THE MAMMAL DIVISION:
A GENERAL STUDY OF ZOOLOGICAL
PARK MANAGEMENT

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MICHEGAN STATE UNIVERSETY
Robert Franklin Mainone

1959

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THE W131. DIVISION: A GENERAL STUDY OF
ZOOLOGICAL PARK MANAGEMENT

Bv

O

Robert Franklin Mainone

A THFS [S

Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies
of Michigan State University of.Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Resource Development

June 1959

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Arthur T. Wilcox
for inspiration and'guidance in this study. Mr. Theron
Downey, Director of Potter Park Zoo, contributed much of his
time and practical knowledge. Mr. Ernest P. Walker,
AsSistant- Director of the National Zoological Park, supplied
valuable references on care and feeding captive mamxals.

Dr. Thomas M. Ford, of the Kellogg Company in.Battle Creek,
supplied useful information on animal nutrition. Mr. Fred

A. Myer, Director of John Ball Zoological Gardens, and

Mr. Robert H. Mattlin, Director of Crandon Park Zoo, offered
encouragement and inspiration. I wish especially to thank
my family for their continued encouragement in this study.
Other persons to whom the author is endebted are: Dr. Rollin
H. Baker, Dr. Clifford R. Humphrys and Mr. Leslie M. Reid of
Pfichigan State University.

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This thesis is dedicated to those who
would carry on the zoologcal park idea
to its higmest degree of perfection for
the benefit and enjoyment of all.

 

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THE MAMMAL DIVISION: A GENERAL STUDY OF
ZOOLOGICAL PARK MANAGEMENT

By

Robert Franklin Mainone

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies
of Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Resource Development

June 1959

Approved

ABSTRACT

This thesis is a result of an effort to provide a consolidation of
useful information for the student of zoological park management.

Methods employed in gathering'these data include research in the
fields of management and zoology, personal observations, as well as
contacts with zoological park personnel.

The text consists of three major phases of zoological park manage-
ment: .administration, maintenance, and public relations.

.An introduction to zoo administration and general organization
provides background for the study. Thus the mammal division is regarded
in its prOper perspective in relation to total zoo organization. The
structure and function of the mammal division work force is examined in
detail. Responsibilities and routine duties of the Curator, Junior
Curator, Head Keeper, Animal Keeper, and Animal Trainer are described
and coordinated.

.As apprentices, zoological park students must become thoroughly
familiar with animal maintenance routines. A major portion of the
text is devoted to mammal maintenance: acquisition, feeding, care and
handling. Methods of maintaining a collection at a desired level are
examined. Techniques used in handling many types of captive mammals
are discussed with reference to their limitations. Alertness and the

value of practical experience is stressed. A section on medical

practices emphasizes methods of disease prevention as well as the need
for further research in wild animal pathology. The feeding process
includes acquisition, care and storage of mammal foods, preparation
and the actual feeding of the animals. Basic diets listed for major
groups of mammals include preparations used during war-time food
shortages and also newly develOped and scientifically balanced dry
mixtures. Research in animal feeding promises substitutes for scarce
natural foods, greater economy through labor saving, less spoilage,

and healthier animals. The appendix contains a systematic reference to
specific mammal diets.

In order that the purpose of zoo management is not lost in study-
ing the detail of administration and maintenance, the final chapter
reviews zoological park goals and public relations. Traditional zoo
recreation aspects are aired with emphasis on potential educational
values.

The bibliography is subdivided to facilitate reference to further

reading.

vi

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS
cmTER Page

PREFACEIIIOOOIOOOOI!0.0.0....IOOQIOOOOQOQOOOOOOO0.0.0.0....
I. ZOOLOGICAL PARK ADMINISTRATION.............................

General Organization....................................
Organization on a National Scale.....................
Governing Authorities................................
Zoological Societies.................................
Organization or a.Large 200009009090000000099.9000...

The Mammal Division WOrk Force.......................... 10
Curator of Mammals................................... 11
Junior Curator....................................... 1h
Head Keeper....................,..................... 1h
Animal Keeper........................................ 15
Animal Trainer....................................... 17

UIUJUJFJF‘ F‘ K.

II. MAMMAL MAINTENANCEréPROBLENB AND ROUTINES.................. 18

Acquisition and DiSposition............................. 18
Breeding ProgrEM......o.....ooo..............coooo... 18
Animal Exchange...................................... 20
Gifts................................................ 22
Loans and Boarding.............ooo.....o............. 23
Capture...................ooooooo.-.......o.oo.oo.o.o 23
Forbidden Mammals.................................... 2S
Diaposition.......................................... 25

Handling and Care....................................... 26
Handling............................................. 26
Shipping and Receiving............................... 30
Disease Prevention................................... 32
Quarantine........................................... 38
ACClimatiZingo0.0009000000090000...ooovoooocooOOQOooo 39
EVidence Of Poor Healthoooooooooo00090000090000.0000. hl
Medical Care......................................... AZ

The Feeding Process..................................... hh
Acquisition of Food.................................. hh
Raising Food......................................... AS

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued

CHAPTER Page

Substitutes......................................... ho
Food Storage........................................ A?
Food Preparation.................... ........ ........ h8
Feeding............................................. A8
Basic Diets......................................... SO

Herbivores....................................... SO

omnivoresooooooovoconcoct-9000.000 ooooooooooo 0.90 52
carnivoreSOOOQ000000000000oooooooooooooopcooooooo Sh
Insectivores........’....0'0..Q,QCQIOOOQOCUOOOOOO 56

PiSCivoreS...'..'Co...00....C'OOOOO...O'COCOOOOO. 56
Reference to Specific Diets........ ...... ........... 56

Ill. PUBLIC RELATTONS......................... ...... ........... 58
Zoo Products and Management Goals......................
IDisplayooooooooooooooooooooooooovoooqoooooo-oovvoooo 59
Programing'OOOQOo00900000000900.00000000000000QOOOOO

Favorable Public Relations-zA.Means of Achieving
ZOOlogicaJ- Park GOflS'OOOOOIOOOOOOOOOQOpO'OOQOOO. 62
WhaSiS onmucat’ion00000'00OOOOQOOOOO'OOOO'OOCQOOO 62
BBLIOGRAPHYQO0.0000000000000QOOOOO'OOOOOOIOO'OOOQOOOOIOOOQ'OOOOO 6h

LmemIOOOIIIO'OO000.099....IO...OIIOQOOOIOOOIOIOOO00.000.00.00 80

viii

Purpose:

Importance:

Methods:

Scope:

PREFACE

The object of this paper is to provide a variety of
useful information for the student of zoological parks.

Zoo literature, as a whole, is inadequate and widely
diSpersed. The author hopes that this attempt at
consolidating information will inspire other articles
on zoo management and will perhaps serve as a stepping-
stone to further research, eventually leading to a
detailed management text for zoological park students.

The material herein presented was accumulated through
research, personal Observation, and contact with people
in the zoological park field.

In order to establish practical limits, the study has
been focused at the division level of organization.
The zoological department was selected because of its
primary importance to zoological park students.
Concentration of the study on a portion of the zoo-
logical department was deemed necessary in order that
it might be studied in.more detail. The mammal
division was chosen as a focal point. Private, and
foreign zoos were not examined in the study.

 

5W

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER I

ZOOLOGICAL PARK.ADMINISTRATION

Through administrative planning, long and short range objectives
are determined, policies are formulated, organization structure is
streamlined for efficiency and the work of the organization is given
coordination, direction and control. Thus an organization accomplishes
its objectives through people.

This chapter is devoted to human relationships within zoo

organizations.

General Oggggization

In order to provide background for this study and to place the
Mammal Division.in proper perspective, a brief review of general

zoo organization follows.

Organization on a National Scale

American zoological parks developed quite independently from one
another. A number of factors may have contributed in varying degrees
to this independent growth. Poor communications in some cases were
undoubtedly brought about by the great distances separating some

zoological gardens. A friendly Spirit of competition may have existed

then, as it does to a certain extent today, creating a delaying effect
on the flow of new ideas. Perhaps lack of interest in any form of
national organization among zoo people prior to 192).; could be traced
to their failure to appreciate the advantages of such an association.

In October of 1921;, a group of zoo men with vision gathered in
Washington, D‘. C. to establish the American Association of Zoological
Parks and Aquariums as an affiliate of the American Institute of Park
Executives, Incorporated. ‘Ihe purpose of the A.A.Z.P.A. as stated in
its constitution, reads as follows: "to promote and advance zoological
parks and aquariums; to aid in the exchange and importation of zoologi-
cal specimens 3 to provide exhibits for scientific, educational and
recreational purposes; and to aid in the preservation of wildlife."1

The exchange of ideas and scimtific data has been encouraging,
not only at the annual conventions of the A.A.Z.P.A. but also in the
"Zoos and Aquariums" section of Parks and Recreation.2 The value of
such an accumulation of experiences has been immeasurable, considering
the inconceivable pitfalls that may beset those who attempt to display,
alive, the tremendously varied forms of animal life gathered from the
far cOrners of our earth.

Certainly coOperation on a national :scale is a key to continued

progress. The A.A.Z .P.A.'s recent legal victory over a bill that would

I

11958 Roster and Yearbook of the Amegigan Institute of Park Execu-
tivesL Inc., and American Association of Zoolggcal Parks arid Aguariums,
Wheeling, W. Va., p. E7.

2Journal of the American Institute of Park Executives, Inc.

have prevented the importation of all.wild ruminants and swine, is a

, 1
current example of the value of a strong national organization.
Governing Authorities

Individual zoological park organizations are controlled by'a
variety of governing authorities. .A zoo director may be directly
responsible to a city or county commissioner, a city manager, or a
mayor. He may be indirectly reSponsible to these men, through a park
superintendent, a public works director, or a public service director.
The type of governing authority imposed on a zoo depends on the type
of city government and other local conditions. Non-political public
boards provide the most satisfactory form of authority.2 IBoard members
serve overlapping terms, which allows long range planning for program

stability and continuity.
Zoological Societies

The importance of a zoological society to the efficient operation
of a zoological park can Scarcely be overemphasized. By freeing zoo
management from political influence, a zoological society encourages a

continuity of dedicated management necessary for long range planning.

 

t r— v t

1w. 'r. A. Gully, (ed.), "Death Knell for H. a. 12126," Parks 51!;
Recreations, Vol. hl, No. 18 (Nov., 1958), pp. h6h-h65.

RArthur T. Wilcox (ed.), A Zoological Park--flgz,'Where, flgfi.
Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station and OOOperar
tive Extension Service, East Lansing. Park Management Series, Bulletin
3, in.cooperation with American Institute of Park Executives,.American
Association of Zoological Parks and.Aquariums, Aurora, 111., p. 6.

Societies provide permanent control of building and operations spending
on.a nonrprofit basis. The ability to attract a competent staff of
technical advisors and to provide large sums of money through members
and friends of the society is also advantageous.1

.A recent survey of 38 public zoos indicated that over'80% had
supporting zoological societies.2 The extent to which some city-owned
zoos are assisted by zoological societies is evident in the following
examples.

The San Diego Zoological Society provides animals, buildings,
equipment, and about two-thirds of the total operating cost. It main-
tains the grounds, animals and cages as well as doing all of its own
planting and building.3

.An agreement made in 1929 between the San.Antonio Zoological
Society and the City of San Antonio, provides for the acquisition of
all birds and animals by the society. Equipment and maintenance is
furnished by the city.4

The Brookfield Zoological Society assists in raising funds by
collecting admission fees from adults on certain days of the week,
parking fees, money from the sale of refreshments, guide books,

a
souvenirs and the rentals of baby buggies and wheel chairs.

 

#H. R. Mitchell, "Zoological Park Management Minus Politics,"
garg§_ggd Egggeatign., Vol. XIX, No. 3.' See George P. Vierhetter,
"Financing a Zoo," agks and Recreation, Vol. XI, No. 2 (Nov.*Dec.,
1927), pp. 138-1uo.

2Wilcox, _p, git,

3$an Diego 200 Guide Book.
ofiSan.Antonio Zoo Guide Book.
aBrookfield Zoo Guide Bock.

The Staten Island Zoological Society furnishes all exhibits,
conducts programs and issues publications. The city appropriates
funds for maintenance and Operation.1

At the New York City Zoo, management and details of long range
planning are entrusted to the zoological society. The society provides
a technical staff, the animal collection, and contributes materially
to improvements. Membership fees vary from $15 to 35300. Members
receive free passes and zoological publications as well as an invita-

2
tion to the annual meeting and the Spring Garden Party.
Organization of a Large Zoo

The San Diego Zoo is chosen as an examle of zoo organization
because it's Zoological Department is divided into four parts, including

a Mammal Division, and because of an abundance of well-written material

a
on organization from that source.

The San Diego Zoo is managed by the San Diego Zoological Society,
Incorporated. The society was incorporated in the State of California
in 1916. The corporation was formed foribenevolent purposes and
scientific research. An ordinance of the City of San Diego grants

the Zoological Society the right to operate and maintain the Zoo in

¥.‘_‘ A h“ A - - A
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1-‘I'he Staten Island 200 Guide Book.

2Raymond L. Ditmers and Lee S. Crandell, Guide Boog of th_e_ yew York
Zoological Ear . For further reading on the advantages of zoological

societies see Mrs. Belle J. Benchley, "Woman 200 Executive Accomplishes

Things at San Diego," arks gig! Rgcreation, Vol. XVIII, No. )4, pp. 15 -
156.

3See Neil Morgan, It Em With a Roar, for a detailed account
of the founding and development of the San Diego Zoo. Also, Belle J.
Benchley, m Liie in a {m Made giggle, (Boston: Little, Brown and Co.,
19140) for a wealth of facts about the San Diego Zoo.

Balboa Park. Details of the agreement between the City and the
Zoological Society are contained in the original ordinance, #1815
new series, and in new series ordinance #6605.1

The Zoological Society of San Diego is administered by a Board of
Directors elected by the society at an annual meeting. The Board of
Directors elects a President, lst Vice President, 2nd Vice President,
a Secretary, and a. Treasurer from among its own titelve members. It is
the function of the board to determine policies and represent the society
in matters concerning development and welfare of the zoological park.2

Standing Committees made up of members of the zoological society
are appointed. by the Board of Directors, to serve in advisory capacity
to the board. Titles of these committees are as follows: Executive,
Finance, Buildings and Grounds, Euthibit, Education, Publicity, Legal,
and The Children's Zoo Committee.

Also serving in advisory capacity to the Board of Directors and to
the Managing Director are the Management Committees: Employee's
Council, Budget, Maintenance, Construction, Landscape and Grounds,
Security, Safety and Good Housekeeping, Exhibits, Transportation,
Salary and Wage, Public Relations, and Health .

The Managing Director is directly responsible to the Board of

Directors. A11 division supervisors are directly responsible to the

A

1Guide Book of the San Diego Zoo.

2Paul Pigors and Charles A. Were, Personnel Administration,
(New York: McGraur-Hill Book Co., Inc., 191:?) . An excellent reference
on understanding and formulating personnel policy.

Managing Director.1 It is the director's duty to plan, coordinate,
and direct the work of the entire zoological garden.2 He is assisted
by his Secretarial Section which.handles matters incident to the ship-
ment and receipt of large zoological Specimens including customs
clearance and insurance, serVices mail receipt and transmission,
arranges general and special board and staff meetings, and maintains
central files.

The Childrens Zoo is operated as a division of the organization.
Its staff consists of a Superintendent, an Instructor, four Caretakers,
two Custodians, and eight part-time Attendants. The function of this
division is to plan and set up zoological exhibits that allow children
to play with domestic specimens.

The Maintenance and Construction Division consists of the following
sections: Maintenance and Construction, Forestry and Landscape, Grounds
Maintenance, and Equipment Maintenance.

A Public Relations Division integrates publicity and informational
activities via all types of public communications media. This division
includes the following sections: Membership and Subscription, Sign
Preparator, Publications, Public Information and Audio Visual, Lecture

Service, Reference Library, Special Events, and Tour Service.

*A m .44 w A‘ -_-_.
v—wv —— 7 fi fiv—Vf fiv—V—v

1MarvinBower (ed.), The evelo ment of Executive Leadersh ,
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 19 9 . Adds perSpective
to the work of the director. For information on deligating reaponsi-

bility, see W3 H. Seidel, The Develo ment of Office Su ervisors,
National Office Management Association,.Apri1, 1953.

2E. Peterson and E. G. Plowman, Business Or anization Mana e-
ment (Chicago: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1958). Is excellent for further

reading on coordination and other responsibilities of management.

The Public Service Division operates restaurant, camera, souvenir,
and refreshment stands, and caters to special groups and the general
public which uses picnic facilities. Division sections include:
Camera Stand, Vending Operation, Dining Room, Cashier, Refreshment
Stands, Kitchen (visitor service), and Stockroom Section.

The Security Division is divided into a Building Service Section
and a Patrol Section. The division's duties are to patrol and protect
the zoological garden, enforce security regulations governing exhibits
and visitor behavior, supervise public comfbrt, operate parking lots,
direct visitors, locate individuals, render first aid, and destroy
predators.1

The Fiscal Control Division supervises the financial records,
cares for cash and other funds, prepares payrolls, formulates and
administers the annual budget, maintains accrual budget records,
prepares fiscal reports, keeps the general ledger, supervises inventor-
ies, prepares tax returns, maintains insurance coverages, preaudits
claims and disbursements, and supervises personnel procedures.2 The
Fiscal Control Division is subdivided into the following sections:
Public Service, Inventory Control, Admissions, Payroll, Communications

and Reception, and Cashier Section. Within this division.the Personnel

_H 4-‘ LA _A _‘
v—v vfi—V—f 'f‘rv — v—fiv—v—v Wm w—v—v w v—w v—v—v y v—vv—v

1D. B. Dyer and J. G. Lichtig, Liabiiity;in.Public Recreation,
New York: C. C. Nelson.Publishing Co., 19 9.

2George Hjelte, Budget Nhkigg and Administration, National

Recreation.Association (mimeographed) 189 pp.

Section advertizes for, receives, and refers job applicants to the
requisitioning authority, analyzes and evaluates jobs, maintains
individual employment records, conducts exit interviews, acts in
employee disability claims, and supervises clerical operators related
to personnel technical services.1 .A final section.under the Fiscal
Control Division is of the utmost importance to the operation of the
Zoological Division. The Commissary Section procures estimates,
receives, stores and issues required food and forage for nonehuman
consumption; maintains supplies, cost records and inventory control;
prepares budget estimates and consults with curators as to diets. Its
personnel consists of one Buyer, two Stock Men, one Store Keeper, one
Process Laborer and his assistant, and one Delivery Laborer.

The Research Committee of the Zoological Hospital and Biological
Research Institute, acts in an advisory capacity to the Managing
Director and to the Zoological Department. The committee consists of
twenty or more Ph. D.'s, M. D.'s, and D. V. M5's who suggest, initiate
and govern activities of the Research Institute. They review progress
reports of associates engaged in.biologica1 research and approve manu-
scripts prior to publication as scientific bulletins of the Society.

A $3,500 Fellowship is granted to a deserving graduate research worker
every ten months by the Research Committee. A biological worker, whoSe
problem and qualifications are acceptable to the Research Committee,

may use zoo buildings and facilities without charge.

._‘ M_‘
#-
___ ,__...__ .._.._' ——-— w—v—— v—v—v VT.

1See Selection and Elacement of New Employges, Bulletin.No. 9
Melbourne,.Australia: Department of Labor and National Service,
Industrial Welfare Division, 19h6.

10

The Zoological Department assists in.the acquisition and disposal
of exhibit animals, plans and sets up exhibits and conducts research
in the care and habits of exhibit animals. It furnishes scientific
information for the creation of exhibit labels and signs; feeds, breeds,
and otherwise cares for exhibit animals; directs the fiscal affairs of
the exhibits and other related work.

The Zoological Department is divided into four units known.as
divisions. The Hospital and Laboratory Division consists of a Manager
(veterinarian), a part-time.Assistant Veterinarian, a Medical Laboratory
Technician, a Senior Custodian, a Stenographer Clerk, a Principal
Hospital Keeper, and an.Animal Nursery Aid. The Ornithology Division
consists of a Curator; a Principal Keeper, Senior; and eight Keepers,
Junior and Senior. The Herpetology Division is made up of a Curator;

a Principal Keeper, Junior; and a Keeper, Junior. The Mammalogy
Division.employs a Curator; an Animal Trainer and two Assistant.Animal
Trainers; one Principal Keeper, Senior; and fifteen Keepers, Junior and

1
Senior.
The Mammal Division‘workggorce

Variation in zoo organization is such that scarcely two are the
same. Some large public zoos do not have anammal Division as such.
The tasks of the personnel working directly with the animals, however,
are so similar that we may combine data from a variety of sources to

discuss a hypothetical Mammal Division. In this way we hOpe to add

_._‘ A_AA _ n;

v—r firv—fi *— —-—— fi "—7 wv—v—v '— w—v f v—f—v

¥Adapted to the study from a San Diego Zoo organizational chart in
Barks apd Recreation, Vol. no, No. 11 (Nov., 1957), pp. lh-lS.

ll

scope and depth of the study without attenvpting to establish an average
organization or one that is ideal under all conditional

A Mammal Division may consist of a Curator; an Assistant or Junior
Curator; Keepers of various grades such as; Trainee, Junior, Senior,
and Head Keeper or Principal Keeper; and sometimes Animal Trainers of
various degrees of skill and seniority. The number of personnel is

governed largely by the size and character of the mammal collection.
Curator of Mammals

The Curator of Mammals is subject to administrative direction from
the Managing Director. Both men work together, planning and organizing

long-range goals of the division.

2
The Curator supervises personnel engaged in the care of manuals.

3
He conducts in-service training, to improve personnel efficiency.
By rating work performance he separates his subordinates for promotion,

4
downgrading, or layoff. He aids in setting employee standards and

gw - _- A
fi v v vv—v r—v—v v—v v—v'f v—vr v—v v—v WV v—v v—r—ffi—vfi

1For further reading on traditional, systematic 'and scientific
types of business management see William R. S riegel, Buggess Orgagg-
zation, (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc. , 19M; .

2For valuable information on develOping effective work teams see
Product vit Su ervis on and EmloEe Morale, Study No. 6, Survey
Research Center EAnn Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan, Nov. 22,
19h8).

3An excellent article on training zoo personnel by Dr. Charles R.
Schroeder, Managing Director, San Diego Zoological Gardens, entitled
"Applying Industrial Personnel Management Practices in a Zoo ," appeared
in Parks and Recreation, Vol. hO, No. 11, (Nov. 1957), pp. 13 and 28.

"*See M. Joseph Dooher and Vivienne Marquis (eds.), Rating Eloye‘e.

Su erviso Performance: A Mam1al of Merit-ray Technigues,
American Management Association, New York, 1950, and Wilber R. Hanawalt,
"Solving the Problem of Merit vs. Seniority in Layoffs," in Persogel,
Vol. 23, No. 6 (19147) pp. hos-1m.

12

interviews prospective Mammal Division employees. Divisional efficiency
and morale are of primary concern.1

Mich of the Curators office work consists of directing the fiscal
affairs of the division.2 The requisition of materials and supplies is
highly important and demands constant attention. Complete records are
maintained on each mammal in the collection. From these records, useful
statistical information is compiled . Written reports on changes within
the collection are sent periodically to the Managing Director.

The Curator must explore and bargain, with various sources for the
purpose of enlarging and improving the mammal collection. The shipment
and receipt of all mamnalia are his reaponsibility.

He must frequently observe the animals under his care to avoid
deficiencies in security, ani insure proper handling.3 The animals!
environment and general health must be checked daily . I

The important task of feeding the manuals must be planned,

organized, directed, and controlled.

r—v—w—v fl“

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va—Vw—f fi'v fir ' — v—f fl vvj v—(VVVV—vvv— '— v—v—y

1The American Management Association's, Gett and Us lo ees
Ideas, Production Series No. 165, New York, 1953, contains material

applicable to employee morale improvement. See also, James C. Worthy,
"Factors Influencing Employee Morale," Harvard Business Review, Vol. 28,
No. 1 .(Jan., 1950), pp. 61-73.

2A guide to reducing office management expenses, including the
cutting of report costs may be found in C. L. Stivers' A Short Cut 39
e _e__Reduction, Office Management Series No. 85, American figment
Association, New York, 1938. For a good general reference see H. E.

Niles, The Office Mans. er' Job Tcda , Office Management Series No. 100,
American Management Association, New York, 1913 .

3Vernon G. Schaefer', Safet S ervision. (New York: McGraw-Hill
Book Co., Inc., 19142). Contributes ideas on personnel safety.

13

The Curator prepares specimens for medical care by the veterinarian
and supervises their aftercare. He may be called upon to assist with
post~mortems.

.AS a zoological technician, his advice is highly important to the
efficient care, handling and exhibition of mammalia. Questions of a
technical nature from public sources will occasionally be referred to
him.

Research and the exchange of information with institutions and
fellows from all parts of the world is encouraged. Occasionally a need
for preparing scientific bulletins occurs.

His zoological knowledge must be applied to the construction of
mammal housing and exhibits, along with a knowledge of engineering,
architecture, landscape architecture, horticulture, and art, as well
as a nunber of other technical akiills.1

.A successful public relations program affording press, radio, and
TV coverage of the exhibits is in part a curatorialresponsibility,2
Guiding adult and children's groups through the exhibits is a papular
form of promotion carried out by the Curator. A working knowledge of
photography assists greatly in the preparation of guide books, bulletins

. 3
and other popular zoological publications.

A‘ AHFLA AAL. AA ‘_‘ L. ‘ ”A L.‘
rv—r vv—fi 7—... r...— _.r __..,_ m ——V w #7 #7 v 1- _'_

1For a more complete list of skills required and for an excellent
general outline on exhibit planning see Wilcox, 92, cit., pp. 2-h7.

n.C. Myer's,‘Hg§ to do 2gblicity, (New York: Harper and
Brothers and Frank Vadik's "Public Relations and TV Programs in

Detroit Parks," in Parks and Recreation, Vol. 36, No. 3, 1953, pp. 5-7,
areVboth informative.

QAdapted to the study from a San Diego, Curator job description.

Junior Curator

The Junior Curator is subject to administrative direction from the
Curator of Mammals. Under supervision, as part of a training period,
the Junior Curator must perform routine chores incident to the cura-
torial activities. He must follow well defined rules and specific
instructions while performing pregressively more difficult work involv-
:ing the acquisition.and maintenance of domestic and wild mammals.

Some of the less skilled tasks performed by the Junior Curator
include: requisitioning supplies and materials, inspecting exhibits
to determine the condition of the animals and their quarters, seeing
that the animals are handled correctly, caring for sick animals, assist-
ing with post-mortems; talking to, and guiding groups of visitors
through the zoo; assisting in the preparation of guide books, bulletins,
maps, and other zoo publications.1

Junior Curators are»usually'recruited considerably in advance of

. 2
a cunatorial Opening in an organization.
Head Keeper

The Head Keeper is directly reaponsible to the Curator of Mammals.
Like the Straw'Boss of industry, the Head Keeper is in charge of the

division when the Curator is absent. He not only supervises keepers

*AH A A ”A. __-
——r—vv—'r V f fiv—v—Vfi v—fiw— V‘— W ‘———_ V—y—v v—v iv—v

lAdapted to this study from a.Detroit Civil Service recruitment
Specification (10-8-58), for a Junior Zoological Curator's position at
the Detroit Zoo. .

2See G. L. Cullen, "Recruitment and In-Plant Training of College
Graduates," Personnel, May, l9h7, for a general reference on training
needs of college graduates.

15

engaged in the care of manuals, but participates in the work as well.1

Often he is called upon to keep time reports and payroll records
for a Fiscal Division.

He must be an expert in handling unruly animals. Sometimes he
must devise ways of doing the "impossible" while making cage transfers,
crating animals for shipment, or unloading new animals .2

The Head Keeper usually starts the day by inspecting all exhibits
under his care. The health of the animals and the condition of a1-
closures are reported to the Curator. Minor ailments are treated by
the Head Keeper.

The procurement and preparation of animal food is one of his
responsibilities. Light, heat, and ventilation mist. be adjusted in all
of the divisions buildings. The daily routine of cleaning the exhibits
is accomplished through his supervision and participation.

In addition, the Head Keeper must frequently supply visitors with

information about the mammal collection and the zoo.
Animal Keeper

The Animal Keeper is responsible to both the Head Keeper and the
Curator. The general condition of enclosures and mammals under his

care are reported daily to the Head Keeper. It is the Keeper's duty to

1For additional reading on leadership and human relations, see
O.Tead, The Art of Leadership, (New York: McCray-Hill Book Co., Inc.
1935), and H. A. Lyon, "The Importance of Human Beings," Annual Confer-
ence Proceedings, National Office Management Association (Philadelphia,

19h3) . .
2William Bridges, "Around the Zoo with the Head Keeper of Mammals,"

0 Vol. XLIX, No. 3 (May-June, 191:6), tells how one man
came up through the ranks at the New York Zoological Park.

16

replace needed equipment in the animal enclosures . Repairs needed are
reported to the Curator through the Head Keeper for approval.

The Keeper is required to keep animal records and to make simple
written reports on the animals for which he is responsible.

He must watch the behavior and condition of his charges constantly
for signs of illness or injury. The Veterinarian and Curator occasionally
need assistance with surgery or medical treatment.

When necessary, the Keeper assists with catching, crating, and
moving the animals.

The mammals mst be fed and watered according to schedule. He
selects food for quality from the cormissary, arranges and prepares it
to suit the individual tastes of his animals. Food containers and
drinking basins are gathered and washed by the Keeper.

Exhibits and adjacent areas have to be kept scrupulously clean
during visiting hours. Drains have to be checked and bedding and litter
replenished. It is very important that the keeper knows the proper
insecticides, vermine repellants, and cleansing agents to use and under
what conditions they may be dangerous to certain mammals.

The Keepa‘ assists the police in protecting the animals and the
visitors.

He is expected to maintain good public relations by answering

1
general questions about his charges.

“AA—A‘ _ AA A—AA A “-
r" v—' v V v—vv—T—v vv—v v—r fi W V v—v—r— v—f fl

1Adapted, in part, from a U. S. Civil Service Commission Announce-
ment, No. 68, (Jan. 21, 1958), announcing an exam for Animal Keeper,
for duty at the National Zoological Park, Washington, D. C.

For some helpful rules of conduct for Animal Keepers, see Roger
Conant, "Code of Ethics for Keepers," Parks and Recreation, Vol. XV,
No. 11 (July 1932), pp. 720-721.

17

Animal Trainer

An Animal Trainer‘s duties involve training wild species to per-
form in a finished animal act. He must take part in performances before
audiences at times and places designated by zoo millagement .

A Trainer must be strong and agile as well as psychologically
adjusted to contact with wild animals. He met have a way with animals
and know the habits of species with which he is working. A good speak-
ing voice is required to announce acts during the course of a program.
The ability to establish and maintain good public relations is highly
desirable . Trainers are often obliged to answer general questions
concerning the training of animals.

In addition to training duties, an Animal Trainer mist care for
the animals he is assigned. By feeding his own animals and cleaning
their enclosures, the animals become more accustomed to him and conse-
quently are easier to handle. Some zoos require an Animal Trainer to

1
have five years experience as an Animal Keeper.

__‘__A #_
v—V v—v—w 7—7 w fi—V m‘ fi—w—fiv—w—‘fi _———v v—vr—v—V "—V fi—v

1From a San Diego Zoo, Animal Trainer job description. For further

reading see Frank C. Bostock, The Training of Wild Awe, (New York:

Century Book Company, 1915).

CHAPTER II
MAMAL MAIN'IIENANCEfiPRQBIEI‘B AND ROUTINE-S

Students beginning a career in zoological park work must first
become thoroughly familiar with maintenance routines. Most zoos require
inexperienced men to serve an apprenticesnip of a year or more as
Animal Keepers before becoming Junior Curators. During this time the
student performs routine animal. maintenance duties .

Most of the following information is related to the maintenance
routines of Curators, Junior Curators, and Animal Keepers in a Mammal

Division .

Acgig" tion gd Disposition

Effective methods of acquisition and disposal are important in
maintaining the mammal collection at a desirable level. Animals die
and mat be replaced. In-breeding is prevented by occasionally intro-
ducing new stock. New species in the collection help maintain public
interest. thny species produce surpluses that must be diSposed of to

prevent overcrowding .
Breeding Program

A productive breeding program is an important factor in the

efficient management of a mammal division. Successful reproduction

18

l9

perpetuates existing exhibits with young healthy animals. Surpluses
may be of value as stock in trading for new animals or as a source of
income when sold. Such noted breeders as rabbits and guinea pigs may
be an important source of food for mammalian carnivores.

Surpluses of food animals may be in demand in other divisions.

Many reptiles and birds need whole or partial meat diets, which further
eliminates the necessity of disposing of most food species outside the
zoo.

Publicity derived from new arrivals is often highly beneficial to
the zoo. Displays containing young animals in a family group are
appealing to everyone.

When rare animals breed successfully, publicity may be world wide,
particularly if the event is a first for that species in captivity.

Such occurrences may provide a valuable source of scientific information
on little known animals. From a conservation standpoint, the steps
leading up to the successful breeding of rare animals in captivity may
be highly sigiificant.)L

The importance of keeping good records cannot be overemphasized.
Records provide information on breeding performance so that unproductive
animals or those that will not feed and care for their young properly

2
may be replaced, or steps taken to correct such situations.

__‘ w L“ w _~ ##—
fiv—t 7W if r V—v—yrw wvw—v wv—r—vv—v 7—v—vv—v—v ——v ——'v— '7 wv—vW

1See reference to world-wide registration of rare zoo animals by
Wm. T. A. Gully, "Registration of Przewalslci Horses Planned," ngs g

Rgcrgtiog, Vol. hl, No. 12 (Dec.,l95t$), p. h98.
2An example of complete avian breeding records may be found in the

War Department's Technical Manual, The Honan Pigeon, T .M. 11-th,
(19h0), Pp' 2h’33-

2O

Breeding schedules should be maintained so that matings occur at
the proper time. This allows highly productive females to rest between
pregnancies if necessary to maintain health. Keepers may be alerted to
productive seasons of the rarer Species as well as to those that may
suddenly become dangerous to work with.

Individual attention should be given expectant females . Some
require a certain amount of privacy or in the case of extremely nervous
types, complete isolation from the public until the young are taken
from the mother, or are out of danger of being killed or deserted by
her. Sometimes substitute mothers may be used where records show the
true mother to be unpredictable.

Domestic cats often foster young mink, skunks, squirrels, and other
small mammals, allowing the foster young to feed among their own kittens.
Breeding rare animals under unnatural conditions is one of zoo

work's greatest challenges. Many consider its accomplishmmt one of

zoo work's finest rewards.
Animal Exchange

One of the functions of the American Association of Zoological
Parks and Aquariums is to facilitate the exchange of zoo animals.
A list of surplus and wanted animals is sent out to all members each
Spring and Fall. In this way animals are bought, sold and traded with
a minimm of searching for a market. A maximm of saving is encouraged
by breaking import monopolies on certain species as well as cutting

down shipping distances and consequent mortality. The exchange system

21

decreases the demand for wild trapped animals imported into the United
States, which further safeguards the health of American animals, and
serves as a conservation measure.

Public and private zoos as well as animal dealers sell their stock
through the A.A.Z.P.A. exchange lists. Since the Association could not
possibly guarantee the animals offered for sale, it is well for the
buyer to be cautious. Distance often makes it impractical to examine
the less valuable animals before purchase, thus offering opportunity
for misrepresentation by unscrupulous individuals. The known hazards
of shipping are sometimes used to cover pre-shipping ills, though the
fact is often impossible to prove. Large, well-established organi- “
zations are more able to absorb losses and consequently are sometimes
more reliable than the smaller ones, though of course there are
exceptions. It is important to know the seller, particularly if large
purchases are involved.

Even though reputable dealers attempt to screen sick animals, the
Symptoms of some diseases do not appear for some time after the animal
has contracted the disease. For example; among the small mammals, new
animals may arrive at the zoo before they show any sign of the following
maladies: pneumonia in monkeys, distemper in dogs, and enteritus in
cats.1

Like horse trading of old, the trading of zoo specimens is risky
business. However, the possibilities of exchanging surplus animals

for other species through the A.A.Z.P.A. should not be overlooked.

vfi firv __.r fiv—v—v T v—v " vv—Vv—r—v fi—._ v—‘fi—y —v w v—f

16ee Leonard J. (loss, '?Diseases in Zoo Animals," Parks and
kcreation, Vol. XXXII, No. 1 (Jan., 1919), pp. 147-149.

22

Often immediate need places animal values over established market
prices, and exchanges may be worked out that are very satisfactory to
both parties of the trade.

Gifts

Some animals offered as gifts may be as valuable as others are
worthless to a mammal division. Though dogs, cats, and other pets can
sometimes be used under special circumstances, they generally should
not be accepted. The young of these and other domestic types may add
interest to the Children's Zoo, or nursing females may serve as
emergency, foster mothers.

Unwanted pets often create problems. Some require a great deal of
extra attention and Special diets before they become accustomed to zoo
life.

Sick, injured, or young, wild animals that have been "abandoned"
often become donations to the zoo. Though most of these are of the
more conmon varieties, occasionally a valuable animal may be offered.
For this reason, and to promote good public relations, it is advisable
not to discourage would be doners, from trying again at a later date.
Decisions as to the acceptance of animals should be weighed individually.

Donations of expensive animals may be encouraged by giving recog-
nition to donating organizations or individuals. Signs on exhibits
indicating the names of local merchants contributing to the collection

may encourage others to use this favorable means of advertisement.

23

Loans and Boarding

Occasionally animals may be offered as loans to a zoological park.
In some cases animals from private collections may provide welcome
additions to the mamnal division, as promotion material and as a change
of exhibit. These animals are displayed without charge to the owner.
It is advisable to have an agreement in writing with the owner, freeing
the zoo from reaponsibility other than negligence.

Animals may be offered as loans for a variety of reasons. The
owners may be going on vacation or city regulations may force them to
remove animals from their homes or apartments. Most requests to board
animals must be turned down though some animals from this source make

excellent temporary additions to a mammal division.
Capture

Wild trapped animals are often inferior to zoo bred Specimens for
diSplay purposes. Having known freedom, they are seldom satisfied with
confinement. Besides showing extreme restlessness, they often are too
shy of humans to make good exhibits. As a result of captivity, many
wild bred animals fail to eat well and live only a short time, accord-
ing to Seton.1

Some wild trapped species to quite well in captivity, particularly
if they can be taken as young animals. In cases where a species does

not breed well in captivity, live trapping may be practically the only

___— _ H __4__‘ L _-A
wv‘w fiV—Fv fifi—iv—wi ‘r—yv—V ffv—fiv—v—v W w—w w? ‘77 v

lseton, E. T. Life Histories offiNorthgrn Animals. 2 Vols.
(New York: Chas. Scribner‘s Sons, 1909).

2h

means of obtaining these animals. Tigers for example, seldom reproduce
in captivity. ‘Iheir relative scarcity consequently, makes them more
expenSive than lions and others that breed well in confinement.

Although a great variety of mammals can be purchased through
animal dealers, zoos that emphasize Immbers of species or that wish to
exhibit animals not generally seen in the United States, may occasionally
find it advantageous to do their own collecting.

Expeditions into foreign lands need not be as elaborate as one
might believe. One man working through local people ‘can be almost as
efficient in accumlating a collection of mammals as several staff
members and their elaborate equipment without native help.1 The cost
of collecting expeditions and the uncertainty of their results, however,
all but eliminates them among the smaller organizations. Often the
monetary result is outweighed by the promotional value and other
intangibles. A current example is a Texas Zoological Society's
expedition into the Himalayan Mountains for the "Abominable Snowman."

Local animals may be caught with a variety of live-traps. Local
boys may be encouraged to provide animals for temporary diaplays during
the summer months .

.As interesting and practical as trapping may sound, gifts, pur-
chase and trade, are still the favored methods of acquiring animals

for zoo collections.

-__‘ ”—4 A___‘ $ A— AA A
——r ——v—T v—vv—y rw—V v—wfi ‘7 ——' v—y—v ffiw r7 7—7 7—7

1A one-man expedition is discussed by Lee S. Crandall, in his
fascinating account of bird collecting in New Guinea, entitled
Egadise Qgest, (New York: Chas. Scribner's Sons, 1931), 276 pp.

A

25

Forbidden Mamnals

To prevent an embarrassing situation it is well to become familiar
with restrictions imposed on certain mammals by the United States
Department of Agriculture. Small marmnals that may not be imported
include all Species of mongoose; black, brown, roof, and pharaoh's
rats; all species of fruit bats; European rabbits and European hares.
These animals are considered too hazardous to agricultural interests to
import alive. Restrictions have been made to guard against the possi-
bility of their escaping and becoming established in this country.1

Disposition

For various reasons it is often necessary to diSpose of zoo animals.
Animals with incurable diseases that night sweep through the entire
collection, are mercifully killed and the bodies are cremated or buried
deeply. Animals that could endanger public lives must usually be
sacrificed in the event they escape from their cage or enclosure.
Individual animals that have killed or maimed a person are usually
eliminated to prevent a re-occurrence and to satisfy public opinion.
Umnanageable individuals that constitute a threat to keepers' safety
should be destroyed and replaced, if possible, by a more amiable member
of thespecies.

Many small mammals such as rats, mice, rabbits and Guinea pigs

are killed contirmously for animal food. Some animals will only feed

A AA

v—v ——f w fiw—fifi v—v—v ——7

v fi—f—v—vfifiry Vv W W 7 7—7 *—

1"Forbidden Animals ," Parks and Recreation, Vol. XX, No. 1,
(Sept., 1936), pp. 51-52.

26

on live prey. The public is not allowed to witness these or other

1
killings and they are seldom publicized.

gaggling and Care

Groups of similar animals can often be cared for and handled in a
similar manner. Sometimes related species show marked differences in
habits and temperments. Individual animals may behave differently from
others of their kind. To complicate the matter further, some individuals
may be entirely unpredictable, reacting differently at various times to
a given situation.

There is no substitute for personal experience in learning to cOpe
with the infinite variety of problems that may arise in.handling and
caring for a collection of wild animals.

The experiences of others may prove helpful as background for
routine situations. The following section.is devoted to general methods
used by zoo people in the care and handling of some of the more common
mammals.

Handling

As a rule zoo mammals should be handled as little as possible.
Exceptions are made for the extremely tame and hardy Specimens used in
the contact pens of the’Children's Zoo. The amount of enjoyment the
children derive from handling lambs, kids, puppies, rabbits, and other

* WA A; AA
e—Tq fi—v—r—v—v—w Viv v—V—v—v v—r—vfiv—V firffv ff v—v v—v—v ———v v—v—f

1Clifford B. Moore, The B or Wild Pets (New York: G. P.
Putnam's Sons, 1937), pp. ZSEFZBE. This book contains a detailed
section on diaposing of incurables.

aniimls commonly used in children‘s sections, would seem to Justify

the exception to the rule. Emery. precaution should be taken to safe-
guard the public and the animals. These animals particularly should be
innooulated regularly against contagious diseases and should be given
frequent rest during which they can feed and escape the public. Exhibits
of this type should have ample supervision at all times.

To eliminate handling of wild zoo animals, methods must be worked
into display design that allow the keeper to clean pens and enclosures
without endangering him3elf or giving his charges an Opportunity to
escape. Shift cages are essential in working with dangerous Species.
Dens or nest boxes may be used that can be closed from the outside for
control of lesser animals. Walker1 suggests, a box or crate may be
placed over small animals to keep them quiet while cleaning out their
cages. He also states that mice and other very small mammals may be
controlled by using telescoping cardboard nest boxes with a piece of
Screen that slides between the cardboard layers to cover the entrance.

In transferring animals, occasionally cage openings may not coin-
cide so that animals may not be transferred directly from one cage to
the other. If the animal is not too large, it may be worked into a
cloth bag placed over the entrance and then carefully worked out of it,

?

inside the new cage. '

k AA A___‘ A _‘_A ___._
v Viv—fr rv v—ffi w v—V'v ‘ v—v v—v r—v—V fi—Yfi v—V '7 w—v

lErnest P. Walker, "Care of Captive Axumls," Annual Rgort of
t thso ‘an Institutio (Washington, D. 0.: U. 3. Government
Printing Office, 19 , p. 316.

2 d.

28

ILarger mammals, and those that might be too dangerous to handle
in a'bag, may'be transferred by live-trapping them in their enclosures.
Once in the trap the animal may'be transported at will. Sometimes
trap-shy individuals can.be induced to take an.anesthetic with their
food.

Nets with handles of various lengths are used to catch some small
mammals. Nets are particularly effective in handling monkeys. Burlap
and sometimes canvas material is used for the net to prevent the
animals from tearing them. The net or bag is quite deep so the animal
can'be scOOped into the pocket and the rim flipped over to prevent its
escape. From the net, the animals are transferred into smaller cages
or held with thick leather gloves for examination.

Care should be taken.not to excite the animal any more than is
necessary while they are being handled. Methods should be used that
do not require chasing the animal about its enclosure. If an.animal
must be caught, it should be cornered, if possible, and slow deliberate
motions used throughout the “chase."

Once caught, for any reason, the animal should be given a thorough
examination.to eliminate handling it again in the near future. Hoofs
and toenails may be clipped, immmization shots given, monkeys may be
tested for TB, teeth of rodents may need cutting or canines of unr
ruly monkeys may be drilled out, mink canines may be clipped; feet,
legs, and bodies should be examined for sores, and any parasites should
be eliminated. .A number of other routine tasks may be performed all

1
in.one’0peration.

fl“ n A

__ -
'V—Vv—fi "-f v—v—v—f fiv—v—f—f vv—r—v rvvvv—y fiffi w h r v—rv—v—f

GW, (Rahway, N. J.x Merck and 00., Inc.,
1955), p. 12 O.

29

When a squeeze cage is used, procedures that can be accomplished
are limited if the animal is not anesthetized. Ingrown claws may be
cut, injections adrrdxfistered, and topical medication applied, but the
large animals should be anesthetized to--extract teeth, reduce fractures,
and suture major wounds.1

Though general rules may be applied in handling groups of similar
animals, certain types require special handling techniques.

Porcupines present an obvious handling problem. They can be
tranSported with a special carrying devise. A nail keg, split length-
wise, and hinged so that it can be closed around the "Porky" and
secured with hooks, solves the quill problem quite well.

Lundy2 contrasts behavior in the two-toed, and in the three-toad
sloths. The former, a savage dangerous animal, the latter, easily held ‘
by the armpits after detaching all four sets of claws from a linb at
once.

Tiny animals are best carried in small boxes, eliminating the
possibility of squeezing them too hard.

Upon release, animals should be allowed to come out of containers
of their own accord without being hurried. Precautions should be taken
to protect an animal from injury if it is being released in an area
with which it is unfamiliar. Windows should be opaqued with soap and

burlaps hung near walls if an animal is inclined to be extremely panicy.

flA—A—‘A—A ALA 4‘ “A
rv—v—r fiv—Y—r v—v—v v—Yv—v—V firrvrv

1%., p. 121;? .

William E‘. Lundy, "The Upside—down Animal ." Natural Histog,
Vol. LXI, No. 3, (Mar., 1952), pp. llh-ll9.

30

A keeper who does not make pets of his charges, yet can capture
them without exciting them, is ideal. However, there will always be
animals that will not c00perate with the best of animal men. Zoo
personnel mst be on their guard continually for the unexpected, not
only for! their own protection but to safeguard the animals and the

1
public as well .

Shipping and Receiving

It is vitally important that animals arrive at their destinations
in as short a. time as possible. Close confinement, uncertain feeding
and watering, and unaccustomed noise and motion for prolonged periods
often prove fatal. A few hours may be the difference between a delicate
animal's safe arrival or its death.2 For shipping animals long dis-
tances, 8dr tranSportation is generally preferred . Though initially
more expensive, the high cost is balanced by a lower mortality rate.

It is advisable to determine the most efficient shipping methods
and the most reliable transportation organizations for one's own
particular part of the country:3 ‘

Extremely valuable animals are usually flown to their destinations
and often are accomparfied by an attendant who cares for them enroute.
Hardy animals, those of lesser value or from nearer places may be

shipped satisfactorily by less expensive means .

A A4 _44
#— 44 A u A

'P” f vv—f v—T—v fir. v—f v—v vrvyf

1Additional information on handling animals may be found in William
Bridges‘, "Banning Animals," 32%etin, N. Y. 2001. Soc., 1701.11.11,
No. 2 (Mar.-Apr., 1939). pp 3 -

zDavid Fleay, "Flight of the Platypuses,“ Natiogg Geomhic,
Vol. CXIV,’ No h, (Oct., 1958), pp. 512-525

3Belle J. Benchley, "Shipping Wild Animals," Parks and Recreation,
Vol. XXX, No. 12, (Dec., 1914?), pp. 585-587.

74.7w fry-W rfivv

31

Shipping crates should be designed to protect the animals and the
people who met handle them. Directions to transportation company
personnel on the outside of boxes should be combined with safe means of
administering food and water. Ample ventilation is important,
particularly during the summer months . Some tropical species should be
protected from drafts at all times.

Monkeys are sometimes provided with perches and a burlap screen
to give them a sense of security. .Aquatic mammals should never be
shipped in tanks of water without some means of getting out of the water
to dry off.1 Sea.Lions become feverish.when.they are closely confined
in shipping crates. They should be shipped with ice, according to Dr.
Harry Wegeforth, of the San Diego Zoological Society.

Capturing and shipping is a tremendous shock for most animals.
Only those in perfect condition should be crated, and then with the.
utmost care and patience.3

Benchleya suggests that carnivores be crated and fed the night
before shipping. .Arrangements for feeding them in transit need not be
made if they are to arrive.at their destination within a week.

The hoofed animals, Benchley4 claims, should be crated just before

shipment and loaded within two or three hours, before they become

___. A A_. - -l“ A ‘ “__A__.‘
__V___v'_v "w Vifi r—ffi > “Fr-

Walker, pp. 923..., pp. 335-336.

. 2In.the future, shipping dangers may be reduced by new tranquiliz-
1ng drugs. See Helen Buechl, "Animal Tranquilizers," Science Digest
(Oct., 1958), p. 98.

3Benchley, 9‘2. cit., pp. 153~156.
4!;bid.

32

accustomed to their crates and begin to struggle. Once in darkened
compartments and underway, the motion tends to calm them and encourage
them to lie down.

As soon as animals are sent out , a telegram should be sent ahead
informing the recipient when to expect their arrival.

It is helpful to have standing agreements with transportation
offices to notify the zoo immediately when a shipment arrives, so the
animals can be properly cared for at once.

New arrivals are usually frightened and tired. Caution and
patience should be exercised in uncrating them. Window glass should be
opaqued with soap and walls padded if an animal is of a highly nervous
diaposition. Animals that have been Spoiled as pets may require
special attention before they can be weaned to a regular zoo diet.

All new animals should be fed Sparingly at first.1

Preparations for new animals should be made well in advance by
completely disinfecting all cages and diaplays previously used by other
animals. Arrangements should be made for additional types of food to
be stocked if so required by a new species.

The public should be informed of the new arrivals as soon as they

can be put on diaplay.
Disease Prevention

The prevention of disease is probably the most important phase of

any medical program. Zoo people have found it more practical to prevent

_‘ MAJL‘ A A 4 _

A
firrfir—Y—f—T—f ——v—rv——7v—r v ‘—V—' W 7—7 r W v—v—vv—v fv‘w 7—. 77—.

1The molt Vetem Canal, 99, cit. , p. 12h8.

33

disease through such precautionary measures as cleanliness, and improved
diets than to lose public favor and endanger human lives with costly
epidemics among the animals.:L

Many Species of mammals can be innoculated against the various
diseases that afflict their kind. Most shots should be administered
according to a schedule thougi some booster shots may be given when it
is necessary to handle an animal at a later date. At any rate, complete
medical records are highly important?

Goes3 claims, by properly innoculating racoons, binturongs, and
all members of the dog and weasel families against distemper, and by
innoculating racoons and all members of the cat family, except lions
(they are immune), against cat plague, 90% of these animals can be
saved from these two diseases.

Tests may disclose types of disease that do not produce symptoms
until advanced stages of the illness have hem reached . Monkeys should
be tested yearly fer mberwlosiS, to which they are highly susceptible.
Tuberculosis can destroy an entire collection if it is not detected in time.

Barriers may be used effectively to prevent valuable animals from
being exposed to disease by the public. Gorillas are sometimes pro-
tected by panels of glass betwaen their cage and the visitors. These

glass panels serve several purposes. They prevent the primates from

*A A #H WM WAHA A L ._A
v—v—v

fr '—-—7 —v— fi *‘rrwr v—f vw—rr—yf w w—v—f #7 —7r r 'v—

1For further reading on the passive role of the zoo veterinarian
see William Bridges, "Keeping the Animals Well,“ Parks gig Recrgtion,
vel. XXIII, No. 5 (Jan., 1939). pp. 253-262.

age Merck Veterim Harmal, o . git.” pp. 1215-1251.

3Leonard J. Goss, "Disease in Zoo Animals," Parks and Recreation,
V010 YKHII, NO. 1’ (018.11., 19,49), pp. ’47-14-9.

3h

throwing things at the public as well as eliminating drafts and contact
with the public.

Through careful planning, other features of zoo design may cone
tribute to the prevention of disease by making routine jobs of sanitation
more simple and efficient. Drains and sewer systems should be large
enough that they will not be plugged by straw and other bedding material
that will inadvertently be washed into them.

Shift cages allow keepers to work in safety while doing a thorough
job of cleaning exhibits. ‘Well placed gutters allow fast, efficient
follow-up cleaning with hoses during visiting hours.

Simplicity of design is a.must in small areas. Cluttered mammal
exhibits are usually time consuming and difficult to maintain.

The problem of keeping animals in small cages clean, might be
solved by the use of wire mesh bottoms, that allow droppings to fall
into throw-away containers, or into running water.

It is important to know the natural history of each mammal
thoroughly. Many species or groups, have Special requirements they
easily satisfy for themselves in the wild. In captivity, if some of
these Special requirements are not provided, the result may be poor
health, or even death.

Some animals need Special conditions to groom themselves in order
to maintain their fur in good condition or to free themselves from
insects and mites. Many of the rodents and other small mammals require
fine dry sand to roll in. The horses and many of the hoofed animals

also enjoy taking dust baths.

35

Rhinos and most of the hog family thoroughly enjoy mud baths during
the hot summer months.

Deep pools are a must for many species during hot weather. Hippos,
elephants, and most bears, seem more content with access to deep water.
Even the tiger, (one of the few water-loving members of the cat family)
likes to go for an occasional swim.1

The platypus must have access to grit and gravel for his cheek
pouches to assist in the chewing process. And watch out for those
one-half inch, poison-dealing Spurs, on each hind foot of the male.2

The rodents need pieces of bone or antler to gnaw, for it's calcium
content and to prevent their incisors, which grow continually, from
becoming too long.

Many of the horned or antlered Species need something to fight, in
order to work off extra energy. Ted Downey, Director of the POtter Park
Zoo in.Lansing, Michigan, tells of an old bison that used to keep him-
self in good mental health.by battling a section of log, hung by a
short chain from a homemade turnstile.

Animals should be encouraged to exercise as a means of preventing
cage paralysis and other afflictions attributed to inactivity.
Treadmills, wheels, and ladders, as well as balls and other toys may
prove helpful. Companionship often encourages activity, though over-

crowding can be detrimental.

~_‘
w—w —— w fi “—— —.r v—v —— “fl

13am Diego Zoo, _p‘. 933., p. ho.

2Fleay, pp, cit., pp. 512-525. (These spurs are only poisonous
during the mating season).

36

Adequate diets are so important to animal health and disease
prevention, an entire section has been devoted to feeding.

Animals should be checked frequently for internal and external
parasites that cause discomfort and may spread disease. Lice, fleas,
and many other external parasites can.be eliminated with compounds
that will not harm the animals themselves. Remedies for internal
parasites are becoming more specific, making an accurate diagnosis a
necessity. Gossl'warns that an adequate dosage is important or the
parasite may become immune. For this reason, guessing at an animal's
weight may not be accurate enough. He recommends putting small mammals
in a crate for accurate weighing.

House mice and rats should be discouraged with design features
that exclude them from buildings and food storage areas.2 English
Sparrows and Rock Doves may also be excluded to some extent by this
method. Both groups of potential disease carriers are attracted by
wasted food that remains after exhibit animals have eaten.

Flies and roaches are attracted to wasted food and filth. Sanitary
conditions and insecticides, used with caution, tend to control these
pests. Flies may be discouraged from bothering wounds by painting the
wound area with tar, according to‘W’alker.3

Disinfectants must be used frequently on dishes, concrete floors,

4
and other hard surfaces of zoo buildings and exhibits. 'Walker relates,

1Goss,‘gp. cit.

2See Rat Control, a free publication, (CB-8) of the U. S. Dept. of
Agriculture, washington, D. C.

3Walker, __p. _c_i_t.., p. 338.
4Ibid., p. 313.

”

37

the National Zoo makes its own inexpensive formula as follows: 18 ounces
of lye dissolved in l to 2 gallons of water in an enamel or earthern
container, stir slowly as this solution is poured into 5 gallons of 5%
solution of hypochlorite. For use, add 1 pint of this stock solution

to 2 gallons of water. Caution! l) Hypochlorite poured into lye causes
a violent reaction, 2) This formula will remove paint.

An effective deodorant used by the National Zoo consists of:

)4 ounces of oil of pine to 1 gallon of water. Caution: The formula is
harmful to reptiles.1

Where illness or death of an animal is attributed to a contageous
disease, every square inch of it‘s enclosure must be decontaminated.
Hard surfaces must be disinfected, the soil in yards must be turned
over, and bedding, toys, etc., should be destroyed. Cage mates should
be isolated for observation. If deaths occur, the bodies should be
burned, after autOpsies have been performed.

The quality of routine cleaning reflects on every member of the
organization and indirectly upon every member of the community. Its
importance in the prevention of disease is paramount. Each exhibit and
its adjacent area must be thoroughly cleaned each morning before the
public arrives. Frequent Spot checks and touch-ups should be made

throughout the day. Bedding mst be inspected and changed frequently

-9 AA A _‘ A A _‘ __._.

V W fifi w—V— ——‘ v—v— m w f w w rv—vmfi V—W

1Ifbid., p. 313 . Also, Ralben Hilty in "Words of Caution Here and
There," Parks and Recreation, Vol. XV, No. 6 (Feb. , 1932), pp. 370-373,
stresses the importance of'IEnowing the content of such formulas. Among
other ingredients, he lists antimony chloride and cresylic acid as
being poisonous to cats, and possibly to other animfls.

38

to keep the animals clean.and free from mites. Animal food is inapected
before each feeding to guard against contamination. Shortly after the
animals have finished eating, Keepers should remove all leftover food
and wash and disinfect the feeding dishes.

Animal records must be maintained daily and the proper authorities

notified of changes within the collection.
Quarantine

Quarantine can be an effective method of preventing the Spread of
disease in zoo animals. .All animals being imported are quarantined for
varying lengths of time depending on the species and the areas they
come from. 'Until the legal quarantine period is over they are not
allowed to enter the United States. In this way animals in the United
States are protected from diseases that might be brought in from other
countries.1

Animals are also quarantined upon.arrival at a zoo before being
put on diSplay. This guards against the introduction of diseases not
screened in other quarantines or those contracted enroute.

Quarantine is essential for animals that are suspected of having
contageous diseases. .Mammals that appear ill make a poor public
impression and should not be displayed even though the illness may'be

noncontageous. Often, complete rest away from crowds of people is a

major factor in an animal's quick recovery.

.__._A_.__ w _‘_‘ _ .__._‘ _—_ —
'V—Vw—V ——7 VM v—fivv fl —'—W v—v—v m'vw W fiv—v v—f—v r—v—T v—

1See Alden S. Wood, “America's First Animalport," Nature, Vol. 51,
No. 6, (June-July, 1958) pp. 305-307, Screening animal diseases.

For a maximum of protection for the animals, zoo personnel, and
the public, quarantine should take place in a separate area.of the zoo

and should be managed by a separate caretaker.
Acclimatizing

As a general rule, animals from cold climates adjust to high
temperatures more easily than animals used to extreme heat adjust to
cold.1 There are exceptions of course.

Some tropical species do very well when allowed access to the out-
doors all winter long. Some of the African monkeys grow thick coats
of hair and are less likely to take cold than if they were suddenly
turned out of a warm building to Spend cool summer nights on a monkey
island or in other outdoor exhibits.

Campbell2 claims lions, Grevy's zebras, Indian water buffalo,
Indian antelope and many of the primates, including chimpanzees, have
thrived outdoors all winter. He has seen South American, African, and
Indian primates outside in -lO°F. weather and there has been, "practically
no respiratory troubles now for twenty years."

Gradual acclimatization is the answer to successful adjustment of
mammals from warmer climates that are to be exhibited outside. They
should be allowed to gradually lengthen the time they spend outdoors

during cold weather until they finally have access to the outdoors at

 

‘i #VT—v—v—v

1According to Dr. Rollin H. Baker, Director of the Michigan State
University Miseum, in a lecture on zoogeography.

2’J. A. Campbell, "Some Observations Relative to Ailments of Inmates
in a Zoological. Park." Parks and Recreation, Vol. XVII, No. 9, (May,
1935). pp- 378-382.

ho

all times. They should never be denied access to adequate shelter from
the cold.

For many delicate tropical Species, indoor exhibits must be used
in the temperate zone, at least during the cold season. Many are so
delicate they should be displayed indoors at all times, where humidity
and drafts can be controlled.

Even though heated buildings are provided for winter quarters,
mammals such as marmots, that normally hibernate, should be allowed to
do so or they may not survive the second summer.1

Ln order to hibernate, Walker2 informs us, mammals must get fat
and have cool, dark quarters that are insulated against freezing. The
humidity should be high and the temperature quite stable. ‘A final
requirement of most hibernating mammals is a nest of absorbant material
such as sugar cane pulp.

The cooling affect of water can be important in making mammals from
cold climates, as well as some tropical animals, more comfortable
through the hot days of temperate zone summers.2 'Water falls, pools of
running water, and Shade not only give an.impression of coolness but
may actually lower temperatures considerably in the exhibit area.
Concrete surfaces may be hosed down for added relief from extreme

summer heat.

W v—v w 7—7 7—7—7 wv—r v-v fi 7' —f—v l7 vv—v 7

Walker, Jo $3.40, pp. 315—3169

2Ibid.
3CampbelI,o _p.. cit. (Discloses that elephants, because of their
hairless skin, are unable to stand extremes of cold or heat.)

hl

A proper balance of sun and shade is important to the well-being
of most mammals. Even when.ultra violet lamps are used, an adequate
proportion of shade should be provided. Air conditioning may be
necessary where lights tend to overheat indoor exhibits. Most nocturnal
mammals apparently do not require sunlight for their general wellebeing.
As.a group, with their constant body temperature control mechanism
and efficient insulation, the mammals manage to survive as great a

1
variety of habitats as any group of animals on earth.
Evidence of Poor Health

The effective cure of most illnesses depends on early detection.
It is important that keepers Observe-their charges carefully each day
for signs of trouble. Some of the more common symptoms of poor health
to be watched for among mammals are lack of appetite, weight loss, lack
of grooming, unusual lack of activity, eyes not bright, unseasonal loss
of hair, looseness of bowls or constipation, convulsions, coughing,
excessive thirst, discharges from eyes or nose, and rapid or labored
breathing.2

'When there is reason to believe an animal needs medical attention,

the veterinarian should be notified at once.

“l g _‘ My-
v—f fi‘f v—v—v—v fivvw—f '7'“ v—v 7—7 v—v fl, TV TV ___

1Ivan T. Sanderson, v Mammals of the World (Garden City,
New York: Hanover House, (n.d. , p. 10.

2The Merck Veterinary Manual,lgp. cit., p. 12h6.

h2
Mbdical Care

Though much has been accomplished in the past fifty years there
is still much work to be done concerning the cure of diseases in wild
animals. Due to the rarity of some species, without enough animals
for experimentation, a vacuum of medical knowledge concerning their
care-often.makes diagnosis and treatment extremely difficult.

Our knowledge of domestic species can often be applied to zoo
animals of similar physiology. Most diseases of domestic rabbits are
analogous to those found in wild Lagomorphs. Among the Canines, Felids,
Mustelids, and other large families, analogies can be made, yet
occasionally perplexing differences do occur.

Often there is no domestic relative to be compared, as in the case
of aardvarks, the egg-laying mammals and many others. ‘Where gaps of
medical knowledge occur, often.intuition must be combined with experi-
ence in caring for a.great variety of animals. Complete records,
including autopsy data of diseases occurring in rare Species can.be of
tremendous value in treating similar cases.1

Fortunately, many diseases are-confined to families or other groups
of similar animals. Tuberculosis is an exception. It can.be found in
one form or another in almost all of the‘warmiblooded animals.2

Much of the success achieved in the actual treatment of zoo animals

depends on ingenuity in.devising means of restraining them'while

_. *- L.-._~
fv—V—vvv—v—v v—w—v v—f v—vw—f fi—v fi—fv—v r“

1Herbert Fox, D sease in tive Wild Animals (Philadelphia:
J. B. Lippincott 00., '1'9'2'3'5'."'J EHL'“""""“"

2Campbellhgp. cit., pp. 378-382. Lists factors conductive to
the occurrence of tuberculosis.

1:3

medication is applied, without exposing personnel to danger, or unduly
exciting the animal. Often more harm than good comes from restraining
wild animals. To some, weakened by disease, capture and rough handling
necessary to force medication could be fatal.

Whenever possible, medicines should be administered by mixing them
with an animal's favorite food, preferably when the animal has been
made hungry by skipping a regular feeding.

Milk is a very good medium for disguising the taste of medicine,
according to Bridges.1 Sick mammals will often take milk in preference
to any other food. It should be discontinued temporarily if diarrhea
occurs. Only canned or pasteurized milk should be used in order to
safeguard the animals against tuberculosis.

Mechanical injuries such as broken bones usually require that the
animal be restrained in order to set the bone and construct a cast that
will stand considerable abuse. The animal's temperment and condition
determine whether it shall be anesthetized'while the bone is being set.
If an anesthetic is used, the amount is determined by the animal's body
weight and temperment . .

Major surgery is seldom attempted unless absolutely necessary.

It may not only disfigure an animal, but the aftercare is so difficult
in wild animals that it is quite impractical in most cases.

Wide wooden collars are sometimes employed to prevent animals from

2
chewing on bandages or body wounds.

_ A..— A ___._l
—7 #7 fl w V—v v—v—V 'v—f j—f v #m fi fi

1William Bridges, Zoo Dgtor, (New York: William Morrow and Co.,
1957) . - A

2Moore, __p. git”, illustrated p. 3).;1.

The Eeeding Process

In an effort to acquaint the reader with some of the work and
problems involved in feeding zoo mammals, this section is devoted to
acquisition, storage, the actual feeding, basic diets and reference to

Specific diets.
Acquisition of Food

In the larger zoos, food acquisition is accomplished by curators
working through a commissary section.

Most animal foods are purchased wholesale and in quantity. Quantity
buying not only saves time and money, but lessens the chance of running
out of certain seasonal foods.

In order to promote good public relations and as insurance against
high prices and deficiencies, it is good business to patronize as many
local food wholesalers as possible.

Grocery wholesalers provide much of the food required by the mammal
division. Meat packing plants are excellent sources of meat scraps,
bones, chicken heads and other meats necessary in a well-rounded diet
for carnivores. Bakeries may supply quantities of inexpensive stale
bread. Hay, grain, and a variety of other farm produce may be pur-
chased directly from local farms, in season. .Misshapen cull vegetables
may'be purchased cheaply at local markets.1 Pet supply houses usually

stock a variety of less common animal foods such as ant eggs, meal worms,

Vv—r w w V—V—vv—f v—v—f "—7 —_

1Other aspects of food quality must not be sacrificed for bargain
prices. Frost-touched cabbage; for example, has been.known to make
elephants deathly sick. ’

1:5

dried flies, and many others that are relished by certain monkeys,

many of the rodents, marmosets, and other of the more delicate small
mammals. Biological supply houses may sometimes provide hard to get
foods such as frogs, snakes, lizards, and others. Fish markets usually
carry a variety of sea foods. During the summer months, local boys

may be encouraged to gather wild materials, both plant and animal.
Hunters and trappers may also be of some help. Earthworms, grubs,
minnows, and many other bait items may be purchased from fishebait
dealers.

Mbths and other night-flying insects may be trapped in large
numbers during warm weather, by using mercury vapor lamps to attract
them.l

Under extreme circumstances, it may be necessary to have exotic
foods shipped in, for rare animals, until suitable substitutes can.be

found.
Raising Food

By raising its own food, a zoo may not only out food costs con~
siderably, but may assure itself of certain.hard to get items as well.
A Most of the hay used in the Potter Park Zoo, is grown by its,
Director, Ted Downey, on undeveloped park lands. Thus he is assured
of less expensive, top quality hay. He personally inapects it for

coarse material such as foxiail and other grass-like vegetation with

2
barbed awns.

——‘ A— —— A—- -_A_—- A _ .-
w—v v—fw—v firv—‘r v—r Wv—r—vv—v—V fiv

1LincolnBarnett, "Rainbow Realm of Tropical Insects," Life,
(Nov. 3, 1958),

23cc Walter c. Muenscher, Poisonous Plants of the United states,
(New York: Macmillan Co., 19515. 7

11.6

During the summer months, grass clippings may be saved for the
herbivores. Branches pruned from certain.types of trees and shrubs are
enjoyed by browsing animals throughout the year. In the Fall, acorns
and other nuts may be gathered from city-owned land. During World War
II many zoos were forced to raise their own vegetables on city'property.l

Many of the common small mammals with high breeding potentials,
such as rabbits, Guinea pigs, white rats, and others are used as food
for carnivores. Certain birds and reptiles are used for this purpose,
too.

Some of the specialty foods such as meal worms, wax worms, and
maggots may be raised in quantity in a very small Space. Meal worms
are easily raised on bran, mixed with green vegetables, between two

layers of burlap. Maggots may be stored indefinitely by keeping them

2
in jars in a cooler so they will not pupate.
Substitutes

Often, when certain foods are not available or become too expensive,
suitable substitutes must be found. In many cases it is impossible to
supply exotic animals with their native foods. Often their feeding
habits are unknownt Walker3 suggests introducing new diets in the
following manner; offer as wide a variety as possible so the animal may

choose the kinds that suit its needs. .An ample quantity and variety

‘_4— l— A
——v v—v—v————v WV v—r—v fif riff—v v—V—v—v w

1Roger Conant "200 Food Shortages," Parks and Recreation, Vol.
XXVII. N0~ l (191M. pp. 35-38.

2Walker,‘gp.. cit., pp. 323-325. Describes methods of raising
several forms of insects.

31b d., p. 319,

L7

should be given so the animal will not be forced by hunger to eat food
that may be harmful. It should be given plenty of time to select its
food as it may take a week or more to sample certain foods with.which
it is unfamiliar. A careful record should be made of foods sampled
and the quantity eaten, so that a permanent diet can be established.

The growing scarcity of horse meat presents a problem in feeding
carnivores. The W. K. Kellogg Company of'Battle Creek, Michigan, is
experimenting with dog and mink foods in an attempt to produce high
protein grain formulas that are acceptable to the animals and that will
maintain.health, reproductive efficiency and high pelt quality.

Corbin.and Schafer1 tell how young cats may be changed to a mink
supplement diet by first feeding ground meat and gradually increasing
the amount of supplement mixed with the meat and water. They claim,
in the near future, all cats may be fed a completely dry ration.
A lack of flavor seems to be the limiting factor at present.

Lucky and Hittson2 tell of a superior lioness raised by the Fort
'WOrth Zoo on a meatless diet. They believe, in a short time, all

carnivores may be fed prepared foods.
Food Storage

In most well-planned zoos, adequate food storage facilities are

provided in a centrally located commissary building. .A receiving clerk

._‘_‘ _.__ A

v—fi Vv—v w—v .7— fi—v w “—v __v_'_ V

V—fi v v—v—v w—v—v

1Dr. J. E. Corbin and H. C. Schafer, "Feeding the Specialty Animals."
Parks and Recreation, Vol. kl, No. 8 (Aug., 1956), pp. 339-3h2.

2T. D. Lucky and thHittson, "Lion Feeding in the Future,"

Eggks Eng Recreation, Vol. 35, No. 5, (1952), pp. 32-33.

h8

’

records all deliveries and speeds the multitude of foods to their
Special storage places.1' Bags of meal and feed are sent to the grain
room. Fish, meat, vegetables and fruit go to their respective
refrigerators, and hay, to the lofts.

well designed buildings employ many labor saving devices such as
ramps, loading shoots, mechanical dollys, elevators, modern cooking
facilities and gravity fed food storage outlets.

Foundations, walls and floors are designed to exclude rodents.
Screens keep flies and other pests out of the spotless kitchen, and

ventilation systems help create sanitary and enjoyable working conditions.
Food Preparation

Full-time cooks are on.hand, in larger zoos, to prepare basic
diets, bake bread, and generally assist keepers in the daily food
preparation. The Curator must establish each animal's ration, but it
is up to individual keepers to check daily the quantity and quality of
the food and to make final preparations to suit the individual taste of

each of his animals.
Feeding

In.order for a feeding program to operate efficiently, a feeding
schedule must be established. Regularity promotes good health among

the animals, allows supervisors to check the feeding, allows accurate,

m A .-u A—um “ A... _— ——A

v—v—v V. v—V—V fl ——T—v v—w v—v v—v —. ‘— fi fi fi
Y r

lFreeman M. Shelly, "Cage Service," Fauna, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Sept.
1939)-

h9

daily quantity checks to be made and encourages the public to watch
the feeding operations.

Most adult mamnals may be fed once every day. Some of the smaller,
more delicate species must be given more attention. Shrews for example,
mist feed almost constantly.

Pregnant females and females with nursing young, as well as growing
animals, should receive Special attention.

The larger carnivores remain in better health if they are kept a
little hung-y and if they have one fast-day each week. A practical
method of determining how much to feed the big cats, according to
Stephan,l is to allow each animal to gorge itself during each feeding,
for several days, keeping track of the quantity eaten, by weight, each
time. As the animal begins to taper off, in amount consumed, set its
daily ration somewhat below that figure. This procedure should be
repeated occasionally as a check.

As a rule, most other Species remain in better health if they are
not allowed to become overweight . Extra fat encourages inactivity, a
negative value for display purposes. Bear often develOp sore feet from
walking on concrete, as a result of being overweight.2

With the exception of most of the herbivorous mammals, that must
feed for long periods to sustain themselves, extra food Should be
cleaned up shortly after the animals have finished eating. At the

m rv—vv—vr 'fvrf v w—v w—V v v—v v—v v—v flyww—W—V—v v—v

lCapt. S. G. Stephan, "Sick Call," ngks and Recrwtion, Vol. XXV,
No. h. (Dec. 19hl). pp. 157-162.

2Many types of animals may develop sore feet from walking on con-
crete. See illustration in Walker, 93. cit., pl. 8, fig. 2, of monkey‘s
foot worn to the bone. .

50

same time, feeding pans should be collected and taken to the commissary
to be thoroughly washed .
Keepers must see that weaker animals get their share of food,

even if it means feeding them separately from their cage mates .

Cool fresh water must be available to the animals at all times.

Basic Diets

The quantity and variety of foods stocked by large zoos is enormous.

A few of the more common types stocked for mammal consumption are as

follows: 1
apples raisins meal worms
oranges nuts rabbits
bananas oats fowl
sweet potatoes sunflower seed earthworms
white potatoes millet liver
greens bran bones
beets willow branches grasshOppers
carrots evergreen branches chameleons
corn bread fish
alfalfa? oatmeal mink supplement
timothy hay meat dog meal
apricots eggs Mellin's food mixture
grapes milk .
prunes ’ bone paste

Heroivores

3
For the large herbivores, Shelly recommends a mixture of grain and

1m e M rm

#77

23. cit., Table 31.

legume-meal, reinforced with vitamins and minerals. A low protein

v—v v—V—v

2Second and third cuttings of this legume are preferred. First

cuttings are too laxative.

3Shelly, "Feeding Zoo Animals," Barks and Recrgtion, Vol. XXX,

No. 11 (Nov. 19M). pp. 5&8-550.

51

dairy ration containing 30% alfalfa leaf meal improves the vitamin “A"
content and compensates for a.1ack of green grass.1 Mix with an equal
quantity of dried beet pulp, wet thoroughly and add 10% green vegetables.
Nfixed hay should be fed separately. Shelly claims most hoofed and
horned animals do very well on this diet. Kangaroos and their relatives,
he says, should be given additional carrots, sweet potatoes and other
vegetables.

Corbin and Schafer2 offer the following information on herbivore
diets. For ruminants, B/h lb. of supplement is normally fed for every
100 lbs. of body weight, plus all the high quality legume hay the animal
'will consume. The supplement should be fortified with essential
vitamins and minerals designed for developing young and for reproduction,
not a high energy mixture that produces excessive body fat. A high
quality milk replacer, followed by a calf starter, will usually help
poor milk producers raise strong offSpring. Bloating and scouring may
'be remedied by mixing legume hay with straw or grass, or by using a
legume hay with smaller leaves.

Nonrruminants such as horses, donkeys, and zebras remain in good
health when.fed 1/2 lb. of high molasses supplement per 100 lbs. of
body weight, with grass hay offered as free choice. Legume hay may

cause scouring or impaction in these animals.

w. v—v—v 77+ WWW

lGlen G. Crosbie, "Feeding and Care of Wild mammals and Birds,"
Parks and Recreation, Vol. 37, No. 12, (Dec. 1953), states that a lack
of vitamin "A" lowers resistance to colds and pneumonia. It may cause
nervous disorders, loss of young, and weakness. It is necessary for
maintenance of body growth, reproduction and lactation.

2Corbin and Schafer, _p_. 933., p. 3140.

52

Trace minerals and salt should be offered both groups as a free
choice.

Walker1 suggests trying such animals as deer, sheep, goats,
antelope, and bison, on silage.

0f the Rodents and Leporids, Corbin and Schafer2 claim such groups
and Species as chinchilla, nutria, prairie dogs, and rabbits, do very
‘well on prepared rabbit rations and water. They add that developing
and dry adults should be fed sparingly or they become too fat.

In addition to green leafy vegetables provided for small herbivores
high protein foods such as meat or egg should be offered, to supplement
worms, insects and bird eggs they obtain in the wild. They should also

a
be given a generous amount of multivitamin preparation daily;
Omnivores A

Shelly4 recommends that omnivorous animals be fed a mixture of
whole grains, processed legume meals, dried milk products, yeast, cooked
ground meat, and fortified with vitamin preparations and minerals.
Except for highly Specialized animals, most subhuman primates, bears,
and most raccoons and their relatives do very well on this diet. Fresh

fruits and vegetables may be added.

_‘ A‘ *‘
v —v—~ __w_v fi—

Walker, 9‘2. $14., p. 3310 ‘
2Corbin and Schafer,.gp. cit., p. 3h0.

éihe Merck veterinary.Manual, pp, cit., p. 7h8. For further infor-
mation on vitamins see The Phygician’s Vitamin Reference Book, issued
by the E. R. Squibb Co. The A. J. Heinz Co. issues charts on nutrition.

4Shelly,.gp. cit., p. 5h9.

5.3

A well-balanced dog ration and water constitutes a complete diet
for members of the canine family, racoons, and most bear, according to
Corbin and Schafer.1 During lactation, additional meat should be fed
to increase the femalefls_milk supply. These animals should be fed all
of the commercial ration they can eat,within a half-hour period, once
every- day.

Walker2 observes that seasonal diet changes seem to be necessary
for proper development in some Species.

Concerning the feeding of beer, Crosbie3 suggests that grizzlies,
pqlars, Himalayans, and Eurasian browns be fed: eggs, vegetables,
fruits, bread, bran, and honey three days per week. A mixture of half
dog food and half meat, with a little fish added, should be fed three
days per week, and the seventh day should be a fast day.

Cooks at the National Zoo make bear bread in 200 lb. lots. The
‘ following materials are thoroughly mixed, allowed to rise, and then
baked like other breads; 100 lbs. flour, 60 lbs. bran, 2 lbs. salt,
1/2 lb. yeast, and 1 lb. blackstrap molasses. This is fed with a
variety of meats, including the hair, feathers, bones, viscara, and
supplemented with vegetables and occasionally a small amount of honey.4

Commercial monkey rations containing ascorbic acid eliminates the

5
necessity of feeding fruit or green supplements to most primates.

— —'——__v v ~_——v w—f V VFW 7 w *7er

1Corbin and Schafer, pp. git.” p. 3);,0.
2Walker, 93. 9.1-3” p. 307.
3Crosbie, _p_. 313., p. 19.
4Walker, ..E' 923., p. 3142.

aPreviously, citrus fruit has been fed as a source of vitamin "C"
a lack of which causes scurvy in the Primates and Guinea Pigs.

Sh

The leaf-eating monkeys are an exception. They should still be fed
flowers, leaves and meal worms.

Dog pellets are an excellent basic food for baboons, porcupines,

1
otter, and beaver.

.A formula for a basic pellet ration that assures animals of all
the necessary food elements was made byO'Connor2 during World War II.
The following materials were ground and mixed: cooked corn and wheat
cereals, protein meat meal, liver meal, soybean cil meal, dried skim
milk, wheat germ, tomato pomace, yeast, Whitefish meal, cheese, alfalfa

meal, bone meal, salt, and fortified codliver oil.
Carnivores

A diet used successfully by the Philadelphia Zoo for such flesh
eaters as wolves, foxes, and even birds of prey, consists of: 30%
Shelly‘s dry, "Mix for Omnivores,"3 60% ground raw meat, and about 10%
tomato paste, or an equal amount of green vegetables, plus added
vitamins and minerals. The cat family will not accept this mixture
consistently, so they are fed whole meat, supplemented by rabbits and
domestic fowl, exclusively.

O'Connor4 claims that lions may be maintained on the dry mix he

recommends for omnivores.

_. A4 _
_——‘ ¥h
— m _‘__

V—v—V— Wfi mw—v—‘v—fii—T—v

1The Merck Veterigggz gaggal,.4g. cit., p. 7h9.
3Patrick O'Connor, "Wartime.Animal Nutrition," Parks and Recreation
Vol. XXVII, No.-l, (Jan.-Fsb., l9hh), pp. 38-h1.

3Shelly, supra, p. 52.
40*Connor, 9p. cit., p. J40.

55

Corbin and Schafer1 say that a combination of 35% mink supplement
and 65% meat, with added water, offers the best diet for cats. This
formula may cut meat consumption as much as 60%. Young cats are easily
changed to mink supplement by mixing increasing amounts with ground
meat .

Besides good muscle meat, carnivores should receive generous
portions of liver and other viscerat IBone meal or bone paste and cod-
liver oil is particularly important to the well-being of young growing
animals.2

Crosbie3 recommends that amino acid supplement be added to the
lean.horse meat, liver, vitamins and minerals fed to Felines. He also
suggests that at least once per week the cats should be given a whole
rabbit or jungle fowl. Canines should be given rabbits, jungle fowl,
or Guinea pigs occasionally. Young animals should get plenty of mdlk,
vitamins and minerals. Adults do well on half dog food, half meat, six
days per week.

The small mammalian carnivores should be fed generally in the
same manner as the larger meat eaters. Offered as a supplement to
prepared foods, freshly killed mice, rats, and small birds, add variety

to a well-rounded diet.

#— A _
*W

1Corbin and Schafer, _p.. cit., p. 3&0.

'—V"‘— w—

2The Merck Veteriggx Manual, _p‘. _c_3_L_t_..., p. 71,8.
3Crosbie, _p_. 223;” p. 19.

56

Insectivores

Many small mammals eat great numbers of insects in.the wild.
Some feed on them almost exclusively. Others acquire them while eating
plant foods. Insects raised at the zoo fulfill the needs of some of

1
these animals. Others can be induced to change to other foods.
Piscivores

Fish eaters may be fed fresh or frozen fish. As yet, no food '
substitute has been found for animals that feed entirely on fish.
Vitamins may'be added to whole fish by pouring them directly into the
fishes mouth. Frozen fiSh should be thoroughly thawed and all fish
must be checked for fish hooks. Even slightly tainted fish may kill
searlions.

Fish are an important diet supplement for may fur-bearing animals
such as mink and fox. Canned, dried, fresh, or frozen fish may be fed

to these mammals.

Reference to Specific Diets

The Merck Vetegigagy Mggual published by Merck & Co., Inc.,
Rahway, N. J., 1955, contains diets in table form (pages 750-757) for

over seventy-five groups and Species of mammals from all over the world.

Ernest P. Walker, "Care of Captive.Animals," Annual Report of the
Szrgithsonian Institution 12g; , United States Government Printing Office,

—- a
v—(v—ffi w—w v—fi ——‘r ——r fiv—v—‘r rv—r —'—v m w

“Milliam Bridges, WAnteatersIBecome Milk-Egg-Meat-Eaters in the
Zoo," Animal Kingdom, Vol. 59, No. 2 (April, 1956), pp. h3~h6.

57

lists about sixty-five diets (pages 339-3h7) for groups and Species of
mammals not mentioned in the Merck annal.

For detailed diets of most North American mammals, see Clifford
B. Moore's, The Book of Wild Pets, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1937,
pages 307-397. ‘

All three of these references also have sections on bird and
reptile diets.

For reference to diets for specific mammals see the appendix of

this thesis .

CHAPTER III
PUBLIC RELATIONS

Probably no one factor iS more important to the continued success
of a zoological park than favorable public relations. As a public
institution, a zoo's history from inception through ultimate success or
failure is determined largely by weight of public Opinion.‘ Quality of
public relations is influenced by every member of an organization.

In a zoological park organization, favorable public relations is a

product, a means to an end, and even an end in itself.
Zoo Products and Management Goals

Schroeder reminds us that, "a zoo is a business. We have a board
of directors, a management staff and production workers. Our product
is the exhibition of animals."1

In a modern zoo there may be other products. The quality and
character of these products determine to what extent zoo goals-will
be achieved.

The Mammal Division‘s contribution to zoological park goals is
accomplished primarily through display, programing, and the interfusion

of favorable public relations.

# A‘fi‘u— A-‘

h v-V v v —v—f'—Y F7“ fir V v—vv—T v-Vfi— w—r—

1Dr. Charles R. Schroeder, "Applying Industrial Personnel Manage-
ment Practices in a Zoo," Parks and Regreation, Vol. )40, No. 11 (Nov.,
1957). pp. 13-15. 28-

58

59

Di Splay

Perspective in planning and design is the key to effective zoo-
logical diSplay. Consideration must be made for: the personnel who
work with the animals; the peculiarities of each Species of mammal,
and the people who come to see the displays.1

Efficiency and personnel safety are two of the most important
considerations in planning for maintenance. Ample escape doors, shift
cages, maintenance aisles, adequate drainage systems, and a host of
other essential maintenance features must be given top priority.2

Each Species of mammal must be considered individually with regard
to its Special needs and for the purpose of Showing it in the most
interesting and effective marmer possible. Of the exhibition of animals,
Schroeder says, "To improve our product we must Show animals in better
condition and to better advantage 3 to be more efficient we must keep
them longer and have them reproduce, and do it with greater food
efficiency and avoid lost motion.":3

To best serve the'visitingpublic an over-all balance of beauty,
entertainment, and education is needed.

Beauty may be achieved through contemporary landscape practices
that blend well-made buildings and enclo sures with natural materials,

to create harmony and unity of the total design. A means of relating

__ AAA—A 4— _‘
v—' a v—v—Vfifi fiv w—‘fi v—v v—v—Vfiw—V

J'For considerations in master planning see Wilcox, o . cit. , )48 pp. ,

and Robert F. Mainone,A AMaster Elan for the Potter Park-R , *wg,

Zoo
fl (swig ,Part I and II, M. S. U. Res. Dev. Dept., 19 7, unpublished.

?Mainone,A Hoofed Stock Diapm, M. s. U. Res. Dev. Dept., 1957,

unpublished.
3Schroeder, pp. cit., p. 13.

man to nature according to Eckbo.1 Just as trees, shrubs and flowers
are chosen for Size, color and Shape, animals, too, should be con-
sidered as elements of design in the production of individual exhibits.2

The entertainment value of groups of young, active animals would
seen to warrant further experimenting with untried combinations of one
or more species...3 Well designed exhibits may add considerably to a
speCie's entertainment value.

The potential educational value of zoological diaplays may be
brought out, in part, through the effective use of interpretive signs.4
Conservation, natural history, ecology, and other subjects related to
zoology, may be made interesting and practical through modern museum
techniques.5 Electronic devices offer a great range of future

interpretive possibilities.

A A # _‘ ‘ww

._‘
v—v—v
v v—v‘w w—v—V—f mv h v. f ‘7 “v.7

lGarrett Eckbo, "Animals in the Landscape ," Landscge For Living,
(Los Angeles: Duel, Sloan & Pearce, 1950), p. llS. '

2.29.1..-
3Mainone, Notes on the W, K: Kellogg merimental fink Colgnies
The r Relationshi to 20010 ical Gardens, M. S. U. Res. Dev. Dept.

1957, unpublished. Also, see w. c. Allee, m Agggggtions: A 33d;

in Genefl Sociologi, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1931 .
*For details on signs read Victor A. Greulach, "The Use of Illus-

trated Zoo Labels," Parks and Recreatiog, Vol. XXVIII, No. 3, (May-June

l9h5). pp. 16h-l70.

5Lawrence Curtis, "The Rain Forest at Ft. Worth Zoo," Parks am
Recrggtgon, Vol. bl, No. 9, (Sept. 1958), pp. 39h-395. Also, see
Peggy Pickering Larsen, "A Living World Underground ," Nature, Vol. 51,
No. 6, (June—July, 1955), pp. 288-292, 332.

61

Programing

In a well-rounded zoo program aimed at maintaining favorable public
relations; promotion, entertainment, and education may become inseparable.1

Long-range planning is the key to effective program organization.
Consideration must be given to finance, leadership, the effect on
individual animals and the people that will be participating in the
programs.

As programs become larger in scope, the responsibility of finance
and leadership may shift. Finance may come in part, or entirely, from
other local organizations, institutions, local tax funds, gifts, Special
money making projects, or from the programs themselves.

Sources of professional and volunteer leadership should be
determined.

The effect of programs on the'animalis well-being nust be con-
sidered. Safety of animals and the public should be of primary concern.
Habits and diaposition of individual animals are important planning
considerations .

The age, sex, physical, emotional, social, and mental characteris-
tics of the people who will participate, must be determined to best
serve their diversified interests. From such surveys, a favorable

balance of entertainment and educational activities may be planned .

‘__i L” #A ‘ A” _.. _._ ‘ _

fl mv—‘vv v—wv—v Viv—w m f fifi v—V '1 ———V+

lSee Fletcher A. Reynolds, "The Zoo Naturalist, " P ks and
Recrggon Vol. XXX, No. 12, (Dec., 19M), pp. 582-58, on public
relations. For some excellent programing ideas, check the Park Manage-
ment Series Bulletins, edited by Arthur T. Wilcox and Leslie M. Reid,
through the Michigan State University Agricultural Experiment Station
and Cooperative Extension Service, in cooperation with the American
Institute of Park Executives Park Education ngram; Bulletin 6, Outdoor

catio ,3; Bulletin 7, Lgtemretive Promg; Bulletin 8, Park-School
Lessee-

62

An.0pportunity for participation at various levels of proficiency adds
depth to the total program. variety and flexibility insure continued

1
interest for the greatest number of people.

Favorable Public Relations-A Means of
Achieving Zoological Park Goals.

Organization.policy, attitudes of personnel, appearance—of the
physical plant, facilities and services provided, coMbine to shape
public attitude, which, in the final analysis, determines whether or
not a public zoo will develop and maintain public support.

The three major goals of a zoo public relations program are: to
promote and perpetuate the organization itself; to provide entertains

ment and recreation for all, and to contribute to community, national,

and world culture, through education"
Emphasis on Education

The zoo's ability to create interest in the life sciences among
people of all ages has caused an increasing demand from educational
institutions and the general public, for zoo Sponsored education

programs at all levels. Much has been.done by many of our zoos to

_4
v—mfi VT— v—v

—— fifi v—v— wovfivv—v

fr—r ————v

1See Robert F. Mainone and Alex wynstra, Jr., A Zoo Recreation
;Ezngzam, M. S. U. Res. Dev. Dept. 1957, 9 pp., unpubliShed outline.
Creating interest in a zoo through a recreation.program. The paper inc
eludes planning, organizing, Specific activities including zoo arts and
crafts projects at various levels of proficiency. Hebbies associated
'with zoos, and other related activities lead up to a zoo Sponsored,
city~wide.American.Indian.pagent. The costumes and other paraphernalia
are produced, in part, from zoo animal products such as feathers, hides,
horns, antlers, teeth, etc. Included in the outline are other ideas on
educational programs and reference to further reading.

63

answer this demand, and more will be done in the future as our search
for knowledge becomes more intense.

Cooperative programs that bring organizations together add greatly
to the depth and scope of ideas; such as, conservation education and
nature interpretation. Through careful consideration, program balance
may be. planned to provide still greater good for greater nunbers, and
yet provide "something for everyone."

Through education-centered displays and programs, with the aid of
all forms of communications media and modern interpretive techniques,
the zoo can become a center for discovery, teaching, and stin'oilating
interest in sciehce.’ Imagination is the major limiting factor. The
creative possibilities are infinite. A tremendously exciting challenge
for those who would solve the fascinating problems of nature and
inSpire others in the quest for that knowledge for the betterment of

'mankind.

_— ‘A __—._ —_. _ 1‘ 4.
vVv—rfi 1“ Vi fififi w w—fi m fi v—v

1The world' 3 total knowledge is now doubling every fifteen years
and there is every reason to believe this rate will contime to increase.
Wernher von Braun (1958).

6h

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Burt, William H. The 14% of Michigan. Ann Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 19 . .echnical.

, and R. P. Grossenheider. A Field- Guide to the Marmals.
Cambridge, Mass.: Riverside Press, 1952. 187 Species in color.
Good North American bibliography.

Cabrera, A. and Yepes, J. Maniferos sudamegicanos. _Vida, costumbres

y dech‘ ption. Buenos Aires (Comp. Argent. de Edicion) . Tropical
Amer. mammals.

Cahalane, Victor H. Mammals of North America. New York: Macmillan
Co., l9h7. Drawings by F. L. Jaques.

Carne, P. H. "British Mammals: Mammals in Hampshire." Org, London,
3 A (May, 1956), 200-202.

Carter, Thomas Donald. Ms of the Pacific Worl . New York:

Macmillan, 19ml.

70

Chubb, E. C. "The Mammals of Matabeleland." Proc. 2001. 300., London,
1909:113-125. '

Dollman, Guy and Burlace, (eds.). Mammals. London: Rowland Ward Ltd.,
1935. African and Asiatic sections.

Elliot, Daniel Giraud. .A Chegg List of Mammals of North Agerica and
the Neighboring Seas. ield Columbian useum Pub. 10 . 2001.
Series, Vol. 6, Chicago, 1905.

Fitzsimons, F. W. The Natural Higstogg of South Africa (Manuals) .

)4 Vols. New York: Longmans, Green and o., 1920.

Goldman, E. A. The Mammals of 2%. Smithsonian Misc. Collections,

69, No. 5, 1920:1—309, 39 pls.

Hainard, R. Les Mammiféres sauv es d' Europe. Mammals of Europe. 2 Vols.
Delachaux et Niestlé 3 Neuchgtel et Paris, 19139 ..

Hall, Raymond E. and Kelson, Keith R. The $13 of North America.
2 Vols. New York: Ronald Press Go. 19 . axononw, distribution,
brief notes on habits. (Alaska, Greenland to Panama). 1,373 pp.,
3,800 mammals, 1,237 drawings and maps. ($35.00)

Hutton, C. F. and Dmmmond, James. Aniinals of New Zfland.
Christchurch, Whitcombe and Tombs, 190 , 1-37 , illus.

Le Souef, "Australia's Most Remarkable Animals." wg; Q g E.
New York: 2001. Soc. Vol. 21, Nos. 1: and 5. Part , 13 pp., 13
illus. Part II, 10 pp., 11 illus. (Wildlife preservation and
extinction in Australia.)

Le Souef, A. S. and Burrell, Harry. The Wild Ame of Australasia,
figbracigg the Mammals of NE Guinea and tge Nearer Pacific
{glam-is. London: Harrap, 19 ', 1-3 , 10 figs.

Lydekker, Richard (ed.). Libr of Natural Histo' , 6 Vols.
New York: Saalfield Pub. Co., 19 1.

Malbrant, R. Faune du centre ri francais. Mammiferes g 0%
Lechevalier, Paris, e ition, 19 2. A rican mammals.

Malbrant, R. and Haclatohy, A. Fagge~de l'gguateur arricgig franggis.
Maxumifgres Vol. 2, Lechevalier, aris'. African mammals.
Matthews, L. Harrison. Britigg Mammals. London: Collins, 1952.

McSpaddon, J. Walker (ed.) Animals of the World. New York: Garden
City Publishing 00., 1911.1- 2.

71

\

Palmer, R. S. The Mammal Guide. Mammals of North.America North of
Mexicg. New York: Doubleday, 195k.

”Prater, S. H. The Book of Indian.Animals. Bombay Natural History
Society, 19h8. Asian mammals.

Rdberts, A. The Mammals of South Africa. Cape Town: Trustees of "The
Mammals of South Africa” Book FUnds distributed by Central News
Agency, 1951.

Sanderson, Ivan T. Living Mammals of the'World. Garden City, New York:
Hanover House (n.d.).

. . The Monkgy Kingdom. New York: Doubleday and Co., Inc. 1957.
75 photos. Guide to primates of the world.. (36.95)

Schouteden, H. Fangs du Congo Belge et du Ruanda Urundi. Mammiferes,
Bruxelles, Vol. I, 19h8. African mammals.

Seton, Ernest T. Life Histories of Northern.Animals. Garden City,
New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1929.

Setzer, Henry W. Mammals of the.Anglo-Egy§tian Sudan. Proc. U. S.
Nat. Mus., 10 3371 (NOV. 1956 7-5 7.

Simpson, George G. .A New Classif catio of Mammals. Bull..Amer. Mus.
Nat. Hist., (1931) 59:259-293.

spencer,‘W; B. On the Fauna and Zoological Relationships of Tasmania.
Rept. hth Meeting Australasian.Assoc. Adv. Sci. 1 92, 82-12 .

Stone, Witmer and Cram, W. E. .American.Animals. New York: Doubleday,
Page and Co., 1920.

Tate, G. H. H. Mammals of Eastern.Asia. New York: Macmillan, l9h7.

Troughton, Ellis. Furred s of Australia. Sydney: .Angus and
Rdbertson, 19h}, XXVii, 37%, 25 pls.

Zim, Herbert S. and Hoffmeister, Donald F. Mammals. New York:
Simon and Schuster, 1955.

Collecting.Animals
Bailey, Vernon. "Trapping Animals Alive." Jour. Mamm., 13.3 (1932)

337-3h2-
Buck, Frank. ‘Agiggls are Like That. New York: Robert MCBride and Co.,
1939.

Burt, William H. "A Simple Live Trap for Mammals." Jour. Mamm. B‘Q
(1927) 302-3oh. -

72

Crandall, Lee S. Paradise @est. New York: Chas. Scribner's Sons,
1931.. Bird collecting expedition in New Guinea. 276 pp. , 52
illus. ($3 .50)

Hatt,‘ Robert. T. "Stockng the Home Zoo." Natural Histog, Vol. 32,
No. 6 (Nov.-Dec. 1932), p. 531:. Shipping wild animals. Trapping.

Kniss, Derrell H. Instructions for Tr in Foxes and Other Fur-
Bearers. Mich. Dept . of ConservatEon publication, 19H9.- Rev.

*-
Scent lures for otter, weasel, beaver, etc.

Mannix, Daniel P. The Wildest Gang. Told to author by Peter Ryhiner.
New York: J. B. Lippincott‘, 1958. Capturing animals, care and
shipping, unscrupulous animal dealers.

Peterson, Willis. "Beaver Lift." Arizog Higtms, Vol. XXIV, No. 5
(May 1953), pp . 8-16 . Live trapping handling beaver, natural

history, conservation .

Care and Handligg

Allee, W. C . "Measurement of Environmental Factors in the Tropical
Rain-Forest of Panama." Ecolo , 7 (1926), 273-302, 9figs.

Ashbrook, Frank G. Esigg Small 95mg; s for Pleasure and Profit.
New York: Von Nostrand, 19 l.

Benchley, Belle J. "Shipping Wild Animals." Parks and Recreati on,
Vol. XXX, No. 12 (Dec. 19117), pp. 585-587.

Binaco, Margery. All About Pgts. New York: Macmillan Co., 1929.

Bostock, Frank E. The Trw of Wild Animals. New York: Century
Book Company, 1915.

Brandt, Leonore. 8 ate. Fond du Lac, Wis.: All-Pets Books,
Inc. No. 81033, 21'; pp. Care, handling and training. (8 .30)

___. Monke as Pets. Fond du Lac, Wis.: All-Pets Books, Inc.,
No. 80503, 112 pp., 30 illus. Care, training, housing, diet,
varieties. ($2 .50) -

Bridges, William. Big Zoo. Eau Claire, Wis.: E. M. Hale and Co.,
19111. Care, handling, shipping, design, feeding and natural
history. Accessions, handling, a day with the doctor, people
and animals.

_. "Handling Animals." Bulletin, N. Y. 2001. Soc. Vol. XLII,
No.2 (Mar-Apr. 1939) pp. 3 -

73

Bridges, William. "Around the Zoo With the Head Keeper of Mammals."

%Kingom, N. Y. 2001. Soc., Vol. XLIX, No. 3, (May-June,
l9 .

Buechl, Helen. "Animal Tranquilizers." Science News Letter in
Science Digest (Oct. 1958), p. 98. For nervous and emotional pets.
Shipping made safer. Injuries cut down.

Comstock, A. B. file Pet Boo . Ithaca, New York: Comstock Publishing
Co. , 1930.

Conant, Roger. "Code of Ethics for Keepers." Parks and Recreation.
Vol. xv, No. 11 (July 1932), pp. 720-721.ersonne1 s ety,
animal safety, and maintenance.

Crandall, L. 3. Pets, Their Histog; and C853. New York: Henry Holt
and Co., 1917. ' .

‘. Pets and How to Care for They. New York Zoological Society,
1930- .

Gully, William T. A. "Registration of Przewalski Horses Planned."
Parks and Recreation. Vol. 11.1, No. 12 (Dec. 1958), p. 1498.

Deicke, Edwin F. Cavies for leasure Profit. Fond du Lac, Wis.:
All-Pets Books, Inc., No. 7161:. 11% pp. 59 illus.($2.00)
Farris, Edmond J. (ed.) The Car and reedin of Laborato Animals.

New York: JohnWiley ons, Inc., 19 O. 1 pp., illus.
. ($12.00) ‘

 

Fleay, David. "Flight of the Phtypuses." The Natio Geo r hi
114% Vol. CXIV No. 1; (Oct. 1958), pp. 512-52 . tural
history, capture, transporting and feeding platypus. Also in
W. "Australia's patchwork creature, the platypus,"
by Charles Holmes, Aug., 1939, and "Biggest worm farm caters. to
platypuses" by W. H. Nicholas, Feb. , 19h9.

"Forbidden Animals." Parks and Recreation, Vol. XX, No. 1, (Sept. 1936),
pp. 51-520

Greenberg, Sylvia S. and Raskin, Edith L. Home-Made Zoo. New York:
McKay, 1952.

Hediger, Dr. H. W%’ 1d Amigls in Captivity. London: Butterworths
Scientific Pu lications, 19 .

Hilty, Reuben. "Words of Caution Here and There." Parks and Recreation,
Vol. XV, No. 6, (Feb. 1932), pp. 370-373. Tiger and 1e0pard kittens
killed by antimony chloride in a disinfectant used by the Toledo
Zoo. Cresylic acid poisonous to all cats.

7h

The Ho 1 eon. U. S. War Dept. Tech. Manual No. ll-th, Washington,
(Sept., 19 0), pp. 24-33. Breeding records.

Jennison, George. Natural History of Ms (Mammals). New York:
Macmillan Co., 1927.

Leonam. J- L- W- New Y0rk= Garden City Pub-
lishir1g Co., 192 .

Lundy,'William E. "The Upside-down Animal." Natural, Histog, Vol.
LXI, No. 3, (Mar., 1952), pp. ilk-119. Contrasting behavior of
the two and three-teed sloth. Three-toed easily picked up by,
armpits. Two-toad, dangerous.

Mann, William M. Wild Ani%l§ In E2 Out o; the zoo. Vol. 6.
New York: Smithsonian Institution Scientific Series, Inc., 1930.

Meller, Ida M. A Emtical gt. gook for Amatgirs and Profe§§ ioggls.
New York: Charles Scribner‘s Sons., 1939. ‘

sin .. Fish and WildlifeServioe Leaflet No. 191. U. 3. Dept.
of the Interior, 191d.

Niblett, Arthur. Fer-gets 95% Ferretiggg. Fond du Lac, Wis.: All-Pets
Books, Inc., No. 7750, pp., 12 illus. Breeding, managing and
training. ($1.00)

Pegler, H. S. Holmes. Th Boo of t e Goat. Fond du Lac, Wis.: All-
Pets Books, Inc., No. 807%, 255 pp., 23 illus. Breeds and manage-
ment. ($2.75)

Perkins, R. Marlin. Zooparade. New York: Rand McNally and Co., 1951:.
22 Mammals. Distribution, diets, habits, personal experiences,
handling, and peculiarities.

t Contro . Free Publication 013-8, Washington, D. C.: U. 3. Dept.
of Agriculture.

b t rodu t o . Farmers Bulletin No. 1730. Washington, D. C.:
U. . Dept. of Agriculture, 1939.

Reinig, Marshall and Anita (co-editors). e Fur Farm Guide Book, Vol. 1,
Duluth: Fur Farm Publications, Inc., 19 5. Very complete.

Schwab, G. R. Rais C nchillas for Pr it. Fond du Lac, Wis.:
All-Pets Books, Inc. , No. 7675, 133. pp., [:2 illus. Housing, nest

boxes, whelping, breeding, care, pelting, etc. ($3 .50)

Senyal, R. B. gaggement gf millage i5 Captivi? in ngr Bag.
Calcutta, India: Bengal Seccariat Press, 1 2.

7S

Seton, E. T. Qfe Q stories of Northern Animals. 2 Vols. New York:
Chas. Scribner's Sons, 1909.

Sneidigar, Robert. Our 8% Native Animals: Their Habits and Care.
New York: Random House, 1939.

Soderberg, P. M. C t B eral ement. Fond du Lac,
Wis.: All-Pets Books, Inc. , No. . An encyclopedia of
information on feeding, grooming, ailments and care, rearing young,
elementary genetics, etc. 314).; pp. ($h.50)

. Popular ‘ K in . Fond du Lac, Wis.: All-Pets Books,

c., No. 8503, 190 pp. ying, housing, feeding, breeding of

rabbits, pigeons, hamsters, guinea pigs, pet fish, mice, frogs,
etc. ($1.50)

Taynton, Mark. Successful Kennefi Management. Fond du Lac, Wis.:
All-Pets Books, Inc., No. 3 2, 213 pp. (355 .00)

Walker, Ernest. The lbglggg Book. New York: The Macmillan Co., 19511.
Identification and care .

_. First Aid fl Cge g 3&1 mérgg. (3rd printing)
New York: Animal. We are Institute, 70 Park Ave. , N. Y. 1955.
Developing human attitudes, learning with free wild animals.

Teaching nutrition, final diaposition of animals, housing, observ-
ations on feeding. Food cultures. Excellent bibliography.

"Winter Schedule of the Detroit Zoological Park." Parks and Recreation,

Wood, Alden S. "Am3rica’s First Animalport." Nature Magggigl‘e, V0.1. 51
No. 6 (June-July 1958), pp. 305-307. Purpose: provide examination,
cleaning, feeding, watering, exercising and sanitary care in air
transport. New York. City handles 100,000 animals per year.

Wood, J. c fo the o t itor So entist. Fond du Lac,
Wis: All-Pets Books, Inc., No. 7302, 3 pp. Breeding, training,
etC- (8 .75)

calCare

Blair, W. R. "Medical Care of Animals In the Zoo." S . Mo t
V01: 35 (Nov., 1932) PP- h5h’h57o

Bridges, William. "Keeping Animals Well." Parks eorea on,
Vol. XXII, No. 5 (Jan., 1939), pp. 253-232 . '
. goo Doctor. New York: William Morrow and Co., 1957.

Also: Zoo Pets; Zoo Expeditions; Zoo Babies; Tme Zoo Stories;
Wild Animals of the World; Big Zoo. _

76

Campbell, J. A. "Some Observations Relative to Ailments of Inmates

in a Zoological Park." Eggs g Recreation, Vol. XVIII, No. 9,
(Mac. 1935). pp- 378-382.

"Diseases of Fur Animals." Famgrs Bugetiri No. 1777 . Washington,
D. C.: U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1937.

Evans, Victor J. "Makes Valuable Report-«Committee on Transportation,
Exportation and Quarantine Assists Zoological Gardens ." Parks and
Won, Vol. IX, No. 1 (Sept.-Oct. 1925).

Fox, Herbert. Disease in Cgfitive Wild 9.312%...)- . Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippencott Co . , 1923 . 0 pp. on results of autopsies at
Philadelphia Zoo since 1901. Includes poisonous plants. Relation

of Diet to Disease, pp. 1115-1461; The Infectious Diseases, pp. h83-
596; Animal Parasites, pp. 6111-659.

Goss, Leonard J. "Disease in Zoo Animals." Parks 95g Recreation,
Vol. XXXII, No. 1 (Jan., 19h9), pp. 117-449.

Manville, Richard H. "Longevit of Captive Mamuals." Jour. mmm”
Vol. 38, No. 2, (May, 1957 , pp. 279-280.

The Merck Veterinwag m. Rahway, N. J., Merck and Co., Inc., 1955.
Breeding and obstetrics, NutritiOn: cattle, sheep, swine, horse,
small-animal, fur animal, rabbit; Zoo Animal Diets, poultry,
conrposition of feed-stuff; Fur, Laboratory, and Zoo Animals
(Diseases).

Riser, Wayne H. W. Fond du Lac, Wis.:
All-Pets Books, Inc., No. 97 , 1 pp. 129 illus. ($3 .50)

PWg, furnishing, financing, developing and managing.

Shippee, E . Allen. thbutiog g Relation to Diego .
University of Utah, symposium on ecology of disease transmission
in native animals, pp. 33-113, 8 figs., 1955.

Stephan, Capt.‘S. G. "Sick Call." ngs and Recreation, Vol. 1m,
No. h, (Dec. 19in), pp. 157-162. """ "

Sumner, F. B. "Some Effects of Terrperahlre Upon Growing Mice, and the
Persistence of Such Effects in 8. Subsequent Generation."

Am. Natuggiigt, (1911), 115:90-98.

eases

Barnett, Lincoln. "Rflnbow Realm of Tropical Insects." Darwins World
of Nature: Part III Lige, (Nov 3, 1958) . Mercury vapor lamps,
(ultra violet light) for attracting nocturnal insects. Also
mimicry, mmery.

77

Bridges, William. "Anteaters Become Milk-egg-meat-eaters in the Zoo."

W. 59 2. (April. 1956) 113-16, illus.

Carlisle, Norman and Madelyn. "Honey the Natural Wonder Food."
Coroget, (November 1958), pp. 52-51;. Honey and milk formulas
excellent for premature human infants . Has Special digestibility
and growth powers.

Conant, Roger. "Zoo Food Shortages." Parks and Recreatiog, Vol. XXVII
No. 1, (19%,), pp. 35-38.

Corbin, Dr. J. E. and Schafer,'H. C. "Feeding the Specialty Animals."
Pagks and wreation, Vol. bl, Nos. 8 (Aug., 1958), pp. 339-3112.

Crosbie, Glen G. "Feeding and Care of Wild Mammls and Birds."
Paris and Recreatiog, Vol. 37, No. 12, (Dec. 1953),.

Cutter, William L. "A Young Jaquarundi in Captivity." Jour. Mamm.,
Vol. 38, No. i (Nov. 1957), pp. 515-516. '

Lucky, T. D. and Hittson. "Lion Feeding in the Future." Parks
Rggggtion, Vol. 35, No. 5, (1952), pp. 32-33.

McCay, Clive M. Nutrition of ihg Dog. Ithaca, New York: Comstock
Publishing Co., Inc., 19 9.

Moore, Clifford B. The Book of Wiici Pets. New York: G. P. Putnam's
Sons, 1937. 55 pages on care and ceding of native wildlife in
captivity, also notes on life habits and identification.

Muenscher, Walter C. Poisonous P_la_r_lts of the Uggted States. New York:
Macmmm C00, 19 lo '

O'Connor, Patrick. 'Wartime Animal. Nutrition." Parks and Recreat on,
Vol. XXVII, No. 1, (Jan.-Feb., 19%), pp. 38—15.

The gmicw Vitamin Reference Book. E: R. Squibb Co.

Ratcliffe, Herbert L. Adgguate Diets for CgptiveVWiid.AgimE%E
fl Notes on Tubercugn Tests for Apes and M°&E%° B etin
from the Penrose Research Lab. 0 the Zoological ociety of
Philadelphia, 19 56.

Shelly, Freeman. "Feeding Zoo Animals." Parks gig Recrgtion, Vol.
XXX, No. 11 (Nov. 19117), pp: 51:8’550-

. "Cage Service." Fauna, Vol. 1, No. 3 (Sept. 1939).
A quarterly publication of the Philadelphia 2001. Soc.

Tehon, L. R., Merrill, C. C. and Grahm, Robt. I%iaois Plants
Poisonous to Livestock. Ext. Circular, No. 99, University of

I11 . College of Agriculture.

78

Walker, Ernest P. "Care of Captive Animals." mal RQ ort of the

Smithsonian Institafiion. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government
Printing Office, 1 1, pp. 305-366. ‘

Welch, Henry (ed.) Antibiotics-in Nutrition. New York: Medical
Encyc10pedia Inc., 1951;.

Public Ragtions (Ggergi' )

Conant, Roger. "Publicizing the Zoo ." Parks and Recreation,
Vol. XXIII, No. 5 (Jan, 19h0), pp. 202-208.

Davis, Don G. "Public Relations in the Zoo, Why?" Parks 51g. Recreation,
Vol. 12, No. 2 (Feb., 1959), pp. 90—91.

Mainone, Robert F. and Wynstra, A. A Zoo Recr tio ro .
M. S. U. Res. Dev. Dept., 1957 (unpublished outline). Arts and
crafts, hobbies, outdoor recreation, reading and writing, Special
events, etc. A recreation program designed to create interest in
a zoo. City-wide Indian Pageant-paraphanalia made from animal
products.

McCrane, Marion P. and Garrett, W. E. "Zoo Animals Go to School."

The National Geogrggic Maw, Vol. CX, No. 5 (Nov., 1956),
PP: 69 '70 v

Myer, Raymond C. How to Do Pigligty. New York: Harper and
Brothers. . ‘

Reynolds, Fletcher A. "The Zoo Naturalist." Parks and Re reation,
Vol. xxx, No. 12, (Dec. 191:7). pp. 582-585. '

Vadik, Frank. "Public Relations and T.V. Prografiis in Detroit Parks."
Parks and Recreation, Vol. 36, No. (1953), pp. 5-7.

Wilcox, Arthur T. and Leslie M. Reid. Outdoor Education Bulletin 63
Integgretive Programs, Bulletin 73 Park233gool. Proggams, Bulletin
8. Park Management Bulletins of the M. S. U. Ag. Exp. Sta. and
Coop. Ext. Service, in cooperation with the Amer. Inst. of Park '
Execs . Park Education Program.

$39M

Additon, Richard A. "San Diego's New Group of Burrowing Animal Cages."
ngs and Recreation, Vol...IX, No. 1; (Mar-Apr. 1926), pp. 152-4155.

Allee, W. C. mal A r tions A Stud G e Sociolo .
Chicago: Univ. of Chicago. Press, 1931, ix, LL31, 35 figs.

79

Butcher, Devereux. See? Almeria? Wildig e in Our Nationai Refuges.
New York: Devin-A air Co., 19 5. Bibliography on vanishing
Species, etc . Excellent black and white photos, for identification
or display backgrounds.

Curtis, Lawrence. "The Rain Forest at Ft. Worth Zoo." P ks
Recreation, Vol. In, No. 9 (Sept. 1958), pp. 39h—393.
Excellent habitat group. Recorded sound. Light barrier. Living
plants. Miseum diSplay coordinated. '

Eckbo, Garrett. W. Los Angeles, Calif.: F. W. Dodge
Corp. An architectural Record Book with Duell, Sloan and Pearce,
19119, p. 115. '

Greulach, Victor A. "The Use of Illustrated Zoo Labels." Parks
Recreatiog. Vol. XXVIII, No. 3 (May-June, 191(5), pp. 1611-170.

Larson, Peggy Pickering. "A Living World Under Ground." Natgre,
Vol. 51, No. 6 (June-July, 1958), pp. 288-92, and 332.

Life, Editorial Staff and Barnett, Lincoln. The World We Live Lg.
New .York: Simon and Schuster, 1956. An excellent reference for
ecological diSplays.

Mainone, Robert F. "Notes on the W. K. Kellogg Experimental Mink
Colonies and Their Relationship to Zoological Gardens." M. S. U.
Res. Dev. Dept., 1957 (unpublished).

. "A Master Plan for the Potter Park Zoo, Lansing, Michi ."
Parts I and II. M. S. U. Res. Dev. Dept., 1957 (unpublished .

g. "A Hoofed Stock Display." M. s. u. Res. Dev. Dept”. 1957
(unpublished).

Soibelman, Doris. Thematic & Industrial Uses of Mlsic A Revi
of the Literature. ew York: Columbia niversity Press, 1958.

Walker, Lewis Wayne. "Arizona’s Window on Wildlife." e National
hic Ma ine Vol..CXIII, No. 2 (Feb., 1958), pp. 250-250.

Possible attracting of wildlife into zoo area, by offering feed,
water and cover. As an example for public-how birds and animals
can be attracted in the city.

Wilcox, Arthur T. (ed.). A' Zooiogigii Pergjllm, Where, gm, M. s. U.
Agr. Exp. Sta. and Coop. Ext. Service, East Lansing, Michigan,
Bulletin No. 3, Park Management Series. Promotion of Zoological
Parks.

 

APPENDIX

 

 

 

3‘7/

80

APPENDIX
A REFERENCE TO MANHAL DIETS

Classification by order and family, Simpson (1931).
Common names, Sanderson (n.d.), Walker (191d), Burt (191(8).
Distribution, Burt (19h8) .

Monotremata (egg-laying mamnals) .
Tachyglossidae (Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea)

5 testers or _dn__a_.gl:3
Ornithorhynchidae (Austrfi and Tasmania)
duck-billed platypus]-

Marsupialia (pouched mammals)
Didelphiidae (North, Central, and South America)

0 J’JSSUIHS 1 9 2 ’3 m_o_1§se-opos§1_1‘ms 1’ 3 water opossums 1
Dasyuridae Australia and Tasmania)

dgflresl Tasmanian devil;3 pouched wolf or Team tigerl
Notoryctidae (Australia) ’

marsu ial ol‘_e_1
Peramelidae (Australia)
bandicoots1 .
Caenolestidae (South America)
caenolestegl
Phalargeridae (Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, New Zealand)
phalangersl'2
Phascolomiidae (Australia and Tasmania)
wombatsl! 2
MacrOpodidae (Australia and Tasmania.)
kanggoosls2 w 188192 tree kanggoos2
Phascolarctidae (Austr
koalas4
Myrmecobiidae (Australia)
banded anteatersl

Insectivora (insect-eating mammals)
Tenrecidae (Madagascar)
tggecl
Potamogalidae (Africa)

Afrig water ew
Solenodontidae (Cuba and Haiti)
solenodonl’2

_ H
wrv 7* fi—

Diets: 1Walker (191:1); 2Merck (1955); 31‘bore (1937); 4Sanderspn (n.d.)

81

Chrysochloridae (Africa)
lden mole1
Erinaceidae North Africa, Europe, Asia)
hed eho 31,2
Soricidae northern South, Central, and North America, Europe,
Asia, Africa.)
shrews193 water shrews1 sun shrews1
Talpidae (North America, Europe and Asia)
01881492;3
Tupaiidae (East Indies)
tree shrewslr?

Macroscelidiae (Africa)
Jumping or' eleplggt shrew'sl

Dermoptera (gliding mammals)
GaJanpithecidae (Malay Penimmla, Thailand, Sumatra, Java,
Borneo, Philippines)

fmg lemur or colugol

ChirOptera (flying mammals)
Pteripodidae (tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World,
east to Australia, Samoa, and the Caroline Islands)

fruit- tin bats o; fixing foxes1
RhinOpomidae (north Africa and southern Asia)
vgve-nosed batsl
EmbaJlomridae (tropical parts of both hemiSpheres)

c-'w1n bats1 '
Noctilionidae (tropical America)
f sh-eatin bats1
Nycteridae Africa, May Peninsula, Java, Timor)

lon t ed bats1
Megaderma ermatidae (Africa, southern Asia, Australia)

large-winged bats1

Rhinolophidae (Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia)
crest-nosed bats1

Hipposideridae (Africa, southern Asia, Australia)

goggfloe-Qsed fits1 ~
Phyllostomatidae tropical America, northward to southern

United StateS)
lfl-nosed patsl
Desmodontidae (tmpical America)

vggpire bats1 f e v ire bats1
Chilonycteridae ( tropical America)

lar e-li ed bats
Natalidae (tropical America)

straw-colored bats1
Furipteridae (South America)
funnel-eared bats1

 

‘——v w fi—fi v—v VfiV v v—V fr w v———v v—V

Diets: lWalker (191d); 2Merok (1955): 3Moore (1937)

82

Thyropteridae (tropical America)
-thumbed batsl
Mvzopodidae (Madagascar)

bats wit suctor disks 0 thumbs 3in feet1
Vespertilionidae (nearly worlafid’ e)
vesEertilionid batsly3
Mystac0pidae (New Zealand)

he-ligped bat1
Molossidae (world—wide in trOpical and subtropical regions)
free-t__a__iled bats1

Carnivora (flesh-eating mammals)

Ursidae (Europe, Asia, North and South America)
bearsl,2,3

*Ailuridae (Asia)

1’2 lesser Mash?

Procyonidae (Asia, North and South America)
raccoo_n_s;1’2’3 coatisl’2 kinkaljousl:2

Bassariscidae (North and Central America)
cacoygg’ tle, W or ring-_jtal’led cat192

Mustelidae (Asia, Africa, rOpe, North and South America)
Eeasels # Mnl sable1b aderg rs 9 ma badgers1:2

nkslfl: wolverg otter : :3 fisher

Viverridae (IEurOpe, Asia, IAfrica) l 1
civets H mongoosgg genets 92 bigtgroggs fos

Canidae (Africa, Europe, Asia, Australia, North and South America)
0 s1 wolves“2 coyotes1 f e 1,2,3

Hyaenidae (Africa, southwest Asia)

me%1’2

Felidae ( ope, Asia, Africa, North and South America)
120 01131, 2 ti 81"81’2 legard malgz 18. 8!” 31,2 W192 £2
other catstfwg

Otariidae (North and South America, Australia, Antarctica)
W1 M81: 110

Phocidae (all seas)
hair 3&31 sg elgpgaggtsl

Odobaenidae (Arctic America, Europe)

kalgses1

Cetacea (marine mammals)
Iniidae (Asia, South America)

fresh—water dolpgifl
Ziphiidae all seas

beaked whales
Delphinidae (all seas)

porpoises 1

-_-_A _._..__ A w __.__ w--‘ -___—
.——_ V v—fifiv'v—V firfiv—v—f ——v _—v v—v m — h

Diets: Walker (19111); 2Merck (1955)} 31bore (1937).
*Classification from Walker (19M).

83

Platanistidae (Asia)
river dol
Delphinapteridae Arctic)

bales te or elu as:L
Physegeridae (chiefly tropical seas)

s erm whales
Rhachianectidae (North Pacific)
whales

Balaenopteridae (all Seas)

finback whges hu ba k es
Balaenidae (all seas)

baleen Wales

Rodentia (gnawing mammals)
Aplodontidae (northwestern North America)

sewellel or man eaver1
Sciuridae (Africa, Europe, Asia, North and South America)
tree sglirrelshz,3 s irrelslfi3 chipmlnksl:3
W ts ' ’3 Wei-rice do ’ ’3
Castoridae (Enrope, Asia, North America
beaversl’ 2’3

Heteromyidae (North and Central America)

kan o rats1’2 ocket mice1 'spzjgg 1mice1
Georgidae North and Central America)
pocket'gophers:L
Spalacidae (Europe, Asia, North Africa)
b mole r ts1
Muridae (now world-wide)
Old World rats W193
Cricetidae (’nlrope, Africa, Asia, North and South America)
ster-like rats and nti.ce1:3mskrats3 pacgats
Miscardinidae (Africa, Mpe, Asia)
dormice1
Rhizomidae (Africa, Asia)
bamboo rats1
Thryonomyidae (Africa)

cane rats or Afri ouched rats1
Cteinodactylidae (Africa;

dassie rats African 11 mice or i1
Zapodidae (Europe, Asia, North America)

u in mice1
Dipodidae (firica, EurOpe, Asia)

rb 1’ 2
Bathyergidae (Africa)
mole rats1
Anomaluridae (Africa)

spmtailed SQEgrel, or large Afrigg gaging ggigrell

4M4 # _A A
vrfi ffi‘ r—va'v ——— v—fiv—‘v—vv—w

Diets: 1Walker (19111); ZMerck (1955); 3Moore (1937).

8h

Pedetidae (Africa)
spaiggtgs or African juming harel
Hystricidae (tropical parts of Africa, EurOpe, and Asia)

Old World orcu in
Erethizont idae (North and South America)

New World porcupines1: 3:3
Dinomyidae (South America)
dinom, or Br§_.n_icks rat1
Dasyproctidae (South America and southern North America)
outisl:2
Caviidae (South America)

inea i 8193 cavies1
Chinchillidae (South America)
'W1 W 1
Capromyidae (West Indies
hutias or tree r ts1-:3
*Wocastoridae (South Aloerica)

nut or co u1
Octodontidae (South America)
1 rats tuco tuco
Echinwidae (South and" southern North America)
Sm r_‘a_ts1
Cuniculidae (South and southern North America)

s otted ‘193
Hydrocfioeridae (South and Central America)
W1“

Lagomorpha (leaping mammals)
Ochotonidae (Europe, Asia, North America)

ikas1
Leporida-e (Africa, Europe, Asia, North and South America.)
hares1 rabbitsl3

Primates (top mammals)
Lemuridae (Madagascar)

lemurs 2

Indriidae (Madagascar)
ol lemurs /
Daubentoniidae (Madagascar)

e- e orvrod tleururl
Lorisidae (Africa, soutEern Asia)
ale. 3 or bush bah e511,”,3 slgg lemurs, or slow lorgesl’2
Tarsiidae (East Indies) ‘
_tar ers1'2
Cebidae (South, Central, and southern North America)
cebus merylew‘3 h er mo 1
Hapalidae (South and Central America)
wsetsl’2 W pinches '

Diets: 1Walker (19111); aMerck (1955); 3Moore (1937).
* Classification from Walker (19111) .

85

Cercopithecidae (Africa, ASia, Gibralter)
Old World monk 1’ 293
Colobidae (Africa)
1 af-eat ' monke 2
*Hylobatidae (Asia)

ibbons1
Pongidae Africa, Asia)
W192 ch ees1 ow-thansh2
Hominidae (world-wide ‘
4111331.. '
Nomarthra (scaly mammals)
Manidae (Africa, Asia)

W1

Xenarthra (left-over mammals)

Enrrmecophagidae (South, Central, and southern North America) '
anteatersl’2

Brodypodidae (South and Central America)
flee-toed sloths1’2

Chloepodidae (South and Central Merica)
two-toed sloth192

Dasypodidae (South, Central, and southern North America)

more“ 2'3
'leulidentata
Orycteropodidae (Africa)
aardvggksls 2
Proboscidea .
Elephant-idae (Africa, Asia
elephantsl’2

Hyracoidea
Procaviidae (Africa, Asia)
co 3 axes or siesl’z

Sirenia (sea cows)
Dugongidae (Red Sea, Indian Ocean, western Pacific Ocean)
du o 1
Trichechidae (Atlantic Ocean of North and South America, Africa)
manatees1

Artiodactyla (hoofed mammals with an even rmmber of toes)
Tayassuidae (North, Central, and South America)

peccariesl

A‘s—_‘axA __ w__ h‘ _.
v'T—w—fi yr w—V'fi fi‘fi—‘vrfi v—V ——'———¢ 7+ 7 v—v v—v—ffir' firv—vr—V—v —'

Diets: 1Wa1ker (19111); 2Merck (1955); 3Moore (1937).
*Classification from Sanderson (n. d .) .

86

Suidae (Africa, Europe, Asia)

i 81 ho s1
Hippopotamidae (Africa)

h:i.E‘p‘o‘I_).otami1’2 1 hi otami1
Camelidae (Africa, Asia, EurOpe, South America)

camelsl’2 llamas”? vicunas2 {
Tragulidae (Africa, Asia)

mo se deer:L water chevrotainl
Cervidae ric'a, Asia, mops, North, Central and South America)

deer19293 elkl moSe caribou1
Giraffidae (M155) '

afresh? 9.129.111

Antilocapridae (North America)

pronghorn antelope1
Bovidae (Africa, Europe, Asia, North America)

9.85.931 m1 m1 0153 World antelogeslr?

Parissodactyla (hoofed mammals with an odd number of toes)

Equidae (Africa, Asia)
horses1 zeta-rash 2 $3331»

Tapiridae (Asia, South and Central America, southern Mexico)
tggirslaz

Rhinocerotidae (Africa, Asia.)
rhinocerosesl’2

“AA

_V—‘V

ffi v—v _v—‘r—V v—v—rfifi w w

Diets: Walker (191a); 2Merck (1955); 3Moore (1937)

 

APR-*7? M: a

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