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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

A SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
OF THE AFRICAN PERSONALITY
AMONG ZAMBIAN STUDENTS

presented by

JACOB SANI TEMBO

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

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© 1980

JACOB SANI TEMBO

All Rights Reserved

A SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
OF THE AFRICAN PERSONALITY
AMONG ZAMBIAN STUDENTS

By
Jacob Sani Tembo

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the degree of
MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Sociology

1980

a
e)

6 use ‘

ABSTRACT
A SOCIOLOGICAL ANALYSIS
OF THE AFRICAN PERSONALITY
AMONG ZAMBIAN STUDENTS

By Jacob Sani Tembo

A sample of 135 University of Zambia (Africa) fresh-
men responded to a questionnaire to determine their per-
formance on an African Personality Scale. There were no
significant differences in the scores along the following
factors: marital status, rural and urban schooling, serual
status and choice of further education. However, the sample
‘mean scores performance was higher than the average, indica-
ting that they consistently exhibited Pro-African Personality
trends. The results suggest that whereas differences in
manifestations of the African Personality might not be evi-
dent within social groups, the general population might mani-
fest the African Personality.

The social factors (independent variables) that have
been influential in the development of the African Personal-
ity have been identified as the traditional indigenous African
social phenomena including ideology, economic institutions,
values, norms, beliefs. These have dialectically interacted
with the colonial and independent patterns to produce the

phenomenon of African Personality.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my major thesis advisor
Dr. Ruth Hamilton for her invaluable assistance through the
arduous task of developing these ideas, and the rest of the
members of my thesis committee, Dr. McKee and Dr. Artie for
their suggestions. My sincere thanks are also extended to
the following for sending the data for the research;
Dr. Robert Serpell, Dr. Paul Mwaipaya and Dr. Philip Kingsley;
all of whom are members of the faculty of the University of
Zambia.

Last but not least, my profound gratitude to the
Staff Development Office of the University of Zambia for their

patience and understanding.

ii

CHAPTER

II

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK .

Introduction .

Literature Review and Theoretical

Framework . . . . . . . . . .
Perspectives on the concept of the
African personality . . . . .
Anti-African Personality .

Pro-African Personality
Hypotheses .

Methodology .
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Measures of Central Tendency for Entire
Sample on Variables 13 to 30 .
Discussion . . . . . .

Conclusion .

BIBLIOGRAPHY .

APPENDICES .

A

B
C
D

QUESTIONNAIRE FORMAT
QUESTIONNAIRE ANSWER RATING .
MAP OF ZAMBIA .

MAP OF AFRICAN COUNTRIES

iii

:11
.30
.30
.51
.51
.62
.71

. 75

81
82
86
91
92

TABLE

LIST OF TABLES

Government Expenditure on Health .
Hospital and Health Centers: 1966-71 .

One way Analysis of Variance, Total Score
of Sample by Sex . . . . . . . .

One way Analysis of Variance, Total Score
by Rural or Urban Schooling . . .

Total Score of Sample by Marital Status

Total Score by Choice of Further Education .

Cross tabulation, Age, Urban Secondary
Schooling by Sex by Choice of Further
Education . . . . . . . .

Cross tabulation, Urban Primary and

Secondary Education by Sex by Choice of
Further Education . .

iv

58

6O

61

62

64

64

CHAPTER I

CONCEPTUAL AND EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK

Introduction

The objective of the thesis is to demonstrate the
performance of a sample of African students on an African
Personality scale.

The empirical problem is theoretically linked to
that of the continuing controversy among sociologists
regarding the relationship between social structure and
ideas. The immediately relevant points will be briefly ad-
dressed in order to isolate the conceptual foundation that
will be the basis of the empirical evidence, analysis and
conclusions.

The pertinent issue which constitutes the foundation
of the empirical study is that African society has been in-
fluenced by internal African social values and economic sys-
tems on the one hand, and external social values of pre-
dominantly western origin on the other. To what extent is
the African personality a manifestation of the combination
of these social forces?

The significance of empirical implications of the
study of the African personality can be tentatively viewed
in terms of development. The concept and objectives of

development have been a particularly urgent and tenacious
l

2
issue in the Third WOrld countries. The African countries
particularly after independence, have generated various
programs to activate economic, political and social develop-
ment. Since this African personality study explores the
contemporary values and attitudes of Africans, the results
could provide a basis for forecasting the direction of
social change and development. On the other hand, the
empirical study could also provide further concrete informa-
tion and shed light on the continuing theoretical debate
about the relationship between consciousness, ideas and social
change.

The general objective of the thesis is to explore
the social consciousness of a small subpopulation of African
society with a view toward making an empirical contribution
which may clarify the extent to which African social struc-
ture and experiences influence the subjects' view of real-
ity and environment. Specifically, the objectives are:

1. To examine empirically the role that an African
social system has played in the development of
social consciousness.

2. To empirically study relative differences in
the influence of African ideology and social
values on male and female respondents in an
African country.

3. To explore the relative differences in the in-
fluence of African social values and ideology

and western values, views and thought systems on

3
Africans who have acquired their formal
education in a predominantly rural or urban
environment in Africa.
4. To suggest and speculate on possible areas of
further research in the field of African ideology,

social consciousness and development.

Literature Review and Theoretical Framework

The theoretical controversy concerning the relation-
ship between ideas and social change is broadly represented
in the opposing views of two sociological theorists and
philosophers: Hegel and Karl Marx.

Hegel1 stated that thoughts, concepts, ideas and all
the products of human consciousness have an independent
existence. Hughes2 elaborates by saying that, while as in
the Anglo-French tradition sense perception was conceived as
absolute in the examination of human ideas, the Hegelian
philosophy in Germany regarded the "idea" as supreme in
human society. Hegel said that, "the ultimate reality of
the universe lay in 'spirit' or 'idea' rather than in the

data of sense perception."3

To Hegel, therefore, ideology
and its antecedents constitute a legitimate and independent
source of social change.

The Marxist4

theory of social change attributes the
primary source of change to material conditions. He maintains

that material conditions, which he terms the economic base,

4
constitute the primary source of social change; while the
beliefs, ideology, customs, and values which he terms the
superstructure, constitute secondary and, therefore by
implication, less significant sources of social change.

In fact, in his manuscript; "Contributions to the Critique
of Hegel's Philosophy of Right,"5 and in subsequent writings,
Marx claimed that Hegel had turned things upside down and
that he (Marx) had, "put him.on his feet". In other words,
Marx meant that Hegel had attributed and explained human
social consciousness in terms of inverted, opposite and,
therefore, inappropriate responses to social change and con-
flict.

The relevance of the controversy between ideas and
social change is that perhaps a theory of African personality
can provide some basis for exploring the influence of western
colonial social and economic patterns on changes in African

social values and ideas.

Perspectives on the concept of the African personality:

The concept of African personality generally refers
to manifestations of cultural uniqueness among Africans as
reflected in their behavior, social norms, customs, values,
beliefs, religious zeal, attitudes, explanations of the cosmos
and the supernatural, social and political systems historic-
ally or in contemporary times.

The basic origins of the term "personality" are in

psychology.

5

Allport6

defines personality as, "the dynamic organization
‘within the individual of those psychophysical systems that
determine his unique adjustments to his environment." To
operationalize this definition to suit the research objec-
tives and an orientation encompassing the African personal-
ity, the substitution of a number of concepts is necessary.
The position is taken that the African personality is the
dynamic organization within the African individual in the
African society of those socio-cultural and physical systems
that determine his unique responses, and adjustments to his
environment.

The concept of the African personality has been
addressed by many past and contemporary Africans and Afro-
Americans. It has been defined differently when used to
designate all the black people with an African heritage;
mainly those of the Carribean Islands and the United States
of America. An examination of a few of these definitions
reveals that some do not precisely define the African Person-
ality but merely seek to describe and explain the personality
and cultural uniqueness of Africans. Kaunda explains:

Possibly 'Psychology' is not the appropriate

word, but I do bel eve that there is a dis-

tinctively African way of looking at things,

of problem.solving and indeed of thinking--we

have our own logic-system which makes sense

to us, however confusing it might be to the

westerner. If we were, from my own observa-

tion, to try to summarize the difference be-

tween African and western psychology and I

would say that the Westerner has a problem

solving mind while; the African has a situation
experiencing‘mind.

In the words of D. Chisiza:

There is a tendency in the West, whether the
westerners themselves know it or not, for
people to assume that man lives to work. ‘We
believe that man works to life. This view
of life gives rise to our high preference
for leisure. With us, life has always meant
the pursuit of happiness rather than the pur-
suit of beauty or truth. We pursue happiness
by rejecting isolationism, individualism,
negative emotions, and tensions, on the one
hand; and by encouraging positive emotions
and habitual relaxation, and by restraining
our desires on the other.8

Or, Cedric X (Clark) et. al. felt that:

African psychology is the recognition and practice
of a body of knowledge which is fundamentally
different in origin, content, and direction

than that recognized and practiced by Euro-
American psychologists. The differences

between African psychology and Euro-American
psychology reflect the differences between

Black people and White people or, in terms

of basic culture, between Africans and

Europeans.9

In an article published in the Presence Africaine A. N'daw
explained that:

The conception of man is different (among

Africans) and, unlike that of Cartesian Europe,

is never dualistic or dichotomous. There is

never the separation between body and soul

found elsewhere.10

These quotations constitute only a small fraction of
the numerous black and African definitions of what can be
conceived as the "African Personality".

Certain prominent and relevant themes prevail in
these works. For example, one fundamental issue is that of

the African living in communities with little or no emphasis

on the individualism prevalent in western society. Another

7

is that the African lives by natural rhythms, hence estab-
lishing a primordial attachment to the universe and the cos-
‘mos. Their attachment to nature makes it imperative that
they be a religious people who believe in the powers of
supernatural forces. Because the African is immersed in
the totality of the social life and his strong belief in
nature and the ancestral spirits, the African finds it
difficult to tear social phenomenon into small bits for
purposes of abstract analysis and philosophy. This is, for
example, what Kaunda implies when he describes the African
as having a "situation experiencing mind", and the'Westerner
as having "a problem solving mind".

The arguments about the "African Personality" arises
‘mainly from.two schools of thought. One is the Western
and Western-oriented scholars who express the view that the
African does not exhibit western traits of thought and cul-
ture because he is not yet civilized. Therefore, they be-
lieve what is needed is to provide him with Western know-
ledge and culture so that eventually he will become like
the westerner.

The other school of thought maintains that the African
behaves, thinks and lives as he does because he is unique.
It holds that Western education and culture should be used to
enhance further his uniqueness. A few of the views from
these two opposing schools of thought will be briefly reviewed.
The former will be termed the "Anti-African Personality", the

latter the "Pro-African Personality".

Anti-African Personality:

An author on black Africa quotes an incident in
which an African appeared before a Chief Justice in the
then Nyasaland (Malawi). The African was charged with
murder. During the trial, the African's defense was that
he had been changed by magic into a crocodile. The Chief
Justice's three African assessors, who had apparently been
chosen for their intelligence and sobriety, agreed with the
charged man's claim. "The Westerner may find this incon-
ceivable but it is quite consistent with African's obsession
with the supernatural."11

The author, Potter, makes further assertions, some
of which cannot clearly be substantiated academically, and
therefore are merely debatable subjective opinions about
Africans. But one claim he makes may be quoted. He claims
that educated Africans have a limited choice of topics of
conversation. As such, the only subject matter is politics.

I think it was Lessing who wrote that when

Africans are educated they are deprived of

all subjects of conversation between them-

selves except politics. Any two Europeans

‘will discuss sports, weather, women, money,

'wisecracks, the theatre, cinema, clothes,

even books and will perhaps mention politics

in passing. Two educated Africans will dis-

cuss politics for hours on end and when they

have finished talking about politifs have

nothing more to say to each other. 2

Another author, Oyebola observes that in the historic-
al and contemporary situation the Africans constitute the

least developed society in terms of advancement in technology.

9
Africans have been less inventive and seem.to make very
little or no progress at all in the field of creative tech-
nology. He quotes such virtues as determination, honesty,
and creative imitation as generally lacking in African
society. To this effect he suggests that the African
society must initiate a revolution of the mind.

It is a revolution of the mind. It is the
conquest of the right to think and admit
that in all the crises of man's history,
our race has always been the underdog.
Ours is the only race that has never made
it anywhere in the world. 'We have for too

long remained a poor imitator of the other
races.

The author dismisses most of the claims that Africa
had great civilizations and a glorious past as mere wishful
thinking and a misleading myth. Discussing the issue of
pride in the virtues of African communal life, life by
rhythm.and strong belief in the supernatural, Ayebola declares
these as insufficient and claims there is no significant way
in which they can contribute to advancement in technology.

As peoples who are just emerging from
centuries of backwardness, foreign domi-
nation and dehumanization, the concept
of African personality is a constructive
force for the blacks. But the idea that
black man's past, his religious and
spiritual life, his respect for elders
and communal spirit are more important
than his technology is inimical to our
progress. 4

 

The Anti-African personality school maintains that
there is nothing that Africans can be proud of because his-
torically they have been technologically backward. This

school of thought does not entertain, at length, any questions

lO
regarding why the Africans behave and think as they do.
Implicitly, the school of thought overemphasizes technologi-
cal advancement and westernization as the only way out of
the problems of backwardness.

‘With an identical orientation, LeVine15

goes into
further detail. He states that evidence indicates that the
African Society is distinguishable from societies elsewhere,
which coincides with the definition in the opening remarks.
LeVine further says that there are certain characteristics
which are distinctively African; that they prevail with
dominant frequency in Africa: subsistence agriculture, poly-
gamous marriages, strong and wide family and kinship rela-
tionships and bride price (dowry) as a marriage custom. He
suggests seven other characteristics which he claims are
widely shared by all Africans on the continent; social dis-
tance between persons differing in age and sex, age-sex hier-
archy, emphasis on material transactions in interpersonal
relations, functional diffuseness of authority relations, a
tendency to blame and fear others under stress, a relative
absence of separation anxiety and related effects and, finally,
concreteness of thought.

Some of these characteristics which LeVine ascribes
to most Africans are, at best, highly subjective value judge-
ments of the African society, and they implicitly assume
that Western social values should prevail in Africa.

LeVine states that there is social distance between

persons who differ in age and sex. He explains:

11

What is most striking about these social

distance patterns to a Western observer

is that they apply to interpersonal

relations within the family, which we are

used to thinking of as a unit of relaxed

informality. 15

He describes these particular African social patterns
as "institutionalized restrictions", "segregation patterns",
"customary prescriptions" and "avoidance patterns". These
descriptions implicitly portray (to the African and westerner)
African social relationships as being negative, rigid and
miserable. Anything which is described in these terms must
be inherently bad, primitive and, therefore, undesirable.
However, an important point to be noted is that this view is

consistent with the Anti-African personality school of thought.

Pro-African Personality:

The Pro-African personality school of thought is sym-
pathetic towards the African and seeks to analyze the issue as
a genuine and authentic subject of social inquiry. The pro-
ponements of this school of thought generally maintain that the
African social consciousness owes its origins to the rapid
and mostly destructive effects of slavery, colonialism.and,
in contemporary times, neo-colonialismn The African social
consciousness has been described as a unique and genuine sys-
tem of social thought and character arising from social
environmental conditions and historical experiences which
are predominantly different from those of Asia, Europe

and the United States. Among the proponements of more

12
abstract theories of African personality are Senghor, Mbiti
and Cesaire.

Negritude is a philosophy of African being. It
seeks to define the African's personality in terms of his
total response to the environment; his emotions, responses
to nature, speech, communal existence, explanations of the
cosmos and beliefs in the supernatural. "Quite simply,
negritude is the sum total of the values of the civilization
of the African world."17

Senghor explains the characteristics and virtues of
the African culture and the significance of articulating
and defining them. He establishes the uniqueness of the
African culture by discussing in detail African metaphysics,
emotions, religion, conception and apprehension of reality
and democracy. He contrasts the African approach with the
western approach toward social phenomena in order to illus-
trate the differences.

For example, he explains the differences in African
and western apprehensions of reality. Senghor says that the
European distinguishes the object from himself; "a pitiless
factual analysis."18 The European uses an object he killed
or fixed for practical ends and, apart from mere scientific
analysis, destroys it in the process. Whereas,

The African is, as it were, shut up inside

his black skin. He lives in primordial

night. He does not begin by distinguishing

himself from the object, the tree or stone,

the man or animal or social event. He does

not keep it at a distance. He does not
analyze it. Once he has come under its

13

influence, he takes it like a blind man,

still living into his hands. He does

not fix it or kill 1t.19

He further mentions that Africans react more natur-
ally to stimuli because of rhythm, The African has direct
reactions to sensations which give rise to memory, language
and art. Africans live in symbiosis with others in the
communal society. As Senghor puts it, "Subject and object
are dialectically confronted in the very act of knowing one
another."20

The concept'of Negritude is said to have been the re-
action of black intellectuals to the effects of colonialism,
including the cumulative effects of the slavery which had
preceded it, such as the racial inferiority complex. It was
a literal and ideological movement of French-speaking in-
tellectuals in France in conjunction with black people in
America and the west Indies. The movement sought to fight
what was seen as a subjection of black people to the politi-
cal, social and moral domination of the west. "Negritude as
we had then began to conceive and define it was a weapon
of defense and attack and inspiration rather than an instru-
ment of construction."21

Senghor further describes the nature of Negritude
and seeks to pick out strands of behavior in the African
consciousness which are said to reflect characteristics or
dominant traits of Negritude. For example, "emotive dis-

position" represents a being of emotion. It is further

claimed that even the physical constitution of the African

14

predisposes him to respond to the external world in such
a way that it becomes an engulfing experience in which
the whole of the self is involved and, by implication,

no distinction is made between the physical and psychic
self on the one hand and the external natural environment
on the other.

The above assertions are confirmed by the author's
own observation. Some Americans seem to be unable to
perceive a social experience such as a beautiful sunset, a
meal or the like unless they mention in advance that it is
beautiful, nice or looks good. It seems essential and an
integral part of the experience to know and mention that
one is experiencing enjoyment before he can perceive the
enjoyment or ecstasy inherent in nature. The theme of this
thesis (which is in slight contradiction with some elements
of Negritude) is not that one or the other is better but
that both should be regarded as genuine and legitimate per-
ceptions of the social and natural environment.

"Senghor derives from.his exposition of the distinc-
tive psychology of Negro-African, what one might call a
theory of knowledge implicit in the African's attitude to
the world, a black epistemology."22

From what has transpired, it is evident that know-
ledge becomes discovery through emotion. It is this sensuous
grasp on reality that Senghor refers to as intuition. He
states that an African is not moved by the outward appear-

ance of an object. One example which he cites to illustrate

15
this point is that, "what moves him.in water is not that
it flows, is liquid and blue, but that it washes and puri-
fies."23 Physical appearance, therefore, is of less sig-
nificance than function. This exposition seems to imply
that the African looks at objects in terms of their utility
in the dynamics of society and their seeming existence in
the continuation of the life cycle in nature.

Some critics like Abiola24 have denounced Negritude.
Abiola maintains that the theoretical formulation of Negri-
tude is poor and that its practical implications are insig-
nificant. In his words,

On the grounds of its facile and unscienti-

fic attribution of a racial basis to mental

processes and the suggestion that it seems

to carry of an inherent incapacity of the

fiii§§h§°ofii‘éirifiitfiiffié‘i‘éfiifin‘iifi9’"'

Abiola claims that the theory of Negritude seems to bear
some racist connotations and, therefore, is not suitable as
a basis for practical action. He regards negritude views
of the black man as static and unaffected by time.

Senghor disagrees with these views. To support his
assertions, he maintains rightly that there are some young
.African intellectuals who have read Marx carelessly and
are also uncured of the inferiority complex from colonial-
ismi They consequently blame him.for reducing the African,
"mode of knowledge to pure emotion."26 They accuse him of

denying that there is an African rationality and an African

technology. Senghor refutes these notions and emphasizes

16
that there is a white European civilization and a black
African civilization and according to him.their signifi-
cance is to explain the reasons for prevailing differences.
He says that contrary to popular belief, emotion is not
failure of consciousness but rather constitutes, "the

"27 It is the

accession to a higher state of consciousness.
emotive attitude toward the world that explains African cul-
tural'values.

What is the relationship of the concept of African
personality to Negritude? It bears a major positive element
in that it draws attention to the reality and existence of
the African cultural values and philosophy of life. These
were assumed not to exist in a dark and backward continent.
Beyond this point, direct relevance to contemporary African
thinking needs further searching, an issue which will be
addressed later.

Another pro-African personality proponent28

explains
the African's social consciousness and its uniqueness in the
modern world in terms of the traditional concept of time in
Africa and how this has changed radically under modern condi-
tions. This change did not occur under normal and usual
circumstances where creativity, assimilation and accommoda-
tion was possible. On the contrary, colonialism.and racial
myths that Africa had essentially neither a culture nor a
history because of technological backwardness made the African

society's adoption of the modern or western concept of

17
time such that it has produced perverted features in Afri-
cans.

Mbitizg

says that the conception of time in
African society was in terms of "sasa" which meant now;
"zamani" meant the past. Events receded into zamani when
they were over and this included human beings after death,
except that man joined his ancestors after death. African
society did not have the concept of future in the Western
mathematical sense. ZMbiti asserts that the rapid changes
brought by modernization have hardly been harmonious or
creative for most Africans. He says, "Medern change has
imported into Africa a future dimension of time. This is
perhaps the most dynamic and dangerous discovery of the
African peoples in the Twentieth Century."30
Finally, there is an observation that Mbiti makes
which seems to be in direct opposition to the Anti-African

31

thought of . Potter who claims that educated Africans

converse about politics exclusively.

Mbiti32 on the other hand, claims that Africans

are obsessed with politics because they have only recently
been released from the shackles of colonialism, during which
open political discussion was forbidden among Africans. In
his‘words,

The spirit which ignited the fires of
nationalism during the colonial days
has not lost its power; it has ignited
more fires since independence returned
to the majority of African states; and
it will continue to do so until its
energy is harnessed and channelled in

18
other directions. The political pot
in Africa is still bubbling, and great
is the man who can stir it without
getting smeared or even scorched.33
An.American sociologist expresses views which bear
some relevance to discussion of the pro-African Personality

school of thought. Dixon34

states that the assumptions

made in certain research often rule out explanation. He
cites as an example the assumption that the nuclear family
is the only valid form of marital organization. Accordingly,
therefore, pathologies arise when there is no male head in

a black family. This perspective is said to be determined
by the orientation of the knowers. Hence, different world
views lead to different research methodologies.

Dixon examines African and Euro-American differences
in axiology (values which one holds), epistemology (how one
knows) and logic (organization of what one knows). He
quotes a variety of examples to illustrate the differences
between the two societies. For example, under axiology he
quotes "pure" Euro-American emphasis on the future which is
anticipated to be "bigger and better". Nobody wants to be
old fashioned and they are rarely satisfied with the present.
Time is transformed into an object--sold, bought, and utilized
as in the popular Western saying, "Time is money". Indivi-
duals with this disposition inherently, "function.more effec-
tively when activities are preplanned and time scheduled.
Clock-time rules the day when the phemomenal world (object)

is separated from self."35 This is not the case in the

19
African orientation in which time has to be experienced.
That is why Mbiti says it is experienced into events which
have occurred, those which are to take place and those
immediately to occur. Events which haven't occurred, and
those which have no likelihood of occurring are in "no-
time". It has to be experienced in order to become real.
Proceeding from.this statement, the future is not real.
Dixon says: "Since Africanized time orientation is governed
by the dimensions of past and present, the drive for invest-
ment of the future-oriented Euro-American time becomes sub-
stantially less important."36

Dixon suggests that the African orientation provides
a way of knowing reality that is an alternative to the
European way. The implication of Dixon's thesis that the
African orientation of thought vis-a-vis the African Person-
ality can be regarded as a positive alternative in modern
intellectual orientation and social thought.

Where the African orientation is recognized or just
suggested as a possible alternative way of doing things,
there is overwhelming opposition from the Africans themselves.
The difficulties facing any efforts to change the status
quo in African society are enormous. The writer recalls a
Zambian friend who was a senior at the University of Zambia.
During an argument about Zambian values and education, the
researcher said the way to avoid adopting inappropriate and
distorted values and knowledge is to change our educational

system. Burn all the current books particularly in the

20
social studies (history, language, geography, art, music).
Instead, use textbooks with a Zambian (African) orientation.
The Zambian friend broke into contemptuous laughter, "Where
‘will the new books come from, who will write them?" He
challenged the idea with so many questions that the prospects
were made to look gloomy and his negative bias was revealed.
This is the attitude that, not only Africans, need to elimi-

nate but academicians in the social sciences also.

Lezichanga: Patterns and Dynamics of the African Personality:

Enormous social changes have occurred in the African
society over the last decade which require new tools of
analysis and indigenous rationales for the emerging attitudes
and social consciousness. This is why in this thesis, the
African Personality should be termed "Lezichanga". This is a
swahili-like derivative and combination of "Mehanganyika"
which means ”mixture" and "Malezi" which means "Upbringing".
Lezichanga, therefore, is the dynamic manifestation of the
contemporary African character which is a product of the dia-
lectical interaction of cumulative social experiences of
African pre-colonial social dynamics cumulatively surviving
through the processes of social change during slavery,
colonialism, (racism), neo-colonialism and political independ-
ence.

The concept of African Personality is a system of
values and ideas. It is a world view based on the cumulative

social and cultural experiences of the African people. As

21
used in this thesis, the concept does not refer to behavior-
istic and attitudinal factors in the strict psychological
sense. It is used as African thinkers like Nkrumah, Senghor,
Nyerere use it. For example, in his discussion of the his-
tory of African Personality, Pan-Africanism and Negritude,

Drake37

defines the African Personality as social values,
ideas and a world view which is unique to Africans. Drake
says, "The African Personality is something that can be pro-
claimed, formulated, asserted and projected."38 The concept
is used to capture the macro level cultural and value experi-
ences that affect the general consciousness and thought sys-
tems of Africans. How does one view the developmental pro-
cess of the African Personality.

The major cumulative historical events that have
shaped the African personality are three. First, those
unique experiences and perspectives which have been tradi-
tionally called "African". These include the social institu-
tions such as kinship, marriage and communal existence,
economic institutions and a particular cosmological view of
the world. Second, specific externally derived political and
economic experiences (material conditions) such as slavery,
colonialism, and neocolonialism. Third, the condition of
national independence which has brought to the surface and
revealed the various manifestations of African personality
defined in this thesis.

In essence then, the African Personality is a cumula-

tive developmental phenomenon derived from both internal and

22
external social forces. Figure one is a diagram.which iden-
tifies the external and internal social forces which are
suggested as major factors in the development of the African

personality.

Figure 1

African Personality - A Diagrammatic Representation

 

 

 

 

 

 

A B
INTERNAL STRUCTURES 7 EXTERNALLY DERIVED
,PRE-COLONIAL STRUCTURES
TRADITIONALISMS COLONIALISM, INDEPENDENCE
NATIONALISMS, INDEPENDENC3_ IMPERIALISM
C

 

SYNTHESIS OF A & B

AFRICAN PERSONALITY — Ideological - negri
tude new kinds of institutional
authenticity patterns,

kinship, world view

African Socialisms,_psycho cultural

 

 

 

 

All the elements in A constitute the indigenous
African social characteristics like cosmology, values, norms,
beliefs, marriage kinship, political structures reflected
in the hierarchy of judicial systems from the village head-
man up to the paramount chiefs who ruled and had jurisdic-
tion over large ethnic groups, the indigenous nationalisms
which inspired the political struggles leading to national
independence, such as the United National Independence
Party (UNIP) and the former African National Congress Party
(ANC) in Zambia, the Tanganyika National Union (TANU) in

23
Tanzania. Finally, methods of subsistence which include
soil cultivation, hunting and gathering, pastoral, nomadic
‘war with and raiding of neighboring ethnic groups.

All the elenents in B constitute predominantly
externally derived characteristics which were adopted,
imposed and sometimes assimilated, chiefly through slavery,
colonialism, occasional explorers, imperialism.and neo-
colonialism, such as money as the basis of economic exchange,
industrialization, reading and writing, western agricultural
practice.

The concept of dialectics refers to the process in
which two or more opposing social phenomena interact against
each other and produce a by-product which is a synthesis
of the opposing social matter. In the diagram, C constitutes
the synthesis of the dialectical product of the internal
African social characteristics (A) and external social char-
acteristics (B). It is argued in this thesis that the syn-
thesis is reflected in a proliferation of ideologies; (i.e.,
negritude, authenticity, African socialisms, psychocultural
world views, and new kinds of institutional patterns.

In the final analysis it is the pattern of social con-
sciousness which arises from this synthesis which this thesis

explores, quantifies and terms the "African Personality".

Variation of African Personality:
There are two opposite views of African personality
which are backed by two schools of thought. On the basis of

the literature examined, it is evident that in the general

24
field of sociology and sociology of knowledge in particular,
academicians, political leaders and laymen alike take differ-
ent and sometimes unpredictable sides. The African personal—
ity constitutes a unique view, and idea of the external world.
The uniqueness of the concept of African Personality arises
from some of the issues discussed in the literature on the
Pro-African Personality and Anti-African Personality schools
of thought. The empirical tool for testing the African Per-
sonality will also reflect the continuum.from.the Anti-African
Personality to the Pro-African Personality.

Conceptualization of the African personality must take
into account the cumulative historical experience of people in
Africa within the context of their social and geographical
space. It should take into consideration both external and in-
ternal dialectical interactions of psychocultural and social-
political processes that intermingle to constitute the range of
behavior which can generally be termed the African Personality.

Taking into account the socio-geographical space
and internal and external psycho-cultural aspects of African
personality suggests a vital factor in the demonstration
and exploration of the African Personality; that is its
possible differential manifestations among different seg-
ments of African society. This means that, depending on
the cumulative historical experiences of an African region
or individual and their social geographical space, the
African Personality is likely to manifest itself with vary-

ing form, content, and intensity. This further suggests

25
that the African Personality might demonstrate differential
manifestation according to the sexual status, marital
status, age, regional status of the individual and perhaps
their elite status and, therefore, their knowledge of
the external world. All these factors could be responsible
for and contribute to differences in intensity of the
African Personality among individuals.

Take, for example, the elite status of an individual
in Africa. The sample on which the empirical enquiry is
based consists of University of Zambia students. By virtue
of the subjects elite status, their manifestation of the
African Personality, may show some complex variations.

These could perhaps be produced mainly by the strategic role
of elites in the process of social change in Africa.

Although the elites are defined as a group which has
influence over power and redefines the norms of the society39
the major significance of our sample is that the students
constitute a part of the African society which is literate
and relatively more aware of both the subtle and salient
aspects of the social attitudes inherent in the African and
western viewpoints, by virtue of their education and training
at Universities in Africa.

The nature and status of the study sample can best
be illustrated by a brief examination of the major prevail-

ing views about elites in African society. Hodder40 divides

the African elites into three major categories; the first

26

one is comprised of traditional elites who hold traditional
African values and are illiterate. These are people like
chiefs, traditional healers and village headmen. Hodder41
terms the second group of elites the upper middle class,
the intelligentsia, whose characteristics show that they
are wealthy, literate, 'detribalized' and westernized.
The third group is the lower middle class or sub-intelligent-
sia who are said to identify themselves with the aspirations
of the mass of the population.

In which category does our sample fall? None.
This is because even though the university students are
highly literate compared to the entire population, they
neither hold political power nor wealth. Their scholarships
are provided by the government according to the principles
of humanism, which has socialized education. On the other
hand, they grew up in a traditional culture and because of
this they are acquainted with traditional values. The uni-
versity is exposing them to western, Eastern and African
social ideas. While, as Hodder claims, the new elite in
African countries tends to be identical to the type created
during the colonial era in terms of their manners of speak-
ing, attitudes and languages; the same cannot be said about
contemporary African university students because their
curriculum not only comprises a preponderence of western
viewpoints, but it often contrasts African and Eastern

points of view on different subject matters.

27

42 of the circulation

According to Pareto's theory
of elites, elites are classified into two categories; in-
novators and consolidators. The former create novel things
and new interpretations while the latter support the status
quo. In the continuous process of social change consoli-
dators replace innovators and innovators, in turn, replace
consolidators. This model is largely applicable to African
society. However, having ascertained that university stu-
dents do not fit the three major categories in Africa, it
remains to be seen whether they can be classified as inno-
vators or consolidators.

While university students are expected to occupy
skilled positions in the social-economic strata of the
society, their social ideas and attitudes depart from.the
elite which was created in the colonial era and now holds
the political and economic power of the country. A possible
advantage of the sample is that it does not conform to the
conventional definitions of elites. Therefore, their social
views and attitudes could reflect the nature, attitude and
social thought of an emerging elite embodying the contemp-
orary and future African personality.

Chaput43

says that the role of the intellectual in
Africa is that of translating social problems into political
terms. He points out that the rapid social changes in Africa
make the task of locating elites very difficult because
groups and classes change rapidly. This might, in fact, be

true of the Zambian elite.

28
The major independent variables which have been
assumed to influence relative prevalence of the African
Personality in the sample .are eight, among which are age,
sex, rural or urban education and marital status.

There is a marked difference in socialization be-
tween male and female members of the society. In the
Zambian society very few females are given the opportunity
to acquire elite qualities through education. When they
acquire an opportunity they are generally discouraged from
being innovative and assertive. The male population, in
contrast, is socialized to be innovative and encouraged to
adopt western cultural patterns by, for example, seeking
employment in the modern sector of the economy. Males are
often encouraged to attain maximum academic qualifications.

Chaput44

supports this view when he states that the African
elite groups are almost exclusively comprised of males between
the ages of twenty-five and forty-five. He bases his conclu-
sions on studies he conducted in four African countries:
Tanzania, Kenya, Zambia and Senegal. On the basis of this
sexual differentiation in socialization, it is logical to
expect differences in the amount of African personality
traits exhibited by males and females.

Where a respondent did most of his schooling could
be a determining factor in the manifestation of African person-
ality characteristics. The rural and urban environments in

Zambia (Africa) expose the individual to different levels of

dialectical social forces as identified in the diagrammatic

29
representation in Figure l. The people who live near or in
the metropolitan areas tend to be more exposed to western
and external views, expressed within Africa and overseas
through the mass media. Therefore, respondents who attended
primary and secondary schools in urban areas are expected to
exhibit different levels of the African Personality than those
who received their schooling in rural areas.

Finally, if in fact University of Zambia students
constitute a potential future social and political elite, it
is essential to know whether the dialectical social forces,
which include indigenous ideology and values with external
sources, have had any impact on their attitudes as a reflection
of some deeper potential African social thought. This could
be a fruitful pointer to what type of elites will prevail in
Africa.

Summary:

The African Personality is the distinctive values and
ideas of Africans arising from the cultural uniqueness of
their historical experience. There is one group of authors
who maintain that this uniqueness is nothing more than reflec-
tions of the cultural backwardness of Africans. This is the
Anti-African Personality school of thought. The other group
maintains that the African Personality is an alternative and
legitimate concept important in understanding the Africans
as a separate civilization and distinct from the Europeans,

Asians or any other civilizations. The complexity of the

30
African Personality is manifested differently among various
segments of the African population. The use of Zambian
University students as the basis for African Personality
investigation provides some indication of this variation

among one subpopulation of a contemporary African society.

Hypotheses:

1. That male respondents will score significantly higher on
the African Personality scale than the female respondents.

2. That the married respondents will score significantly
higher on the African Personality scale than the single
respondents.

3. That the respondents who went to primary and secondary
schools in rural areas will score significantly higher on
the African Personality scale than those who attended the
same in an urban environment.

4. Those who prefer to do their advanced studies in Zambia
will score significantly higher on the African Personality

Scale than those who chose to go to Britain.

Methodology
Operationalizing the African Personality:

Figure 1 identifies two significant sources of social
change which cumulatively contribute to the molding of con-
temporary Africans, external and internal forces. The next
step is to find out if there is some modality of thought that

is likely to be reflected in the thinking and consciousness of a

31
sample of Africans. The critical epistemological question
is, how is it known that the African Personality exists?

The African Personality can be measured by develop-
ing a questionnaire. The responses to the questionnaire will
then be rated on an African Personality scale. The questions
reflect aspects of the African society that are both intern-
ally and externally derived. Certain aspects or traits of
Africans discussed in the literature can be classified under
the rubric externally derived and others as internally derived.
For example, under the classification internally derived
traits, Senghor discusses African cosmology. He states that
an African is not moved by the outward appearance of an object.
An example which he cites to illustrate this point is that,
"What moves him in water is not that it flows, is liquid and

"45 Physical appearance,

blue, but that it washes and purifies.
therefore, is less significant than function. On the basis
of this statement one would expect Africans to explain the
significance of physical phenomenon in terms of function
rather than the beauty of physical appearance. Questions 24
to 27 (see Appendix A) in the questionnaire were formulated
with this internal African cosmological view in mind.

The strength of kinship ties among Africans is par-

46 On the basis of his work,

ticularly emphasized by LeVine.
one would expect an African responding to a question about
family values to respond in a way that would reflect his be-
lief in African kinship ties. Questions 16 and 29 are de-

signed to measure this aspect of African personality.

32

Among the externally derived African traits,
colonialism seems to have played the most dominant role
in the definition of African social reality. Colonialism
introduced new political and economic systems, as well as
‘western patterns to the African social structure. Colonial-
ism also introduced racism, Racism has become reflected
in the African's racial inferiority complex. As a conse-
quence, anything that has an African origin has come to be
regarded as inferior. Africans were once prohibited to
participate in or even discuss politics openly. However,
political independence and the zealousness of African poli-
tical leaders to develop and restore confidence in the
Africans may have reversed this deleterious trend. Some
questionnaire items were formulated for the purpose of meas-
uring the influence of these external elements on individual
African respondents.

There are several questions concerning politics.
For example, the colonialists introduced new political pro-
cesses in the African countries from.which the Africans were
effectively excluded. The western.multi—party political sys-
tem.was regarded by the colonialists as the most democratic.
One party states are regarded as oppressive and dictatorial
sinc ethere is no formal opposition to the government. Ques-
tion 13 (see Appendix A) was designed to determine the res-
pondents' ViEW’Of the prevailing political systems which

47

have African overtones. On the other hand, as indicated in

33

48 maintained that Africans seem

the literature review, Potter
to discuss mostly politics during conversations among them-
selves. Question 28 (see Appendix A), "Politics is the best
subject to discuss when we meet friends for casual conversa-
tions," was designed to determine the respondents' views re-
garding Potter's statements. Individuals exhibiting high
levels of African Personality would be expected to strongly
agree with both statements 13 and 28.

Colonialists impressed on the Africans that every-
thing from western society is superior and better than anything
that is African. Certain questionnaire items were formulated
for the purpose of finding out whether this belief is still
strongly held by the respondents. The format of these ques-
tions was generally a comparison between Zambian and western
social phenomena. Questions 14,15,20, 21, fit into this cate-
gory. Oyebola states that Africans have contributed nothing
to the world in terms of technological development. He states
that Africans have nothing to be proud of in their past.
Questions 18,19,22,23 and 30 (see Appendix A) were designed
to determine the respondents views about this matter. In
the final analysis, the African Personality will be measured
by the responses to these questionnaire items which show con-
fidence in African values and ideas, as discussed in the
literature review.

While postulating that there are common views and
shared ideas of reality among Africans, there is no inference

that the African Personality is a monolithic concept. On the

34
contrary, one will find many variations based upon the vari-
ous social and cultural differences and differing experiences
of Africans.

The nature of the structured questionnaire was such
that the first 12 items concerned demographic information
about the vital statistics of the respondents. (See Appendices
A and B). Items 13 to 30 were comprised of statements to
which the subjects had to respond by choosing from five poss-
ible responses; Strongly Agree, Agree, Don't Know, Disagree
and Strongly Disagree. In the assignment of scores the minimum
score was 1, reflecting the least and 5 reflected maximum
agreement on the African Personality scale. The rationale
for scoring the statements was based on Zambian ideological
propositions that Africans/Zambians must have confidence and
pride in their own being, social, educational and political
institutions as well as their cultural heritage. A few ex-
amples from the questionnaire will illustrate this point.

Item 13 states: "One party states are suitable for
African countries." Actually, one party states are very pre-
valent in African countries; Tanzania, Malawi, Zaire, and
Zambia to mention just a few. The explanations of leaders
have always justified the one party states directly on a
political platform and/or the principles of their ideologies.
Accordingly a respondent who strongly disagrees with item 13
would be exhibiting characteristics that were least in keeping
‘with the African personality. On the other hand, some items

generally sought to determine the attitude of the respondents

35

toward nature although these questions were also structured.
For example, item 25 asks "What is the significance of water
flowing in a river?" Questions of this nature (four of them)
sought to test certain philosophical predispositions which
have been attributed to Africans by such authors as Senghor.

The questionnaire as the testing instrument for the
sample data was entirely developed by the researcher. The
items were very carefully selected keeping in mind limitations
of time, funding, the type of subjects who were going to be

respondents and finally the objective of the study.

Sample Data:

The study sample consists of 135 University of Zambia
freshmen taking an introductory psychology course in their
first year of study in the School of Humanities and Social
Sciences. The total number in the introductory psychology
class is 370. The students responded to a structured ques-

tionnaire which contained 30 itens (see Appendix A).

Sample Bias:

During construction of the questionnaire, four Afri-
can graduate students at Michigan State University examined
it and made comments on it. On the basis of their comments
and responses some items were withdrawn either because they
were vague or irrelevant to the objectives of the study. Be-

cause of the limited resources available to the researcher,

36
it was not possible to establish the validity and the reli-

ability of the test.

Research Context:

 

Zambia is an African country with an estimated popu-
lation of five million49 inhabitants. The country has an
area of 290,586 square miles and is landlocked with no direct
access to the sea. Zambia shares borders with nine countries
namely Malawi, Tanzania, Angola, Zaire, Mozambique, Botswana,
Namibia (South west Africa), Rhodesia and South Africa. From
sharing its borders with racist Rhodesia and South Africa on
its Southern boundaries, the country has suffered physical
aggression, economic hardship and embarrassment from.her two
hostile neighbors.

Zambia is situated on a plateau with mountainous
regions in the Eastern and Northern parts of the country.

The country has a savannah type vegetation and climate, mean-
ing that it has generally grassy plains with scattered trees.
Rainfall occurs only during the six months from.November to
April and most of the farming is done during this period.
During most of the year it is dry and warm. Since the life—
style of the rural population is dependent on farming,
peOples' activities are dictated by the seasons.

After 1885 the British moved to occupy Northern

Rhodesia (colonial name of Zambia) by securing treaties with

37
'major chiefs such as Lewanika, Kazembe and Mpezeni. These
treaties were for mineral rights and protection from
African invaders, as well as any potential European rival
who wanted African raw materials for the rapidly expanding
industries in Europe.

On the economic front, the British or European
money system as a basis of exchange was superimposed on the
internal African system of trade. New incentives were in-
troduced by the importation of British manufactured goods
and the new urban industrial centers which were a source of
curiosity and awe to the Africans. Poll and but taxes
forced Zambians to migrate to Europe commercial farms,
urban centers and copper mines to earn money to pay for
,taxes and buy the new consumer goods. It is pertinent to
mention that it was largely men who migrated over long dis-
tances on foot to wherever they could find a wage earning job.
This was sometimes as far away as the gold mines of South
Africa.

On the political front, a new system was introduced
in which Europeans participated exclusively in the execu-
tive, judiciary and the legislature. This was a source
of conflict between European colonial rulers and the
African intelligentsia in the 1950's. The multi-party
system of politics was also introduced.

Because of racial oppression and exclusion from

the political decisionrmaking process, the few Zambian

38

intelligentsia spotted the potential for, not only partici-
pation, but self rule as well. Therefore, Zambian political
parties and trade unions were formed in the 1940's. The
political parties, through a bitter struggle against the
British colonial administration, won independence from the
British in 1964.

The significance of the colonial period is that the
Zambian society was penetrated deeply by foreign culture as
well as integrated with world system economically. Non-
indigenous and, therefore, external elements interacted to
form an on-going cumulative symbiosis. This process would
spill over into the period of independence.

The point to be emphasized is the cumulative nature
of the socio-historical dialectical interaction of these
elements in Zambian society. The nature of these experiences

when empirically determined reflects the African Personality.

Independence Patterns 1964-1979:

The social, economic and political conditions during
Zambia's independence are said to descend from its colonial
legacy. This refers to the fact that conditions of a dual
economy, underdevelopment and national dependence on
copper export, as a source of national income, have been

inherited from the British colonial government.

39

The fight against dependency on the white dominated south
has had major influence on internal and foreign policy,
as well as on the citizens' perception of the Africans
and international world.

In the realm of education, in 1963 there were
less than 100 Zambians with university degrees and less
than 1000 with secondary or high school certificates.
Within a few years of independence, the government opened
over 100 secondary schools and more than 54,000 students
were enrolled. The university of Zambia opened in 1965
and by 1971 the number of students enrolled was 2,000.

Zambians now dominate the civil service and
further measures have been taken to increase the number
of Zambians in skilled jobs instead of employing white
foreign experts.

In 1974 over one-third of the population of
Zambia was living in urban areas. To a large extent there
is now a division between town and country but not along
racial lines, as was the case during the colonial era.
The commercial weight of the copper industry has con-
centrated development around the copper belt and the
railway line. The rural area is, therefore, less
developed and also relatively less integrated with the

rest of the world system,

40

On the political front, dissent and conflict was
very intense between 1964 and 1972. A multiplicity of
political parties emerged which caused much friction and
violence. Finally in December 1973 a one party participatory
democracy was formed. Facionalism in (UNIP), the only
political party, has persisted based on regional and "tribal"
or ethnic affiliation; the incumbent president, however, has

kept the situation under control.

Summary:

One of the most important points to keep in.mind is
that the three stages and process of social change in Zambia
are not as clearcut as they have been presented here for
reasons of simplicity, clarity and precision. For instance,
the dividing point between the pre-colonial and colonial
periods is not very clear because the process of social
change never halts to provide divisions. This, in some ways,
confirms earlier propositions about the cumulative nature of
social phenomena.

The social characteristics of the pre-colonial period
which survived were carried on in the colonial era. Those
which were obsolete disappeared. Those which have survived
social forces of change continue to undergo further change as
external and internal elements continue to dialectically
interact in a continuous fashion.

The complexity of the matter is exacerbated by the

fact that in the continuing dialectical and interactive

41
process of social change in Zambia/Africa, the various
strands are so closely entwined that absolute isolation is
a virtual impossibility, except for exposing a general
trend. For instance, there is a wide variety of character-
istics including social patterns, ideology, psychocultural
elements, new kinds of institutional patterns, kinship,
world views and individual differentiation. The complexity
of the phenomena is evident in the ideological principles
which all influence and shape prevailing political views.
Because of ideology, for example, the virtues of what exists
as the Zambian family are exalted while the extended family
system is waning. The world view is closely related to
Zambia's social exposure and economic ties to the internation-
al global system, The Zambian conception of the external
world is influenced by the mass media' portrayals of such
countries as "racist South Africa", the history and struggle
of Africans against colonialism, the black American struggle,
and radio and television portrayals of life in the European
or Western and Eastern countries. Finally, and perhaps most
decisively life and events in the country itself are influ-
enced vis-a-vis the conception of it held in relationship to

the external world.

The Ideology of Humanism:
Humanism is the political ideology of the Republic of
Zambia. It was formulated by that country's President Kaunda

in 1968. The ideology is the society's guideline for its

42
economic, social and political policy internally as well
as externally. In the following pages the rationale behind
the ideology and its effects on economic, social and politi-
cal life will be examined.

The ideology is based on the principles of the
egalitarian traditional African society. The traditional
society was a mutual aid society and it was man or people-
centered. Pooling human resources in terms of labor to
satisfy the needs of the society was the norm, There was
collective ownership of land and other property. The sick,
old and infirm were always looked after by the able-bodied.

The traditional African society was an accepting com-
munity. It did not consider failure in the absolute sense
but rather everyone was accepted with social cohesion in mind.
Individual achievement was given less emphasis. It was the
presence of the person which was emphasized rather than
achievement. 2

The traditional community is said to have been an
inclusive society. This refers to the tradition that the
web of kinship was wide and strong. The inclusive nature of
Africans can be illustrated in one example.

An African does not restrict the term "father" to
his male biological parent. His father's brothers are
called father and the mother's sisters are also addressed as
mother. These titles are not mere courtesy but strict

devotion to the roles is expected. Kaunda, the President of

43
Zambia explained the characteristics of the system,

Granted, the characteristics of small-

scale societies have been described and

it could be argued that such a system

would not work.where hundreds of thousands

of people are gathered together in cities

and towns. But the attitudes to human

beings as described above are not solely a

function social organization. They are now

part of the African Psychology.50
Kaunda maintains that the west has a lot to learn from
Africa about human relations and the virtues of the man-
centeredness prevalent in African societies.

The ideology of humanism has had some of wide-ranging
repercussions. It has had a tremendous influence on economic
policy, medicine and education have been socialized, and
farming cooperative have been established.

During the First National Development Plan, which
lasted from 1966 to 1970, total enrollment in primary educa-
tion increased by 219,164 or 48.2%. Total enrollment in all
secondary schools increased by 128%, from 23,000 to 52,472.
In 1960, during the colonial era, the enrollment in African
secondary schools was only 7,050.51

Under socialized medicine expenditures for health by
the government have increased even.more quickly than the
school enrollments just discussed. Table 1 below details
governments health expenditures for the years of the First

National Development Plan.

44

TABLE 1. GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURES ON HEALTH (K'MCILLION)52

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Eigggdigfire Eggiggitur Eggziditure

1966 (July-Dec.) 4.7m (9.4m84 0.8 (1.6mS) 5.5 (Sll.0mfi
1967 12.2 (824.4 3.3 (86.6m) 15.5 (31.0)
1968 14.8 (29.6) 4.8 (9.6) 19.6 (39.2)
1969 16.8 (33.6) 6.5 (13.0) 23.3 (46.6)
1970 20.0 (40.0) 7.2 (14.4) 27.2 (54.4)
1971 Budget est. 20.5 (43.0) 11.7 (23.4) 32.2 (64.4)

TOTAL 89.0 (178.0) 34.3 (68.6) 123.3 (266.6)

 

 

 

(Dollars in brackets are an approximation of the Zambian

Kwacha equivalent.)

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 2. HOSPITAL AND HEALTH CENTERS: 1966-7153

Institution 1966 1971 Percent
. Increase

IHospitals 51 75 49

[Health Centers 343 553 61

ITOTAL 394 628 59 .

 

 

 

 

 

In the words of the Zambian president, Kaunda:

Our African personality contains elements

of simplicity of service-~of community
which all the world needs.

cooperative way of living.

Our economic
life has always been based on what I
should like to describe as a traditional

This is the

African substitute for the Capitalism,
Socialism, and Communism of the East and

45

west. ‘We offer it as our contribution
to the world sum of experience.54

It is evident that at independence in 1964, Zambian
society was faced with a crisis of confidence, identity and
orientation. For example, in the preamble of a guide to
the implementation of Humanism.Kaunda admits, among other
things, that change has remained and will be inevitable.

But the crucial question he addresses is hOW‘mUCh of the

rich African traditions should be preserved in the light of
technological changes associated with the change from a non-
money to a money-based society. He draws a very sharp con-
trast between the difficulties of human relations in the tech-
nological West and the almost primordial richness of human

social relationships in the African society.

Summary:

Through the use of a questionnaire, externally and
internally derived traits of Africans are identified according
to the views of various authors in the literature review such
as Senghor, LeVine, Potter.

The external source of social influences are identi-
fied as colonialism, imperialism, and neo-colonialism, The
internal source of social influences are identified as
African/Zambian social norms, beliefs, culture, political
and economic patterns. The Zambian ideology of Humanism is

briefly reviewed because it shows how Zambia has evolved

46
an ideology to be the basis of and guideline to the develop-
ment of all sectors of the society in the aftermath of

colonialism.

FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER I

1Stuart Hughes, Consciousness and Societ : The Re-
orientation of European TEougEt I890-I930, (New YorE, VIntage

Bodk8,v1977,fiRev. Ed.), pp. 18344.

21bid., p. 184.

31bid., p. 183.

4Irvin Zeitlin, Ideology and the Development of
Sociological eory (New Jersey,Prentice-HalI,—Inc.,Tl968),
pp. 83-103.

5

T.B. Bottomore, ed. and(trans. Karl-Marx: Earl 1 6 )
writin 3, Foreword Erich Fromn New YorE, McGraw-HIII, 9 3 ,
pp EI-EO.

6Ledford J. Bischof. Inter retin Personalit
Theories, Second Edition, (New or , arper an ow, 964,

p. 288. Bischof discusses the definitions of personal-
ity by a large variety of authors in Psychology. Bischof
states that Allport's definition of personality is the most
copied and discussed. Allgort,Personality: A ngchological
Interpretation, 1937, p. 4 , also‘by same author, Pafferns and
GEEEEHTIETPEFEonality, 1961, p. 28.

 

7Kenneth D. Kaunda, A Humanist in Africa, (Lusaka,
Veritas, 1966), p. 26.

8Dunduza Chisiza, "The Outlook for Contemporary
Africa", in Two Centuries of African English, Bown, L. (ed.),
(London, Heinemann Educational Books, 1973), p. 98.

9Cedric X (Clark), D. Philip McGee, wade Nobles and
Naim.Akbar, Voodoo or 1.9,: An IntroduCtion to AfriCan'Psycho-
lo )Illinois,Institute ofTPositive Education,—l976), p. l.
iggg in The Journal”o‘f‘Bla‘ck‘Psychology,L Vol. 1, No.2, Feb.

47

48

10A. N'daw, "Is it possible to speak about an
African way of thought?" Presence Africaine, Vol. 30,

No. 58, 1966, p. 38.

11Barnett, Potter. The Fault Black Man.
(Capetown, Howard Timmins, 1970), p. 23.

121616., p. 38.

13Aredye Oyebola, Black'Man's Dilemma, (Lagos,
Nigeria, 1976), p. 13.

141616., p. 165.

15R, A, LeVine, "Patterns of Personality in Africa,"
DeVos, G.A. (ed.), Responses to Change: Society, Culture and
Personality, (New York, D.Van Nostrand CO., 1976).

151616., p. 116.

17Leopold Sedar Senghor, Prose and Poetry, Selected
and trans. John Reed and Clive Wake (Lonilon, Heinemann
Educational Books, 1965), p. 99.

181bid., p. 29.

191bid., p. 26.

201bid., p. 32.

211bid., p. 99.

22Irele Abiola, "Negritude: Philosoph of African
Being," Nigeria Magazine, Festac Edition, No. 22-123, 1977,

p.6

23Leopold Sedar Senghor. Prose and Poetry, Selected
and trans. John Reed and Clive'Wake (LondOn, Heinemann Educa-
tional Books, 1965), p. 35.

2('Irele Abiola, "Negritude: Philosoph of African
Bein ," Nigeria Magazine, Festac Edition, No. 22-123, 1977

pp. -13

49

251bid., p. 11.

26Leopold Sedar Senghor, PrOse and Poetry, Selected
and trans. John Reed and Clive wake (London, Héinemann
Educational Books, 1965), p. 33.

27;p;g., p. 35/

28John S. Mbiti, African Reli ions and Philoso h ,
(New York, Anchor Books, 13W”

29;p;g., p. 288.
3°;pgg., p. 289.

31Barnett Potter, The Fault, Black Man. .
(Capetown, Howard Timmins, 1970). ‘

32John s. Mbiti, p. 286.
33Ibid., p. 287.

34Vernon J. Dixon, "African-oriented and Euro-
American Oriented werld Views: Research Methodologies and
Economics," The Review of Black Political Economy, Vol. 7,
No.2, Winter 1, pp. Il9-156.

351bid., p. 135.
361bid., p. 130.

37St.Clair Drake, "Pan-Africanism, Negritude and the
African Personality," Reprint from.University Graduate
Journal X 1961, pp. 38-51.

38;§£§., in the reprint; p. 511,

39Leopold S. Senghor, p. 35.

40LeVine, pp. 114-6.

41This refers to the new political systems in Africa
particularly the establishment of one party states, for ex-
ample, in Zambia, Malawi, Tanzania and Kenya.

50

42Barnett Potter discusses this issue. Refer to
the literature review.

43B.W’. Hodder, Africa Today: A.Short Introduction
to African Affairs (Methuen and Co. Ltd., London, 1978)
Chapter 3: Ethnicity and Elitism in Africa.

4411516., p. 55.
451816., p. 55.

46Vilfredo Pareto, "Pareto Theory of Elites,"
Introductory Chapter by Hans L. Zetterberg, The Rise and Fall
of Elites: An Application of Theoretical SociEIogy, e
Bedminister Press, 1968).

47Michael Chaput, (ed.), Patterns of Elite Forma-
tion and Distribution in Kenya, Zambia, Tanzania and’Senegal.
Occasional paper No.42 (Maxwell Graduate School of“CifIZen-
ship and Public Affairs, Syracuse University, Oct. 1968),
Chapter on Education.

48Ibid., pp. 32-47.

49Republic of Zambia, Census of Po ulation and Hous-
ing 1969, Final Report, Volume I, TotaI ZamEia, CentraI

tat st cal Office, Nov. 1973.

50Republic of Zambia, Second National DevelongE
Plan: January l972-December 1976. (Lusaka,‘Ministry o
DeveIOpment Planning and National Guidance, Government Printer,
1971), pp. 24-27.

26 51Ibid., Table 1, Government Expenditures on Health,
p. .

52Ibid., Table 2, Hospitals and Health Centers:
1966-71, p. 27.

53Titus B. Mukupo, (ed.), Kaunda's Guidelines, Speech
{37gpited Nations, 4th December, 1964 (Lusaka, THE—Pfifilicity,
. P- -

CHAPTER II

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

Measures of Central Tendency for Entire Sample on Variables
I3 to 30’

The responses to items 13 to 30 were rated 1 to 5.

A score of l was the lowest score which reflected anti-

African personality views and score of 5 the highest which

represented Pro-African views on the African Personality

scale.

The scores for the entire sample of 135 were analyzed

in order to determine the mean, variance and standard devi-

ation on each variable as shown below.

The mean scores have

been arranged in descending order from the variable with the

highest mean score.

30.

14.

20.

22.

16.

The African society has
contributed nothing to the
modern civilization

Dr.Livingstone discovered
the Victoria Falls

The western Democratic
System is best for African
governments.

There is no such thing as
an African Personality.

The extended family is

better than the nuclear
family.

51

‘Mean

Score

4.496

4.170

3.978

3.585

3.556

Variance

0.849

1.635

1.514

1.856

1.846

Standard
Deviation

0.921

1.279

1.231

1.363

1.359

18.

29.

27.

24.

21.

13.

17.

25.

28.

26.

15.

23.

19.

52

There is no philosophy of
life in the Zambian or
African society.

If I had K20-00 I would
spend it on helping needy
relatives

Apart from transportation,
what is the significance
of a car?

What is the significance
of a dog?

Zambian social life is
better than the Western
social life.

One party states are
suitable for African
countries.

There is no democracy
in African countries

What is the significance
of water flowing in a
river?

Politics is the best
subject to discuss when
we meet friends for
casual conversation

What is the significance
of birds?

The Zambian educational
system is better than the
British educational system

There is no such thing as
an.American Personality

Africans need to learn
more about African society

iMean

Score

3.474

3.193

3.163

3.030

2.941

2.881

2.837

2.837

2.837

2.800

2.719

2.600

1.681

Variance

1.669

1.604

3.481

1.522

1.056

1.956

1.988

1.973

1.645

3.481

1.159

1.779

1.159

Standard
Deviation

1.292

1.267

1.866

1.233

1.028

1.399

1.410

1.405

1.283

1.866

1.077

1.334

1.077

53

Considering the overall performance of the respond-
ents, it can be said that the respondents consistently ex-
pressed pro-African personality traits. This is evidenced
in the mean scores for all the subjects on items 13 to 20,
as shown above. It is found that the continuous dimensions
of Anti-African Personality - 0 up to pro-African personality
which is the score of 5, all the mean scores were above 2.5
'with the exception of variable 19 which yielded the mean score
of 1.681. The findings suggest that, contrary to the popular
Opinion that the forces of colonialism, westernization and
other foreign elements have had a disruptive and debilitating
influence on the values, ideas and world view of the African
society; the empirical evidence shows that the sample of
freshman students at the University of Zambia have confidence
and believe in Zambian African values and ideas. As dis-
cussed in the operational definition, this piece of evidence
suggests that the sample exhibits pro-African values and
ideas. For example, the pro-African VIEW”W88 strongest on
item 30, "The African society has contributed nothing to
modern civilization." There was nearly unanimous strong dis-
agreement with a mean score of 4.496. Similarly, item 13
elicited a strong negative response with a mean score of 4.170.

The frequencies below show the sample vital statis-
tics. For example, 68.1% of the sample were male respondents,
54.5% of the respondents were 16 to 20 years old and 91.1%
'were single. Figure 2 is a histogram which shows the half

54

shape of a normal distribution curve of age of the sample.

FREQUENCIES
N = 135
ABSOLUTE RELATIVE % ADJUSTED % CUMULATIVE Z

1 Sex
Male 92 68.1 68.1 68.1
Female 43 31.9 31.9 100.0
Total I35 10070 10070

2 Age
16-20 yrs. 72 53.3 54.5 54.5
21-25 48 35.6 36.4 90.9
26-30 10 7.4 7.6 98.5
31-35 2 1.5 1.5 100.0
Total 1'35 IUOT'O' IO'O'TU

MHssing Cases - 3
3. Marital Status

Single 123 91.1 91.1 91.1
Married 12 8.9 8.9 100.0
Total 1'35 IO'O'TO' m
4. Major Field of Study

Law 5 3.7 4.6 4.6
Social werk 14 10.4 12.8 17.4
Education 28 20.7 25.7 43.1
Pub1.Ami/

Econ. 24 17.8 22.0 65.1
‘Medicine/

Publ.Hea1th

Nurse 7 5.2 6.4 71.6
Sociology 8 5.9 7.3 78.9
Math/

Accounting 7 5.2 6.4 85.3
History 2 1.5 1.8 87.2
Psychology 14 10.4 12.8 100.0
MHssing

Cases 26 19 3

Total 1'35 ran-2'6 I'O'UTO' —

55
ABSOLUTE RELATIVE % ADJUSTED % CUMULATIVE %
Primary School

 

Rural 52 38.5 39.4 39.4
Urban 80 59.3 60.8 100.0
Missing
Cases 14 10.4
Total I35 IUUTO' IUD—.0
Secondary School
Rural 44 32.5 32.8 32.8
Urban 90 66.7 67.2 100.0
Missing 1 . 7
Cases _ ‘—
Total 135 100. o 100 . 0
Choice of Further Education
Britain 49 36.3 40.5 40.5
Zambia 72 53.3 59.5 100.0
Missing
Cases 14 10.4
Total I35 IUUTU IOOTU
Father/Guardian's occupation
Professional]
Techn. 5 3.7 4.0 4.0
Business/
Manager 20 14.8 15.9 19.8
Peasant
Farmer 43 31.9 34.1 54.0
Community
Farmer 1 0.7 0.8 54.8
Civil
Service 37 27.4 29.4 84.1
Production/
Service 19 14.1 15.1 99.2
Don't Know
Missing
Cases 9 6.1
Total {I35 IUUTO IUUTU
Are you on study leave from a job?
Yes 12 8.9 9.0 9.0
No 122 90.4 91.0 100.0
Missing
Cases 1 0.7

Total 135 IUO'TO' IO'O'I'O' ——

56
ABSOLUTE RELATIVE % ADJUSTED % CUMULATIVE %

 

 

10. Do you know people who have been to Europe or U.S.A.?

 

 

Yes 108 80.0 81.8 81.8
No 24 17.8 18.2 100.0
Missing
Cases 3 2.2
Total I35 IUUTU IUUTU
11. Future Occupation/Career
Professional]
Tech. 70 51.9 61.9 61.9
Business/
Manager 7 5.2 6.2 68.1
Peasant
Farmer O O 0
Commercial
Farmer 3 2.2 2.7 70.8
Civil
Service 24 14.8 17.7 88.5
Production/ 3
Service 4 3.0 3.5 92.0 '
Don't Know 9 6.7, 8.0 100.0
Missing
Cases _22 16.3
Total 135 100.0 100.0
12. Have you been to EurOpe and or USA?
Yes 13 9.6 9.6 9.6
No 122 90.4 90.4 100.0

Total I35 IUO'TO' IO'OTU _-""

57

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58
Data Analysis
A one way analysis of variance was the statistical
measure used to test the four hypotheses advanced at the
end of the previous chapter.
In Table 3 the total score of female respondents is
compared with that of males to test if the differences in

the scores are significant.

TABLE 3. One Way Analysis of Variance: Total Score By Sex

 

 

Source D.F. Sum of 'Mean F Ratio F Prob.
Squares Squares

Between 1 22.0934 22.0934 .5072 .4776

Groups

 

‘Within 133 5793.2399 44.5582
Groups

 

 

Total 134 5815.3333

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Level of Significance = 0.05
Required Table F Value - 3.84
Test Sample F Value = 0.5072

Using a one way analysis of variance, with an F ratio
of 0.5072 level of significance, the hypothesis that male
respondents will score significantly higher on the African
Personality Scale than female respondents has not been con-
firmed. Although the hypothesis requires a directional stat-
istical test, this is irrelevant when the differences are

statistically insignificant.

59
The lack of the sexual differences in the study has
implications for African social values, ideas (ideology),
sexual differentiation and the influence of (modernization)
westernization on the African culture.

The concept of sexual differentiation as a basis
for the hypothetical expectation of differences in scores
on the African Personality scale had as its rationale the
traditional sex roles and the process of socialization in
that society. In the event of social change, males have
tended to be more innovative and assertive and to assume
leadership roles more often and endure the hazards that accom-
pany the adoption of novel phenomenon. Females have always
been in a subservient role and have been allocated a smaller
share of the benefits of innovation. This particular result
begs a re-examination of these traditional conceptions of
socialization.

The result suggests that, at least among University
students, sexual status does not seem to influence the
attitudes of respondents to any significant extent.

The following table shows the total score on the
African Personality scale of all the respondents who did
their primary and secondary school in the rural area compared
with the total score of all who did their primary and second-

ary school in the urban environment.

60

TABLE 4. TOTAL SUM BY RURAL PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL
URBAN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL

 

 

 

 

 

Source DF Sum of Mean F Ratio F. Prob.
Squares Square
Between 1 29.4596 29.4596 .6618 .4177
IGroups
ithin 110 4896.8172 44.5165
Groups
Total 111 4926.2768

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Level of Significance - 0.5
Required Table F Value - 3.92
Test Sample F Value = 0.6618

At a significance level of 0.05 and the test
sample F ratio of 0.6618 the differences in the scores were
not significant. This means the null hypothesis cannot be
rejected. In other words, whether the respondent received
both his primary and secondary education in a rural or
urban area did not influence the differences in the scores
significantly.

The results suggest that African personality does
not vary with the size of town and social environment in
which an African university student was raised. This further
suggests that the interactive effects of westernization and
the impact of African social values and ideas having a uni-

form penetration in African society.

61
Table 5 shows the comparison between the married

and single respondents.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE 5. ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TOTAL SCORE BY
MARITAL STATUS
Source DF Sum.of Mean F Ratio F Prob.
Squares Square
etween 1 1.0163 1.0163 .0232 .8790
roups
ithin 133 5814.3171 43.7167
roups
[Total 134 5815 . 333
Level of Significance - 0.05
Required Table F Value- 3.84
Test Sample F Value = 0.0232

As indicated in Table 5, the differences in scores
according to the marital status of the respondents were not
significant at a level of 0.05 and sample test value of
0.0232. The null hypothesis cannot be rejected.

Table 6 shows the comparison of the total scores of
all the respondents who preferred to do their further educa-
tion in Zambia or Britain.

The differences in scores according to whether the
respondent chose to obtain their further education in Zambia
or Britain were not significant.

In other words, the pre-

ference of locality for further education did not have a

62

TABLE 6. ONE WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE: TOTAL SCORE BY
CHOICE OF FURTHER EDUCATION

 

 

Source DF Sum of Mean F Ratio F Prob.
Squares Square

Between 1 32.5041 32.5041 .7587 .3855

Groups

 

‘Within 119 5098.4215 42.8439
Group

 

 

Total 120 5130.9256

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Level of Significance - 0.05
Required Table F Value- 3.92
Test Sample F Value - 0.7587

significant influence on the African Personality score per-

formance. The null hypothesis cannot be rejected.

Discussion

 

The importance of the findings of non-significance
for sexual differences in the scores on the African Person-
ality Scale can be explained in many ways. The explanations,
however, will be limited to the major expectations of an
earlier proposition in this thesis; the possible hetero-
geneous distribution of the impact on African social values,
ideas and the external social characteristics influencing
intellectuals in universities. This finding contradicts con-
ventional wisdom which usually maintains that males and

females perform differently on tasks with qualities which

~63

are ingrained through socialization as major influential
factors. This finding may provide additional evidence
for research into the issue of sexual inequality. The
finding suggests that if males and females are exposed to
common or identical social environments and academic train-
ing in Zambia, their performance on the African Personality
Scale is bound to be very similar. If the significance-
of these findings could be confirmed for larger African
populations of young people, it may point to the possibility
that African society stands a better chance of closing the
gap of sexual inequality which is currently such a pervasive
issue in the western world -- in the sense that the economic
and social gap in modern industry has been wide for centur-
ies whereas in Africa this might have prevailed over relativ-
ely shorter periods of time; hence making it easier to change.

Another interesting finding concerning the sexual
differences is the proportions of males and females who
chose to obtain higher education in Britain or Zambia. In
Tables 7 and 8 in the cross tabulation below, among 56% of
the sample who had their secondary schooling in urban areas,
sexual status seems to have been important in the choice of
location for their further education. Approximately 46%
of the sample who had their primary and secondary schooling
in an urban environment, sexual status also seems to have
been important in their preference or location for further

education. In each case there were more females who preferred

64

to obtain their further education in Britain rather than

Zambia.

TABLE 7. CROSS TABULATION, AGE, URBAN SECONDARY SCHOOLING,
BY SEX BY CHOICE OF FURTHER EDUCATION

URBAN EDUCATION

 

BRITAIN ZAMBIA
16 31
21 8
37 39
d.f. - 1 X - 0.01 level
Chi-square - 10.56 Table value - 3.84

The differences in both Tables 7 and 8 are significant; the
null hypotheses are rejected.

TABLE 8. URBAN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY EDUCATION BY SEX BY
CHOICE OF FURTHER EDUCATION

 

 

 

 

BRITAIN ZAMBIA TOTAL
17 . 23 . 40

ms 18 6 24

TOTAL . 35 2.9 . . . , 64

 

 

 

 

 

 

d.f. - 1

Uncorrected chi-square - 5.14943
Significance level - 0.05 level
Table chi-square - 3.84146

65

These differences might be explained in terms of
rapidly changing socialization. In the sense that independ-
ence in Zambia has opened greater career opportunities for
females than during the preceding colonial and pre-colonial
eras. This has perhaps created a more outward orientation
among the female population in terms of their future pro-
fessional aspirations.

Another possible explanation of the marked differ-
ences is that perhaps a larger percentage of the female res-
pondents came from elite family backgrounds. For example
their parents might have been teachers, medical orderlies,
clerks. As such they might have been socialized to be ambi-
tious contrary to the customs pursued during pre-independence
or colonial period. In which case they wrongly or rightly
perceived going to Britain for their advanced education as
the highest epitome of their educational career achievement
and experiences.

The rationale for expecting that there would be sig-
nificant differences in the scores according to marital
status relates to the responsibilities that go with being
either single or married in the Zambian/African society.

One assumption was that a single Zambian university student
is less involved in traditional kinship ties and social res-
ponsibilities. The married student has more kinship involve-
ment in terms of raising offspring, responsibility for in-
laws, brothers, grandparents; the individual is bound to per-

ceive more value and confidence in the African social values.

. 66
Therefore, the married respondents were expected to score
higher on the African personality scale than the single
respondents. But the empirical evidence suggests this is
not the case at all since the differences in the scores
are insignificant. This suggests that according to this
study, marital status does not influence an individual's
confidence in the African cultural values. Perhaps the
broader familial and cultural socialization experience are
sufficient to build confidence of Africans in their own
societal values.

The rationale behind the expectation of signifi-
cant differences in the scores between respondents who had
their primary and secondary school in rural areas and those
who had it in the urban area was that there is a different
level of penetration of African social values, beliefs,
ideology by external forces in the respective areas.

Firstly, the rural area is a predominantly tradi-
tional environment where the impact of western or external
values is not perceived to be intense. Secondly, the prin-
ciples of the ideology of Zambian humanism, virtues of extended
family, sharing, egalitarianism, are already existent in the
lifestyles of the rural dwellers. Therefore, the respond-
ents who originate from a rural environment are in fact
supposed to have scored higher on the African Personality
scale. But this was not the case. This finding suggests
that whether an African intellectual was brought up in the"

rural or urban environment is not a decisive factor. The

67

lack of differences can perhaps be explained in terms of
uniform penetration of external social forces in the
society contrary to the dual explanations advanced by
many theorists which usually assert differences in social
consciousness according to whether individuals have an ur-
ban or rural social background. In fact, it can be argued
that the penetration of ideas may even be greater in the
rural areas because individuals encounter less varied social
ideas and customs to save as a basis of contrasting. The
scores according to marital status, school region and sexual
status did not show any significant differences. But
generally along the continuum established by the Anti-
African Personality and Pro-African Personality, the sample
of students showed values and a world view that are predom-
inantly Pro-African. What is the implication of this result?
University of Zambia students, and most likely African Uni-
versity students, perhaps believe that the African society
has its own values, norms, attitudes, beliefs, customs, cul-
ture which have their own independent existence and integ-
rity, and as such should be developed to the fullest extent.

They perhaps regard the "African way of doing" '
things as not reflecting inferiority, contrary to the Anti-
African Personality school of thought.

The sociological theoretical controversy regarding
whether ideas (Hegel) or material conditions (Marx) are the
prime movers in social change cannot be settled based on

the results of this study. But one speculation can be made;

68
that colonial conditions do not seem to have transformed
African values, norms, ideas, customs dramatically. Con-
sidering that the Western social patterns influenced
Zambia for almost a century, it is amazing that the sample
of African students expressed pro-African values.

The cumulative effects of slavery and colonialism
oriented individuals negatively towards themselves and their
social environment. The young African intellectuals, like
the ones who participated in the study, are products of the
past cumulative knowledge base and experiences but with
one additional positive factor; the experience of political
independence has transformed their social consciousness to a
large degree. Since independence there has been a conscious
effort on the part of government as well as individuals to
wipe out the effects of colonialism. For example the prin-
ciples of the ideology of Zambian humanism encourage indivi-
duals to be self-reliant, endorse policies of racial equality,
economic, social and political development programs. Curri-
cula in higher institutions of learning like the universities
include studies of history of colonialism, the black American
struggle and racial Oppression. These conditions and experi-
ences have produced more enlightened youth and as such, the
young generation particularly in the institutions of learning
is bound to exhibit patterns of social consciousness that are
pro-African.

There is a possibility that the African Personality

is a fluid phenomena which is likely to manifest itself among

69
Africans in different levels although the evidence from the
study of the sample of students shows that it had uniform
distribution. It is possible that it would be manifested
differently among West Africans, Francophone Africa, North
Africans, Central and South Africans. This is because of
differences in historical backgrounds in terms of strengthsof
traditions, levels of religion, intensity of colonial experi-
ences and the individual regional interaction with the inter-
national economic system. Despite the apparent fluidity of
the African Personality, however, it is also perhaps con-
currently resilient to the impact of certain social forces;
generally projected in colonialism.

The implications of the African Personality theoreti-
cal model are that it provides a more contemporary and rele-
vant approach to the sociological study of the African society.
The approach promises possibilities of dismissing the popular
traditional portrayal of the Africans as being a mere fertile
ground for anthropological studies of exotic culture. About
75% of the African countries are living under independent and
sovereign conditions. Generations of Africans are developing
and emerging which will never have experienced explicit colon-
ialism, and racial prejudice in their societies. These Afri-
cans cannot be defined exclusively in terms of negritude or
African villagers or western-oriented metrOpolitans. The
African Personality is more encompassing.

The scores according to marital status, school region

and sexual status did not show any significant differences.

70

But generally along the continuum established by the Anti-
African Personality and Pro-African Personality, the sample
of students showed values and a world view that are predom-
inantly Pro-African. What is the implication of this result?
University of Zambia students, and most likely African Univer-
sity students, perhaps believe that the African society has
its own values, norms, attitudes, beliefs, customs, culture
which have their own independent existence and integrity, and
as such should be developed to the fullest extent.

In considering the dominant social philosophies of
the western and African world today, it is clear that
Capitalism, Marxism, the Christian doctrine, Cartesian dual-
imm are concepts which evolved in line with the spirit of the
times in the societies. These philosophies easily gained
ground and recognizance because there was nothing better in
existence to explain social phenomenon and/or the philosophies
were imposed on other societies. The latter was true in Africa
during colonialism. During the period of their proliferation
there was no need to defend them against external threats.

However, this is not the case in this day and age. The
espousing of a philosophy per se is not enough. The philosophy
has the disadvantage of attempting to change the status quo and
the way of thinking which has prevailed perhaps for long periods
of time. This is the context in which the concept of the Afri-
can personality should be viewed. The notion of the African
Personality should establish the point that African social
consciousness is neither superior nor inferior to any other

but certainly different.

71
There is an erroneous tendency to judge societies
according to how much technological advancement they have
‘made and then put them on a scale; everything else becoming
irrelevant. This is not very healthy as there is much more
in societies than mere technology, although technology

obviously makes life more easy and comfortable.

Recommendations for further research:

For further improvement of the test instrument, tests
of item analysis, validity, reliability should be conducted
for larger comparable African samples.

An item analysis for the instrument would entail ad-
ministering the questionnaire to a larger African sample
(Helmstadter1 recommends a sample of 400). Then it would be
possible to determine the difficulty level of each of the test
items and also the extent to which it discriminates between
respondents. For example, between male and female, young and
older respondents or married and single respondents. This in-
formation could be used to improve the variety of items.

As proposed earlier, the African Personality is perhaps
a fluid phenomenon. It would be necessary to conduct the same
study across different generations in a specific area, and with-
in the generations compare the results according to age, amount
of travel, western education social status. The same study
conducted across regions in Africa could provide a reflection
of how fluid the phenomenon is across the African society.

One of the serious shortcomings of the previous

theories prior to African independence was that the theories

72
emerged out of protest against racial injustice and colonial-
iam; for example negritude, pan-Africanism, Biko's black con-
sciousness. When independence was achieved charges have been
made around intellectual circles that these theories are
either inadequate, no longer applicable to the new African
social aspirations and changing image. Critics like Abiola
have charged that negritude is racist and, therefore, negative.
Because of the rapidly changing image of the African society
the African Personality theory should be expanded and inte-
grated into formal economic, social and political theory where
and whenever possible. This would serve two purposes; practi-
cal matters relating to development and development of authen-
tic African intellectual theory.

On the practical perspective, the principles of African
Personality theory could be used for better planning, under-
standing and implementation of policies relating to develop-
ment programs in the African society because the theory will
help to identify the limitations and possibilities in pursuing
certain development policies.

As regards intellectual theory a concerted effort on
the part of African and African-oriented intellectuals to con-
duct research in different parts of Africa, would yield a legi-
timate basis for articulation of the theory so that it can re-
late to villagers on the one hand, and capture and explain the
rapidly changing cultural values of the African youth on the

other hand. This is a complicated task. But it can be done.3

73
Conclusion:

The objective of the thesis was to demonstrate the
performance of a sample of African students on an African
Personality scale. The major responsible factors in the
levels of African Personality were suggested to be external
and internal social forces which interact dialectically to
form a synthesis which is termed the African Personality.
African ideas and values were presented and operationally
defined to illustrate the actual and potential social force
they have on African society.

A sample of pro-African Personality and anti-African
Personality views were presented to illustrate the controversy
which surrounds the conceptual framework. The African Person-
ality was defined as a manifestation of the cultural uniqueness
of Africans as reflected in their ideas, social norms, customs,
values and beliefs.

Zambia was the case study. A sample of University of
Zambia first-year students in the School of Humanities and
Social Science responded to a questionnaire on African Person-
ality. The results showed no significant differences in the
scores along lines of sexual status, marital status, regional
status for acquisition of education and choice of further edu-
cation. The entire sample performance elicited mean scores
above the 2.5 level which indicated that the sample had pro-
African Personality views on the pro- and anti-African Person-

ality continuum.

74
Recommendations for further research consisted not
only of conducting the study over larger populations of
Africa but as well as articulating the theory and principles
of African Personality to serve as guidelines in development

policy as well as a basis for African social theory.

FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER II

1G.C. Helmstadter, Principles of Psychological
Measurement, (New York, Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1964),
p. 162.

2Irele Abiola. "Negritude: Philosophy of African
Being", Nigeria Magazine, Festac Edition, No.122-123, 1977,
p. 11.

3Chinua Achebe, C., "The Chi in Ibo Cosmology",
Mbrning Yet on Creation Day, 1975, pp. 131-45. He puts
fOrward a magnificent explanation of Ibo cosmology and ex-
planations of the supernatural. Tries to relate the explana-
tion go practical Ibo life. (Ibo are a Nigerian ethnic
group .

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APPENDIX A

82

 

 

QUESTIONNAIRE
Age Sex: Male__ Fema1e__. Marital Status: Single___
Married___
Other___

Major field of study

 

Year - lst 2nd 3rd 4th
Where did you do your primary schooling: Name

 

Country
Where would you rather do your further education:
Britain Zambia (Pick one)

Father/Guardian's Occupation

 

Are you on Study Leave from a job? Yes No

If yes, for how long have you been working? years?

If yes, what type of job?

 

'What are your plans for the future in terms of occupation?

 

Do you know of any relatives and close friends who have been

to U.S.A. and/or Europe? Yes No

Have you ever been overseas to Europe and the USA? Yes No

 

 

The following questions are asking about your opinion on

various issues. There is no right or wrong answer.

13. One party states are suitable for African Societies?
___Strongly agree __yAgree ___Don't Know' ___Disagree
___Strongly Disagree

14. Dr. Livingstone discovered the Victoria Falls.

Strongly agree Agree Don't Know Disagree

Strongly Disagree

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

83

The Zambian Educational System is better than the
British Educational System.

_Strongly Agree Agree Don't Know ___Disagree
:Strongly Disagree

The extended family is better than the nuclear family.

_Strongly Agree _Agree _Don't Know Disagree
:Strongly Disagree

There is no democracy in African countries.

_Strongly Agree _Agree _Don't Know Disagree
:Strongly Disagree

There is no philosophy of life in the Zambian or African
Society.

_Strongly Agree _Agree _Don't Know Disagree
:Strongly Disagree

Africans need to learn more about the African society.

_Strongly Agree _Agree _Don't Know Disagree
:Strongly Disagree

The Western democratic system is best for African govern-
ments.

_Strongly Agree Agree Don't Know Disagree
:Strongly Disagree

Zagbian social life is better than the western social
e.

_Strongly Agree _Agree _Don't Know' Disagree
:Strongly Disagree

There is no such thing as an "African Personality"

_Strongly Agree _Agree _Don't Know Disagree
:Strongly Disagree

There is no such thing as an "American Personality"

_Strongly Agree _Agree _Don't Know Disagree
:Strongly Disagree

84
Choose what you think is the best answer to the following
questions. Please pick one answer only.
24. What is the significance of a dog?
__;A person's most reliable pet
Guards a person's house
Used for hunting animals

It is a beautiful animal
___None of the above

 

25. What is the significance of water flowing in a river?

Washes and purifies
:::It has a nice scent and it is blue and beautiful
Can be used for hydro-electricity supply
-_Fishi

___None 2% the above
26. What is the significance of birds?

___They sing pretty songs
Can be eaten by man
ave beautifully colored feathers
ey are good pets
___None of the above

27. Apart from.transportation, what is the significance of a
car?

.__;It is a nice and pretty object
___Can be used for security for a loan

Causes many deaths in road accidents
___None of the above

28. Politics is the best subject to discuss when we meet
friends for casual conversations.

___Strongly Agree
Agree
Don't Know
____isagree
___Strongly Disagree

29. If I had KZO-OO I would spend it on helping my needy
relatives.

___Strongly Agree
Agree
Don't Know
___.isagree
___Strongly Disagree

85

. The African society has contributed nothing to the
modern civilization.

_Strongly Agree
Agree
Don't Know
_ isagree
_Strongly Disagree

APPENDIX B

VARIABLE

86
NAME AND CHOICES

 

§g§. l. M
2. F
A e 1. 16-20 yrs.
‘E— 2. 21-25 yrs.
3. 26-30 yrs.
4. 31-35 yrs.
Marital Status
1. Single
2. Married
3. Other

Major Field of Study

Law

Social work
Education
Public Administration and E. Con.
Medicine/Public Health Nurse
Sociology

Mathematics and Accounting
History

Psychology

\DmNO‘UI-FWNH

Primary School

1. Rural
2. urban

Secondary School

1. Rural
2. Urban

Choice of Further Education

1. Britain
2. Zambia

Father/Guardian's Occupation

Professional and Technical
Business and Manager
Peasant Farmer ‘
Commercial Farmer

Civil Service

Production and Service
Don't Know

\IO‘Uhl-‘UJNH

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

87
Study Leave From Job

1. Yes
2. No

Future Occupation/Career

Professional and Technical
Business and Managerial
Peasant Farmer .
Commercial Farmer

Civil Service

Production and Service
Don't Know

\lmUI-L‘UDNH

Do you know people who have been to U.S.A.
or Europe.

1. Yes
2. No

Have you been to overseas to Europe and
U.S.A.

1. Yes
2. No

One party states are suitable for African
countries

1. Strongly Disagree

2. Disagree
3. Don't Know
4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

Dr. Livingstone discovered the Victoria
Falls

1. Strongly Agree

2. Agree

3. Don't Know

4. Disagree

5. Strongly Disagree

The Zambian Educational System is better
than the British Educational System

1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree

3. Don't Know

4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

88

The extended family is better than
the nuclear family

1. Strongly Disagree

2. Disagree
3. Don't Know
4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

There is no democracy in African
countries.

1. Strongly Agree

2. Agree

3. Don't Know

4. Disagree

5. Strongly Disagree

There is no philosophy of life in the
Zambian or African society

1. Strongly Agree

2. Agree

3. Don't Know

4. Disagree

5. Strongly Disagree

Africans need to learn.more about the
African society.

1. Strongly Agree

2. Agree

3. Don't Know

4. Disagree

5. Strongly Disagree

The western Democratic System is best
for African governments.

Strongly Agree
Agree

Don't Know
Disagree

Strongly Disagree

UwaH

Zambian social life is better than
Western social life.

1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree

3. Don't Know

4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

89

There is no such thing as an "African

Personality"

l. Strongly Agree

2. Agree

3. Don't Know

4. Disagree

5. Strongly Disagree
There is no such thing as an "American
Personality"

l. Strongly Disagree

2. Disagree

3. Don't Know

4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

What is the significance of a dog?

UkwNH

None of them all
Beautiful animal

A person's reliable pet
Guards house

Hunting Animals

What is the significance of water flow-
ing in a river?

U‘l-FLJDKDIW|

What is

UI-l-‘MNH

None of them all
Nice Scent
Hydroelectricity
Fishing

washes and Purifies

the significance of birds?

None of the above
Sing Pretty Songs
Beautiful feathers
They are good pets
Can be eaten by man

Apart from transportation, what is the
significance of a car?

U! bb’NH

Same

None of them all

Nice and Pretty object

Can be used as security for a
loan.

Deaths in Road Accidents

90

28. Politics is the best subject to discuss
when we meet friends for casual con-
versations.

Strongly Disagree
Disagree
Don't Know

Agree
Strongly Agree

29. If I had K20-00 I would spend it on help-
ing needy relatives.

UlwaH

l. Strongly Disagree

2. Disagree
3. Don't Know
4. Agree

5. Strongly Agree

30. The African Society has contributed
nothing to the modern civilization.

1 Strongly Agree
2 Agree
3 Don't Know
4 Disagree
5 Strongly Disagree
ID 31.
32.

33.

APPENDIX C

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APPENDIX D

92

MAP OF AFRICA

 

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From AFRICA REPORT magazine
publication of the
African-American Institute

Updated Nov. 1979 by M. Wiley}

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