levels (i.e. systems,
organizations, small groups and individuals) (Rappaport,
1978; Heller and Monahan, 1977). Clearly, the primarily
individual and small group focused social intervention
strategy which will not be developed within the remainder of
this introduction should be viewed in such a perspective,
namely: it should be considered a worthwhile adjunct to,
not a substitute for, broad economic, organizational and

systems level solutions to unemployment.

Traditional Individual Level Interventions

 

Historically the process of an individual securing
employment has been viewed as a rather simple and static
phenomenon wherein available labor and labor needy concerns
sought out and eventually found each other. Given this View,
efforts to assist individuals to find employment have tended
to focus on a lack of accurate and complete information
about the job market. Such a View led to the institution of
placement or job services at statetummmdoyment offices.
Similarly, within vocational rehabilitation circles selec-
tive placement or the matching of jobs and clients by a

"placement expert" has been state-of—the-art for much of the

10

past 40 years (Pinner and Altman, 1966). Another avenue of
assistance available to the individual job seeker is the
various manpower training programs (Sewell, 1971) and sub-
sidized employment programs like those created by the Com-
prehensive Employment and Training Act (CETA).

Unfortunately, the traditional avenues of facili—
tating employment have not been very responsive to the
employment needs of old people. For instance based on the
reports of Sheppard and Belitsky (1966) and others (NCOA,
1975) state employment services offer fewer services to and
make fewer referrals for older registrants. In the area of
subsidized employment and training options, the older job
seeker fares no better. There is evidence to support the
following: older job seekers are underrepresented in Man-
power Development and Training Act (MDTA) training slots
(NCOA, 1975; Riley and Foner, 1968), are underrepresented
in CETA slots and are ignored as a high risk employment
group in discretionary programming by local manpower boards
(Schram and Osten, 1978). As Schram and Osten (1978) have
pointed out, diminished allocations and fierce competition
for limited funds among already funded groups will probably
preclude the older job seeker from making an inroads in
these program areas.

In truth, even if extant employment facilitating
agencies were made more responsive to the needs of the older

job seeker, evidence indicates that only small gains in

11

employment would result. First, there is little reason to
believe that there will ever be enough CETA or MDTA slots

to make a real impact on unemployment, further these programs
have been criticized for their failure to eventuate in per-
manent unsubsidized employment (Goodman, et al., 1973). In
addition, state employment agencies are widely held to be
relatively ineffective mechanisms for obtaining employment
for job seekers regardless of age (Parnes, et al., 1969;
Sheppard and Belitsky, 1966). Even the highly specialized
vocational rehabilitation model of "selective placement" has
been judged ineffective and further criticized for taking
away client initiative, independence and self-confidence
(Salmone, 1971; Zandy and James, 1977); Clearly, the nature
and scope of the older worker employment problem requires

anew more effective model of facilitating employment.

An Alternative Intervention Based on Learning Principles

 

A behavioral or learning based alternative to the
expert based employment service model has been fostered by
a disillusionment with the former's effectiveness and the
successes realized by application of an essentially behav-
ioral paradigm of intervention to other problem areas.

The use of the term behavioral paradigm, behav-
ioral intervention, behavioral training in this study implies
application of the techniques and principles of behavior

change derived from the formulations and empirical findings

12

of the operant learning tradition (Skinner, 1953) and the
more recent formulations of the social learning area
(Bandura, 1969; Bandura, 1977). Specific behavioral tech-
niques include social and material reinforcement, modeling,
and practice. These and other techniques (punishment,
varying schedules of reinforcement, etc.) have been used in
almost every conceivable human problem area. Areas of appli-
cation include bed wetting, mental illness, retardation,
delinquency, reading, to name only a few (Ullman and
Krasner, 1969; Nietzel, et al., 1977). While early applica-
tions of behavioral learning know-how and techniques fre-
quently involved targeting a single behavior or skill area,
more recent applications with complex problems like social
skills, interpersonal assertiveness, and managerial compe-
tence have targeted complex constellations of behaviors,
knowledge and attitudes with intervention packages, fre-
quently producing marked improvements in personal effective-
ness (McFall, 1976; Goldstein, 1973; Kanfer and Goldstein,
1975).

A major selling point of a behavioral approach is
the underlying assumption that many problems in living derive
from a lack of situationally specific competence in some
goal directed area (McFall, 1976). Adoption of such an
assumption and perspective with job finding would foster
interventions designed to empower the individual toward

self-sufficiency and responsibility rather than dependence

13

and passivity, a major drawback in the employment service
model (Salmone, 1971; Zandy and James, 1977).

The ultimate appropriateness and utility of this
approach to reducing unemployment would seem to depend on
two considerations. First, the extent to which job finding
success isrelated to the possession and performance of
learnable situationally specific skills and competencies.
Secondly, proof that such an approach will overcome the
drawback in many behavioral interventions, failure to
generalize to real world settings and circumstances
(Marholin, 1976). The evidence on these questions will now

be examined.

Factors Affecting Job Search Success

Substantial support for the View that job search
success is related to competent performance in the job
search role can be found in labor market sutdies which
verify that successful and unsuccessful job seekers differ
in a number of performance related areas, which in turn are
moderated by a number of motivational and other factors.
Specifically, it seems clear that a number of variables
related to acquisition of information about job openings and
favorably presenting oneself during the employment screening
process have an impact on placement success and are probably

amenable to change via behavioral change strategies.

14

Securing Information About Job Openings

It is widely recognized that the process of secur-
ing a job is highly dependent on acquiring information,
specifically information about job openings. As a rule the
job seeker always has imperfect knowledge about the universe
of employers with job openings. The extent to which a job
seeker can expand on his awareness of appropriate job open-
ings will have an important and favorable impact on the
success of his job search. This area may be a particular
problem for many retired job seekers who wish to tap a selec—
tive part-time job market. Evidence suggests that at least
two major dimensions of an individual's job search will
affect the number of job openings revealed and ultimately
placement, these include: the intensity of job search and

the methods of search used.

Intensity of the Job Search

 

Sheppard and Belitsky's (1966) The Job Hunt was

 

one of the earliest and remains the most extensive analysis
of the varying approaches used by unemployed individuals in
trying to locate a job. Within this study it was found that
a job seeker's success in finding a job was significantly
affected by the total number of job seeking techniques an
individual used in his search efforts (p‘< .03). For
instance, 81% of workers who eventually found jobs used

four or more job seeking techniques compared to only 50% of

15

the still unemployed. Interestingly, older job seekers
reported making fewer direct contacts than younger job
seekers. This approach, using several methods of job
seeking, is called a wide ranging approach. Further, a
similar pattern held true for the number of cOmpanies a
worker contacted. At every skill level examined, individ—
uals who were employed at the time of follow up had con-
tacted more companies than their still unemployed peers.
Similar findings relating job placement success to frequency
or intensity of search behavior have been reported by
Gower (1975), Dyer (1973) and Ugland (1977).

The fact that individuals who do more searching
tend to be more successful in their job searchs is not
surprising and suggests a simple frequency or probability
model of job finding; the more searching performed the more
job openings identified, the higher the probability of find-
ing a job. Obviously, the discouraged older job seeker will
tend to not search or search very little with obvious results.

Determinants of Job Search Intensity. A number of

 

variables are believed to affect job search intensity. In

actuality, it is probably more accurate to talk about these
variables as affecting an individual's motivation. However,
since motivation is usually measured indirectly by counting
frequency of behavior and/or intensity of behavior and since
an exhaustive examination of this imporatant and extensively

researched psychological variable is beyond the scope of this

16

paper, we will concentrate on the specific variables which
affect job search intensity albeit by having an impact on

motivation.

1. Income. It seems clear that economic issues

 

are a critical determinant of an individual's motivation to
find employment (Nagi and Hadley, 1972; Kasper, 1967).
Malhotra (1976) reported that an individual's financial
situation had a significant effect on how long the job
search persisted and its intensity. This issue seems to be
especially critical for older job seekers (over 62) because
most have sources of income independent of workforce parti-
cipation. When one also considers the fact that performing
a job search involves certain costs and these costs may act
as a disincentive to job search (particularly an individual
receiving a stable yet marginal subsidy) the importance of
monetary determinants on job search motivation seems all the
more apparent (Vandergoot, et al., 1977).

2. Attitudes and Expectancies. There is some
evidence that successful job seekers have a more positive
View of the rewards and/or losses available to them in the
job seeker and worker roles (Associates for Research in
Behavior, 1973). The relationship of such an attitude
toward job seeking and work and job search intensity has
not been empirically evaluated. However, it seems quite
possible such a relationship exists. Bandura (1977) has

described how such attitudes, which he calls expectancies

17
(about future reinforcement) can be more powerful in determin-

ing behavioral performance than the actual availability of
reinforcement. While such a position would have to be evaluated
empirically, excessively pessimistic expectations of reward by
older job seekers may be a critical ingredient in the discour-
agement reaction of older job seekers and the eventual reduction

or abandonment of job search behavior.

Methods of Job Search

 

There are any number of commonly used methods of
identifying job leads or openings including: use of employment
services (public or private); examination of publicly available
openings via newspapers, unions, civil service announcements;
direct application to employers; and use of friends, relatives
and acquaintances. Evidence suggests that informal search
methods, namely direct application to employers and use of
friends, relatives and acquaintances, are more effective in
securing employment than other methods.

For instance, Sheppard and Belitsky (1966) found
that the most effective method of job seeking for their
skilled, unskilled and semi-skilled was asking friends,
relatives and acquaintances about possible job openings.

For semi-skilled and unskilled workers use of this method
was found to be twice as effective as the second rated tech-
nique —- employment service. With respect to unsuccessful
older job seekers, Sheppard and Belitsky (1966) reported

use of less effective search strategies in the group.

18

Gower's (1975) examination of Canadian job search
patterns disclosed similar effectiveness ratings. Direct
applications to employer and asking friends or relatives
were the two most successful methods of finding jobs and
were among the top three methods in terms of rate of usage.

Similar findings about the effectiveness of infor—
mal job search methods have been reported by U.S. Depart-
ment of Labor (1975), Parnes, et al (1969), Jones and Azrin
(1973) and Bradshaw (1973). The fact that such approaches
to job findings are not available to various institutional
placement agents provides further evidence that a job
placement game plan which failed to capitalize on client
initiated job seeking avenues might be severely deficient.

In summary, it seems likely that an individual's
ability to secure information about job openings and ulti-
mately placement success are moderated by: the amount,
breadth and persistance of the search effort; job search
motivation and its determinants, especially income and
possibly expectations of rewards and losses; and the

extent to which the searcher uses information search methods.

The Screening Process - The Interview

 

Once a job seeker has identified various job
openings and made application, the employer's screening
process and hiring decision will determine whether or not a

job offer will be made. In the course of making the hiring

l9

decision, the employer will examine applications, test
scores, letters of recommendation, resumes and perform
interviews in an effort to select the best candidate for a
position. Although some crude screening will be performed
based on applications and resumes, the employment interview
constitutes the most heavily weighted source of information
about a candidate and his/her qualifications.

Empirical studies indicatetflunzemployment inter-
views are used by the vast majority of all personnel people
as a screening tool in the hiring process (Clowers and
Fraser, 1977).

While some (Pate and Harwood, 1974) caution that
only 36% of the variance of the hiring decision is accounted
for by personal credentials and interview behavior together,
the fact that the remaining variance is largely unaccounted
for by known factors and the fact that one can do little to
alter their credentials at the time of an intervew, would
seem to exaggerate the importance of maximizing one's per-
ceived competence during the interview. Some go so far as
to suggest that the subjective evaluation of the interviewer
actually outweighs objective credentials in determining the
hiring decisions (Clowers and Fraser, 1977). Thus for the
older interviewee, competent interview behavior may out-
weigh educational and skill deficits and countervene ageist

stereotypes.

20

There is evidence to support the following about
the interview process: negative information is picked up
more readily and has a greater impact than positive infor-
mation, the decision to hire is made early in the interview
(Clowers and Fraser, 1977), communication and interpersonal
skills play an important role in the deicision to hire
(Pate and Harwood, 1974; Barbee and Keil, 1973), excessive
anxiety can negatively affect interview performance (Clowers
and Fraser, 1977), honesty and level of information about
previous jobs facilitate hiring, disadvantaged individuals
tend to perform poorly in formal interview (Keil and Barbee,
1973), and interview anxiety among job seekers is connected
with less placement success for older but not young job
seekers (Sheppard and Belitsky, 1966). Prazak (1969) makes
a convincing point by saying "without interview training the
client may bumble through prime job opportunities acquiring
a series of failures before he is a seasoned interviewee."
Such an experience probably would further discourage a mar-
ginally motivated older job seeker.

It seems clear that one's skillful interview per-
formance can affect the hiring decision. If behavioral
methods which have been successful with other skill areas
can also be used to facilitate competent interview perfor-

mance a favorable impact on the hiring decision might result.

21

Factors Affecting Jobs Search Success - Summary

 

Clearly, evidence from labor market studies indi-
cates that job finding is moderated by the performance of
relatively simple operants (job seeking) knowledge and
behavioral follow through (knowledge and use of effective
search techniques) and specific skill competence (interview
performance.) Changes in similar performance areas have
been demonstrated repeatedly in the behavioral and social
learning research literature (Bandura, 1969; Goldstein, 1973).
Further, individual motivation has been repeatedly demon-
strated to be under the control of external rewards including
social rewards, while attitude change has been demonstrated
via changes in behavior or when perception of available
rewards have changed (Bandura, 1977). Taken together it
appears that a large number of the variables knows to
affect job search success are potentially amenable to Change
via operant or more sophisticated behavioral change
methodologies.

Actually, there is direct support for applying a
behavioral training appraoch to the problem of job finding
since over the past decade variations on this approach,
ranging from simple to complex interventions, have been
Used with a number of hard to place groups. Preliminary
to choosing a intervention model for use with the older job
seeker, an effort will be made in the following section to

review some of the manipulative studies which have attempted

22

to facilitate competent job search performance via operant
and social learning methods and evaluate both their effec-

tiveness and methodological rigor.

Review Of Job Search Training Interventions

In order to facilitate this examination studies
will be divided into two categories: studies which lacked a
follow up assessment on placement, generally single skill
analogue studies; and studies which evaluated placement
success. Since the purpose of this review is to examine the
applied efficacy of interventions in the area of job search
training for possible application to older job seekers, only
a brief review will be devoted to the studies lacking a
placement follow up assessment. Table 1 presents a summary
of the reviewed studies with respect to a number of descrip-

tive and methodological characteristics.

Studies Without Placement Follow up

Four of the five reviewed studies targeted inter-
view behavior. In general the findings were quite positive.
While one study simply reported a grateful testimonial that
the role play training "helped" (Jackson,1972), the other
three studies found significant change in several areas of
interview behavior based on the judgment of trained raters
in the context of true experiments. Venardos and Harris

(1973) reported that both video tape modeling and role

23

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25

playing resulted in a significant difference in an overall
rating of interview performance but no differences between
methods. A similar result was obtained by Keil and Barbee
(1973) who reported significant improvement in ability to
respond to questions, honesty and openness, and self con—
fidence after a short (one hour) combined video tape and
role play treatment. Finally Barbee and Keil (1973) found
a video tape behavior modification model was significantly
more effective in producing improved interview behavior on
a probability of hire judgment over a control group, and
on assertiveness and questions asked over a microcounseling
condition. More improvement was observed for the least
skilled; and, this training also took less than an hour.

The final study (Clark, Boyd, MacRae, 1975) dealt
with application completion behavior and produced a signifi—
cant improvement in correct responses using a token reward
system.

Summary. In general these studies appear to
demonstrate the ability of various behavioral based inter-
ventions to produce noticeable and significant change in a

very brief time.

Studies With Placement Follow Up

 

Since finding and securing a job involves the per-
formance of a large number of different behaviors much of

the applied research in this area is justifiably focused on

26

comprehensive skill training efforts. With one exception
the studies described below describe intervention packages
which attempted to improve placement rates via changes in
skills, knowledge, motivation and/or attitudes of job
seekers. Summary descriptions of these studies are also
presented in Table 1.

Among those efforts which targeted interviewee
behavior change as their sole objective, only Stevens and
Tornatzky's (1976) study with participants from a drug
abuse treatment program attempted to follow up Client
placement success. Twenty-six Ss were randomly assigned in
this study, to either a control condition (normal agency
services ), or the experimental condition (agency services
plus interview skills training). The experimental treatment
consisted of three, three-hour workshop sessions during
which Ss were presented information about critical interview
behaviors (i.e. personal appearance, waiting room etiquette)
and verbal constructive feedback by the instructor and the
group on the behaviors they role played. A follow up, which
was conducted six months later, indicated that experimental
Ss fared better than control Ss in four important outcome
areas. Experimental Ss were more likely to still be parti-
cipating in the drug abuse program (p < .01), were receiving
higher hourly pay (p < .05), were more likely to be employed
(p < .10), and were working more hours per week (p < .10).

Although this study probably does not provide a definitive

27

test of the practical value of interviewee skill training
efforts, the significant differences (program participation
and hourly wages) and the trends which approached signifi-
cance (employment and hours worked/week) seem to be substan-
tive findings, particularly when one weighs these findings
against the acknowledged difficulties which confront most
drug abuse clients in the employment marketplace.

Pumo, Seyle and Cogan (1966) report one of the
earliest studies which attempted to train the hard to
employ, in this case rehabilitation clients at a Goodwill
counseling program, in job seeking skills. Within this non-
control group, 29 Ss were trained over six sessions, all
clients were currently unemployed and had not held a job
for an extended period or had been unable to maintain them-
selves on a job for an extended period of time. Training
took place in a group milieu and involved lecture presenta-
tions of information on job seeking, the viewing of a film
about the world of work, lectures by successfully placed
ex-clients, or personnel people, modeling and role playing
of interview behavior, and individual goal setting. Results
indicated the program was quite successful, with 73.1% of all
trained Clients placed in jobs. The authors saw the program
as a success and an excellent complement to traditional
rehabilitation counseling services. They believed that the

group culture of the program helped create job readiness in

28

clients by reinforcing the Client's self-concept and
releasing the individual's "inner strengths." However, no
data was presented to support these conclusions.

McClure (1972) provided one of the earliest exper—
imental studies of the effectiveness of job seeking skills
training. Seventy-six Ss, rehabilitation clients, who were
designated job ready on the basis of their marketable skills
and personal coping skills, were randomly assigned to a
control group, or an experimental group. Experimental Ss
experienced six hours of classroom training and practice
centered on the following areas: sources of job leads,
interview preparation, application blanks, problem questions
and job interviews while control Ss received normal agency
placement services. Results indicated that $8 in the exper-
imental group obtained significantly more placements
(p < .05), obtained their placements quicker (p ‘<.Ol), and
used less counselor time (p < .05). Counselors reported
feeling that experiemntal Ss also had improved self-confi-
dence, motivation and enthusiasm for job procurement
activities although no substantiation is provided.

To a greater or lesser degree, all of the learning
based job skills training programs include a cognitive
change component, wherein job seekers are taught more
effective methods of finding and securing a job. In fact,
today there is a veritable plethora of materials and manuals

which are designed to teach individuals how to locate and

29

land a job, although there is seemingly little experimen_
tally validated evidence of their utility (Azrin, et al.,
1975). A notable exception is the experimental evaluation
of the Employment Seeking Preparation and Activity manual of
Bob Keith (1976), a self-help instructional approach to job
seeking.

Keith (1976), working with a group of rehabilita-
tion clients (N=84), randomly assigned individuals who had
been matched on a handicap score to the self—help manual
condition (E) or one of two control groups. The first con-
trol group (Cl) was provided with a list of potential sources
for job leads, instructions on how to keep a daily log of
job hunting activity and were given all the measures given
to the experimental group. The second control group (C2)
received no special help (all clients received normal agency
help) and served as a non-treatment control. Ss in E and
Cl were given pretests on their knowledge of job seeking
and their current participation in job hunting activities.
Experimental Ss were then given training manuals and mon-
itored until they completed them, this generally took eight
hours. The training manuals were programmed instructional
learning devices which reinforced correct responses to
various true/false questions or required immediate work
assignments in which the trainee was instructed what to do.
Follow—up results indicated that the experimental self-help

group obtained significantly more jobs than either C1 or C2

30

(p < .05). In addition, experimental Ss were superior in a
test of their knowledge of job seeking methods, job leads
obtained per week, and number of interviews obtained per
week (p < .05). These findings seem to indicate that it
may be possible to effectively train individuals how to
successfully job search by simply using a series of pro-
grammed instructional materials.

Ugland (1977) recently reported a study performed
at the Minneapolis Rehabilitation Center (MCR), which pro—
vides an example of an effort to refine the treatment pro-
cess. Ugland (1977) described a study at NBC where a con-
trolled experiment was performed to examine the value of a
series of job seeker's aids for clients who had previously
experienced a "comprehensive job seeker's training program.
A group of 48 rehabilitation clients, all of whom had
received or were currently receiving a wide assortment of
services to assist them in job seeking including job search
skills, were randomly assigned to either a control condition
or the ”job seekers aids" condition. Individuals in the job
seekers aids condition were given lists of potential employers
in a given industry or service area. These lists also
included information on who to contact at each site, how to
contact them, and programmed a day's worth of direct contacts
with these employers specifying transportation connections
between contacts. Follow-up results obtained three weeks

after the experiment began revealed that job seekers aid

31

clients made significantly more employer contacts (p < .01),
placed significantly more applications (p < .01), found
significantly more job openings (p < .01), produced leads
which resulted in more job placements (p.< .01) and used
significantly less counselor time (p< .05). Since job
leads were actually shared by experimental and control $5
the overall placement rate for each group was not evaluated.

Since all of the Ss considered in this research
were already receiving job search training (unspecified by
the author) one must conclude that the addition of the job
seeker‘s aids alone produced group differences and this
technique represents a further refinement of job search
training methodology.

By far the most well-known study of a job seeking
skills program is the Job Club Study reported by Azrin, et
al (1975). A matched control group design was used to
evaluate the job club program Subjects (N=120) were
selected from a population of unemployed individuals from
the state Unemployment Office (none of whom possessed
unemployment compensation), and were matched on an overall
criterion of probable employability before being assigned
to the job club or a no-treatment Control group.

The job club was a learning based job seeking
skills training program which utilized modeling, role-
playing and feedback in a structured learning situation to

effect both behavioral and motivational changes among job

32

club participants. Individuals were provided assistance in
a wide assortment of areas believed to affect successful job
seeking including: personal discouragement in job seeking,
the need for family understanding, transportation, knowledge
of and skills in various job seeking techniques. Training
began with two three-hour introductory sessions, thereafter
new clients joined the Clients who had started in earlier
weeks for daily group sessions of one-two hours duration.
Clients could remain in the group until they found a
suitable job. Since the job club program was truly a com-
prehensive systems approach to dealing with the problems of
job seekers, it would be difficult to give a detailed sum—
mary of all the techniques and target areas of the Change
effort. Some of the unique features of the change effort
included: an emphasis on a group approach to job seeking
where potential leads and resources are shared among group
members, a buddy system which paired job seekers and pro-
vided a more individualized mechanism of mutual help and
support, presentatiOns focused on motivating the dis-
couraged and frustrated job seekers, attempts to enlist
family support of the job seekers efforts, the requirement
that clients be involved in job seeking on a full-time basis,
an emphasis on broadening the kinds of positions job

seekers pursued in their job hunt, and the use of role
playing interviews which provided feedback on dress, grooming

and other interview relevant behaviors. In addition clients

33

were taught various effective mthods of obtaining and pur-
suing job leads. The success of job Club participants com-
pared to the no—treatment control Ss was impressive. Three
months after beginning training 92% of the job Club and

40% of the control group participants had obtained jobs

(p .<.001). Job club participants found more professional
jobs (20% versus 5%), more skilled jobs (55% versus 38%

and had a higher starting salary (p < .05). Azrin, et a1
(1975) reports that the correlation between days unemployed
and proportion of the job club sessions attended was -.80,
indicating that for job club participants regular attendance
was highly predictive of success in finding a job.

Azrin (1978) has recently completed a large-scale
replication of the job club study utilizing almost 1000 Ss,
in five different cities. All 85 were randomly assigned to
the experimental or control conditions at the various sites.
All Ss were welfare eligible (WIN) clients and attendance
at the training was mandatory although some addition pay-
ment for attendance was provided. The basic program was
essentially identical to the original job club training
experience except that Ss attended job club activities four
hours per day, five days per week. Subjects were expected
to perform most of their job search during these sessions
via available program telephones. Control Ss received nor-
mal services from the local employment office although one

site provided ”Intensive Manpower Services" (IMS) (this

34

comparison might be termed a multiple treatment design) for
controls which amounted to group couseling, viewing of tapes
and interview rehearsal. The results of this replication
paralleled the original study with job club Ss obtaining
significantly more placements and maintaining placements for
longer periods. The kind of job obtained and the starting
salary were comparable for both groups. These same results
were obtained at all five sites (including the Intensive
Manpower Services site). However, the program was not
effective for Spanish speaking clients.

This finding suggests the generalizability of the
program may not be universal. This is the only available
study which included older Ss. It was successful for WIN
Clients who were 45 years of age and over. However, such a
categorization is so broad it probably fails to definitively
confirm the value of this program for individuals in their
late 50s and early 603. No separate statistics for the 65+
group were provided since this group only constituted 3% of
the total sample. Therefore, the generalizability of the
program's effects to older job seekers remains unverified.

Summary. The results of studies which primarily
used multifaceted job search training strategies are positive.
There seems to be substantial support for the premise that
several variations of a behavioral learning based change

strategy can significantly improve placement success.

35

Applicability Of Job Search Training To Older Job Seekers

 

In general, the body of research just reviewed
presents a pattern of findings which appear to support the
efficacy of a behaviorally based approach to improving job
search competence and placement success. On the other hand
a number of methodological deficiencies in this body of
research make it imperative that additional research be
carried out to confirm the utility of these methods with
older individuals.

On the positive side, since five of the seven
placement follow—up studies reviewed were true experiments,
the favorable results reported (which reached statistical
significance in four of the five studies) seem free from
the commonly cited threats to internal validity (Campbell
and Stanley, 1963). While a similar conclusion could be
drawn for the studies which did not include placement
follow up, the fact that these studies were not naturalis-
tically performed and failed to include a socially relevant
outcome measure (i.e. placement), clearly restricts their
value with regard to real world decisions to implement or
not implement an innovation (Fairweather and Tornatzky,
1977). Because of this limitation, the remainder of this
review will focus on the seven studies which provided
meaningful outcome data.

On the negative side, a number of doubts about the

external validity of this body of research can be raised.

36

For instance, the generalizability of these findings to a
group of older individuals is uncertain. Despite the fact
that these programs seemed effective with a number of dif-
ferent client populations, no effect was found for Spanish-
speaking clients (Azrin, 1978) and no meaningful data exists
for older job seekers, except for middle—aged welfare recip-
ients, a rather select group. Since older job seekers expe-
rience very long periods of unemployment, confront ageist
hiring practices, often lack saleable skills, and frequently
want to access a very small part-time job market, it seems
reasonable to conclude that they represent an inordinantly
problematical and unique population of job seekers. To
assume the efficacy of this model of placement facilitation
with older job seekers given these facts, would represent
falling prey to the myth of uniformity of treatment effects
(Kiesler, 1971). Since problems of external validity are
particularly dangerous in research which is geared toward
applied technological use (Paul, 1969), a model job search
facilitation program for older job seekers should be evalu-

ated before widescale dissemination takes place.

A more substantive issue relates to the validity
of the outcome measures reported. One aspect of this prob-
lem involves the fact that the source of placement reports
for these studies appears to be either unconfirmed self
reports or archieval sources which themselves were probably

based on Client self reports. Data collected in this

37

fashion can be quite biased (Fairweather, 1967). If in
addition the data is not collected by naive data collectors
(a fact difficult to discern in these studies) its validity
is also portentially biased by experimenter expectancies
(Rosenthal and Rosnow, 1969). In the research just
reviewed it is quite possible some placement reports may
be induced by a desire to please the experimenter or a desire
to avoid an intervention which is perceived as aversive.
Another area of concern relating to the validity
of the outcomes reported concerns a lack of multiple out-
come measures. Although measurement of placement success
would seem essential to the studies examined here, it alone
does not necessarily constitute an inherently valid measure
of the efficacy of training programs in remediating unemploy-
ment. If one accepts that maintained employment, not just
placement, should be the goal of training programs in this
area, the fact that only two studies reported job main—
tenance data is very disappointing. Davidson et a1. (1974)
and Fairweather and Tornatzky (1977) have described the
importance of obtaining multiple outcome measures in socially
relevant research. Within the body of research just
reviewed, it is quite conceivable that some of the training
programs examined produced placements that do not last. The
lack of job maintenance data in the majority of these studies
precludes a definitive evaluation of the utility of these

programs.

38

Although by no means a fatal flaw, another major
deficiency in this body of research is the paucity of infor—
mation on what process changes occur in the individual's job
search performance and what are the sources of treatment
efficacy. Cronbach (1957) and others (Fairweather and
Tornatzky, 1977; Paul, 1969) have argued for a merging of
confirmatory (experimental) and exploratory (correlative)
research strategies. Such an approach allows the research
to pursue exploratory questions (i.e. sources of treatment
efficacy) within the context of a research design which also
permits causal inferences about the independent variable.

Without a multiple measurement strategy or factor-
ial designs we are likely to make "task confounds" (Kiesler,
1971; Underwood, 1957) and fail to make progress toward
maximally effective and efficient treatments (Kiesler, 1971;
Baer, 1975; Paul, 1969; Davidson and Berck, IDSIL The
implications of not pursuing this strategy can be seen in
the Azrin (1978) Job Club replication. Some of the treat-
ment effect may be due to the fact that the program was man-
datory and was carried out with welfare recipients. Azrin
himself concluded that a large group of early "placements”
may have been welfare "cheats" who could no longer hide
their employment. Such a factor is incidental to the treat-
ment itself and would not be operative with other populations.
Only three of the seven reviewed studies reported multiple

process measures. Therefore we know virtually nothing about

39

how individuals are affected by these programs. A number

of speculations have been offered about the processes
involved in these programs. Various experts have speculated
that some or all of these programs produce the following:
favorable attitudinal changes (Salmone, 1971; Azrin, et al.
1975; Sinick, 1976), increased and broadened job search
behavior (Azrin, et al.,l975, Azrin et al.,1978; Azrin, 1978;
Ugland, 1977; Keith, 1976), increased knowledge of job
seeking methods (Azrin, et al., 1975; Azrin, 1978; Keith,
1976) and expanded helping networks (Azrin, et al., 1975;
Azrin, 1978). Yet none of these speculations have been

definitively confirmed empirically.

Summary

In actuality, truly confirmatory research (partic-
ularly with regard to external validity) is always incre-
mental in nature and perhaps endless in progression (Kiesler,
1971). While the foregoing review has revealed some method-
ological deficiencies in the research on job search training
programs, this approach to enhancing job finding and reducing
unemployment is quite promising. Thus, there seems to be
sufficient reason to experimentally evaluate a model job
search training program with a group of older workers and
retirees. Further, a research strategy should be followed
which strives to eliminate the deficiencies observed in the

studies just reviewed.

40

Experimental MOdel - The Job Club

The job search training model chosen to be imple-
mented and evaluated in the current researchxmusthe job club
program. This specific program was chosen for several
reasons. First, it is the most widely replicated and
thoroughly evaluated program reviewed. In addition, the
extreme difficulty older job seekers appear to experience
in finding a job argues for a program which is both multi-
faceted, targeting a number of placement related areas as
opposed to a single area, and ongoing, permitting assistance
until placement is achieved as opposed to a discrete time
limited program. The job club has both these characteristics.
Further, the potential issue of treatment generalization
does not appear to be as troublesome in the job club since
most job seeking is supposed to take place on site, via
telephone. Finally, although a number of programs used a
group format to training, the job club is unique in its
emphasis on providing support and encouragement particularly
mutual support among members (designed to offset personal
discouragement) and sharing of job leads. These program
characteristics seem almost ideally suited to a group of
job seekers who are widely believed to experience discourage-
ment and who frequently wish to tap into a very selective
and small part-time job market.

The general format of the program used in the

current research evolved over time but was essentially true

41

ofthe prototype. The Older Worker-Retiree Job Club (which
will hereafter be referred to as the Job Club), true to the
original, involved both educative/training sessions and
later on, sessions which are essentially support group and
job search laboratory in nature. Also true to the original,
the Job Club emphasized the use of telephone contacts as

a very efficient search tool.

In contrast to the prototype job club, the
Job Club meetings were only held twice a week since experi—
ence showed that most job seeking and related activities
could be accomplished within this format. More frequent
meetings ran up transportation cost and were judged to
be aversive by most clients during the piloting phase. In
addition, an emphasis was placed on potential part—time
openings as well as traditional full-time jobs. Finally,
consonant with the twice-a-week schedule of meetings and
the more modest part-time employment goals of older job
seekers, an emphasis was placed on a part-time but per-
sistent commitment to job seeking.

The specific content of the program was suggested
by research evidence and/or evolved by trial and error
piloting. Interview training was used in all previously
reviewed studies and when used alone results in some signi—
ficant and near significant placement outcomes for trained
Ss (Stevens and Tornatzky, 1976). Interview training was

therefore used in the Job Club. While Ugland (1977)

42

obtained better placement results by helping structure job
seeking with a set of ”job seekers aids," a ritualized goal
setting and review procedure served a similar purpose in
the current Job Club and also helped structure social rein-
forcement for job search performance. While a number of
the reviewed placement facilitating models used resume
training modules, no particular emphasis was given to this
component. However this procedure when used during the
piloting of this program appeared to elevate client self-
esteem. Therefore, the program curriculum included a
resume training component. Finally since knowledge of job
leads is believed to be a critical ingredient to placement
success (Sheppard and Belitsky, 1966; Jones and Azrin, 1973),
the Job Club provided information about specific job lead
resources via a "directorycu?employment resources," and

by providing clients with specific leads whenever knowledge

of a job opening was obtained by members or staff.

The Current Research

 

Despite the use of sound experimental designs,
research on job search training programs have tended to be
rather simplistic, failing to assess important outcome
areas and ignoring important process questions. In an effort
to avoid these shortcomings, the current researchwneasured
and examined multiple outcome and process dimensions.

The process measures focused on two major issues. First,

43

what are the sources of treatment efficacy. Second, what

is the subjective psychological reaction of the individual
job seeker to his/her job search experience and the inter-
vention he/she experiences. The later concern was prompted
by the prevalence of a "discouragement reaction" hypothesis
in the literature on older job seekers which has never been
operationalized beyond a very simple behavioral definition --
a termination of job search efforts.

More specifically, the Job Club (experimental
program) was implemented as a true experiment in a field
setting. The program was expected to be significantly more
effective than use of traditionally available services
(Control program) in helping older job seekers secure
employment.

It was anticipated that the experimental program
will produce significantly better results in the following
primary outcome areas: placement rate, employment (i.e.
maintained employment), income, and hours worked.

It was also anticipated that the placements obtained
via the experimental program will be comparable to (not
significantly different from) placements obtained via the
control program in the following secondary outcome areas:
degree of employment, permanency of employment, subsidized
employment, job search completed, type employer, job status,

wage and job satisfaction.

44

Further it is anticipated that the experimental
program will produce more placements than the control pro—
gram by producing significant improvements in the following
process areas: knowledge of job seeking, job search
helping network, job search activity, job search and work

expectations, use of effective search methods.

CHAPTER II

METHOD

Context of the Research

 

This study took place within the context of a
community service program, the Older-Worker Retiree Employ-
ment Service (OWRES), run through a local Area Agency on
Aging (AAA). AAAs are responsible for most of the aging
services delivered in a given geographic region.

The OWRES was started in the fall of 1978 to
facilitate the employment of older individuals. It was
staffed by two part—time employees, the author, a volunteer
and an employment specialist, a subsidized position
funded by Senior Community Service Employment Project
(SCSEP) funds. During its early stages OWRES served pri-
marily an information and referral function for older job
seekers. Clients were referred to the Michigan Employment
Security Commission (MESC) or, if they met income guidelines,
were referred to two organizations which employed older
individuals in part-time subsidized jobs.

In the winter of 1978, OWRES expanded its services.
and began running informal ”job club" meetings for its
clients. Subsequently, this pilot program was modified and

refined into the Job Club experimentally evaluated in this

45

46

study. Since considerable cooperation and understanding
between AAA and the author would be necessary to implement
the research project, both parties developed and signed an
administrative agreement covering issues critical to the
successful completion of the project (See Appendix A).

The study setting was a moderately populated
(approximately 380,000) three county portion of the mid-
Michigan area. The majority of the residents lived in an
industrialized metropolitan area (population in excess of
200,000). During the time this study was conducted Michigan
was going through an economic downturn with high unemploy—
ment. However, local rates (8—10%) were generally below

statewide averages which ranged between 10% to 15%.

Subjects

Study participants were "walk-ins" who had heard
about OWRES and the Job Club either through the media or
from various formal or informal service gatekeepers (i.e.
staff of other senior citizen programs, previous clients).
Participation in the study was restricted to individuals
who: a) were 50 years of age or older; b) resided in the
three county area; 0) were not currently employed in a full-
time or part-time job. Individuals who held occasional
employment (on-call or substitute jobs) were accepted into

the study.

47

Sixty-four individuals filed for intake during
the time participants were being accepted into the study,
October 1979 to March 1980. Sixteen individuals either
refused to participate or found jobs prior to their
premeasure.

Forty-eight individuals eventually volunteered for
and subsequently entered the study. These individuals had
the following characteristics: 43.8% were males and 56.2%
were females; 85.4% were white and 14.6% were non-white;
45.8% were married, 25% were divorced, separated or never
married, 29.2% were widowed; 39% called themse1ves "retired”
while only 10.4% stated they were forced to retire; 68.1%
desired part-time employment, 31.9% preferred full-time work;
90% preferred permanent jobs; 68.3% stated financial reasons
for seeking employment; 41.7% qualified for subsidized jobs,
58.3% did not; 47.9% were 62 years of age or younger, 52.1%
were over 62 years of age; the average years of education was
11.3; the average yearly income was $6,645; on the average,
individuals had been looking for work for 12 weeks.

Participants were matched (on whether they
qualified for subsidized employment and order of intake) and
were randomly assigned to the Job Club or the control con-
dition which was labeled Information and Referral condition.
Twenty—four individuals were assigned to each condition.
During the follow-up phase of the of the study one partici-

pant died. Data from this individual and his matched

48

pair were only used for scale analysis, and were not included
in the results reported in the remainder of this study.

In order to evalute how successful random assign-
ment was in creating equivalent groups, a number of chi
square and analysis of variance tests were performed. One
significant difference was found out of 49 comparisons.

Job Club Ss reported higher status occupations for their
spouse's than Information and Referral Ss. Given the large
number of comparisons made, such a finding does not appear
to be noteworthy.

One additional comparison was made. Since demo—
graphic information was available (from the intake form) on
the 16 non-participants (either refused or found jobs
prior to premeasure), these individuals were compared with
Job Club and Information and Referral Ss. Sixteen compari-
sons were made and no significant differences were observed.
Therefore, at least on the basis of the demographic variables
tested there is no evidence that this non-participant group

differed from the study Ss.

Design

The research design for the study was a two group
(Job Club and Control) experiment with repeated measures.
Four assessments were performed (not counting the intake
assessment). Participants were interviewed approximately

one week prior to the programs being made available to them

49

(Premeasure (P)), four weeks after P (Follow up 1 (F1)),
eight weeks after P (Follow up 2 (F2)), and 12 weeks after
P (Follow up 3 (F3)). The time between intake (I) and P
varied since program entry was delayed so that participants
would enter the study as a group (i.e. wave). In order to
obtain an adequate sample, four waves of participants,
totalling 48 individuals, entered the study between October
1979 and March 1980. Figure 1 presents a time referenced
schematic representation of the experimental design and

assessments.

Procedures

 

Recruitment

 

In order to increase community awareness of
OWRES and the Job Club, a number of publicity activities
were undertaken prior to the study's commencement. These
activities included: public service announcements on radio,
TV and in newspapers, mailings to local churches and
physicians, and the postingof fliers at various public
locations around the area. Interested individuals who
made their first contact by telephone were given basic
information and asked to come to the OWRES office in person

to complete intake prOcedures.

50

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51

Intake and Informed Consent

After the intake interview, individuals were pro-
vided information about the Older Worker-Retiree Employment
Project (which entailed getting either the Job Club or
Information and Referral services), sponsored by the local
AAA and Michigan State University and asked to participate
on this service-research project. Information was provided
to prospective participants via a handout and a prepared
script detailing the project's particulars including a brief
description of the two service components they might receive,
the random assignment procedure, the research interviews and
the fee ($3.00) they would receive for each interview.
Volunteers signed an informed consent form approved by the
Human Subjects in Research Committee at Michigan State Uni—
versity (See Appendix B). Individuals who did not meet the
project's eligibility requirements or refused to participate
were referred to other local services and excluded from fur-
ther procedures. A flow chart of the steps involved in pro-

gram entry is presented in Figure 2.

Assignment to Conditions

 

Since the Job Club model relies on a group format
of training and support and because random assignment was
assisted by a matching procedure, volunteers were put on a
waiting list until an adequate participant pool had accumu-

lated from the ongoing intake procedure. Individuals were

52

Figure 2

Flow Chart of Program Entry

INTAKE:

WAITING
LIST:

 

ASSESSMENT: 1

 

 

L—

PREMEASURE

 

 

INTAKE INTERVIEW
AND
PROGRAM DESCRIPTION

 

 

 

 

 

INTERVENTION:

  

 

SCREENING

 

MATCHING

 

RANDOM
ASSIGNMENT

V

 

REFUSED
NOT ELIGIBLE
FOUND J0:

PREMEASURE

 

 

 

JOB
CLUB

53

given an "Instructions to Participants" handout so they would
be aware of the waiting period and the projected target date
for their official entry into the project (See Appendix C).

When the volunteer pool was large enough to begin
a wave (Wave 1:15-20 Ss; Wave 2-4: 6-12 Ss) volunteers were
telephoned to schedule a premeasure interview. At this
point, individuals who had found jobs or changed their minds
about participating in the project were excluded from the
participant pool.

Prior to the premeasure contact, the remaining
volunteers were matched into pairs and randomly assigned to
the Job Club or Control (Information and Referral) programs.
The participants learned which service they would receive
immediately after their premeasure interview (which usually
took place in their home) when they opened a sealed envelope
which contained instructions on how and where to begin using
their assigned service. Up until this time, the interviewer

was also unaware of the assignment.

Matching

A matching procedure was used as an adjunct to
random assignment in order to increase the probability of
producing equivalent groups and thereby minimize the influ-
ence of participant variables on the experimental programs
evaluated in this study (Fairweather, 1967). Obviously, the

usefulness of such a procedure is contingent on using

54

matching variables which are related to outcome (Wood, 1974).
While one could justify matching on a large number of vari—
ables based on this criteria (i.e. status of previous jobs,
education, age, etc.), such a procedure would create pro-
hibitive logistical problems for a study of this size.
Therefore, only two blocking vairables were selected.

Income was selected as a matching variable for two
reasons. First, previously cited evidence suggests income
influences job search behavior and placement (Kasper, 1967;
Nagi and Hadley, 1972; Malhotra, 1976); and second, a number
of subsidized job openings are available exclusively to older
workers who fall below specific income guidelines (like the
SCSEP Program and Green Thumb). Thus, participants were
blocked into two groups, individuals who qualified for sub-
sidized jobs; (poverty level or below) and those who did not
qualify for unsubsidized jobs (above poverty level).

A similar procedure was used to control for the
length of time Ss waited between intake and assignment since
during that time they were potentially looking for work.
Within subsidized and unsubsidized S groups random assignment
was stratified by order of intake into the project. Thus,
the first two unsubsidized intakes into the project formed a
pair and were assigned to either Job Club or Information and
Referral and so on.

In addition, the pair formed by the above procedures

was assigned to a single interviewer. This was done for

55

logistical purposes. It insured that each interviewer
would interview an equal number of Ss in each condition and
in the event an interviewer could not perform an interview
right on schedule, this procedure helped distribute such

discrepancies evenly across conditions.

Data Collection

 

With the exception of intake information which
was obtained by the older worker specialist, all data was
collected by one of five interviewers. These interviewers
(three undergraduates and two graduate students) were paid
research aids working on the project. Interviewers were
trained by the author during the pre-experimental stage of
the project. With the exception of the final follow up
interview (F3) all interviews were conducted face to face at
the interviewees' homes or a place of their choosing. The
last interview (F3) was conducted over the telephone and only
dealt with job placement information. All personal inter-
views were tape recorded and subsequently reviewed by the
author in order to evaluate and provide feedback on the
interviewer's performance.

Subsequently 10% of these tapes were reviewed and

rated for: a) fidelity to the wording of actual items

(i.e., was the question asked as written; yes or no), b)accu-
racy of coded responses (i.e., was stated response coded

correctly; yes or no). Although the poor quality of some

56

recordings introduced problems in carrying out this procedure,
interviewers received a 97% fidelity rating (percentage

accuracy) and a 98% coding rating (percentage agreement).

Conditions

 

Two services or conditions were compared in this
study. The control condition was labeled Information and
Referral and the experimental condition was called the (Older

Worker—Retiree) Job Club.

Control Condition: Information and Referral

Before OWRES began assisting older job seekers
several agencies were already attempting to assist older
individuals to find employment. The Michigan Employment Secu-
rity Commission's (MESC) Job-Service had an older worker
specialist in their local office. The older worker special-
ist's role developed out of the Referral Employment Network
for Elderly Workers (RENEW) program begun in Michigan and
four other states. Essentially, the program uses trained
older individuals as interviewers and job developers for
older workers (45+) within a local state employment office.
The program is intended to facilitate the placement of older
workers and has been described in a recent publication
(Anderson and Fine, 1978). In addition, several agencies
offered employment to older individuals whose income fell

below poverty level.

57

Since an innovative social model's utility is best
gauged by comparison to normally available services, not
a no—treatment control (Fairweather and Tornatzky, 1977),
Control Ss were provided information about and a written
referral to the above-named programs. This referral was
included in the sealed envelope each S received immediately
following the premeasure assessment. It detailed who to see
at the agency, how to get in touch and a target date for
making that contact (which coincided with the start of the
Job Club program), It also made it explicit that the indi-
vidual would receive all future job finding assistance from
these agencies and that the interviewer was not a service

provider but a member of the research staff.

Experimental Condition: Job Club

 

Individuals assigned to the Job Club were notified
in the same fashion as Information and Referral Ss; after the
premeasure interview, they were given a sealed envelope with
a written referral and instructions on how to use their
assigned program. The rationale for using the job club model
in this study was given earlier, the current discussion will
focus on providing an outline of the content and procedures
used in the Older Worker-Retiree Job Club.

As detailed in the introduction a number of factors
including job-seeking knowledge, skillfulness and the per-

formance of job search activities all appear to play important

roles in successful job search efforts. The Job Club
attempted to systematically facilitate client performance

in all of these areas. To achieve this, Ss attended a one
day Job Club Workshop and an ongoing series of bi-weekly Job
Club meetings. The Job Club Workshop served the following
functions: orientation, education and skill training. The
bi-weekly Job Club meetings, in addition to serving education
and training functions, also served as a support group and

a task oriented laboratory for actual job search activities.

Job Club Workshop. The introductory workshop

 

occurred on a Friday in a large meeting room at the AAA Office.
The workshop lasted approximately five hours including a free
lunch break. The workshop was led by the Job Club trainer
(the author, who has been leading similar meetings for
several months during the pre-experimental stage of the pro-
ject), who was assisted by the Job Club employment specialist.
A variety of training methods and techniques were
used during the workshop meeting. Participants were given
a ”Job Club Training and Resource Manual" which contained
copies of forms and resource materials covered during the
meeting. At the beginning of the workshop, members of the
OWRJC were asked to participate in a ”consciousness—raising"
discussion of problems and advantages of becoming an older job
seeker. A discussion paper was used to suggest areas for
discussion. The paper ends on a very positive note describing

reasons many employers give for preferring older workers and

59

gives a short thumbnail sketch of recent "Job Club members"
and the jobs they found.

The remainder of the morning sessions were instruc-
tional or discussion oriented, covering the background of
the program, how the program worked, membership agreements
and goal setting procedures. After a lunch break, members
attended instructional sessions on job lead sources and a
goal setting exercise focused on obtaining job leads. This
concluded the first day workshop. Materials used in all
these procedures were contained in the "Job Club Training
and Resource Manual.”

Each new wave of Ss attended their own Job Club
Workshop but then joined the members of earlier waves
(except the first wave) at Job Club meetings.

Job Club Meeting. Job Club meetings were an on-

 

going event. During these meetings members were trained in
three addttional areas including resumes, phone contacts and
job interviews. However, since attendance was voluntary, not
every member attended every meeting, nor necessarily experi-
enced every module. A prototype agenda of the workshop and
the next four Job Club meetings is provided in Appendix D.
The ongoing Job Club meetings followed a standard
and rather simple format. The meetings occurred every
Tuesday and Thursday afternoon beginning at 1:00. The
meetings began with a review of goals set by members at pre-

vious meetings. Both Azrin (1978) and Pumo, Seyle and Cogan

60

(1966) used a similar procedure. Since positive mutual sup-
port was a rule of the Job Club, any job search goal comple-
tion was acknowledged and reinforced. If need be, this was
modeled by the Job Club trainer and employment specialist.
Within the context of the goal review, discussions and task
oriented problem solving occurred. The trainer facilitated
group participation by using appropriate group discussion
leader techniques (Fry, 1978).

If all training modules had been covered, the next
part of the session was used for structured job search acti—
vities. Members were given available resources (i.e. his-
torical job leads list, job openings called into OWRES, news-
papers, telephone books, etc). A unique and sometimes pro-
ductive resource was job leads obtained from a public bulle-
tin board at Michigan State University. The Job Club trainer
copied these job leads and distributed them at the bi-weekly
Job Club meetings. Members were encouraged to use telephones
in the meeting roomsto pursue and follow up job leads immedi-
ately. In addition, training related needs which surfaced
during a meeting (for instance, someone has an upcoming
interview) were handled by repeating a given module, having
a member go over materials or by simply pairing off a less
competent member with someone more skilled in that area, the

so-called "buddy system."

61

Measures

The preceding literature review suggested a number
of important and relevant areas for assessment. Measures
selected for use in this study were chosen because they might
help answer one of the following questions: a) Is the Job
Club program an effective method for increasing employment
among the target population?; b) How (through what mechanisms)
does the Job Club help people find employment?; 0) What is
the individual's subjective psychological reaction to the
job search experience and the intervention they experience?

More specifically, all measures used in this study
can be divided into one of five assessment areas. ‘The five
assessment areas include: participant measures, primary out—
come measures, secondary outcome measures, process measures --
sources of treatment efficacy, and process measures -- sub-
jective psychological reactions. Table 2 lists all the indi-
vidual measures by assessment area and assessment wave.

Unless specifically stated otherwise, all of the
measures described above were collected at each of the major

assessment waves (P, F1, F2).

Scale Construction

 

In order to simplify the analysis and interpreta-
tion of the large numbers of items used in this study, a num—
ber of scale construction and item analysis strategies were

used. Specifically, the response frequency of all scale items

62

Table 2

Measures by Assessment Area and
' "Assessment Waves

Assessment Area Assessment Wave
' Measure I P Fl" F2

Participant Measures
Demographic X X

Primary Outcome Measures

 

 

 

 

Placement X X
Employment X X X
Income/Hours X X X

Secondary Outcome Measures
Placement Descriptors X
Job Satisfaction X X

Process Measures-Sources of
Treatment Efficacy;

__Knowledge X X X
Job Search Activity/Day X X X
Job Search Network X X X
Expectations (a) X » X X
Program Description X X
Job Club: Attendance (b) X X
Job Club: Co-members named (b) X X

Process Measures-Subjective
Psychological Reactions
RDI-Activity X X X
RDI-Financial X X X
RDI-Health X X X
RDI-People X X X
Personal Optimism X X X
Programatic Optimism X X X
External Optimism X X X

 

(a) not asked after permanent job found
(b) asked of Job Club Ss

63

were reviewed. Low variance items were discarded from fur-
ther analysis. For instance, if 90% or more respondents
gave a single response, the item was discarded. Next, scales
were examined via factor analysis using principle factoring
with varimax rotation (Kim, 1975) to discover if any factor
structure (intended or otherwise) existed within a given
scale. In addition, the item total correlations and the
internal consistency of the scales were examined. Finally
the correlation matrix of scales was examined to insure that
individual scales were reasonably orthogonal. The inter-
scale correlation matrices for assessment waves P, F1 and
F2 are included as Appendix E, F and G respectively. Through-
out these refinement steps the logical-conceptual intent of
the scales and items was also weighed when a decision was
made to modify a standard or rationally constructed scale.

The portion of the premeasure which contains parti-
cipant measures is included as Appendix H. All other measures
can be found in the follow up version of the questionnaire

which is included as Appendix 1.

Participant Measures

 

An assortment of personal demographic descriptors
(i.e. age, race, education, etc.) were obtained via the in-
take interview and later via the Premeasure interview. Fur-
ther information about one's employment history was obtained
during these interviews (i.e. length of longest job, days

job searching, etc.) (See Ql-l4a, Appendix H).

64

Primary Outcome Measures

 

The overriding objective of the Job Club interven-
tion is to help participants secure paid employment. There-
fore, using Fairweather's terminology (1967), job placement
is the desired "social change outcome criterion” for the
intervention. Because this outcome measure is so critical
to the evaluation of the program, all reported placements
were validated by Checking with the employers. Permission
for this procedure was obtained from Ss at intake.

Placement. Data was collected at F1, F2 and F3

 

about job placement (new employment). All placements were
confirmed by checking with reported employers. In two
instances, efforts to confirm placements revealed Ss reported
placements which never actually materialized. Therefore,
their responses were re-coded as "no new job" (See Q15,
Appendix I).

Employment. This variable reflects one's current

 

employment status. This variable, when examined over time,
is a meaningful measure of job maintenance. Employment was
assessed at P, F1, F2 and F3 (See Q1, Q9, Q15, Appendix I).

Incomelflours. Most Ss gave "financial reasons" (68%

 

for seeking employment. Thus, income derived from employment
constitutes a critical measure of program success. A final
important parameter of one's employment is the number of

hours worked. It is a meaningful measure of the extent or

65

degree of employment. Subjects provided their income and
hours since the previous interview (four weeks). Income and
hours were assessed at P, F1 and F2 (See Q5—7, 12-14, 32-35,

Appendix I).

Secondary Outcomes

 

A number of other parameters of the placement are
important enough to be examined as outcome, albeit secondary
outcomes, of the interventions. Only Ss who actually found
employment were considered in these analyses. In general
these variables represent more qualitative aspects of the
placement.

Placement Descriptors. Specific characteristics

 

of all new placements were obtained at F1, F2 and F3. New
employment (full time, part time or occasional), permanency
of employment (permanent or temporary), subsidized employment
(yes or no), job search completed (yes or no) and type
employer (private business, governmental or private individ-
ual). In addition, mean scores for the following variables
will be examined: job status (on a nine point scale from
Hollingshead (1959)), and wage paid (See Q16, l7, 18, 22,

23, 28, 34, Appendix 1).

Job Satisfaction. A number of sources suggest that

 

older workers frequently must settle for relatively unattrac-

tive, low paying and low status positions (Riley and Foner,

66

1968; NCOA, 1966; NCOA, 1975). While these job character-
istics will be evaluated directly (based on placement des-
criptors) a S's personal evaluation of a given job is also
important. In order to obtain information on this dimension,
Ss who found a new job were asked to rate his/her job on the
”Faces” scale (Smith, et al., 1969). This method of rating
job satisfaction (a Check mark next to one of six smiling

or frowning faces) is very simple and quick and seems appro-
priate for the current study where Ss will necessarily have
had a very brief tenure on their jobs. Smith, et a1. (1969)
reported a correlation of .64 between this measure and the
total satisfaction score of their 103 item Job Descriptive

Index scale.(See Q31, Appendix I).

Process Measures-Sources of Treatment Efficacy

The measures described in this section attempt to
tap factors which may explain why an intervention is effec-
tive or ineffective.

Knowledge About Job Seekingé A major focus of the

 

experimental program is to increase knowledge of job lead
sources and effective methods of job seeking. Keith (1976)
found knowledge of job search information and techniques
was associated with placement success in his research.

A number of items were rationally constructed to

measure job seeking Knowledge. Thirteen true/false questions

 

about job seeking techniques and processes believed to

67

influence job search success were constructed. For example,
Ss were asked,"Most interviewers make up their minds about
hiring an interviewee in the first few minutes of the inter—
view?” In addition, Ss were asked, via an open—ended ques-
tion, to name as many sources of job leads as they could.
These answers were coded and a point was given for each
unique type of job lead source named.

Rational-empirical scale construction analyses
refined this set of items into a single scale composed of
ten true/false items and the open—ended job leads item.
Three of the original true/false measures exhibited
negative item to total correlations and were discarded.
The internal consistency of this new ll—item scale ranged
from .63 to .69 across the assessment waves. A complete
list on this scale and the internal consistency analysis at
F1 is given in Table 3.

Job Search Activity. The association between per-

 

forming job search activities and placement success (frequency
and specific activities) has been reported in a number of
previously cited studies (Sheppard and Belitsky, 1966;
Dyer, 1973; Ugland, 1977 and Keith, 1977). Increasing job
search activity, particularly effective job search activities,
is a major focus of the Job Club.

Regrettably, a number of administrative and prac—
tical problems made it very difficult to meaningfully measure

and interpret Ss' job search activity. One measure,

Question

Knowledge-Internal Consistency Analysis

No.

 

Q139
Ql40
Ql41

Q143

Q144

Q145

Ql46

Q148

Q150

Q151

Q152

68
Table 3

Scale = Knowledge
(High score — High knowledge)

Corrected Item/
Total CorrelatiOn

Item

 

 

Sources of job leads
Go directly to an employer
Find job through a newspaper

Asking friends an ineffective
method

Interviewers decide in a few
minutes

Job leads by phone a waste of time

Be low key not enthusiastic in an
interview

Do not put intangibles on your
resume

Silly to ask employer about other
job openings

It is okay to take a friend to
your interview

It is pushy to ask when a decision
will be made

.56
.26

.20

.50

.02
.45

.48

.40

.37

.44

.46

 

 

Alpha

.64

69

Applications Filed, was discarded because it was left off an

 

early version of the follow up questionnaire.

Another problem was making sense of a time-referen-
ced report of job seeking. Since job seeking activity may
have begun shortly before P and may terminate abruptly (when
a job was found), the following measurement and data manage-
ment steps were taken: a) activity items on the P question—
naire only covered activities performed during the week
(seven days) prior to the interview; b) activity items on
the F1 and F2 questionnaire covered activities performed
since the last interview (28 days); c) all activity items
were standardized for time, by dividing the reported activi-
ties by the number of days referenced in the question (i.e.
activities/day); d) one exception to this rule was when Ss
reported obtaining a permanent job, in this case, reported
activities were divided by the number of days between the
last interview and the day Ss were aware of their employment.
Even with these actions the resulting measures still exhibited
some extreme outliers which had to be recoded back toward the
mean. In addition, no truly fair way of adjusting the
scores of temporary job finders was found.

Rational-empirical scale construction analyses were
performed with the five remaining items (resumes used, leads
obtained, leads checked, interviews and hours of job search).

The internal consistency of the five item Job Search Activi-

 

tiesZDay scale ranged from .60 to .80 across the assessment

70

waves. A complete list of items on this scale and the
internal consistency analysis at F1 is given in Table 4.

Job Search Network. As previously noted, there is

 

considerable support for the proposition that most people
find jobs with the assistance of friends, relatives and
acquaintances. Further, the job club model attempts to
capitalize on this means of finding employment by instruc-
ting participants to contact their own "network" for job
leads and by having members find leads for each other hope—
fully expanding extant networks and increasing perceived
support and encouragement (Azrin, 1978).

In an effort to measure the size of an individual's

perceived Job Search Network Ss were asked, "How many people

 

do you believe are actively trying to help you find a job
now? Name them." This measure was scored by counting the
total number of helpers named.

Expectations. A number of authors believe job

 

seeker attitudes contribute to one's placement success
(Associates for Research in Behavior, 1966). Further, a
number of studies anecedotally report observing changes in
various affective areas during or after job search training
(Pumo, Seyle, Cogan, 1966; McClure, 1972; Azrin and Flores,
1975). However, there is no empirical evidence to support
these beliefs. Since expectations of positive and negative
outcomes are known to affect behavioral performance (Bandura,
1977; Andrisiani, 1977) an effort was made to measure Ss'

job search and work expectations.

71
Table 4

Job Search Activities/Day
Internal Consistency Analysis

Scale = Job Search Activity/Day
(High score = More activities)

Corrected Item/

 

 

Question No. Item Total Correlation
Q25a Number of resumes distributed .46
Q27 Number of interviews .60
Q28 Number of leads obtained .64
Q28a Number of leads checked .67
Q30 Number of hours searched .69

 

 

Alpha .67

72

The items used to create this scale were statements
dealing with expectations about certain outcomes possible
within the job searcher-worker roles. Subjects were asked
to respond within a Likert scale format of strongly agree
to strongly disagree. Examples include: "The advantage of
being employed far outweigh any problems and difficulties I
can think of”; "My next job will probably be pretty inter-
esting";'I expect to do well in a job interview.”

Since the majority of these items were worded as
expectations about job searching and work and become either
non-sensical or take on a completely different meaning after
Ss had secured employment, this scale was not used at F1 or
F2 for Ss who secured employment and reported that their job
search was completed.

Rational-empirical scale analysis resulted in a
single lS-item scale covering both job search and work issues.
Two items were dropped from the original rationally-construc-
ted scale. The internal consistency of the l8-item scale
ranged from .63 to .74 across the three assessment waves. A
complete list of items on this scale and the internal con-
sistency analysis at F1 is given in Table 5.

Program Description. Subjects were also asked via
an open—ended question, to describe the program they received
and comment on how it affected their job search efforts.
Transcripts of these comments were typed from tapes and will
be used anecdotally to help explain the outcome and processes

of the interventions.

73

Table 5

Expectations—Internal Consistency Analysis

Scale = Expectations
(High score = Positive expectations)
Corrected Item/

 

 

 

Question No. Item Total Correlation

Q44 I expect to do well in a job

interview .45
Q45 The more jobs applied for - the

better chances are ... .34
Q46 Job search interferes with social

life and responsibilities .28
Q47 My next job will be interesting .24
Q48 Some will have to find me a job .24
Q49 A job will make me more independent .40
Q50 Do not get job quickly - will be

discouraged .10
Q51 Desperate - will take first job

that comes .09
Q52 When working - will feel better

about self .43
Q54 Do not look forward to work res-

ponsibilities .33
Q55 Number of people will help me fin

a job ' .34
Q56 I feel condident I can get a job .55
Q57 Advantages of working outweigh

problems .42
Q58 My coworkers will like me .33
Q59 I know where to find job openings .43
Q60 Interviews do not turn out like

you hope .19

Continued

74
Table 5

Expectations—Internal Consistency Analysis (cont.)

Corrected Item/

 

 

 

Question No. Item Total Correlation
Q62 Know - employer looking for
employee like me .31
Q53 Selling myself to employer a
challenge .27

 

 

Alpha = .69

75

 

Job Club Processes. The structured format of the
Job Club made it possible to measure certain potentially
important aspects of the Job Club process.

1. Attendance. Research on the job club model

 

(Azrin,et al., 1975) indicates that placement success is
related to continued, persistent attendance at Job Club
meetings.

A sign-in book of attendance at OWRJC meetings was

kept and coded to produce the measure, Attendance Percentage

 

(percentage of meetings attended until placement occurred).

2. Sociometric Measure. A major focus of the Job

 

Club program is to facilitate mutual helping behaviors, sup-
port and encouragement among members (Azrin, et al., 1975).
If such a process develops it might lead to positive affect
on the part of members toward each other. One way to measure
such an effect would be through a sociometric measure
(Nunnally, 1959).

In order to measure the level of affect, Job Club
Ss were asked to make sociometric judgments about their
co—members. Items were worded to measure the 88' perception
of the affect and attraction of other Job Club members toward

them. Thus, Job Club Ss were asked to complete three state-

ments, " would stop and talk to you if they saw you on
the street,” " would like to have you working at the
same place as them," and " would consider you to be a

close friend." (See Q153-158, Appendix I).

76

Members were asked to complete this measure twice,
once by naming co-members and a second time by placing a
check mark next to a list of co-members. This was done
because each method seemed likely to introduce its own
unique method variance; naming co—members might be influenced
by memory and the check list format might be influenced by
social desirability demands. The sociometric questions were

scored yielding the following measures: Co-members Named

 

and Percentage Co-members Named (of all co-members they have

 

attended meetings with).

Process Measures-Subjective Psychological Reactions

 

The accepted Department of Labor definition of a
discouraged worker is someone who stops looking for work.
However many of the references to the discouraged older job
seeker seem to allude to his or her psychological (subjective)
reaction to job seeking. Thus, the measures described in
this section attempt to assess aspects of the job seeker's
subjective response to job seeking, their success or failure
and the intervention they are experiencing.

Life Satisfaction. The subjective evaluation of

 

one's well being, or life satisfaction, is a major area of
psychological inquiry, particularly among older individuals
(Riley and Foner, 1968). While significant correlations
have been observed between life satisfaction and a number of

personal and psychological measures, it is particularly

77

relevant to the current study to note that both income (Gray,
1978) and being employed (Riley and Foner, 1969; Meier, 1970)
have been reported as significant correlates of life satis-
faction. Further, although there is no empirical research
on the topic, it seems reasonable to hypothesize that the
exigencies of job seeking cause the older job seeker to "drop—
out” (Kreps, 1966) may also influence life satisfaction and
that these influences may be moderated in some way by the
interventions examined in this study.

The Retirement Descriptive Index (RDI) (Smith, et
al., 1969), an analogue of the better known Job Descriptive

Index, was used to measure Life Satisfaction in this study.

 

RDI is a very simple, paper and pencil measure of life satis-

faction composed of four factors or subscales (RDI-Activities,

 

RDI-Finaneia1,RDI-Health and RDI-People). Subjects completed

 

 

 

this measure by responding to descriptors of each factor

(i.e., RDI-Activities: Relaxing) with one of three answers

 

(Yes, No, ?). Previous research indicates that RDI exhibits
good psychometric properties including low subscale inter-
correlations (Smith, et al., 1969) and subscale internal con—
sistencies ranging from .79 to .86 (Schmitt, White, Coyle and
Rauschenberger, 1979).

Internal consistency analyses and examination of
inter—scale correlations confirmed the psychometric properties
of four scales described by Smith, et al. (1969). The only

exception was that two RDI-Financial subscale items, ”well off"

 

78

and ”high income” exhibited very low variance and were dis-
carded from further analysis.' Similar to the studies just
cited, RDI subscales exhibited high internal consistency

(RDI-Activities, 18 items, alpha range = .78 to .82; RDI-

 

Financial, 18 items, alpha range = .84 to .88; RDI-Health,

 

 

9 items, alpha range = .74 to .76; RDI—People, 18 items,

 

alpha range = .78 to .84) and low subscale intercorrelations,
averaging .225. A complete list of items on these scales
and the internal consistency analyses at F1 is given in
Table 6.

Optimism. In the absence of an adequate atti-

 

tudinal measure of job search discouragement (or encourage-
ment) an effort was made to rationally construct a job
search optimism scale.

The items used to create this scale were factors
which might exert some influence on the success of an indi-
vidual's job search. Subjects were asked to label each
factor as "hindering," having "no effect," or "helping"
their job search success. For example, Ss were asked to
label the influence of "the methods of job seeking I use”
and "the attitude of employers toward older workers" on the
help-hinder continuum. The items were scored on a pessi-
mistic-optimistic dimension.

Rational-empirical scale construction analyses was
performed on the 12 original items. Factor analysis with

principle components and varimax rotation was performed and

79
Table 6

Retirement Descriptive Index Subscales -
Internal Consistency Analysis

(High score =

Question No.

 

Q64
Q65
Q66
Q67
Q68
Q69
Q70
Q71
Q72
Q73
Q74
Q75
Q76
Q77
Q78
Q79
Q80
Q81

Scale = RDI-Activity

 

High satisfaction)

Corrected Item/

 

Item Total Correlation
Tiresome .27
Discouraging .36
Exciting .41
Good .02
Fascinating .22
Hard .23
Boring .40
Challenging .37
Interesting .36
Useless .41
Limited .17
Same thing everday .42
Creative .57
Nothing to do .27
Nothing to look forward to .55
Relaxing .47
New things to do .49

Give sense

of accomplishment .54

 

 

Alpha = .78

80
Table 6

Retirement Descriptive Index Subscales —
Internal Consistency Analysis (cont.)

RDI—Financial
High satisfaction)

Scale
(High Score

Corrected Item/

 

 

 

Question No. Item Total Correlation
Q82 Barely live on income .46
Q83 Insecure .60
Q84 Satisfactory .60
Q86 Steady .28
Q87 Bad .64
Q88 Need outside help .61
Q89 Worry about it .64
Q91 Good pension plan .09
Q92 Have to make do .42
Q93 Serious financial problems .71
Q94 No money to meet emergencies .52
Q95 Income from investments .33
Q96 Need hlep from children .44
Q97 Income from investments .26
Q98 Self-supporting .34
Q99 Good life insurance plan .37

 

 

Alpha = .84

81
Table 6

Retirement Descriptive Index Subscales —
Internal Consistency Analysis (cont.)

 

 

 

Scale = RDI-People
(High score = High satisfaction)
Corrected Item/
Question No. Item Total Correlation
Q109 Worried .41
Q110 Boring .49
Qlll Active .61
Q112 Sympathetic .32
Q113 Confident .62
Qll4 Too quiet .68
Qll5 Complaining .74
Qll6 Stubborn .40
Qll7 Good .08
Q118 Too slow .51
Q119 Narrow interests .70
Q120 Intelligent .41
Q121 Stimulating .47
Q122 Talk too much .40
Q123 Interesting .58
Q124 Hard to meet .10
Q125 Healthy .18
Q126 Interested in doing things .62

 

 

Alpha

.85

82
Table 6

Retirement Descriptive Index Subscales -
Internal Consistency Analysis (cont.)

Scale = RDI-Health
(High score = High satisfaction)

Corrected Item/

 

 

Question No. 112m Total Correlation
QlOO Have a lot of minor ailments .60
Q101 Need little or no medical care .17
Q102 Feel tired all the time .72
Q103 Must be careful what I do .39
Q104 Excellent .55
Q105 Failing .41
Q106 Never felt better .47
QlO7 Poor .57
Q108 Better condition than most people

my age .50

 

 

Alpha

.76

Optimism Subscales - Internal Consistency Analysis

 

83

Table 7

Scale = Personal Optimism

(High Score = More optimistic)

Corrected Item/

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Question No. Item Total Correlation
Ql33 Methods of job seeking you use .36
Q134 Amount of time/effort put into

job search .72
Q135 Your motivation to find a job .60
Q136 Your personality .45
Q137 Your job interview skills .35
Alpha = .73
Scale = External Optimism
(High score = More optimistic)
Q12? No job opening in local area .34
Q130 Other job seekers .42
Ql3l Luck .26
Q132 Attitude of employers toward older
job seekers .49
. Alpha = 59
Scale = Programaic Optimism
(High score - More optimistic)
Q138 Employment program I belong to .52

Q129

Staff who work on program

 

 

84

suggested three factors. These factors were further refined
during internal consistency analyses; two items which exhi-
bited low item to total correlations were discarded at this
point. The component scales formed were labeled Personal

Optimism (5 items, alpha range = .69 to .80), Programmatic

 

Optimism (2 items, r range = .52 to .81) and External
Optimism (4 items, alpha range = .51 to .58). A complete
list of items on these scales and the internal consistency
analyses at F1 is given in Table 7.

Two considerations argue for using care in inter-
preting these scales. First, items asked at P were worded
with a future or expectancy perspective ("will have") while
F1 and F2 items were worded with a retrospective perspective
("has had"). Thus, if comparisons of P versus F1 or F2 are
made they should be interpreted with caution. Second,
since these items were asked of all Ss at F1 and F2, some
subjects were already placed while others were still looking
for work. Clearly, Ss who had already found a job had a
great deal of justification for feeling positive (i.e.,
optimistic) about various factors in relation to their job
search. Therefore, comparisons of successful versus unsuc-

cessful Ss on these scales would probably not be very

meaningful.

CHAPTER III

RESULTS

Analyses of primary and secondary outcome
measures, those which most directly relate to the evalua-
tion of the experimental programs, will be the first
portion of the results examined. Next, analysis of various
process measures and their relationships to the experimental
conditions and an overall measure of success/failure will be
presented.

Analyses of variance for repeated measures
reported below were performed with the BALANOVA computer
package available at MSU. These analyses are based on
algorithms presented in Scheffe (1959). In addition,
multivariate analyses of variance were conducted within
measure. Since the findings of the multivariate analyses
were consistent with the univariate comparisons, only the

univariate analyses will be discussed.

Primary Outcomes

 

Placement

 

Chi square analysis was used on the variable
placement (i.e. even placed during the twelve week follow-

up period). Table 8 presents the cell and marginal

85

Outcome

X 2

X2

14.81

86

Table 8

- Condition by Success—Failure.

 

Count Condition
Row. Pct.
Col. Pct.
Tot. Pct. Job Club Control
fl 11
19.0 81.0
Failure 17.4 73.9
8.7 37.0
12 E
76.0 24.0
Success 82.6 26.1
41.3 13.0
23 23
sfifo SOTO

 

 

 

 

 

Df

87

frequencies for the condition by placement relationship.
The Job Club condition had a 82.6% Placement rate, while
Information and Referral had a 26.1% rate. The chi square
for this distribution was significant at p = .0001.

In subsequent analyses this variable; placement,
(Yes or No) will be used as a criterion variable and coded

Success or Failure.

Employment

 

A composite employment variable was created to
reflect ”new employment” or "continuation of a new employ-
ment” at each assessment wave. Employment was then analyzed
by a two by three (Job Club versus control by F1 versus F2
versus F3) analysis of variance with repeated measures.

Table 9 presents the group means for employment
(not employed = O, employed = 1). The main effect for
condition and for time were both significant. Scheffe-
post-hoc comparisons were performed in order to determine
the extent and nature of the significant findings. Job
Club employment rates were significantly higher than Control
rates across the entire follow-up period and at each
assessment period. In addition, Job Club employment rates
exhibited a significant increase from F1 to F2 and F3
while Control rates remained stable. (Because of the large
number of analyses performed in this study, it should be

assumed that all Scheffe's analyses performed are post-hoc

88
Table 9

Employment - Group Means

 

Condition F1 F2 F3
Job Club .39 .62 .74
Control .04 .22 .22

 

 

Employment - Analysis of Variance

Source 2: MS F 2322; w2
Condition (A) l 6.52 20.668 .0005 .19
Subjects (C) 44 .316

Time (D) 2 .899 7.884 .001 .05
A x D 2 .087 .763 .469

C x D 88 .114

 

 

 

89

and that all significant findings are significant at or
below the .05 level of significance.)

Six Ss reported occasional employment at P which
continued till F1. These jobs are not reflected in the
outcome measure just examined since it only captures new
employment (placement) and its continuation. However,
analysis of variance with repeated measures and Scheffe
tests for a composite variable reflecting ”any employment"
across P, F1, F2, F3 (two by four) also resulted in a
significant condition (Job Club Control at F2, F3) and

time (only Job Club increased) main effects.

Income

Income (total income earned from new employment
and its continuation during past four weeks) was analyzed
by a two by two (Job Club versus Control by F1 versus F2)
analysis of variance with repeated measures.

Table 10 presents the group means for income and
the summary of the analysis of variance. Main effects for
conditions, time, and conditions by time were all signifi—
cant. According to Scheffe analyses, Job Club Ss earned
significantly more money than Controls during the combined
follow-up period and during the period ending at F2. In
addition, Job Club Ss exhibited a significant increase in
income earned from F1 to F2 while Control income remained

stable across the same period. Eight weeks after the study

 

90

Table 10

Income (past four weeks) - Group Means

 

 

C x D

44 11096.9

 

Condition £1 £2
Job Club 92.04 203.78
Control 4.17 19.73

Income - Analysis of Variance
Source Di MS F Prob. wZ
Condition (A) l 425136.0 5.725 .021 .08
Subjects (C) 44 74253.7
Time (D) l 93185.8 8.398 .006 .19
A x D l 54184.2 4.793 .034 .01

 

 

91

started, the average Job Club S had earned $204 (over the
previous 4 weeks) and the average Control S had earned $20
during the same period.

Analysis of variance with repeated measures of
income derived from any employment (two by three; Job Club
versus Control by P versus Fl versus F2) was also calculated
resulting in the same main effects and essentially the same
trends in means. Once again Job Club income was signifi-
cantly greater than control income across the entire
follow—up period, F1 and F2, and during the period ending

at F2.

11222

Hours (total hours worked at new employment and
its continuation during past four weeks) was analyzed by a
two by two (Job Club versus Control by F1 versus F2)
analysis of variance with repeated measures.

Table 11 presents the group means and the summary
of the analysis of variance. Main effects were observed for
conditions, time, and conditions by time. According to
Scheffe analyses, Job Club Ss worked more hours for the
entire follow—up period and during the period ending at F2.
In addition, Job Club Ss exhibited a significant increase in
hours worked from F1 to F2 while Control hours remained
stable across the same period. Eight weeks after the

study started the average Job Club S was working 45 hours

 

92

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 11
Hours (past four weeks) - Group Means
Condition F1 F2
Job Club 19.43 45.95
Control 13.48 6.04
Hours - Analysis of Variance
Source 2: MS F Prob. O2
Condition (A) l 19343.0 7.472 .009 .10
Subjects (C) 44 2588.7
Time (D) 1 5603.5 8.516 .006 .03
A x D 1 2739.2 4.163 .047 .01
C x D 44 658.0

 

 

93

per month while the average Control was working 6 hours per
month.

Analysis of variance with repeated measures of
hours worked derived from any employment (two by three; Job
Club versus Controls; P versus F1 versus F2) was also cal—
culated resulting in the same main effects and the same

trend in means.

Summary

Job Club Ss exhibited significantly higher place-
ment rates, employment rates, income, and hours worked
compared to Control Ss. Job Club superiority for employ-
ment, income and hours worked were observed for the combined
follow—up period and for at least the final follow—up
assessment. No significant increase in employment, income,
or hours was observed for Control Ss across the various

assessment waves (P to F3 or P to F2).

Secondary Outcomes

 

Table 12 reports the frequencies and group means

of the secondary outcome measures for only those Ss who

 

reported any employment (N = 25; Job Club = 19, Control = 6).

 

If a S reported more than one new job during the follow-up
period (N = 7) the score given to their last job was used.
Chi square analysis indicated no significant

differences between jobs obtained by Ss in the two conditions

94

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96

on the following variables: degree of employment, permanency
of employment, subsidized employment, job search completed,
and type of employer. No significant differences were
obtained from analysis of variance of job status, job
satisfaction or wage by condition, although in each instance

mean differences favored Job Club Ss (job satisfaction:

Job Club = 4.8/9, Control = 3.5/9; job status: Job Club

4.2/6, Control = 3.0/6; wage: Job Club = $3.90, Control
$3.27).

While the types of jobs Ss in the two groups
found were comparable, in a number of respects placements
were less than ideal. For instance, all placements (both
groups) taken together had the following characteristics:
56% were temporary (includes 16% occasional), 44% did not
result in the job search being completed, the average job
status was 3.9 on a scale of 9, and the mean wage was $3.73.

Some additional data may shed more light on the
issue of temporary employment. Although the obvious problem
with temporary placements is that unemployment may be
right around the corner, there is some evidence that this
is not an insurmountable problem. During the course of
the study 10 individuals had their temporary employment
terminated. However, 7 of these Ss (6 Job Club, 1 Control)
subsequently found new employment. Only 3 Ss placed during
the study (2 Job Club, 1 Control) were no longer employed

at F3.

97

Process Measures H Sources Of Treatment Efficacy

In order to assess the relationship of the follow-
ing process measures to outcome, a dichotomous measure,
Success—Failure, was created. This measure is identical
to the measure ”placement" described above. However, since
some interviews occurred well past the target date, some
process data was missing and the majority of process analyses
were done with 43 rather than 46 SS.

The combination of condition and Success—Failure
resulted in the following distribution of 85: Job Club-
Success, N = 18; Job Club-Failure, N = 4; Control-Success,

N = 6; Control-Failure, N = 15. It should be noted that
this unbalanced distribution of Ss among cells will cause
the analysis of variance to be only approximate. Further,
while Scheffe analyses will be accurate, the mean difference
needed to reach significance will vary depending on the N

in the cells being compared. Specifically, cells with

small N will have to have a larger mean difference to
achieve significance than cells with larger Ns.

Unless stated otherwise, process measures were
analyzed using a two by three by two (conditions by time

by Success—Failure) repeated measures design.

Knowledge

 

Table 13 presents the summary of the analysis of

variance and the group means for the Knowledge scale. A

 

 

Knowledge — Group Means

98

Table 13

 

 

 

 

 

Condition P F1 F2
Job Club Failure 18.00 18.75 18.75
Success 20.27 22.60 22.77
Control Failure 19.73 19.50 19.60
Success 20.16 19.66 18.83
Knowledge - Analysis of Variance
Source 2: MS F 2392; O2
Condition (A) l 8.42 .432 .515
Failure/
Success (B) l 62.13 .186 .082 .04
A x B l 67.19 .445 .071 .04
Subjects (C) 39 19.50
Time (D) 2 2.96 .884 .417
A x D 2 11.68 .491 .036 .01
B x D 2 .84 .251 .778
A x B 2 4.17 .247 .293
C x D 72 3.35

 

 

99

significant main effect was found for condition by time and
condition by outcome. According to Scheffe analyses, Job
Club Ss scored higher than Control Ss during the entire
follow-up period (F1 and F2). More specifically, this
effect is due to the fact that Job Club-Success Ss scored
significantly higher than all other subgroups (Job Club—
Failure Ss, Control—Success Ss, and Control-Failure Ss)
during the entire follow-up period (F1 and F2). In addi—
tion, Job Club Ss and Job Club-Success Ss exhibited a

significant increase in Knowledge from P to F1, and P to

 

F2 while all other subgroups remained stable.

Job Search Activity/Day

 

In the methods section it was pointed out that
a number of problems dictated standardizing activity reports
by the time period during which they were performed.

Results of the analysis of the Job Search Activity/Day

 

scale should be prefaced by noting that several alternative
approaches to analyzing this scale were attempted and found
wanting. Analysis with 3 levels of time (P, F1, F2) would
have necessitated excluding any S who found a permanent job
by F1. Analysis with only the first two levels of time

(P, F1) would have ignored all post Fl activities. A one
way analysis at each time period would have ignored changes
over time relative to a group's previous score. None of

these approaches seemed adequate.

100

Although the approach chosen was not perfect it
seemed the best alternative. Thus, the data was handled as

follows: the Job Search Activity/Day scale for the period

 

prior to P was compared with the same scale for the entire
follow-up period (from P to F2 or from P to when permanent
employment was secured). Thus, the design used was a 2 by
2 by 2 (Job Club versus Condition by P versus F1 and F2 by
Success versus Failure) analysis of variance.

Table 14 presents the group means and the summary

of the analysis of variance for the Job Search ActivityLDay

 

scale. None of the main effects reached statistical
significance,although the condition by time by outcome
interaction approached significance. However, Scheffe
analyses failed to detect any significant differences in
the group means.

Placement-Source of Job Lead. Since what a per-

 

son does in the course of job seeking, as opposed to how
much s/he does, may exert an influence on placement
success, Ss were asked to identify the source of the job
lead that resulted in their placement. Table 15 presents
the reported frequency of each job lead source and the
computed chi-square.

Although the chi square was not significant, the
pattern of lead sources for both conditions is revealing.
Almost half of all Job Club placements (8) were obtained by

information supplied by friends, etc., and direct

101
Table 14

Job Search ActivitY/Day — Group Means

 

 

Condition P F1 and F2
Job Club Failure 1.04 .77
Success .76 1.19
Control Failure .49 1.08
Success 1.25 .88

 

Job search ACtiVitY/Day — Analysis of Variance

 

 

Source Df MS F Prob. wz
Conditions (A) l .003 .002 .961
Failure/Success (B) l .468 .336 .565
A x B l .161 .115 .736
Subjects (C) 42 1.394
Time (D) 1 .137 .178 .675
A x D l .006 .007 .931
B x D 1 .066 .086 .778
A x B x D 1 2.567 3.344 .075
C x D 42 .768

 

102

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table 15
Sources of Job Leadsfor Placements - Frequencies
and chi—square.
Condition
Source Job Club Control
Direct Application 2 O 2 8%
Friends, etc. 6 0 6 24%
Newspaper 2 2 4 16%
”My program" 5 2 7 28%
Public notice 2 0 2 8%
Other agency 2 2 - 4 16%
19 6
76% 24%
2 _ _
X = 6.23 P - N.S.

103

application. Control Ss obtained no placements via these
sources. In addition, over twice as many Job Club Ss
obtained jobs via information furnished by ”my program”

as did Control Ss. In the case of Control Ss, this pri-
marily meant MESC. It appears Job Club placement superior-
ity derives from better productivity from a range of lead

sources and not just a single type.

Job Search Network

 

Table 16 presents the summary of the analysis of

variance and the group means for the Job Search Network

 

measure. Significant main effects were found for time and
condition by time and a near significant effect was found
for conditions. According to Scheffe analyses, Job Club Ss

reported a significantly larger Job Search Network than

 

Controls, during the combined follow-up period (F1 and F2).
However, only the F1 comparison was significant when
examined separately. In addition, Job Club Ss exhibited a
significant increase in their reported network from P to
F1. Although Job Club Ss exhibited a significant decline
in reported network from F1 to F2, this comparison was not
significant when Job Club-Success Ss were examined alone.
In addition, they (all Job Club Ss) still report having a

significantly larger Job Search Network at F2 than at P

 

while Controls remain stable throughout. At F1 Job Club

Ss feel they have twice as many people helping them find

 

104

Table 16

Job Search Network - Number of People -
Group Means

 

 

 

 

 

 

Condition Outcome P F1 F2

Job Club Failure 1.50 .75 2.25
Success 1.50 .61 3.05

Control Failure 1.33 .53 1.73
Success 1.50 .00 1.83

Job Search Network - Analysis of Variance

Source 2: MS F ngb;_ w2

Condition (A) l 20.33 3.368 .074 .04

Failure/

Success (B) l 1.21 .201 .657

A x B 1 .003 .000 .983

Subjects (C) 39 6.04

Time (D) 2 12.04 9.481 .0005 .05

A x D 2 6.26 4.938 .010 .03

B x D 2 .280 .221 .803

A x B x D 2 .827 .651 .524

C x D 78 1.27

 

 

105

employment (3.6) as Controls (1.66).

Job Search and Work Expectations

 

The analysis of variance of Expectations failed

 

to reveal any significant or near significant main effects

or interactions.

Job Club Processes

 

The extent to which members participated in the

Job Club was measured by Attendance Percentage (percentage

 

of meetings attended until placement occurred). Also the
perception of affect/attraction from other Job Club members
was obtained from a sociometric instrument, yielding two

measures: Co-members Named and Percentage Co-members Named.

 

 

Once again it should be kept in mind that when these
evaluations were given some Ss were already employed. The
correlation of these measures with the Success-Failure out-
come measure is reported in Table 17.

Only the correlation of Attendance Percentage for

 

the entire follow-up period (P-F3) was significantly (and

positively) correlated with Placement although the

 

Attendance Percentage measures for the period P-Fl and P-F2
were nearly significant. None of the sociometric measures
of perceived affect/attraction were significantly correlated

with Placement, although they were positively correlated.

 

These results provide support for the belief that

106
Table 17

Correlation of Job Club Process Measures with

placement

 

 

 

 

Variable N r p

Percentage Attendance 23 .285 .093
(P - F1)

Percentage Attendance 23 .307 .070
(P - F2)

Percentage Attendance 23 .363 .045.
(P - F3)

Open Ended Format

Co-members Named (F1) 20 .247 .147

Percentage Co-members Named (F1) 20 .209 .188

Co-members Named (F2) 20 .113 .393

Percentage Co-members Named (F2) 20 .245 .145

Check List Format

Co-members Named (F1) 18 .004 .494

Percentage Co-members Named (F1) 18 .068 .390

Co-members Named (F2) 20 .245 .149

Percentage Co—members Named (F2) 20 212 .184

 

107

frequent attendance at Job Club meetings is (significantly)
related to placement success. However, they fail to provide
support for the proposition that the extent to which one
feels "liked” by other job members is also related to

SUCCESS .

Summary
There is some evidence of differential process
effects between the two conditions which may affect out-

come. Job Club-Success Ss increased on the Knowledge scale

 

and subsequently exhibited significantly more job search

Knowledge than any other subgroup during the follow-up

 

period. In addition, Job Club Ss, regardless of Success-

Failure, reported a significantly larger Job Search Network

 

than Controls during follow-up. No significant between
group differences nor other effects were found in the Job

Search Activities/Day measure although a condition by time by

 

outcome interaction verged on significance. Finally, when

only Job Club Ss were considered, attendance (Percentage

 

Attendance) at Job Club meetings was shown to be a signifi-

 

cant correlate of success.

Process Measures-Subjective Psychological Reactions

 

All of the following process measures will be
analyzed with a two by three by two (conditions by time by

Success—Failure) repeated measures design.

108

Life Satisfaction - RDI

 

Table 18 presents the summary of the analysis of

variance and the group means for the RDI-Activity scale. A

 

significant main effect was found for outcome and a near
significant effect was found for time by outcome. Accord-
ing to Scheffe analyses, Success Ss had a significantly

higher RDI-Activity score at P than Failure Ss, however,

 

no significant differences existed between these groups
during the follow-up period. This latter finding can be
explained by noting that Success 85 exhibited a significant

decline in RDI—Activity from P to F1 and F2. Apparently,

 

job seekers who report high satisfaction with the
activities they perform while not working are better candi—
dates for employment or are better equipped for job seek-
ing. However, their satisfaction in this area declines
during the course of their job search.

Table 19 presents the summary of the analysis of

variance and the group means for the RDI-Financial scale.

 

A significant main effect was found for time. According to
Scheffe analyses, financial satisfaction increases for all
Ss from P to F1 and F2. However, when more specific com—
parisons are made it becomes evident that this difference

is due to increases in certain subgroups. A significant
increase from P to F1 and F2 occurs for Job Club Ss but

not Control Ss. When Success Ss and Failure Ss are examined

only the Job Club Success Ss and the combined Success Ss

109
Table 18

RDI-Activities — Group Means

 

Condition Outcome P F1 F2

Job Club Failure 41.87 45.00 42.50
Success 48.50 46.05 46.60

Control Failure 43.06 43.00 44.06
Success 51.16 46.33 48.00

 

 

RDI—Activities Analysis of Variance

 

Source 2: MS F 2392;
Condition (A) l 20.22 .246 .623
Failure/

Success (B) 1 477.47 5.812 .021
A x B l 5.38 .066 .799

Subjects (C) 39? 82.16

Time (D) 2 6.62 .297 .744
A x D 2 19.40 .871 .423
B x D 2 57.80 2.595 .081
A x B x D 2 2.82 .127 .881

C x D 78 22.27

 

 

 

 

110

Table 19

RDI—Financial - Group Means

 

 

 

 

 

 

Condition Outcome P F1 F2
Job Club Failure 29.5 32.5 33.0
Success 30.5 32.2 33.5
Control Failure 29.2 29.9 30.4
Success 35.8 33.1 38.1
RDI-Financial Analysis of Variance
Source 2: MS F BEER; w2
Condition (A) l 19.02 .113 .738
Failure/
Success (B) 1 218.36 1.302 .261
A x B 1 165.24 .985 .327
Subjects (C) 39 167.71
Time (D) 2 49.25 5.294 .007 .01
A x D 2 21.03 2.261 .111
B x D 2 15.45 1.661 .197
A x B x D 2 6.67 .706 .497
C x D 78 9.30

 

 

111

(Job Club and Control) exhibit a significant increase from
P to F1 and F2. Among Control Ss only the F1 to F2 increase
for Success Ss is significant. On the whole, it appears

that the increase in RDI-Financial satisfaction, P to F1

 

and F2, is primarily accounted for by increases exhibited
by Success Ss.
Table 20 presents the summary of the analysis of

variance and the group means for the RDI-Health scale. No

 

main effects reached significance for this measure, how-
ever, the condition by time and the condition by time by
outcome effects approached significance. According to
Scheffe analyses, one noteworthy change occurred. Job
Club—Failure Ss exhibited a significant decrease in RDI-
Health from P to F1 and F2. This deterioration in health
satisfaction, possibly reflecting a real deterioration in
health, may be an important clue to this subgroup's lack
of responsiveness to the Job Club intervention and ultimately
their lack of placement success. None of the other compar-
isons were significant.

None of the main effects or interactions for

RDI-People reached nor approached significance.

 

Optimism
It is important to remember that S optimism

response (hinder, no effect, help) given at P were expecta—

tions and those given at F1 and F2 were retrospective

 

RDI-Health - Group Means

Table 20

112

 

 

 

 

 

Condition Outcome P ‘_Fl_ _32_

Job Club Failure 24.0 21.0 20.2
Success 23.4 23.2 23.2

Control Failure 22.6 23.2 23.2
Success 22.5 22.5 22.1

RDI—Health Analysis of Variance

Source 2: MS F BEER; OZ

Condition (A) l .741 .020 .889

Failure/

Success (B) l 4.64 .123 .727

A x B l 26.45 .704 .407

Subjects (C) 39 37.59

Time (D) 2 6.68 1.496 .230

A x D 2 10.27 2.302 .107 .006

B x D 2 3.53 .792 .457

A x B x D 2 10.14 2.273 .110

C x D 78 4.46

 

 

113

evaluations of the factor under consideration.
Table 21 presents the summary of the analysis of

variance and the group means for the Personal Optimism

 

scale. Significant main effects were found for time and
near significant effects were found for time by outcome.
According to Scheffe analyses, all Ss (combined conditions)

exhibit a significant decline in Personal Optimism from P

 

to F1 and F2. In addition, Failure Ss, Success Ss, Job
Club and Control Ss exhibit the same significant decline
when examined separately. Although Success 88 (combined

groups) show no decline in Personal Optimism between Fl

 

and F2, the significance of this fact is questionable since
at least some of this group already had jobs prior to
giving a response at F2. Only Failure Ss continue to

exhibit a significantly decline in Personal Optimism between

 

F1 and F2.
Table 22 presents the summary of the analysis of

variance and group means for the External Optimism scale.

 

A significant main effect was found for time. According
to Scheffe analyses, all Ss, Control Ss and Failure Ss

exhibited a decline in External Optimism from P to F1 and

 

F2. Because of this decline, Control Ss were significantly
lower than Job Club Ss, and Failure Ss were significantly
lower than Success Ss on this scale at F1 and F2. Control-
Failure Ss also exhibited the same significant decline

from P to F1 and F2. The stability of External Optimism

 

Table

114

21

Personal Optimism — Group Means

 

 

 

 

 

 

Condition Outcome P F1 F2

Job Club Failure 13.50 13.25 12.00
Success 14.80 12.50 13.44

Control Failure 14.00 12.86 11.86
Success 14.60 12.00 12.16

Personal Optimism Analysis of Variance

Source 2f _M§__ F 3392; w

Condition (A) l 1.42 .195 .661

Failure/

Success (B) 1 1.75 .241 .627

A x B l 1.36 .187 .668

Subjects (C) 39 7.29

Time (D) 2 26.80 11.985 .0005 .09

A x D 2 2.42 1.083 .344

B x D 2 6.62 2.959 .058 .02

A x B D 2 .593 .265 .768

C x D 78 2.24

 

 

115

Table 22

External Optimism - Group Means

Condition

 

Job Club

Control

Outcome

Failure

Success

Failure

Success

 

9.50

9.20

9.40

9.10

Fl

9.25

8.50

7.60

8.60

F2

8.25

9.22

7.90

8.10

 

 

External Optimism-Analysis of Variance

Source
Condition (A)

Failure/
Success (B)

A x B
Subjects (C)
Time (D)

A x D

B x D

A x B x D

C x D

D_f_A_4§_
1 5.36
l .552
l .689

38 4.45
2 7.58
2 .950
2 1.37
2 3.01

78 1.62

 

l.

204

.124

.155

4.

646

.586

.847

l.

854

Prob.

.279

.727

.696

.012
.559
.433

.163

 

.04

 

 

116

among Job Club 88 throughout follow-up is undoubtedly due
to the high percentage of Success Ss in their ranks.

Table 23 presents the summary of the two by three
analysis of variance (Job Club versus Control by P versus

F1 versus F2) and group means of Programatic Optimism scale.

 

Significant main effects were found for condition, time,
and condition by time. According to Scheffe analyses, Job
Club Ss (both subgroups) rate their program significantly
higher than Controls at F1 and F2. In addition, Control Ss
(both subgroups) exhibited a significant decline in their
evaluation of their program from P to F1 and F2. Apparent—
ly Control Ss, regardless of success or failure, became
less optimistic about their program, while Job Club Ss,

including Job Club-Failure Ss, maintain high Programatic

 

Optimism about the Job Club's helpfulness.

Summary

A number of process Changes were observed which
appear to be associated with condition, time, Success—
Failure and/or their interaction. Specifically, Ss who
eventually found jobs (Success Ss) exhibit significantly

higher RDI-Activity than Control Ss at P. During the

 

course of job seeking Success Ss exhibit a decline in

RDI-Activity and an increase in RDI-Financial. In addition,

 

 

Job Club-Failure Ss exhibit a significant decline in RDI-

Health from P to F1 and F2. Withstanding these changes, 85

IIIIIIII
:IIJIIII Illlllll

117
Table 23

Programatic Optimism - Group Means

 

Condition Outcome
Job Club Failure
Success
Control Failure
Success

P

 

5.75

5.88

5.86

6.00

5.75

5.66

4.86

4.83

F1

F2

6.00

6.00

4.80

5.50

 

 

Programatic Optimism Analysis of Variance

Source 2:
Condition (A) 1 5.
Failure/

Success (B) l
A x B 1
Subjects (C) 39
Time (D) 2 2.
A x D 2 1.
B x D 2
A x B x D 2
C x D 78

MS

04

.169
.719
.899
72

99

.122
.634

.364

 

5.611

.188

.799

7.468
5.472

.334
1.740

Prob.

.023

.667

.377

.001

.006

.717

.182

 

.05

.06

.04

 

 

118

appear to maintain a relatively stable pattern of R2;
satisfaction scores.

The large number of optimism changes observed,
with a few exceptions, tended to be associated with Success
versus Failure differences. In addition, differences
observed between Job Club and Control Ss were generally
attributable to the unbalanced number of Successes and
Failures in these two conditions. While such trends would
be noteworthy for other measures, the fact that many if not
most Success Ss were already placed when they made their
retrospective judgements (F1 and F2), gives a rhetorical
flavor to these results. Such findings could be paraphrased
as follows: individuals who have found work exhibited
more positive (optimistic) evaluations about factors
influencing their job search than individuals who failed to
find work.

One exception to the Success versus Failure
pattern may be worth noting. Job Club-Failure Ss main-

tained a high and stable Programatic Optimism from P to F1.

 

On the other hand, their counterpart among Control Ss
(i.e. Failure Ss) have experienced a significant decline.
While both have experienced no placement success by F2,

Job Club Ss exhibit significantly higher Programatic

 

Optimism during F1 and F2 than Control Ss.

CHAPTER IV

DISCUSSION

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the
effectiveness of the job club approach of facilitating
employment with a group of older workers and retirees. In
the course of evaluating the Job Club an effort was made to
better understand the sources of treatment efficacy and the
subjective psychological reactions of older job seekers to
the exigencies of job seeking and the interventions they
experienced. The research design-for‘achieving these ends
was a two condition experimental comparison of the Job
Club and a Control program (Information and Referral) with
repeated measurement. Systematic assessment of participants
via structured personal interviews began just before Ss
received assistance (P) and four weeks (F1) and eight weeks
after P. A final follow-up assessment took place via tele—
phone 12 weeks after P (F3). Measurement efforts focused on
five assessment areas: participant measures, primary out-
come measures, secondary outcome measures, process
measures -- sources of treatment efficacy, and process
measures —- subjective psychological reactions. The results
obtained support the utility of the Job Club program as a

method of increasing employment among the target population

119

120

and help shed some light on the underlying processes involved

in the interventions and the job search experience.

Program Effectiveness

 

The major research question under investigation
asks, "Is the Job Club program an effective method for in-
creasing employment among older individuals?” Although some
qualifications must be raised about the quality of resultant
placements, the weight of the evidence just presented
supports the efficacy of the Job Club with older job
seekers. Specifically, the Job Club program was found to be
superior to the Control program (which amounted normally
available services) for every primary outcome measure
examined. All between group comparisons on the primary
outcome measures were statistically significant.

The placement rate realized for Job Club Ss after
12 weeks (82.6) was three times the rate of Control Ss
(26.1% . Such a high rate of success in such a short period
of time is particularly noteworthy in light of evidence
that long term unemployment is a major problem for older
job seekers (Jaffee, 1978; Schram and Osten, 1978).

The placement superiority of the Job Club program
was apparent and statistically significant by the first
follow-up assessment (F1). At this point, 4 weeks into the
study, 39% of Job Club Ss were employed while only 4% of

Control 85 were employed. At F3, 74% of Job Club 88 and

121

22% of Control Ss were employed. Further, at 12 weeks F3
Control employment 'rates were still below the rates
achieved after four weeks for Job Club Ss (39%).

Since 68% of all Ss gave "financial reasons” for
seeking employment, the income derived from working con—
stitutes another critical parameter of success. In contrast
to employment, however, significant between group differences
on income and hours worked are not observed until F2. This
delayed effect is no doubt due to the latency between
securing employment and generating income and hours worked.
Nonetheless, by F2 (eighth week) the average Job Club S had
earned $204 over the previous month and worked 46 hours com-
pared to Control Ss who had earned $20 for six hours of work.
Clearly, the evidence indicates Job Club Ss are more likely
to have fulfilled their financial reasons for seeking
employment.

Although Azrin et. al.'s original job club study
(1975) resulted in superior placements (i.e. higher salary
and more skilled jobs), his more recent large scale repli-
cation (Azrin, 1978) produced placements that were compar-
able (at least as good) to control placements. Similar
results were observed in the current study. For instance,
Job Club placements were slightly better (but not signifi-
cantly) than Control placements in terms of wage, job satis-

faction and job status.

122

While Job Club placements were usually somewhat
better than or at least comparable to placements normally
obtained by older job seekers, regrettably, in a number of
respects, the types of placements older job seekers normally
find leave much to be desired. In the present study, over
half of all placements (56%) were temporary and slightly
under half (44%) were such that the individual stated that
their job search would continue. In addition, the average
position tended to be low status (3.9 on a scale of 9) and
low pay ($3.74/hour). These findings are consistent with
the evaluations of a number of sources who conclude that
older job seekers frequently must settle for less desirable
jobs (Riley and Foner, 1968; NCOA, 1966; NCAO, 1975).

Another sign of the marginalness of some of the
placements can be seen by noting that the employment rates
for both conditions at F3 (Job Club = 74%; Control = 22%)
are lower than the previously mentioned placement rate (Job
Club = 82.6%; Control = 26.1%). This discrepancy exists
because three Ss who were placed during the study (two Job
Club and one Control) were no longer employed at week 12.
These "placement failures" occurred among individuals who
secured temporary jobs.

Although permanent placements are desired by most
older job seekers (90% of the current sample) and should be
pursued, there is reason to believe that the Job Club pro-

gram can deal with the problem of cyclical unemployment

123

inherent in such positions. The ongoing nature of the Job
Club would seem well suited to assisting someone to secure
repeated placements. In fact, as was noted in the results,
six of the eight Job Club Ss who had a new placement termi-
nated were subsequently employed and working again at F3.
In actuality, one contributor to this problem is
the preference of many older job seekers (particularly
retirees) for part-time employment. Sixty—eight percent of
study Ss stated a preference for part-time employment. In
general, part-time employment is more likely to also be
temporary and low paying employment (Morse, 1969). This is
probably particularly true during periods of economic down-
turn, like the past two years in Michigan. While other
factors, including ageist hiring practices, may exacerbate
this situation, the nature of the part-time job pool is
probably a critical factor in the poor quality placements

obtained by older job seekers.

Summary
While the Job Club program has failed to appreci—

ably improve upon the quality of jobs normally obtained by
older job seekers, it appears to be an effective employment
program for the target group. After a relatively short time
a significant increase in employment resulted and accrued
until 74% of all Job Club Ss were working after 12 weeks

(compared to 22% for Control Ss). Further, the fact that

124

Job Club 83 were earning significantly more income than
Controls by eight weeks into the program (F2) suggests that
they have fulfilled their financial reason for seeking

employment.

Sources of Treatment Efficacy

 

While the current research and other studies
(Azrin, et a1. 1975; Azrin, 1978) provide support for the
efficacy of the job club model as a placement facilitating
tool, there is very little empirical evidence to explain
how or why it works. Since the program is quite complex,
involving elements of modeling, role—playing, written and
oral educative devices, social reinforcement, resource
development and other facets, it will be difficult, if not
impossible, to precisely sort out all of the critical and
instrumental elements of the program. On the other hand,
the process results reported earlier and opportunities for
contrast and comparison inherent in a replication like the
current study provide some basis for attempting to begin to

unravel the job club "black box.U

Intensipy of Job Seeking

 

For instance, some have reported that the inten-
sity of job seeking is causally related to placement success
(Sheppard and Belitsky, 1966; Dyer, 1973; Gower, 1975). Since

the Job Club attempts to structure and prompt job seeking

125

activity, it is possible the Job Club is effective because

it increases the amount of job seeking performed, one
dimension of intensity. However, the current results fail

to provide strong support for this proposition. The analysis
of variance of Job Search Activity/Day for conditions by time
by Success/Failure did not reveal any statistically signifi-
cant main effects nor trends in the means. While a slight
increase in job seeking activity occurred for Job Club-
Success Ss during follow up, the increase was non—significant,
and there was no parellel increase among Control-Success Ss
(in fact when the means are examined, they decline slightly).
Thus, these results fail to provide any meaningful support
for the belief that increased job search frequency is a
source of the Job Club's effectiveness.

In actuality, the current research does not repre-
sent an ideal test of the relationship between intensity of
job seeking and placement success. Problems surrounding
the self-report nature of job search activity reports and
the abrupt commencement and termination of job seeking
were never satisfactorily resolved in this study. Further,
this study did not assess data on the diversity of job
search methods used, supposedly another parameter of
intensity (Sheppard and Belitsky, 1966).

Clearly, while the current study fails to provide

strong support for the hypothesis that intensity of job

126

search is related to job placement, neither does it provide

a strong basis for rejecting this hypothesis.

Method of Job Search

 

Another belief about the job club program (Azrin,
et. al., 1975; Azrin, 1978) posits that the training pro-
vided in the job club makes individuals better job seekers
(i.e., they use more effective methods). If Job Club Ss
do in fact become more effective job seekers, they would
first have to know the useful information and methods and they
would then have to put them to use. The results provide
some information on both these issues and provide at least
partial support for the belief that Job Club Ss become
better, more effective job seekers.

On the first issue, knowledge of useful informa-
tion and methods, results provide strong evidence that Job
Club Ss, specifically Job Club-Success Ss, increase their

Knowledge over the course of the study. The analysis of

 

variance of the Knowledge scale indicated that Job Club-

 

Success Ss exhibited significantly higher Knowledge than
Job Club-Failure Ss and Control Ss (regardless of subgroup)
during the follow-up period. In addition, only Job Club—
Success Ss exhibited a significant increase in job seeking

Knowledge from P to F1 and F2. Control Ss (both subgroups)

 

exhibited stable Knowledge across the assessments.

 

127

If the assumption stated above is correct, that
is, that knowledge of effective job search information and
methods is one dimension of being an effective job seeker
(along with the actual use of the information and methods),
these results provide at least indirect support for the
belief that part of the Job Club's effectiveness is due to
its ability to enhance job seeker competence.

Regrettably, the measures used in this study do
not provide an appropriate data base for demonstrating
whether, and to what extent, Job Club Ss put their increased

Knowledge to use. Detailed information on what methods

 

job seekers used, how well they used them and how often
they used them was not collected . With such information
one could prove (or disprove) much more directly whether

Job Club Ssxuxethe Knowledge they appear to possess.

 

However, S reports of the source of the job lead
information which resulted in their placement provides
some basis for examining this question. Although these
reports, when analyzed, did not indicate a significant dif-
ference between the two conditions on this measure, the
findings are revealing. First, while the distribution of
job leads sources for the two groups is not significantly
different, Job Club Ss obtained as many or more jobs from
every category examined. Further, Job Club Ss obtained nine
placements (42% of their total) from friends, relatives, etc.,

and by directly applying for a job. A number of sources

128

(U.S. Department of Labor, 1975; Parnes, et al., 1969;
Bradshaw, 1973) have reported that these are the two most
effective methods of obtaining (information resulting in)
employment. In contrast, no Control S obtained a placement
via these methods. It is noteworthy that only the individual
job seeker can capitalize on these sources of job leads.
Although it cannot be confirmed in this study, it seems
possible that the training provided in the Job Club make
Job Club Ss more aware of the value of these methods and
prompted Job Club 85 to make better use of these two
valuable sources of job information.

The findings of this study do not directly
establish the connection between the Job Club program,

job search Knowledge, use of effective job search methods

 

and ultimately placement success. However, they provide

strong support that the Job Club and Knowledge link exists

 

and provide suggestive evidence that changes in Knowledge

 

may lead to the use of more effective search methods and in

turn placement.

Support and Encouragement

 

Although a number of the job search training
programs examined earlier used a group based format of
training, the Job Club model is unique in its emphasis on
providing support and encouragement particularly mutual

support and encouragement among members. In fact, this

129

feature of the model was one of the primary bases for
choosing to adopt the Job Club in this research. It is
believed that the support and encouragement apparently
fostered by the Job Club may be a critical element in
its success (Azrin, et. al., 1975; Azrin, 1978).

Measures examined in this study which bear on the
issue of support and encouragement include: gpp

Search Network, the Progpamatic Opimism scale and the

 

 

sociometric based measures, Co—Members Named and Percentage

 

 

of Co-Members Named. The results presented in this study

 

appear to confirm the belief that Job Club Ss perceive more
support than Control Ss, although there appears to be little
basis for concluding that this effect will, in and of itself,
eventuate in placement.

Specifically, Job Club Ss (regardless of subgroup)
reported a significantly larger Job Search Network (i.e.,
number of people believed to be helping them find employ-
ment) than Control Ss. However, there is no significant
difference in the size of the Job Search Network reported by
Job ClUb—Success and Job Club-Failure Ss. Similarly, on
a programatic level, Job Club Ss (both Success and Failure
Ss) exhibited significantly higher Programatic Optimism at
F1 and F2 than Control Ss (both Success and Failure).
Parenthetically, it should be noted that the increase in

Job Search Network failed to affect RDI—People satisfaction.

 

 

130

Since the sociometric based Co—Members Named
(reflecting perceived affect/attraction from other members)
was positively but not significantly correlated with Success-
Failure, it seems reasonable to conclude that while support
and encouragement may be promoted within the Job Club,
its existence alone is probably not a sufficient to produce

placement.

Expectations

A number of authors have suggested that expecta—
tions of positive or negative outcomes can moderate success-
ful performance in various areas (Bandura, 1977; Andrisani,
1977). However, the current results, based on a measure of

job search Expectations, do not support the usefulness

 

of this construct in explaining the effects of the Job Club

or placement success.

Replication with Variation

 

Some additional information relevant to the issue
of sources of treatment efficacy can be obtained by comparing
and contrasting the Job Club program examined here and the
prototype Job Club. Since the two versions of the job club
approach were both effective, despite some significant
differences, these variations provide a basis for speculating

on essential and extraneous elements of the job Club approach.

131

Specifically, the Job Club program examined in the
present study is considerably more simple and less compre—
hensive than the prototype job Club. The present version
only met twice per week, stressed a part-time but persistent
approach to job seeking, and only focused on four training
areas: knowledge of job seeking, resumes, telephone skills
and interview skills. In contrast, the protype job club
met five times per week, stressed a full-time commitment to
job seeking, and focused on a number of additional training
areas.

Since both programs were successful, one could
reasonably hypothesize that the simpler less rigorous
version implemented in this research is as effective as the
prototype program. Obviously while the current findings tend
to provide support for such a hypothesis. to venture a con—
clusion on this issue would be premature. Ultimately, the
question being raised touches on the generalizability of
the two models and possible treatment by selection inter-
actions which can only be resolved by additional replica-

tions (Campbell and Stanley, 1963).

Summary

The current study failed to provide support for

the importance of either Job Search Activity/Day and

 

Expectations as critical elements of the Job Club's effec-

 

tiveness. However, these results do suggest that the Job

132

Club does influence in some fashion job search Knowledge,

 

perceived support and encouragement, as measured by Job

Search Network and Programatic Optimism, and possibly method

 

 

of job search used. Since changes in most of these areas
was associated with placement success for Job Club Ss, these
process changes appear to be sources of the program's
efficacy. Further, results suggest that the job club model
may be a relatively robust innovation since the current

less intense and less comprehensive replicate achieved a

high degree of success.

Subjective Psychological Reactions

 

In general, the results presented in this study
provide little basis for concluding that the conditions
examined in this study per se, were responsible for observed
psychological changes. Instead, it seems more likely that
Changes occur because of one's success or failure in the job
search, or that one's success or failure is related in some
fashion to one's psychological orientation. For this reason,
the current section will focus on profiles of successful

and unsuccessful job seekers.

Successful Job Seekers

 

Because the Optimism scale responses of Success Ss
were predictably higher than Failure Ss and were not very

revealing, this section will focus on significant trends in

133

the RDI scales.

According to the results presented in this study,
individuals who eventually secure job placements have the
following profile: they are more likely to have a high

RDI-Activipy satisfaction score at P (compared to Failure

 

Ss), and exhibit a significant decline in this score in the
course of their job search (and placement); they are more
likely to exhibit a significant increase in their RDI-

Financial satisfaction score during the follow—up period;

 

they appear stable with respect to RDI-Health.

 

It seems reasonable to conclude that the observed

increase in RDI-Financial satisfaction for Success Ss stems

 

from increased income derived from employment. On a more
speculative level, one might hypothesize that the simul—

taneous decline in RDI—Activity satisfaction stems from

 

losses of leisure time freedom necessitated by employment.
If such is the case, it means that, for this sample of
older individuals anyway, employment results in a tradeoff
between activity and financial satisfaction. Leisure
freedom is sacraficed for financial security and an equili-
brium of life satisfaction is maintained.

It is difficult to explain the superiority of

Success 85 on RDI-Activity at P. If this relationship is

 

not spurious (a possibility given the large number of
measures used in this study) one must conclude that satis-

faction with activities and/or some determinent of

134

RDI-Activipy makes an individual a better job seeker or at

 

least more marketable.

Unsuccessful Job Seekers

 

Individuals who failed to find employment during
the course of this study have the following profile: they

are more likely to have a low RDI-Activity satisfaction

 

score at P (compared to Success Ss), however, their score
remains stable during follow up and is equal to the RDI-
Activity satisfaction score of Success Ss at F2; their RDI—

Financial satisfaction scores are stable during the study;

 

they exhibit a significant decline in their Personal Optimism

 

score from P to F1 and from F1 to F2; they exhibit a signi-

ficant decline in their External Optimism score from P to

 

F1 and P to F2. Job Club and Control-Failure Ss differed in
two respects. First Control-Success Ss exhibited a signi-

ficantly lower Programatic Optimism score during follow-up,

 

while Job Club-Failure Ss exhibited a stable and high score
across the three assessments. Also, while Control-Failure
Ss exhibit a stable RDI-Health satisfaction, from P to F1
and F2, Job Club-Failure Ss exhibit a significant decline in

their RDI—Health during the same period.

 

The stability of RDI-Activity over time for Failure

 

Ss suggests that the decline in this area experienced by
Success Ss was due to employment and not job seeking. How—

ever, an alternative explanation with some merit would be

135

that these two groups approach job seeking differently
(which is supported by differential change for a number of
process measures) and that this difference accounts for the
differential change observed for these two groups.

The decline in RDI-Health among Job Club-Failure

 

85 seems noteworthy. It is possible that these individuals
actually experienced health problems during the study. This
would also help explain their failure to respond to the Job
Club as reflected in less attendance at Job Club meetings,

lower Knowledge, and lower Job Search Activity/Day. On the

 

 

other hand, we have no objective measure of health problems.
It is just as possible that this group was a victim of the
retirement precipitated hypochandria alluded to by Cobb and
Kasl (1972) and Strieb (1956).

The trends observed on the Optimism scales for
Failure Ss may be a representative profile for a discouraged

job seeker. Failure Ss lowered their Personal Optimism, and

 

their External Optimism as the study progressed. In addition

 

Control-Failure Ss, but not Job Club-Failure Ss, lowered

their Programatic Optimism. This latter finding may be

 

significant. If an individual at least maintains a positive
evaluation of their employment program, in this case the Job
Club, they may persist in their job search long enough to

eventually succeed.

 

136

Summary

The study results provide evidence of a number of
psychological changes among participants during the course of
the study. These changes are predominantly related to whether
an individual eventually succeeds or fails.

In the course of their job search and employment,
Success Ss appear to trade off activity derived satisfaction
for increased financial satisfaction. Further, being more
satisfied with one's activities or a correlate of this
reaction appears to predispose Ss to placement success. In
contrast, Failure Ss tend to exhibit a stable pattern of
satisfaction over time. One significant exception to this
trend occurs for Job Club—Failure Ss, who report a signifi-

cant drop in RDI-Health. While this decline helps explain

 

their failure, it is not Clear if this change is caused by
a real health decline or so—called ”retirement precipitated
hypochandria.” Finally, the tendency for Failure Ss to
reduce their Optimism was not evident for Job Club-Failure

Ss on Programatic Optimism, a phenomenon which may facilitate

 

job search persistence and forestall the discouragement

reaction.

Research Implications

 

The appropriateness of implementing a longitudinal
and multivariate research strategy in the current study would

seem to be validated by the richness and the complexity of the

137

results obtained here. Adoption of a simpler evaluative
strategy might have resulted in findings which failed to
examine the quality of placements obtained -- an issue which
when addressed in this study seems to seriously qualify one's
enthusiasm fOr the Job Club program. Similarly, various
process findings, like indications that some older indivi-
duals may experience a deterioration in health during job
search, appear worthy of future monitoring, and would have
been missed without a longitudinal and multivariate
methodology. On the other hand, as with most research in a
relatively virgin area, the current study's major (research)
contribution is, in all likelihood, not any answers it pro-
vided but rather the questions it raised and their implica-
tions for future research. Thus, the following comments
will focus on issues and concerns which should be addressed,
or possibly redressed, in future studies in this area.

One process area examined in this study which
may be central to placement success and clearly needs
extensive examination via more s0phisticated and appropriate
measures is job search activity. Neither the extant
literature on this tOpic nor the author's personal involve-
ment in the day to day operation of the Job Club suggested
° how complex and difficult it would be to monitor job search
activity. The literature on job search frequently refers to
various dimensions of job seeking including: frequency,

intensity, persistence, variability, consistency, methods of,

138

etc. However, one can hardly find a single operational
definition of these variables. To complicate matters, job
seeking does not readily lend itself to straightforward
assessment, particularly among older job seekers. It is
frequently done privately. Commencement and termination of
job seeking is often abrupt and if a temporary job is
secured it is also intermitent. Clearly, if any real progress
is to occur in identifying instrumental dimensions of job
search activity, future measurement efforts will have to

deal with these issues. While no panacea exists, one
measurement approach which might provide some answers would
seem to be use of detailed log books by trained participants.

Further, the whole area of identifying instru-
mental elements of job search performance has hardly been
scratched, particularly with specific reference to older
job seekers. More research is needed on interviewing
skills, avenues into the part-time job pool, the usefulness
of relying on the telephone as a significant tool in job
seeking and other areas.

With respect to employment facilitating programs
like the Job Club, in the future more attention should be
paid to specific manipulation checks. A major shortcoming
in the current research was a failure to monitor in more
detail who experienced which modules, to what degree did
they experience various program elements and with what result.

On a more global level future research in this area

139

should certainly strive to surpass this study in a number

of areas. Specifically, future research should become truly
longitudinal. Many of the trends and lack of trends
observed in this study may be different if a longer View is
taken. Also, the current sample size was barely adequate.
Meaningful examination of various subgroups among the target
population, like minority status, were precluded by the
small N in the study. Implicit in this whole discussion is
the desirability of replication. The generalizability of
these findings to other job markets and geographic locations
should be tested.

Finally, an issue which will be more directly
addressed in the next section should also be mentioned here.
While the Job Club appears to be a worthwhile social program
and the job search area a potentially productive area for
continued research and service, efforts should be made to
implement and evaluate interventions which have a potential
for impacting the system level constraints to fuller, higher

quality employment for older job seekers.

Implications and Conclusions

 

Major Qpestions Raised by the Study

 

Subjective Psychological Reactions. One of the

 

major purposes of this research was to examine the subjective

psychological reactions of individuals to the job search

140

experience. In this study, attention was paid to how these
reactions were moderated by condition and Success/Failure.

In general, these findings fail to provide sub-
stantial support to speculations that favorable psychological
reactions are a secondary outcome of participation in various
search training programs (Salmone, 1971; Azrin, et al.,

1975; Sinick, 1976). When one controls for the differential
Success/Failure of the two conditions there is little
evidence that conditions differentially influenced activity,
financial, and people derived satisfaction or one's optimism
about the effect of personal or external forces on their job
search.

One exception to this rule was that Job Club-
Failure Ss did exhibit higher optimism about the influence
of their program than Control-Failures. This finding is not
surprising given the focused and personal attention Job Club
Ss received. However it should be remembered that the
Control condition in this study entailed access to an older
worker specialist at MESC, supposedly an improvement upon
the assistance most older job seekers receive (Anderson and
Fine, 1978). Thus, this single difference may be noteworthy.
As was stated earlier, a positive view of the helpfulness
of one's employment program may prevent some older job
seekers from becoming job search dropouts.

The other condition associated difference in this

measurement area was quite unexpected. Job Club-Failure Ss

141

experienced a significant decline in their RDI-Health during

 

follow up. Since this subgroup is so small (N = 4) and the
prevalence of health problems in this age group so high (Gray,
1978), it seems reasonable to conclude that this group's
health actually deteriorated during the study. If this is
true, it would appear that barring health problems the Job
Club works for the vast majority of older job seekers. How-
ever a viable alternative explanation of this trend would be
that this Change was caused by the interaction of receiving
intensive job finding assistance and failure. Given the
significance of health related changes, including one's sub-
jective evaluation of health, this issue should be pursued in
future research.

In contrast to conditions, Success/Failure appeared
to have a much more potent effect on the subjective reactions
of Ss. However, it appears that job seeking and placement
SuccesS/Failure only produce a shift in the distribution of
one's life satisfaction but not a net gain or loss. This
conclusion is based on observed changes in the 4 RDI subscales
for Success and Failure Ss. Withstanding the Job Club-
Failure Ss just described, Failure Ss maintained a stable RDI
satisfaction profile during the study. Success Ss, on the
other hand, appeared to trade off a loss of activity derived
satisfaction for an increase in financial satisfaction. Since

Failure Ss don't experience a decline in RDI—Activity, it

 

appears that placement and employment and not job seeking

142

itself is the cause of this reduction.

Finally, the Optimism changes observed among
Failure Ss are not surprising but may offer some insight
into the subjective course of the discouragement reaction.

The experience of job seeking with no placement success
resulted in Failure Ss giving less optimistic (positive)
evaluations of the influence of personal, external and program-
atic factors on their job search success. Given a long enough
follow up one might speculate that these evaluations become

so negative that the individual chooses to give up their job
search.

Since only a small sample of all possible psycholog—
ical reactions were monitored within this study, one must
conclude that the surface has hardly been scratched with
respect uncovering significant subjective correlates of the
job search experience.

Sources of Treatment Efficacy. A second major

 

question posed by this research asked "How (through what
mechanisms) does the Job Club help people find employment."
Although only a few of all possible processes involved in
this program were examined, these findings suggest some
answers to this question.

The results failed to confirm the belief, based
theoretical formulations (Bandura, 1977) that a source of
the Job Club's effectiveness was an elevation of expectations

of positive outcomes within the job seeker and worker roles.

143

Further, the result failed to confirm the hypothesis that the
Job Club increases placements by increasing frequency of job
search activity. However, because of measurement problems
this last issue was probably not given a fair test.

On the other hand, findings provided strong support
for the belief that the Job Club increases job seeking

Knowledge. The link between Knowledge and behavioral job

 

 

search follow through were never established. However some
”soft" evidence indicated Job Club Ss obtained a large
number of placement (8) via methods (friends and direct
application) highlighted by the Job Club training (Azrin et
al., 1975). Control Ss obtained no placements via these
methods. While a definitive conclusion must await more
detailed examination of which job search methods Ss use, the
belief that Job Club Ss become more competent job seekers
tends to be supported by the findings of this study.

A final area of process assessment dealt with
support and encouragement perceived by Ss. Job Club Ss
report having a significantly larger Job Search Network
than Control Ss, regardless of Success/Failure. In addition
Job Club Ss, as noted earlier, maintain a high degree of

Programatic Optimism (regardless of Success/Failure).

 

Finally, a positive but nonsignificant correlation was
observed for measures of perceived attraction/affect (Number

of Co-members Named) and Success. These findings support

 

the conclusion that the Job Club program does in fact increase

144

perceived support and while this influence in and of itself
won't result in placement, it appears to be an important Job
Club process.

Based on observations of the Job Club meetings and
the open ended evaluations/descriptions of programs by Ss,
the author believes that creating an atmosphere of support
and encouragement is a critical step in implementing a
successful Job Club for older workers and retirees. Some of
the reasons given by Job Club Ss for evaluating their program
positively included, "its a very friendly place", "it feels
like we all join hands together”, "the way it works, you're
not just looking out for yourself you're looking out for the
other guy, too", and "the staff does everything they can to
keep your spirits up”. Without a supportive atmosphere
there would be much less reason for members to incur trans-
portation costs and inconveniences to come to a meeting
which involves setting and reviewing goals for tasks which
generally are not inherently rewarding. In some fashion,
the meeting and the people at it must be attractive enough
to overcome the aversiveness inherent in job seeking.

A final issue relating to sources of treatment
efficacy surrounds differences between the Job Club implemented
in this study and the prototype described by Azrin (1978;
Azrin et al., 1975). As was noted earlier, the Job Club
implemented in this study was less intense and rigorous than

the prototype on a number of dimensions (i.e. meetings/week,

145

areas trained in) but still was successful in securing place-
ments. It is possible that use of the prototype Job Club

may have produced better results than were obtained here
(i.e. better quality placements). However, the experience

of another service provider with the prototype Job Club

fails to support this conclusion. The author recently was

in touch with a representative of a large employment service
for older workers in the Chicago area (Project ABLE), which
implemented a Job Club. This agency had the benefit of
personal consulting from a member of Dr. Azrin's staff. The
results of this program were quite disappointing. Apparently
clients would not comply with a 5 meetings per week job Club
program, most stopped coming to meetings and the program was
abandoned. Based on this experience and the current study,
the author believes that the prototype approach to the job
club may be too demanding and coersive for the limited job
goals of most older workers and will not work for this group
because the aversiveness of the demands often outweigh the

probable rewards of job search.

Program Effectiveness. The final research quest—

 

ion asks "Is the Job Club program an effective method for
increasing employment among the target population."
The evidence bearing on this question is quite

strong. The Job Club program was clearly and significantly

146

superior to normally available services in terms of placement
rate, employment (maintained employment over time), hours
worked and income. The Job Club was superior on the employ—
ment variable by week 4 and in fact produced more employment
after 4 weeks than was achieved in the Control condition
after 12 weeks.

On the other hand, the Job Club had virtually no
impact on the quality of employment individuals obtained.

Job Club placements tended to be better quality placements
than Control placements but the difference was not statis-
tically significant.

Given these results, the policy question of program
dissemination must be addressed. Does the Job Club for
older workers and retirees constitute an effective and worth-
while social innovation worthy of broad scale adoption?

The answer to this question will be influenced by ones
values and what one deems as a significant improvement in the
employment related needs of older workers and retirees.
Clearly, this program does not address some significant
dimensions of the employment problems of older workers.

The author's conclusions are that it is a worthwhile
program which should be utilized by service providers with
older constituencies. The strongest argument for the Job
Club is that it increases employment and income and it offers
some cost efficient immediate assistance to older job

seekers. Although exact costs were not calculated, the

147

current Job Club was run by two part—time staff, with 2
telephones, 2 desks, incidental supplies, access to a meeting
room for 6 hours per week and occasional clerical assistance.
Azrin (1978) has proven that the job club can be run by
average line staff at an employment service with no specialized
training. It can probably be run by a full—time or two part-
time volunteers. The program quickly and successfully helps
older job seekers secure and maintain employment. Further,
since "financial reasons" predominated among this group of
job seekers, the program must be deemed a significant
success. Meaningful increases in income were obtained by
participants and financial satisfaction increased. Even if
one restricts oneself to just permanent employment the Job
Club produced 8 placements versus 3 for Control Ss. The

chi square for this distribution is just below statistical
significance (p=.09). Finally, the program in all likeli—
hood has not been pushed to the limit. It is quite possible
that some refinement of the program and it's procedures may
result in superior quality placements.

While the author concludes that the Job Club is a
significant and worthwhile employment service for older job
seekers, it is not a panacea, it is only a stop gap solution.
This study indicates that significant employment gains can
be realized among older job seeders via the Job Club program.
On the other hand, these findings also serve to highlight the
extent to which older individuals are channelled into less

desirable positions. Clearly, the current program did

148
nothing to deal with the systems level constraints to quality
employment opportunities for older jobseeders including
forces which contribute to structural unemployment and societal
values which put an inordinant emphasis on the trappings of
youth. -In the final analysis the value of the Job Club pro-
gram must be measured by its impact on the needs of older
job seekers. Thus, is the Job Club program is used as a

substitute for interventions which would impact structural

 

unemployment, discriminatory and other systems level con-
tributors to the older worker problem, it will probably do

more harm than good.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A
ADMINISTRATIVE AGREEMENT BETWEEN TRICOUNTY OFFICE 0N AGING AND DENIS

GRAY, OF MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

This agreement is to specify the intention and future relationship of
Denis Gray of the Michigan State University and the Tri County Office

on Aging (TCOA). These two parties are jointly initiating the Older
Worker-Retiree Job Club (OWRJC) for the purposes of: 1) developing an
intensive program of service to older job seekers in the community and

2) conducting a careful and systematic evaluation of the effectiveness
and impact of the OWRJC Project. In line with this intention the follow-

ing agreement is specified:

Denis Gray will

1. Provide any extraordinary resources needed (i.e. personnel, materials,
computer time) to carry out the evaluation of the research-evaluation
phase of the OWRJC.

2. Take responsibility for developing and managing the OWRJC including
recruiting clients, developing materials, training support staff,
training clients and collecting and analyzing evaluation data.

3. Provide TCOA with a report of Program progress on a bimonthly basis.
4. Take responsibility for all written communication to the granting
agency should outside research support be forthcoming.

S. Insure the confidential and anonymous handling of all information

collected on individual clients.

The TriCounty Office on Aging will:
1. Provide at least one Senior Community Employment Project (SCEP)

staff to function as an employment specialist to help run the OWRJC.

APPENDIX A-2
ADMINISTRATION AGREEMENT (cont.)

2. Provide necessary clerical support to insure the adequate delivery
of the service phase of the overall project.

3. Cooperate in the evaluation of the project. This will involve

the random assignment of volunteer clients to either the OWRJC program
or a comparison condition of normally available information and
referral services.

4. Provide adequate space to carry out the project; this will include
two desks and a private room for OWRJC meetings. These meetings will
be prescheduled for the designated room.

5. Assist in efforts to insure the project's continuance contingent

on positive outcome evaluation.

 

Denis Gray

 

Roxanna O'Connor, Director

APPEND I X B

APPENDIX B

OLDER WORKER-RETIREE EMPLOYMENT SERVICE CONSENT FORM

 

Name of Client

I have agreed to participate in a job finding program, the
Older Worker-Retiree Employment Service which I understand
to be part of a research project conducted by Denis Gray
under the supervision of William Davidson, Ph.D. of M.S.U.

I also understnad that I will receive $3 for each of the 3
interviews I will cooperate in. I am aware that the
materials and program are of an experimental nature and that
I may withdraw from participation at any time. While the
results of the study will be made available to me, I under-
stand that there are no assurances that this program will
provide specific results in the form of a placement. I
agree that the information which I provide through this pro-
gram will be available to use in evaluating the project and
subsequent published reports, with the understanding and
assurance that my personal identity and the information

about myself will remain confidential.

 

Signature

 

 

Witnessed Date

APPEND I X C

APPENDIX C

INSTRUCTIONS TO PARTICIPANTS
IN THE OLDER WORKER — RETIREE EMPLOYMENT PROJECT

 

TODAY'S DATE

1.

 

YOU ARE URGED TO IMMEDIATELY GO ON WITH YOUR OWN JOB
SEARCH. OUR MAIN GOAL IS FOR YOU TO FIND JOB, PLEASE
DON'T REDUCE YOUR OWN EFFORTS WHILE WAITING FOR US TO
CALL.

 

WE ARE NOW FORMING A HIST OF OTHER VOLUNTEER PARTICI-
PANTS FOR OUR PROJECT. WE WILL CONTACT YOU IN A WEEK
OR TWO TO SCHEDULE AN INTERVIEW AT YOUR HOME WITH ONE
OF OUR STAFF. (IF YOU PREFER TO MEET SOMEWHERE ELSE,
THIS WILL BE ARRANGED.) IMMEDIATELY AFTER THAT INTER-
VIEW, YOU WILL BE TOLD WHAT PROGRAM YOU WILL RECEIVE
WHEN AND HOW TO MAKE USE OF THAT PROGRAM.

WHAT YOU MIGHT EXPECT. HERE IS WHAT YOU MIGHT EXPECT
AFTER THIS CONTACT. IF YOU ARE ASSIGNED TO INFORMATION
AND REFERRAL: YOU WILL BE PROVIDED INFORMATION ABOUT
AND REFERRALS TO A NUMBER OF LOCAL PROGRAMS FOR EMPLOY—
MENT ASSISTANCE. YOU WILL THEN RECEIVE YOUR ASSISTANCE
FROM THE AGENCIES YOU ARE REFERRED TO. IT WILL BE UP
TO YOU TO MAKE USE OF THESE REFERRALS. IF YOU ARE
ASSIGNED TO THE JOB CLUB: YOU WILL ALSO BE EXPECTED TO
FOLLOW THROUGH ON YOUR OWN EXCEPT YOUR ACTIVITIES WILL
BE STRUCTURED BY THE JOB CLUB AND OCCUR AT SCHEDULED
MEETINGS WITH OTHER JOB SEEKERS.

 

 

OUR BEST EXTIMATE IS THAT WE WILL BE CONTACTING YOU FOR AN

INTERVIEW SOMETIME BETWEEN AND .
YOU WOULD BEGIN USE OF SERVICES APPROXIMATELY A WEEK AFTER
THAT DATE.

GOOD LUCK ON YOUR JOB SEARCH. IF YOU NEED TO CONTACT US,
PLEASE CALL 485-7900 (IF BUSY, OR NO ANSWER, CALL 487-1066).

THANKS FOR YOUR COOPERATION,

DENIS GRAY, COORDINATOR
OLDER WORKER-RETIREE EMPLOYMENT
PROJECT

APPENDIX D

APPENDIX D

AGENDA
JOB CLUB WORKSHOP

 

FRIDAY
9:30 I. WELCOME/MINOR BUSINESS

10:00 Module: Positive Views of Working
Set Goals
Discussion Paper
Discussion Group

(coffee break - program agenda)

11:00 II. Module: Orientation to OWR Job Club
Background
Overview of Program
Membership Agreement/Rules
Goal Setting/Simulation

12:00 LUNCH

1:00 III. Module: Job Lead Sources
Information/Discussion
Job Leads
Goal Setting

TUESDAY

1:00 IV. Module: Job Club
Review Goals
Discuss Search and Leads
Job Search
Job Lead Contacts
Phone Use
Set Goals

4:00 END

(continued)

THURSDAY

1:00

4:00

TUESDAY

1:00

2:00

4:00

THURSDAY

VI.

VII.

APPENDIX D—2

AGENDA (cont.)

JOB CLUB

Review Goals

Discuss Search and Leads
Job Search

Resume

Information

Home Assignment

Set Goals

END

JOB CLUB

Review Goals

Discuss Search and Leads
Job Search

Interviewing

Set Goals

END

JOB CLUB

Review Goals,

Discuss Search and Leads
Job Search

Set Goals

APPENDI X E

 

 

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o.H sou. moo. oeo.- mmo.u m
o.H Nmo.u mom. omm. e
o.H mom. Ham. m
o.H vow. m
o.H H
HH oH o m s o m e m m H
monom mmOOOHm mo mcoHumHonpoopouaH
mpzmonoum

m xHDzmmm<

APPENDI X F

 

 

oHeoom Ham .w mcoHumuooexm .e
awHeHHeo oHHasaHmooe .HH :oHaom Ham .s Heoaooz .m.o .m
smHeHHoo Haeeoexm .oH HaHooaon Ham .m sao\moHoH>HHo< .m.o .m
amHeHHoo Hocomeoe .o sHH>Hoo< Ham .m owooHaooe .H
o.H Rom. mmm.- oeo.- oeo.- emm.- mom. mmH. 4mm. mmo.- ova. HH
o.H 44m. Hmo. moo. omo. mom. mmm. mmm. omH. ovo. oH
o.H smm.- «NH. omm.- «Hm. mmo. woo. HoH. moo. o
o.H «so.- mmH. mam. mmo.- How. ovo. mom. w
o.H mom. osH. mmo. moH.- mmo. HHH.| s
o.H mmo.- soH.u soo. seo.n moo.u m
o.H Hmm. Hmm. mHm. msH. m
o.H omm. mme. oem. e
o.H Hmo. sue. m
o.H ooH. m
o.H H
HH oH o m s o m o m m H

monom mmoooum Ho mcoHumHonnooeonH
HHmv H a: BOHHOK

m xHszmm<

APPEND I X G

 

 

oHQoom HON .N mcoHumHOOme .v
EmHEHpQO oHpmemHNOHN .HH suHoom Ham .5 xnoapoz .w.n .m
EmHeHqu Hangouxm .oH HoHocmch Ham .N soa\moHuH>HHo< .m.w .N
EmHEHHeo Hecompom .N HHH>HHO< Ham .m ONCOHsocx .H
o.H NNH. NHH. NHH. sHo. smH.u NNH. NNN. wNm. NSH.I vHN. HH
o.H ONv. owH. Nmo.| Hso.| HNN. NON. swo. mmm. mHo. oH
o.H mHH. HoH. NNo. NHN. SHN. NNN. omN. va. N
o.H va. NSN. hem. NNN. NNH. mmN. NNH. N
o.H 0mm. «Hm. NNN. NNN. Nmo. NoH. s
o.H SNH. SNo. Nmo.| oHo.I Nmo.| N
o.H ONN. voH. NNH. Nvo. m
o.H New. HNN. Nov. v
o.H mvH. mNm. m
o.H oHH.| N
o.H H
HH oH N w s N m w m N H

monom mmoooem Ho mcoHpmHOHHoosoucH
Hams m o: 3oHHoa

0 xHszmm¢

APPENDIX H

 

APPENDIX B
PREMEASURE QUESTIONNAIRE

DAY, MO/ YR ID
1‘2 4567—8-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

OLDER-WORKER RETIREE EMPLOYMENT
SERVICE PROJECT
PREMEASURE

Interview Date

 

Interviewer

 

Respondent's Name

 

Address

 

 

Condition: 1. Job Club
2. Information and Referral

Wave: 1. Premeasure

 

 

APPENDIX H—Z

PREMEASURE QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Q1 CHECK FROM OBSERVATION d‘iale ......OOOOOOOOOOIOOOOO 1
sex . Female .....OOOOOOOIOOOOOOO 2
Q 2 CHECK FROM OBSERVATION White ..................... 1
Race BlaCR ......OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOZ
Spanish ................... 3
oriental 00.0.00000000000004
Other (specify)
0.0.0.000...00.00.00.000. 5
Q 3 Who lives in the house- Y N
hold with you? Do you Live alone ............ -I 2
(READ LIST: CIRCLE ALL Live with spouse ...... -1 2
THAT APPLY). Live with others ...... -l 2
Q 4 (UNLESS RESPONDENT LIVES
ALONE, ASKz)
How many people live in
this household? (COUNT (NO. SEH )
RESPONDENT)
Q 5 What was the last grade
you completed in school? TACTUKE—GRKUE7
Q 6 What is your occupation?
If you are now retired,
please tell me your
previous occupation
(PROBE TO GET EXACT (OCCUPATION;
OCCUPATION.)
Q 7 What is your marital Married ................... 1
status nOW? Divorced ......OOOOOOOOOOOO 2
separated ....OOOOOOOOOOOO. 3
Widowed ......... ........ .. 4
Never married ............. 5
(ASK Q12)
Q In How long have you been
MW 0. o

 

We need to know some
information about
your . . .

Spouse - if married

Ex-spouse - if separated/
divorced

Deceased spouse - if widowed

 

APPENDIX H-S
PREIEASURE QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

Q 8 What was the last grade
s/he completed in school?

 

(ACTUAL GRADE)

 

Q 8a What iS/was her/his occupa-
tion? (PROBE TO GET EXACT

OCCUPATION.) (OCCUPATION)

 

Q 9 How many living sons and

daughters do you have?

(Include adopted and

step-children.) I , P 0
(RECORD ACTUAL NUMBER.) ASK Q_l9)

 

Q 9a How many of these live
within 50 miles of here?

 

(RECORD ACTUAL NUMBER.) 0. 0 HI EN)
Q 10 Do you rent or own the Rent ............... 1
place you live in now? Own ................ 2
Other 00000000000000 3

 

Now I'd like to ask about your financial position.

 

INTERVIEWER: IF RESPONDENT IS UNABLE TO READ, ASK FOR
HIS TOTAL INCOME WITHOUT USING CARD AND CHECK APPROPRI-
ATE CATEGORY, FOR ALL OTHER RESPONDENTS, HAND THEM
CARD AND ASK:

Q 1 W53? was your total house-

house income over the last Under $1,000 A. Under $83
12 months before taxes? 3 1,000- 1,999 B. S 83-166
We don't need to know the $ 2,000- 2,999 C. S 167-249
exact amount, Just tell me $ 3,000- 3,999 D. S 250-333
the letter next to the $ 4,000- 4,999 E. S 334-416
approximate amount. $ 5,000- 5,999 P. S 417-499
$ 6,000- 7,999 G. S 500-666
3 8,000- 9,999 H. 3 667-833
$10,000-14,999 I. 3 834-l,249
$15,000-19,999 J. $ l,250-1,666
$20,000-29,999 K. S 1,667-2,499

$30,000-& over L. $ 2,500 & over
Don't know 0.0000000000000000000013
Refused to answer ................14

 

Y N

Oil; Do you receive any of this Social Security ... 1 2
income from the following Disability Benefits 1 2
sources? Pension ........... l 2
(READ LIST.) Alimony ........... 1 2

 

APPENDIX 3-4
PREHEASURB QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

Q_lg Which of the following My income is more than

statements best describes adequate to meet my

how you would evaluate needs ..................1
your present household Hy income is adequate
income? (HAND CARD) to meet my needs ...... 2
You can refer to this My income is somewhat

card as I read the state- inadequate to meet

ments. Which one comes my needs .............. 3
closest to your opinion? My income is terribly

inadequate to meet
my needs 000000000000004

 

I'd like to ask you some questions about your employment
history now.

 

Q 13 Try to remember the job you held for the longest period

of time. How many years did you hold that job?

(No. of YEARS)

Q 14 Why did you leave your Retired ................. 1
last full-time job? ‘

 

    
  

 

 

(DON'T READ LIST. CIRCLE .uit .................... 2
ANSWER GIVEN BY RESP.) Was fired ............... 3
Was laid-off ............ 4
Never worked before ..... 5
Other
....................... 6
Don't know/No answer .... 7
(ASK Q_l§)
ngggfihen you retired did you 1. Voluntarily
do so voluntarily or were 2. Forced

you forced to retire by
your boss or because of
company rules?

 

APPENDIX I

ID

YR IMO. DAY

 

l

2 3 5 APPENDIX I

 

 

 

 

 

 

FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE

OLDER WORKER-RETIREE EMPLOYMENT
SERVICE PROJECT
FOLLOW—UP

 

 

Interview Date

 

Interviewer

 

Respondent's Name

 

Address

 

 

Condition: 1. Job Club
. Information and Referral

Premeasure
Follow-up No.1
Follow-up No.2 '

lave:

 

“NH N
on.

 

Date of Previous Interviews:
Premeasure

 

Follow-up No.1

 

 

APPENDIX I-2
FOLLO' UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

_a’l [(BEGIN HERE IF RESPONDENT REPORTED THAT HE/SEE WAS EHPLOYED

AND NOT LOOKING FOR WORK (Q15 & Q28) AT LAST INTERVIEW.)

 
    
   

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Q l The last time we talked to I am still employed at the
'_—- each other you had been same Job I reported dur-
hired on a new Job and (\ ing our last interview .... 1 (10)
were no longer looking for (ASK Q5)
work. Which of the fol- I no longer hold the Job I
lowing statements des- reported during our last
cribes your current situa- interview ................. 2
tion:
(READ STATEME
Q_£_#5;;;:; can stop working I quit Job .................. 1 (11)
for a number of reasons. I was laid-off/or no more
Why did you leave your work ...................... 2
Job? I was fired ................. 3
(DON'T READ LIST. OTHER (Specify)
CODE ANSWER.) 4
Q_§_ What was the last date (12,
that you worked on this 13,
Job? / / 14,
- (Mo.) (Day) 15)
Q_g_ Which of the following I have already begun looking
statements best des- for another Job ........... l (16)
cribes your present I will look for another Job
situation now that you in the near future ........ 2
no longer have this I've decided not to work at
Job? at all .................... 3
I am going to Just keep doing
the occasional Job I have.. 4
I've already found another
Jab 00000000000000.00000000 5
Although you stopped working on a Job since I last spoke to you,
I still need some information about any work you may have per-
formed since we 1ast talked to each other. So I'd like to ask
you a few questions.
*(IN THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS, IF THE RESPONDENT DID NOT WORK FOR
AN HOURLY WAGE, ASE Ell/HER TO CONVERT THEIR EARNINGS AS
ACCURATELY AS POSSIBLE TO THIS FORMAT (WAGE/HOUR)).
0.2.

Since we last talked to each One ......................... l (17)
other on (GIVE DATE AND HAVE C) (ASK Q7)
CALENDAR AVAILABLE) ore than one ............... 2
, have you [:g (ASK Q6, top of next page)
worked for pay for Just one
or more than one employer?

Consider all Jobs worked
since this date.

 

APPENDIX I-3
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

Q 6 Please name the different employers you worked for during this
period. (WRITE A LABEL FOR EACH JOB IN COLUHN A.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Q 6a On the first Job you mentioned with (DESCRIBE A
SPECIFIC JOB), how many hours (B) have you worked since (GIVE
DATE) and what wage (C) were you paid? (REPEAT
FOR EACH 355.)

"A" "B" "C" "D"
No. of
Jobggabel Hours Wage Income
/1.
_ x -
2 0
3.
4.
L\\\ : x -
4 —_
TOTAL INCOME
TOTAL HOURS (ADD COL.B) - TOTAL B
L';> TOTAL INCOME (ADD COL. D) - TOTAL D
(TOTAL D
AVERAGE 'AGE TUTKE'E) - AVERAGE c

 

 

 

 

(SKIP TO Q8)

 

q_1_ How many hours have you worked since (GIVE DATE)
and what wage were you paid for that work? (COIPUTE INCOME

 

 

LATER.)
LAW 1: WES-MT
(18, 19, 20) *(2l,22,23,24) (25, 26,27,
*(Efgcggsimal 28, 29)

 

 

 

APPENDIX I-4
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

—-)[:] (BEGIN HERE IF RESPONDENT REPORTED THAT SHE/HE us EMPLOYED
AND STILL LOOKING FOR WORK (Q15 & Q28) AT LAST INTERVIEW—T.

Q_g_ The last time we talked to I am still employed at
each other, you were doing (some of) the Job(s) I
some work and were still reported .................. 1 (30)
looking for other work. (ASK Q12)

Which of the following -I no longer hold (any of) the
statements describe our ‘ Job(s) I reported ......... 2
status for Just the worE

gou were Eeriorming?
iEIR

HA N
PREVIOUSLI REPORTED WORK
IS OF CONCERN FOR THE
NEXT FEW QUESTIONS (Q10- 1.—

 

 

 

 

 

 

ng_ People can stop working I quit Job .................. 1 (31)
for a number of reasons. I was laid-off/or no more
Why did you leave your work available ............ 2
Job? (DON'T READ LIST. I was fired ................. 3
CODE ANSWER.) IF RESP. OTHER (Specify)
REPORTS MULTIPLE JOBS, 4
USE JOB WORKED ON MOST
TIME.
'(32.
Q11_ What was the last date 33
that you worked on this 34'
Job? / / ~ 353
EEO.) (Day)

 

Although you stopped working on a Job since I last spoke to you,
I still need some information about any work you may have
performed since we last talked to each other. So I'd like to
ask you a few questions.

 

*(IN THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS, IF THE RESPONDENT DID NOT WORK
FOR AN HOURLY WAGE, ASK RIM/HER TO CONVERT THEIR EARNINGS
AS ACCURATELY AS POSSIBLE TO THIS FORMAT (WAGE/EOUR)).

ng_ Since we last talked to
each other on (GIVE DATE
AND HAVE CALENDAR AVAILP
ABLE) .
have you worked for pay
for Just one or more

one 000000.000000000000000000 1 (36)
(ASK Q14)
ore than one ............... 2

   
  
   
 
  

one employer? J con-
sider Jobs r ted dur-
ing our interview.

 

Q13‘:PI;;se name the different employers you worked for during this
period. (WRITE A LABEL FOR EACE JOB IN COLUMN A.)

APPENDIX I-S
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

Ql3a On the first Job you mentioned with (DESCRIBE

 

A SPECIFIC JOB), how many hours (B) have you worked since
(GIVE DATE) and what wage (C) were you paid? (REPEAT

FOR EACH JOB.)

w

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"A" "B" "C" "DI!
No. of
Job Label Hours Wage Income
1.
x I
2 0 ..—
r— x "
3.
x a
4.

 

 

 

 

 

\ z x____.

TOTAL HOURS (ADD COL. 8)

TOTAL INCOME

 

TOTAL 8

 

 

L) TOTAL INCOME (ADD COL.D) TOTAL D
TOTAL D
‘ AVERAGE "GE LINER—E) - AVERAGE c

(SKIP TO Q15)

 

 

 

 

 

4 How many hours have you worked since (GIVE DATE)
and what wage were you paid for that work? (COMPUTE INCOME
LATER.) Just consider Jobs reported during our last interview.

 

(TOTAL HOURS) X (WAGE7HOUR) (INCOME)
(37,38,39) I‘(40,41,42,43) (44,45,46,47,48)

*(use two decimal
places)

 

 

 

APPENDIX I-6
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

R WAS LOOKING FOR WORK AT LAST INTERVIEW.)

___) D( (BEGIN HERE IF RESPONDENT REPORTED THAT SHE/HE WAS NOT EMPLOYED
O

   
 
 
 

 

 

Q15 The last time we spoke to I found and accepted a new
each other you were looking Job ....................... l (49)
for work. Have you found No new Job .................. 2
and accepted a new Job (ASK Q36)
since that time?
£:-——“"’—’
Q16 Is the Job that you found Part-time ................... l (50)
'__- part-time (less than 30 Full-time ................... 2
hrs./week), full-time, or Occasional .................. 3

occasional (does not have
a set schedule, works when
work is available).

 

I‘umfld.Lu“9toinn:sauainflmmntnxlabam:the;kb'fluu:you:kxmd. 'Tbuhi
youpleasetellme. . . (PREASNEEESSARY)

 

Q 17 . . . the Job title or the position of your new'Job?

92.8..

919 .

920

921

W

. . .thenameoftheorganization (orpersonifnotafimoragency)which
hinaiyOU?

W

. . where you work, what is the address or location?

 

(LOGAW

. . . the name of your immediate supervisor or boss?

WW

. . . the telephone number at your place of work

(CONTINUE TO NEXT PAGE IF RESPONDENT REPORTS ONLY ONE JOB.)

 

I would like to get some information about the Job that you found.
"Could you please tell me . . . (PROBE AS NECESSARY)

APPENDIX I-7
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

. . . the Job title or the position of your new Job?

 

(JOB TITLE)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Q18 . . . the name of the organization (or person if not a firm
or agency) which hired you?
( NC A A
Q19 . . . where you work, what is the address or location?
(LOCATION OF JOB)
Q20 . . . the name of your immediate supervior or boss?
(SUPERVISOR)
Q21 . . the telephone number at your place of work.
(TELEPHONE No.)

322 As far as you now know, Permanent .................... l (51)
is this a permanent job or Temporary . ....... ............
a temporary Job; a tempor-
ary Job is one which usually
has a set schedule but will
last a few weeks or months.

(REPEAT QUESTION.)

923 Did you have to meet Yes, subsidized Job .......... l (52)
income guidelines to No, unsubsidized ............. 2
qualify for this Job?

Q24 How did you learn about Applied directly to employer.. 1 (53)
this Job. Where did you Friend, relative or acquain-
hear about the opening? tance ...................... 2
(DON'T READ LIST, JUST A previous employer .......... 3
CIRCLE ANSWER GIVEN - A member of the employment
IF A PERSON'S NAME IS program I belong to ........ 4
GIVEN, FIND OUT WHO THEY Read about it in the news-

ARE, WERE THEY WORK.) paper 0000000000000000000000 5

A staff person at an agency
told me about/referred me
(SPECIFIC AGENCY:

 

NOTE : I F SEVERAL NEW 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
JOBS ARE REPORTED, USE I saw a notice on a bulletin
JOB WORED 0N “CST T IME 0 board 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 I 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 0 0 0

Private lo t nc , Other,
(@EGIEY‘? M a" y
m'tm000.000.000.0000000000.

 

'909 -4 m

APPENDIX I-8
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

Q25 When did you know for
certain you had been
hired for this job? /
What was the date? ont (flay)

(54.
55,
56,

57)

 

Q26 As far as you know, how
many hours per week will
you be working at your
new job?

 

(NO. OF HOURS/WK)

(53.
59)

 

Q27 As far as you know, what
wage will you receive at

your new job? (WAEE/HR)

‘(use two decimal places)

*(60.

62,
63)

 

Q28 As far as you are con— Still looking for work .......
cerned, are you still Job search is over .......
looking for a job or
is your job search over?

 

Q29 Have you already started
to work at your new

es one...0.000000000000000...

C)(Asx Q35)

    

l (64)
2

1 (65)

 

930 Wthe date you

started work on?

/
M NTH (TM)

 

931 I'd like you to tell me how satisfied you are with your new
job. I am going to give you a card which will help you
rate your Job. (HAND CARD.) Put a check under the face
that expresses how you feel about your Job in general,
including the work, the pay, the supervision, t e opportun-
ities for promotion and the people you work with.

 

932 Just considering new One.......................... 1
work you have found. (ASK Q34)
Will you be working for More than one ............... 2
Just one employer or (ASK Q33, top of next page)

more than one?

 

(66,
67,
68,
69)

(70)

(71)

 

APPENDIX I-9
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

ggg Please name each new employer you were hired by. (WRITE
DOWN A LABEL FOR EACH IN COLUMN "A".) On the first Job
you mentioned with (DESCRIBED A SPECIFIC JOB),
how many hours (COLUMN "8") have you worked since being
hired and what wage (COLUMN "C") were you paid? (REPEAT
FOR EACH JOB.)
+

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"A" "B" "C" "D"
No. of
Job Label Hours Wage Income
‘/1 o
— x .
2 O
x a
r-' -——
3.
4.
L\\ : x -
TOTAL INUOEE

 

*COMPUTE LATER AND RECORD BELOW.

 

 

 

 

"TOTAL HOUHEI (ADD COLUMN "3") - TOta B

TOTAL INCOME (ADD COLUMN "0") - Total D
(TOTAL "D"

..., ,AXERAGE WAGE TOTEE‘EEW) - Ave.Wa e

 

 

 

(SKIP TO Q37)

 

 

 

 

34 How many hours have you actually worked since beginning
your new job and what wage were you paid for that work?

 

 

 

x I
‘9 W mm o W AL no me
(72.73.74) ‘(75,76,77,78) (84,85,86,87,88)

 

I'two decimal pinces

 

(SKIP TO Q37)

 

935 When will you begin your (89,
new Job? What will be the 90,

date? .(SKIP TO Q37) ZED-Slzfiayjlzfir:: 3})

APPENDIX I-IO
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

936 Which one of the fol- Very important .............. l (93)
lowing responses best Somewhat important .......... 2
describes how important Not important ............... 3
finding a Job is to you?

I would now like to ask you some questions about things

used or activities performed by people looking for work.

*(IF RESPONDENT FOUND A JOB SINCE LAST INTERVIEW, EXPLAIN
YOU STILL WANT TO KNOW ABOUT ANY ACTIVITIES PERFORMED
BY THEM DURING THIS PERIOD.)

937 Do you have a com- Yes ......................... 1 (94)

pleted resume? No ......IOOOOOOCO...-.00.... 2
(PUT A 9 BELOW AND ASK Q38)
Q37A Since the last time I interviewed you on (GIVE DATE) (:23
up until today*, how many times have
you handed out or mailed out your resume as part of your
job search?
( M M
Q38 Since the last time I interviewed you on (GIVE DATE) (97,
, how many job interviews have you had? 98)
(NUREER OE INTERVIEWS)

339 I'd like you to estimate as accurately as possible the (99,
number of Job leads you have obtained since I last spoke 100,
to you on (GIVE DATE) . A Job lead is 101)

 

information about a possible Job opening. People gener-
ally get information about Job openings or Job leads from
other people or from seeing openings in newspapers or
other places. How many Job leads have you obtained since
(GIVE DATE) .

(N ER LE N (IF O, PLACE A O BELOW AND
ASK Q41)

 

Q40 How many of these Job leads did you check on either in per-
son or by telephone?

m

APPENDIX I-ll
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

QAOA Since the last time I interviewed you on (GIVE DATE)

until today, how many applications for job openings ave
you filled out?

 

M O L A N )

341 Since I last interviewed No .......................... l (105,
you, have you had a Job Yes (ASK NUMBER OF TIMES) ... 106)
offer and turned it down?

TNUREER‘UF‘JOB‘OFEERS)

 

Q32 Estimate as accurately as you can how much time you spent since (107,
I last interviewed you on the activities we Just discussed, 108,
include time spent obtaining leads, following up leads, filing 109)
applications, taking interviews, preparing and handing out
resumes. How many hours did you spend on these activities?

(REREAD ACTIVITIES)

TNUEEER‘UF‘EUURS)

933 How many people do you feel have been trying to help you find
a Job? Please name them. (NOT COUNTING SELF.)
(FOR EACH NAME GIVEN, ASK RESPONDENT TO IDENTIFY WHO THAT
PERSON IS, I.E., RELATIVE, FRIEND, COUNSELOR, PREVIOUS
EMPLOYER, ETC.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(SKIP TO Q64 IF RESPONDENT IS NOW WORKING (Q15) AND NOT
LOOKING FOR MORE WORK (Q28).

I'd now like to get some information about your attitudes

to towards looking for a Job and work in general. To do this,
QQQ I will read you some statements and I'd like you to respond
to these statements concerning yourself and your attitudes by
indicating your agreement or disagreeement with each statement.
(GIVE CARD). After I read a statement, respond with the
number which expresses your agreement or disagreement with
that statement. For instance, If I read the statement, "I
really enjoy taking long walks" and you strongly agree with
that statement, you would respond by saying "one", indicating
that you strongly agree with that statement. If you strongly
disagreed with that statement you would say "five". If you
agreed or disagreed with the statement but not enough to say
strongly agree or disagree you could use response "two or
four". If you neither agreed nor disagreed with the statement
I read, you could also say number "three","neither afiree or
disagree." Don't forget, your response is supposed to indi-

cate *our resent attitude. Do vou understand? (IF RESPONDENT
DOES .OT UNDERSTAND, EXPLAIN AGAIN.)

(E

.0
.n.
01

46

.0

.O
.2.
q

0
.n
00

L3.

E

52

992

9532

APPENDIX I-12
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

I expect to do well in a job
interview.

The more jobs I apply for the
better chance I will have of
getting a job.

Looking for a job will inter-
fere with my social life and
personal responsibilities.

My next job will probably be
pretty interesting.

I expect that if I am going
to obtain a Job, someone
else will probably have to
find an Opening for me.

One of the things I will like
most about being employed is
that I will be more independent.

If I don't get a job right
away, I would be discouraged.

I would probably be desperate
enough when looking for a Job
that I'll take the first Job
that comes along.

When I am working, I will feel
better about myself.

I have a good idea of what an
employer looks for on a resume.

The responsibilities connected
working are not something I
look forward to.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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APPENDIX I-13
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.

A number of people will try to
help me find a job.

I feel confident I can get a
job.

I believe the advantages of
being employed far outweigh
any problems and difficulties
I can think of.

On a new job I will be liked
and accepted by my co-workers.

I know a lot of different
places where I can find out
about Job openings.

Job interviews never turn out
the way you hope they will.

I will be unable to qualify
for many of the Jobs I want
because of a physical limita-
tion I have.

I know somewhere at this moment
there is an employer who is
looking for an employee Just
like me.

Selling myself to am employer
is a challenge I look forward
to.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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(121)

(122)

(123)

(124)

(125)

(126)

(127)

(128)

(129)

APPENDIX I-l4
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

Q 64 I would now like to get some information about various
to aspects of your day-to-day situation including your activ-

9126 ities and work, your financial situation, your health and
people you associate with. In order to do this, I am going
to hand you four sheets which list particular aspects of
your activities, finances, etc. I want you to read the
instructions at the top of the page for completing the forms
and then complete each. (HAND RESP. FIRST SHEET TO EXAMINE
INSTRUCTIONS - WAIT.) Do you understand how to complete
this form? (IF RESP. DOES NOT UNDERSTAND, EXPLAIN METHOD
AGAIN.) 0k, here’s a pencil. Please complete each of the
following sheets (GIVE REMAINING SHEETS.)

 

(SAMPLE 0F INSTRUCTIONS)

: ON THE FOLLOWING PAGES YOU WILL SEE A HEADING REFER‘
RING TO AN AREA OF YOUR PRESENT LIFE AND SHORT STATEMENTS 0R WORDS
DESCRIBING A SPECIFIC ASPECT OF THAT AREA OF Yoy$nLIFE. IN THE
SPACE PROVégfiD NEXT TO EACH STATEMENT; PLACE A . IF YOU WANT TO
BF§POND Y ' THAT WORD ORNENPRESSION DESCRIBES YOUR SITUATION}
‘I

IF YOU NANT T0 RESPOND 0’ - THAT WOR A H DOES NOT
DESCRIBE YOUR SITUATION; AND A "?" IF YOU RCXNNOT OECIB ” IF THAT
NORD OR EXPRESSION DESCRIBES YOUR SITUATION.

HERE'S AND EXAMPLE:

SLEEPING HABITS

 

Doze OFF AFTER DINNER _N_ KEY: Y = YES

NEED AN ALARM IN THE MORNING .1. N = N0

GET UP EARLY .2_ ? = CANNOT
DECIDE

THE PERSON WHO ggMPLETED THIS SEI O THREE STATEMENT§ HAS RATING
ASPECTS OF HIS LEEPING HABITS. N THE STATEMENT DOZE OFF
APTgR DINNER. HE RESPONDED N OR 0. THIS IS NOT THE CASE FOR
”5% TonTHE STATEMENT NEED AN ALARM IN THE MORNING. HE" ESPONDED
OR YES, THIS 13,355 CA§E ROR ME' figfiTHE STATEMENT ET UP
PORLNE HE RESPONDED . O A NOT UECI IF THIS IS THE CASE

R

APPENDIX I-15
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

INSIRUCIIQNS: ON THE FOLLOHING PAGES YOU HILL SEE A HEADING
REFERRING TO AN AREA OF YOUR PRESENT LIFE AND SHORT STATE-
MENTS OR HORDS DESCRIBING A SPECIFIC ASPECT OF THAT AREA OF
YOUR LIFE. IN THE SPACE PROVIDED NEXT To EACH STATEMENT.
PLACE A "Y" IF YOU HANT TO RESPOND I'YES" -- THAT HORD OR
EXPRESSION DESCRIBES YOUR SITUATION; "N” IF YOU HANT TO
RESPOND ”N" -- THAT HORD OR STATEMENT DOES NOT DESCRIBE
YOUR SITUATION AND A "?" IF YOU "CANNOT DECIDE" IF THAT

HORD OR EXPRESSION DESCRIBES YOUR SITUATION.

HERE’S AN EXAMPLE:

SLEEPING HABITS

 

DOZE OFF AFTER DINNER _N_ KEY: Y - YES
NEED AN ALARM IN THE MORNING ;1;, N - NO
GET UP EARLY _2_ ? - CANNOT DECIDE

THE PERSON wHO COMPLETED THIS SET OF THREE STATEMENTS HAS
RATING ASPECTS OF HIS "SLEEPING HABITS." TO THE STATEMENT
'DOZE OFF AFTER DINNER," HE RESPONDED "N" OR "NO. THIS IS
NOT THE CASE FOR MEI" TO THE STATEMENT "NEED AN ALARM IN

THE MORNING," HE RESPONDED "Y" OR "YES. THIS Is THE CASE FOR
MEI" To THE STATEMENT "GET UP EARLY." HE RESPONDED "7" OR
"CANNOT DECIDE" IF THIS Is THE CASE FOR ME.

0.63
0.55
0.55
9.62
9.68
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0.22
013
0.14
915
9.16
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APPENDIX I-16 FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

ACTIVITIES AND WORK

 

TIRESOME __
DISCOURAGING _
EXCITING __
GOOD __
FASCINATING ._
HARD __
BORING __
CHALLENGING

INTERESTING __

‘ USELESS __

LIMITED __

SAME THING EVERY DAY __
CREATIVE ....

NOTHING TO DO ....

NOTHING TO LOOK FORWARD TO ._

RELAXING ...
NEH THINGS TO D0 ...

GIVES SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT __

KE‘.I :

Y - YES

N - NO

? = CANNOT
DECIDE

ID#

APPENDIX 1-17 FOLLOW up QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)
FINANCIAL SITUATION

 

BARELY LIVE ON INCOME ___ KEY: Y = YES
INSECURE ___ N = N°

? - CANNOT
SATISFACTORY ___ DECIDE
HELL OFF _
STEADY ___
BAD..__
NEED OUTSIDE HELP ___

NORRY ABOUT IT ___

HIGH INCOME ___

GOOD PENSION PLAN ___

HAVE TO MAKE D0 ___

SERIOUS FINANCIAL PROBLEMS ...
NO MONEY TO MEET EMERGENCIES ___
INCOME FROM INVESTMENTS ___
NEED HELP FROM CHILDREN ___
INCOME PROVIDES LUXURIES ___
SELF-SUPPORTING ___

GOOD LIFE INSURANCE PLAN ___

ID#

Q1110

01.01

0102

01.03.

Qlflfl
0105
Qlflfz

APPENDIX I-18 FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

HEALTH

 

HAVE A LOT OF MINOR
AILMENTS _

NEED LITTLE OR NO
MEDICAL CARE ._

FEEL TIRED ALL THE
TIME _

MUST BE CAREFUL WHAT
I DO _

EXCELLENT __

FAILING __

NEVER FELT BETTER _
POOR _

BETTER CONDITION THAN
MOST PEOPLE MY AGE __

KEY: Y = YES
N - NO

? .. CANNOT
DECIDE

ID# __

Qlflfl
011D
0111
@112

APPENDIX 1-19 FOLLOW up QUESTIONNIARE
PEOPLE YOU ASSOCIATE WITH

 

WORRIED _ KEY: Y = YES
N = No

BORING
— ? = CANNOT DECIDE

ACTIVE ._
SYMPATHETIC ___
CONFIDENT ___

TOO QUIET ___
COMPLAINING ___
STUBBORN ___

GOOD __

TOO SLOW __

NARROW INTERESTS ___
INTELLIGENT ...
STIMULATING ___
TALK TOO MUCH ___
INTERESIING ___

HARD TO MEET ___
HEALTHY ___
INTERESTED IN DOING THINGS ___,

ID#

APPENDIX I-20
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

(BEFORE STARTING THE NEXT QUESTIONS, BE SURE ALL SPACES ARE
FILLED IN AND THE ID# 18 ON EACH SHEET 0N PREVIOUS QUESTIONS.)

 

 

9127 I am going to read to you a list of things and people which may
to have an influence on your success in finding a Job. I would

alga like you to tell me what kind of effect you feel each has had
on your Job search success. This card lists the responses you
should use (HAND CARD). For instance, if I said "what kind of
effect do you believe your next-door neighbor has had on your
success in find a job," and you believe your next-door neighbor
has had no effect on your job search success, you would say
"number two, no effect." If you believe that your neighbor has
had a helping effect on your job search success, you would say
"number three, help." On the other hand, if you believe your
neighbor has interfered or hindered your Job search success,
you would say "number one, hinder." Do you understand? (IF
NOT, REPEAT EXPLANATION.) Remember, you can use any of the
three responses.

 

 

, (READ EACH STATEMENT AND ASK:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

"WHAT KIND or EFFECT DO YOU 3 5'
EVE A H J HAS HAD F‘ a _
T W a .. g
A 3032' ) ) S 8 'c
r?
9127 The number of Job openings 1 2 3 (197)
available in the local area.
glgg The employment program you 1 2 3 (198)
belong to.
g129 The staff who work on the 1 2 3 (199)
program you belong to.
9130 Other Job seekers. l 2 3 (200)
Ql31 Luck. 1 2 3 (201)
Q132 The attitude of employers l 2 3 (202)
toward older Job seekers.
9133 The methods of job seeking 1 2 3 (203)
you use.
3134 The amount of time and effort 1 2 3 (204)

you put into looking for a Job.

9135 Your motivation to find a Job. 1 2 3 (205)

APPENDIX I-21
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

z
o
n:
- m
a m
a. n :l:
o o m
H o :-
n v
9136 Your personality. 1 2 3 (206)
9137 Your job interview skills. 1 2 3 (207)
9138 Your resume. 1 2 3 (208)
9139 I'd like to find out how many different sources of Job leads

you can name. A Job lead is information about a possible job
0 enin . People ususlly get 36b leadSTTrom other people or
from pIaces or organizations. Name as many different sources
of Job leads as you can. (IF RESPONDENT GIVES A PERSON'S NAME,
FIND OUT WHO THAT PERSON IS (i.e., WHAT AGENCY THEY WORK FOR).
WHEN RESPONDENT STOPS GIVING ANSWERS, WAIT A FEW SECONDS AND
ASK, "DO YOU WANT TO NAME ANY MORE?," BEFORE GOING ON TO THE
NEXT QUESTION.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

9140
to
9152

I'd like to find out what you know about different methods of
finding a Job. I will read you some statements about methods
of looking for work, interviewing and sources of information,
about Job openings. I'd like you to tell me if you think each
statement is true or whether it is false. Some statements may
not seem absolutely true or false to you, however, you should
do your best to answer depending on whether you think the
statement is best described as true or false.

 

APPENDIX I-22

FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.

 

9140

9148

Although its time consuming to go
directly to an employer who hasn't
advertised a job opening, this is
usually a good way to land a Job.

Most people find Jobs through
newspaper want-ads.

Temporary Job Employment Agencies
are an expensive way to find a
job because they will charge you
a fee.

While most people ask friends,
relatives and acquaintances about
job leads, this is actually an
ineffective way to find a Job.

Most interviewers make up their
mind about an interviewee during
the first few minutes of the
interview.

Trying to locate Job leads by
using the telephone is usually
a waste of time.

It is best to be low key and
reserved on an interview rather
than come on as enthusiastic.

When you construct a resume, it
is best to only tell about things
you think will help you and leave
out other information.

It is really not appropriate to

put information on your resume
about intangible personal qualities
like enjoying responsibility or
liking to work with people.

 

 

 

 

 

T F
R A
U L
E S

E
1 2
1 2
l 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2

(209)

(210)

(211)

(212)

(213)

(214)

(215)

(216)

(217)

APPENDIX I-23
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

 

Q150

 

MCWH
mmr>~1

 

 

If a question on an applica— 1 2 (217)
tion dealt with an area where

you had a problem or limitation,

like a health limitation, it is

advisable to leave it blank.

If an employer doesn't have an 1 2 (218)
opening or doesn't hire me, it

would be silly to ask him about

any other job openings he knows

about.

It is okay when you to to an 1 2 (220)
interview to take a friend or
relative along with you.

It would be improper and pushy l 2 (221)
to close out the interview by

asking the employer when he will

make a decision on hiring.

 

IF RESPONDENT IS IN CONDITION "1" (JOB CLUB), ASK Q153-Q159;
IF RESPONDENT IS IN CONDITION "2" (INFO. & REF.) ASK Q159 ONLY.

 

I'd like to know how you feel about people you have met while
attending your Job club. All you will have to do to answer
these questions is tell me the names of fellow club members who
fit the statements I read. OK? Here's the first:

 

9153

Name any fellow Job Club member you can think of who you believe
would stop and talk to you if they saw you in the street.

NAMES:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

9154

APPENDIX I-24
FOLLOW UP QUESTIONNAIRE (cont.)

Name any fellow Job Club member you can think of who you
believe would like to have you working at the same place
as them.

NAMES:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

9155

Name any fellow Job Club member you can think of who you
believe would consider you to be a good friend.

NAMES:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I am now going to ask you the same three questions but this
time I will furnish you with a list of people who have
attended Job Clubs in the past. So all you will have to do
is put a check mark next to an individual's name. (GIVE
EXAMPLE.)

 

D
H
0‘
03

Using the boxes with a "1" in them, put a check next to any
name on this list if you believe they would stop and talk to
you if they saw you in the street.

 

Q15?

Using the boxes with a "2" in them, put a check next to any
name on this list if you believe they would like to have you
working at the same place with them.

 

9158

Using the boxes with a "3" in them, put a check next to any
name on this list if you believe they would consider you to
be a good friend.

 

9159

OK, we're Just about through with our interview, if you would,
please take a few minutes and tell me what the program you were
assigned to is like and how you feel it has affected you and
your Job search efforts.

 

INTERVIEWER COMMENTS