A CHRONOSEOUENCE OF PODZOLS
IN NORTHERN MICHIGAN

Thesis {or I'M Degrae'éf Dh. ID. I 7

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
7 Donald PauI F ranzmeier
19612

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This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

A Chronoéequence of Podzols in
Nerthern Michigan

presented by
Donald P. Franzmeier
has been accepted towards fulfillment

of the requirelnents for

Ph.D. degree in__._ Soil Science

/C€1:;/// ) ”I (4‘ (.1.

Major professor

Date May 10, 1962

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ABSTRACT

A CHRONOSEQUENCE OF PODZOLS IN NORTHERN MICHIGAN

by Donald Paul Franzmeier

The retreat of the last glacier and a series of fluctuations of the
level of the glacial Great Lakes during crustal uplift has resulted in
surfaces of different ages in the northern tip of the southern peninsula
of Michigan. The surfaces are named according to the glacial stage
or lake stage that resulted in their deposition. Four such surfaces
have been recognized and dated by geologists. They are Algoma,

2250; Nipissing, 3000; Algonquin, 8000; and Valders, 10,000 years old.
A chronosequence of soils--a sequence in which four of the groups of
soil-forming factors, parent material, climate, organisms, and relief
are the same and only the fifth factor, time, differs--has been formed
on these surfaces of different ages. The chronosequence selected for
study consists of a series of Podzols developed from sand-textured
parent materials. The soil series, with their horizon sequences in
parentheses, are: Eastport (Al, A2, B(ir), B3, C) on the Algoma,
Rubicon (A1, A2, Bir, B3, C) on the Nipissing, Kalkaska (A1, A2, ma,
Bhir, B3, C) on the Algonquin, and two Blue Lake soils —(-Al, A2, Bh,“
Bhir, B3, A'Z, Bt, C) on the Valders age surfaces.

Physical, chemical, and mineralogical properties of the five
soils are presented as functions of depth and kind of horizon. Net
changes in the volume and weight of the sola are calculated assuming
that quartz is virtually constant in the original material and is resistant

to weathering. Similarly calculated net changes of several constituents

Donald Paul Franzmeie r

in soil formation are presented as functions of time. Micromorphological
observations are used to synthesize the results of chemical, physical,
and mineralogical analyses, to give a picture of the oldest soil's genesis.

Early in the formation of these Podzols carbonates and basic
cations are leached from the solum. Acid group‘s originating from the
tissues of the flora and fauna of the ecosystem percolate through the
soil causing the surface mineral soil to become acid, resulting in a pH
gradient between the A and B horizons. This pH gradient makes it
possible for some phosphates to be mobilized in the A horizons and
immobilized in the B horizons of the soils. The migration of extractable
phosphorus marks the beginning of a stage of soil formation in which the
differentiation of inorganic substances into horizons of maxima and
minima contents are conspicuous according to chemical analyses and
observation of thin sections. The next stage in the formation of these
Podzols is the differentiation of humus into horizons, conspicuous in
field observations, laboratory analyses, and microscopic observations.
During this stage inorganic substances are also segregated. While these
two stages are occurring, the continuous processes of chemical and
physical weathering of soil minerals and mineral synthesis have had
their effect on soil properties. §i1t-size minerals are formed from
the disintegration of sand grains. Clay is continually being formed,
and “chlorite and illite weather to montmorillonite, possibly through a
vermiculite stage.

After the clay content of the profile reaches a threshold point and
after the Podzol sequum is well develoPed, a Gray Wooded sequum,
consisting of an eluvial A'Z and a textural B horizon, develops below
the Podzol sequum.

The \endwme‘mber‘s of the chronosequence contain more silt, clay,
organic carbon, total nitrogen, total exchangeable bases, and extractable

phosphorus, iron and aluminum, and have a greater cation exchange

Donald Paul F ranzmeie r

capacity, capillary pore space, and available water capacity than do

the materials from which they were formed. Slopes of the time func-
tions of some constituents change Sign during the time interval studied,
e. g. , extractable phOSphorus, aluminum, and iron, and the difference
in pH between the podzol A2 and B horizons. Constituents such as
carbonates, fine sand, diopside and "chlorite" show a continual decrease
with time of soil formation.

The classification of these soils according to the recently proposed
comprehensive system is: Eastport and Rubicon, Spodic Orthopsamments;
Kalkaska, Entic Typorthod; Blue Lakes, Alfic Typorthod and Ultic
Typorthod. It is suggested that the definition of the spodic horizon be
changed to include Podzols such as Eastport and Rubicon in the Spodosol

order.

A CHRONOSEQUENCE OF PODZOLS IN NORTHERN MICHIGAN

BY

Donald Paul Franzmeier

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCT OR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Soil Science

1962

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. E. P. Whiteside
for his guidance in conducting this study. His allowance of freedom in
selecting and carrying out the research and his perseverance in testing
ideas is greatly appreciated. He also appreciates the advice 'and
criticism of other faculty members of the Soil Science and Geology
Departments and of fellow graduate students. 7

Dr. Stephen H. Spurr, School of Natural Resources, University of
Michigan, was instrumental in introducing the author to the problem
studied herein. He is grateful for this assistance.

To his wife, Karen, he is thankful for her encouragement, sacri-
fice, and assistance in preparing the manuscript.

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ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER Page
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . ...... . . ..... 1
II. LITERATURE REVIEW . . . . . ..... 3

Podzols and Polzolization ............. 3
Mechanisms of Translocations ....... 6
Mineralogy of Silt and Sand Fractions ..... . . l4
Mineralogy of Clay Fraction . . . ......... l8
Chronosequences of Soils. . ............ 21
III. RELATION OF SOILS TO ENVIRONMENT 2.4
Geologic History . . . . .............. Z4
Geomorphology - Soils Relations ......... Z7
Formation Factors of Soils Studied ...... 30
IV. SOIL‘PRO‘FILE DESCRIPTIONS . . . . . 38
Procedures Used in Describing and Sampling Soils 38
Eastport Sand ........ . . . ......... 40
Rubicon Sand .................... 42
Kalkaska Sand ...... . . ............ 44
Blue Lake Sand I .................. 47
Blue Lake Sand II ...... . . . . . ..... 49
Podzol B Horizon Designation . . ......... 52
V. LABORATORY PROCEDURES. . ........ 54
Physical Analyses . . . . . ....... 54
Chemical Analyses ..... . . . ..... 56
Mineralogical Analyses ............... 59
Micropedology . . . . . . . ............ 65
VI- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION . . . ........ 67
Depth Functions of Soil Properties ......... 67
Heavy Minerals of the Fine Sand Fraction . 86
Quartz Contents of the Silt and Sand Fractions 91
continued

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

CHAPTER Page
Mineralogy of the Clay Fraction .......... 92
Net Changes in Profiles . . . . . ..... . . . . 100
Micromorphology . . . . . . . . . ......... 110
Classification by Seventh Approximation ...... 119

VII. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Time Functions ............... . . . . 123
Summary of Soil Formation .......... . . 129
LITERATURE CITED . . . . .................. 133
APPENDIX ............. . . . ........... . 144

iv

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Page
1. Silica-sesquioxide ratios of the clay fractions of some
sandy Podzols . 20
2. Relation of soils studied to geologic deposits and surface
ages................... 30
3. Climatic change inferred from forest history in south-
western Michigan . 32
4. Precipitation in inches and temperature in degrees F.
for Cheboygan and Pellston, Michigan . 34
5. Relation of the colors of the podzol B horizons and the
subscripts of their designations. . 52
6. Approximate first order basal Spacings of clay minerals
according to previous treatment 63
7. Content by weight, distribution by count, and ratios of
heavy minerals in the fine sand fraction of major hori-
zons of five soils . 87
8. Possible sources of X-ray diffraction lines from the
fine sand mineral identified optically as "chlorite" . 90
9. Quartz contents of silt and total sand fractions of five
soils . . 91
10. Results of differential dissolution analysis and total
chemical analysis of the clay fractions of several
samples. 97
11. Estimated mineralogical composition of the clay frac-
tions from the major horizons of the Blue Lake I soil . 99
12. Calculated net changes in total weight, total volume,
and weights of several components in a column of soil
one cm2 in cross section, based on non-clay quartz. 102
continued

LIST OF TABLES - Continued

TABLE

13.

14.

15.

l6.

17.

18.

19.

Total P205 contents of some sandy soils of northern

Michigan.

Original, and present weights of total and component clay
minerals in major horizons of a column of Blue Lake

2 in cross section

sand I 1 cm
Physical and chemical data for
Physical and chemical data for
Physical and chemical data for

Physical and chemical data for

Physical and chemical data for

vi

Eastport sand . . .

Rubicon sand

Kalkaska sand . . .

Blue Lake sand I

Blue Lake sand 11 .

Page

105

109
145
146
147
148

150

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE

10

11.

. Frequency distributions of particle size classes of the

parent materials of soils developed on surfaces of dif-
ferent ages. .

. Particle size distribution of the organic matter-free and

carbonate-free fine earth fraction as a function of depth
and horizon for five soils . .

. Silt and clay contents of the entire fine earth fraction as

functions of depth and horizon for five soils

. Capillary and non-capillary pore Space as functions of

depth and horizon for five soils . . . . . .......

. Reaction (pH) as a function of depth and horizon for five

soils. . .....

. Extractable sesquioxide contents as functions of depth

and horizon for five soils. . .

. Organic carbon and total nitrogen contents as functions

of depth and horizon for five soils . .

. Available phOSphorus and exchangeable base contents as

functions of depth and horizon for five soils . .

. Diagrammatic representation of changes in extractable

phosphorus distribution in three stages of development of
the podzol sequum relative to the Cl horizons .

.. Readily available water capacity as a function of depth

and horizon for five soils. . . .........

Heavy mineral ratios and their errors estimated at about
the 95% level for the fine sand fractions of major hori-
zons of Kalkaska sand.

vii

Page

31

68

69

72

73

75

77

79

83

85

90

LIST OF FIGURES - Continued

FIGURE Page

12. X-ray diffraction tracings of oriented soil clay films on

13.

porous ceramic plates ..... . . ...... . . . . . . 94

Net changes in available phosphorus, organic matter,
extractable FezO3 and A1203, clay, and silt in the podzol
sequum and in the entire bisequum as functions of time;

and cumulative additions of P, Fe, and Al in leaf fall as
functionsoftime...................... 124

viii

LIST OF PLAT ES

PLATE Page

1. Color photographs of profiles of Eastport sand, Rubicon
sand, Kalkaska sand, and Blue Lake sand I ..... . . . 39

2. Photomicrographs of thin sections of a sequence of
podzolBhorizons........ ..... 114

3. Photomicrographs of thin sections of Blue Lake I Bh and
Bt horizons using crossed Nicol prisms ....... . . . 115

ix

I. INTRODUCTION

According to Jenny (1941, 1946), a soil system is defined when
its properties, 51, 3;, s3, . . . Sn, are stated. Since these properties
are functionally interrelated, if a sufficient number are fixed, all others
are fixed. The properties capable of defining the system are the inde-
pendent variables or soil-forming factors. Five are recognized:
climate, (cl'), organisms (o‘), topography (r'), parent material (p),
and time (t). The first three variables are properties of the soil coupled
with those of the environment and can therefore be replaced by their
environmental counterparts, cl, 0, and r. . The fundamental relation-
ship between a soil property and the soil-forming factors is then ex-

pressed as:

s 2' f(cl, o, r, p, t...)

To ascertain the role played by any one soil-forming factor it is
necessary that the remaining factors remain constant. For instance,
in a chronosequence of soils, time is the only variable factor and the
relation of time to a soil property is:

S = f (t)c1, o, r, p

.A chronosequence of soils cannot be created artificially in the
laboratory. They occur naturally only under certain sets of geologic
conditions. One such set of conditions is present in northernMichigan
(Spurr and Zumberge, 1956). Here the retreat of the last glacier and
associated fluctuations of the levels of the glacial Great Lakes combined
with crustal up-warping has resulted in a sequence of surfaces ranging
in age from about 10, 000 years before present to those being formed

today.

In this study the relation of time to a number of the more
important soil properties defininga soil system will be examined.
Emphasis will be placed on properties of pedons (Soil Survey Staff,
1960) such as the distribution of clay in the profile or net changes in
the solum(method of Marshall and Haseman, 1942) rather than on

properties of a single soil horizon such as its percent clay.

II. LIT ERATURE REVIEW

Podzol s and Podz oli zation

Dokuchaiev is commonly given credit for first applying the name
Podzol to a certain group of soils (Muir, 1961). The term as originally
used referred to "the infertile layer of soil, gravel, sand or heavy clay,
which underlay the ashes resulting from burning the forest cuttings. "
Use of the term Podzol, in its early stages, was confined to the bleached
horizon or A2 as it is now commonly designated in the United States.

a German workers had recognized and described horizons of soils
later to be known as Podzols at an earlier date; however. . Sprengel
called the bleached horizon "Bleisand" around 1837 and Senft in 1862
, described a German Podzol as having an "Ortstein" layerbeneath the
bleached layer (Muir, 1961). Later in Germany, the Bleisand was taken
as equivalent to the Russian Podzol except that the German concept was
limited to the sandier soils in which an Ortstein layer was formed. The
German’concept of Podzols (Bleisand plus Orstein) was carried to the
United States by Marbut. In this country typical Podzols occur on only
the croarseratextured parent materials according to Byers it a_l. (1938,
p. 972).

In. Canada the process of podzolization is generally thought of as
the process leading to the development of a Podzol (Satobbe and Wright,
1959). . When a formal definition of the process has been given, it has I I
usually been in terms of the end product or it has enumerated the specific
processes involved. , In either case, the definition of podzolization de-
pends on the definer's concept of the end product. . Most definitions

include or imply the mobilization of iron and usually aluminum in the

surface horizons by an organic material, the downward translocation
of the products formed, and their immobilization in a lower horizon
resulting in a horizon of accumulation of humus, iron, and/or aluminum.

Use of the term podzolization more generally in referring to the
formation of both Podzol soils and podzolic soils (Gray-Brown and Red-
Yellqw) has led to discrepencies among different people in the definition
and use of the term. Recent views in North America seem to be that
translocation of silicate clay minerals is not an essential process in
the formation of Podzols (Soil Survey Staff, 1960; Stobbe and Wright,
1959): However, in the older, more general concept associated with
podzolic soils in the United States, clay translocation is a part of the
prbcess (Byers <_e_t ail. , 1938). To distinguish between the two kinds of
processes here, podzolization will refer to the processes leading to the
development of a Podzol, and "podzolization" to the processes leading
to podzolic soils. This later view is evidently held by Gerasimov (1960)
of Russia who in 1960 included movement of clay in a definition of
"podzolization" and by DeConnick of France (1960) who in the same year
wrote that clay migration was the first step of "podzolization. "

Bisequal soils associated with the Podzols in northern Michigan
(Gardner and Whiteside, 1952) present Special problems. These bisequal
profiles consist of a Brown Podzolic or Podzol sequum overlying a
Gray-Brown Podzolic or Gray Wooded sequum. Such soils which have
developed from moderately fine to coarse textured materials have been
studied by several investigators in New York and Michigan (Frei and
Cline, 1949; Cline, 1959; Gardner and Whiteside, 1952; Cann and
Whiteside, 1955). The general consensus of these studies is that the
formation of the Gray-Brown Podzolic or Gray Wooded sequum involves
clay migration down the profile. . Either after this has occurred or while
it is occurring, a Podzol or Brown Podzolic B horizon, characterized by

an accumulation of sesquioxides and/or organic matter, develops in the

upper part of the profile. Some European workers have evidently
observed similar bisequal soils. . Duchaufour (1956, p. 199) wrote that
in an Atlantic climate lessivage prepares conditions for podzolization.
In boreal climate, however, or on very permeable and very acid parent
material of the Atlantic domain, podzolization could take place im-
mediately under the action of coniferous forests or heather. Mackney
(1961), too, thought that clay movement preceded podzolization in soils
developed on .medium textured parent materials in England. From this
it appears that some European workers are distinguishing between the
process which leads to the development of the sol lessive’ (probably
Gray-Brown Podzolic or Gray Wooded) sequum and the process which
leads to the development of the Podzol sequum.

Although modern views in America and elsewhere do not include
clay migration in the concept of the processes leading to a Podzol,
significant amounts of increase in the clay content of the Podzol B horizon
relative to the C horizon have been recently observed (Pawluk, 1960;
Brown and Jackson, ‘1958; Gerasimov, 1960; Wurman, 1959). However,
little importance was attributed to these clay increases by these investi-
gators.

Duchaufour (1956) and Fridland (1959) differentiated the podzoli-
zation process from related processes according to the reactions under-
gone by clay minerals. Podzolization involves the destruction of clay
minerals in the upper part of the profile and removal of the products of
this destruction, while lessivage (Duchaufour) and illimerization
(Fridland), involve simply the elutriation or mechanical movement of
clay particles without their destruction. The difference between pod-
zolization and elutriation (lessivage, illimerization) can be detectediby
the total chemical composition of the clay fractions of a profile and by
micromorphological observations (Fridland, 1959). For instance,

illuvial horizons of Podzols lack the oriented clay films found in illuvial

horizons formed by the elutriation of clay in Gray-Brown Podzolic and
Red-Yellow Podzolic soils. Furthermore, the SiOz/RZO3 ratio of the
clay fraction of the B horizon is different from that of the clay fraction
of the A or C horizons in a Podzol but this ratio is quite uniform
throughout the profile of a Gley-Pseudopodzol (probably Gray-Brown
Podzolic) (Gerasimov, 1960).

In this study, in order to include the young as well as the more
mature soils, the term Podzol will refer to any soil with an observable
grayish A2 horizon underlain by a B horizon of which the color has a
smaller value, but greater chroma than the parent material, but which

lacks plastic properties or a greasy feel when moist.

Mechanisms of T ranslocations

As seen above, the chief mobile substances which could be involved
in the process of podzolization are sesquioxides (Fe and Al), organic
matter, and silicate clays. Various mechanisms have been proposed
for the translocation of these substances alone, in pairs or in a combi-
nation of all three. The mechanisms of translocation will be reviewed

according to all the various possible combinations of the mobile elements.

Sesquioxides

If iron and aluminum were to move without being.involved in a
combination with organic matter or clays, they would have to do so in
the ionic or colloidal forms. I Movement of iron and aluminum as the
trivalent ion is unlikely because both species are highly insoluble at
pH's commonly found in the surface horizons of Podzols. . Under some
conditions, however, iron can be reduced to the ferrous form which is
much more soluble than the ferric form. McKenzie and Erickson (1954)

placed an organic layer over a sand layer in a glass cylinder and

leached the column with distilled water. At the conclusion of leaching

the sand was divided into layers and ferrous and total iron were
determined for each layer. It was found that the sand immediately below
the organic layer contained a greater percentage of ferrous iron than

did lower layers. . From this they concluded that a possible mechanism

of iron translocation in Podzols was reduction in the A horizon, trans-
location of the ferrous iron, and oxidation and precipitation of ferric iron

in the B horizon. In a subsequent paper (McKenzie e} a_._l. , 1960) they

found that conditions were more oxidizing in the Kalkaska Bir than they

were in the Al, A2, or Bhir horizons. From this they concluded that

iron may be mobilized from the A and Bhir horizons and immobilized

[in the Bir horizon. Deb (1949), however, wrote that in the normal Podzol

in which water logging is absent, iron is readily oxidized to the ferric

state.

It should be pointed out, however, that although some mechanism

of movement seems unlikely because of laboratory standards of solubility,

a substance is probably never completely insoluble and the great amounts

of water or solution which pass through the soil in thousands of years may

transport small amounts of the "insoluble forms" in solution.

3 Smith (1934) passed a suspension of a positively-charged iron-oxide

sol through a column of sand, washed the column with water, passed a

suspension of a negatively-charged Na-clay suspension through the
“column, and again washed it with water. AHe found that when positively-
Charged and negatively-charged colloids were alternately passed through
the column‘in this way, the skeletal sand grains retained the charge of
tlie la‘st suspension to pass through. If, however, both colloids were
present in the column at the same time, they precipitated out and formed
a. (pan which retarded the percolation of water through the column. He
postulated that in humid areas positive and negative colloids moving

downward in a soil profile independently could flocculate each other and

be filtered out causing the formation of a pan or that positively-charged
colloids might be caught and held on the walls of negatively-charged
sand grains.

Concerning movement of iron as a colloidal sol, Deb (1949) wrote
that "the movement of iron as a positive iron- oxide $01 in association
with alumina and humus has been suggested by Mattson and Koulter-
Andersson. This cannot be established unless it is shown that the A
horizons'ofpodzol soils are positively charged. The authors gave no data
on this point, and no one else seems to have found a podzol soil with a
positive charge. "

Since aluminum oxide or hydroxide is also positively charged in
an acid environment (Mattson, 1930), the same argument should hold

for it.

Organic matter

 

Relatively mineral-free, finely divided organic matter could possibly
be translocated from the A2 to the B horizon. Kubiena (1953, pp. 259-262)
observed that remains of droppings of small soil animals could be carried
down the profile by percolating waters and could be deposited between the
sand grains of the B horizons of humus and humus-iron Podzols.
Mackney (1961) suggested that the previously deposited BS horizon could
act as a sieve to collect humus at the Ae-Bs (AZ-Bir) interface to form
the Bh horizon of a humus-iron Podzol. Stobbe and Wright (1959) re-
pcr ted observations of large masses of dark colored organic matter
descending after rains from the A0 horizon, through the A2 horizon which
has lost most of its sesquioxides, to the B horizon where the organic

matter is filtered out.

ea

 

Silicate clays

 

Mechanisms of clay accumulation can be illustrated by two postu-
lations for an increase of chlorite in the B horizons of Podzols
developed on sand in northern Alberta (Pawluk, 1960). First, partial
dissolution of feldspars in the A horizons may result in the formation
of skeletal alumino-silicates which could be moved to the B horizon
where they could be synthesized to a chlorite mineral by the addition of
a layer of gibbsite or alumina to their basal surfaces. Secondly, chlorite
may be synthesized from amorphous materials which had accumulated

in the B horizon following their removal from the A horizon.

Sesquioxides - -organic matter

 

The approach to studying the reactions of sesquioxides, particularly
iron, with organic matter has shifted over the years. Early workers
studied the effect of the peaty surface layer of Podzols on iron. Later,
it was realized that peat was ineffective in causing mobilization of iron,
and that from the very fact of its persistence, peat represents a rela-
tively inert fraction of the original plant material. It is thus probable
that the organic material which does not remain in the peat exerts a
greater influence in mobilizing iron and aluminum (Bloomfield, 1953).
This realization shifted the emphasis to the study of leachates of freshly
fallen leaves and, even further, to the solutions dripping from the living
forest canopy during a rain (Schnitzer and DeLong, 1954).

Two kinds of associations of sesquioxides and organic matter
have been proposed, electrostatic bonding and complex formation.
First, movement could occur as a humus-protected ironoxide sol.
Schnitzer and DeLong (1955) electrodialyzed leaf leachates enriched with
iron and found that most of the iron migrated to the cathode. They con-

cluded that the iron at the cathode was in the ferric hydroxide form and

10

that at the anode was ferric hydroxide protected by negatively charged
organic matter. Deb (1949) found that the amount of humus necessary
for the full peptization of a sol containing 100 ppm of iron oxide was
less than one-third the amount of iron oxide.

Martin and Reeve (1957, 1960) could find no evidence of the form-
ation of coordination compounds in the organic matter of a Podzol B
horizon. They suggested that electrostatic bonding could be the type of
bond joining sesquioxides and organic matter and that the simultaneous
presence of aluminum, iron, and humus in the B horizon could be
accounted for solely by the flocculating properties of aluminum ions.

In recent years much attention has been given the second proposed
association between iron and organic matter, a metal-organic complex
or chelate. Stobbe and Wright (1959) reviewed some of this work. They
concluded that "the prevailing concepts of the genesis of Podzols are
that the percolating products of organic matter, particularly the organic
acids and other complexing substances, bring about the solution of
sesquioxides, the reduction of iron and the formation of soluble metal-
organic complexes, some of which may be chelates. The complexes
move to the lower horizon and are precipitated under oxidizing conditions
probably by the destruction of the ligands by microorganisms and/or by
sorptions. "

Since the review article was written, Canadian workers have been
active in elucidating the chemical nature of the organic materials re-
sponsible for mobilizing sesquioxides. Schnitzer and Wright (1957) and
Wright and Schnitzer (1959a and b) worked with the Armadale soil, an
imperfectly drained Podzol developed from sandy loam on Prince Edward
island. They decided that the fulvic acid fraction of soil organic matter
was the most active fraction in podzolization because 85% of the organic
matter of the Bh horizon was fulvic acid compared with 30% fulvic acid

in the A0 horizon. The organic matter of the Bh consisted largely of an

11

aromatic "nucleus" to which functional groups were attached. The
major functional groups were found to be carboxyls, hydroxyls, and
carbonyls, all of which are known to react with iron and aluminum.
In contrast, the organic matter of the A0 horizon contained more aliphatic
and/or alicyclic "nucleus" structures (Schnitzer, 1959; Schnitzer and
Wright, 1960; Wright and Schnitzer, 1959a, 1959b, 1960, 1961).

Coffin and DeLong (1960) were able to isolate and quantitatively
determine some of the actual components of the organic matter of the
B horizon of a sandy Podzol. They found that four phenolic acids,
m-hydroxy-, p-hydroxy-, 2,4-dihydroxy-, and 3, 5-dihydroxy-benzoic
acids made up about 12% of the total organic matter of the soil material.
Three of these four acids were also identified in leachates resulting
from natural rainfall after it had passed through a canopy of hemlock
and then through the A0 and A2 horizons of a Podzol. This indicates
that these acids can originate in the canopy or surface horizons.

Evidence from several laboratories suggests that the mechanism
whereby soluble metal-organic complexes are immobilized is further
saturation of the organic molecule with iron and aluminum or possibly
small quantities of Ca++ or Mg++ (Wright and Schnitzer, 1961), causing
the complex to precipitate. Bloomfield (1955) found that ferric oxide-
coated sand grains in a column adsorbed iron and aluminum from leaf
leachate solutions enriched in these elements when they were passed
through the column. He postulated that initial dissolution of ferric oxide
took place in the surface layers of the column while in lower layers
adsorption occurred, resulting in a net adsorption of iron and aluminum.
DeLong and Schnitzer (1955) added successive increments of ferric
hydroxide to a given volume of poplar extract and found that the amount
of iron in solution attained a maximum and then fell off sharply with
further addition of ferric hydroxide. Using oxalic acid, instead of leaf

leachates, and soil materials Kawaguchi and Matsuo (1960) obtained

12

similar results. They treated the A2 and B2 horizons of a forest soil
with 0. 111 oxalic acid containing 34y/ml of FezO3 and found that the A2
released iron and the B2 absorbed iron from the solution. They main-
tained that the _r_a_t_i_(_) of the amount of the mobilizing material to the
amount of iron oxide to be mobilized regulates the amount of mobilization
of iron in soils. From the evidence obtained, these workers proposed

a hypothetical developmental sequence of iron mobilization in Podzol
formation.

Another mechanism of immobilizing metal-organic complexes is
by biological decomposition of the organic ligand. Deb (1949) and Stobbe
and Wright (1959) reviewed several references pertaining to this
mechanism and concluded that it was a possibility. Aristovskaya (1958)
extracted a fulvic acid-sesquioxide gel from a humus-illuvial Podzol
and added aliquots of this gel and of soil suspension cultures to the
surface of an agar plate. A thin film of bacteria grew on the agar and
amoeba attacked these bacteria and the fulvic—sesquioxide gel. Cells of
amoeba (and also flagellates, actinomyces and some bacteria) ingested
the gel and metabolized the organic part of it, leaving concretions of
ferric hydroxide which may surround individual cells or colonies of
cells. The amoeba decomposed the gel only when bacteria were present

as a supplementary food source.

‘Sesquioxide- silicate clays

Amorphous coatings of sesquioxides are known to occur on clay
minerals surfaces (Jackson and Mehra, 1960; Aguilera and Jackson,
1953). . Wurman e1: a_._1. (1959) proposed movement of an iron-silicate clay
association as a possible mechanism in the genesis of subsoil bands in

sandy Michigan soils .

13

Organic matter— - silicate clays

Bloomfield (1954) suggested that physical translocation of clay
could result from the action of rain water charged with organic matter
leached from the A0 horizon. He found that aqueous leachates of a
variety of broadleaved species caused the deflocculation of kaolin
suspensions. Polyphenolic compounds were chiefly responsible for
this dispersion (Bloomfield, 1957). Evans and Russell (1959) found that
clays rapidly adsorbed humic and fulvic acids from suspension. . More
fulvic acid was adsorbed by acid clays than by Ca-clays, but the converse
was true in the case of humic acid. Acid systems of kaolinite and
bentonite both adsorbed more fulvic acid than humic acid. Adsorptions

were in the order of magnitude of 3 to 9 g C/100 g clay.

Silicate clays - sesquioxides w ~organic matter

Translocations may also occur as a combination of these three
groups. Brydon and Sowden (1959) separated out the colloidal fraction
of a Podzol using a series of dispersion methods. They found that each
fraction separated contained silicate clays, "free" aluminum and iron,
and organic matter. They postulated that iron and aluminum stabilized
the clay-organic association. Bloomfield (1954) thought that the
effectiveness of Kauri as a Podzol former may be due to its ability to
deflocculate sesquioxide-coated clays. Wurman it a}. (1959) postu-
lated the existence of a clay-sesquioxide-organic matter association on
the basis of changes in the x-ray diffraction and differential thermal
measurements after the organic matter and "free oxides" were removed

from the clays of Podzols.

Other mechanisms of mobilization and immobilization

Movement of iron as a silica-protected iron oxide sol has been

Suggested but this theory was criticized by Deb (1949). . Mattson's theory

14

of isoelectric weathering was also highly regarded for some time but it
has since been criticized because of its requirement of a significant pH
gradient in the profile, a condition not always found in Podzols (Stobbe
and Wright, 1959). \
Other suggested mechanisms for immobilization of sesquioxides
and/or organic matter include precipitation as basic salts, loss of

effectiveness of chelating agents, and drying in the illuvial horizon

(Deb, 1949; Stobbe and Wright, 1959).

Mineralogy of Silt and Sand Fractions

I Pettijohn (1941) reviewed the frequency of appearance of heavy
minerals in arenaceous deposits of the different geologic ages and found
that the mineral suites became less complex with increasing age of the
deposits. That is, easily weatherable minerals disappear, leaving only
the more resistant Species. He proposed an "order of persistence" of
25 heavy minerals from these observations. In general, this sequence
was in harmony with others proposed by Thoulet, Goldich, and Smithson,
each one based on somewhat different data. Pettijohn's relative
order from most toleast persistentis: anatase, muscovite, rutile, zircon,
monazite, garnet, biotite, apatite, ilmenite, magnetite, staurolite,
kyanite, epidote, hornblende, andalusite, topaz, sphene, zoisite, augite,
sillimanite, hypersthene, diopside, actinolite, and olivine. He con-
sidered quartz to be more resistant than garnet. The relative stability
of minerals was observed to follow approximately the reverse order of
Bowen's reaction series (Goldich, 1938), that is, the first minerals to
crystallize from a magma are the first minerals to weather.

The resistance of primary minerals to podzolization processes
has also been studied. Jeffries and White (1939) observed an abundance

Of zircon and anatase and lesser amounts of nine other heavy mineral

15

species in a Podzol. Cady (1940) noted a marked decrease in the
hornblende and hypersthene content of the 0. 04 to 0. 1 mm fraction of
the A2 horizon of a Podzol relative to the C horizon. There was also
an apparent increase of magnetite and garnet in the A2 because of the
decrease of the more readily weathered minerals. The content of heavy
minerals in the A2 horizon was only about 67% of that of the C horizon.
Chandler (1941) grouped heavy minerals according to resistance to

podzolization as follows:

 

 

Resistant Moderately resistant Easily weathered
Zircon Epidote Hypersthene
Magnetite Orthoclase Hornblende
Quartz Diopside Plagioclase
Garnet Olivine

This grouping was based on heavy mineral counts of the sand fractions
of Podzol and Brown Podzolic soils. Observations substantiating the
above grouping were also made by Richard and Chandler (1943).
Matelski and Turk (1947) studied the heavy minerals of several
Podzols of northern Michigan. They worked with the heavy (s. g. >2. 94)
mineral portion of the fine sand, very fine sand and coarse silt fractions
(0. 25 to 0. 02 mm) and determined the frequency of mineral grains in
each of several cross-sectional area categories within these diameter
limits. Their data illustrated the difficulties which could arise from
using a narrow particle size limit in studying the weathering of mineral
grains in a soil. . For instance, in the case of garnet, the modal size of
particles in the B horizon was less than thatin the A horizon, and in
the A less than that in the C horizon (B < A < C). Thus in considering
any one narrow size class, garnet contents would give a. distorted view
of the garnet content of the whole soil sample. These authors also
observed a smaller content of heavy minerals in the B horizons than in
the A horizons of all seven profiles studied, and a smaller content in the

B horizons than in the C horizons of all but one profile. The small

16

particle size of garnet in the B horizon and the small quantities of heavy
minerals in the B led the authors to conclude that the B horizon suffered
a greater decomposition of heavy minerals than did the A or C horizons.
They also concluded that of the minerals they studied the least resistant
to podzol weathering was dark green hornblende, followed by gray-green
hornblende, the opaque minerals, and the garnets.

Brown and Jackson (1958) attributed the higher garnet/pyroxene
and garnet/hornblende ratios in the A2 horizons relative to the rest of the
rest of the profiles of two Hiawatha soils to chemical weathering of
pyroxenes and hornblende. Garnet was considered to be a resistant
species since the zircon/garnet ratio was approximately the same through-
out the profile.

In a study of the mineralogy of the 0. 5 to 0. 016 mm fraction of a
heath Podzol in the Netherlands, Van der Marel (1949) showed that
amphibole weathers most readily, followed in diminishing degree by
muscovite, epidote, saussurite, feldspar, staurolite, the Opaques,
rutile, tourmaline, and quartz. Weathering of these minerals took place
primarily in the "lead sand" (A2) and black sand (Bh) horizons, but it was
more severe in the "lead sand. " He noted that K-feldspars were weathered
only in the A2 horizon while Ca- and Na-feldspar were scarcely weathered
at all but were concentrated in the < 16 p. separate along with quartz.

Only quartz and clay minerals could withstand weathering processes in
small (< 2 p.) particles.

Pawluk (1960) found the following weathering rates in the 0. 1 to
0. 5 mm fraction of some Alberta Podzols:

light minerals--feldspar > quartz;

intermediate minerals--chlorite > biotite > muscovite; and

heavy minerals--hematite > hornblende > garnet _>_ magnetite.

By horizons, the weathering rates reported were, Ae > Bir > C.

17

In recent studies of Michigan soils, Yassoglou and Whiteside (1960)
showed a slight decrease in feldspars in the A2 horizon of bisequal soils.
Hornblende, olivine, and epidote weathering took place in all horizons
above the Bt, with the intensity of weathering increasing with proximity
to the soil surface. Magnetite, zircon, garnet, and tourmaline were
considered to be resistant. These conclusions were based on studies of
the fine sand fractions of the soils. Wurman (3} a1. (1959), using x-ray
diffraction, found no distinct pattern in the feldspar content of sandy
Podzol and bisequal soils. Cann and Whiteside (1955) found that orthoclase
feldspars were more resistant than plagioclase feldspars in the Marlette
soil.

Summarizing, most of the weathering series observed in Podzols
and in the podzol sequum of bisequal soils follow the general order pro-
posed by Pettijohn (1941) and Goldich (1938). (Exceptions are diopside
in Chandler's series and plagioclase and muscovite in Van der Marel's
series.)

Observations of weathering intensity within a soil profile were
usually A2 > B > C. However, Matelski and Turk (1947) interpreted the
order to be B > A2 > C, while Cady (1960) proposed the order A2 > B = C.

Marshall (1940) proposed a method for measuring net gains or I
losses which occurred in individual soils during their formation and in
soil horizons during profile development. The method is based on the
content, in each horizon, of an "index mineral" that is resistant to
weathering, not formed in pedogenesis, and is immobile. , Marshall
recommended using zircon, tourmaline, garnet, rutile or anatase as
index minerals. Barshad (1955) added to this list quartz, albite, micro-
cline, or a combination of several resistant minerals. In order to apply
Marshall's method, it is first ascertained that the solum has developed
from material like that which is now assumed to be its parent material.

Marshall (1940) proposed two criteria for depositional uniformity:

18

(a.) throughout the profile the relative proportions of the highly resistant
minerals should be the same, (b..) throughout the profile the particle
size distribution of a given resistant mineral should remain the same.
Resistance of a mineral to weathering is a relative matter; given
a sufficiently long time under weathering conditions, even the most
resistant minerals will undergo some weathering. Raeside (1959) pointed
out that quartz, garnet and zircon are subject to physical breakdown
through strain caused by crystal disorientation or crystalline inclusions.
These minerals, especially iron-rich garnets, may also be susceptible
to dissolution. He listed five conditions under which quartz, zircon, or
garnet should 119} be used as index minerals:
1.) in soils on old land surfaces,

2.) in soils that have existed for long periods of time under
high rainfall conditions,

3.) where the minerals contain large or abundant inclusions,

4.) where the minerals show extensive strain or incipient

fissuring,

5.) where garnets are high in iron.

Mineralogy of Clay Fraction

Jackson and co-workers (1948) proposed a weathering sequence
of clay-size minerals in soils. Although the sequence was developed
from generalized changes covering a variety of weathering and soil form-
ing processes, it appears that it fairly well describes clay mineral
weathering in Podzols. The series represents weathering from the more
complex to the simpler minerals, analogous to series representing
weathering of sand grains. For example, as weathering stages progress
through 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 the stages are represented by illite, hydrous
mica intermediates, montmorillonite, kaolinite, and gibbsite, respectively.

Rolfe and Jeffries (1952) proposed a criterion for weathering of clay

l9

minerals which was essentially the amount of illite (mica) transformed
to hydrous micas, (stage 7 to stage 8 in Jackson's scheme). Jackson
later (1959) elaborated on the steps of the transition from micas to
montmorillonite.

Podzols developed on sandy parent material sometimes show a
greater percentage of montmorillonite in their A2 horizons than in
deeper horizons. This trend has been demonstrated in the Hiawatha,
Iron River, Ahmeek and Omega soils of northern Wisconsin (Brown and
Jackson, 1958), in the Montcalm fine sand of northern Michigan (Wurman
ital. , 1959), and in Podzols from Fennoscandia (Gjems, 1960). This
increase of montmorillonite was said to be due to removal of the inter-
layer from chlorite (Brown and Jackson, 1958; Wurman, 1959).
Yassoglou and Whiteside (1960) indicated that montmorillonite and
vermiculite are the products of weathering of illite, chlorite and inter—
stratified systems in somewhat finer-textured Michigan soils.

Pawluk (1960), on the other hand, found that the A and C horizons
of some Podzols from northern Alberta contained illite, montmorillonite,
interstratified illite-montmorillonite, and kaolinite, while the B horizons
were primarily chlorite-like with lesser amounts of kaolinite. He ex-
plained these results by a synthesis of chlorite in the B horizon.

Tedrow (1954) and Brown and Jackson (1958) found more quartz
in the clay fractions of surface horizons of Podzols than in the clay
fractions of lower horizons. This quartz was largely in the 2-1 1* or
2-0. 2 11 fractions.

In the recently proposed soil classification system in the United
States (Soil Survey Staff, 1960) one criterion for the spodic (Podzol B)
horizon is that the SiOz/RZO3 ratio of the clay fraction of this horizon is
less than this ratio of the clay fractions of both the albic (A2) horizon
and the parent material. To illustrate this point, data from Podzols
from Washington and Georgia were presented (Soil Survey Staff, 1960,

p. 52). Some other recent data on SiOz/RZO3 ratios is presented in Table 1.

20

Table l. Silica-sesquioxide ratios of the clay fractions of some sandy

 

 

Podzols.
Soil and Fraction Molar
Location Horizon Size Percent SiOz
R203
Wisconsin‘ Hiawatha 1. 8. A2 2-0. 2p. 0.4 6. 3
B2 2-0. 2}; 0 . 9 4. 9
C2 Z'O-ZH 0.02 3.5
Alberta2 Profile 1 As <ZH tr. 4. 8
Bir <2p. 4. 0 4. 9
C <2}; 1. 0 4. 2
Profile 2 As <2p. 0.4 4. 2
Bir <2u 7.1 4.1
C <2p. 3. 0 3. 8
England3 Podzol-inter- Ae/Bh<2n n. d 3.4
grade Bs <2u 5.5 2 1
C <2}; 3. 8 2
Russia4 Humic-illuvial 8-l4cm <1“. 2.6 2.8
Podzol (A2)
20—26(1p 8.6 1.5
(Bh)
38‘44<1H 7.7 2.0
(Bir)
65-70(1p. 5.3 1.7
(C ?)
New England5 Brassua A <2|i - 3. 0
B <2}; - 0. 7
C <Zp. - l. 5

 

1Brown and Jackson (1958)
_zPaw1uk (1960)

3Mackney (1961)

‘Fridland (1959)
5Tavernier and Smith (1957)

21

This table shows that the B horizon of several Podzols in North America
and part of the B horizon of a Russian Podzol could not be called spodic
horizons. The B3 of the British Podzol, the Bh of the Russian Podzol,
and the B of the Brassua soil would fulfill the above requirements of

the definition of the spodic horizon, however.

Chronosequenc es of Soils

Jenny (1941) reviewed some of the early work, especially that
from Europe, concerning time as a soil forming factor. Since then
Chandler (1942), and later Crocker and Dickson (1957), have studied
soil development on a series of recessional moraines deposited by the
Mendenhall glacier in Alaska. Vegetation invaded the moraines quite
rapidly after the retreat of the glacier. Within two years mosses,
lichens, and fireweeds were growing. In three years red alder came in,
and in 15 years Sitka spruce seedlings were present. Around 100 to
120 years after the ice had retreated from a moraine the Sitka spruce
forest was established. Aspen or hemlock were reported to be in
association with spruce later in the succession. Soil properties which
had changed during the first century or two were largely those affected
by the incorporation of organic matter into the surface of the mineral
soil, such as carbon content, nitrogen content, color, reaction, and bulk
density. The reaction of the surface horizons gradually became more
acid as carbonates were leached and the bulk density of the surface
horizon decreased with increasing age of the surface. . Nitrogen was
found to accumulate rapidly during the first 50 to 60 years--possibly due
to nitrogen fixation by the nodules of alder. . The two reports did not
agree on the type of soil being formed. Chandler described his oldest
soil (:1: l, 000 years, corrected to 3, 000 to 4, 000 years by Crocker and
- Dickson), as having a well humified surface accumulation of organic

matter 8 inches thick, an A2 horizon which was ash gray in color and

 

 

22

ranged from 2 to 4 inches thick, and a B horizon 6 to 8 inches thick
which was "dark coffee brown and showed a tremendous accumulation
of humas and iron. " Crocker and Dickson, however, wrote that

". . . there is little evidence indeed that anything approaching a typical
podzol is the sub-terminal, or terminal, result of soil formation on
glacial moraines in this region, " but their study did not describe soils
older than about 200 years.

A study was made by Crocker and Major (1955) at Glacier Bay,
Alaska, under conditions similar to those near the Mendenhall glacier.
The vegetational sequence and soil changes reported for the two areas
were in general agreement. The chronosequence at Glacier Bay covered
a Span of 0 to about 200 years. It was found that under alder vegetation
nitrogen accumulates rapidly, at the rate of 55 pounds per acre per
year, over a period of 50 years.

Gjems (1960) studied the clay minerals in a chronosequence of
Podzols near the Bay of Bothnia in Fennoscandia where the rate of uplift
of‘the shore is l m/100 years. Even in the youngest of the profiles
studied, 300 years, the clay fraction of the A2 horizon showed strong
evidence of the presence of montmorillonite, while this mineral could
not be found in the C horizon.

Olson (1958) studied the ecology of the sand dunes of southern
Lake Michigan and related the vegetational succession to early soil
development. Pioneer grasses, with or without cottonwoods or dune-
building Shrubs, eventually led to various types of black-oak communities,
often with an intervening stage of jack or white pine. His data again
illustrated the effects of organic matter accumulation in the soil.
However, he wrote about the likelihood of fire in these areas, and recent
fires would greatly alter the present properties of the surface soil

closely related to the kind and amount of organic matter.

23

Another chronosequence reported was on a succession of river
terraces in the Northwest Territories (Wright, e_t a}. , 1959). The
sequence consisted of an Alluvial soil on the lowest and youngest terrace,

a Brown Wooded soil on the middle terrace, and a Grey Wooded soil on

the highest and oldest terrace. The parent material of all soils was

fine textured alluvium. The pattern of development found here was

(1 .) accumulation of organic matter in the upper part of the calcareous
parent material, (2.) decomposition of carbonates, with calcium removal
occurring about twice as fast as magnesium removal, followed by a
depletion of organic matter, (3.) greater loss of silica thanof sesquioxides
in the earlier stages of development, probably during the depletion of
carbonates, (4.) continued loss of bases, particularly calcium, accompanied
by a decrease in pH, and (5.) marked eluviation of clay and sesquioxides
and their accumulation in the B horizon.

Hensel and White (1960) studied the clay mineralogy of the surface
horizons and parent materials of primarily Gray-Brown Podzolic soild
in a transect across moraines of Tazewell and Cary age. They estimated
that the rate of weathering of KZO from the 2-0. 2 P fraction of the 0~6

inch layer of soils was about 0.10% per 1000 years.

III. RELATION OF SOILS TO ENVIRONMENT

Geologic History

Valders glaciation

 

The last glacial substage of the Wisconsin age to reach the
northern tip of Lower Michigan has been correlated with the Valders
substage of eastern Wisconsin (Melhorn, 1954). Valders ice was
thought to have been thin and to have lost most of its energy by the time
it covered that part of the State so that it reached but did not over-ride
the Port Huron moraine. Because the ice was so thin it caused little
scour of the bedrock over which it passed, but instead, reworked the
drift deposited by previous glaciations. Melhorn thought that Valders
ice covered the entire Emmet moraine (Emmet County, north of
Little Traverse Bay) which attains an elevation of around 1330 feet at
Emmet Heights, but the highest elevation at which he found evidence of
Valders drift on the Lake Michigan slope of the older Port Huron moraine
in the Little Traverse Bay area was 860 feet (near Petoskey). The high-
est elevation at which he identified red (Valders) till or red till over
blue-gray (Port Huron) till in the lower peninsula was nearly 1300 feet
(judging from the elevations, according to USGS topographic maps, of
the locations he gave for the points where he made the observations)-
This occurred on the Lake Huron slope of the Port Huron moraine,

howeve r, near Johanne sburg .

Because of the characteristic weakness of the Valders ice and the
lack of evidence that it attained elevations greater than 860 feet on the
Lake Michigan slope of the Port Huron moraine, it is possible that it

did not cover all of the Emmet moraine and that the higher elevations of

24

25

that moraine are actually of Port Huron age. The two soils on the
Emmet moraine selected for study herein occurred at elevations of

about 850-900 feet. Even though the Valders glacier was not very active,
it is very likely that it would have reworked at least the surface of the
previously deposited glacial drift at this altitude, leaving a fresh surface

on which soil forming agents could begin to work when the ice melted.

Calumet, Toleston, and Kirkfield Lake stages

As the Valders ice melted and its margin retreated northward,
the Lake Michigan and Lake Huron basins may have been connected by
a channel which flowed through what is now Cheboygan, Emmet, Antrim,
Grand Traverse, and Leelanau Counties (Hough, 1958, pp. 178-181).
The final Glenwood stage of Lake Chicago occupied the Michigan basin at
this time and had its outlet at Chicago.

The increased volume of water supplied to this lake as Valders
ice melted was sufficient to cause downcutting of the outlet to establish
a new level, the Calumet Stage, of Glacial Lake Chicago at 620 feet
above sea level.

Further cutting of the Chicago outlet down to bedrock was respons-
ible for creating the Toleston-Early Algonquin stage at 605 feet.

As the Valders ice retreated farther northward, a lower outlet
was opened which drained the Huron and Nlichigan basins eastward
through the Trent Valley in Ontario and lowered the level of the glacial
lakes by 40 to 50 feet. This Kirkfield stage of Hough (1958) may have
been the same as the "pre-Algonquin" lake that Spurr and Zumberge

(1956) identified in Emmet and Cheboygan Counties.

Main Algonquin stag:

Subsequently, the Kirkfield outlet was again Closed--either by

uplift or by re-advance of the glacial ice close to the Kirkfield outlet--

26

and the level of the glacial lakes rose again to 605 feet above sea level
resulting in the main Algonquin stage of the Michigan and Huron basins.
During this stage most of what is now Emmet and Cheboygan counties
was under water. This level was maintained by the levels of both the
Chicago and Port Huron outlets. Lake Algonquin lasted from around

9000 to 8000 years before present.

Low water stages

 

As the glacial ice retreated still farther northward, a series of
new outlets lower than the southern outlets were opened. Each new outlet
caused a successively lower stage of the lakes in the Huron and Michigan
basins until the North Bay outlet was uncovered. This channel, which
led from Georgian Bay, northeast to North Bay, Ontario, and on to the
St. Lawrence valley, controlled the level of the Stanley Stage of the
Huron basin at around 180 feet and drained the Chippewa Stage of the
Michigan basin which was about 230 feet above sea level.

Melting of the ice removed a great load from the earth's surface
and resulted in uplift of the earth's crust. The greatest amount of uplift
occurred where the ice had been thickest and it tapered off where the
glacier was thinner. .Around Cheboygan the surface exposed when the
Algonquin stage ended had risen 110 feet by the end of the low water
stage (Spurr and Zumberge, 1956, fig. 4) after which. lake levels again
reached the same elevation as they were during the Algonquin stage.

Uplift continues today in this area.

Nipissing stage

 

Uplift closed the North Bay outlet around 4000 years before present
creating the Nipissing stage in the Huron and Michigan basins. The lake

level was controlled by the Port Huron and Chicago outlets, the same

27

ones that had controlled the level of Lake Algonquin, and thus the level

of the Nipissing Stage was also 605 feet above sea level.

Algoma stage

The Nipissing stage was ended by downcutting of the Port Huron
outlet around 3000 years ago producing a new lake level of 595 above
sea level. This Algoma level was stabilized only briefly and further
downcutting of the Port Huron outlet gradually lowered Lakes Michigan
and Huron to their present level of 580 feet, leaving a series of young

beaches.

Geomorphology-~Soils Relations

General relations

 

The parts of the Emmet moraine high enough to remain above the
highest Algonquin stage of the glacial Great Lakes were called Riggsville,
Levering, and Brutus Islands by Spurr and Zumberge (1956). The soils
on Riggsville Island in Cheboygan County (Foster 9.? a_._l. , 1939) were
mapped primarily as Emmet sandy loam with small areas of Emmet
loamy sand (now probably Leelanau or Montcalm loamy sand), and Onaway
loam. Brutus and Levering Islands account for a large share of the land
area of Emmet County. The only soil map available in this county is a
land type map (Galloway, 1940). This map shows the soils of Levering
Island to be primarily Emmet sandy loam with smaller amounts of Emmet
loamy sand. Soils of Brutus Island are somewhat coarser in texture,
mostly Emmet loamy sand with some Emmet sandy loam.

On Brutus Island there are some areas of sand textured "washed
drift" (Flint, 1957, p. 109) materials and it was in these areas that

suitable sites were found for this study.

28

Most of the area which had been below Algonquin but above
Nipissing waters in Emmet and Cheboygan Counties is now occupied by
organic or poorly drained sandy soils. Some of it, however, bears
well drained soils which have been mapped largely as Kalkaska (medial
Podzol) or Rubicon sands (minimal Podzol), with smaller areas of
Grayling sand (Brown Podzolic) south of Burt, Mullet, and Black Lakes.
The reasons for these different degrees of podzolization on similar
parent materials of the same age have not been worked out.

The parent materials which had been under Nipissing, but above
Algoma waters in Cheboygan and Emmet counties are largely gravels
and sands in the form of beach ridges with interSpersed wet areas.

The well drained sandy soils were mapped Eastport, Rubicon, Kalkaska,
or Wallace sands or gravelly sands. Wallace soils were mapped on
former sand dunes which are prevalent on Nipissing beaches because

this stage was characterized by a dry climate. On several dunes where
Wallace sand was mapped the soil observed did not conform to the current
description of Wallace, but would now be Rubicon or Kalkaska. Kalkaska
soils were mapped in a small area on the Nipissing beach at the east

side of Cheboygan County, but those were not investigated in this study.

The Algoma beaches comprise but a thin strip of land along the
Great Lakes in Cheboygan and Emmet Counties except for a more
extensive area in the Wilderness State Park area north of Sturgeon Bay.
The soil on the beach ridges is Eastport; poorly drained sands and
organic soils occupy the low areas between the ridges. In most places
along the lakes, the Algoma beach has been disturbed in the building of

summer homes, motels, etc.

Selection of sites

 

The object of this study was to follow soil development in a chrono-

sequence of soils; therefore, the following items were considered in

S electing sample sites:

 

 

29

(1.) The sites should be as uniform as possible in the four
remaining soil formation factors, i. e. , parent material,
topography, climate, and vegetation.

(2.) The soils selected Should have the maximum podzol
development occurring on that age surface, disregarding
anomalous situations such as sand dunes, gravelly areas,
relatively high water tables, etc.

(3.) The sites should occur near each other to achieve greater
similarity in the two active factors, climate and organisms.

These objectives were well met in a sequence of soils on Algoma,

Nipissing, and Algonquin beaches near Cordwood Point about 8 miles
east of Cheboygan on Lake Huron. Here the three beaches lie parallel
to each other with a distinct cliff between the Algonquin and Nipissing
beaches and with a less distinct transition between the Nipissing and
Algoma beaches. The three Sites are located along a transect about
one-half mile long perpendicular to the lake shore. The soils found on
the former beaches were Eastport sand, Rubicon sand, and Kalkaska
sand on the Algoma, Nipissing, and Algonquin beaches, respectively.

The Sites selected on Valders age materials were located about

5 miles west of Pellston on the Emmet moraine. This was as close to
Cordwood Point as Sites which met the previously stated objectives
could be found. . It was intended to sample one soil having textural bands
and one without them; however, after the pits were dug it was found

that bands occurred in both soils. . In this morainic materialit was dif-
ficult to find a sandy area of appreciable Size that did not have textural

bands or pockets present at some depth.

30

Formation Factors of Soils Studied

Time

 

The relation of the soils studied to geologic deposits and surface
ages is summarized in Table 2. Four values of the independent variable,

time, were indicated by the geologic history of the area.

Table 2. Relation of soils studied to geologic deposits and surface ages.

 

Soil Studied

 

 

Geologic Surface Age Type Elevation"<
Deposit (years B. P.) (ft.)
Algoma beach 2, 250 Eastport sand 590
Nipissing beach 3, 000 Rubicon sand 615
Algonquin beach 8, 000 Kalkaska sand 640
Valders drift 10, 000 Blue Lake sand 850-900
(I and II)

 

>"The elevation of shorelines at Cordwood Point are: Algoma, 605
ft; Nipissing, 630 ft; Algonquin, 760 ft. The Algonquin Shoreline at
Pellston is 730 ft. above sea level.

Parent material

 

The textures of the parent materials of all five soils were sand or
coarse sand according to the USDA classification system (Soil Survey
Staff, 1951). If we assume that the beach sands originated from the
moraine behind the beaches, each successive lake stage Should have
caused further water working of the original glacial material resulting
in successively better sorted sands. This appears to be the actual case
as shown in Figure l. The frequency curves of sand size distribution
become progressively narrower and higher in moving from the Valders

washed drift to the Algoma beach sands.

31

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:2
unomummm

 

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m0> m0 ma

EB
S0053.“

 

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32

Topography

The topography factor was held uniform by selecting all sites
for sampling at the tops of beach ridges or morainic knolls. The

slopes in the general areas of the pits were around 6 to 9%.

Climate

Pollen analysis has been used to determine the vegetational
history of an area and from this, climatic changes can be inferred.
Zumberge and Potzger (1956) studied two bogs in southwestern Michigan.
They were able to relate horizons in the bog to recent Pleistocene
history by stratigraphy, and also to date these horizons by radiocarbon
methods. From this information they could relate the vegetational
history and. inferred climatic changes to geologic stages. The relations

they found are given in Table 3.

Table 3. Climatic Ehange inferred from forest history in southwestern
Michigan (Zumberge and Potzger, 1956).

——
_

 

Years before

 

present Forest cover Climate

3500-4000 Expanding oak-hemlock broad Warmest and driest
leaved forest since retreat of ice

5000 Decline of pine period and Continued warming

ascendency of oak and chestnut

6000 Pine maximum, near elimi- Warming climate
nation of spruce and fir

8000 Decline of Spruce and fir, Moderating climate
increase of pine

11, 000 Spruce - fir Cool to cold, moist

 

33

Although the bog they studied was about 230 miles from the sites
studied here, the climate may not have been greatly different, especially
during immediate post-glacial times, because both the Sites studied
here and those in southwestern Michigan were near the margin of Valders
ice. .A warming trend continued as the margin of Valders glaciation
retreated northward climaxing with the xerothermic conditions of Lake
Nipissing time during which many sand dunes were initiated on beaches
unprotected from westerly winds.

More recently than 3500 to 4000 years before present the climatic
optimum (for plant growth) continued to develop as Shown by an increase
of oak, hickory, and pine. In most recent times climatic deterioration
(cooling?) occurred during which change pine has increased in abundance
according to Zumberge and Potzger (1955).

Climatic records kept at Cheboygan and Pellston by the Weather
Bureau (1957) Show the normal temperature and precipitation for these
two stations (Table 4). Additional data has been gathered during summer
months at Douglas Lake (University of Michigan Biological Station) and
was summarized by Gates (1937).

Pellston received somewhat more precipitation and was around 10
to 20 F colder on the average than Cheboygan during the last decade,
Table 4. The difference in precipitation can be attributed largely to
differences in amounts of snowfall. Mean annual snowfall at Cheboygan

was 70 inches while at Pellstonit was 98 inches.

Vagetation

 

Jenny (1941, pp. 201-293; 1946) considered the vegetation factor
to be uniform for different areas if each received seeds or Spores of
the same group of Species. The particular Species which subsequently
grew need not be the same in the different areas. Thus, the assumption

that the vegetation factor is constant for the three youngest Sites should

 

34

 

 

 

 

 

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oudfimquEou Smog

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coflofinfiooum can:
Gogdom

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ounuduomcqou Geog

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Soflmuamooum ado:
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GM 20
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Chm; ddohdm hm

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m Cw COmuduu

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AHHU
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rH.

35

be safe because of their proximity. What is needed is some comparison
of vegetation on former beaches with that on the nearby moraines to
learn if it is sufficiently similar.
Wilson and Potzger (1942) reported on a comparison of the vege-
tational history around Douglas Lake, between Pellston and Cheboygan
on the Algonquin plain, and aroundMiddle Fish Lake in sandy drift of
the Port Huron moraine (Sec. 34, T29N, R2E, Montmorency Co.).
They made the comparison by identifying and counting pollen grains from
trees preserved in the various layers of lake sediments and peat deposits.
Their findings showed that at both locations the vegetative sequence was
Spruce, to spruce-pine, to pine, to pine-hemlock-broad leaved species
(birch, beech and oak). The final stages of the sequence, following the
decline of pine, were different at the two locations. At Middle Fish
Lake pine again regained much of its former importance (60-80% of
total pollen grains) and the broad leaved Species declined in importance
(to 20-35%), but at Douglas Lake pine remained more suppressed (30-60%)
while the broad leaved species became more prevalent 85-60%). The
workers realized that the low representation of Acer (maple) pollen in
the deposits probably did not reflect the true importance of this genus
in the forest cover. This would result in under-estimating- the prevalence
of maple and over-estimating the prevalence of pine and other Species
of the forests. Despite this discrepency, pine was still considered to be
of greater importance in the moraine than on the former beach deposits
because the early reports of vegetational cover confirm this relationship.
The ecological relations of the northern tip of the peninsula during
recent times has been described by Gates (1926) based on observations
made in the vicinity of the University of Michigan Biological Station
from 1911-1925:

Following the withdrawal of the ice, the different parts of the
area became vegetated until, at the time of lumbering in the
1870's, three conspicuous types of vegetation were present.
The poorer or sandy uplands were covered with pine forest

36

(Pinus strobus and P. resinosa), grading rather Sharply into
beech-maple forest—on the better soils of the uplands. The low-
lands were cedar bOgs (Thuja occidentalis). Depressions which
filled with water became lakes, and aquatic vegetation was de-
veloped in and bordering them. The region was one of extensive
forest. ‘

 

 

With the lumbermen came the removal of the forests,
first from the pineland and later, even up to the present time,
the beech-maple forest (Fagus gandifolia - Acer saccharum).
Areas that were lumbered were nearly always burned and usually
burned repeatedly. The cedar bogs were largely cut and more or
less burned, but, as bog conditions are much less favorable for
extensive fires, such areas are not so badly damaged. The im-
mediate result of the clearing and burning was the installation of
a new vegetation cycle over wide areas. Fireweeds (especially
Epilobium angustifolium) came first and later shrubs and trees.
Areas that have been repeatedly burned are now largely covered
with aspens (Populus spp.). This type of vegetation is favored by
the occasional fires at the expense of the pines, beech, or maples.

 

 

 

 

Gates also wrote that the vegetational succession on sandy soils
in the northern tip of the peninsula was dune association, to heath
association, to jack pine association, and, if sufficient humification of
the sandy soils takes place, to beech-maple association. Wilson and
Potzger (1942) agreed that northern hardwoods is the climatically favored
type and that pine maintains itself because of edaphic conditions.

The vegetation of the Sites when the soils were sampled is given
in the soil profile descriptions. Broad-leaved Species were dominant
on all sites. On the Eastport site red oak and red maple were the
dominant species and on Rubicon quaking aspen, birch, red oak, .and red
maple predominated. . The stocking on these two sites was relatively
thin. Sugar maple appeared on the Kalkaska site but it was outnumbered
by paper birch and red maple. The sugar maple-beech association was
predominant on both Blue Lake Sites. At site I there were a few yellow
birch, elm, and basswood, while on site II big tooth aspen was common.

This vegetational sequence supports the theory that sugar maple and

td_.I.-l k. l. It‘ll-I.-

h.

37

especially beech do not enter the succession until soil changes such as
addition of organic matter to the surface and development of B horizons
has proceeded to a sufficient extent. Fire was a factor at all Sites
since the Al horizons all contained charcoal. (In some cases it was
large enough to observe macroscopically, but in all cases finely divided
charcoal not oxidizable with H207. was present.) Judging from the kind
of reproduction, pine would have been a more important Species on the
two youngest Sites had it not been for fires.

Summarizing, the vegetational factor, except where it acts as a
dependent variable in Jenny's functional representation of a soil system,
is assumed to be constant for the five sites because of the similarity of

genera in the vegetational history of sites representative of those studied

here.

IV. SOIL PROFILE DESCRIPTIONS

Procedure Used in Describing and Sampling Soils

A soil pit, about 2 to 3 feet by 4 to 6 feet at the top, was dug deep
' enough to describe and sample the major horizons from the wall of the
pit. A field description of each soil profile was written according to
standard conventions (Soil Survey Staff, 1951) except that the Inter-
Society Color Council-National Bureau of Standards (ISCC-NBS, Kelley
and Judd, 1955) color names were used. Depths of horizons were
"averaged out" considering the entire area of the pit walls. Soil horizons
are also designated according to a proposed genetic system (Whiteside,
1959, 1960) as shown in parentheses. Munsell color notations are for
moist soil conditions. Laboratory results for texture and reaction are
incorporated into the narrative descriptions. Species of vegetation and
stumps are listed in order of decreasing abundance.

. Six core samples (3 x 3 in.) were taken from each major horizon
with a Uhland sampler. Care was taken to avoid taking samples so
near each other that compaction would result. In addition, a bulk sample
of around 10 pounds was obtained by taking numerous subsamples from
the walls of the pit, mixing them, and taking a subsample of the mixture.
This bulk sample was used for all analyses except water retention, bulk
density, and thin sections for which the core samples were used. The
very deep horizons were sampled with a bucket auger.

Four of the soils are represented photographically in Plate 1.

38

39

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ma 30m .mxmdvfimvm o5 mo @0355 Hannah: 9:. .mofimoum mxmgflmm

new uuomummm 05 mo mauonm was. a“ Em: 3.35m: pouaofioamsm Emfi
ammduoebnm .powpgm ofim can 883 poem pcupcafi Bow .m ma H 334
03m one. mo Aneuwgonm 23 g fine 0%. ”mien use. wawaaadm can ma:
linemen as com: in 93 mo :95 oco “commune.“ moflwoum 00.2%. «new
ofi mo memenwgoam .H 93m 934 0.3m pad Scam .mxmdvzmm .pnmm
Soosdm Scam uuomummm mo mofimobu mo mfiFumgonm .330 .H 33%

pawn .8493sz Honda so 035m

H pedm 934 05.5

 

 

40

Eastpo rt Sand

Vegetation:

 

Dominant: Red oak (Quercus borealis), red maple (Acer rubrum).

 

Intermediate: Red maple, red oak, white pine (Pinus strobus),
striped maple (Acer pennsylvanicum), white Spruce (PE
glauca), black cherry (Prunus serotina).

Reproduction: White pine, red maple, red oak.

Ground cover: Bracken. (Pteridium aquilinum), Wintergreen

(Gaultheria), blueberry (Vaccinium), hazel brush, juniper

 

(Juniperus).

>:<Stumps: Red pine, red oak, balsam fir.

Physiography and relief:

The soil described occurs on t0p of an Algoma beach ridge, about
6 feet above the swales between adjacent ridges. The beach ridges
trend west southwest-east northeast and are about 80-100 feet apart.
Drainage: well drained.

Ground water: deeper than 90 inches.

 

Moisture: moist

 

Stonine s 8: none

. Elevation: 590 feet.

 

Location:

NE;- of NE: of SE;- of Sec. 20, T38N, RIE, Benton Township,
Cheboygan County, Michigan.

 

:4:
Species of former vegetation now represented by stumps as identi-
fied by Steve Messenger.

Horizon

Aoo
(0d)

Ao
(Of)

Al + AZ
(Vh + Em)

B(ir)
(Ii)

B3
(Iw)

Cl
(Wm)

D
(Uu)

Depth

(inches)

19-38

38-90

90+

Additional Notes:

 

41

Desc ription

 

Intermittent; undecomposed leaves and
twigs.

Fibrous mat.

Sand; brownish gray (10YR 4/1) and yellowish
gray to light grayish yellowish brown (10YR 7/2)
mixed in a blotchy pattern; very weak, fine,
granular structure; very friable; very strongly
acid (pH 4. 5); clear, wavy boundary. 4 to 8
inches thick.

Sand; light yellowish brown to dark orange
yellow (10YR 6/6) with some spots of Strong
yellowish brown (10YR 5/6); single grain
structure; loose; strongly acid (pH 5. 5); diffuse,
wavy boundary. 8 to 16 inches thick.
Sand; light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4); single
grain structure; loose; medium acid (pH 5. 6);
diffuse, wavy boundary. 15 to 22 inches thick.

Sand; light yellowish brown (10YR 7/4); single
grain structure; loose; medium acid (pH 6. 0).

Gravelly coarse sand; light yellowish brown
(10YR 7/4); single grain structure; loose;
calcareous.

(1.) Horizons are not distinct.

(2.) There is little variation of the soils in an area of about 80 acres

on Algoma beaches near the profile described and sampled.

(3.) An Eastport soil described on an Algoma beach in northern

Emmet county is very similar to the soil described above

as indicated below:

Eastport sand (NW;— of ng- of swi- of Sec. 29, T39N, R4W,

Emmet county, Michigan):

42

 

Horizon D£p_t_h_ Texture Color
A1 0-4 Sand lOYR 6/3
A2 4-12 Sand lOYR 7/2
B(ir) 12-20 Sand lOYR 6/6
B3 20—28 Sand IOYR 6/4
(3 28+ Sand lOYR 7/4

IT)
:13

O‘U'IO‘
OU‘U‘

8.0+

(All horizons have Single grain structure and loose consistence)

Rubicon Sand

Vegetation:

 

9 Dominant: Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), paper birch

 

(Betula papyrifera), red oak, red maple.

 

Intermediate: Red maple, balsam fir (Abies balsamea).

 

Reproduction: White pine, red pine (Pinus resinosa), balsam

fir, red oak, jack pine (Pinus banksiana).

 

 

Stumps: Red pine, paper birch.

Ground cover: Bracken.

Physiography and relief:

 

The soil described occurs on top of a Nipissing beach ridge, about

6 feet above the adjacent swales. The ridge is about 130 feet wide and

trends southeast-northwest.
Drainage: well drained.

Ground water: deeper than 102 inches.

 

Moisture: moist.
Stonines 5: none.

Elevation: 615 feet.

Location:

NEi- of SE§- of SEi— of Sec. 20, T38N, RIE, Benton Township,

Cheboygan County, Michigan.

Horizon

A00
(001)

A1
(Vh)

A2
(Em)

Bir
(Ii)

B3
(Iw)

C11
(Wml)

C12
(Wm2)

(Uu)

Depth

(inches)

11-22

22-42

42-86

86-102

102+

43

De 8 c ription

 

Intermittent; partially decayed leaves
and twigs

Sand; brownish gray (10YR 3/1); very
weak, very fine, granular structure;
loose to very friable; very strongly acid
(pH 4.7); clear, wavy boundary. 1 to 4
inches thick.

Sand; light yellowish grayish brown
(10YR 6/2), light yellowish brown
(10YR 6/4) in lower part; single grain
Structure; loose; very strongly acid
(pH 4.8); gradual, wavy boundary.

6 to 13 inches thick.

Sand; light brown to strong yellowish
brown (7. 5YR 5/6) and light brown to
dark orange yellow (7. 5YR 6/6) with
spots of strong brown (5YR 4/6); weak,
medium, subangular blocky structure;
very friable to friable; strongly acid
(pH 5. 1); diffuse, irregular boundary.
2 to 30 inches thick with some tongues
extending deeper than 66 inches.

Sand; light yellowish brown to dark orange
yellow (10YR 6/6); very weak, medium,
subangular blocky structure; very friable;
medium acid (pH 5. 8); diffuse, wavy
boundary. 7 to 36 inches thick.

Sand; light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4);
single grain structure; loose; Slightly
acid (pH 6. 2-6.4).

Sand; light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4);
single grain structure; loose; slightly

acid (pH 6.2-6.4).

Very gravelly.

44

Additional Notes:

 

(1.) B, horizons are interspersed with each other.
(2.) Range in characteristics (representing 2 additional profiles
from an area of about 80 acres in the vicinity of the profile

des c ribed and sampled):

 

 

Horizon Thickness Texture Color H
Al 2-3 Sand 10YR 4/1 5.0
A21 5-6 Sand lOYR 6/2- 5. 5

6/3
A22 4 Sand lOYR 6/4 5. 5
Bir 8-12 Sand IOYR 5/8 5.8
7.5YR 5/8
B3 8-10 Sand lOYR 6/8 6.0
c 32.40 in. Sand lOYR 7/6- 6.0
from surface; 6/6

(mottled below
30- 36 inches)

Kalkaska Sand

Vegetation:

Dominant: Paper birch, red maple, sugar maple (Acer saccharum).

 

Intermediate: Balsam fir, sugar maple, red maple.
Reproduction and seedlings: Sugar maple, striped maple, balsam
fir, red maple, red oak. .

. Stumps: Balsam fir or eastern hemlock, white cedar, sugar

maple, black cherry.

Physioiraphy and relief:

 

Soil described occurs on a 2-3% slope on top of a knoll about 70

feet in diameter. The knoll is part of an Algonquin beach ridge.

45

Drainage: well drained.

Ground water: deeper than 113 inches.

 

Moisture: moist.
Stonines 5: none

Elevation: 640 feet

Location:

NW{— of Nwi- of NW; of Sec. 28, T38N, RIE, Benton Township,

Cheboygan County, Michigan.

 

Depth
Horizon (inches) Description
A00 1%- - l Partly decomposed leaves and twigs.
(Od) 1/2 to 2 inches thick.
A0 1-0 Fibrous root mat. 1/2 to 2 inches thick.
(0f)
A1 0-1 Coarse sand; dark grayish yellowish brown
(Vh) (10YR 2/1); weak, fine, granular structure;
very friable; very strongly acid (pH 4. 7);
abrupt, wavy boundary. 1/2 to 2 inches thick.
A2 1-9 Coarse sand; yellowish gray to light grayish
(Em) yellowish brown (10YR 7/2); single grain
structure; loose to very friable; very strongly
acid (pH 4. 8); abrupt, wavy boundary.
5 to 12 inches thick.
Bhir 9-23 Coarse sand; strong brown (7. 5-5YR 4/6);
. (Ihi) weak, coarse, subangular blocky structure;

very friable to firm; medium acid (pH 5. 7);
gradual, irregular boundary. 5 to 42 inches
thick. The material described below as the
ma horizon is discontinuous and occurs in
tongues and irregular chunks throughout the
Bhir horizon. Some tongues of the ma extend
deeper than 72 inches. The vertical dimensions
of the chunks are usually greater than their
horizontal dimensions. The ma material
occupies about 20% of the volume assigned to
the Bhir horizon.

46

 

Depth
Horizon (inches) Description
ma (1h): Sand; dark grayish reddish brown
(2. 5YR 2/2) and dark reddish brown (2. 5YR
2/4) in a network pattern; massive structure;
weakly to strongly cemented; medium acid
(pH 6. 0) .
B3 23-38 Sand; light brown to dark orange yellow (7. 5YR
(IW) 6/6); weak, coarse, subangular blocky structure;
very friable to firm; slightly acid (pH 6. 2).
4 to 19 inches thick.
C11 38-66 Coarse sand; light brown (7. 5YR 6/4); single
(Wul) grain structure; loose, Slightly acid (pH 6.4).
C12 66-113+ Sand; light brown (7. 5YR 6/4); single grain
(Wu2) structure; loose; slightly acid (pH 6.4).

Additional Notes:

 

(1.) In any one horizontal plane of about one foot square from 18
to 42 inches deep, all three B horizons are evident.

(2.) Range in characteristics (representing 7 additional profiles
from an area of about 640 acres in the vicinity of the profile
described and sampled):

Al: 0-3 inches thick, average 2 inches; sand; 10YR 2/1;
pH 4. 5-5. 3, average 5.0.

A2: 3-10 inches thick, average 6 inches; sand; 10YR 6/2,
some 10YR 5/2; pH 5.0-5.8, average 5.4.

Bhir: (occurred in 3/7 of profiles) 2-3 inches thick; sand;
7.5YR 3/4, 5YR 3/2; pH 5.0.

Bir: 6-10 inches thick, average 7-‘2— inches; sand; 7.5YR
4/4, 4/6, 10YR 4/4; pH 5.0-5.8, average 5.4.

B3: 10-28 inches thick, average 17 inches; sand; 10YR
5/8, some 10YR 5/6; pH 5.5-6.3, average 5.8.

C: 26-60 inches from surface, average 40 inches; sand;
10YR 6/4, 6/6, 7/4, 5/6; pH 5.8-8.3 (one site was
calcareous), average 6. 3.

47

Blue Lake Sand I

Vegetation:

 

Dominant: Sugar maple and beech (Fagus grandifolia) are most

 

 

common; also yellow birch (Betula lutea), basswood

 

(Tilia americana), and elm (Ulmus).

 

Intermediate: Sugar maple, beech.
Reproduction: Sugar maple, beech.

Stumps: Sugar maple, yellow birch, beech, eastern hemlock.

Physiography and relief:

 

Moraine. Site deScribed occurs on a small ridge top which breaks
to about a 20% slope to the southwest, west, and northwest; 7% to the
east; and 4% to the southeast.

_ Drainage: well drained.

Ground water: deep.

 

Moisture: moist.

Stonines s: few stones .

Elevation: 850-900 feet.

Location:

NW%- of NE;- of Sec. 2., TSW, R36N, Pleasantview Township,
Emmet County, Michigan. (865 feet south of Robinson road, 780 feet

east of corner of Pleasantview and Robinson roads).

 

Depth
Horizon (inches) Description
Aoo 1-0 Partially decomposed leaves and twigs.
(Od) 1/2 to 1 1/2 inches thick.
Al . 0-1 Loamy sand; dark grayish yellowish brown
(Vh) (10YR 2/1); weak, fine, granular structure;

very friable; extremely acid (pH 4.4); abrupt,
wavy boundary. 0-2 inches thick.

Horizon

A2
(Eml)

Bh
(Ih)

Bhir
. (Ihi)

B3
(IE)

A'Zl
(Em2)

Btl
(Itl)

A'22
(Em3)

D epth

(inches)

1-9

15-28

28-41

41-48

48-49

49-51

48

Description

 

Sand; light grayish brown (7. 5YR 6/2); very
weak, fine, granular structure; loose;
extremely acid (pH 4. 5); abrupt, irregular
boundary (markedly tongued). 2 to 20 inches
thick.

Coarse sand; dark grayish brown (5YR 2/2)

to grayish brown (5YR 3/2); very weak, coarse,
subangular blocky to massive structure; friable
to weakly cemented; very strongly acid (pH 5. 0);
clear, irregular boundary, (tongued); 1 to 8
inches thick with some tongues as deep as 34
inches.

Coarse sand; moderate brown (5YR 3/3, 3/4,
and 4/4); very weak, coarse, subangular

blocky to massive structure; firm to moderately
cemented; strongly acid (pH 5.4); clear, irregu-
lar boundary. 7 to 21 inches thick.

Sand; moderate brown (7. 5YR 4/4) to light
brown (7. 5YR 5/4); very weak, coarse, sub-
angular blocky structure; friable to very
friable; medium acid (pH 5.6); clear, irregular
boundary. 6 to 33 inches thick.

Sand; moderate yellowish brown (10YR 5/4)to
light yellowish brown. (10YR 6/4); very weak,
very coarse subangular blocky structure;
weakly coherent to very friable; medium
acid (pH 5. 6); abrupt; wavy boundary. Plus
6 to 8 thin bands; sand; light brown (7. 5YR
5/4-6/4); fragile. 1/8 to 1/4 inch thick.

Sand; light grayish brown to light brown

(5YR 5/3 to 7. 5YR 5/3); weak, medium to
coarse, subangular blocky structure; friable
to firm, Slightly hard when dry; strongly acid
(pH 5.4); abrupt, wavy boundary.

(see A'Zl)

Horizon

Bt2
(It2)

A'23
(Em4)

Bt3
(It3)

C1
(Wm)

cz
(Pu)

Depth

(inches)

51-53

53-71

71-80

80-106

106+

Additional notes:

 

49

Desc ription

 

(see Btl)

Coarse sand; moderate yellowish brown

(10YR 5/4) to light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4);
very weak, very coarse, subangular blocky
structure; weakly coherent to very friable;
medium acid (pH 5. 9); abrupt, wavy boundary.

Coarse sand; light grayish brown to light

brown (5YR 5/3 to 7. 5YR 5/3); weak, medium
to coarse, subangular blocky structure;

friable to firm, slightly hard when dry; strongly
acid (pH 5.4); abrupt, wavy boundary. 4 to 16
inches thick.

Coarse sand; light grayish yellowish brown
to light yellowish brown (10YR 6/3); single

grain structure; loose; neutral (pH 7. 2).

Similar to C1, except calcareous.

(1.) Roots were more plentiful in the upper part of the Bt3 horizon

than in the adjacent horizons.

(2.) In some places in the pit there were 6 light brown (7. 5YR 5/4)

Bt horizons between 41 and 71 inches.

(3.) Associated soil series in the general vicinity areKalkaska

Vegetation:

and Le elanau.

Since the Podzol sequum development is
largely medial and the textures are more frequently sand

than loamy sand, the latter would be a minor component.

Blue Lake Sand 11

Dominant: Sugar maple, big tooth aspen (POpuluS grandidentata),

beech.

50

Reproduction and seedlings: Sugar maple, beech.

Ground cover: a few bracken.

Physiography and relief:

 

Moraine. Soil described occurs on a slope of about 7%. . Relief
is nearly level to the north and a 10- 15% down- slope to the south.
Drainage: well drained.

Ground water: deep.

 

Moisture: moist.

Stoniness: A few stones in profile. A large (12x8x4 inches) dolomite
boulder was 15 inches below the surface. No samples were taken
from this segment of the pit.

. Elevation: About 850 feet.

Location:

NWi— of Sec. 11, T36N, R5W, Pleasantview Township, Emmet
County, Michigan (300 feet south of Tower Road, 1/4 mile east of

Pleasantview Road).

 

Depth

Horizon (inches) Description

Ao -- Intermittent; fibrous organic mat.

(0f)

Al 0- 1%- Loamy sand; dark grayish yellowish brown

(Vh) (10YR 2/1) to brownish gray (10YR 3/1); weak,
fine, granular structure; very friable; very
strongly acid (pH 4. 6); abrupt, wavy boundary.
1/2 to 2 inches thick.

A2 1%-6 Sand; light grayish brown (7. 5YR 5/2); very

(Em) weak, fine to medium, crumb structure;

very friable to loose; very strongly acid
(pH 5.0); abrupt, wavy boundary. 3-13 inches
thick.

Horizon

Bh
(Ih)

Bhir
(Ihi)

B3
(IE)

A'Z + Bt
(Em+lt)

Bt
al,n3

C11
(Wml)

C12
(Wm2)

C13
(Wm3)

Depth

(inches)

6-10

10-17

17—25

25-45

45-52

52-72

72-92

92—105+

51

Desc ription

 

Loamy sand; dark grayish brown (5YR 2/2) to
grayish brown (5YR 3/2); weak to moderate,
fine to medium, subangular blocky structure;
very friable to firm (some weakly cemented
chunks); very strongly acid (pH 5.0); abrupt,
irregular boundary. 2-10 inches thick.

Sand; moderate brown (5YR 3/3-4/4); weak,
fine to medium, subangular blocky structure;
very friable to firm; strongly acid (pH 5. 1);
clear, irregular boundary. 3 to 12 inches
thick.

Sand; moderate brown (7. 5YR 4/4) to light
brown (7. 5YR 5/4); very weak, medium to
coarse, subangular blocky structure; very
friable; strongly acid (pH 5. Z); gradual, wavy
boundary. 5 to 17 inches thick.

A'Z: Sand; light brown (7. 5YR 6/4) to light
yellowish brown (10YR 6/4); single grain
structure; loose; strongly acid (pH 5. 2).

Bt: 4 to 6 bands 1/8 to 1/2 inch thick; slightly
finer in texture than A'Z; light brown (7. 5YR
5/4); firm; abrupt, smooth to wavy boundary.

Gravelly coarse sand; moderate brown (5YR
4/4); very weak, medium to coarse, sub-
angular blocky structure; friable; very strongly
acid (pH 4. 9). 3 to 7 inches thick.

Sand, light brown (7. 5YR 5/4); single grain
structure; loose; very strongly acid(pH 5.0).

Coarse sand; light brown (7. 5Y_ 5/4); single
grain structure; loose; strongly acid (pH 5. 3).

Sand; light brown (7. 5YR 5/4); single grain
structure; loose; medium acid (pH 5. 7).

52

Additional notes:

 

(1.) Range of depth to C11 horizon is 23 to 42 inches. A couple of
tongues of B in gravelly streaks extend deeper.

(2.) The podzol B horizon seems to overlap the thin bands in the
A'Z - Bt horizon.

(3.) Leelanau is the most commonly associated soil series in
this vicinity. The texture of the morainic material is largely

loamy sand.

Podzol B-Horizon Designation

The degree of development of the podzol B horizon, used in
classifying Podzols, is reflected in its horizon designation. It is com-
monly judged by soil color and designated by Bh, Bhir, or Bir. These
designations represent podzol B horizons having an apparent enrichment
in humus, humus and iron, and iron, respectively. The following
relationship between soil color and horizon designations was noted in
the soils previously described and may serve as a guide in assigning

horizon names .

Table 5. Relation of the colors of the podzol B horizons and the sub-
scripts of their designations.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Value
Hue 2 3 4 5 6
2. 5YR G x N
5 YR h h
hir hir
7. 5YR hir

rhir
i ir ir ir

10 YR . Lir' A ir (ir)

 

53

The subscripts h, hir, and ir are placed in the diagram accord-
ing to the Munsell designation of the color of the B horizon they
represent. The x represents a likely inclusion in the scheme but this
color was not observed in the soils described. Chromas were, in
general, 2 for the "h" group; 3, 4, and 6 for the "hir" group; and
4, 6, or 8 for the "ir" group. The rings enclose the combinations of

hue and value proposed to be grouped together in the three categories.

V. LABORATORY PROCEDURES

Physical Analyses

Sample preparation

 

Each bulk soil sample was thoroughly air dried, weighed and
passed through a 2 mm sieve. The particles remaining on the sieve
were weighed and reported as percentage of the bulk sample. The soil
material passing through the sieve (fine earth) was thoroughly mixed

and a subsample was taken for laboratory analyses.

Particle size analysis

 

A 50. 0 g sample was placed in a tall-form 600 m1 beaker, digested
with 30% technical grade H202 to destroy organic matter, and the result-
ing suspension was adjusted to about 0. l E in HCl to dissolve carbonates
and other acid soluble materials such as iron coatings on soil particles.
After occasional mixing and standing overnight, most of the supernatant
solution was poured off and discarded. The flocculated suspension was
filtered through a hard (Whatman No. 50) filter paper in a Buchner
funnel. It was washed about 5 times with 0. 1 1i HCl and then several
times with distilled H20 to remove C1: The sample was then transferred
from the filter to a glass shaker bottle with distilled H50, The suspension
was titrated to the phenolphthalein end point (pH 9) with 0. l I_\I__NaOH, and
then it was shaken in a reciprocating shaker for 24 hours. Occasional
checks were made of the pH of the suspension and NaOH was added if
necessary during the shaking. The suspension was passed through a
300 mesh sieve to separate the sands from the silt and clay. The sus-

pension of silt and clay was diluted to 1000 ml. A subsample of the

54

55

su8pension was taken with a 25 ml pipet while it was being stirred to
obtain the total content of silt plus clay. After coming to constant
temperature, the cylinder was shaken end-over-end to disperse the
sediment evenly throughout and a subsample was taken with the pipet

at a depth calculated according to Stokes law for particles 2 p. in
diameter assuming a particle density of 2. 65. The suspensions removed
with the pipet were oven-dried at 1050 C and weighed. The sands were
oven-dried, shaken in a nest of sieves 221- inches in diameter on a
mechanical shaker for 10 minutes, and then the separates were weighed.
Duplicate mechanical analyses were made and the results were reported
on an air dry basis. (The differences between air dry and oven dry
weights of the entire sandy soil samples were negligible.) Clay for
mineralogical analysis was separated from the silt of some samples by
5 or more decantations with a siphon. The sand fractions were also

saved for mineralogical analyses.

Water retention

 

Water retention by undisturbed soil cores was measured at satur-
ation; at 10, 20, 30, 40 and 60 cm of water tension by the blotter paper-
tension table method of Leamer and Shaw (1941); and at 1/3 and 1
atmosphere tension by the ceramic plate-pressure cooker method of
Richards and Fireman (1943) and Richards (1948). Water retention at
5 and 15* atmospheres was measured on disturbed soil samples using
Richard's pressure membrane apparatus (1941, 1947). Stolzy (1954)
has described some of the details and adaptations in the MSU laboratory
of the methods referred to above.

Determinations of water held at O to 1 atmosphere tension were
made on 6 replicate core samples and that held at 5 and 15 atmospheres
on duplicate samples. Percent water retained at each tension was

expressed on an oven-dry basis.

56

Bulk density

 

Bulk density was calculated by dividing the oven dry weight of the
core sample used for the water retention determinations by the volume

of the core. Six replications were used.

Chemical Analyse 5

Total carbon

 

Total carbon content was determined by the dry combustion method
in a stream of oxygen using the sequence of gas purifying devices and
collection tube suggested by Kolthoff and Sandell (1952, p. 675). Soil
samples were ground in an agate mortar and pestle to pass through a
0. 25 mm sieve and thoroughly mixed. From 2 to 5 g of the ground
sample was weighed exactly and placed in an alundum boat. , About 0. 25
g of MnOz was mixed with the sample to provide an additional source of
Oz (Winters and Smith, 1929), before it was placed in the silica tube of
the combustion furnace at 9400 C for 35 to 40 minutes. Determinations

were made in duplicate.

Carbonate-carbon

 

The carbonate content of soil samples having a pH of 6.4 or higher
was estimated according to the method of Jackson (1958, pp. 77-78) for
the neutralization equivalence of limestone. . Determinations were made
on duplicate 5.00 g samples ground to pass a 0. 25 mm sieve. The results

were calculated as percent of C as CO3: in the air dried sample.

Organic matte r

 

The organic carbon content was calculated by subtracting the CO3:
carbonfrom the total C. Organic matter contents were estimated by

multiplying the organic carbon content by 1. 724 (Jackson, 1958, p. 206).

57

Total nitrogen

Total nitrogen was determined by the Kjeldahl method as described
by Jackson (1958, pp. 183-190), except that Se was omitted from the

digestion salt mixture. Duplicate determinations were made.

Reaction

Soil pH was measured on a soil-water mixture at the "water satur-
ation percentage" with a Beckman zeromatic glass electrode pH meter.

Duplicate determinations were made.

. Extractable iron and aluminum

The amount of iron and aluminum removed from the entire soil
was measured by the sodium dithionite-citrate-bicarbonate method of
Jackson and Mehra (1960). The purpose of the dithionite was to reduce
ferric iron to ferrous iron, citrate was to act as a complexing or
chelating agent, and bicarbonate was to serve as a buffer. The values
obtained by this method were not called "free oxides" because much of
the iron and some of the aluminum extracted by this method probably
occurred in the soil in forms other than oxides, such as a complex with
organic compounds, which would be brought into solution by the citrate
ion.

. The published procedure was followed except for the following
modifications or adaptations: 10.0 g of air dry soilwere placed in a
125 m1. Erlenmeyer. flask, 40 ml. of O. 3 I_\I_ Na-citrate and 5 m1 of 1 M
NaHCO3 were added, and the flasks were placed in a water bath held at
80°C until the temperature of the contents was 75-800C. Then 1 g
NazSzO4 was added, the flasks were shaken for one minute on a gyrating
shaker at full speed, and placed again in the bath for 15 minutes. The

suspension was filtered through. Whatman No. 42 filter paper in a

58

Buchner funnel. The sample was washed twice by decantation and again
while in the funnel with the‘ Na-citrate solution. The soil particles on
the funnel appeared very free from coatings. The filtrate and washings
were diluted to a volume of 500 ml.

Irpn was determined, after H202 oxidation of citrate and organic
matter in solution, by the KSCN colorimetric method (Jackson, 1956).

Consistent results were not obtained when Al was determined on
the HzOz-oxidized solution, probably because citrate interferes with the
Aluminon determination of Al and this organic ion may not have been
completely destroyed. Because of this, the soil extract was digested in
a ternary mixture of concentrated acids (100 ml HNO3, 10 ml H2504, 40 ml
HClO4) and evaporated to dryness. The residue was taken up in HCl, the
pH adjusted to 4. 2 i 0. 1, and the solution brought to a known volume.
An aliquot of this solution was placed in a 25 m1 volumetric flask, l. 0
ml of 4% thioglycollic acid was added to prevent the Aluminon from form-
ing a complex with Fe (Robertson, 1950; Chenery, 1948), and the color
was developed essentially according. to the procedure of Jackson (1958,
par. 11-99). A modification used was that the solutions were kept in a
boiling water bath for 10 minutes (Yuan and Fiskell, 1959) to facilitate
color development before they were cooled to room temperature and
brought to volume.

>3

Available phosphorus

Available phosphorus was extracted from about a 2. 5 g sample with
20 ml of a solution 0. 03 _I\_I in NH4F and 0. 025 yin HCl (Bray and Kurtz,
1945, No. 1 solution). The suspension was shaken for one minute and
then filtered. Phosphorus in solution was determined colorimetrically

using the ammonium molybdate-hydrochloric acid solution of Dickman

 

>9:
Analyses by Soil Testing Laboratory, Michigan State University.
Soil samples were measured volumetrically, approximating the weight
of sample given in the procedure.

59

and Bray (1940) and the l-amino, 2-naphthol, 4—sulphonic acid reducing
agent developed by Fiske and S'ubbarrow (1925).

:1:

Exchangeable bas es ‘

 

Exchangeable bases were extracted by adding 20 ml of neutral
1 11 NH4Ac to about a 2. 5 g soil sample, shaking the suspension for one
minute, and filtering. Calcium, magnesium and potassium were

determined using a flame photometer.

Exchangeable hydrogenafi

 

Exchangeable hydrogen was estimated by the Shoemaker, McLean,
and Pratt (1961) buffer method.

Cation exchange capacity

 

Cation exchange capacity was estimated by summing-the four

exchangeable cations; hydrogen, calcium, magnesium, and potassium.

Mineralogical Analys es

Quartz determination

 

The quartz content of the total sand fraction was determined with
the X-ray diffraction spectrometer using fluorite as an internal standard.
. Klug and Alexander (1954, pp. 410-438) discussed the importance of
using an internal standard in quantitative work and presented the theo-
retical relationship between X-ray pattern intensities and theabsorptive
properties of the sample. They recommended using fluorite as the

internal standard for quartz determinations because it provides a strong

 

>“Analys es by Soil Testing Laboratory,. Michigan State University.
Soil samples were measured volumetrically, approximating the weight
of sample given in the procedure.

6O

diffraction line near the strong diffraction line of quartz and because it
does not overlap lines of quartz or other common constituents of the
sample.

Precision and reproducibility of measurements using the Geiger-
counter method of detecting X-radiation depends on a number of factors
(Klug and Alexander, p. 422): (1.) crystallite size of the powder,

(2.) mixing of the standard with the sample, (3.) mounting of the specimen,
(4.) correction for dead-time losses, (5.) type of technique--manual
scanning or automatic recording, and (6.) instrumental stability and
reproducibility.

Particle size is quite critical. Powders passed through a 50 micron
sieve should give fairly precise results if they are rotated around an
axis normal to their surfaces and several replications are made (Klug
and Alexander, p. 295). . More reproducible results are obtained however
with a finer particle size groups-e. g. , < 5 micron fraction.

Dead time losses were thought to be negligible. When dead time
losses become significant, the response deviates from linearity. Under
the conditions used, the maximum number of counts per second was
around 200. According to the manual supplied with the instrument used,
the response of the Geiger tube is linear up to about 800-1000 cps.

All five sand fractions from the second replication of particle size
analysis of each soil sample were poured into a vial and tumbled to mix.
A subsample was secured by continually dividing the sample in half,
using a glass funnel with a razor blade beneath the spout to divide the
sand into equal portions, until a sample weighing about 1. 1 to 1. 2 g was
obtained. This subsample was ground in an agate mortar and pestle
until it passed through a O. 1 mm sieve. It was divided in half by pouring
on over-lapping sheets of paper and each sample handled as follows.

The 0. 55-0.60 g sample was placed in the stainless steel capsule

of a Wig-L—Bug (Crescent Dental Manufacturing Company) amalgamator,

61

the pestle introduced, and the sample ground four minutes. . An exactly
equal weight of fluorite (Matheson, calcium fluoride reagent, powder)
was added by balancing it against the ground sand sample on opposite
pans of an analytical balance and the two components were mixed for one
minute, in a larger plastic vial containing a plastic ball, with the Wig-L-
Bug. The mixed sample was poured into a shallow mount, pressed down
with a glass slide, and leveled with a razor blade. The mount was
placed in the spinner mechanism which rotated the sample around an
axis normal to its surface and scanned back and forth between 25. 50 and
290 2-9- by setting the scanning limit arms of the wide—range goniometer.
Two to three tracings of the diffraction pattern were made of both the
quartz peak (3. 35 R) and the fluorite peak (3. 16 X) with the chart
recorder. After subtracting the background the ratio of the average
height of the quartz peaks to the average height of the fluorite peaks
(HQ/HF) was calculated.

Quartz for a standard curve was prepared by grinding pure quartz
(Fisher, silica, obtained from D. E. Van Farowe, chief chemist,
Division of Occupational Health, Michigan Department of Health) in an
agate mortar to pass through a 0. 1 mm sieve, digesting the crystals in
concentrated HCl, washing them with water, and drying. Subsamples
of 0. 55 g were ground in the Wig-L—Bug and standards of 0, 20, 40,

60, 80, and 100% quartz were made up using calcium carbonate as a
filler. These were balanced withan equal weightof fluorite and treated
the same as the sand fraction of each soil sample.

In a grinding experiment, grinding times of 2, 4, 8, and 16 minutes
gave nearly the same values for HQ/HF' Grinding 2 minutes was suf-
ficient to cause 95% or more of the quartz to pass through a 50 micron
sieve. , Even with longer grinding times, not all of the sample became
finer than 50 microns and the coarse crystals may have been the cause of
some variability between duplicate readings of the same sample.

A grinding time of 4 minutes was chosen.

62

Quartz contents of the silt and clay samples were determined in
the same way except that these samples were not ground.

The average standard deviation from the mean of duplicate
determinations, :5, for the unknown sand samples was i 2. 7% which
compares well with the commonly expected precision of d: 2 to :1: 4%.

(Klug and Alexander, 1954, p. 424).

Conditions us ed on the Norelco X-ray unit with wide range goniometer
and Brown recorder were: CuKa radiation; 35 kv; 20 ma; 10 divergence
and scatter slits; 0.003" receiving slit (+ Ni filter); time constant, 4
seconds; scanning rate, 10 29 per minute; scale factor, 8 (occasionally 4);

multiplier, 0. 8. Chart peaks were usually between 20 and 50 with
S. F. = 8.

Identification of clay minerals

 

An oriented clay mineral sample was prepared essentially according
to the method published by Kinter and Diamond (1956). The clay was
deposited on a porous ceramic plate by drawing the water from a Na-clay
suspension (from particle size analysis) through the plate, using a vacuum
pump, leaving a thin layer of clay on the surface of the plate. The sample
thus deposited was leached with a solution 0. 1 E in MgClz and containing
3% glycerol by volume, washed with a 10% glycerol solution, air dried,
and then dried over CaClz in a dessicator. .An X-ray diffraction pattern
was obtained from this Mg-saturated glycerol-solvated sample.

. After X-raying, the plate was again placed in the sample holder,
vacuum was applied, and the clay film was leached with several inc re-

ments of 0. 1 1:1- KCl and washed with water. This preparation was dried

 

 

>:<

S:

2: 44x, — xzf
~ 2 where X1 and X; are results of duplicate
M determinations and M is the number of

samples analyzed.

 

63

first at room temperature and then at 1100 C. The interplanar distance
of some of the 2:1 clay minerals had now become smaller and the plate
was againX-rayed.

Finally, the plate was heated at 5500C for several hours to destroy
the lattice structure of minerals of the kaolinite family and the plate
was X-rayed for the third time.

The three X-ray tracings were used for the qualitative identifi-
cation of the clay minerals present according to Table 6 (see Grim,

1953, Chapter 5) .

Table 6. Approximate first order basal Spacings of clay minerals
according to previous treatment.

 

 

 

Treatment
Mineral Mg++, glycerol K+, 1100C K+, 550°C

.8 X X
Kaolinite 7 7 (decomposes)
Halloysite 10 7 (decomposes)
Montmorillonite 18 10 10
Illite 10 10 10
Vermiculite 14 10 10
Chlorite 14 14 14

 

Instrumental conditions used were: CuKa radiation; 35 kv; 20 ma;
0 .
1 divergence and scatter slits; 0. 006" receiving slit (Ni filter); time
o -.
constant, 4 seconds; scanning rate, 1 29 per minute; scale factor,

8, 16, or 32; multiplier, 0.8.

Diffe rential dis 5 olution analysis

\

 

According to Hashimoto and Jackson (1960), boiling a clay sample

in 0. 5 E NaOH for 2%- minutes will dissolve allOphane but not other clay

64

minerals. .After dehydroxylation at 5000C, kaolinite and halloysite
become amorphous and are also dissolved by boiling in NaOH.
Differential dissolution analyses were carried out just as described by
Hashimoto and Jackson (l96’0)'and Si and Al were determined colori—
metrically (Jackson, 1958) using the modification of the Aluminon
method for determining Al listed under "Extractable iron and aluminum. "
For the dissolution analyses clay fractions were separated from
the bulk soil sample according to the procedures of Jackson (1956, p.
111) with minor modifications because of the small amount of clay in the
soil samples used. The soil sample was digested in reagent grade H202
to remove organic matter, and the resulting paste was diluted with water
and the pH adjusted to 3. 5 to 4. 0. The supernatant solution was poured
off and discarded and the solids were passed through a 0. 177 mm sieve
to get rid of most of the sand. The < 0. 177 mm fraction was cleaned
with a sodium citrate-dithionite-bicarbonate solution, centrifuged, and
the solids boiled in a 2% NazCO3 solution for dispersion. The solids
remaining after centrifugation were passed through a 50 p. sieve, and
the < 50 .4. fraction diluted to 1000 ml for determination of clay content
and separation of clay from silt by siphoning. The clay was flocculated
with a minimum of HCl, dried under infra-red lamps and crushed in an

agate mortar. This powder sample was also used for the total analyses.

Total chemical analysis of clays

 

The powder sample described in the previous section after being
dried in the oven at 110° C was used for total analysis by the semi-
micro system of Jackson (1958, Chapter 11). Total Si was determined
after fusion with NazCO3. K, Mg, Fe, and Al were determined using
the residue following HF decomposition of the silicate minerals. . K and
Mg were determined using solution "B" (Jackson, 1958, Fig. 11-1)

following. the HNO3 treatment and evaporation to dryness. Al and Fe were

65

determined using the precipitate following the NH4OH separation of
solution "A. " Al was determined by the Aluminon method with the
modifications listed under "Extractable iron and aluminum, " and Fe

was determined by the KSCN method.

Ivlicropedology

Mineralogy of fine sand fraction

 

The fine sand fraction from the first replication of the particle
size analysis was further cleaned with a citrate-dithionite-bicarbonate
solution (Jackson and Mehra, 1960) and used for identification of heavy
minerals. The density separation was made in glass funnels using
tetrabromoethane adjusted to a density of 2. 80 with nitrobenzene.

. Duplicate density separations were made, the first using 1 to 2 g
and the second using an amount of the fine sand fraction which would
yield around 800-1000 (ca. 15 mg) heavy mineral grains so that they all
could be mounted on two slides and counted. The heavy mineral grains
from this separation were split by halving with small sheets of paper
and mounted in a synthetic resin (Araclor, Monsanto, R.I. = 1.66).

Mineral grains were identified and counted by using standard
optical mineralogical procedures and comparing the unknown mineral
with sketches and descriptions in reference books (Krumbein and
Pettijohn, 1938; Milner, 1952).. The percent of garnet on duplicate
slides was determined for a sample and it was found that there was
little difference between the slides; hence, it was thought there would
be no great differences between duplicate slides in the percentage of
any species, and therefore one slide (300-700 grains) was counted for

each sample .

66

Thin sections

 

Thin sections were prepared according to the method of
Dalrymple (1957) using Lakeside 70C thermoplastic cement (Hugh Court-
right and Company, 7652 Vincennes Avenue, Chicago 20, Illinois).

.An undisturbed soil sample was removed from a soil core with an
aluminum frame. In taking these samples, one of the six sides of the
frame was left open--for horizontal samples, the top (1 x 1%in.); and
for vertical samples the end (%'X 1 in.). The frame was fastened
together with copper wire and the Specimen in the holder was presoaked
in absolute methyl alcohol, placed in a mixture of about 5 parts alcohol
to one part crushed cement, and heated gently to evaporate the alcohol.
When a test sample of the cement became brittle on drying (in about 3
hours) the specimens were taken out of the cement, cooled, and the
aluminum holder removed. . Thin sections were made from these con-
solidated samples (by Cal-Brea, P.O. Box, 254, Brea, California)

and examined under the petrographic microscope.

1

VI. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Depth Functions of Soil Properties

Physical and chemical prOperties of the soil horizons are pre~
sented in Tables 15 through 19 in the Appendix. Some of this data
will be presented here in graphic form by plotting soil properties
versus depth in order to show differences in depth functions among

pedons of the chronosequence.

Particle size distribution

 

Particle size distribution is shown in Figure 2. Medium sand
is the predominant size fraction in all except one horizon (Blue Lake
I C), yet many of the textures are classified as coarse sand according
to the USDA system (Soil Survey Staff, 1951). A certain amount of
stratification is evident in all five profiles. In a few horizons this
stratification appears more pronounced when one considers the content
of particles > 2 mm in diameter. The D horizon of Eastport, the C2

of Blue Lake I, and the Bt of Blue Lake 11 contain from 18-28% gravels.

Silt and clay contents

 

Silt and clay contents are shown graphically in Figure 3 at a
scale which shows their distribution in the profiles better than does
Figure 2. Although the silt content of the parent materials of all soils
is low, much larger amounts are found in the uppermost horizons. The
amount of silt present in the upper parts of the profiles increases with
age of the soil. .Although the silt could have been added to the soils as

loess, it seems more likely that it weathered from the sand fraction

67

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70

because its distribution in the profile follows the pattern of intensity

of physical weathering, i. e. , increasing with proximity to the soil
surface. . Repeated freezing and thawing could cause physical disinte-
gration such as this. St. Arnaud (1961) demonstrated that significant
amounts of sand were lost from the coarse sand fractions of the Ae
and C1 horizons of a Grey Wooded soil when they were subjected to 200
cycles of freezing and thawing. The maxima of silt contents in the Bt
horizons of the two Blue Lake soils may be best explained as relics of
stratification of the parent materials.

The depth functions of clay contents, Figure 3, show progressively
increasing minimum-maximum relationships with increasing age of the
soils. In the Eastport the amount of clay in the A horizon is greater
than that in the B, in the Rubicon the two are equal, and in the Kalkaska
and Blue Lake soils there is more clay in the podzol B horizons than
in the A2 horizons. This could be interpreted to mean that translocation
of clay from the A to the podzol B horizons began at about the Rubicon
(3000 year) stage of the chronosequence. The apparent increase in the
amount of clay in the profile in excess of that supplied by the parent
material also increases with the age of the soils. The relatively low
clay content in the horizons above the textural B horizons of the Blue
Lake soils suggests that, in part at least, the clay accumulation in

these B horizons is due to translocation of clays from the overlaying

A'2 horizons.

Porosity

Relative volumes of capillary pores, non-capillary pores, and
solid particles were calculated from water retention and bulk density
(BD) data as follows:

Per cent (vol.) total pore sp,ace = per cent HZO (saturated) x BD

Per cent (vol.) capillary pore space = per cent HZO (0.06 atm) x BD

71

The values found are shown graphically in Figure 4. Except for two
horizons, Rubicon A2 and Blue Lake 11 Bh, these values were within

3 percentage points of total porosity calculated by:

BD

P , : -
er cent (vol ) total pore space (1 particle density) x 100

 

where the average particle density was assumed to be 2.66, the specific
gravity of quartz.

Although the non-capillary pore space of the parent materials or
A'2 horizons of all soils ranged between 4 and 7%, it was greater near
the surface especially in the Blue Lake soils.

All profiles showed a trend toward greater capillary and total
porosity with proximity to the soil surface. This could be caused by a
loss of soil materials or by a "fluffing-up" process in which material
was not lost but the average distance between grains became greater
with the cultivating action of roots, burrowing of soil animals, or

freezing and thawing of soil water.

Reaction

Figure 5 shows that the pH is lowest in the A1 horizons and
increases with depth in the profiles. "Exceptions to this continuous
increase are the textural B horizons of the Blue Lake soils which are
more acid than the neighboring horizons. The reactions of the 0-15
inch layer follow the same general pattern in all soils regardless of age.
Deeper in the profiles, from about 30 to 70 inches, the reactions are
relatively uniform within a profile but do not follow a time or develop-
mental sequence among profiles. The Blue Lakes are most acid,
followed by Eastport, Rubicon, and Kalkaska, the least acid. Calcareous-

sands were found in the Eastport and Blue Lake I soils below 7 to 8 feet.

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74

Extractable s esquioxide s

The extractable aluminum and iron contents in the B horizon of
the youngest soil show subsurface maxima and the intensities of these
maxima increase with increasing age of the soils (Figure 6). There is
some‘evidence that the B horizons develop from the bottom upward as
suggested by Aaltonen and Mattson (from Jenny, 1941), and by Kawaguchi
and Matsuo (1960). However, in order to verify this, the A and B
horizons of the Rubicon, Eastport, and possibly a younger soil would
have to be sampled at closer intervals to ascertain the exact depth of
the sesquioxide maxima. Since the FezO3 content of the B3 of Eastport
is nearly as great as that of the B2, the maximum may occur near the
boundary of the two horizons, 19 inches. . In the Rubicon and older soils
the iron maxima are clearly in the uppermost B horizon. The depths
to the centers of these horizons are 16%, 16, and 10 inches for the
Rubicon, Kalkaska, and the average of the Blue Lakes, respectively.
The shapes of the curves reported here show a marked similarity to the
schematic graph for a chronosequence of soils shown in Jenny's book
(1941, p. 41) and to the hypothetical curves of iron migration of
Kawaguchi and Matsuo (1960).

Disregarding the Kalkaska ma horizon, which occurs scattered
throughout the Bhir horizon, these conclusions can be drawn. In all
except the youngest soil there is more extractable A1203 than extract—
able FezO3 in the B3 horizons, while there is more iron than aluminum
in the upper part of the podzol B of all five soils. The organic carbon
maxima coincide with the iron maxima in all soils and with the aluminum
maxima in the three youngest soils, but in the Blue Lakes the aluminum
maxima occur lower in the profile than the carbon-iron maxima. Thus,
the general trend is for aluminum to accumulate slightly deeper in the

podz ol sequum than iron and to a greater extent than iron in the Bt horizons.

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76

The ma horizon of Kalkaska is anamolous, both in its position
in the profile and in its chemical characteristics relative to the sur-
rounding horizon and to similar horizons of the Blue Lake soils. The
ma contains more extractable A1203 than is in the Kalkaska Bhir,
less extractable FezO3 than is in the Bhir, and more A1203 than FezO3.
In the Kalkaska the organic carbon maximum coincides with the
aluminum maximum rather than the iron maximum.

Since the surpluses of sequioxides in the B horizons relative to
the parent materials are greater than the deficits in the A2 horizons,
net conversions of sesquioxide forms not soluble in the extracting solu-

tion to forms that are soluble have occurred in the profile.

Organic carbon and total nitrogen

 

Organic carbon depth functions (Figure 7) do not show subsurface
maximum values for the two youngest soils, but attain pronounced
maximum values in the Kalkaska and Blue Lake soils. Hence, apparent
mobilization of organic matter in the A horizons and a noticeable accu-
mulation of it in the B horizon began between 3000 years (Rubicon) and
8000 years (Kalkaska) before present. The organic matter in the pro-
files is composed of two components, the recently-living root material
which was not removed when the samples were prepared for laboratory
analyses, and the amorphous material capable of being moved down
the profile. It is possible that depth functions of the latter components
show weak minimum-maximum relations but that they are masked
by the relatively greater amounts of the former component in the young-
est soils. ' However, in light of Martin's (1960) observation that small
amounts of aluminum can cause flocculation of humus, it is possible
that previously deposited aluminum causes the immobilization of humus

in the B horizon. This, then, would require that sesquioxides

meadow fiomv

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78

(especially aluminum) be differentiated into horizons of minimum and
maximum before organic matter can accumulate in the podzol B horizon.

The Blue Lake soils both show two subsurface maxima in organic
components corresponding to the two kinds of B horizons in each profile.
Adsorption of organic matter by clays is suggested by the second
maxima in the Bt horizons deep in the Blue Lake profiles.

Total nitrogen depth functions have the same shape as organic
carbon functions. In Figure 7 the scale for carbon is 20 times that for
nitrogen. For any horizon, when the point representing percent nitrogen
lies to the left of the point representing per cent carbon, the carbon/

nitrogen weight ratio is over 20, and vice versa. The carbon/nitrogen

 

ratios are over 20 in all of the horizons of the three youngest soils
plotted and in all of the horizons of the two Blue Lake soils plotted
except the A2 and Bh horizons which range from 17 to 18. The carbon/
nitrogen ratios of the surface horizons of the soils in the order they
occur in the figure (some not plotted) are 27, 26, 17, 17, and 17. It is
28 for the Kalkaska ma.

Available phosphorus and exchangeable bases

 

Available phosphorus and exchangeable bases are plotted in
Figure 8. Exchangeable base contents are always highest in the organic
matter-rich A1 horizons, but this does not hold true for available phos-
phorus which usually reaches . maxima in the lower part of the podzol
B and in the textural B horizons. Total amounts of available phosphorus
and bases in the solum (areas under the curves) do not change much with
the age of the soil. In fact, except for somewhat greater amounts of
nutrients in the Al of Blue Lake II, this soil is about as impoverished
as Eastport. This despite the fact that Blue Lake 11 is the finest textured

soil of the group.

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80

The more abundant supply of bases (largely calcium) in the Blue
Lake I profile than in the Blue Lake II profile is reflected by the
vegetation growing on the two sites. The species, in order of abundance,
on the "I" site are sugar maple, beech, yellow birch, basswood, and
elm, and on theullusite are sugar maple, big tooth aspen, and beech
with bracken as ground cover. Basswood and elm leaves are known to
contain relatively large amounts of calcium (Lutz and Chandler, 1946,

p. 146) and, by implication (p. 340), are thought to have large require-
ments for this element. These two species appear only on the Blue Lake
I site.

The exchange capacities of all soils are low. Because of the low
values for exchangeable cations in any given horizon, base saturation
values for individual horizons would be of little significance. But if
the exchange capacity was summed for a profile, horizons with the
largest and most reliable exchange capacity values would make the largest
contribution to the totals, resulting in more reliable figures. The cation
exchange capacity and exchangeable hydrogen of a column of soil 1 cm
square by 60 inches deep was calculated for each soil. Columns of
Eastport, Rubicon, Kalkaska, Blue Lake I and Blue Lake 11 soils had
exchange capacities of 0.7, l. 2, 2.8, 4.0, and 4.0 m. e. and base
saturations of 74, 47, 48, 55, and 21%, respectively. When the cation
exchange capacity is expressed as CaCO3 equivalent per acre to 60 inches
deep assuming that all the exchange sites held calcium, the values would
be 1.6, 2.7, 6. 3, 9.0, and 9.0 tons CaCO3 equivalent/acre. . Multiplying
these figures by the base saturation values gives 1.0, 1. 3, 3.0, 4. 9,
and l. 9 tons of CaCO3 equivalent/acre if all bases were calcium.

Available phOSphorus extracted by the Bray test (0. 025 I! HCl,

0.03 E NH4F) shows minima in all of the A2 and A'Z horizons and maxima
in the Bh or Bir and Bt horizons. . This is especially pronounced in the

three youngest soils, implying phosphorus mobilization early in the

81

chronosequence. Assuming that the solum developed from a uniform
parent material, there is a greater accumulation of extractable phos-
phorus in the B horizons than there is loss from the A2 horizons.

This implies a net conversion from a form of phosphorus not soluble

in Bray's extracting solution to one that is soluble. Suzuki e_t a_._l. (1962)
found that phosphorus extracted by Bray's solution correlated well with
aluminum phosphates but poorly with calcium phosphates, iron phos-
phates, and organic phosphorus present in some soils of Michigan.
Thus it is likely that much of the phOSphorus extracted from the soils
studied here occurs in a combination with aluminum. The horizons of
phosphorus minima (A2) range in pH from 4.4 to 4. 8 and the horizon of
phosphorus maxima (not considering Bt horizons) range in pH from 5. 1
to 6. 2. Teakle (1928) has shown that calcium, aluminum, and manganese
phosphates were considerably more soluble in the more acid pH range
(4.4 to 4. 8) than in the less acid range (5.1 to 6. 2) while iron phosphate
was slightly less soluble in the more acid range. Buehrer (1932)
calculated that in the pH range of 4 to 6 practically all (BO-100%) of the
phosphate was in the HZPO4' form. Hemwall (1957) reviewed the litera-
ture of phosphorus fixation in soils. He concluded that "phosphorus
fixation in acid soils is due to the formation of insoluble iron and
aluminum compounds of the nature of M(HZO)X (OH)Y HZPO4. The iron-
and aluminum-containing soil minerals, including the clay minerals,
are the source of the iron and aluminum. The formation of these com-
pounds is governed by the solubility product, the common ion, and the
salt affect principles. Under certain conditions, a precipitate is formed,
whereas under other conditions the compounds are adsorbed. "
Variscite, an aluminophosphate, dissolves according to the equation

A1(on)szPo, —-> Al3+ + 20H' + HZPO4- with the solubility product,

‘

 

k = [A1]- [0sz . [HzPo,], having a value of 2.8 x 10'29 according to Cole
and Jackson (1950).

82

From this evidence a model explaining the apparent mobilization
of phosphorus early in the development of the soil can be tentatively
proposed. Organic acids contained in rainwater after it has passed
through the forest canopy and through litter on the soil surface may
contain some phosphorus and may also dissolve phosphorus-containing
primary minerals in the A2 horizons. The HZPO4--saturated solution
is washed down the profile until it encounters a zone of higher pH and/or
higher "free aluminum" content. Here, because [OHB] and/or [A13+]
are higher than in the horizon above and because [A13+]° [OH-T2. [Hal-’04:]
must remain constant, [HZPO4-] is decreased and variscite--or some
number of the variscite~barranditevstrengite series, (Al,Fe) (OH); HZPO4
(Cole and Jackson, 1950)--is precipitated. It appears that either a
sesquioxide or a pH gradient must be established before HZPO; can
move. Judging from the gradient of the pH and sesquioxides functions
between the A2 and B horizons of Eastport, it is likely that the pH
gradient was well-established by the Eastport stage, while the sesquioxide
gradient was just beginning. The possibility that phosphate accumulated
in the young B horizon first and caused precipitation of aluminum as it
moved downward in solution is unlikely because the molar ratio of
extractable aluminum to extractable phOSphorus is 14 in the Eastport
B(ir), indicating a surplus of aluminum.

There are many interactions which may affect this generalization.
For instance, as the pH increases beyond a certain point, Al3+ pre-
cipitates as A1(OH)3 causing [HZPO4-] to increase (Cole and Jackson,
1950). The point of minimum solubility of'HzPO4- in an aluminum system
was found to be around 6. 5 by Teakle (1928) and around 4. 0 by Cole
and Jackson (1950).

The differentiation of extractable phosphorus into horizons of the
podzol sequum appears to be completed early in the chronosequence--

around Eastport (2250 years) age--and is then degraded. The decrease

83

Surfac e ac cumulation

Wincreases

maximum shifts
downward

 

Figure 9. Diagrammatic. representation of changes in extractable
phOSphorus distribution in three stages of development of the
podzol sequum relative to the C1 horizon: a, Eastport;

b, Rubicon; and d, Blue Lake I.

with time of the available phosphorus accumulation in the podzol B,
relative to the C1 horizon, the downward shifting of the phosphorus
maximum in the profile, and the increase of phosphorus at the surface,
all with increasing age of the soil, might be explained as shown diagram-
matically in Figure 9. Uptake of HZPO4- by tree roots in the upper part
of the podzol B, where the roots are abundant, causes more phOSphate

to be ionized, gradually reducing the amount of fixed phosphorus in the

B horizon. This phosphorus is cycled through the tree and returns to

the soil surface as leaf fall. Loss of extractable phosphorus from the
podzol B horizon with time could be due to conversion from an extractable
form to anon-extractable form (possibly through an organic route) or to a
removal of phosphorus from the ecosystem, as in logging. Assuming a
yield of red pine of 5, 300 cu. ft./acre, a specific gravity of wood of 31.6
lb. /cu. ft. , 0.4% ash content, and 4% P205 in the ash (Rudolf, 1957, p.
18; Hodgman tit 11. 1959; Lutz and Chandler, 1946, pp. 143-144) one
logging of red pine would remove about 12 pounds of phosphorus per acre.
For comparison, the amounts of available phosphorus in the podzol sequa
are: Eastport, 185; Rubicon, 230; Kalkaska, 230; Blue Lake I, 155;

and Blue Lake II, 72 pounds per acre.

84

Available wate r

 

Readily available water capacity (RAWC) has been defined as the
difference in weight percentage between the water content of an un-
disturbed soil sample at 0. O6 atmospheres tension and that of a dis-
turbed sample at 6 atmospheres tension (Franzmeier e_t a_._1. , 1960).
These weight percentages are reported in the Appendix and they have
been converted to volume percentages in Figure 10. The increase of
RAWC in the upper horizons relative to the lower ones can be attributed
to more silt, very fine sand, and/or organic matter in the upper
horizons. Differences among soils in RAWC of the lower horizons can
be explained by shifts among the fine, medium, and coarse sand
fractions.

The ability of a soil to supply water for plant growth can be
estimated by totaling the volume percentages of RAWC for a certain
depth in the profile. These capacities are 2.8, 2. 9, 2. 7, 4. 7, and 4.4
inches of water in the upper 60 inches of soil for Eastport, Rubicon,
Kalkaska, Blue Lake I, and Blue Lake 11, respectively. Since undis-
turbed samples were not taken in the A1 horizon, the 60 inches repre—
sented are 0-60, 2-62, 1-61, 1-61, and 1%-61-lz- inches, respectively,
for the five soils. . In order to make the calculations for the Blue Lake II,
it was estimated that the 45-61i— inch layer had the same RAWC as the
25-45 inch layer (dotted line in Figure 10). The figures for RAWC of
the 60 inch profile separate the soils on the moraine from those on the
beach deposits. Much of this difference could be explained by the total
amounts of silt in the profiles (see Figure 3). The Kalkaska is some-
what out of place in the series of successively greater amounts of readily
available water with increasing age. The low value for this soil is due
largely to the low RAWC of the C1 horizon which contains a large per-
centage of coarse sands. The surface organic horizons, thicker in

Kalkaska than in the two younger soils, might make a significant

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contribution to the available water supply and give Kalkaska more
actual available water than Rubicon or Eastport.

The RAWC of the Bt of the Blue Lake soil was only slightly greater
than the A'2 horizon above it. If it had occurred within the depths con»
sidered in the calculations, it would have resulted in only a small

increase in the profile's ability to supply water for plant growth.

Heavy Minerals of the Fine Sand Fraction

The content of heavy minerals in the fine sand fraction, their dis-
tribution according to mineral species in the profile, and some mineral
ratios are shown in Table 7 for the five soils. The only two resistant
minerals present in quantities large enough to warrant attention are
garnet and magnetite. In the Eastport, even the percentages of these
minerals are so low that their ratios would be meaningless. Garnet/
magnetite ratios in the Rubicon and two Blue Lake soils vary by a factor
of about two within each soil indicating non-uniformity of parent
materials. These ratios in the Kalkaska profile, however, are 0. 24,
O. 19, and 0. 29, indicating somewhat greater uniformity of the original
material. For this reason the Kalkaska profile is used to illustrate
the weathering of fine sand materials in the profile.

By analogy from radioactivity counting, (Willard, Merritt, and
Dean, 1958, p. 377), the standard deviation, D, can be estimated from

the number of grains, N, of a species counted by:
D = N} N .

If the limits around N are set at-‘t two standard deviations and, in calcu-
lating a mineral ratio, if the largest limit of the numerator is divided
by the smallest limit of the denominator and vice versa, the two values

would give an approximation of the probable range of the ratio at about

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Content by weight, distribution by count (per cent of total number), and ratios of heavy minerals (s. g. > 2. 80)

in the fine sand fraction of major horizons of five soils.

Hornblende
Hypersthene
Tourmaline
Zircon

"Chlorite"
Augite
Diopside
Garnet
Epidote
-Magnetite
Hematite

Others

 

Per cent Heavies
Distribution
Number counted

Table 7 .
Ratios

Diopside/magnetite
Garnet/magnetite

 

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3.01

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88

the 95% confidence interval. From the ratios with their estimated
errors plotted in Figure 11 it is seen that the hornblende/magnetite,
garnet/magnetite, and epidote/magnetite ratios are relatively uniform
throughout the Kalkaska profile, while the diopside/magnetite, and
"chlorite"/magnetite ratios decrease with proximity to the soil surface.
Apparently, magnetite, garnet, epidote, and hornblende have weathered
very little in the profile, while diopside has weathered in the A2 horizon
and "chlorite" has weathered slightly in the Bhir horizon but to a greater
extent in the A2.

Even though there is a considerable amount of variation among
ratios of resistant minerals in the Blue Lake soils (Table 7), diopside
andHChlorite"are conspicuously scarace in the A2 horizons, especially,
relative to the adjacent Bh horizons.

Generally, in the deeper, little-weathered portions of the soil
profile, "chlorite" content decreases, magnetite content increases,
and the percentage of heavy minerals decreases with increasing age of
the soil surface.

The mineral grains identified here as "chlorite" appeared to be
composed of aggregates of crystals. Their refractive index was < l. 66.
They appeared a dull, dark gray color and were nearly opaque except
around the edges of the grain using transmitted light and white to light
greenish brown under reflected light. Under crossed Nicols the edges
of the grain exhibited a mosaic of bright interference colors. Using a
strong light with the Nicols crossed, light passed through the center
of the grains, giving a dusky green—brown appearance. Some of the
"chlorite" grains were picked out of the fine sand fraction of the Eastport
C horizon using a binocular microscope, ground and used for X-ray
diffraction measurements of the spacing of crystal planes. The lines
>3 X obtained are compared in Table 8 with lines tabulated in the
ASTM index (1954). Usually only one line of a known mineral--instead

of all three given--coincide with the lines of the unknown mineral.

89

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Epidote Garnet
Magnetite Magnetite
0 0.1 0.2 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
_L I 1 l l L L I 1 1
A2 I , A2 ‘ \
Bhir | l ] Bhir g l ‘
i . d ' ‘ 4 _
c1 I I c1 Ir 1
J ~ -
Hornblende
Magnetite
0 , 0 4 O, 1 C , 2 , Cg. 3
A2
Bhir |
c1 1 |
Diopside "Chlorite"
Magnetite Magnetite
0 . 0 0 . l O . 2 0 l. 2 .
.. A. m
Bhir L Bhir
C l J L J C l [ l
____ j ,_ .

 

Figure 11. Heavy mineral ratios (center lines) and their errors
estimated at about the 95% level (outside lines) for the
fine sand fractions of major horizons of Kalkaska sand.

 

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All the lines of "chlorite, " however, could be accounted for by
lines originating from known chlorites or from various combinations
of calcium, magnesium, aluminum, silicon, and oxygen in compounds
or minerals (some hydrated) as listed. These aggregate grains could

be alteration products of amphiboles and pyroxenes-

Quartz Contents of the Silt and Sand Fractions

In the Kalkaska and Blue Lake soils the greatest quartz contents
of the silt and total sand fractions occur in the A2 horizons (Table 9).
This is evidently due to the weathering of less resistant mineral species

in the A2 horizon.-

Table 9., Quartz contents (percent) of silt and total sand fractions of
five soilS.

 

 

Soil and horizon Sand Soil and horizon Silt Sand
Eastport A1 A2 82 Kalkaska A2 49 88
B(ir) 88 ma 45 81

B3 88 Bhir 47 88

C1 82 B3 --- 82

C11 -- 80

Rubicon A2 90 Blue Lake I A1 62 88
Bir 91 A2 70 88

B3 88 Bh 59 82

C11 81 Bhir 63 86

B3 -- 82

A'2 -- 84

Bt 62 82

C1 51 84

Blue Lake 11 A2 74 95

Bh 59 83

Bhir -4 80

B3 -- 91

A2 Bt _- 87

C12 -=- 82

 

92

Mineralogy of the Clay Fraction

All 5 oil 8

According to X-ray diffraction patterns (Figure 12) of the < 2p.
fractions, the distribution of layer silicates shows the same pattern
in all five profiles. The layer silicates of the parent” material are
composed of kaolinite, chlorite, and illite. . In the Bt horizon of the
Blue Lake soils the same three minerals persist, but with possible
random interstratification of chlorite and montmorillonite. In the podzol
B horizon, relative to lower horizons, the degree of interstratification
increases, montmorillonite and vermiculite (Rubicon) may appear, while
peaks due to chlorite and illite decrease in intensity, eSpecially in the
upper B (Bh) horizons. Montmorillonite is the dominant clay mineral
in the A2 horizons with some X-ray patterns indicating that it is about
the only layer silicate present. However, peaks due to small amounts
of illite and kaolinite may be present in the A2 horizons.

The < 0. 2p fraction of the Blue Lake I Bh and Bt horizons give
peaks in the same positions as did the < 2;; fraction- The finer clays
produce much broader peaks, however.

Diffraction recordings of the clays of the Bir horizon of Rubicon
(and possibly the ma and Bhir of Kalkaska) indicate possible aluminum
interlayers in vermiculite. The Mg-glycerol treatment shows a sym-
metrical 14 A) peak. Replacing Mg++ with K+ and heating the X-ray
plate to 110°C produces a broad maximum between 14 and 10 X and
further heating to 5500C shifts the peak to around 10-1131. Similar
curves were interpreted by Shawhney (1960) to be due to aluminum
interlayers in vermiculite.

The pattern of clay mineral distribution in the profiles indicates
that the weathering sequence is from illite and chlorite, possibly through
vermiculite, to montmorillonite. This pattern is established early in

the development of a Podzol.

Figure 12.

93

Xuray diffraction tracings of oriented soil clay films on
porous ceramic plates. Treatments: 1, Mg- saturated,
glycerol— solvated, no previous heat treatment; 2, K-
saturated, and previously heated to 110 C; 3, Kasaturated
and previously heated to 5500 C. Scale on horizontal axis
is linear for degrees 29. Vertical axis is radiation in-
tensity. Scale factor is 8 unless indicated otherwise in
parentheses under treatment number.

94

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Figure 12 - Continued

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

96

Blue Lake_I

 

The mineralogical composition of the clay fraction of major
horizons of the Blue Lake I soil was estimated (Table 11) from differential
dissolution, total chemical, and X—ray diffraction analyses as explained
below.

Quartz. The quartz content of the clay fraction was determined
by X-ray diffraction.

Potassium feldspars. The content of potassium feldspars in the

 

clay fractions (< 2p) was calculated using the X-ray diffraction curves
obtained in the quartz determination by the following equation:

IKf.
Per cent Kf 2' 2.93' ---' ' Per cent Qtz

IQ
where

Per cent Kf = potassium feldspar content of soil clay

IKf intensity of 3. 25 R peak of soil clay

10-

Per cent Qtz 2' quartz content of soil clay.

il

0
intensity of 3. 35 A peak of soil clay

o
The factor 2. 93 is the ratio of the intensity of the 3. 35 A peak of pure
quartz to the average intensity of the 3. 25 X peaks of orthoclase and
microcoline as determined by Bailey at 11. (1957, p. 435).

Allophane, kaolinite, free silica. Differential dissolution data

 

(Table 10) were used to estimate allophane and kaolinite contents of

the soil clay. The SiOz and A1203 extracted after the 110°C treatment
was considered to be from allophane, and that extracted after the 525°C
treatment in excess of that extracted after the 110°C treatment, from
kaolinite. Allophane and kaolinite contents were calculated using the for-
mulas ZSiOz-Aley 3. 28 H20 (Jackson, 1956, p. 540), and
ZSiOz°A1203'ZHzO (Grim, 1953, p. 47), respectively. Excess SiOz in

each case was called "free SiOz. "

 

97

 

 

 

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_i_11_i_t_g_. When potassium from the feldSpar-s (16. 8% K7740) was sub»
tracted from the total potassium content (Table 10}, the remainder was
considered to be from illite. Assuming that illite contains 10% K20
(Jackson, 1956, p. 544), the illite contents of the clays were calculated.
The results obtained using this method agreed in general with the intensi-
ties of the 10 PO: X-ray diffraction peak due to illite.

Chlorite. No 14 X peak was produced by the clay from the A2
horizon so the entire MgO content of that clay (O. 96 C70) was considered
to be from minerals other than chlorite. As an approximation, 1% MgO
was assigned to non—chlorite minerals in the other horizons and the
remainder assigned to chlorite. Because the magnesium content of the
clays was low while relatively intense 14 X peaks persisted in their
X-ray diffraction patterns, a low value, 6%, was assigned as the MgO
content of the chlorite in the soil clays (Grim's values (1953. p. 372)
range from 38 to 2. 3% MgO). Chlorite contents were calculated by
multiplying the adjusted MgO contents by the factor 100/6.

Vermiculite and Montmorillonite. The remaining percentages of

 

the total clay were allotted to vermiculite and montmorillonite. Their
relative abundance was judged by the relative intensities of the X-ray
diffraction peaks.

Molar SiOZ/RZO3 ratios of the clay fraction of the Blue Lake I
soil (Table 10) are higher than those reported in the literature review.
The ratio is smaller in the podzol B horizon than in the A2 or C horizons,
in agreement with a criterion for the spodic B horizons (Soil Survey
Staff, 1960).

The estimated percentages of the various components of the clay
fraction (Table 11) show these relations in the Blue Lake I soil:

1.) Quartz and free silica are uniform throughout the profile.

2.) AllOphane is somewhat less abundant in the A2 horizon than
in the rest of the profile.

3.) Kaolinite and potassium feldspars are somewhat more abundant
in the A2 than in the rest of the profile.

99

 

 

 

 

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4.) Illite and chlorite are most abundant in the deeper horizonsg
Bt and C. and decrease with proximity to the soil surface;
chlorite is practically noun-existent in the A2 horizono

5‘) The vermiculite maximum occurs in the Bh horizon.

60) The montmorillonite maximum occurs in the A2 horizont

Net Changes in Profiles

All Soils

Net changes in weight and volume which have occurred during
the formation of each horizon were calculated according to the method

of Marshall and Haseman (1942}0 Their equation is:

Wa' :- Wa Iii
Rp
where: Wa' :2 weight of the original layer which gives rise to the

present day layer;
Wa 2‘ weight of present. day layer

Ra 2 per cent (weight) of resistant mineral in horizon under
question

Rp 2 per cent (weight) of resistant mineral in parent
material.
Non-clay quartz was used as the resistant mineral in this study since it
has been shown that this mineral is relatively resistant to weathering
and because it is present in large quantities. If during soil formation,
physical disintegration of non-clay quartz to clay- size particles had
occurred to a great extent, one-would expect to find a greater increase
of clay-size quartz near the soil surface than in deep horizons. This is
not the case in the Blue Lake I soil as seen by comparing the quartz
figures in Table 13.
The assumption was made that silt does not move between horizons

in these soils. Whether or not this assumption is true is difficult to

lOl

evaluate. However, because of the small amounts of silt present in
these soils, some movement of silt would not greatly affect the results
obtained.

In order for results obtained by these calculations to be valid,
it must be ascertained that the material from which the solum developed
was uniform. Marshall's criteria to test this were (1.) that ratios of
resistant minerals be constant throughout the profile, and (2.) that the
particle size distribution of a given resistant mineral be the same
throughout the profile. As was seen in Table 7, the garnet/magnetite
ratios in the fine sand varied in most of the soils. Quartz, however,
because of its abundance, is more uniformly distributed in the profile
than are other resistant minerals. In other words, the parent materials
may have been stratified in respect to the accessory minerals, but. uni-
form according to the much more plentiful quartz.

St. Arnaud (1961) observed a marked disintegration of coarse“
sized (coarse, medium and fine sand size) minerals in the Ae horizon
of a Grey Wooded soil and a subsequent increase of intermediate-sized
(very fine sand, coarse silt and medium silt size) minerals. This trend
in size distribution was evident in quartz as well as in the total soil.
This would rule out the second criterion of Marshall in such soils.
Further, if only one size class of quartz were used as the resistant
mineral in calculating changes in that profile, errors would result from
such shifts in particle size. However, using the quartz content of the
entire non-clay fraction avoids these errors.

Calculated net changes in weight and volume are shown in Table 12.
Eastport and Rubicon profiles show a net loss in both weight and volume,
Kalkaska has undergone a net loss in weight but a net gain in volume,
while the Blue Lake soils gained in both weight and volume. In all soils
the net change in volume is algebraically greater then the net change

in weight. This has been shown to be due to increased porosity of the

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103

sola relative to the parent materials. The large net. losses in weight
and volume calculated for the Eastport and Rubicon soils are probably
more apparent than real. In both of these soils the. quartz contents
{see Table 9)- of the thicker horizons of the sola are markedly higher
than the quartz contents of the parent material. Some of these calcu—
lated losses, then, might lee .attributable to original differences in
materials.

Eluvialwilluvial relations are not evident in the two younger soils
but they are evident in the Kalkaska and become more pronounced in
the Blue Lake soils. Weight and volume gains become as great. as 19
and 67%, respectively, in the podzol B of Blue Lake 1:.

Differences between the podzol and textural B hor.zons can be
seen in the relative weight and volume changes of the Blue Lake I B
horizons. Whereas the per cent. volume change in the. podzol B horizons
is about 3 times as great as the per cent. weight change. in the textural
B the weight. change is greater than the volume change. This is probably
due to more root activity and greater severity of freezeuthaw cycles in
the podzol B horizons.

The amounts of organic matter, silt, clay, extractable sesquioxides.
and available phosPhorus in the entire sola of all five soils increased
during soil formation according to calculations made using the method of
Mar shall and Haseman. Table 12 shows these amounts of increase in g
per sq. cm. column down to the C or A'2 horizons. They are expressed
on a pounds or tons per acre basis graphically in Figure 13. In order to
compare similar depths in the five profiles, the podzol sequum of the
Blue Lakes should be used instead of the entire profile which includes,
in addition, the A'2 and Bt horizons. The results in Table 12 do not
consider the organic or Al horizons.

When the net changes of silt, clay, organic carbon, extractable

Fer-,0.j and .AlZO3, and available phosphorus are calculated for each

104

horizon, it is seen that a net loss of any of these components from any
horizon occurs quite infrequently. Clay was lost from the AZ and A'2
horizons of Blue Lake I suggesting eluviation from these horizons and
accumulation in lower horizons because the horizons beneath them showed
net gains of clay. The A2 horizons of all soils showed small net losses

of extractable aluminum and showed relatively greater losses of phos-
phorus, also suggesting eluviation of these two elements.

Net gains of the extractable form of some element such as iron,
aluminum or phosphorus in the B horizon does In t necessarily imply
that the element weathered from a mineral source in overlying horizons
and was immediately translocated downward and immobilized in the B or
that it was transformed directly from a mineral source in the B horizon.
It could have been incorporated into organic matter first and then transu
located downward. Annual additions of mineral elements to the soil
surface in leaf fall can be estimated. Pollen studies cited earlier sug-
gest that pine was the most plentiful genus during the time of formation
of these soils. From Scott's (1955) data one can estimate that the annual
weight of leaf fall under pine is about 2, 000 pounds dry matter per acre
and that these leaves contain approximately 0. 06% P, 0. 02% Fe, and
0.01% A1. This amounts to annual additions of l. 2 pounds P, 0.4
pounds Fe, and 0. 2 pounds Al peracre. The accumulated additions of
sesquioxides in the leaf fall for the time intervals estimated at each
site amount to only about 1/2 to 1/8 of that accumulated in the profiles,
but around 20 to 600 times more P has fallen on the soil surface in
leaves than has accumulated in the profiles (see Figure 13). (If data for
maple is used instead of data for pine, the figures for annual additions
of P would be about three times greater; for Fe, about one-third greater.)
Thus, all the available phOSphorus accumulated in the solum could

possibly have been in a leaf at one time.

105

Table 13. Total P205 contents (per cent.) of some sandy soils of
northern Michigan (McCool e_t a_1. , 1923).

 

 

Horizon
1 2 3 4 5
Lab. >i=(Ao (Bh or (Bir

Soil no. or Al) (A2) Bhir) or B3) (C)
Transitional
soil; sand 3001-04 0.14 0.12 0.14 0.09 ---
Transitional
soil; sand 3005-08 0.20 0.19 0.17 0.07 ......
Typical north.
profile; sand 3019-22 0.09 0.04 0.09 0.09 ---
Sand, poor
drainage 3023-26 0.19 0.07 0.05 0.04 ......
Transitional
soil; sand 3035-38 0.07 0.04 0.10 0.05 ---
Sandy soil;
poor drainage 3044-47 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.04 --—
Sandy soil;
well drained 3048-51 --- 0.08 0.13 0.07 0.07
Dry sandy
soil 3057-60 0.12 0.05 0.10 0.09 ---

 

‘1’

Horizon designations in parentheses are this author's interpre-
tations.

106

However, even if all the iron and aluminum arriving on the soil
surface as leaf fall were translocated to the B horizon and remained
there, the amounts thus accumulated would not account for all of the
net increase of these elements. In the cases of the sesquioxides, only
a small part of the net increases could have come from outside the
solum via the vegetation. If each iron or aluminum ion deposited on
the soil surface as leaf fall were cycled through the vegetation only once,
it is estimated that these ions originally in the vegetation would account
for 1/2 to 1/8 of the net gain of extractable sesquioxides in the sola.

If, as is probably true, an ion in a leaf has been in a leaf previously,
these fractions would be much smaller. . Most of the net increase must
have come directly from a weathering mineral source. The most likely
source is the A2 horizon, judging from the observed weathering of
Fe-Al-silicate minerals occurring there, Figure 11.

The reported distributions of total phOSphorus in the profiles of
sandy soils of northern Michigan show about the same relations as the
depth-functions of available phosphorus in this study. McCool, Veatch,
and Spurway (1923) reported total chemical analyses data for some
northern Michigan soils. Some of their data is presented in Table 13.
Data for the A0 or Al was presented for seven of the eight soils and all
of these surface horizons contained the same or a higher percentage of
total P205 than did the deepest horizon of the profile reported (Bir, B3
or C); four of the A2 horizons contained more phosphorus, and four
contained less, than the deepest horizon; and all of the podzol B horizons
had total phosphorus contents as high as or higher than the deepest
horizon of the profile. (Similar results were reported by Wicklund (1955)
for some medium textured Podzols of New Brunswick.) Since several
of these soils had higher total phOSphorus contents in all of the horizons
above the reference horizon, a net gain of phosphorus in the solum is
probable. A gathering of phosphorus by the vegetation from a volume

greater than that assumed for the solum might account for this increase.

107

Since trees might garner phOSphorus from strata deeper than the
solum or Podzol sequum, as suggested above for total phosphorus, the
net changes of available phosphorus calculated in this study using the C
horizons as reference horizons may not be strictly representative of the
true situation. It may be better to consider absolute amounts of avail-
able phosphorus in the solum. The Eastport, Rubicon, Kalkaska, Blue
Lake I, and Blue Lake 11 contained 2.1, 2.6, 2.6, 1.7, and 0.8 mg of
available phosphorus in a column of soil 1 cm square from the top of the
A2 to the bottom of the B3 horizons.

Considering the absolute amounts of available phosphorus, rather
than the amounts relative to the Cl horizon, and the probability that
trees garner phosphorus from volumes of soil greater than the sola, it
appears that phosphorus must be gathered from relatively great depths.
After it cycles through the vegetation, perhaps many times, it accumu-
lates in the solum as extractable phosphorus until about the Rubicon or
Kalkaska stage of the chronosequence. The change from accumulation
of available phosphorus in the podzol B to its depletion may take place
because the source of phosphorus for vegetation other than that extract-
able by Bray's solution (probably calcium phOSphate) becomes scarce
and the trees feed on the Bray-extractable phOSphorus (probably alumi-
num phosphate) in the solum. This decrease is illustrated by the low
values for available phosphorus in the sola of the Blue Lake soils.

Net loss of extractable forms with time could be due to their eventual
transformation into non- extractable forms (probably iron phosphates),
or to their loss from the system by leaching, logging, etc. The former
explanation is more likely, but the contents of extractable forms are so
small relative to the total phOSphorus content that such transformations

would be difficult to demonstrate.

108

Clay fraction of Blue Lake I

 

When the net changes in the weight of each component of the clay
fraction are calculated for each horizon (Table 14), these changes,
relative to the change of the entire clay fraction in each horizon are as
follows:

Bt; All (components have increased and each has increased by

about the same amount as the total fraction.

Bh: All components have increased, but the amounts of increase
are not all the same. , Illite and chlorite have increased
relatively less while vermiculite and montmorillonite have
increased relatively more than has the total fraction.

A2: Some components have increased, some have decreased.
The amounts of free SiOz, kaolinite, quartz, feldspars,
and vermiculite in this horizon have remained virtually
unchanged during soil formation. Allophane, illite, and
chlorite have decreased relatively more than the total
fraction, while montmorillonite has increased.

If a greater decrease or a smaller increase is interpreted to mean
weathering of this component and greater increase or an increase when
the total fraction decreased is interpreted to mean formation of the com-
ponent, one can make some generalizations concerning clay mineral
weathering and formation. Allophane weathers in the A2 horizon; illite
and chlorite weather in both the A2 and Bh horizons; vermiculite weathers
in the A2 but accumulates in the Bh; and montmorillonite accumulates in
the A2 and Bh horizons. Reasoning that weathering procedes from the
more. complex to the simpler substances, allophane would weather to
the free oxides or to ions while the weathering sequence in the 2:1

silicates may be

chlorite N
vermiculite ——“'—"~,——
illite

montmorillonite

109

 

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110

with the equilibrium to the left in the Bt and C, at the center- right in
the Bh, and to the right in the A2 horizon. In the A2, Bh, and Bt
horizons, the ratio of all 2:1 clay minerals now present to those present
at time zero is 2.4, while the ratio of all clay-size minerals now
present to those present at time zero is 2. 5. This might indicate that
the net changes undergone by the 2:1 minerals have occurred within the
clay system rather than from additions to the clay system.

Ratios of the present content of other clay minerals to the con-
tents at time zero are: free 3102,12. 8; allophane, 2.4; kaolinite, 2.6;
and quartz, 2. 2. Since each component or group of components (2:1
minerals) increased by approximately the same factor, it is likely that
the apparent changes are largely due to differences in the clay content
of the original material rather than formation of the clay minerals.

The latter explanation would necessitate, for example, the formation
of 2:1 clays, 1:1 clays; quartz, and potassium feldspars in the B horizons.
The former seems much more likely.

Additions to the soil surface, such as the deposition of wind blown
materials, is possible. However, if this was proposed as the source
of all the increase of clay in the profile, translocation of the clay
materials from the soil surface to the Bt horizon (71-80 inches deep)

would have to be explained.

Mic romorphology

Kubiena (1938, pp. 127-129) used the term fabric for the arrange-
ments of the constituents of the soil and their role in relation to each
other. He distinguished two groups of component units, the skeleton
which consists mainly of rock minerals and organisms not decomposable
or only slowly decomposing, and fabric plasma, the finely dispersed

and highly active, newly formed ingredients of the soil. His terminology

will be used here in describing the micromorphology of the soils.
The descriptions are based on observations of dissected soil cores
and thin sections of undisturbed fragments from these cores.

Since the A1, A2, and C horizons were each micromorphologically
similar in the five soils, it would be repetitious to describe each of
them five times. One description of each of these three horizons will

be given, noting minor variations between soils.

C or A'2 horizons

 

The C horizon of Eastport, Rubicon, and Kalkaska, and the A'2 of
the Blue Lake soils consist only of skeletal components with no fabric
plasma evident. Sand grains are packed more closely in these horizons
than in the upper ones. The degree of roundness and sphericity of the
grains can best be judged from photomicrographs of other horizons

since these properties appear to be much the same throughout the profile.

B horizons

 

Eastport,B(ir). A few thin coatings, light yellowish brown to dark

 

orange yellow (10 YR 6/6) in thin section with transmitted light, are
apparent on some parts of the skeletal sand grains but thin out to noth—

ing on other parts.

Rubicon, Bir (plate 2). .About 80-90% of the surface area of the

 

sand grains is coverediwith a thin coat of fabric plasma, strong yellow-
ish brown (7. 5 YR 5/8) in color with transmitted light. These coatings
are about 0. 002 to 0. 005 mm thick, show little fracturing and have a
variegated color density. They are occasionally slightly birefringent.
There is no material in the intergranular spaces.

Kalk'aska,Bhir. This horizon is similar to the Rubicon Bir horizon

 

in appearance of the thin sections except that the grain coatings are darker

112

in color (strong yellowish brown, 7. 5 YR 5/8 to strong brown, 5 YR
4/6) with transmitted light and somewhat thicker (around . 005 to . 01
mm). Some of the coatings are moderately birefringent, evident when
the coated sand grain is at extinction. It indicates the presence of
crystalline material in the coating of fabric plasma.

Kalkaska,ma (plate 2). This cemented horizon resembles very

 

closely Kubiena's description (1953, p. 259):

(The micromorphology of the ortstein layer) is extra»
ordinarily characteristic, so that ortstein formation can generally
be determined from a single quartz grain. Each sand grain is
painted as with a dye and shows a uniform skin of sepia brown,
highly diSpersed humus substances. Owing to the great shrinkage
of the skin, drying out causes its breakdown into irregularly
formed tiles separated from each other by a network of light
fissures which allow the bare grain to be seen. In thin section,
the humus coating appears as a dark brown line round the contour
of the grain. The intergranular spaces are completely empty.
With a very high soil permeability and with intense eluviation the
remains of droppings and more or less washed dropping skeletons
also are carried by the percolating waters and become deposited
between sand grains. In the normal humus ortstein they are miss—-
ing. The individual sand grains are glued to each other for their
coatings show a collar-like thickening at the points of contact,
due to the precipitation of more humus colloidal substances at the
corners. The coatings are mineral deficient. The mineral sub-
stances contained in them are readily apparent if the humus sub-
stances are ignited. The individual tiles of the coatings are then
seen to consist only of sparse remains of mineral substances.
They are only slightly reddened (ferric oxide colour) and often
are completely white.

Coatings on the grains studied here contain significant amounts of iron
and in this respect the Kalkaska ma horizon is more similar to the B
horizon of Kubiena‘s iron—humus podzol (1953, p. 261). These coatings
are usually about 0. 01 to 0. 03 mm thick and range in color from strong
brown (5 YR 4/6) to moderate reddish brown (2. 5 YR 3/4) with trans-
mitted light. They cover approximately 70-80% of the surface area of the

skeletal minerals. They are occasionally slightly birefringent near the

113

mineral surface, but this birefringence is less prominent than in the
Bhir horizon. Some gaps between grains of about 0., 08 mm are

bridged by this fabric plasma. Most of the "tiles" are 0.02 to 0. 05

mm in diameter with intervening fissures < 0. 01 mm wide. The

thicker coatings are usually darkest brown in color (dark grayish reddish
brown, 2. 5 YR 2/2). It appears as if some of these coatings may have
peeled off the sand grain and now occupy intergranular Spaces, although
these scattered small aggregates in the spaces (usually <0.05 mm in
diameter) may be the remains of droppings of small organisms carried
downward by percolating waters as suggested by Kubiena.

Blue Lake I, Bt (plate 3). The Bt horizon consists of skeletal

 

grains many of which are joined by birefringent intergranular braces.
In well developed braces the surfaces adjacent to intergranular spaces
are concave. In these cases, the extinction bands remain normal to the
tangent of the brace—pore interface as the microscope stage is rotated
(see plate 3). This is indicative that the braces are composed of well-
oriented clayr particles which were deposited between sand grains in

successive layers .

Blue Lake I and II, Bhir. The description of the Kalkaska Bhir

 

horizon also fits these horizons. .An exception is that examination of
soil debris shows that more silt grains are pasted onto the skeletal
sand grains by the fabric plasma in the Blue Lake soils.

Blue Lake I and II, Bh (plates 2 and 3). These horizons are

 

characterized by the high percentage of uncoated sand grain surfaces--
probably greater than 50%--and by the abundance of intergranular

material. The coatings are dark in color--largely dark grayish brown

(5 YR 2/1) with transmitted light--and thick (often 0. 08 mm). The
intergranular aggregates or pellets may be as large as 0. 2 mm in diameter
and are usually the same color as the dark coatings on sand grains.

Most of the aggregates are 0.02 to 0.1 mm in diameter, however.

114

Rubicon, Bir

 

Kalka 3 ka , ma

0 0.5 1mm

Blue Lake II, Bh

 

 

Plate 2. Photomicrographs of thin sections of a sequence of podzol

B horizons. Note the increased thickness of coatings on sand grains of
the Kalkaska ma relative to the Rubicon Bir horizon; the bridging of
sand grains with reddish-brown plasma material in the Kalkaska ma;
and the scarcity of coatings and abundance of intergranular material in
the Blue Lake II Bh horizon. The patch of reddish-brown tiles in the
center of the photo of the Kalkaska ma represents coatings on the top
surface of sand grains.

115

 

 

 

Blue Lake I, Bt

l . .-. L , . l
0 0.25 0.50 mm

Plate 3. Photomicrographs of thin sections of Blue Lake I Bh and Bt
horizons using crossed Nicol prisms. The photo of the Bh represents
a birefringent rim around a quartz grain at extinction with amorphous
material on the outside of the rim. The photo of the Bt shows oriented
clay particles (gold) forming bridges between sand grains (white or
gray) and around pores (black).

116

Much more of the fabric plasma occurs as intergranular deposits than
as coatings on the soil skeleton. In the Blue Lake II, especially,

some parts of the thin section would be more accurately described as
skeletal material interspersed in the aggregates of fabric plasma

rather than the other way around. The shape of these aggregates ranges
from round to polygonal but they are generally more rounded than those
in the Kalkaska Bhrn. Occasionally a thin birefringent band occurs
between the skeletal mineral grain and the darkest part of the coating
(see plate 3). but because of the scarcity of tightly adhering coatings

the occurrence of these bands is limited.

A2 horizons

 

The sand grains in the A2 horizons are again clean and reflective.
There are considerably fewer aggregates of organic matter in the A2
than in the A1 of each soil, but there are more of these aggregates in
the A2 horizons of the two oldest soils than in the A2 horizons of the
other three. . In the Kalkaska and two Blue Lake soils, in which there is
more silt present than in the other soils, most of the silt adheres loosely
to the surface of sand particles in a dry state or appears as space
deposits when the soil is saturated. Many of the roots present in this
horizon are in intimate contact with silt-size materials, the mineral
material being held to the root by fungi. Also, some small roots (about
0. 05 to 0. 1 mm in diameter) have short, slender, shiny-brown filaments
projecting from them with a clump of fine (about 0. 01 to 0. 02 mm)
white material on the end of the filament.

The fabric of this horizon is similar to Kubiena's bleached sand
fabric (1938, pp. 147-148) except that there is no evidence of coatings--
originally from a former Bh horizon (Kubiena, 1953, p. 259)--which

Kubiena described in his bleached sand fabric.

117

A1 horizons

 

In all five profiles the sand grains are predominately quartz on
which the corners and edges have been rounded, characteristic of the
action of water on angular sand grains. . In the A1 horizon, however,
there is a greater proportion of sand grains having a more spherical
shape and a pitted or frosted surface, typical of wind blown sands,
than in the rest of the profile.

The sand grains in the A1 horizons are reflective (with direct light
under the binocular microscope) and almost entirely free of coatings
of any sort. Occasionally a small rootlet adheres to the surface of a
quartz grain and some silt size mineral particles adhere to the surface
of a sand grain. In the latter case, the silt grains occur as small
aggregates on the surface rather than as individual particles.

Pieces of charcoal are found in the A1 horizons of all five soils
and it is especially abundant in the Kalkaska sand. It is likely that all
sites had been burned over in the past. The presence of charcoal has
significance in the determination of total carbon or organic matter since
it is not readily oxidizable by most methods. . It is oxidized by dry
combustion, however, and is included in the results obtained by this
method.

Most of the organic matter is in aggregates with silt-size minerals,
the aggregates being generally smaller in size than the medium sand
grains. Some of the organic matter still retains its original form,
eSpecially short sections of small roots. The aggregates are most
abundant in the three oldest profiles, decreasing markedly in going to
the Rubicon and to the Eastport. In the latter, most of the organic
matter present reflects its original form.

The fabric of this horizon is most similar to Kubiena's agglomer-
atic fabric (1938, p. 146), except that the formation of somewhat
coherent complexes or aggregates takes place more than just sporadically

in these soils.

Conclusions

118

 

From these observations and considering other data, the follow»

ing sequence of development of these Podzol sequa is proposed:

1.)

2.)

3.)

4.)

5.)

Iron and aluminum are mobilized in the A2 horizon by
reacting with organic materials in the leachates; phosphorus--
either a part of the organic component or weathered in the
A2-—is translocated downward; and all three components are
deposited on sand grains in the B horizon because of evapor-
ation of the solvent, precipitation, or other mechanisms.

Eastport represents this stage.

Weakly birefringent coatings are formed on skeletal grains
as iron, a1uminum,and possibly some silicate clay are de-
posited on them as crystalline materials. Humus accumu-
lation at this stage is not evident either in thin sections or

as a bulge of the organic matter curve in the B horizon.

The Rubicon Bir represents the first appearance of this stage
and evidence of it remains in later stages--the Bhir hori-

zons of Kalkaska and the Blue Lakes.

Initiation of eluviation and illuviation of humus occurs,
resulting in the appearance of thick dark brown coatings on

the outside of the lighter reddish brown, birefringent coat-
ings. Some of these dark brown amorphous coatings may form
intergranular braces causing the skeletal grains to adhere.
The Kalkaska ma represents the first appearance of this

stage.

These coatings grow in thickness and gradually flake off.

This is beginning in the Kalkaska ma.

Intergranular aggregates grow in size and increase in

number. Once fabric plasma occupies the intergranular

119

spaces, it--rather than skeletal sand grainsncan be the
material causing additional organic matter to be removed
from suspension or solution in the percolating waters.
Mechanisms by which this is accomplished could be the
saturation of active organic groups with metallic cations
and their precipitation, adsorption, sieve action, or others.
While this is occurring, sand particles may actually be
losing their coatings in the upper part of the Podzol B

horizon.

About the same developmental sequence is noted in observing the
upper B horizon of the chronosequence of soils as in observing a
sequence of B horizons progressively higher in the podzol sequum of
the oldest soil.

Intergranular braces in the Bt appeared to have resulted from
translocation of clay. Whether it came from upper horizons or it was
translocated within this horizon could not be determined from these

obs ervations .

Classification by Seventh Approximation

(Soil Survey Staff, 1960)

Diagnostic horizons

 

The A2 horizons of all soils meet the requirements for albic
horizons in that they all have chromas of 3 or less and moist color
values higher than the underlying spodic (or spodic-like) horizons.

The A'2 horizons have chromas higher than 3 and therefore do not qualify
as albic horizons.

Horizons meeting the requirement of the spodic horizon of more

than 0. 29% organic carbon are the six podzol B horizons described for

120

the Kalkaska and Blue Lake soils. Only one horizon, the Blue Lake II
Bh exceeds the 1% total sesquioxide criterion. Since the other require-
ments are fulfilled (or assumed to be fulfilled) by these six horizons,
and since they must meet either the organic carbon or sesquioxide
requirement, these six are called spodic horizons. Although the amount
of allophane in the Blue Lake I Bh has apparently increased during soil
formation, its percentage increase is smaller than the percentage
increase of total clay in the Bh horizon and smaller than the percentage
increase of allophane in the Bt horizon (Table 14). If it is true that
some of the apparent increase in clay content of the Blue Lake I soil is
due to original differences in the material from which the soil formed,
as has been proposed, the role of allophane in this spodic horizon (Bh)
may be minor.

The Bt horizons of the Blue Lake soils both have the necessary
3 percentage point increase in clay over the overlying A'2 horizons
and the necessary thickness to meet the requirement for argillic horizons.
Blue Lake I Bt has oriented clay deposits among the sand grains and the
same is thought to be true of the Blue Lake II Bt. Therefore both Bt
horizons are called argillic horizons. The requirement that oriented
clays constitute 10% of the area of the solid portion of a cross (thin)
section suggested on page 45 of the Seventh Approximation (Soil Survey
Staff, 1960) could not apply to coarse-textured soils. If a soil contained
10% clay, all of the clay would have to be oriented to make 10% of the

solid cross sectional area.

Classification by subgroups

 

Because both the Eastport and Rubicon soils have only the albic
diagnostic horizon, and meet the requirements of the subgroup, they

are classified Spodic Orthopsamments (1. 22-6). The adjective, spodic,

121

suggests the resemblance of these soils to Spodosols. Since the con»
trast between the A2 and B horizons of these weakly developed Podzols
is more pronounced in the purity of the spectral color (chroma) than
in their color values, it may be desirable to give contrasts in chroma
at least as much weight as contrasts in value in defining the limits of
this subgroup.

The Ortstein in the Kalkaska soil is not continuous enough to meet
the requirements for the central concept of the Orthod suborder. The
Kalkaska is, therefore, classified Entic Typorthod (6. 33-1), indicating
that in addition to the properties of the Typorthod great group, it also
has properties of the Entisol order.

The two Blue Lakes soils fall into two different subgroups because
of differences in the base saturation of their argillic horizons. The
Blue Lake I Bt has a base saturation of over 35% and is therefore an
Alfic Typorthod (6. 33-7), while the Blue Lake 11 has a base saturation
of less than 35% and is an Ultic Typorthod (6. 33-8).

Differences between podzol and textural B horizons are brought
out by the ratios of some components of these horizons. Organic carbon/
clay percentage ratios of the podzol B horizons with letter subscripts
range from 0.14 to 0. 55 and these ratios for the Bt horizons are 0.04
and 0. 05. Wurman's data (1959) for a Montcalm and Wallace soil showed
that these ratios were from O. 08 to 0. 20 for the podzol B horizons and
0. 02 for several textural B horizons. In the soils of the study reported
here the "free FezO3"/clay ratios of the podzol B horizons range from
0.06 to 0. 30; of the textural B, 0.03 to 0.05. Wurman's data ranged
from 0. 09 to 0.11 and from 0.05 to 0. 06 for the two kinds of horizons,
reSpectively. Considering the data from these two Michigan studies, it
appears that organic carbon/clay ratios and "free FezO3"/clay ratios

each having values of about 0. 06 separate the two kinds of horizons.

122

Bulk density data may also separate the two kinds of horizons.

The Bt horizons consist of clay particles occupying the spaces between
skeletal sand grains. The arrangement of the latter is probably not
greatly different from that of the parent material. On the other hand,
in the podzol B horizon the skeletal sand grains are farther apart.
This interpretation is based on bulk density and porosity data and
observations of thin sections.

It is here proposed for further consideration that in defining the
spodic horizon the requirement of "more than 1 percent free sesquioxides
in some part" (no. 3, p. 49) be changed to "more than twice as high a
free sesquioxide content as the parent material. " The B horizon of the
Eastport and Rubicon soils would then be spodic horizons and these two
soils would be classified in the Spodosol order with the genetically
similar Kalkaska and Blue Lake soils. Within the Spodosol order, the
present requirement of 1% free sesquioxides could be maintained for
the Aquod, Humod, Orthod, and Ferrod suborders, but a new suborder
could be established for those soils in which the Spodic horizon contained
at least twice as much free sesquioxides as the parent material but less
than 1% free sesquioxides. Making such a separation at the suborder
level is in line with the idea (p. 13) that the differentiae in the suborder
category may be chemical or mineralogical properties which are related
to the degree of soil deve10pment. Defining the spodic horizon by some
property relative to such a property of the parent material would be
of greater genetic significance than defining it by some arbitrary value

of the property.

VII. CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY

Time Functions

As shown in the introduction, a soil system, or pedon, is defined
when its properties, 51, sz, 53. . . . sn are stated. The equation

8 = f(t)
cl, 0, p, r

represents the relation between a pedon property, 5, and time, t, when
the other soil-forming factors are held constant. . Several pedon
properties are plotted as functions of time in Figure 13. The properties
shown are the net changes of some constituent of the Podzol sequum or
entire bisequum occurring during soil formation calculated using the
method of Marshall and Haseman (see Table 12). Since no net change
had occurred at time zero, all functions pass through the origin.

In addition to those plotted, some trends of other properties were noted
but there was not enough data to plot the function. The net changes are

discussed below according to the shapes of their time-functions.

Continuously inc reasing functions

 

This type of function is illustrated by the curves for net changes
of clay, silt, and organic matter in the sequa. The curve showing the
net change in organic matter in the podzol sequum shows a linear in-
crease from 0 to 8000 years and then it levels off, approximating equi-

lib rium c onditions , or

A0.m.
At

123

A P (pounds/ac re)

A Fe (tons/acre)

A Clay (tons/ac re)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ZOO‘L
(leaf
l
160.;@ / ’1?” "' "a
: /;;//é—T\\\\\\
0
120 ; ’A
I \/
80'I
I/ \_ O
'7 \
I!
404;“ \
I c
0 . u
0 6,000 10,000
7.5
6.0 ,,/'
B
4.54
x/
3.0 //
o ,-
1.5 / ,,/”
' , ,’ ’ Kleaf fall
0 v/TO j I ._ .- __,..- _fi___.1
0 ' 2,000 6,000 10,000
100 i
80*
604
40 41
20‘
0" I f T '
0 2,000 6,000 10,000
finne(years)
Figure 13.

A OM (tons/acre)

50.

404

A A1 (tons/acre)

A Silt (tons/acre)

L» uh
U1

....a
O

 

O

U1

 

 

 

...—a

O

O
L

U1
C

 

 

 

 

6£OOO 10:000

time (years)

Net changes in available phosphorus, organic matter, extractable
FeZO3 (as Fe) and A1203 (as A1), clay, and silt in the podzol sequum
(circles) and in the entire bisequum (squares) as functions of time;
and cumulative additions of P, Fe, and A1 in leaf fall as functions

of time.

125

If the entire solum of Blue Lake I is considered, the increase in organic
matter is linear with time to 10, 000 years. These calculations exclude
the surface accumulations of organic matter which are subject to des-J
truction by fires. Assuming bulk densities (Wicklund, 1955) of the A00,
A0, and A1 horizon are 0. 13, 0.14, and 0. 58 respectively, and organic
contents of the A00 and A0 are 90% and 80% (Alway (it a_.l. , 1933)
respectively, contributions of organic matter not included in the calcu-
lations are Eastport, none; Rubicon, 3; Kalkaska, 25; Blue Lake I, 18;
and Blue Lake 11, 9 tons per acre. However, these sites are not suitable
for the evaluation of these portions of the profile. At best they indicate
that a large part of the organic matter in the Podzol profile may be .
above the mineral soil.

Jenny e_t 11. (1949) observed that surface accumulations of organic
matter reach an equilibrium in a much shorter time. .According to
Jenny, the time required for. near equilibrium in the accumulation of
the forest floor is 30 to 60 years under oak and 100 to 200 years under
pine in the mountains of California.

Some properties have apparently not yet attained equilibrium in
10, 000 years. The curves representing changes of silt and of clay in the
solum are still increasing at this time. Some of the apparent increase
in the clay content of the Blue Lake I solum may have been due to original
differences in the material from which the soil developed and thus the
points representing this soil, shown by a square in Figure 13, may be
too high.

Other properties which have shown generally increasing values
with time are the readily available water holding capacity and cation
exchange capacity of a 60 inch column of soil and the total and capillary
pore Space of the solum. Exchangeable bases increase through the
Kalkaska stage. However, Blue Lake 1 contains more exchangeable

bases, and Blue Lake II contains less, than does Kalkaska. Exchangeable

126

calcium may show a double maximum—~one at time zero before leach".-

ing has occurred, and another later at the Kalkaska or Blue Lake stage.

Continuously dec reasing functions

 

None of these curves are plotted, but several are suggested by
the data. One is removal of carbonates from the solum. Because of
the ubiquitous occurrence of calcareous drift in northern Michigan and
because calcareous materials were found below the solum in two of the
soils studied, it is assumed that the materials from which the soils
developed were calcareous. In this case, the time function of net change
in carbonates would begin at the origin, decrease rapidly, and approach
a limit sometime before 2, 250 years.

The change in diopside content of the solum is also likely to show
a continuous decrease, although the data is not sufficiently complete to
calculate this change. Diopside was shown to have weathered from the .
fine sand fractions of the Kalkaska soil. In the light of the evidence of
St. Arnaud (1961) that fine, medium, and coarse sands weather to finer
sizes, it is likely that diopside weathers from the entire sand fraction
in at least the A2 horizon. In the Kalkaska profile under consideration,
the decreasing trend of diOpside could not be reversed unless it was
formed in the soil. Since diopside is not considered to be an alteration

product, such reversal is unlikely. The total 'sand content also decreases.

Coupled increasing and decreasing functions

 

In the horizons of the Blue Lake I soil in which the clay fractions
were analyzed in greater detail it was found that while chlorite and illite
contents showed a small increase, vermiculite and especially montmoril-
lonite showed a large increase, with the result that all 2:1 minerals

increased the same amount as did the total fraction. It was further shown

127

that each component or group of components (2:1, 1: 1,and primary
minerals) underwent about the same apparent increase as did the entire
clay fraction. This is interpreted to mean that the material from which
these horizons formed was not the same as the horizon selected as the
parent material and that in reality the latter contained less clay than the
former. If this were true, chlorite plus illite would have decreased and
montmorillonite and vermiculite would have increased, and this would

be represented by time-functions similar except for opposite signs.

Increasing, then decreasing functions

 

Time-functions of net changes in extractable aluminum, iron, and
phosphorus in the podzol sequum each reach a maximum between 0 and
10, 000 years. Another pedon property which apparently attains an early
maximum is the pH difference between the A2 and B horizons. It is zero
at time zero, reaches its maximum value, 1. 1, at the Eastport stage and
is low again, 0. 4 and 0. 5, at the Blue Lake stage. The intervening
stages, Rubicon and Kalkaska have gradients of 0. 3 and 0. 9, respectively,
making it difficult to establish the trend in this region of the curve.

The establishment of a large pH difference between the A2 and B
horizon early in the chronosequence is thought to be the cause of apparent
phOSphorus movement from the A2 to the B horizon. This necessitates
a greater solubility of available phOSphorus at pH 4.4 than at pH 5. 5.
When the net change of available phosphorus is calculated relative to the
C horizon as is shown in Figure 13, the maximum in the subsoils occurs
around 2250 to 3000 years. However, if tree roots absorb phosphorus
from depths greater than those assigned for the solum, the C horizon no
longer represents the material from which the solum developed in regard
to phOSphorus. In this case it may be better to look at absolute amounts

of available phOSphorus in the solum rather than the amounts relative to

128

some horizon. Doing this, it is seen (Figure 8) that the maximum in
the solum occurs around 3, 000 to 8, 000 years and is followed by a sharp
decrease.

The possibility that the curves would not show a maximum should
a forest fire occur and release inorganic phosphate to the mineral soil
should be explored. The estimations of the weight of organic matter in
the surface horizons show thathalkaska contains more than any other
soil. Thus, assuming the phosphorus contents of the original forest
floors were not greatly different among the soils studied here, after a
fire Kalkaska should still contain more available phOSphorus in the solum
and the curve would essentially not change shape. (Assuming that the
forest floor contains about 0. 2% PZOS--A1way e_t a_1. , 1933--and using the
organic matter contents of the surface horizons estimated previously,
total phosphorus contents in the organic horizons are Eastport, 0;
Rubicon, 4; Kalkaska, 43; Blue Lake I, 32; and Blue Lake II, 16 lb. P
per acre.)

If an amount of mineral P equivalent to that in the Kalkaska A0 and
A1 has already been released into the Eastport and Rubicon profiles by
fires this may account for a part of the apparent early maximum of
available P in the podzol sequa.

Whether the maximum of available phosphorus in the podzol sequum
occurs at around 2, 250 to 3, 000 years or 3, 000 to 8, 000 years, the
change in directions must be explained. The explanation rendered here
is this: Trees absorb most of their phosphorus originally from a source
not extractable by Bray's solution which is either entirely or partially
within the present solum. It is circulated through the trees and falls to
the soil surface in leaves. Some of the phosphorus in the fallen leaves
remains in the surface organic horizons, but most of it is released as
the leaves decay. Most of this released phOSphate, in turn, is again

utilized by trees but some of it is translocated down the profile and

129

immobilized in the B horizon in forms extractable by Bray's solution,
probably largely aluminum phosphates. When the available phosphorus
in the solum reaches a maximum the sources other than extractable
forms have become scarce and the trees utilize extractable forms,
depleting their supply by eventual loss to non-extractable forms or from
the ecosystem entirely. Since neither calcium phosphate nor iron phos-
phate is readily extracted by the method used here (Suzuki e_t a_1. , 1962),
it is likely that the original non-extractable form is largely calcium
phosphate and the final non-extractable form is iron phosphate.

Curves representing extractable sesquioxides increase to 8, 000
years and then decrease slightly in the case of the podzol sequum or
level out when the Gray Wooded sequum is also considered in the calcu-
lations.‘ Contributions to the current extractable sesquioxide content
from sources outside the podzol sequum via vegetation are small because
of the low gross accumulation and likely much smaller net accumulation

of sesquioxides as leaf fall relative to the extractable sesquioxide content.

Summary of Soil Formation

Instead of considering each stage of the sequence, the author's
interpretation of the formation of a Blue Lake soil will be summarized
by beginning with the material at time zero and following it through to
the present day.

The assumption was made that the parent material was originally
calcareous. Pioneer vegetation, probably mosses and lichen at first,
and later fireweed and alder became established on the barren sands.
The vegetational succession went through a spruce stage, then through
a stage in which pine was predominant, followed by a long stage of pine
mixed with hemlock, birch, beech, oak, and maple. The organic

materials produced by this vegetation contributed organic matter to the

130

pedon and reactive organic chemical groups to the percolating solutions.
The acid groups neutralized the carbonates and leached the products
from the solum. Eventually basic cations on the exchange complex
were exchanged for hydrogen or aluminum ions, establishing a pH
gradient between the A2 and B horizons. This resulted in dissolution

of phOSphate in the A horizons and its precipitation in the B.

The movement of phosphorus marked the beginning of the inorganic-
accumulation phase of soil formation. In this phase iron and aluminum
were also mobilized in the A horizons and accumulated in the B horizon
as slightly crystalline coatings on sand grains as indicated by the bi-
refringence at the coatings.

After this inorganic phase had been in existence a few thousand
years, the organic-accumulation phase commenced and humus began to
accumulate, forming a Bh horizon. Sesquioxides and probably silicate
clays continued to be mobilized and immobilized in this organic phase.
Several mechanisms of mobilization and various combinations of the
active components were no doubt operative during this phase. These
active components. were adsorbed or precipitated as amorphous coatings
on the previously deposited slightly crystalline coatings in the B horizon.
The thickness of the amorphous coatings gradually increased until they
flaked off and became intergranular deposits. Here, acting as nuclei
for further precipitation and adsorption of material from solution, they
caused an increase in the amount of intergranular material. Since
these aggregates were relatively weakly held together, chemical, physical,
and biological agents prevented them from growing indefinitely. Most of
the aggregates were about 0. 02 to O. 1 mm in diameter. As the large
pores become filled with this debris, the capillary pore space, readily
available water capacity, exchange capacity, and exchangeable bases
increased. Conditions were thus made more mesophytic and the maple-

beech association succeeded the pine-broad-leaved association.

131

It is possible that the beginning of this organic phase coincided
with the entrance of broad-leaved species into the succession. Harper
(1918) observed that forest fires had occurred much more frequently
in pine-spruce forests, than in hardwood forests in northern lower
Michigan. If this were the case an increase in the hardwood component
of a forest should have resulted in fewer fires and in a greater amount
of organic matter remaining on the soil surface to decompose biologically
and to release organic compounds capable of moving down the profile.
When the forest-type changed to almost entirely hardwood species, this
effect was intensified. The general increase in exchangeable bases
with time might be due to the introduction into the vegetational succession
of tree species which were more deeply rooted and/or more efficient
foragers of bases than were earlier species of the succession.

During the entire course of soil formation, physical weathering
was causing a breakdown of medium and coarse sand grains to finer
sizes. This occurred to the greatest extent near the soil surface.
Diopside and "chlorite" were weathered from the fine sand fraction,
probably by physical and chemical means. Chemical processes were
largely responsible for illite and chlorite weathering to vermiculite and
montmorillonite in the clay fractions. Chemical weathering was also
more severe near the surface of the soil, but its effects apparently did
not decrease as sharply with greater depth as did the effects of physical
weathering.

During the entire course of soil formation the total clay content
of the solum was also increasing. Apparently after the clay content
reached a threshold point, and after the Podzol sequum was well formed,
a second, Gray Wooded, sequum began to form below the Podzol sequum.
This final stage is the Blue Lake soil. (If the Blue Lake I soil was
originally slightly higher in clay than the other soils, as was postulated,

one would come to the same conclusion because a trend of increasing

132

clay content with time was already established in the Eastport, Rubicon,
and Kalkaska stages. The slightly higher original clay content would
have only hastened the appearance of the final stage.)

This sequence, of the Podzol sequum forming prior to the Gray
Wooded sequum, is different from the sequences on finer textured
materials in which the Podzol has apparently formed later than or simul-

taneously with the Gray Wooded sequum (see Literature Review).

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1

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APPENDIX

144

Table 15. Physical and chemical data for Eastport sand.

145

 

 

Property

Horizon and depth (inches)

 

A1+A2

O
I

U1

B(ir)

5-

19

B3

19-38

C1

38-90

D
90+

 

Particle size dist. (%)

Very coarse sand 2-1 mm

Coarse sand 1-0.5
Medium sand 0. 5-0. 25
Fine sand 0. 25-0.1
V fine sand 0.1-0.05
Silt 0.05-0.002
Clay < 0.002
Total < 2 mm

> 2 mm
USDA textural class

Bulk density (gm/cc)

Water retention (%)
saturated
0.01 atmOSpheres
0. 02
. 03
. 04
. 06
. 33
1. 0
5. O
15. 0
Available H20 (0. 06-5)

Total carbon (%C)
Carbonate carbon (%C)
Organic matter (%)
Total nitrogen (%N)
Carbon/nitrogen ratio

0000

Extractable sesquioxides
Iron (%FezO3)
Alumlnum (%1203)

Exchangeable cations
HydrOgen (me/100g)
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium

Cation exchange capacity

pH (water suspension)

Avail phosphorus (pPpm):

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146

Table 16. Physical and chemical data for Rubicon sand.

 

 

—>

Horizon and depth (inches)

 

Property Al A2 Bir B3 C11 - - C12
0-2 2-11 11-22 22-42 42-86 86-102
Particle size dist. (%)
Very coarse sand 2-1mm 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4
Coarse sand 1-0.5 20.7 20.3 32.8 16.0 17.2 20.4
Medium sand 0.5-0.25 56.9 60.6 49.7 63.4 59.6 65.1
Fine sand 0.25-0.1 16.4 15.7 15.8 19.4 22.3 13.2
Vfine sand 0.1-0.05 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.0
Silt 0.05-0.002 1.65 0.72 0.11 0.06 0.03 0.06
Clay <0.002 0.90 0.52 0.46 0.26 0.14 0.19
Total <2 mm 97.2 98.4 99.2 99.3 99.5 99.4
>2mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3
USDA textural class s s s s s 3
Bulk density (gm/cc) -- 1.31 1 52 1.51 1 56 --
Water retention (%)
saturated -- 33.6 27.7 27.9 25.2 --
0.01 atmospheres -- 30.8 26 0 26 3 24 2 --
0.02 -- 23.7 21.6 21.0 22.2 --
0.03 -- 12.7 9.8 9.2 13.5 --
0.04 -- 7.9 4.7 4.4 5.0 --
0.06 -- 6.2 3.7 3.3 3.2 --
0.33 -- 5.4 3.0 2.6 2.9 --
1.0 -- 4.7 2.6 2.3 2.4 --
5.0 -- 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.2 --
15.0 -- 0.9 0.6 0.5 0.2 --
Available HZO (0.06-5) -- 5.2 3.0 2.8 3.0 --
Total carbon (%C) 1.38 0.24 0.18 0 12 0.06 --
Carbonate carbon (%C) -- -- -- -- -- 0.02
organic matter (%) 2.38 0.41 0.31 0.21 0.10 -—
Total nitrogen (%N) 0.054 0.009 0.006 0.005 0.002 -—
Carbon/nitrogen ratio 26 27 30 24 30 --
Extractable sesquioxides
Iron (%F£azo,) 0.05 0. 04 0.14 0.09 0. 04 0.02
Aluminum (96.41203) 0.019 0.015 0.115 0.098 0.047 0.049
Exchangeable cations
Hydrogen (me/100gm) 3.0 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
Potassium 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01
Calcium 1.0 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.4
Magnesium <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1
Cation exchange capacity 4.0 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.4
pH (water suspension) 4. 7 4.8 5.1 5.8 6. 2 6.4
6 2 23 20 7 7

Avail pho sphorus (pPpm)

 

147

Table 17. Physical and chemical data for Kalkaska sand.

 

 

 

 

-—L Horizon and depth (inches)
Property A1 A2 ma Bhir B3 C11 C12
‘ 0-1 1-9 9-23 23-38 38-66 66-113i
Particle size dist. (%)
Very coarse sand 2-1mm 0.5 0.8 0.3 0.6 0.2 0.6 0.2
Coarse sand 1-0.5 27.6 34.8 23.9 26.6 25.9 41.3 30.9
Medium sand 0.5-0.25 36.8 43.5 48.2 42.9 52.0 43.5 53.4
Fine sand 0.25-0.1 15.6 16.4 21.6 22.4 19.3 13.6 10.8
Vfine sand 0.1-0.05 1.0 0.8 0.4 1.0 0.2 0.2 0.2
Silt 0.05-0.002 5.2 2.2 0.5 1.8 0.2 0.1 0.1
C1ay<0.002 2.1 0.7 1.4 2.1 0.6 0.3 0.4
Total<2mm 88.8 99.2 96.3 97.5 98.4 99.6 96.0
>2mm 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
USDA textural class cs cs 3 es 3 cs 3
Bulk density (gm/cc) -- 1.34 1.51 1.35 1.47 1.58 --
Water retention (90)
saturated -- 34.8 27.1 34.7 30.0 24.6 --
0.01 atmospheres -- 31.5 24.6 32.0 27.8 23.2 --
0.02 -- 20.4 19.7 22.7 21.3 19.3 --
0.03 -- 11.7 ‘ 14.2 12.1 9.4 8.4 --
0.04 -- 8.1 7.5 8.3 5.3 3.8 --
0.06 -- 6.1 5.9 6.5 3.8 2.6 --
0.33 -- 4.2 4.3 4.7 2.3 1.9 --
1.0 -- 4.0 3.9 3.9 2.1 1.5 --
5.0 -- 1.3 2.5 2.5 1.0 0.3 --
15.0 -- 1.2 2.0 2.0 0.9 0.3 --
Available H20 (0.06-5) -— 4.8 3.4 4.0 2.8 2.3 --
Total carbon (%C) 3.98 0.24 0.77 0.58 0.22 0.06 —-
Carbonate carbon (%C) -- -- -- -- -- -- 0.01
Organic matter (‘6) 6.85 0.41 1.33 1.00 0.38 0.10 --
Total nitrogen (%N) 0.236 0.012 0.028 0.024 0.009 0.002 --
Carbon/nitrogen ratio 17 20 28 24 24 30 --
Extractable sesquioxides
Iron (%FezO3) 0.11 0.04 0.33 0.37 0.09 0.03 0.04
Aluminum (70.0.1203) 0.05 <.01 0.54 0.36 0.18 0.04 0.02
Exchangeable cations
Hydrogen (me/100 gm) 10.0 0.1 0.5 2.0 0.3 0.0 0.0
Potassium 0.14 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.03
Calcium 6.3 0.6 1.3 0.8 0.4 0.2 0.2
Magnesium 0. 5 <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1 <.1
Cation exchange capacity 16.9 0.7 1.8 2.8 0.7 0.2 0.2
pH (water saturation) 4.7 4.8 6.0 5.7 6.2 6.4 6.4
Avail phosphorus (pPpm) 10 2 22 23 25 10 5

 

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