ABSTRACT

CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING CONDITION CHANGES
AFFECTING TEACHER—STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS
IN OUTDOOR EDUCATION

By

Charlene Lucile Vogan

The resident outdoor experience, as part of the
outdoor education concept, is accepted as an effective tool
in total curriculum enrichment. It is accepted, also, that
a major concern of education today is the development
of individual potential through meaningful interaction
with other human beings. There is a need for the devel-
opment of positive teacher—student relationships as an
integral part of the resident outdoor program. Meeting
this need requires the preparation of a definite plan by
which such relationships can become an active and effec-
tive part of the program.

This study is designed to determine objectives which
would foster conditions for positive teacher-student rela-
tionships and to establish evaluative criteria for deter-

mining the success in meeting the objectives.

Charlene Lucile Vogan

Design of the Study

The study is developed in five steps: reading
selected for gaining broad perspective and specific direc-
tion; an exploratory study of current practices in outdoor
education; a questionnaire to determine specific practices
and the interrelationship of activities and organizational
patterns in selected existing programs; development of an
experimental guide to test the feasibility of the approach;
and, the preparation of evaluative criteria for teachers
pertaining to conditions for positive change in teacher—
student relationships. The schools studied through use of
the questionnaire and the experimental guide were ones
offering a resident program of at least three nights to
grades five and six with the classroom teacher attending
with the class. The geographic distribution included

eighteen states.

Results of the Study
The overall results ofthe study indicated: a lack
of emphasis and guidelines designed to further positive
development in the field of teacher-student relations;
and, a wide range of procedures in planning, organizing,
preparing and carrying out the program. The information
gathered did show nine points which should be of concern

to the classroom teacher. These are:

Charlene Lucile Vogan

l. gaining a positive feeling regarding the
resident outdoor experience
2. working with the students in-—
a. general planning
b. determining goals and behavior
c. planning use of facilities
d. considering questions of evaluation
3. contribution to the outdoor experience--
a. professionally
b. personally
being an active 'learner' during the event
encouraging 'Openness' in conversation with
students
using time more effectively
becoming 'forgetful' of classroom routines
participating in evaluation with students
bringing back and using new ideas and skills
in the classroom

'OCI)\]O\ U111"

Criteria to evaluate the teacher's performance in
meeting these were prepared. The process in developing the
criteria involved five steps: stating the general objec-
tive; development of specific objectives of need; relating
these specific objectives to the teacher's job description;
identifying standards of performance to be attained; and,
preparing criteria to determine the degree to which this
has been reached. The criteria are stated in observable
and describable terms.

If teacher—student relationships are important,
guidance for implementing them must be provided to the
teacher for use in outdoor education, as well as in all
phases of the educational program. The evaluative guide
prepared as a result of this study, while it could be used

with some adaptations experimentally, can serve best as a

Charlene Lucile Vogan

sample of the process and building of an evaluative
instrument. The varieties of programs and the unique
contributions of each individual in an actual program
dictate that a working evaluative tool is best prepared

by those who will be using it.

CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING CONDITION CHANGES
AFFECTING TEACHER—STUDENT RELATIONSHIPS

IN OUTDOOR EDUCATION

by

Charlene Lucile Vogan

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education

1970

C) Copyright by
CHARLENE LUCILE VOGAN

1971

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer acknowledges her sincere appreciation to
Dr. Charles A. Blackman, major advisor, for his encourage-
ment, assistance and advice during the preparation and
writing of this dissertation. The writer is grateful also
for the assistance and guidance given by Dr. Gilbert W.
Mouser, Dr. Louise M. Sause, and Dr. Julian W. Smith, who

served as members of the guidance committee.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . .

Statement of the Problem .
Philosophical Basis for the Study .

Related Studies . . . . . . .
Brief Statement of Methodology . .
Definition of Terms . . . . . . .
Limitations . . . . . . . . .

Basic Assumptions . . . . . . .
Perspective . . . . . . . . . . .

IT. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The Importance of 'the Self' . . . . .
Ideas on Education . . . . . . . . .
The Teacher and the Class . . . . . .
Interpersonal Relationships . . . .

Conditions for Effecting Relationships
Contributions of the Outdoor Setting
Outdoor Education . . . .

Reaction to the Literature . . . . . .
Summation . . . . . . . . . . . .
III. DEVELOPMENT OE EVALUATIVE CRITERIA . . . .
Design of the Study . . . . . .

Results of the Exploratory Study . . . .
Use and Analysis of Questionnaire Responses
Building Evaluative Criteria . . . .
Rationale For Selection of Criteria . . .
The Process of Developing Criteria . . .
Summary of the Responses to the
Experimental Guide . . . . . . . .
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . .

IV. CRITERIA FOR TEACHER EVALUATION . . .

Guide for Evaluation . . . . . . . .

iii

Page

ii

}_J

100
101

103
106

110

113

7‘»

Chapter Page

V. CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Need for Further Research . . . . . . . 119
Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . 120

A Final Statement . . . . . . . . . . 123

SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Appendix A 139
Appendix B . . . . . . 1A2
Appendix C . . . . . . 151
Appendix D . . . . . 158

iv

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

While the specific wording and scope of the defini-
tions and objectives of education vary today, there is
agreement on the need to humanize the relationship between
the teacher and the students. Educational objectives,
examined in the light of today's events, cannot be satis-
factory if they serve solely as instruments that conserve
and convey essential knowledge and yesterday's values.
Educational programs must be prepared to welcome a wide
range of innovations and to prepare people for the unknown
future.1 The key in these programs is the increased
realization of the necessity to develop other dimensions
of humanness than just 'thinking'. This involves the
encounter of teachers and students on the level of their
totality as human beings.2

The outdoor environment is an excellent one for
establishing concepts and practices for productive human
relationships. The release from the constricting influ-

ences of buildings and bells, the atmosphere prevailing

‘

1Richard E. Farson, "Emotional Barriers to Education,"
Wlogy Today, Vol. 1, No. 6 (October, 1967), p. 35.

2Ibid., p. 3U.

in the natural setting, and the sense of freedom for all
the participants in the activity to share in exploration,
discovery and learning makes the location of the school
camp program a 'text-book’ environment for establishing

new modes of personal relationships. Using a definition
attributed to L. B. Sharp that 'outdoor education begins
when the teacher and the pupils close the classroom door
behind them,’ the resident outdoor education experience,

as one method of outdoor education, is another valuable
tool for enrichment of the total educational process. This
curricular concept is important for establishing the goals
and objectives of the resident outdoor experience. Since
this experience is not a 'subject' and is not oriented to
any specific subjects alone, the goals should project the
same elements as those included in the goals for the over-
all curriculum and educational program. Specifically in
this instance, the goals should include "the teacher as

the socializing agent, . . .(who) must promote relationships

which bring about a positive affective climate, . . ."3

Statement of the Problem

 

The resident outdoor experience, as part of the out-
door education concept, is accepted as an effective tool
in total curriculum enrichment. It is accepted, also,

that a major concern of education today is the development

 

 

3Ronald C. Doll, ed., Individualizing_Instruction
(Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curri-
Culum Development, 196“), p. “0.

of individual potential through meaningful interaction with
other human beings. There is a need for the development of
teacher-student relationships as an integral part of the
resident outdoor program.

Meeting this need requires the preparation of a definite
plan by which such relationships can become an active and
effective part of the program. In order to avoid the rele—
gation of the need to a non-functioning general objective,
significant and specific objectives and criteria for eval-
uating the effectiveness of the execution of the objectives
is required. These objectives should define the situations
and conditions for successful relationships and should be
able to be subjected to examination to ascertain the degree
of achievement.

Several areas of concern must be considered in the
preparation of the study design:

1. The nature of the teacher-student relationship,

including the factors that affect relation-
ships in a positive manner and the conditions
that can be established for the inclusion of
these factors.

2. The manner in which these conditions are being

met in schools offering a resident outdoor
program, including influences that are present

in relation to meeting these conditions.

3. The formulation of objectives reflecting
general goals of education and knowledge of
the potential of the outdoor setting that
make it possible for the teacher to meet the
condition needs.

A. Designing criteria for evaluation that provide
observable or measureable goals for teacher
performance. These criteria incorporate the
concepts of conditions for relationship growth,
general educational objectives and information
about the functioning of resident outdoor
education programs.

This study, then, is designed to determine suitable

objectives for fostering teacher-student relations and to
establish evaluative criteria for determining the success

in meeting the objectives.

Philosophical Basis for the Study

The keystone of the education process is the develop-
{MNTE of the 'self' of the student and the ability for him
to make use of his understanding of 'self.' The perception
Of Yrimself as a part of the natural world and as governed
by tfiie laws of nature constitute the basic foundation for
devélcming any concept of 'self.' Logic dictates that the
best place for experiencing and sensing the relationship

of Self to nature would be in nature.

In a straight line of philosophical development from
William James to John Dewey to the contemporary
observers of the educational scene, we sense that
neither thinking or doing,taken separately, can form
the whole an. We learn by thinking about what we
are doing. '
If development of 'self' is a major objective of education,
then a portion of the experience in the curricular offer-
ing should be undertaken in the natural outdoor setting.

A philosophy of education that utilizes a resident
outdoor environment is one in which the educator uses the
natural world as the main focus in preparing the students
to live as effective and productive members of a free
society. The student is led to an understanding of his
role in the universe by exposure through living in that
setting that is natural. The learner is introduced to the
possibilities of a Supreme Power through study of the
observable phenomena in the natural world. With his role,
in relation to the natural and supernatural, established,
the student is then given basic directed-education in the
SYURDOIS and facts used in today's world. During this
process the educator is able to give him an opportunity to
explwore all fields of learning and to become acquainted
Wit?) all areas of academic instruction--without committing

khn to any approach or any absolute. Through these oppor-

tmlities and experiences the learner is led to know and

x

A
George D. Stoddard, "Outdoor Experiences Meet

ghrig Basic Human Needs," Camping Magazine (March, 1965)’

trust himself and is guided in formulating ways in which
to arrive at decisions and choices. In this manner the
student will be able to be a free man in a free society--
and this he must be! For in the world in which he will
live, as soon as man ceases to make free choices, he will
no longer be free.

In an examination of philosophical questions, the
author found that this theory of education is not directly
aligned with any of the five major philosophies. Rather,
the educational theory proposed looks to several of them
in varying combinations. In belief, as in practice, this
is a personal eclectic philosophy.

A basic assumption of the belief is the presence of
a ”Supreme Being"--called God by some, called other names
or unnamed by others. An understanding and awareness of
this supremacy is essential in education for life. This
is the source of the master plan that is observable in
nature. The outdoor environment provides a place to seek
the designer and planner of the order. It is hard to
ObServe the wonders of the world around us and not sense
a<nueness with the world and with the Creator of the world.

And look into space; you shall see Him walking in
the cloud, outstretching His arms in the lightening
and descending in the rain.

You shall see Him smiling in flowers, then rising
and waving His hands in trees.

\

K 5Kahlil Gibran, The Prophet (New York: Alfred A.
nepf, 1110., 1950): p. g9.

In observing nature man can learn harmony and order and
the pattern of life. He learns to adjust to nature and to
see how he can make adaptations on it. Man, the only
animal born with intelligence and ability to think and
understand, can then see his place in the order. With the
real world as a guide, the learner can be of himself and
can life and act in accordance with his percept of 'self.'
The student in the world becomes capable of examining what
he has seen and felt and is then capable of making choices
based upon this knowledge.

The observations of the interdependency of the
natural world serves the learner as an effective focus for
determining truths and values in his life. The teacher in
this setting ". . . does not teach 'absolutes' but rather
presents material and guides the student in developing his
ability to determine values and needs."6 With each
succeeding experience, the man in nature comes to under-
Stand and live by the tenet, "Say not, 'I have found the
truth', but rather, 'I have found a truth'."7 The teacher
must see that the learner has the opportunities to compre-
henfii the facts and his relationship to them and to learn

to use this information in relation to the time and cir-

CumStances in which he finds himself. For it is said of

X

W 6Paul Woodring, A Fourth of a Nation (New York:
1CCTPaw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957), p. 111.

7Gibran, p. 63.

the teacher that "if he is indeed wise he does not bid you

enter the house of his wisdom, but rather leads you to the

8

threshold of your own mind."

The premise regarding the nature of man and the bond
of man and the natural environment can be separated only
with great difficulty. Man, as a component of the natural
world, lives and functions in a manner similar to all
other members of the living community. While the possession
of faculties to observe, understand and control various
aspects of his existence differentiates man from other
living creatures, it does not remove him from his place
in the universe. It is important to "recognize, for our
own good, that there are laws which govern human behavior
just as there are laws which govern the character and
operation of all material things."9 And, "when we live
in harmony with the facts and the universal laws of our
physical, human and spiritual environment, we grow."10
This growth can be seen as the development of the individual
Potential of which man is capable.

The one common thread among the various goals for

edUCation that are purposed is that of the importance of

\

Ibid., p. 6A.

 

9William J. Reilly, In Search of a Working Philosoghy
Egjhijg (New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 19597,

p. 70.

 

the individual. And, if the individual is the key in
education, the outdoor environment must become a part of
the educational setting. For truly, the outdoor environ—
ment meets three basic needs of the individual in his
pursuit of learning about the self:

A sense of reality that serves to integrate the
planes of the physical and the abstract.

A sense of oneness with nature that leads to
what Albert Schweitzer calls a 'reverence for
life', together with a small amount of skills

and virtue that reduce helplessness under
simple outdoor conditions.

A sense of belonging, of being wanted as a person.11
The base of this educational philosophical approach, then,
is to meet the basic human needs of the students through

the use of an environment in which they will be prepared

for life by experiencing the natural world.

Related Studies

 

A review of related studies shows that no research
hmslneen done in the field of outdoor education pertaining
toteacher-student relationships or the conditions leading
togoodrelationships. The need for group work skills and

improved attitudes and understandings of the group process

inWorking with a class was seen in studies by Berger12 and

\

llStoddard, p. 15-

t l2Harriet Jean Berger, "A Plan for Developing Compe—
E:ncies for Leadership in School Camping and Outdoor

Abgcation for Elementary Education Students," Dissertation
.sszgggts, Vol. XLX, No. 3 (unpublished Ed. D. dissertation,

New York University, 1958), p. 16u1.

10

O'Rare.l3 Petersonlu identified that the use of individual
conferences, praise, and other emotional supports, in
response to critical instances in the class,fostered
improved teacher—student relationships. The commonality
of the nature of educational processes in the classroom
and at a school camp are noted by Kleindienst.15 She
stressed that the same principles are involved in both
settings and implied that factors recommended in education
in general are equally applicable to any portion of the
school program.

Waltonl6 considered the administrative practices in
school camping. Among his findings in relation to teachers

were: 1) the high frequency with which the classroom

 

13Mary Rita Donleavy O'Hare, "Teachers' Attitudes
Toward the Development of the Group Process in the Elemen-
tary School," Dissertation Abstract, Vol. XXVI, No. 2
(unpublished PH.D. dissertation, Fordham University, 1964),

p. 909.

1“Robert Duane Peterson, "A Critical Incident Study
of Elementary School Teacher—Pupil Relations in Washington
State," Dissertation Abstracts, Vol. XXIV, No. 11 (unpub—
lished Ed.D. dissertation, UnIversity of Washington, 1963),
1x>. “ABA-4485.

15Viola K. Kleindienst, "A Study of the Experiences
Of Camping for the Purpose of Pointing Out Ways in which a
SChool Camp Program may Supplement the Elementary SChool
at the Sixth Grade Level," Dissertation Abstracts, Vol.
XVIII, No. 3 (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, New York

University, 1957), p- 959-

16Thomas W. Walton, ”A Study of the Administrative
fractices Used in the Operation of Thirty Selected Part-Time
QChool Camp Programs in Michigan," Dissertation Abstracts,
le- XVI, No. l (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Michigan
Statue University, 1955), pp. 58-59.

11

teacher accompanied the class to the camp, and 2) the
frequency of pre-camp preparation that was offered to the
teachers.

The research most nearly related to this study is
described by Doty.l7 The study dealt with the affective

domain of learning, specifically with character develop-

ment. A ten year study was undertaken by a YMCA camp and
the Union College Character Research Project. The results
indicate that positive change will occur in specified
character traits if objectives are established to promote
the change and if personnel are trained and are provided
with usable tools. The key to success is seen as the
establishment of operational objectives. Doty stresses
that "success must be determined in relation to objectives.18
Brief Statement of Methodology

This study is concerned with teacher-student rela-
tionships as they operate in a resident outdoor education
setniing, and particularly with those conditions which would
enhenice these relationships.

The writer read extensively in literature relating
t0! a) the individual, b) educational objectives, 0) the

Claszsroom setting, d) informal groups, e) human interaction,

'3 tflie role of the teacher, as well as g) outdoor education,

( 17Richard S. Doty, The Character Dimension of Camping
New lRark: Association Press, 1960)-

1
8I,bid., p. 19.

 

12

camping and nature. These readings served as a review of
relevant information, as a resource for determining items
included in the investigation of current practices, as

a means of isolating conditions that affect human relations
in the resident outdoor educational setting, and a basis
for selecting criteria to be used in the evaluation.

In a pilot study, brochures describing outdoor pro-
grams were examined. As a result of this study a question—
naire was designed to secure more information about the
current practices in outdoor education directly related to
this study. The questionnaire was submitted to selected
schools throughout the country meeting predetermined cri-
teria, such as school grades included in the program and
length of residency in the program.

Following the analysis of the questionnaire, an
eXperimental evaluative guide was prepared. The guide was
based upon the broad range of literature cited above and
mi information secured from the responses to the question—
nairna, from which certain principles were determined. The
Syntfliesis of these principles resulted in the development
Of 81 set of criteria thought useful in evaluating the
tefielder—student relationship in the outdoor setting. The
expensimental guide, including the criteria and suggested
Usage, was tested with several resident outdoor programs,
School administrators, and teachers. The final form of
the GVQiluation guide incorporated feedback derived from this

fieldtesting.

13

In its final form the instrument provides a behavioral
guide and an evaluative tool for the teacher participating

in the outdoor experience.

T‘ ”t o 0

JGIISILIOE of Terms

 

The following are some words and terms used in the
study which have several definitions or interpretations.
For the purpose of clarity they are defined here in accord
with their usage and meaning in the writing.

Criterion--
"A standard of judgement or criticism; an
established rule or principle for testing
anything."l An effort has been made,
also, to word the criteria in such a way
that they may be used as behavioral objectives.

Curriculum--
includes all of those conditions and events
contiguous to the execution of an educational
program.

Outdoor Education--
means educational experiences in the outdoor
setting. The term is used to indicate the
use of the outdoor setting as a tool for
curriculum enrichment.

Positive Change in Relationships——
implies a change in relationships between
individuals that encompasses a greater
understanding of a real person rather than
a title or position, an increase in the
abilitiy to communicate as people, and an
acceptance of the uniqueness of individuals.

Resident Outdoor Education Program (sometimes
called School Camping)--
is an outdoor experience participated in by
an organized classroom group, including the
teacher, in which several consecutive nights
are spent at an outdoor site.

 

l

9The Random House Dictionary of the English Language,
lmabridged EditionVINew York: The Random House, Inc.,
1966), p. 3AA.

1“

School-—
used to refer to an individual school, a
school system, or a consolidated school
district.

Teacher-student--
refers to a classroom teacher and students
within the class.

Teacher-—

indicates the classroom teacher participating
with the class unless otherwise noted.

Limitations

 

The schools included in the study were limited by
certain selection criteria which assured comparable infor—
mation about elements necessary for this study. Selection
factors included: school grades; the length of the outdoor
residency, the classroom attending as a unit; and, the fact
that experimental programs would be excluded. Thus, while
it is hoped that the evaluative guide will have general
applicability to all outdoor programs, it may be that one
or more of the selection factors have placed a limitation
on its use.

The evaluative guide makes no attempt to determine
either the nature or the degree of the teacher-student
relationship changes. Neither is the longitudinal effect

of the relationship change examined.

Basic Assumptions

 

This study is basically structured in five sequen-
tially oriented assumptions concerning education practices
and the outdoor program.

Assumption 1:

The area of relationships must be a major concern
in today's education.
Five basic skills necessary for worthwhile life
are likely to be of critical importance: the
ability to reason, the ability to readjust one-
self on one's own terms to cultural flux; the
ability to control and spend one's time with
intelligence and rewarding purpose; the ability
to achieve and sustain rewarding relationships
with others; and the ability to preserve and
extend one's own uniqueness while participating
harmoniously in the society.20
To meet the demands of today it is vital that human
relations are removed from the list of 'subject's
taught' and become normal conditions within which
the total educational program is offered. Satis-
factory results in the classroom come only from
satisfactory interaction between the teacher and

students. "It is in the things that matter most--

life and the implicit skills of human relation-

 

 

ships--that the schools seem to do least well."21
20Louis J. Rubin, ed., Life Skills in School and
Society (Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 1969), p. 51.
21 .

Ibid., p. 129.

 

l6

ssumption 2:
The school setting itself,by its formal structure,
is often a leading handicap in attaining satisfac-
tory teacher—student relations. Factors that
interfere with these relationships include some
building designs, methods of scheduling and timing
activities, placement of the teacher in a constant
policing role, and lack of freedom for teachers to
work in their own best style.
Assumption 3:
Outdoor Education is an appropriate means by which
to undertake the task of learning and living the
life skills of human relations.
The many sides of personality which are
almost automatically drawn out when teacher
and pupil share a real experience may never
be seen in the more restricted atmosphere
of the classroom. . . . One of the signi—
ficant benefits that comes to teachers and
pupils who share in the vivid and adventurous
experiences that outdoor education offers is
that of a better understanding of each other.22
If, as W. H. Kilpatrick said, "Education is a
different thing from what happens to you in

23

school," it is appropriate to look beyond the

 

22Outdoor Education for American Youth, Julian W.

Smith, chairman (Washington, D.C.: American Association

for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, NEA, 1957),
p. 31.

A 23William H. Kilpatrick, "Camps Can Show Schools What
Education Is," Lights From a Thousand Campfires, ed. by
wwmeth B. Webb (New York: Association Press, 1960), p. 35.

l7

confines of the school with the idea that "perhaps
outdoor life could be regarded as an escape from word-
iness—- as a healthy resistance to the false notion
that everything of value can be heard in speech or
read from the printed page."2A

Assumption A:
Use of the outdoor setting alone is not suffi—
cient to assure effective relationship growth.
Planning must occur that places the teacher and
students in the key roles. Planning that puts
emphasis on administrative efficiency or opera-
tional controls is planning in danger of over-
looking the major function of the outdoor program.
Rather it must include work with teachers and
classes in the preparation and planning and must
develop an operational structure for the program
that is open enough and flexible enough to allow
for the differences and needs of the various
classes.

Assumption 5:
Finally, it is assumed that if teacher-student
relationships are to become a vital part of the
outdoor education experience, it must be included

in the planning. Teachers should be provided with

 

“Stoddard, p. 15.

18

help in promoting interaction. And, they should

be provided with evaluative criteria to determine
the effectiveness of their efforts in establishing

proper conditions within which relationships may

flourish.

Perspective

The basic premises of this study are threefold: the

importance of the individual; the importance of human rela-

tionships; and, the value of the outdoor setting. Chapter

II reviews the literature which deals with various aspects

of the study. From this review, elements are identified

which need to be considered in developing objectives and

criteria. The third chapter presents a detailed examination

Of the development of the evaluative guide. Summary results

Of the exploratory study, questionnaire, and use of the
experimental guide are examined for significant contribu-
tiOns and the steps used in preparing the evaluating guide
BIT? discussed. Chapter IV contains the Guide for Evalua-
tiCNi along with suggestions for its use. In the concluding

Chauater are suggestions for further research and final

Conunents.

CHAPTER II

t?
l l
I]
[T‘

1
*3
C?
*U
[1;

The examination of literature pertinent to the focus

of this study necessitates approaching the subject from

several contiguous directions. An exhaustive exploration

of literature on outdoor education provided only cursory
references to teacher-student relationships and no informa—

tion regarding conditions for human interaction during an

outdoor experience. In order to investigate information

concerning these areas, various elements of the relation-
ship and the conditions are considered. The development
Of the essential elements in the study begins with beliefs
about 'the Self' and its needs, progresses through con-
fiideration of educational beliefs and the teacher—student
r“elationship, interpersonal relationships and conditions
ttuat help effect them, and the outdoor setting and its role
irl education.

The areas were selected for exploration on the basis
Of‘ their potential contributions to the various aspects of
true study. The reading is planned to serve two specific
FNeroses: first, it helps to sharpen the focus on the

essential elements being considered through an in-depth

l9

20

examination of the subjects; and, secondly, it offers key

factors needing consideration and suggests procedures that
could be used in developing the evaluative guide. Conclud-
ing the review of each subject area is a summary statement

of the significant contributions of the area to the study.

The Importance of 'the Self'

 

The keystone of education, and the underlying princi—
ple of this study, is the development of 'the Self' of the
student and the recognition of the inviobility of 'the
Self.' Fromm identifies this concisely in saying "Man is
alone and he is related at the same time. He is alone

inasmuch as he is a unique entity, not identical with any-

one else, and aware of his self as a separate untity."l

He adds further that:

If he faces the truth without panic he will
recognize that there is no meaning to life
except the meaning man gives his life by the
unfolding of hisgpowers, by living produc-
tively; and that only constant vigilance,
activity, and effort can keep us from failing
in the one task that matters-~the full develop-
ment of our powers within the limitations set
by the laws of our existence.2

 

Mas? sees loss of identity as the major malady of our times
aruj expresses it by saying ". . . what our society needs--
INDt new ideas and inventions, important as these are, and

lErich Fromm, Man For Himself, Bantam Book (New York:
HOlt, Rinehart, and Winston, Inc., 19A7), p. 51.

 

Ibid., p. 53.

 

21

not geniuses and supermen, but persons who can be, that is,
persons who have a center of strength within themselves."3
1m does not see this as an easy task nor one that is free
from dangers, but as a necessary part of existence from
infancy on as the "consciousness of self actually expands
our control of our lives, and with that expanded power comes
the capacity to let ourselves go.”u Moustakis agrees with
and extends this idea in his thought that ”Creative individ—
ual expression, that is, expression of one's own intrinsic
nature, results in social creativity and growth which in
turn encourages and frees the individual to further self—
expression and discovery."5 He continues by noting that
"true growth, actualization of one's potential, occurs in

a setting where the person is felt and experienced as sheer
Personal being. In such an atmosphere the person is free
to explore his capacities and to discover for himself
meanings and values of life consistent with the self."6

In Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming four leading advo-

(Nltes of the importance of 'the Self' present their views.

 

 

3Rollo May, Man's Search for Himself, A Signet Book
(New York: w. w. Norton 8. Company, Inc., 1953), p. 69.

“Ibid., p. 91.

 

(‘ 5Clark Moustakis, "True Experience and Self," in The
2531f in Growth, Teaching, and Learning, ed. by Don E.
Ikhnacheck (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1965), p. A8.

6Ibid., p. Al.

“—

Earl C. Kelley7 sees the fully functioning self as an ever
creative organism. The self develops primarily in a series
of relationships in which the individual gains ideas of who
he thinks he is as a result of selective perceptions. This
involvement gives him a reason to be and is the base upon
which he establishes his values and goals through life.

Carl Rogers8 presents ideas from the point of view of a
therapist. He believes that each individual must answer for
himself the questions regarding his purpose, striving and
goals and that the key to solving the problem is found in
experiences. In order to accomplish this the individual
must seek "toward openness to experiences, living as a pro—
cess, and trust of one's own experiencing.”9 A. H. Maslow 0
suggests that the basic propositions regarding self—actual-
ization include: the development of the idea of the intrin-
sic nature of each individual; the pattern of its growth;

its weaknesses and strengths; and its positive nature. He

L

7Earl C. Kelley, "The Fully Functioning Self," in
flgroeiving, Behaving, Becoming, Arthur W. Combs, Chairman
OWashington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curri—
culinn Development, 1962), p. A8.

) 8Carl R. Rogers, ”Toward Becoming a Fully Functioning
1erson," Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming, Arthur W. Combs,

 

Chairman (Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 1962), pp. 21-33.
9

Ibid., p. 25.

1
0A. H. Maslow, "Some Basic Propositions of a Growth
3nd Self—actualizing Psychology," Perceiving, Behaving,
figgflflygg, Arthur W. Combs, Chairman (Washington, D.C.:
foOCiation for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
1362), pm). 3A-A9.

23

(NMISIIMBPS (Axe illea.rif (Hie rwituriilicflzic \Hilucn: of‘ thc~ ln<lt—
vidual and the factors that affect these values in their
development and implementation as vital. The sequencing of
these propositions leads that author to explore the existen—
tial nature of man and the importance of the 'now' of life.
Some of these same factors are expanded in his book Toward
A Psychology of Being.11 Here he adds the concepts of
"peak-experiences,” the need to know oneself and a greater
emphas's on the importance and role of values in self
development. The fourth presentation, by Combs,l2 des-
cribes what is meant by an adequate personality. Four
points are mentioned as being essential in developing ade-
quately: a positive view of self; identification with
others; openness to experience and acceptance; and, a rich

and available perceptual field.

13

The authors of Individual Behavior further define

Hie perceptual self as not just the physical being but that
plus the awareness of the individual of his personality and
tux; uniqueness. To develop this 'self' man must meet his

basic need--"the great driving, striving force in each of

 

llAbraham H. Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being,
An Insight Book (Princeton, N.J.: D. VanNostrand Company,
1110' 3 1962).

12

) Arthur W. Combs, "A Perceptual View of the Adequate
Ier“Sonality,” in Perceiving, Behavior, Becoming, Arthur W.

 

CPmPS, Chairman (Washington, D.C.: Association for Super—
Vlsion and Curriculum Development, 1962), pp. 50-62.
13

1 Arthur W. Combs and Donald Snygg, Individual Behav-
.22 (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1959).

 

1..

2A

us by which we are continually seeking to make ourselves

ever more adequate to cope with life."114 15

Jonas Langer
calls this idea of self development the Organic Lamp Theory.
In this theory he sees man as developing as a result of his
own actions. Man has natural stages of development and
gxroceeds through these stages as an active agent in his
cnvn constructive growth. Gardner says "if one had to
select a single conception that is central to the consen-
sus in our own society, it would be the idea of the dignity
arui worth of the individual. . . . there is not only some-
thillg important about him, there is something invioble."16
He {doints out the danger of not developing the 'self' but
allxawing it to become enmeshed in the webs of society,
prwxssures and stagnation. This danger can be counteracted
onljr by developing the individual and educating him in
ways of self—renewal. Combs asked "What is the ultimate
in tnlman freedom? What does it mean for man to achieve

Um2.fullest possible fulfillment of his potentialities?"l7

¥

lulbid., p. 16.

 

15Jonas Langer, Theories of Development (New York:
Holt, iRinehart, and Winston, Inc., 1969).

16John W. Gardner, Self-Renewal, Harper Colophon
Books (New York:- Harper & Row, Publishers, 1963), p. 86.

17Arthur W. Combs, "What Can Man Become?", in TE;
§El£_111 Growth, Teaching, and Learning, ed. by Don E.
“amacrnek (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice—Hall, Inc.,
1965): p. 562.

25

A democratic principle is that when men are free they find
their own best way—-although in practice we too often
negate this in favor of majority rule. This occurs because
we do not yet trust the individual.

Beliefs, values and convictions are a part of the
individual only to the degree that the 'self' has had the
opportunity to experience and to evaluate the experiences.
The premise of this study is that the growth of the 'self'
of the individual must be the foremost consideration in

planning educational experiences.

Ideas on Education

 

Education viewed as a process separate from schooling,
per'se, has been the subject of many writers. Several of
tfliese, whose comments are especially pertinent to this
stnidy as it relates to the concept of individual entity,
are cited in this section.

Transmission of culture, supporting the discovery of
near knowledge and the allocation of individuals to posi-
ticnds in society are mentioned by Goslin18 as the tradi-
ticnial and present functions of the public schools. He
sees; these as the continuing major functions of education
everi in his discussion of needed changes and innovations.
AS emu example he points out that curriculum should be

mflxflect oriented with emphasis on societal needs. In

 

 

1
8David A. Goslin, The School in Contemporagy Society

(Chicagx3: Scott, Foresman and Company, 1955).

26

Images of the Future it is stated that "efforts must be

 

made to provide for the individual differences of the stu-
dents and to determine which learning experiences are the

19 And,

most significant for the success of the individual.
while it presents existing and proposed ideas for change
that are different from the norm in schools today, the
context still holds to weekly class schedules, specified
time blocks for subjects, student population requirements,
and preparation for examinations and "graduation.” These
materials give relevancy to Houghton's comment about the
attitudes of schools: "Join our make-believe world, kid!
_Distort and corrupt yourself and leave your authenticity
at the door and join us in our illusions, or you can't,play
tflie game."20
In 1965 Kelley pointed out that the basic error in
inlanning for education is "we start with the materials,
indich are the tools of education, and not the product."21

thiat one learns is less important than how he feels and the

irnzerrelationship of the feeling and the learning is

¥

19Lloyd J. Trump, Images of the Future (Washington,
D.C.: National Association of Secondary-School Principals,
1959),IL 5.

20Raymond W. Houghton, "The Focus of Humanism and the
Teacrmny" in Humanizing Education: The Person in the Pro-
Sfifigi, ed. by Robert R. Leeper (Washington, D.C.: Associa-
giffll for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1967), p.

2
. 1Earl C. Kelley, "The Place of Affective Learning,"
Ififlfiflftional Leadership, XXII, No. 7 (April, 1965), A5.

27

important if learning is to be worthwhile. Twenty years

22

earlier in Education for What Is Real he stressed that

 

education is a continuing process between the individual

and those things he perceives as real. He presented ten

assumptions about education that were so traditional and

accepted as to be detrimental to the process of education.

These were:

1.

York:

We assume that the child goes to school to
acquire knowledge, and that knowledge is
something which has existed for a long time
and is handed down on authority.

We assume that subject matter taken on
authority is educative in itself.

We assume that the best way to set out
subject matter is in unassociated fragments
or parcels.

We assume that a fragment or parcel of sub—
ject matter is the same to the learner as
to the teacher.

We assume that education is supplementary
to and preparatory to life, not life itself.

We assume that since education is not present
living, it has no social aspects.

We assume that the teacher can and should
furnish the purpose needed for the acquiring
of knowledge.

We assume that working on tasks devoid of
purpose or interests is good discipline.

We assume that the answer to the problem
is more important than the process.

Earl C. Kelley, Education for What Is Real (New

 

Harper & Brothers, Publishers, 19A7).

28

10. We assume that it is more important to
measure what has been learned than it
is to learn.2

Unfortunately these assumptions are still all to prevalent
in our centers of learning. His idea that the learner is
the most important aspect of education led him to say "any

curriculum set up in advance is bound to fail, because
2A

education is an emerging process."
Brown identified what to him is the most important
change needed in education--teacher beliefs and attitudes.

Teachers, like everyone else, can behave only
in terms of what seems to them to be. Their
classroom practices are related to their
beliefs. What teachers believe and do about
educational problems in the classroom depends
to a considerable extent upon their fundamental
beliefs about (1) people, and why they behave
as they do, (2) reality, or the world in which
people live, and (3) knowledge, its nature and
relationship to what people do.2

Phaughton sees the role of the teacher similarly saying:

As teacher and children become learners together,
they attain a higher level of existence almost too
exquisite to savor. The teacher poses the cul-
tural model. It is not a model of himself, but
rather the model of human authenticity that

allows the student to become more intensively
himself--to find his own existence, his own
meaning, his own configuration of the universe.26

23

2”Ibid., p. 83.

Ibid., pp. 15-22.

 

25Bob Burton Brown, The Experimental Mind in Educa-
Lign (New York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 19685, pp. 1-2.

6 Houghton, "The Focus of Humanism and the Teacher,"
Do 1.

29

In the same volume Combs considers education as behavior
change and feels it is important that:

1. We must first believe that meaning and
humanism are important.

2. If the goals of humanism are to be
obtained, personal meanings rather than
facts must become the objective of
teaching.

3. If humanizing education is truly to be
achieved, then the 'person'in the process
must be given prime attention.

A. If humanization of education is to be
brought about, we must evaluate our
teachers for humanism and pay off on it.

5. To meet the goals of humanization we need
a heavy commitment of time, talent, money
and research.

6. Finally, humanizing education is a problem
for all the persons in the process. 7

[Weade28 identifies some basic skills that will be needed by

Inenmers of society in the future, including the area of
pnersonal relations and self-perpetuating learners. This
twelief is similar to John Gardner's statement that:

Education in the formal sense is only a part
of the society's larger taks of abetting the
individual's intellectual, emotional and

27Arthur W. Combs, "Humanizing Education: The Person
irl the Process," in Humanizing Education: The Person in
2133 Process, ed. by Robert R. Leeper (Washington, D.C.:
Assuociation for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
1967). pp. 73-88. .

28Edward J. Meade, Jr., "The Changing Society and
Its Schools," in Life Skills in School and Society, ed. by
Louis J. Rubin (Washington, D.C.: Association for Super-
vision and Curriculum Development, 1969), pp. 35-52.

30

moral growth. What we must reach for is a
conception of pegpetual self-discovery,
perceptual reshaping to realize one's best
self, to be the person one could be!g

30

In "Creativity and Openness to Experience" some of the

factors suggested as being detrimental to good education are
too much order, stress on the historical, "cookbook"
approaches to learning, isolation of the learner, authorita—
tive settings, adult oriented, fear of mistakes and adminis-
trative rather than human controlling forces. If these fac-
tors are restated in a positive fashion we have a ready
gride for what should be the processes in education. DeHaan
anci Doll say that "education should prepare students to
IUnve in a pluralistic world. . . . a world which cannot be
(fimaracterized by anything short of paradoxes and contradic-
ticnds and difficulties."31 They stress the importance of
leerrning as a unique and personalized activity that must
cmnbine content with a continuing process of self-discovery

leading to the full development of the individual's human

 

29John W. Gardner, Excellence, Harper Colphon Books
(Nehr York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1961), p. 126.

30"Creativity and Openness to Experience," in Egg-
ceivingg Behaving, Becoming, ed. by Arthur W. Combs
(Wasriington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
(huufliculum Development, 1962).

31Robert F. DeHaan and Ronald c. Doll, "Individuali-
zaticnl and Human Potential," in Individualizing Instruction,
ed- by Ronald c. Doll (Washington, D.C.: Association for
Supernlision and Curriculum Development, 196A), p. 25.

3]

32 the needs in

potential. In "Youth Education: Problems"
education are given as: self understanding, developing new
ways of relating to each other, teacher-student relation—
ships, and the teaching—learning situation. A discussion
of the social and philosophical perspectives of youth edu-
cation puts emphasis on the dignity and worth of the
individual, the intelligence and rational capacity of man
and freedom with responsibility. The development of each
of these areas in educational settings as we now know them
can be accomplished only through the teacher.

It is not only for the sake of the future that

the true educator fights, it is for the justi-

fication of himself, his profession, and the

state of his own soul. He, too, amid contin-

gencies and weariness. without mental antennae,

and with test that fail him, is a savior of

souls. 3

For a number of years the idea of the individual and

the importance of the learner has been discussed. Lately
several writers have addressed themselves to offering con-
crete suggestions toward making these ideas become reality.

3A

Crary develops the idea of curriculum around the dual

¥

32Sidney P. Rollins, "Youth Education: Problems," in
199th Education-~Problems, Perspectives, Promises, ed. by

 

BaYmond H. Muessig (Washington, D.C.: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1968).
33

Raymond H. Muessig, "Youth Education: A Social-
Philosophical Perspective," in Youth Education-—Problem§,
ESZ§pectives,Promises, ed. by Raymond H. Muessig (Wash-

 

 

inEton, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
DeVGlopment, 1968), p. AA.
3A

D Ryland W. Crary, Humanizing the School: Curriculum
.Elglgpment and Theory (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1969).

 

32

responsibility of the school-~intellectual development and
youth development. The process of curriculum development,
he feels, must begin with a single child and deal with life
itself as "a school is simply an aggregate of people con-
cerned with learning, and learning takes place within the
human being."35 In this view the "key to rational curri—
culum lies in giving attention not to what can be taught
but to what ought to be learned."36 The danger is that the
words, not the intent and meaning of his words, will be
accepted and the result will be merely new terminology used
in imperceptively changed traditional methods. Leonard
feels "education is a process that changes the learner."37
And "learning involves interaction between the learner and
his environment, and its effectiveness relates to the fre-
quency, variety and intensity of the interaction."38 In
his discussion he says:
One of the first tasks of education, then is
to return man to himself; to encourage rather
than stifle awareness; to educate the emo-
tions, the senses, the so-called autonomic

systems; to help people become truly ggspon-
sive and therefore truly responsible.

Ibid., p. 35.

 

37George B. Leonard, Education and Ecstasy (New York:
DGlacorte Press, 1968), p. 18.

38Ibid., p. 19.

39Ibid., p. 127.

33

Education must find ecstasy in learning and in life. Simi—
lar in intent is Teaching As A Subversive Activity.u0 If
the purpose of education is to learn, the important ques-
tion then becomes what to learn. These authors feel that
individual learning needs are most vital and that what
schools can best teach is how to ask questions. "Once you
have learned how to ask questions--relevant and appropriate
amid substantial questions--you have learned how to learn
811d no one can keep you from learning whatever you want or
need to know. "“1

The significant difference in whether or not changes
iri education occur remains with the teacher. These same
aLrthors give some not-so-tongue in cheek suggestions to
Imelp illustrate this point: i.e., classes must be elec-
tive and the pay for teachers is based upon the attendance
If) their classes. In a more serious vein they present a
ldjst of ideas about what could be done now while waiting
for* community and administrative changes to catch up with
exhicational needs. Some of their suggestions for teachers
area examine the value and relevancy of what you are
teaching; stress listening to students rather than only

Malling; teach the students to ask questions; let the

cfltuxs devise a grading system for their use; and, examine

g

uoNeil Postman and Charles Weingartner, Teaching As
fiiflflgzersive Activity (New York: Delacorte Press, 19697.

ullbid., p. 23.

3A

in great detail why you are teaching. Rogers presented

some ideas on education in his text, Client Centered

 

Therapy.U2 He cites Nathaniel Cantor as saying:

the teacher will be concerned primarily with
understanding and not judging the individual.

the teacher will keep at the center of the
teaching process the importance of the stu-
dent's problems and feelings, not his own.

most important of all, the teacher will realize
that constructive effort must come from the
positive or active forces within the students.u3

Irl his most recent publication, Freedom To Learn, Rogers

 

icientifies five elements of significant or experiential
lezarning as: it has a quality of personal involvement; it
is; self-initiated; it is pervasive; it is evaluated by the
ljearner; and, its essence is meaning.uu The best way to
i11sure that this type of learning will not take place, he
sulggests, is to continue in the traditional and conventional
educational model seen in the majority of schools today.
TM) Rogers, the key to bringing about the change needed is
thrnaugh relationships.
. . if we are to have citizens who can live
constructively in this kaleidoscopically changing
world, we can only have them if we are willing

for them to become self-starting, self-initiating
learners. Finally, it has been my purpose to

u2Carl R. Rogers, Client-Centered Therapy (Boston:

Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1951I-

u3Nathaniel Cantor, The Dynamics of Learning (Buffalo:
FOSterand Stewart, 19A6), pp. 83-8A: as cited by Rogers,
§l$222:0entered Therapy, p. 385. .

uuCarl R. Rogers, Freedom to Learn (Columbus, Ohio:
Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1969), p. 5.

 

35

show that this kind of learner develops best,

so far as we now know, in a growth-promog%ng,

facilitative relationship with a person.
His thoughts and suggestions for the future of education
are based upon his belief that the individual has the
desire and the potential to learn and become self—fulfilling.
In order to accomplish these goals the individual must learn
(how to come into relationships with others and the teacher
rnust be a facilitator and learner in this educative pro-
cess. Thus, as Kelley says, "if people are the most impor-
tzant asset on our island whirling in space, then human
realations becomes our most important study."u6

The words about the changing nature of educational

otnjectives must be translated into action. Emphasis must
bee placed on the new understanding of the student; his
luaiqueness, his humanness and his way of learning. 2E2
inuaortance of the role of the teacher in effectinggthis
cheuage cannot be over stressed. The teacher must be able
to :function as a human being and as a facilitator of
learmdng as well as a dispensor of information and selector
9Q experiences. What happens between the teacher and each

Eflandent in the class is the essence of education and must

_£xxmne the focus of educational thinking and planning.

¥

 

“6Kelley, Education for What Is Real, p. 110.

36

The Teacher and the Class

The teacher and students in a class form a unique
interacting unit. Within this setting are the opportunities
for large group functions, small group activities, and
person-to-person meetings. The teacher has the responsib-
ility for guiding the learners in the art of human rela—
tions. To accomplish this there must be an understanding
and acceptance of the teacher's role and of the implica-
tions for the learners.

MacDonald“7 gives three sets of conditions necessary
for optimum development of the individual: 1) A Priori
conditions of genetic and physical characteristics; 2)
social conditions which involve the use of societal and
cultural signs and symbols; and, 3) maximal conditions of
openness of thought, openness of affect, and openness of
perception. He projects the implication of the image of
man to the teacher saying:

The socializing agent in the classroom must
provide opportunities for children to reveal
themselves, must promote relationships which
bring about a positive affective climate,
iggwnggeopgn vistas of relevant cultural

This calls upon the teacher to behave in a manner that is

congruent, to have empathy with the pupils, and to have a

*

u7James B. MacDonald, "An Image of Man: The Learner
Himself," in Individualizing Instruction, ed. by Ronald C.

 

D011 (Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 196A), pp. 2A-29.
A8

Ibid., p. A0.

37

positive regard toward the pupils. In "Ways Children

1 .
49 the importance to the child of a feeling of

Learn"
security received from the love and understanding of an
adult is pointed out. A fact to remember about children,
it continues, is that the behavior they exhibit does not
tell us much about them except to reflect that which has
happened to them previously. It is dangerous to accept

a child and respond to him on the basis of 'today' behavior
only.

The problems of studying the affective domain in

educational planning are cited in the Taxonomy of Educa-

 

L;
tional Objectives.“O Three specific problems are men-

 

tioned: the lack of clarity in the literature concerning
the subject; the problem of ordering the principle of the
affective domain; and, the few examiners who felt that the
development of this subject would be useful to them.
Affective objectives identified in the study were interests,
attitudes, appreciation, values, and emotions. Closely
aligned with affective learning in education is the idea of

51

social learning. Ambrose and Miel define social learning

 

 

 

 

ungs. Eric Craven, "Ways Children Learn," Camp, The
Child's World (Martinsville, Ind.: American Camping
Association, 1962), pp. 17-18.

50

David R. Krathwhol, Benjamin S. Bloom, and Bertram
B- Masia, Taxonomy of Education Objectives——Handbook II:

§§§g§tive Domain (New York: David McKay Company, Inc.,
( )

51Edna Ambrose and Alice Meil, Children's Social
léflfifliflg (Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development, 1958), p. 3.

 

38

as "those learnings which help an individual maintain con-
tinuity between himself with his own developing habits of
thinking, feeling, acting and his own society with whatever
framework is necessary for its survival." Fritz Redl52
introduced a text with a discussion of the crises in the
children's field. In education he sees the problem of
attention to the individual vs. the demands of the group as
being the crucial issue. With adults in general, and with
some teachers, he notes a dilemma in the pathological idea
of Americans that says "we love kids, neglect children, and
hate youth."

In an effort to find the type of suggestions being
given to teachers regarding working with students in the
class, several books were consulted. It is disturbing to
find a 'cookbook' approach to the treatment of children
without regard for their individuality. The books included:
Lptergroup Relations for the Classroom Teacher,53 Common

5A

§§pse in Classroom Relations, and Managing Student

Behavior.55 In the one book relating to the outdoors, A

‘

52Fritz Redl, When We Deal With Children (New York:
The Free Press, 1966).

53Charlotte Epstein, Intergroup Relations for the
Classroom Teacher (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1968).

 

5“Robert Sylvester, Common Sense in Classroom Rela-
1873?; (West Nyack, N.Y.: Parker Publishing Co., Inc.,

55William E. Amos and Reginald C. Orem, Managing
§§§Qent Behavior (St. Louis, Mo.: Warren H. Green, Inc.,
7 .

39

56

Teacher's Handbook for Study Outside the Classroom, assis-

tance is given for planning subject study but no attention

is given to the affective nature of education. Teacher-
57

Pupil Planning for Better Classroom Learning gives some

direct attention to the subject of human relations, but it

is aimed toward specific problems as illustrated through

58

case studies. Amidon and Hunter attempt to by—pass the

subject content through attention to the nature of verbal
interaction. Nations59 indicates that subject matter must
take second place to the needs of the child and to do this

the teacher must first be a full person. The teacher must

be able to follow Posin’s6O six F's of leadership-~fairness,

firmness, frankness, fondness, friction, and faith.
If teaching is a form of expressing, then the teacher

must "make his relation to a learner part of the significant

56Shirley A. Brehm, A Teacher's Handbook for Study
Qgtside the Classroom (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill
Publishing Company, 1969).

57Yvonne Waskin and Louise Parrish, Teacher-Pupil
Elianning for Better Classroom Learning (New York: Pitman
Biblishing Corporation, 1967).

58Edmund Amidon and Elizabeth Hunter, Improving
Teaching (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
19 7).

59Jimmy E. Nations, "The Teacher as a Person," Educa-
t onal Leadership, November, 1962, pp. 101-103, 125.

6OSidney Posin, "The Child in the Group," Camp,,The
hildfls World (Martinsville, Ind.: American Camping
SEMDciation, 1962), pp. 22-23.

0

 

21>

A0

experience of the learner."61 Supporting this is the state-

ment in Individual Behavior that "teaching is a relation-

 

62

ship, but there can be no relationship with a nonentity."
It adds further that the teacher must use his own personal-
ity in order to facilitate learning. This is similar to
Combs' definition of an effective teacher as "a unique
human being who has learned to use himself effectively and

efficiently to carry out his own and society's purposes in

"63

‘the education of others. The good teacher must be

'somebody' and must be willing and able to interact with

‘the learners. This idea is sustained by Dorthea Spellman614

:in reference to roles in which one person directly inter-
‘venes into the life of another. Some of the areas about

lNthh the teacher must be concerned are pointed out by

65

.Iersild as being anxiety, loneliness, meaning, sex, hos-

tility, and compassion. If a teacher has not learned to

deal with these emotions in his own life his relations with

1Rodney A. Clark, "Learning and Evaluation," in
Eyaguation as Feedback and Guide, Fred T. Wilhelms, Chair—
man (Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 1967), p. 57.

 

62Combs and Snygg, Individual Behavior, p. 392°
63Arthur W. Combs, The Professional Preparation of
Teachers (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1965), P- 9-

uDorthea Spellman, "Conscious Use of Self," in
Qgflping Geared to Today's Concerns, 29th National Conven-
tion of the American Camping Association (Martinsville,
Ifid.: American Camping Association, 1966), p. 162.

65Arthur T. Jersild, When Teachers Face Themselves

§§Ew)York: Columbia University Teacher's College Press,
)5 .

A1

«whers will be distorted by his own lack of self-knowledge.

Moustakis says that:

The beginning is made by the teacher, never
as an authority, but as a person concerned

with the becoming nature of each member in

the group and with his own personal growth.
He starts with his philosophy, his convic-

tions, his attitudes, not with a definition
of his function or role.0

In his later book, The Authentic Teacher, he continues in

this vein noting that:

The primary condition to the establishment of
an effective interpersonal relationship with
a child is the recognition by the teacher of
feelings and attitudes peculiar to him and
influgnce by the special conditions of his
life.

In summary, the role of the teacher, as considered
11ere, is one that should meet the needs of a classroom as

described by Shaftel:

. .; we have chosen to speculate on the need
for open, low-structured experience for young
children, the challenge to continue open sys-
tems of learning in later years in both cogni-
tive and social—emotional areas of learning

and the need to develop strategies and programs
that permit children spontaneous discovery of
the world, expression of feelings, and pursuit
of their own ideas in cohesive groups that are

learnigg to support self-management in each
other.

66

Clark Moustakis, Alive and Growing Teacher (New
York: Philosophical Library, Inc., 1959), p. 19.

67Clark Moustakis, The Authentic Teacher (Cambridge,
Mass.: Howard A. Doyle Publishing Company, 1966), p. 37.

8Fannie R. Sheftel, "Toward More Autonomy for
Learners," in New Insights and the Curriculum, ed. by
Alexander Frazier (Washington, D.C.: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1963), p. 1A0.

A2

Interpersonal Relationships
Man lives and functions in a society and grows as a
result of interactions in this society. Further, inter-
personal relationships occur between individuals within
the society and between an individual and a group. The
literature reviewed in this section investigates these two
settings for human relations and the methods and techniques
used by individuals in the process of relating.
Berrien and Bash69 see the fundamental characteristics
(bf man's behavior as being the drive to become fully him-
:self while at the same time arriving at a similarity with
rlis fellow men. When all of his systems are at equilibrium,
lie grows at an optimal rate. Disturbance from the outside
affects the equilibrium. Heider7O elaborates on this say—
ing that the individual is caught in a complicated network
of environment. The effects of this network are multi-
factoral and extremely difficult to examine in accepted
scientific terms. These authors point out the complexity

0f determining the individual reaction that occurs to each

situation in the environment.

‘

69F. K. Berrien and Wendell H. Bash, Human Relations:

Comments and Caseg (New York: Harper & Row Brothers,
I)lelishers, 1957).

7OFritz Heider, The Psychology of Interpersonal
Relations (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1958).

 

A3

One approach to this area of study is through
”Perceptual Psychology." Solley and Murphy71 identify
perception as an inferred process that is unobservable
except in a phenomenological sense with the results of
perception noted through individual's behavior and the
conditions of behavior. Combs and Snygg point out the
importance of the field of perception saying, "perceptions
zare the very fabric of which human relations are made."72
'Fhey concur with other authors who say that the self will
Ego, on its own, to adequacy but that the environment can
ciivert the course. They indicate, also, that people do
riot yet know how to handle the data of this subject sci—
enatifically, but stress that it must be studied as it is
the key to human development and growth. Erich Fromm73
ciiscusses the idea of the separateness of the individual
and his striving to join with his fellow man. He proposes
that love—-as an attitude and orientation of character—-

is essential for providing the proper setting for the

individual to find his relatedness to others in society.

——_

71Charles M. Solley and Gardner Murphy, Development
9£_the Perceptual World (New York: Basic Books, 1960).

72Combs and Snygg, Individual Behavior, p. 36.

73Erich Fromm, The Art of Loving, Bantam Books (New
York: Harper & Row, Publishers, 1956).

AA

In the introduction to A Study of Interpersonal Relation—
gplp§7u it is mentioned that, although the text is still
basically relevant in the field after seventeen years, some
adjustments have occurred in the thinking of psychiatrists

about the role of interpersonal relationships. Included in

this change of thought is the idea of the need for feelings

of relatedness among individuals.

Relationships among individuals take several forms
said are exhibited through various actions. Huebner gives

:four forms of social encounter:

1. Man attempts to deny, ignore, or escape
from his sense of aloneness or separate-
ness, or that of his fellow man.

2. Man recognizes his aloneness or solitude
and may seek to overcome it by making
himself subservient to another.

3. Man recognizes his position and overcomes
it by accepting domination over another.

A. Man sees his position and 'transcends his

solitude when he accepts his aloneness
and that of the person he meets and seeks
a form of transaction which maintains the
maximum freedom of each.'75

76

Argyle continues from this point by mentioning seven

forns of social technique individuals use in relating to

ottuers:

‘

7”Patrick Mullahy, "Introduction," in A Study of
laperpersonal Relationships, ed. by Patrick Mullahy,
Science House, Inc., 1967 (New York: Hermitage Press,

Inc., 19A9).

75Dwayne Huebner, "New Modes of Man's Relationship
to Man," in New Insights and the Curriculum, ed. by
AleXander Frazier (Washington, D.C.: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1963), p. 1A6.

76Michael Argyle, The Psychology of Interpersonal
82321123, A Pelican Original (Baltimore Md.: Penguin

Books, Ltd., 1967).

A5

Bodily contact

Physical proximity and position
Gestures

Facial expressions

Eye movement

Non—linquistic aspects of speech
Speech

\IGU'IELJOMH

He indicates that the sequencing and combination of the
techniques used vary with the intent of the individual
regarding the relationship and with the receptivity of the
other person or persons. Man's past perceptions in his
eacceptance controls the degree of freedom he feels in
Irelating to people.

Beaglehole77

equates interpersonal relations with
isocialization. In this context he states that when two or
inore people meet and relate they form an integrated situa-
tion that is partially determined by cultural and personal
factors. He believes that this situation, while being the
sinmlest structurally, is the most complex functionally.
Erving Goffman pursues this subject in two of his books.78’79
He feels that the rituals used, as described earlier by

Argyle, are employed to safe "face” and to protect the

individual. In this view the individual selects a role to

‘

77Ernest Beaglehole, "Interpersonal Theory and Social
PSYChology," in A Study of Interpersonal Relations, ed. by
Patrick Mullahy, Science House, Inc., 1967 (New York:
Hermitage Press, Inc., 19A9), pp. 50-79.

78Erving Goffman, Interaction Ritual, Doubleday Anchor
Book (Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1967).

o

7’Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Every-
da Life, Doubleday Anchor Book (Garden City, N.Y.:
DOUbleday & Company, 1959).

A6

play in each different situation. The selection of the
role is based upon his perception of the situation and his
dangers in it. As part of the role he must try for the
ideal and must maintain control of himself throughout the
action. When the individual receives new perceptions he
may alter his role and posture somewhat, but the basic
criteria for action will remain protection of self. The
Idature of his protective practices determines to what
extent he enters into true relatedness with others.

In the study of teacher-student relationships, con-
cepts about groups are relevant. The philosophy of Walter
DI. Lifton on groups is "biased toward describing personal-
ity as an ever—changing thing and holding that in dealing
with an individual it is impossible to divide your rela-
tionship into levels."80 He continues that ”. . ., it is
' impossible to use terms like teaching, counseling, or
psycho—therapy interchangeably without doing violence to
the kinds of relationships that need to be developed in a
EPOUp to achieve the goal of individual growth."81 In his
discussion of the common denominators of groups Lifton sees
"the major reason for group life as being the means for
effectively recognizing and gratifying the needs of the

individual."82 In investigating individual growth within

 

 

80Walter F. Lifton, Working With Groups (New York:
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1961), p. 21.

81Ibid.

82Ibid., 20.

 

A7

the group he suggests that contents of a log or diary kept
by group members are helpful in five ways:

1. A comparison of the frequency with which
the log deals with content vs. feeling
areas.

2. A comparison of the locus of attention
on self— vs. others.

3. A record of the changing attitudes
toward specific group members.

A. A record associating specific content
areas with the type of emotional
reaction it percipitates.

5. A record gf goals set and those finally
achieved. 3

In forwarding the concept of the group for counseling or
therapy, he continues:

The growth that comes about by identifying
with another person who is working out a
similar problem, the attempt to define
reality by testing how many peers need to
see something the same way for it to be
real, and the learning involved in assum-
ing a leadership role are all samples of
phenomena that are based on group life.

85

McWhinney agrees that an individual cannot develop in a
mature manner without conscious realization of self by
himself. To accomplish this he must interact with others,
bot?) separately and in groups. Within the group the per-
m31 has the opportunity to establish and test his direction

with.his peers. In the group setting as well as the

.9

Ibid., p. 166.
8“Ibid., p. 165.

. 85William H. McWhinney, "The Role of the Small Group
in Goal Development," in The Course of Human Life, ed. by
Charlotte Bfihler and Fred Massarik (New York: Springer
PUblishing Company, Inc., 1968), pp. 267-278.

A8

person-to—person setting, determinants of interpersonal
Imelations meet the needs of the individual to have security
anti to gain satisfaction of self through exploratory and
prwatective practices.

The self of each individual grows and forms as a
reenalt of interaction with other people. These encounters
earl have either a positive or negative effect upon the
inctividual. It is vital that interactions in the educa-
ticndal picture be positive and contribute to the fulfill-

irug growth of each learner.

Conditions for Effecting Relationships
The basic conditions for effecting relationships in

the? educational process remain constant whether in the
Clemssroom or at camp. Benefit to the learner is the impor—
tarlt factor. Likewise, conditions for relationships are
not unique and separate from those appropriate in other
areaas of learning. Kelley mentions among his "common
assumptions of education" that:

Since education is supplementary and preparatory

we build school buildings designed to shut out

life so that the child can give complete atten-

tion to our abstractions or tools for conveying

these figstractions, to books, blackboards, and

chalk.

Forflaunately these conditions are changing for they are the

antithesis of those needed for good relationships.

g

86Kelley, Education For What Is Real, p. 19.

A9

The suggested tools for gauging teacher-pupil inter-
action in Diagnosing Classroom Learning Environment,87
altruaugh directed to subject materials, could be used to
expfilore much more. The greatest need to encourage proper
relationships is to remove the situation in which "the
hudividual students are often little more than faces drift—
imug through classroom"88 The outdoor setting is one in
whicfil the individual can be in the foreground of the
pictnire. Sack89 sees the camping program as the richest
:xnxrce of child study because of the twenty-four hour
cflmservations and because the Child, if permitted, reveals
a truer picture of himself when away from the usual con-
trolling factors. Likewise she sees the camp situation as
En] equally opening opportunity for the teacher from the
Viewv of the children. This ability to observe children is

the? heart of the discussion in Training40ampiCounselors in

EEEEEQ Relations.90 The conditions necessary to observe

 

x

87Robert Fox, Margaret Berron Kuski, and Richard
Ecrnnuck, Diagnosing Classroom Learning Environment (Chicago:
Qcixence Research Associates, Inc., 1966).

, 88"The Positive View of Self," in Perceiving, Behav—
iflii, Becoming, p. 108.

0 89Marion Sack, "School Camping-—A Potent Factor in
‘indance," in Outdoor Education--A Book of Readings, ed.
by IDonald R. Hammerman and William M. Hammerman (Minnea-
pc>113, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1968), pp.
2147~250.

R 90Jerome Baker, Training Camp Counselors in Human
‘EQEEEEEEE (New York: Association Press, 1962).

50

diildren are that the adult must be free to be with the
undividuals and available to them in the normal course of
activities. Both teachers and students must have the
oppxartunity to express themselves. "Creative individual
emaression, that is, expression of one's own intrinsic
natnlre, results in social creativity and growth which in
CUITI encourages and frees the individual to further self-
expruession and discovery."91 These same requirements are
fourui in Bruner's92 discussion in which he elaborates on
the isubject of creativity by indicating the range of
expressions and experiences that must not only be accepted,
tun: encouraged. Another condition for growth in relation-
:filips is that of the experience of 'today' as a total
factcun Seldom do children have the chance to see 'today'
as isomething in which they function and give direction.
lTris idea of relating to a day is considered by Massarik.93
1T1 the resident setting the child has a chance to face a
936’ in terms of its agenda, its complexity and its rigidity.
FirIally, the camp setting provides physical conditions

apllropriate to human relations. Those items relating to a

—\

T 91Clark Moustakis, "True Experience and Self," in
Hh\e_Self in Growth, Teaching, and Learning, ed. by Don E.
ar“achek (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,

1965). p. A8.

B 92Jerome S. Bruner, On Knowing (Cambridge, Mass.:
e11<nap Press of Harvard University, 1962).

1 93Fred Massarik, "'Today' As an Integrating Factor,"
F“ :Ehe Course of Human Life, ed. by Charlotte Buhler and
IVEd Massarik (New York: Springer Publishing Company,

Inc. , 1968), pp. 393-399.

51

Classroom noted by Berrygu are found naturally in the outdoor
setting——unless camp management plans differently. Some of
tfiuese environmental factors are: space for a child to be
alcnie or in small and large groups; work areas where he may
purenle individual activities; opportunity for a variety of
experdences; space for displays, projects, and special
activities; and, flexible timing.

Involving the learner in the total experience-—p1an-
nirug, utilizing facilities, and living a twenty-four hour
experience—-provides the best conditions for human rela-
tixnas. Teachers and students can have the opportunity to
come to know each other informally and can gain an appre-
ciation of each other as human beings. The outdoor setting
(”n1 provide a natural environment for human relations. The
rensident outdoor education experience offers the necessary
coruiitions for positive growth in teacher—student relation-
Srtips. It is important that these conditions are not
Eliminated through inappropriate organization of the

p1"Ogram.

Contributions of the Outdoor Setting

After every foolish day we sleep off the fumes
and furies of its hours; and though we are always
engaged with particulars, and often enslaved to
them, we bring with us to every experiment the

\

I 91‘Althea Berry, "The Effect of Environment," in
rlciividualizing Instruction, Ronald C. Doll, Chairman

C Eishington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
Ur‘lr'iculum Development, 196A), pp. 98-123.

52

innate universal laws. These while they exist
in the mind as ideas, stand around us in nature
forever embodied, a present sanity to expose
and cure the insanity of men.

'NNJS Emerson expresses what is perhaps nature's greatest

96

contribution to man. Anne Morrow Lindbergh, also, uses
thijs principle when she draws on the seashore for renewal

of strength. The poet Waterman parallels this thought in

the verse:

Sometimes it seems to me I must

Just quit the city's din and dust,

For fields of green and skies of blue;

And, say! how does it seem to you?
Phillo May points out that ”people who have lost their sense
of‘:identity as selves also tend to lose their sense of
reliitedness to nature."98 A loss of this identity can even
nmfl<e nature a threatening experience. And, "as human beings
We liave our roots in nature, not simply because of the fact
truit the chemistry of our bodies is of essentially the same

elements as the air or dirt or grass."99 He adds that man

mLHSt have a "strong sense of self and a good deal of courage

to :relate to nature creatively."100

\

_ 95Ralph Waldo Emerson, Essa s (New York: The
Mel"‘shon Company, Publishers, n.d. , p. 152.

Y 96Ann Morrow Lindbergh, Gift From the Seas (New
Or‘k: Panteon Books, Inc., 1955).

97Nixon Waterman, "Far From the Madding Crowd."
98

99

May, Man's Search for Himself, p. 59.
Ibid., p. 63.

Ibid., p. 65.

53

The most frequent writers of material speaking to
nature and the individual are found in the camping profes-
sion. These authors seldom have scientific or statistical
proof‘of their statements and beliefs. They do have,
lumvever, the knowledge from years of self-discovery in
nature and of empathetic sharing of outdoor experiences with
other'individuals. Kenneth Webb says of the future that:

Camping permits of returning to the sources
whence religious feeling sprang; the sense of
awe in the presence of the imponderables, the
contemplation of dedication in individuals,

the mystery of the spirit as it manifests
itself in nature and in people. . . ., let us
acknowledge that we g9 have a tool of tremen-
dous significance as one of the possible
determinants of the course of our culture; that
according as we rise to the challenge as edu-
catorioin a particularly effective environment,

A suacial worker in the mental health field102 sees Camping,
thrnaugh both its setting and its required cooperative
activities, as a contributory aid in the prevention and

trfiatment of mental illness in children. Dr. Lowell

Ha-Zzard identifies four aspects of the spiritual values in

Car”ping that benefits individuals as: the closeness to
natndre; the experience of harmony and order; the challenge

to 13e creative in response to God's creativity; and,
.a~§__

Mici 101Kenneth B. Webb, Summer Camps--Security in the
KE‘jit of Change (Martinsville, Inc.: American Camping
‘-S<>ciation, 1968), p. 50.
C 102George W. Magner, "The Role of Camping in our
tOrHZern for Mental Health," 29th National Convention of
C e .American Camping Association, Campinngeared to Today's
iQererns (Martinsville, Ind.: American Camping Association,
9955. pp. 75-82.

 

5A

103

ruiture's adaptability. In a bit more eloquent manner,

Imirgaret Johnston says:
All truth originates in nature. Thinkers
and prophets have derived from nature the
themes of all the immortal works, . .
and understanding of nature is fundamental
to the scientific point of view. . . . the
greatest emancipators have developed under
the direct influence of nature. The noblest
qualities of mind and spirit are awakened
in the out—of-doors, where man's attainments
depend upon his success in apprehending
correctly the signs and portents of his
environment.10
The contributions of the outdoor setting are multiple:
suxiritual renewal; understanding of natural order and laws;
ixnspiration; and, a challenge to creativity. But, perhaps,
inuderlying all of these is the simple fact that man is
part of'nature. If he is to understand himself and permit
himsefll‘to develop and grow in a naturalistic manner he
'mJSt come face-to-face with himself in the larger, more

r‘ealistic realm of the world.

Outdoor Education
Outdoor Education is a relatively new term applied

to zin old process. Long before large school buildings and

 

 

. 103Lowell B. Haggard, "Spiritual Values in Camping,"
triggights From a Thousand Campfires, ed. by Kenneth B. Webb
p:‘D’Iinrfieapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1960),

- 5-50.

L 10“Margaret Johnston, "The Ministry of Nature," in

T§fi§flps From a Thousand Campfires, ed. by Kenneth B. Webb

p'ingeapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1960),
. 2 O.

55

(xnnplex educational systems dominated the lives of children,
the? outdoor setting served as a learning environment. And,
eveni though the term Outdoor Education is generally accepted
ixmlay, it does not mean that there is one definition, or
cnue set of objectives. The importance of this aspect of
exhlcation lies in both tangible and intangible benefits to
time learner resulting from contact with the natural world.
In a recent article, "Outdoor Education: A Coat of

105 is expressed much of the confusion about

Many Colors ! " ,
cmrtdoor education that people outside the field see: the
:naveral names; the broad all-inclusive umbrella for what
goexs on in schools; and, an undefined method. Yet, even

in vwriting about the confusion, the author puts his finger

(m1 several important concepts in the program: it is p93

a sulbject, but rather a general method; it lg a new expres-
Sicni of the old axiom-~reinforce the abstract with the
CCfiiorete; it i§_a learning climate, not a discipline; and,

it ,lg a broad "umbrella" so that it may include all academic,
as Well as other, goals of education. L. B. Sharp said

that "Outdoor Education is a common sense method of learn-
3hjg. It is natural; it is plain, direct and simple."106

Ir) establishing the need for Outdoor Education a national

conImittee described it as:
.__‘_y

or 105Mack H. Gillenwater, "Outdoor Education: A Coat
IWany Colors!," Peabody Journal of Education, XXXXIV,

NO- 5 (1969). 311-315.

f 106L. B. Sharp, "Introduction," in Outdoor Education

E§EL_American Youth, Julian W. Smith, Chairman (Washington,
a'C. : .American Association for Health, Physical Education,
Yul Recreation, 1957).

56

. . . not another discipline with prescribed
objectives like mathematics or science; it
is simply a learning climate which offers
special opportunities for direct laboratory
experiences in identifying and resolving
real—life problems, for acquiring new skills
with which to enjoy a life-time of creative
recreation, for attaining attitudes and
insights about working with other peOple and
getting us back in touch with those aspects
of living where our roots were once firmly
established.10 ‘

Marni sees five objectives for outdoor education: apprecia—
ticn1 of natural resources; improved instruction; development

<1f recreational skills; social experience; and community

sernmice.108 Pullias considers another set of five major

contributions of outdoor education as:

(a) it can establish a healing and growth-
producing relation with the natural world

it can promote growth in sensitivity; . .

it can assist in the development of habits

of withdrawal and renewal which are funda—
mental to physical, mental, and spiritual
health in modern life.

(d) it can offset the deadening effect upon
the human mind of forever dealing with
abstractions-- . . .

(e) at its best, outdoor experience may guide

man to find a renewed communion with the

second, and I suspect organizing, pole of
his nature and the source of that nature:
the SBirit pole which makes man truly

man.1 9

AA
vv

1O71bid., p. 1.

1 108Charles L. Mand, Outdoor Education (New York:
' - llowell Pratt and Company, 1967)-

M 109Earl V. Pullias, "Better Education For Modern
darl: Outdoor Education-A Ray of Light," Journal of
sessioor Education, III, 1 (1957), 5,

 

.«v

 

 

s
,

 

.
~
~ :4
I
a
‘

 

\
..
.
'I
4

57

Acquisition of skills, furthering of academic interests,
appreciation of others, growth of the individual--all of
these belong in outdoor education. Even though a given
program in a school may place the emphasis on one or two

of these areas, the potential for gain by each student in
all of the areas is still present by virtue of the nature
of the surroundings.

Clifford Knapp warns about being realistic regarding

the use of outdoor education so that it may become a
regular part of the curriculum and not just a fad.110 He
emphasizes a need for further research and studies carried
out by professionals in the outdoor education field.
Swan's111 comments on the evaluation needed in outdoor
education in the areas of:, pupil change; assessments by
school personnel, students and parents; and program statis-
tics. In both of these articles concern was expressed
zfldout the need for research in promoting outdoor education.
'Hle authors point out historical errors in the development
cu“ outdoor education programs as being those of making
sssumptions about the values of the outdoors without the

benefit of concrete studies to verify them and a reliance

for supportive information on other disciplines. Further

k

110Clifford Knapp, "Some Challenges in OUtdOOP
Education," Journal of Outdoor Education, 11, No. l (1967),

1
11Malcom D. Swan, "Evaluation-~A Point of View,"
lgyrnal of Outdoor Education, III, No. 2 (1969), 10-15.

58

cautions included in an editorial in the Journal of Outdoor

Education,112 are: the tendency to reject all classroom

 

 

practices rather than being selective; the lack of care in
choosing those things that can 'best' be taught outdoors,
the use of irrlevant materials just because they are found
outdoors; putting too many promises about the program in

the public relations in order to 'sell' it; and, the tempta—
tion to assume that the outdoors will miraculously provide
good teaching just by being there.

Despite the long years that outdoor education has
been present on the fringe of educational practices, it is
still a long way from being universally accepted. To accom—
plish this goal it may be necessary for the advocates of
the outdoor program to agree, not upon one definition, but
on an educational concept of its value. A beginning point
in this development is found in the article, "The Scope of
Outdoor Education":

Outdoor Education, .. ., is not another
subject or discipline to be included in

an already crowded curriculum, but repre-
sents a practical and sound approach in

the achievement of the accepted objectives

of education. It represents a better utili-
zation of resources available in the learning

process and is a functional application in
meeting the needs of today's living.113

 

112"That Which Can Best Be Taught . . .," Editorial,
lgurnal of Outdoor Education, I, No. 2 (1967), 10-11.
113

Julian W. Smith, "The Scope of Outdoor Education,"
in thdoor Education--A Book of Readings, ed. by Donald R.
Hammerman and William M. Hammerman (Minneapolis, Minn.:
BuPgess Publishing Company, 1968), p. 50.

59

Camping and Education

The fields of camping and education are natural
partners. Both deal with the task of helping young people
to learn about themselves and their world. For too many
years camping has been relegated in the thinking of many
people to a solely recreational role. An exploration of

camping, however, reveals that it has a major contribution

to make to education.

The definition of organized camping, adopted by the
American Camping Association, states:

Organized (Resident, Day) Camping is an
experience in group living in a natural
environment. It is a sustained experience
under the supervision of trained leader-
ship. Camping provides a creative, educa-
tional experience in cooperative group
living in the outdoors. It utilizes the
resources of the natural surroundings to
contribute significantly to mental, physi-
cal, social, and spiritual growth of
individual campers.ll

Further, it is felt that the "whole outdoors is camping's
classroom, and the curriculum is everything and everybody
living in it."115 In Outdoor Education it is stated that

'5 the outcomes and values of outdoor education contri-

butelin varying degrees to the accepted purposes of

116

Eflhlcation." These purposes referred to are:

‘

lll‘Helen Haskell, Camping Is Education (Martinsville,
Ind.: American Camping Association, 1960?, p. 8.

115Ibid., p. 9.

116Julian w. Smith, et al., Outdoor Education
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1963), p. 31.

60

The objectives of Self Realization

The objectives of Human Relationship

The objectives of Economic Efficiency

The objectives of Civic Responsibility117

.1:me

In 19A2 William H. Kilpatrick discussed the role of camping
in education as:

The camp can thus spread a more adequate ideal
of education. They must work in season and
out that the young committed to them shall
live, live well, live nobly, finely--in one
word, that they live in their hearts the kind
of traits worthy to be fixed in habit and
character. This is the role of camping in
education today.118

Later he wrote in "Camps Can Show Schools What Education

15" that "education is a different thing from what was

119

done to you in school," and concluded with the thought

that "education then has to do with life, meeting
the different situations that life presents to us."120
In another article Kilpatrick comments that:

. . ., camping is on the whole much more
successful at teaching its lesson than is
the ordinary school of the older type,

 

118William H. Kilpatrick, "The Role of Camping in
Education Today," in Outdoor Education—-A Book of Readipgs,
6d. by Donald R. Hammerman and William M. Hammerman
(Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1968),

p- 35.

119William H. Kilpatrick, "Camps Can Show Schools
What Education Is," in Lights From a Thousand Campfires,
ed, by Kenneth B. Webb (Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess
PUblishing Company, 1960), p. 35.

120Ibid., p. 39.

61

because the children live the camp life
much more fully than they live most that
goes on in the more formal school.121

He identifies three objectives of education as adequate
Self-hood, life enrichment, and social relationships and
says that the camping situation more completely fulfills
the learning environment for this type of education. Clark
0. Kuebler sees two major jobs in working with youth: "One
is to develop the power of reason in the young peOple who

come before us. The other is to see to it that they have

"122

the opportunity to exercise that reason fully. He feels

that teachers, as well as camping people, must infect the

students with the desire to accomplish this and that the
camping setting is appropriate to this goal.

Campers and educators are going the same direction on
differing, but parallel paths. The importance of the task
they have decrees that they join forces and share the con—
trdbutions that each has for the other. This process is
loegun, but not finished. An opening article in Lights From

a Thousand Campfires sums it up saying that:

 

121William H. Kilpatrick, "Camping Is Education," in
.Lights From a Thousand Campfires, ed. by Kenneth B. Webb
“Wigneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1960),
p. 10

122 '
Clark G. Kuebler, "Education For What?", in Lights
Ezpnia.Thousand Campfires, ed. by Kenneth B. Webb (Minnea—
DOlis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1960), p. 18.

62

. . ., for all the tremendous value to
education that organized camping has been,
it has not reached the ultimate. There is
still something beyond the mountains, and
there always will be, since in education
we touch aspects of Infinity.12

Activities and Programs Outdoors

The literature reviewed to this point has indicated
the importance of the individual in education and the con—
tribution that the outdoor setting makes to the educational
program. A crucial problem arises in considering the pro—
grams and activities which should be included in the resi-
dent outdoor education program.

The article "What Are the Issues in Camping and Out—
door Education? Camp-Centered? School—Centered?"l2u
explores this problem. Many outdoor educators come from
the camping field bringing with them their ideas and termi-
nology; other persons come from academic disciplines with
the stress on subject content. While much conversation
deals with the broader aspects of the benefits of the camp-
ing setting, no concrete information is to be found in

education or outdoor education literature with specific

suggestions for incorporating the individual into the

 

123Kenneth B. Webb, "Something Beyond the Mountains,"
in Lights From a Thousand Campfires, ed. by Kenneth B.
Webb (Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company,
1960), p. 18.

12”Robert P. Brimm, "What Are the Issues in Camping
and Outdoor Education? Camp-Centered? School-Centered?,"
Camping,Magazine, January, 1959, pp. lA—15.

63

experience. In "Not By Bread Alone"125 it is stressed that

the human needs more than food, structures and buildings;
he nmst have: the opportunity to receive the 'personality
vitamins' needed for growth; the camp facilities should be
{manageable by the camper; respect for the freedom of his
Imind; the use of the child for the satisfaction of the
zudult must be avoided; and, awards and competitive separa—
ticmd of groups should be avoided. In other words, keep the
prnagram for the child. Catherine T. Hammett126 sustains
(These ideas in a different manner offering thoughts geared
tn) designing outdoor and camping programs. Ledlie and Roehm
so into greater detail in their definition of camping:

Camping is a group living in the out—of-doors.

The program of camping consists of all the

activities, relationships, interactions, and

experiences that enter into the life of the

group. It is everything that goes on in a

camp, everything that happens to campers.127
Altfldough written for organized camping, these suggestions
pP(TV1de guidance in program values for educational camping

allzo. First, and perhaps most important, is that the pro—

ETY1NIIS not an end in itself. Further, it ought to be

 

 

125Howard A. Lane, "Not By Bread Alone," in Li hts
i32££fl_a Thousand Campfires, ed. by Kenneth B. Webb (Minnea—
giigis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1960), pp. 211-

126Catherine T. Hammett, "What Is an Outdoor Pro—
greun,n in Campinngeared to TodayLs Concerns, 29th National
Corn’ention of the American Camping Association (Martins—
Vilile, Ind.: American Camping Association, 1966), p. 116.

r 127John Ledlie and Ralph Roehm, "For Whom Is Pro-

Eranr2," in Lights From a Thousand Campfires, ed. by Kenneth

j: webb (Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company,
960), p. 205.

6A

planned by the participants; relate to total development
Of the campers; be child-centered rather than activity—
centered; be based on sound educational principles; and,
have an integrated series Of experiences. The authors
mention that the camp management determines the degree of
freedom and that guidance must be given in developing
schedules with 'holes' so that advantage may be taken of
Opportunities that arise from new ideas. In order to do
this, we must maintain a person-Centered program as dis—
cussed by Madeline Murphy.128 There is danger, she
believes, in confusing interest-centered with person-
centered. In the interest-centered program there is the
inclination for adults to pre-judge the interests of the
campers and to plan £23 them. To be person-centered the
adult must include the camper in the planning and decision
making as well as the experience of living with decisions.
The report, "Creative Activity in Camping," advances this
thought saying that the "value of creative activity does
not lie primarily in the material result, but in the

"129

process itself. It implies that adults have a tendency

to dominate and to monopolize any situation with children.

 

128Madeline Murphy, "Person—centered Program Keeping
the Individual Camper in Focus," in Camping Geared to Today's
Concerns, 29th National Convention of the American Camping

Association (Martinsville, Ind.: American Camping Associa-
tion, 1966), pp. 83-87.
129

Ralph Hill, "Creative Activity in Camping," in
Lights From a Thousand Campfires, ed. by Kenneth B. Webb
(Mingeapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1960),
p. 5

Away from the usual restrictions the child may have
the chance to be creative and responsible-—if the adults
permit it. The experiences of resident outdoor programs
in education are benefitted if these ideas of camp leaders
ale accepted—~not rejected just because the writers are
not currently in the "education" field. The learner-
centered, learner-planned and learner-executed outdoor
program provides a real experience in living and learning.
We must be sure that this true goal of education does not
get lost in programs characterized by adult efficiency,
adult transferred interests, adult goals and adult con-

veniences.

Reaction to the Literature

 

In the opening paragraph of this chapter it was
stated that to explore the subject of this study it was
necessary to approach from several directions. An inter—
disciplinary approach was required that drew on the fields
of philosophy, psychology, social work, camping and educa—
tion. The question arises as to why it is necessary to
explore so many areas in order to reach conclusions about
the professed major role of education. For several decades
the rhetoric of education has been directed toward the
uniqueness of the individual student, the importance of the
teacher-student relationship and the need for humanizing

the educational process.

66

Missing from the available literature in education
are practical applications and approaches for meeting the
affective, specifically relationship, needs of the students.
Yet, the information is available for use in other fields.
The field of education is not alone in this problem of
isolation, but the implications resulting from a continua—
tion of this situation in the field are serious. With the
urgent demands placed upon educational institutions today
there is no longer room or time for educators to ignore the
rich contributions available from other disciplines. It is
past time, also, for continuing to expound beliefs if there
is not a serious intent to act upon them.

Outdoor education particularly suffers from a lack
of a unified approach. In operation the programs appear
to draw routine living practices from the camping field
and academic practices from the educational field. The
camping field and the outdoors has much more to offer than
how to organize people in a dining-room. Unfortunately
the basic objectives of understanding man and nature, which
are characteristic of people working in the outdOors, seem
to get lost when transfered to the field of education.

This is possibly due to the lack of scientific and statis-
tical study that is so popular today, and hence, a lack of
"facts" to present to budget committees and planning groups.
it is hard, admittedly, to report statistically what a

child is 'learning' while sitting under a tree watching

67

clouds go by. But is this not as essential to the child's

growth as identifying the tree under which he sits?

The cognitive domain is predominantly considered in

preparing and helping teachers. Perhaps, as with outdoor

education, the affective realm is too hard to define,

analyze and record. The question may be whether or not

numerical data should remain as the determinant of budget

eXpenditures and program planning. From social work,

Iasychology, and camping it is possible to find ways of

rwecording and working with the intangible and non-closured

armea of relationships. Now is the time when all contribu-

ticans toward working with children must be sought out and

accaepted in the interest of providing the best possible

ecnlcational program.

Summation

Two questions are raised in a recent article concern—

irmg the use of the outdoors for educational purposes.

130

lilong with several questions, Blackman asks:

How can we best use the openness and freedom
of the outdoors to strengthen/deepen the

quality of relationships among staff and
among students-~and between staff and students?

How can our use of the outdoors become a
vehicle to re-examine and perhaps Change our
use of the contrived (within school) environ-

ment for learning?

 

130Charles A. Blackman, "Perspective: A Curriculum
SDecialist Looks at Outdoor Education," Journal of Outdoor

Eflasaiiga. 111, NO. 3 (1969), 3-5.

68

An answer to the first question, he suggests, is that the
space of time and the less formal setting might allow
people to reach better relationships. To the second
question he proposes that in the unity of the environment
and in the experiences in the environment the answer may
be found. In this sense we see that the outdoor setting
itself affords a favorable environment, or condition, for
relationships. Bills stresses the importance of human
relations for existence saying that: ". . ., it is in

interaction with others that a person tests, explores,

extends, and expands his perceptions and the meaning of
"131

his existence. Montague contends that 'education must

be conceived a bringing out the best that is within each
person by making available to him all the encouragements
and supports and stimulations which he requires in order

to enable him to become a loving, cooperative, non—con—

.132

flictful person.‘ He believes that "more by default

than by design we teach them a cracker barrel human rela-

tions; we teach them to become echoes, as it were, of other

"13Ll

stereotyped lifes already lived. To meet the needs of

the world today the important fact is what happens between

mg

. 131Robert E. Bills, "Education is Human Relations,"
in New Insights and the Curriculum, ed. by Alexander

 

Frazier (Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development, 1963), p. 168.
132

Ashley Montague, Education and Human Relations
(New York: Grove Press, Inc., 1958), p. 119.

133Ibid., p. 95.

69

people governed by principles of humanity. To remedy this
we must see education as having four "R's," with Rela—
tionships becoming the first, and most important one. With
teachers seeing individual students as a primary concern,
meeting with students in an outdoor setting, and carrying
out a program that is designed to promote teacher-student
interaction, education can meet the challenge of putting
relationships in the proper position among the educational
priorities.

In the following chapter selected existing resident
outdoor education programs are explored. Special attention
is given to teacher—student relationship patterns and use
of the setting to enhance the relationships and conditions
that affect the relationships. The information gathered
from this exploration and from the review of literature is
used to develop the criteria for evaluating teacher

effected conditions for relationships.

CHAPTER III

DEVELOPMENT OF EVALUATIVE CRITERIA

The release of an individual student's potential
through the opening of personal channels of communications
with his teacher and fellow students is a key factor in
releasing the creative energy necessary for real learning.
"Human potential is released in part by participation in
and interaction with groups and all the commitment that
such participation and interaction requires."'1 Five sug—
gestions have been given for helping to create this inter-
action and thus release a greater potential within the
student:

1. . . ., the emphasis is on the pupil as a
person, the teacher as a person, and the
interaction that takes place between them.

2. . . . when a teacher recognizes and responds
to the emotional reactions of the learner as
well as to his academic achievements, his
intellectual mistakes, or his mental
deficiencies.

3. . . . when the teacher goes beyond the

ordinary achievement.

lRobert F. DeHaan and Ronald c. Doll, ”lndividualiza-
tion and Human Potential," p. 16.

7O

71

H. . . . when the teacher considers the pupil
to he an individual with unique perceptions,
values, concepts, and needs, and when he
creatively fashions learning opportunities
to enhance the pupil's individuality.

is meant to lead to commitment and
purpose, to sensitivity to others' needs, to
awareness of the demands of truth and justice.

\J'l
0

These suggestions, however, must be carried out in an
atmosphere of openness and creativity.

The emphasis in schools has been on designing for the
cognitive development of the students. Little effort has
been directed toward meeting the affective needs and for
fostering situations in which creativity and openness may
flourish. Ten factors have been identified that are
present in classrooms and that inhibit this necessary
development. These factors serve as a beginning in examin—
ing the problem of determining evaluative criteria for con—
ditions within which relationships may occur. They are:

l. A preoccupation with order

2. Overvaluing authority, support, evidence,
and the 'scientific method'

3. Exclusive emphasis upon the historical
point of view

U. Various forms of 'cookbook' approaches

5. The essentially solitary approach to
learning often emphasized in some class-

rooms--creativity is very highly dependent
upon communications

 

6. The elimination of self from the classroom
7. The school which is ruled almost entirely
by adult concepts
8. Emphasis upon force, threat, and coercion
9. The idea that mistakes are sinful and that
children are not to be trusted
2

Ibid., pp. 18-20.

 

72

10. School organizations which emphasize
lock—step approaches, rules and regu—
lations, managerial and administrative
considerations, rather than human ones.3

These inhibitors, while detrimental in the classroom,
become even more absurd when practiced in the outdoor
setting.

Objectives for a resident outdoor educational program
need to include not only statements regarding subject
orientation and the outdoor environment, but also the human
relationship aspect of the educational process. The follow—
ing objectives are proposed for outdoor education:

1) to extend the school environment to provide
increased opportunities for carrying out
on-going classroom activities

2) to explore the use of outdoor oriented
activities that contribute to motivation
and learning in specific subject areas

3) to establish conditions that foster change
of a positive nature in teacher—student

relationships

A) to enlarge and expand the dimensions of
the student—student relationships

5) to encourage the appreciation for, the
care of and activities in the outdoor
learning environment.
As the teacher—student relationship area is broad in its

full scope, the focus of this study is limited to the

determination of conditions mentioned in Objective No. 3.

 

 

3Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming, ed. by Arthur w.
Combs (Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 1962), pp. lAS-U56.

73

Design of the Study

The study is developed in five steps: reading
selected for a broad perspective and specific direction;
an exploratory study of current practices in outdoor edu-
cation; a questionnaire to determine specific practices
and the interrelationship of activities and organizational
patterns in selected existing programs; development of an
experimental guide to test the feasibility of the approach;
and, the preparation of evaluative criteria for teachers
pertaining to conditions for positive change in teacher—
studcnt relationships.

The readings, in addition to providing a philoso—
phical and educational base for the study, served as a
source of reference from which items for study could be
selected. Initially seven categories relating to condi—
tions for human relations in the outdoor education program
were identified. These were: program objectives; prepara—
tion of teachers; involvement of the teacher in the program;
planning based on student need; teacher-student interaction
before, during, and after the outdoor experience; student
grouping to accomodate face-to—face and small group oppor-
tunities; and, evaluation.

The second step was to undertake an exploratory study
Of brochures, guides and other mimeographed material from
school outdoor programs to determine in what way these

seven items could be discerned. The use of the printed

7U

materials meant that all of these schools being considered
had teacher preparation at this level. The survey of the
material indicated that these items could be studied in
greater detail. The apparent contradictory nature of some
information suggested that more definite items would be
needed to gain accurate information.

A questionnaire was prepared for the purpose of
examining conditions in the operating outdoor programs that
affected relationships and to see if there was any correla-
tion between organizing methods and the degree of evidence
of relationship conditions. Items included under each
category were selected to identify as many of the various
approaches as possible. In some instances an item was
included under more than one category to ascertain the
consistency of the responses. The questionnaire was sent
to ninety—six schools throughout the country. These schools
were selected from files of the Outdoor Education Council
on the basis of participation by 5th and 6th grades, in
operation as of 1962, and with more than one class from
the school participating in the outdoor program.

The fourth step in the study consisted of the develop-
ment of an experimental guide. The guide contained cri—
teria for establishing good relationship conditions. It
was worded for use by the teacher as a planning tool and/
or by the supervisor for evaluation. This tool was distri-

buted for their reactions to a number of teachers and

75

administrators actively involved in resident outdoor educa—
tion programs and to persons familiar with the program but
not currently involved.

The final step was the preparation of a model for
teacher evaluation in effecting conditions for positive
change in teacher—student relationships. Items included
here were designed for use by both the teacher and the
supervisor. It is arranged as a guide for action before,
during and after the outdoor experience and worded so that

criteria accomplishments are observable or describable.

Results of the Exploratory Study

The materials selected for this study included out-
door education programs in nine states and the City of
Toronto. Among the collection were teacher's guides,
student—parent brochures, State directives, teacher work—
shop programs, and a summer Outdoor Laboratory Guide.

With the exception of the program in the latter brochure
all included grades 3 to 8 with the emphasis on grade 6.
The length of the residence experience was usually five

days .

As reflected from the printed materials the schools
showed several areas of agreement in their programs regard-
less of their geographic location. The objectives stressed
enrichment of curriculum (identified in terms of academic

subjects), the transfer of specific subject projects to

LA hm,”
.
.

 

Will) a -u
l ' .
M
n

76

an outdoor site and the development of some interests and
skills in the outdoors. Social-living and/or democratic
living experiences were given as objectives in most cases,
also. There was inconsistency among the programs on
exactly what was included in the 'living' area of interest.

The information provided in the guides was of two
natures; directions and aids. All schools included dir—
ectional materials such as: rules and regulations, health
and safety practices, housekeeping procedures, and student
duties. About half of the schools also included material
such as program suggestions, equipment and material lists,
evaluation procedures, schedule of activities, student
conduct guides, and suggestions for activity carry—over
to the classroom.

By default, in both objectives and printed material,
another similarity among the schools was evidenced: lack
of emphasis and of guidelines designed to further positive
development in the field of human relations. The majority
of the programs included the human element under 'democra-
tic living.’ The stress was on working together, learning
to share duties, group planning and developing habits of
self—reliance and cooperation. Some schools referred to
'other values' accrued as a by-product of the outdoor
experience and as initiative, appreciation of people of
different ethnic background and improved teacher-student
relationships. Only in one case did any come close to

placing major importance on people:

77

we expect that the influences of a beautiful
setting, close personal associations and the
unique kind of responsibility which such a
situation impels will result in a happy out-
look on learning, a broader understanding

of each other, and an appreciation of the
pleasures of nature.

The State of Michigan Guide to Planning alluded to the

 

experiences saying:

one would need a complete record of the
'round—the-clock' living of each camper

and there would be those intangibles that
grow out of association with members of

the group, the staff—student relationships,
and the appreciations and attitudes that
result from new and creative direct living
experiences.

Unfortunately all references to human relations stopped
with these rather vague implications as part of objectives.
Beyond the opening pages of the materials there was greater
evidence that planning actually included suggestions that
hindered teacher-student relationships. Some examples
that gave cause for concern in this area are:

The school that prepares and prints, in

August, the student objectives for the

school camp experience.

The directive to teachers that no "craft”

projects are to be taken home by students,

but are to be used for school purposes.

Student assignments to work groups by the
site staff.

 

uTalcott's Outdoor School, West Hartford Public
Schools, West Hartford, Conn., 1966, p. 3.

5School Egperiences in Camp-—A Guide to Planning,
Bulletin No. 2A0, Department of Public Instruction, Michigan
Department of Education, Lansing, Michigan, 1958, p. l.

 

 

 

78

Evening recreational programs that require

all to be present and have required assign—

ments for all students.

These quite eloquently illustrate how the inhibiting factors
are at work in reducing possibilities for individual

student development and for good teacher-student inter-
action.

Other ways in which the ten inhibiting factors were
evidenced included: the pre-scheduling of students into
study groups with the usual class—time rotation sequencing;
regularly scheduled time blocks for discussion and evalua—
tion; removal of the teacher from the class for the
majority, if not all, of the time; use of teachers in
disciplinary or dormitory monitoring roles. In many of
the programs the planning is completed by the administer-
ing group and there is little left for the teacher to
decide with the class except if or when to go (and this is
not an option in a number of schools). Even if a teacher
wished to carry out significant steps in developing group
interaction there would be little or no opportunity to do
so in the majority of the programs as they are now planned.

This exploration of programs showed conclusively
that there is a need to change the planning methods used
in the resident outdoor program and/or if this is not
possible soon, to provide teachers with instruments that
will assist them in working within the system to provide
better conditions for improving teacher—student relation—

ships.

79

Information from this exploratory study indicates
five areas, or conditions, that are important in relation-
ships: objectives, teacher preparation, the role and
nature of adult involvement, planning and participation
methods of the class, and evaluation. These identified
areas are useful in giving direction for further detailed

study of the question.

Use and Analysis of Questionnaire Responses

To examine more closely the practices in outdoor
education programs regarding human relations and in hope
of discovering those factors that most influence condi-
tions for relationship growth, a questionnaire6 was prepared
and sent to a number of schools. Criteria for selecting
schools to be questioned were set so that resulting data
could be compared effectively. These criteria were: 1)
public schools offering a resident outdoor program to
students in the fifth and sixth grades; 2) programs in which
three or more nights were designated to be spent at an
outdoor site removed from the school building area; 3)
programs in which participation emphasized students and
teachers of regular classroom units; and, A) programs
which had been in operation for at least two consecutive
years. Areas not taken into consideration were: size of
the school; the amount of use of supplementary staff during

the program; the number of classes and students involved

 

6A copy of the questionnaire is found in Appendix B.

80

at the site at a given time; the physical and facility
features of the site; and, the amount of district or state
control over individual school programs. In going over
the list of schools offering the desired program, it
further was decided to limit the selection to programs
that had indicated activity as of 1962.

After receiving the completed questionnaires it became

apparent that a second process of selection was needed in

7

order to make a proper study. The final analysis was

made on the responses of forty schools which met all of

the criteria established.8 In addition to the similarities
imposed by the criteria, the majority of programs considered
were found to be ones in which:

1. several classes were at the site at
the same time

2. site staff included a director or
coordinator, health supervisor, food
service personnel, and subject special-
ists. Many also had older students,
student teachers and special consultants
in attendance regularly

3. the classes mix for all activities and
in the majority of cases student groups
were determined either by the site staff
or the teacher

A. the classes most frequently planned objec—
tives for program and least frequently
planned recreational activities

 

7Incomplete initial information and changes in school
operations between the time of filing data with the Outdoor
Education Council and the time of the study was evidenced.
A summary of information from all respondents is in Appendix
C.

8A list of the forty schools is given in Appendix A.

81

the teacher accompanying the class did

not have a major role at the site with

the classg1 but will have had an oppor-
tunity to receive §pecial helpgprior to
goinggand will have a guide or other
printed material available for use in
planning?

6. curriculum enrichment and social-living
experiences were the main purposes of
the program

7. special evaluations will be made by students,

teachers, and site staff.

\J‘l

 

 

 

 

 

There was little relationship between responses of schools
and their geographic location. However, similarities were
noted in programs of schools from the same state.

In order to see if there were any factors that greatly
differentiated the school procedures in areas that might
affect teacher—student relationships, a more detailed study
was made of the following comparisons:

1. between schools in which planning is done

by the school system and those in which
planning is done by other methods

2. between programs in which classes at the

site are mixed for all activities and those
in which a variety of inter-class groupings
are used

3. between programs in which there is compulsory

teacher preparation for the experience and

those in which teacher preparation is

voluntary
An initial examination of these three factors: method of
planning, class grouping, and teacher preparation, shows
that there is no single preferred combination of approaches.

The practices appear distributed, by percentage of respon—

dents employing, as follows:

 

9This point is highlighted as the role of the teacher
with the class is the most vital factor in any teacher—
student relationship question.

82

28% . . . planned by total system, voluntary
preparation, mixed classes

23% . . . planned by total system, compulsory
preparation, varied grouping

20% . . . varied planning methods, voluntary
preparation, varied grouping

17% . . . varied planning methods, voluntary

preparation, mixed classes
1A% . . . planned by total system, voluntary
preparation, varied groupings

8% . . . planned by total system, compulsory
preparation, mixed classes
* 0% . . . a combination of varied planning

methods and required preparation for
either mixed classes or varied groupings.

Due to the methods used by the respondents in complet-
ing the questionnaire, such as omission of marking and
marking contrary to the directions, it is necessary to use
a percentage of category response for data study. Items
checked by 50% or more of the respondents are considered
as representative of the group of schools in that category.
In making comparisons between items in a given category,

a difference of 20% is identified as being (non-statisti-
cally) significant for the purpose of this study. Following
are some of the particular items of interest seen in the
comparison of these three factors.10
Comparison I - programs planned on a total school
system basis with those planned by
other methods (by class, individual
school, and in combinations of
these and total school)
a. While both groups indicated general curriculum
enrichment as a major purpose, programs in
total system planned school are markedly

higher in emphasis on specific subject orienta—

tion: 36%-l3%.

 

A complete percentage report for the comparisons of
all three categories is in Appendix C.

83

Those programs planned by total school
systems show the site staff as having more
than 50% of the teaching responsibility at
the site.

Some comparisons of items having special
concern in teacher-student relationship:

Planning--- Total Other

System Methods

Site staff sets schedule . . . 82% 56%
Site staff arranges

activities . . . . . . . . . 80% “7%

Class-schedules activities . . 8% 53%
Class selects activities . . . 28% 47%

Site staff--50% teaching . . . 60% 23%
Teacher--teaches special area. 24% A7%

 

On the whole, programs in which methods other
than total system planning are used show a
greater involvement of the teacher and the
class in planning and carrying out the program.

Comparison II - programs in which classes are mixed

for all activities and those in
which classes mix for some activities
or function separately

The major differences found in comparing
these two factors are the purpose of the
program and the use of consultants.

Classes mixed for all activities had their
teachers serving in the primary role of
observer. Programs using other methods of
grouping have a greater number of teachers
working with their own students and use more
special consultants.

Some comparisons of special interest are:
Groups—-- All Varied

Mixed Groups
(program purpose)

Special subjects . . . . . . A2% 19%
Curriculum enrichment . . . 57% 76%
Social-living experience . . 37% 72%

Human relations experience . 26% 52%

8U

Groups-—- All Varied

Mixed Groups
Teachers—-acompany

consultants . . . . . . . . . 17% 38%
Classes—~supplement a
given schedule . . . . . . . 33% 53%
Site staff--arrange
special activity . . . . . . 55% 78%
Student participation--
*class as a unit . . . . . . . 11% A8%
teacher assigns groups . . . . “2% 19%
*mixed with other classes . . . 36% 10%
self determined groups . . . . 11% 2A%
site staff assigned groups . . 37% IA%
different groups re:
activities . . . . . . . . . 11% 19%

*The discrepancy in these two items is
interesting and has not been resolved. The
schools were assigned to the categories
according to answers in Part I of the ques-
tionnaire. The percentage given here were
found in responses to questions in Part III.

Comparison III - programs in which teachers are
required to receive preparation
prior to going to the site with
the class and those in which
participation in preparation is
voluntary or where prior help is
not available.

a. In general programs with required teacher
preparation showed a greater involvement of
the teacher with the class during the
experience.

b. Of the six categories studied, the schools
with required preparation of teachers show
the highest percentage with human relations
as a purpose of the outdoor experience.

 

0. Items of interest in the comparison are:
Teacher preparation--- Required Voluntary
(Purposes of program)
Special subjects . . . . . 23% 37%
Curriculum enrichment . . 77% 60%
Social-living experience . 54% 56%

Human relations experience 62% 33%

85

Required Voluntary

 

 

Tcacher—-handles class

problems . . . . . . . . . 77% “8%
Class--participates as a

unit . . . . . . . . . . . 5A% 26%
C1ass-—plans individual

activities . . . . . . . . 31% 8%
Class—-different groups

re: activities . . . . . 31% 8%

d. There is an indication that help is given the
teacher prior to the experience in relation
to the degree of responsibility the teacher
will have with her class during the outdoor
program.

From the data secured through these comparisons a
program with human relations as a major emphasis, as seen
in both stated purpose and in degree of teacher-student
involvement in planning and participation, is more likely
to occur when planning is done by some method other than
by total school, students are grouped by a variety of
methods and the teachers have some required preparation
prior to the experience.

Using the same six categories for study, comparisons
were made also regarding the content of pre—camp preparation
given the teachers. This includes information from both
printed guides and in-service training. The following is
a summary of this information:

a. The only consistent inclusion is that of hglp

for carrying out subject activities. This is

found among the top three items in each of the
six groups.

 

b. Assistance in methods of planning with the
class is found among the identified items as
receiving the least attention in five of the
six groups.

86

Following is identification of preparation
content given the most and least attention

by categories:

 

 

Category Most Attention Least Attention
Total school Objectives Planning methods
system planning Subject help Teacher/student
Policies/rules relations
Housekeeping Recreation ideas
Varied planning Subject help Planning methods
methods Recreation Housekeeping
ideas Evaluation tools
Aspects of
outdoor
Classes all Subject help Recreation ideas
mixed Objectives Evaluation tools
Housekeeping
Classes varied Subject help Planning methods
grouping Objectives Evaluation tools
Policies/rules
Maps & charts
Required Subject help Planning methods
preparation Objectives Maps & charts
Policies/rules
Voluntary Subject help Evaluation tools
preparation Housekeeping Planning methods

Maps & charts

Recreation ideas
Teacher-student
relations

The groups of required teacher preparation and
total system plannipg had the greatest compara—

 

tive consistency of content material included.
In both cases three content areas were included
by 100% of the schools and six or more areas
were included at 85% of the time, or nine of the
eleven items were stressed strongly.

The only one of the content areas not seen as
either most or least frequently included is
discipline ppocedures.

 

It is seen that the greatest help given to teachers
is of the directive nature: subjects, policies and rules,
housekeeping procedures, and objectives. Assistance on

methods of planning, working with the evaluation tools and

87

the area of relationships receive the least attention.

This information supports the idea that if the concept of
relationships is not included in the purposes of the
program, teachers do not receive help in working with

their classes in a manner that is conducive to establishing

good conditions for fostering relationships.

Building Evaluative Criteria

Evaluative criteria, if they are worthy of considera-
tion, must be able to serve in a functional manner for the
teacher. An appropriate way to illustrate the utility of
the criteria is to translate the process of their develop-
ment into terms of job responsibility. The first in the
five steps of this process is the establishment of the
objectives of the program--in this case the resident out—
door education program. The general objectives, and to a
degree the specific objectives, are usually provided by the
school system in which the program exists. The transference
of the letter and the spirit of the objectives to the job
description of the teacher is the next step. Unless a
hoped for goal is assigned to be done, there is little
chance of its accomplishment. The third step is the identi-
fication of the teacher's tasks--'what is to be done'--
as a result of the job assignment. The job description
might say to 'provide individual attention to all students';
the task identification might include 'visit each student's

home during the school year.‘ The evaluation process begins

88
with the next step-—'the job is well done when . . .'
The setting of standards of performance is essential if
the teacher is to check the performance against the hoped
for goals. And, finally, the criteria are determined.
These are agreed upon ways of determining if the standards
of performance are met. From the setting of objectives to
the evaluation of the program, criteria are important for
establishing concrete goals and for providing guidelines
to the teacher for accomplishing the goals.

In building the criteria for this study four specific
aspects were considered: 1) the educational philosophy;
2) conditions for interpersonal relationships; 3) the
teacher-student relationship; and, A) the contributions of
the outdoor setting. It was necessary to blend these areas
in order to arrive at a proper balance.

Most Americans honor education; few understand its

purposes. Our thinking about the aims of education

has too often been shallow, constricted and lacking
in reach or perspective. Our educational purposes
must be seen in the broader framework of our con-

victions concerning the worth of the individual and
the importance of individual fulfillment.

What we must reach for is a conception of perpetual

self-discovery, perpetual reshaping to realize one's

best self, to be the person one could be.11
Educational Philosophy

"The American school has been unique in its obligation

to educate all the children of all the people. It is, of

course, a dual institution: a center for intellectual

 

llGardner, Excellence, p. 136.

 

89

development as well as a center for youth development."12

Concern for the intellectual development has been in the
foreground. Emphasis on science and mathematics, concern
over increased course 'content' quantity, stress on pre-
college programs and interest in new technological hard-
ware for teaching have taken precedence too often in the
problem of what is happening to learning. Since man, by
nature, continually 'learns' it is safe to assume that
these areas have stimulated his learning; what he has
learned is a major question if one considers the basic
concerns of both student moderates and activists. Eight
basic questions have been proposed for today's curriculum
planning that must be answered in terms of the modern mind
if education is to be truly relevant for today's learner:
8. What is meaning? (the reality of life)
7. What is school? (institutional realities)
6. How does the person find himself? (identity)
5. How may his development be thwarted? (pattern
of deprivation)
A. To what is this person heir? (the legacy of
civilization)
3. On what does this person thrive? (freedom,
choice, responsibility)
2. To what is this person bound? (the human

condition)
1. Who is this person? (the human potential)l3

Conditions for Interpersonal Relationships

 

Many of the conclusions about conditions that foster

good interpersonal relationships are reached through

 

12Crary, Humanizing the School:, p. A.

13Ibid., p. 56.

90

personal decision concerning 'if this is desired—-then,
this is a good condition.‘

The study of interpersonal relations has been

treated only tangentially in the field of

social psychology and personality. Personality

investigators have been concerned largely with

the isolation of personality traits and their

patterning in personality structure . ‘

(however,) social psychologists have been

mainly interested in the relations between

people when larger groups play a role.1u
"In interpersonal relations, perhaps more than in any other
field of knowledge, fruitful concepts and hunches for
hypothesis lie dormant and unformulated in what we know
intuitively."15 The field of interpersonal relations can
be observed from several approaches: the environment;
communications; the groups; and needs. All of these are
applicable to this study.

The first factor considered in relationships is
environment. Human behavior occurs in an environment, or
setting, that has a structure. "One task is to describe
this structure. It is clear that structure cannot be dis-
covered by observing a single part, such as the point of

intersection of the environment with a particular person,

or by considering the parts separately, one by one."16

 

l”Fritz Heider, The Psychology of Interpersonal
Relations (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1958), p. 3.

 

15Ibid., p. 5.

l6Rober G. Barker, Ecological Psychology (Stanford,
Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1968), p. 9.

 

91

This structure, or the behavior setting tends to predeter—
mine the behavior of the individuals within the setting;
i.e. if a student learns through several experiences that
in the classroom setting he is to respond verbally only
when directed to do so by the teacher, he will tend to
assume this behavior in any classroom setting even though
in another setting (for instance, a neighborhood club) he
is an initiator of ideas and conversation. If a teacher
wishes to alter the behavior response of students, such as
that noted in the example above, it is necessary for the
setting to change precipitously. An important factor in
this approach to interpersonal relations is that the
response of the student or students is to the accepted
behavioral setting, not necessarily to the teacher.
Another factor in the process of interaction is com-

munications; verbal and non-verbal.

One necessary condition for human communication

is an interdependent relationship between the

source and the receiver . . . A final level of

interdependent complexity is interaction . .

Communications represents an attempt to couple

two organisms, to bridge the gap between two

individuals through the production, and recep-

tion of messages which have meaning for both.17

Non—verbal communications often can have a greater effect

upon a person than verbal. Several adages illustrate this

 

17David K. Berlo, "Interaction: The Goal of Inter-
personal Communications," Dimensions in Communications, ed.
by James H. Campbell and Hal W. Hepler (Belmont, Calif.:
Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1965), p. 5A.

 

92

principle: "Do as I do and not as I say." "Seeing
is believing" and "Actions speak louder than words." Cul-
turally and personally individuals look for the unspoken
signal. One way of dividing the world of non—verbal
language is into sign language, action language, and object
language.18 Signs take the form of gestures and facial
patterns; action includes all bodily movement; and, object
language includes the display of material things, such as
dress. Edward Hall19 stresses the importance of time and
space as factors in non—verbal language. Regardless of
the differences in theoretical approaches to the subject,
students of non-verbal communications agree upon the
intensity and impact of this 'language.‘ First impressions,
watching a leader in a new situation for cues of behavior,
reading between the lines of verbiage are all ways in
which people regularly examine personal settings. The
importance of this style of communications in establishing
interpersonal relationships cannot be minimized.

The many facets needing consideration in the realm
of verbal communications are important, also, in developing

relationships. Relationships may be opened or closed to

 

18Randall Harrison, "Non-verbal Communications:
Exploration into Time, Space, Action, and Object," in
Dimensions In Communications, ed. by James H. Campbell
and Hal W. Hepler (Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth Publishing

Company, Inc., 1965), p. 162.

19Edward T. Hall, The Silent Language (Garden City,
IJ.Y.: Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1959).

93

growth by lack of attention to choices of words, voice

tone and placement of word emphasis. Other factors having
an effect are time, place and style. Opportunities for
private and semi—private conversations are essential for
establishing a personal connotation. The use of formal,
informal and casual styles add depth and meaning to the
communication process. In order to increase the potential
development of sound interpersonal relationships, oppor—
tunity must be provided for the participants to incorporate

various ways of communicating.

Teacher-Student Relationships

 

Special consideration within the field of education
must be given to the unique interpersonal relationship
between the teacher and students in a class. The student
in the class cannot, and should not, be isolated from the
group during the process of developing relationships. The
teacher—student relation develops within the group and
through the group if the teacher is cognizant of his role
in regard to it. ". . . a person is helped to move toward
openness to his experience when the helper (i.e. the
teacher)20 is congruent in the relationship, empathic in
his understanding, positive and unconditional in his regard,

and willing to share himself as a person with the person

 

2OInsertion the author's.

99

being helped."21 Flexibility and awareness of individuals

within the class group are essential qualities needed in

a teacher hoping to attain meaningful relationships with
the students. Too often the approach to teacher—student
relationships is taken from a 'cook-book' of helpful hints.
Examples of such dictum are the following paragraph head-
ings: "Establish Clear Standards of Behavior for the
Classroom and 'Stick by Them'; When an Order is Given, Do
Not Proceed Until It Is Obeyed; Avoid a Too—relaxed Atmos-
phere; Withdrawing a Privilege Can be an Effective Discip—
line Technique; and Control Indiscriminant Question-

"22

Asking. Today's emphasis on individualized instruction

seems to be translated too frequently to mean 'cognitive
instruction.' The teacher has a real responsibility for
the affective instruction of the learner, not just so the
student can attain a higher academic achievement, but so
he can attain greater development of 'self.'

Growth in a group of learners depends upon the

kind of atmosphere which is initially created

by the teacher or nurturer. Eventually each
individual in the group helps to determine

whether real expressions of the self and self-
exploration will exist or whether fear, need

for praise and approval, repetition, stereo-

type, and adherence to the external standards

will prevail. . . . The teacher must be responsible

 

21Robert E. Bills, "Education is Human Relations," in
New Insights and the Curriculum, Alexander Frazier, ed. and
Chairman (Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development, 1963), p. 177.

22William E. Amos and Reginald C. Crem, Managing
Student Behavior (St. Louis, Mo.: Warren H. Green, Inc.,
1967), pp. 71-76.

95

initially for conveying the nature and essence
of his philosophy and for creating an accepting,
non-judgmental atmosphere where each individual
is valued as a person.

Both the teacher and the student approach their
relationship with their 'pasts showing.‘ The pleasures and
pains, joys and fears, and prejudices of prior relationships
enter into each new one.. One of the exciting challenges of
working with people is that of being an integral part in
and an observer of behavior changes resulting from personal
relationships. "Interrelations are dynamic, always chang—
ing, and new relationships are being established.

Simple interpretations in terms of one factor are not
possible in the complex social phenomena of behavior."214
If teachers can cease to see themselves as people who only
teach and students can cease to see themselves as people
who only study--and both groups can see themselves as

human beings first and role players second, a new dimension
in the educational process will take place.

Finally, the needs of all participants in human
relations are the same regardless of position or life
role. Sidney Posin identifies eight closely related needs

that combine to determine human behavior in groups: "to

be loved, to be accepted, to be recognized, to belong, to

 

’3
¢3Clark Moustakis, Alive and Growing Teacher (New
York: Philosophical Library, Inc., 1959), p. 18.

2“Sidney Posin, "The Child in the Group," Campi The
Child's World (Martinsville, Inc.: American Camping
Association--Galloway Publishing Company, 1962), p. 23.

96

25

achieve, security, adventure and personal integrity."
An individual seeks to satisfy these needs as part of his
process of self-discovery and self—realization. Whether
in a group, with two or three people or in a one-to—one
relationship, the interacting individual strives to have
his needs met and, hopefully, learns to respect and

respond to the needs of others.

Contributions of the Outdoor Setting
The final aspect for consideration is the contribu—

tion of the outdoor setting. Many references are made
about the use of the unique nature of the outdoors; few
attempts are made to define this uniqueness. There is a
basic assumption among outdoor people that it is good,
but hard to define. L. B. Sharp offered the thesis that:

that which can best be learned inside the

classroom should be learned there; and that

which can best be learned through direct

experience outside the classroom, in contact

with native materials and life situations,

should be learned there.2
This statement, however, applies equally to any well-planned
field trip. Kilpatrick joined the meaning of education and
the outdoor experience in his summation of learning:

We learn what we live, only what we live,

and everything we live. We learn each
thing we live as we accept it to act on

 

”)C'
‘Jibid.

26L. B. Sharp, "Basic Considerations in Outdoor and
Camping Education," in Outdoor Education——A Book of Read-
in 8, ed. by Donald R. Hammerman and William M. Hammerman
(Mifineapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1968),
p. 5.

 

97

and we learn it in the degree that we count

it important and also in the degreg that it

fits in with what we already know. 7
Wheeler and Hammerman considered:

The importance of the outdoor educational

setting in developing desired human behaviors

lies mainly in its broad array of natural

instructional materials, and in its potential

for a diversity of human arrangements not

ordinarily available or possible in the

usual classroom environment.2
These three quotations are samples of the implication, but
not the definition of the uniqueness of the outdoor setting.
All agree on what education should contain, in the classroom
as well as out of it. Then what really makes the outdoor
setting different and worthy of special consideration?

Hazzard29 comes close to isolating those factors

which, to him, make the outdoor setting unique. He refers
to these as the spiritual values of camping; spiritual,
not in the sense of the teachings of specific religious
groups, but rather in terms of the deeper aspects of finding

an orientation to the Supreme Being and to fellow men. In

his article he identifies two major aspects of camp that

 

27W. H. Kilpatrick, "The Role of Camping in Education,"
in Outdoor Education-~A Book of Readings, ed. by Donald R.
Hammerman and William M. Hammerman (Minneapolis, Minn.:
Burgess Publishing Company, 1968), p. 32.

28Wallace Wheeler and Donald Hammerman, "What is the
Educational Potential in the Outdoor Setting?," in Outdoor
Education--A Book of Readings, ed. by Donald R. Hammerman

 

and William M. Hammerman (Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess
Publishing Company, 1968), p. 9.
29Hazzard, "Spiritual Values in Camping," pp. A5—50.

98

cause this to occur. The first is the closeness of the
individual to nature and the second is the experience of
harmony and order in the setting. For the subject oriented
teacher the outdoors provides the material about which
books are written; for the recreationally minded it pro-
vides space and facilities for enjoying and learning
skills; for the social and democratic-living experiences it
causes a togetherness of the participants and the need for
sharing and cooperation that goes with community living.
For the person interested in human relations the outdoor
setting provides a demonstrated background of openness,
inter-dependency, harmony of species and space for growth.

This flexibility of the outdoors offers without cost,
materials or red-tape, the environment for small and large
group gatherings; the safety of a community; constantly
changing sights and sounds that challenge the creative
instinct of the observer. Greater than these external
factors, however, are the lessons learned 1p the world of
nature.

Man is a growing creature and, just as flowers, trees
or birds will grow to full potential given the proper
conditions for the specie, so will man. Man is a member
of a specie, but is uniquely different from each other
member of that specie. Development of his own ultimate
being is based upon his ability to study the patterns,

order and harmony of the natural world and his ability to

99

make use of these factors in determining his own route
toward individual fulfillment. Two areas in particular
are relevant in considering the outdoor setting as a learn-
ing tool in human relations. The first is the lesson
learned from giving attention to the specific environment
and climate necessary for each specie and sub-specie of
life, and the affect of variations from the optimum con-
ditions on the growth of the living thing. The importance
of this principle in working with people is unmistakable.
It eloquently points out the necessity for the individual
to strive to find his own best environment. The second
principle to be drawn from exposure to the natural setting
is the intricacy of relationships among all living things.
The lessons of interdependency are directly translatable
to the human group coming to the outdoors. The ability of
a group to exist and grow within a somewhat similar general
environment must not overshadow the fact that each member
of the group is drawing on something different within the
environmental setting; and, alterations of the pattern by
one element in the enVironment (as the teacher with the
class) can have a direct and major influence on all of the
members of the group. The uniqueness is, perhaps, that
these principles can be studied and lived without being
'taughtJ

Education has a major responsibility in providing

for the growth of 'self' of the students within the program

100

and the appropriate method for meeting this responsibility
is through opportunities for interaction with people and
environments. Of primary concern in this endeavor is the
relationship of the teacher and the students. The unique—
ness of the natural setting of the outdoors provides an
excellent background for learning about and experiencing

human relations.

Rationale For Selection of Criteria
The rationale for the selection of the criteria is
based upon observable behavior patterns of the teacher that
implement the determined standards of performance. The
criteria must relate to conditions that further the oppor-
tunities for interpersonal relationships between the teacher
and the student(s) during the outdoor experience. From
investigation into the various fields of study relating to
the problem it is possible to establish factors affecting
these relationship conditions. These factors, and the
reason for inclusion, are:
1. Positive thinking about teacher—student
relationships--unless this is seen as
important in the educational process and
is approached in a positive manner, little
is expected in the way of meeting the goal.
2. Preparation of the teacher for the outdoor
experience--confidence and relaxation in
the outdoor setting will free the teacher

for attention to the major purposes of the
experience.

101

3. A truly combined teacher-student effort
in planning, executing and evaluating
the experience-—teacher involved with
students in these activities provides
opportunities and purposes for interacting
with students.

A. Contributions of the teacher as a person
to the activity--if relationships are to
be enhanced, the students must be able
to relate to a person, not a position.

Provision of time and space for personal
relationships—-the development of rela—
tionships cannot be placed as a 'subject'
in a daily schedule, nor can it occur
adequately only in large groups.

\fl

6. Establishing sufficient structure in the
experience to remove any possible threats
resulting from the newness of the setting,
fear of too much freedom, or the potential
of the relationship--some structure is
needed to give order and direction to the
experience and to offer security within
the experience for both students and
teachers.

These conditions provide direction for translating objec—

tives into criteria.

The Process of Developing Criteria
Effective criteria for evaluating teacher performance
must be developed in relation to the general program objec—
tives and the teacher's responsibilities. A five step
‘process has been used to develop specific criteria. For
:illustrative purposes, the following shows the procedure
used.in moving from a general objective of Outdoor Education

to eua evaluative criterion of teacher performance.

102

General Objective: To establish conditions that foster
change of a positive nature in
teacher—student relationships.

Specific Objectives: a) To identify factors in the master
planning that have an important
affect upon teacher—student rela—
tionships and to design the
planning to facilitate these
relationships.

b) To identify and design experiences
to effect specific changes desired.

c) To identify and to provide condi-
tions in the experience that the
classroom teacher can effect.

Job Description of the teacher in relation to (c) in
Specific Objectives:

Provide proper conditions for fostering positive
relationships with students in your class during
the resident outdoor experience.

Division of the time elements of the eXperience into activi-
ties before, during and after the outdoor activity:

"During the experience"--
A Standard of Performance in this period is:
"to be an active 'learner'"
The criterion, or how well has the task been performed:

What is an active learner?
To learn, one must be exposed to something
new. If we are concerned with relationships
then this learning must occur in company with
at least one other person. This doesn't mean
it has to be 'taught', but can also be a
shared learning through observation or experi-
ence. Further, as student-teacher relation-
ships are the focus, the learning should occur
with one or more students in the class.

Criteria meeting this definition:
—-participate in a planned learning experience
with one or more students

01"

--learn at least one activity or skill taught
by one of your students

103

Criteria should be observable or describable and,

for help to the teacher, behaviorally stated.

Both of these criteria meet these requirements.

The general and specific objectives and the job des-
cription are usually provided as part of employment. In
some instances the standards of performance may be included.
If this latter is not, it should be included in the discus—
sion between the teacher and the supervisor at the same
time the criteria are determined. It is important that the
criteria are established by those most directly involved in
the evaluation. This insures that both parties understand
the intent of as well as the words of the criteria.

Summary of the Responses to
the Experimental Guide

To explore the feasibility of developing criteria
capable of serving as behavioral guides and as the basis
for evaluation, an experimental guide was prepared and
distributed to a number of persons.30 Criteria were
developed that seemed to meet the needs of a variety of
outdoor education programs. Responses were received from
teachers using the form in an actual experience, adminis—
trators of programs in operation and from persons involved
in outdoor education but not in a program at the moment.

A polarization of responses occurred in one major

area: the criteria relating to student involvement in

 

30A copy of the Experimental Guide is found in
Appendix D.

10A

planning the program and carrying out the program. At one
extreme is the contention that fifth and sixth grade stu-
dents are not capable of determining program interest and
pursuing them in a setting that is not highly structured;
at the other end of the continuum are those who see student
planning and student motivation in carrying-out the program
as a primary benefit of the experience. The emphasis of
the program is not the determining factor as schools at
both extremes were ones in which subject content-—science
and conservation-—served as the basis for the outdoor
experience.

Not as markedly defined, but parallel, is the differ-
ence seen in the involvement of the classroom teacher.
This ranged from teachers totally responsible for planning
with their students to ones who were removed from all
active contact with their classes during the experience.
Schools deemphasizing student involvement also indicated
it was hard or impossible to have teachers either be
involved as 'learners' or pursue personal goals. Those
schools stressing student involvement found it was fairly
easy and beneficial to have the teachers assume these addi-
tional postures.

Administrators indicated that seeing the teacher in
relaticmship to the class during the eXperience was the
hardest area to incorporate, but one of the areas that was

seeni as most beneficial to the program. The criteria

105

assigned to guide the teacher in planning and preparing was
seen as the easiest area to incorporate into existing pro-
grams.

There was consistency in suggestions to delete two
specific items; one calling for observation of apparent for—
bidden topics of conversation and the other the criterion
relating to study of reasons for stopping activities. No
particular reasons were given for the suggestions. However,
in considering the two points the author realized that they
are more indicative of supervisory conversation than evalua-
tive criteria.

The impression is received from a large number of the
respondents that there is no need for this type of concen-
tration in the area of teacher—student relationships. In
all cases where this was noted the reason was the same--
the environment just naturally promotes the relationships.
As this subject has been discussed elsewhere in this study,
no additional comments will be made here.

It generally is agreed by the respondents that this
type of guide might contribute to improvements in relation—
ships. Some reasons noted are: increased informality;
increased awareness; a checklist for the teacher to use as
a reference; and the highlighting of types of situations
:in which teachers can become better acquainted with students.

'The responses of the three categories of persons were quite

106

similar. Another reaction shared was that resistance to
its use was possibly due to the length, not content, of
the instrument.

Overall response indicated that a guide of this type
can be used by teachers and administrators, that there is
a concern in the relationship field but it is seen as
solved through the setting, and that the attitudes of
individuals and administrators, not the program emphasis,
determines the role of teachers and students in the

experience.

Overview

The concern of this study is the relationship between
the teacher and students in a class participating in a
resident outdoor education program. Within this broad
concern, focus is directed to those conditions that would
be appropriate to enhance this relationship. In the hope
of making a contribution to this field of study, the deter—
mination was made to prepare a model tool for use by the
teacher in the resident outdoor education program.

Extensive reading was undertaken in the various dis-
ciplines and fields that contribute to the focus of the
study. Examination was made of material relating to the
individual, the educational objectives, the classroom set—
ting, and the roles of the teacher. The fields of social

work and interpersonal psychology provided ideas for

107

consideration regarding informal groups and human inter-
action. Background information and guides for planning
were found in literature relating to outdoor education,
camping and nature. In addition to serving as a review
of relevant and current information, the readings were a
source for determining items to be included in the inves-
tigation of current practices and for the final selection
of criteria.

The review of related literature served to isolate
conditions that affected human relations in a resident
outdoor educational setting. An initial survey of materials
from outdoor programs indicated a lack of attention to the
teacher—student relationship and a lack of situations that
would afford good conditions for relationships. To further
explore the problem a questionnaire was devised to secure
more detailed information about the organization and opera—
tion of resident outdoor programs being offered. The
questions were formulated to identify various facets of
the selected relationship conditions. The questionnaire
results confirmed what had been indicated in the survey of
the brochures, namely that teacher-student relationships
were not of primary concern in planning and that conditions
existing were not generally conducive to promoting them.
The responses, also, provided information about the differ-

ent nethods of planning and organizing which proved helpful

108

in preparing criteria that would be usable in a greater
number of programs. An experimental guide, including
criteria and suggested usage, was presented to several
teachers in resident outdoor programs for trial use and to
administrators and teachers associated with outdoor programs
for comments and suggestions. The results of the trial use
and the information received from the individuals examining
the guide were incorporated into the final evaluative tool.

The instrument resulting from this study is planned
to give behavioral guidance to the teacher in the program
as well as to serve as an evaluative tool. With this in
mind the model teacher evaluation form is divided into
conditions affected by activities before the outdoor
experience, during the experience, and following the experi-
ence. In each of these three categories behavioral objec-
tives have been established within the broad goal of
enhancing conditions for positive change in relationships.
Evaluative criteria are designated for each of the listed
behavioral objectives. By combining these points a single
instrument can serve the dual task.

Despite the fact that there is much concern today
about the individual in society and the role of the educa—
tional process in meeting the individual's needs, little
has been done to give direction to the teacher on how to
approach the problem. Specific suggestions for meeting

some aspects of the problem are found in a variety of

109

fields. It is necessary to draw from all of these fields
in seeking solutions for aiding the teacher in meeting the

obligations of education.

CHAPTER IV

CRITERIA FOR TEACHER EVALUATION

Can the resident outdoor education experience
actually contribute to enlarging the dimensions for posi-
tive change in teacher—student relationships? Yes it can--
but only if those responsible for planning and organizing
the program consider it important. The outdoor setting is
a natural one for interaction of people as a result of the
group living situation and the setting. What happens to
the relationships and as a result of them is directly
related to the goals established for the program.

Without setting objectives and developing effective
methods for carrying out these objectives, program results
are left to happen-stance. The truth of this is accepted
by outdoor educators-—partially. The areas of concern most
frequently included in the preparation of teachers for the
outdoor program indicates those objectives receiving
concrete attention.l These areas are subject matter,

lunlsekeeping procedures, understanding of objectives and

 

1An analysis of teacher preparation material is found
:ha Appendix C.

110

111

conduct determined by policies and rules. The teacher-
student relationship question generally is handled by the
comment that it is just natural and that the outdoor
setting is conducive for human relation development. It is
this author's contention that positive relationships require
the same attention in planning and preparing as do the
academic areas if there is to be a successful change.

The resources of the camp will be thought of as

a rich medium in which the emerging personality

may stretch, grow, and exercise; the people who

surround the camper are his coaches and helpers,

concerned and helpful, always looking for this

new exercise of personality, . . . But such

natural methods are achieved, paradoxically,

only through considerable care and planning, and

much difficulty.2
Objectives are met in three manners: automatically, fortui-
tiously, and planned. It is time that teacher—student
relationships become part of the planning for the outdoor
education experience.

To plan effectively for meeting objectives in human

relations, one must be cautious not to infringe upon the
uniqueness of the individuals involved. The teacher in this

educational setting must be permitted to express individual

authenticity. For this reason, techniques and methods of

 

relationship development are not included in the planning.
Further, it is important that the teacher can respond to
each individual student's uniqueness. In order to facili—

tate the teacher-student relations, freedom must be provided

 

’)
‘Richard S. Doty, Character Dimensions of Camping,
p. 52.

 

112

within which human interaction can occur. This freedom
for action must be part of the structured experience
designed to meet the objective.

It is a difficult task to plan for and evaluate a
desired objective if it is stated in terms that are too
broad in meaning. For this reason it is advisable to
develop specific objectives that will better define the
problem or purpose. The general objective being considered
here is "To enlarge the dimensions for positive change in
teacher—student relationships." Within this is the impor-
tant question of conditions conducive to fostering rela-
tionships. To meet the 'conditions' aspect of the rela-
tionship objective, the following specific points need to
be considered by the teacher:

a. to gain a positive feeling regarding the
resident outdoor experience
b. to work with the students in-—
1) general planning
2) determining goals and behavior
3) planning use of facilities
A) considering questions of evaluation
c. to contribute to the outdoor experience
1) professionally
2) personally
to be an active 'learner' during the activity
e. to encourage 'openness' in conversation
with students
f. to use time more effectively
to become 'forgetful' of classroom routines
to participate in evaluation with students
1. to bring back and use new ideas and skills to
the classroom

G.

0:01;
o o

113
GUIDE FOR EVALUATION
Teacher Effectiveness in Establishing Conditions
for Positive Relationship Changes

Below are listed nine specific objectives relating
to conditions necessary for creating positive changes in
teacher—student relationships. The performance of the
cl'ssroom teacher will determine whether or not these con-
ditions are effected. For each specific objective criteria
are suggested by which the teacher performance may be
evaluated. Space is provided following each objective for
the addition of other criteria selected by the teacher and
supervisor or for replacement of ones not feasible in the
particular situation. The criteria provided are phrased
in such a manner as to function as behavioral guides for
the teacher, in addition to use in evaluation. To assist
in the use of the criteria as behavioral guides, indication
is given to performances done prior to the resident out-
door experience, during the program and following the

experience.

11M

 

Teacher Objectives

Criteria for Evaluation

 

Prior to the Experience

 

a. to gain a positive
feeling regarding the
resident outdoor
experience

b. to work WITH

in--
1) general planning

students

\10\

become acquainted with camp
site.

participate in meetings and
workshops pertaining to
outdoor education.

talk with teachers and/or
students who have partici-
pated in the outdoor
program.

establish personal goals
for the experience--include .
ideas of what YOU, as a r
person, would like to do. -
participate in an overnight
camping experience at the
site.

 

prepare a list of academic
and non-academic interests
and activities.

encourage students to cor-
respond with other groups
that will be at the site
at the same time.
understand the policies and
procedures that are to be
used.

determine individual as
well as group interests.
determine what methods of
grouping of students will
be used during the outdoor
experience.

2) determining goals
and behavior

.1:

establish priorities for
class and individual
interests and needs.
prepare a schedule that
would meet these goals.
discuss behavior needs in
the group living situation
and a behavior code for
the experience.

115

 

 

Teacher Objectives Criteria for Evaluation
3) planning use of l. discuss the nature and use
facilities of the facilities and
resources that will be
available.

2. select those needed to
carry-out the class goals.

u) considering question 1. discuss the reasons for
of evaluation evaluation.

2. become acquainted with
evaluative tools used in
the program.

3. prepare any evaluative
tools desired by the class
for their own use.

 

 

u.
During the Experience
c. to contribute to the
outdoor experience-—
1) professionally 1. develop teaching approaches
that make use of natural
materials.

2. become acquainted with the
content of the areas of
interest indicated by the
class.

3. give instruction to class
as appropriate.

4. provide other on-going
professional services, i.e.
academic aid, guidance,
class decisions, etc.

2) personally 1. dress appropriately while
in camp.
2. participate in planned
class recreational
activities.

116

 

Teacher Objectives

Criteria for Evaluation

 

GUT-12' LA)

share a hobby or special
skill with students.
carry-out a personal goal

 

to be an active 'learner'

during the experience

participate in at least
one new activity.

learn at least one new
activity or skill taught
by a student.

participate in opportuni-
ties provided by consultants.

 

to encourage 'openness'
in conversation with
students

list topics discussed with
students that usually would
not be included in class—
room discussions.

identify new information
gained through informal
conversation about the stu-
dents in your class.
identify examples of better
student understanding of
you as a person.

 

to use time more
effectively

U11:

schedule 'free-time' (not
announced) in which you are
able to be with and around
students in an informal
manner.

assist students in finding
time for personal interests
identify the use that was
made of time spent walking
to and from activities.

 

117

 

Teacher Objectives

Criteria for Evaluation

 

g.

to become 'forgetful'
about classroom
routines

make an effort to reduce
required written assign—
ments.

try different methods of
organization for instruc-
tional purposes.

develop alternate methods
of travelling in camp to
the "total class" method
use natural rather than
reading research methods

 

h.

Followingfithe Experience

 

to participate in
evaluation with the
students

review the purpose of eval-
uations and complete those
used in the program and
those designed by the
class.

study those designed by the
class to see if they meet
the desired purpose.

 

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION

Summary

In the area of relationships, as well as other curri-
cular areas, directives, guides and techniques must be
provided to assist the teacher in reaching the maximum
potential of the educational experience. Planners of
outdoor education programs put much time and attention on
rules, housekeeping procedures, scheduling and subject-
content material to assist the teacher. The question must
be asked, why do these educators not see the need to
offer the same assistance in the realm of teacher-student
relationships? Work done in several fields show that
affective learning can be facilitated through the same
approaches used in cognitive learning by stating objectives
clearly, planning and preparation, and evaluation.

The initial responses to this study of relationships
are generally favorable. It is acknowledged that human
relations and social living are a part of the majority of
Imxaident outdoor education programs. Those persons parti—
cipating in the review of the experimental guide feel that

a tcxal of this nature would assist classroom teachers by

118

119

providing them with a procedural list of "things to be
aware of" and with an opportunity to check their progress
in meeting the goals. The implementation of a guide for
use in reaching better teacher—student relationships
depends upon the administering officials and their deci-

sion about the importance of this area in the program.

Need for Further Research

 

A need for further research is seen in three areas;
relationship changes, adaptation of the instrument to
meet specific needs, and the preparation of outdoor edu-
cation leaders.

1. Relationship changes should be examined
through both short and long term longitudinal
studies. These studies could determine the
degree of the teacher—student relationship
changes and the duration of the change.
Additional study is needed, also, to examine
which aspects of interpersonal relations are
affected, and which are not, through manipu-
lation of external conditions.

2. Adaptation of the evaluative guide for
specific purposes is another indicated study
area. Major emphasis is needed to see if
conditions can be effectively incorporated
in programs stressing subject matter. Adapta—

tion of a guide for condition control should

120

be explored for use in reaching isolated
needs in relationships as well as overall
changes.

3. Study of the preparation of both classroom
and administrative leaders of outdoor educa—
tion programs is indicated if real changes
in human relationships is to be effected.
Preliminary research is desireable for
examining the background of those leaders
who effectively provide conditions for rela-
tionship development. An in—depth study of
practices used to prepare classroom teachers
for the outdoor experience would be important.
Research in the methods of selection and pre-
paration of administrators would provide fur—

ther insight to these educational programs.

Reflections

 

Are the references to the belief in and the objective
of human relations in outdoor education real, or are they
merely inserted to meet popular concepts? Is this a ques-
tion of just outdoor education, or is it applicable to all
educational programs? The printed material examined and
the responses to the questionnaire and the guide leaves
one with the feeling that the interest is not real. While
there is ample evidence of concern for having programs

function smoothly by establishing rules and carefully

121

scheduling programs, there is no such evidence in regard
to teacher—student relationships. Is this reflective,
also, of the classroom situation? If teachers were accus-
tomed to regular positive interaction with their students,
this phase of educational activity should appear in all
programs. The more basic question seems to be, then--

how do teachers learn to desire and actively participate
in meaningful relationships with students?

'The outdoor setting naturally promotes good rela—
tionships among the participants.‘ This belief was the
most prevalent one among the responses in the study. But,
does it? No, rather it provides an opportunity for good
relationships. Educators interested in outdoor programs
plan carefully for use of the setting in promoting sci-
ence, social studies, the arts, outdoor skills, etc. How
can these same educators be brought to see that the setting
is good for relationship growth in the same way—-through
careful use of the setting? Perhaps they need to look to
their own lives and examine the circumstances in which
they received their positive feeling about the outdoors;
what were they doing? who were they with? what was most
meaningful?

Another question that arises is what and how children
learn in the outdoor setting. This is indicated in the
varying amount of importance placed upon scheduling and

supervision in outdoor programs. The crux of the problem

122

seems to lie in why adults want to take children to the
outdoors. Is it to learn to experience nature? or, to
live in the outdoors? or, to have new experiences? or,
to supplement the regular academic program? The more
activity-oriented is the program, the greater the need for
scheduling and supervision is seen. Most programs indicate
a desire for the student to have a generally good outdoor
experience. What is needed seems to be an exploration of
what children do, how they function, and how they grow
when allowed to discover the natural world as children.
This would provide valuable help in developing a real out-
door experience within the educational program.

What is the place of evaluation in outdoor education?
It generally seems to identify positive reactions (for
public relations?), questions about procedures and rules
and academic achievement. Evaluation of the teacher's
part in the program seems non—existent. If the teacher is
the key to the success of any educational endeavor, should
there not be an evaluation made of the teacher's effective—
ness in the program? Evaluation based upon observable and
describable criteria is a practical tool for operating and
improving a program. Time spent in preparing and carrying
out such an evaluation is time well spent. It is possible
that the result would be the discovery of available time
to work with students during the outdoor experience through
the elimination of time-consuming procedural routines

previously done.

123

At the same time a prepared evaluative guide can be
viewed as an evaluative tool, a standard to be attained,
or as a model. It is the author's hope that the evaluative
guide presented here is used as a model rather than as a
standard or an immediate tool. Two reasons prompt this
feeling. The first is the need to adapt any guide or tool
to the particular situation in which it will be used. The
diversity in outdoor education programs makes it impossible
to arrive at one set of criteria that would be applicable
to all. The second reason grows from the belief that the
value of any guide, particularly an evaluative one, results
in large measure from the individual contributions to it
of the supervisee and supervisor. Even within the same
outdoor program, the measurement of the success of each
teacher is an individual matter and a standard of perfor-
mance for all teachers negates unique individual contribu—

tions.

A Final Statement

The teacher holds the key to all that goes on in
any educational program. Knowledge of subject matter,
skill in using educational aids and maintenance of physical
surroundings conducive to learning are all important.
The relationship of the teacher to each student in the
class, however, overshadows all other points. This dic-
tates that the teacher must be a real and growing person

and that each student is received as a real person.

12h

The teacher is a guide on the learning journey.
. He sets the goals, establishes the
limits of the trip in terms of the students'
needs and abilities, determines the way to be
taken, enlivens and enriches every aspect of
the journey, and evaluates the progress. All
of this is done in closest cooperation with
the fellow travelers, but the teacher will be
the chief influence in every aspect of the
journey.1

A guide on a learning journey has the respect and
confidence of those on the trip. They believe in
him because of his knowledge, experience, and
skill but also because of his intense and sincere
interest in the meaning and significance of the
journey for himself and for the other travelers.
Most of all they believe in him for what he is,
wishes to be, and is becoming.
The 'learning journey' into human relations is the most
vital part of the trip, and the teacher must call upon all
personal and external resources to make this journey most
fruitful.

It no longer can be assumed that positive change in
relationships will occur automatically. Emphasis must be
placed upon the study of the nature of human relations in
the educational process and upon the discovery of the most
effective means for enhancing these relations. Further,
guidance for implementing this goal must be provided to

the teacher for use, not only in the resident outdoor

education program, but in all phases of the educational

 

 

 

lEarl V. Pullias and James D. Young, A Teacher Is
Many Things (Bloomington, Inc.: Indiana University Press,
1969), p. 33.

2Ibid., p. “2.

experience. Only through the concerted effort of all
persons involved in the education of youth can human rela—
tionships be placed in proper perspective in education

and can inclusion of relationships in the program become

meaningful.

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126

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Ledlie, John and Roehm, Ralph. "For Whom Is the Program?"
Lights From A Thousand Campfires. Edited by Kenneth
B. Webb. Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing
Company, 1960, pp. 205-210.

Leonard, George B. Education and Ecstasy. New York:
Delacorte Press, 19687

Lifton, Walter M. Working With Groups. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1961.

131

Lindberg, Anne Morrow. Gift From the Sea. New York:
Pantheon Books, Inc., 1955.

Magner, George W. "The Role of Camping in Our Concern for
Mental Health." Camping Geared to Today's Concerns.
29th National Convention of the American Camping
Association. Martinsville, Ind.: American Camping
Association, 1966, pp. 76-82.

Mand, Charles L. Outdoor Education. New York: J. Lowell
Pratt and Company, Publishers, 1967.

Maslow, Abraham H. Toward a Psychology of Being. An
Insight Book. Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand
Company, Inc., 1962.

Massarik, Fred. "'Today' As an Integrating Factor." The
Course of Human Life. Edited by Charlotte Bfihler
and Fred Massarik. New York: Springer Publishing

Company, Inc., 1968, pp. 393—399.

May, Rollo. Man's Search For Himself. A Signet Book. New
York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 1953.

 

McWhinney, William H. "Role of the Small Group in Goal
DevelOpment." The Course of Human Life. Edited by
Charlotte Bfihler and Fred Massarik. New York:
Springer Publishing Company, Inc., 1968, pp. 267-278.

 

Montagu, Ashley. Educationjand Human Relations. New York:
Grove Press, Inc., 1958?

 

Moustakis, Clark. Alive and Growing Teacher. New York:
Philosophical Library, Inc., 1959.

. The Authentic Teacher. Cambridge, Mass.:
Howard A. Doyle Publishing Company, 1966.

 

. "True Experience and Self." The Self in
Growth, Teaching and Learning. Edited by Don E.
Hamachek. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1965, pp. 40-H3.

 

Mullahy, Patrick. "Introduction." A Study of Interpersonal
Relations. Edited by Patrick Mullahy. Science House,
Inc.IIl967). New York: Hermitage Press, Inc., 19h9,
pp. xvii-xxxiv.

Murphy, Madeline. "Person-centered Program Keeping the
Individual Camper in Focus." Camping Geared 39
Today's Concerns. 29th National Convention of the
American Camping Association. Martinsville, Ind.:
American Camping Association, 1966, pp. 83-87.

132

Outdoor Education for American Youth. Julian W. Smith,
Chairman. Washington, D.C.: American Association
for Health, Physical Education, and Recreation,
NEA, 1957.

Overstreet, Bonaro W.' Understanding Fear in Ourselves and
Others. Collier Books. New York: Harper & Brothers,
1951.

Posin, Sidney. "The Child in the Group." Camp, the
Child's World. Martinsville, Ind.: American Camping
Association, 1962, pp. 22-23.

Postman, Neil and Weingartner, Charles. Teaching As a
Subversive Activity. New York: Delacorte Press,
1969.

 

Pullias, Earl V. and Young, James D. A Teacher Is Mapy
Things. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University
Press, 1969.

Redl, Fritz, When We Deal With Children. New York: The
Free Press, 1966f

Reilly, William J. In Search of a Working Philosophy of
Life. New York: Harper & Brothers, Publishers,

1959.

 

Rogers, Carl R. Client-Centered Theory. Boston: Houghton-
Mifflin Company, 1951.

 

. Freedom To Learn. Columbus, Ohio: Charles
E. Merrill Publishing Company, 1969.

 

 

Sack, Marion. "School Camping--A Potent Factor in
Guidance." Outdoor Education--A Book of Reading .
Edited by Donald R. Hammerman and William M. Hammer-
man. Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Com-
pany, 1968, pp. 2u7-250.

Sharp, L. B. "Basic Considerations in Outdoor and Camping
Education." Outdoor Education--A Book of Readings.
Edited by Donald R. Hammerman and William M. Hammerman.
Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company,

1968, pp. A5-50.

Smith, Julian W. "The Scope of Outdoor Education."
Outdoor Education--A Book of Readings. Edited by
Donald R. Hammerman and William M. Hammerman.
Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company,
1968, pp. 50-52.

133

; Carlson, Reynold E.; Donaldson, George W.;
and Masters, Hugh B. Outdoor Education. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., I963.

 

Solley, Charles M. and Murphy, Gardner. Development of
the Perceptual World. New York: Basic Books, Inc.,
1960.

 

Spellman, Dorthea. "Conscious Use of Self." Campinngeared
to Todayjs Concerns. 29th National Convention of
the American Camping Association. Martinsville,
Ind.: American Camping Association, 1966, p. 162.

Sylwester, Robert. Common Sense in the Classroom. West
Nyack, N.Y.: Parker Publishing Co., Inc., 1966;

Trump, Lloyd J. Images of the Future. Washington, D.C.:
National Association of Secondary-School Principals,

1959.

Vincent,E. Lee. "What a Piece of Work Is Man!" Lights
From A Thousand Campfires. Edited by Kenneth B. Webb.
Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company,

1960, pp. 59—69.

Waskin, Yvonne and Parrish, Louise. Teacher-PppilfiPlanning
for Better Classroom Learning. New York: Pitman
Publishing Corporation, 1967.

Webb, Kenneth B. "Something Beyond the Mountains." Lights
From A Thousand Campfires. Edited by Kenneth B. Webb.
Minneapolis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1960,

 

 

pp. 15—18.
Summer Camps--Security in the Midst of Chang .
Martinsville, Ind.: American Camping Association,
1968.
Wheeler, Wallace and Hammerman, Donald. "What is the

Educational Potential in the Outdoor Setting."

Outdoor Education--A Book of Readings. Edited by
Donald R. Hammerman and William M. Hammerman. Minnea-
polis, Minn.: Burgess Publishing Company, 1968,

pp. 9-11.

Wittenburg, Rudolph M. S9 You Want To Help People. New
York: Association Press, 1967.

Woodring, Paul. A Fourth of a Nation. New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957.

 

134

Articles in Periodicals

 

Blackman, Charles A. "Perspective: A Curriculum Specialist
Looks at Outdoor Education." Journal of Outdoor
Education, III, No. 3 (1969), 3-5.

 

Brimm, Robert P. "What Are the Issues in Camping and Out-
door Education? Camp-Centered? School-Centered?"
Campinngagazine, January, 1959, pp. lu-IS.

Farson, Richard E. "Emotional Barriers to Education. "
Psychology Today, October, 1967, pp. 33-35.

Gillenwater, Mack H. "Outdoor Education: A Coat of Many
Colors!" Peabody Journal of Education, XXXXVI, No.
5 (1969), 311-315.

Heffernan, Helen. "They Grow Nine Feet High." Journal of
Outdoor Education, I, No. 2 (1967), 3-5.

 

Kelley, Earl C. "The Place of Affective Learning."
Educational Leadership, April, 1965, pp. ASS—A57.

Knapp, Clifford. "Some Challenges in Outdoor Education."
Journal of Outdoor Education, II, No. 1 (1967), 8-13.

Nations, Jimmey E. "The Teacher as a Person." Educational
Leadership, November, 1962, pp. 101-103, 125.

 

 

Pullias, Earl V. "Better Education for Modern Man: Out-
door Education--A Ray of Light." Journal of Outdoor
Education, II, No. l (1967), 3-7.

Stoddard, George D. "Outdoor Experiences Meet Three Basic
Human Needs." Camping Magazine, March, 1965, p. 15.

Swan, Malcom D. "Evaluation-~A Point of View." Journal
of Outdoor Education, III, No. 2 (1969), 13-15.

"That Which Can Best Be Taught . . ." Editorial. Journal
'of Outdoor Education, I, No. 2 (1967), 10-11.

Weaver, Richard L. and Knox, J. H. "Children and Teachers
Outdoors." Educational Leadership, January, 1951,

Berry,

Bills,

Clark,

135

Articles from Reports and Committees

Althea. "Effect of Environment." Individualizing
Instruction. Ronald C. Doll, Chairman. Washington,
D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, 196“, pp. 98-123.

 

Robert E. "Education Is Human Relations." NEE
Insights and the Curriculum. Edited by Alexander
Frazier. Washington, D.C.: Association for Super-
vision and Curriculum Development, 1963, pp. 165-186.

 

Rodney A. "Learning and Evaluation." Evaluation
as Feedback and Guide. Fred T. Wilhelm, Chairman.
Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 1967, pp. A9—71.

 

Combs, Arthur w. "Humanizing Education: The Person in

Process." Humanizing Education: The Person in the

Process. Edited by Robert R. Leeper. Washington,

D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, 1967, pp. 73-88.

"A Perceptual View of the Adequate Personality.‘

 

Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming. Arthur W. Combs,

 

Chairman. Washington, D.C.: Association for Super-
vision and Curriculum Development, 1962, pp. 50—62.

"Creativity and Openness to Experience." Perceiving,

Behaving, Becoming. Arthur W. Combs, Chairman.
Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 1962, pp. 1A1-163. ‘

DeHann, Robert F. and Doll, Ronald C. "Individualization

and Human Potential." Individualizing Instruction.
Edited by Ronald C. Doll. Washington, D.C.: Asso-
ciation for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
196“, pp. 9-28.

Haskell, Helen. Camping Is Education. Martinsville, Ind.:

American Camping Association, 1960.

Houghton, Raymond W. "The Focus of Humanism and the

Teacher." Humanizing Education: The Person in the
Process. Edited by Robert R. Leeper. Washington,

D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum

Development, 1967, pp. 53-63.

136

Huebner, Dwayne. "New Modes of Man's Relationship to Man."
New Insights and the Curriculum. Edited by Alexander
Frazier. Washington, D.C.: Association for Super-
vision and Curriculum Development, 1963, pp. 1Au-l6u.

Kelley, Earl C. "The Fully Functioning Self." Perceiving,
Behaving, Becoming. Arthur W. Combs, Chairman.
Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 1962, pp. 9-20.

Lyle, Betty. Camping, What Is It? Martinsville, Ind.:
American Camping Association, 19A7.

MacDonald, James B. "An Image of Man: The Learner Himself."
Individualizing Instruction. Edited by Ronald C. Doll.
Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 196“, pp. 29—u9.

Maslow, Abraham H. "Some Basic Propositions of a Growth
and Self-Actualizating Psychology." Perceiving,
Behaving, Becoming. Arthur W. Combs, Chairman.
Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 1962, pp. 3A-h9.

Meade, Edward J., Jr. "The Changing Society and Its
Schools." Life Skills in School and Society. Edited
by Louis J. Rubin. Washington, D.C.: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1969, pp. 35-
52. '

Muessig, Raymond H. "Youth Education: A Social-Philoso-
phical Perspective." Youth Education--Prob1ems,
Perspectives, Promises. Edited by Raymond H.

Muessig. Washington, D.C.: Association for Super-
vision and Curriculum Development, 1968, pp. 22-A5.

"The Positive View of Self." Perceiving, Behaving,
Becoming. Arthur W. Combs, Chairman. Washington:
D.C. Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, 1962, pp. 99-117.

"Project--Human Relations." Teaching Core. Published by
the General Education Committee of the Metropolitan
Detroit Bureau of School Studies, Detroit, Michigan,
September, 1963.

Rogers, Carl R. "Toward Becoming a Fully Functioning Per-
son." Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming. Arthur W.
Combs, Chairman. Washington, D.C.: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1962, pp.
21-33.

137

Rollins, Sidney P. "Youth Education: Problems." Youth
Education: Problems, Perspectives,§romises. Edited
by Raymond H. Muessig. Washington, D.C.: Associa-
tion for Supervision and Curriculum Development,
1968, pp. 2-19.

Shaftel, Fannie R. "Toward More Autonomy for Learners."
New Insights and the Curriculum. Edited by Alexander
Frazier. Washington, D.C.: Association for Super-
vision and Curriculum Development, 1963, pp. 121-141.

 

Unpublished Materials

Berger, Harriet Jean. "A Plan for Developing Competencies
for Leadership in School Camping and Outdoor Educa-
tion for Elementary Education Students." Dissertation
Abstracts. Vol. XIX, No. 3. Unpublished Ed. D.
Dissertation, New York University, 1958, p. 1641.

Kleindienst, Viola K. "A Study of the Experiences of
Camping for the Purpose of Pointing Out Ways in
Which a School Camp Program May Supplement the Ele-
mentary School at the Sixth Grade Level." Disser-
tation Abstracts. Vol. XVIII, No. 3. Unpublished
Ed. Dé Dissertation, New York University, 1964, pp.
959-9 0.

 

O'Hare, Mary Rita Donleavy. "Teacher's Attitudes Toward
the Development of the Group Process in the Elemen-
tary School." Dissertation Abstracts. Vol. XXVI,
No. 2. Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, Fordham
University, 1964, p. 909.

Peterson, Robert Duane. "A Critical Incident Study of
Elementary School Teacher-Pupil Relations in Wash-
ington State." Dissertation Abstracts. Vol. XXIV,
No. 11. Unpubished Ed. D. Dissertation, University
of Washington, 1963, pp. 4484-4485.

Walton, Thomas W. "A Study of the Administrative Prac-
tices Used in the Operation of Thirty Selected Part-
Time School Camp Programs in Michigan." Dissertation
Abstracts. Vol. XVI, No. 1. Unpublished Ed. D.
dgssertation, Michigan State University, 1955, pp.
5 -59.

 

APPENDICES

138

APPENDIX A

SCHOOLS INCLUDED IN THE STUDY

139

SCHOOLS INCLUDED IN THE STUDY

The following respondents to the questionnaire were
selected for inclusion in the study based upon criteria
determined. Schools starred (*) indicated an interest in
and were sent a copy of the Experimental Guide for use
and reactions. Selections here are made to secure a
geographic distribution and to have a balance between
schools with total system planning and varied planning
methods.

California: ~
*Artesia—-ABC Unified School District
East Whittier--East Whittier City School District
Long Beach--Long Beach Unified School District
*Merced--Merced County Schools
*Mojave--Mojave Unified Schools
Santa Clara--County of Santa Clara Schools
(3 outdoor campuses)
San Diego--San Diego City and County Schools
Stockton—-San Joaquin County Schools
*South Whittier--South Whittier City School District
Hawthorne--Wiseburn School District
*Yuba City--Uba City Schools

Colorado:
Denver—-Adam County School District #14
*Denver--Jefferson County School District R-l

Connecticut:
*West Hartford-~Webster Hill School

Hawaii:
*Honolulu—-Lan1ka1 Elementary School

140

141

Illinois:
Rockford—-Rockford Public Schools
Iowa:
*Cedar Rapids--College Community Schools
Maryland:
Westminster-—Carroll County Outdoor Schools
Fredericka-Frederick County Schools
*Bel Air--Harford County Schools
Massachusetts:
Newton--Newton Public Schools
Michigan:

*Battle Creek--Batt1e Creek Public Schools
Bloomfield Hills-~Bloomfie1d Hills Schools
*Lamphere--Lamphere Public Schools
*Lansing--Lansing School District

Walled Lake--Wa11ed Lake Consolidated Schools

Missouri:
*Clayton--C1ayton School District
*St. Louis--School District of University City

Montana:
*Alberton—-an elementary school

New Hampshire:
Wilton--Wilton Public Schools

New Jersey:
*Ridgewood Public Schools

Ohio:
Cleveland Heights--C1eve1and Heights/University
Heights School District
*Yellow Springs--Mills Lawn and John Bryan Schools

Rhode Island:
*Cranston--Cranston School Department

Utah:
*Salt Lake City School District

Washington:
Seattle--Granite School District

Wisconsin:
*Manitowoc--Manitowoc Public Schools

Waupun——Waupun Public Schools

APPENDIX B

SCHEDULES AND FORMS USED IN

GATHERING THE INFORMATION

142

143

Letter Accompanying the Questionnaire

1525 Ridgewood Drive
East Lansing, Michigan 48823
May 21, 1969

Your cooperation is solicited in a study which examines
conditions existing in resident outdoor schools (school
Camping) that provide Opportunities for positive change

in student-teacher relationships. It is hoped that a
practical and useful guide for planners and classroom
teachers will result from this study. There is very little,
if any, research in this aspect of outdoor education and
Julian W. Smith has endorsed and is cooperating in this
study.

We realize that there are many requests from schools for
information on outdoor education programs, but believe
this type of study will make a significant contribution to
the quality of outdoor education programs.

In order to examine the current practices, names of school
systems providing resident outdoor programs were chosen
from a list compiled by the AAHPER Council on Outdoor Edu-
cation and Camping. Names were chosen on the basis of geo-
graphic distribution, community size, length of operation
of the programs, and the age groups served. As a result,
your school system was selected as one of 96 meeting the
objectives on the basis of the information available.

Enclosed is a questionnaire that seeks to explore current
practices in regard to some of those conditions that affect
student-teacher relationships. It would be appreciated if
you, or the appropriate member in your school, would com-
plete and return this questionnaire before the end of this
school year. Due to the small sample number it is very
important that replies be received from as many schools as
possible.

If your school has printed materials for use by the class—
room teacher and/or the planners of resident outdoor
education programs, it would be most helpful if you could
send a copy of these in addition to the completed ques—
tionnaire. This material would be used for the study and
then would be added to the existing files of the Outdoor
Education Project of the American Association for Health,
Physical Education, and Recreation.

144

A stamped return envelope is enclosed for your convenience.
Thank you for your assistance in this study.

Sincerely,
/s/ Charlene L. Vogan
Charlene L. Vogan
Julian W. Smith, Director

AAHPER Outdoor Education
Project

145

Name of School or School System .
Name & Position of person filling in the Questionnaire

 

QUESTI NNAIRE
"Conditions Affecting Student-Teacher Relationships in Outdoor Education"

I. General Information
School grade(s) participating Average class size
Does the classroom teacher accompany each class?

Is there usually more than one class at the site at a time?

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

If yes, do they - (check primary method) work as separate classes
mix for all activities mix for some instruction
mix only for recreational activities ?
The average length of stay includes (number) of nights.
The site can hold a maximum of students plus staff.
The personnel at the site includes: (check all appropriate ones)
classroom teacher special consultants
_ _______ - other
site d1rector_ student teachers (specify)
core staff older students
selected parents ' coordinator of outdoor education

In general, scheduling, selection of consultants, timing, and planning is done-
(check which) for the total school system

 

by each school participating by each class
II. Teacher Preparation for the Outdoor Experience
Do classroom teachers have special help provided prior to the camping
experience?
If yes, 's it — at the site in the school setting ?
is it - required voluntary ?

 

Is a printed guide available to teachers prior to attending camp?

 

If either special preparation or a guide is used, please check below those
areas that are included:

Preparation Area In Guide

. . Activities for specific subjects . .
. . Methods of planning with class . .
. . General & specific objectives . .
of the program
. . . . . Housekeeping routines . . . .
. . . . . Policies & rules . . . . . .
. . . Unique aspects of outdoors . . . .
. Development of student-teacher . . .

relationships _
. . Discipline procedures . . . .
. . . . . . . Maps & charts . . . . .
. . Suggestions for recreation . . .
r . . . . . Evaluative tools . . . . . .
. . . . . Other . . . . . . . . .

(If you were not able to send printed
material, please mention other areas)

III.

IV.

VI.

NOTE

The
A.

146

o

If there is a site director and/er oore staff:
Do they meet with the classroom teacner prior
Do they meet with the class prior to the camp
Do they have a major (over 52:) teaching role
Is it their responsibility to establish schedu
Is it their responsibility to arrange special

If special consultants are used:
Are they in attendance for each class that goe
Do all students meet with them?

(check appropriate areas)
to the camp experience?
experience?
with the class?

 

 

les and timing?

 

activities?

 

s camping?

 

 

Is their primary role to - teach the class
teacher go with teacher and class a

If the classroom teacher goes with the class:
Does he or she primarily ~
remain in charge of all class activities
work only in specific subject areas

consult with the
s ccnsultant_______?

 

accompany and observe the class in activitie
serve as coordinator and handle inter-pupil
other (specify)

c
Q

difficulties

 

If more than one class 3 in attendance at the
classroom teacher primarily -
work only with own class observe s
teach in special areas classes
serve as a consultant in a special area

C1 33

Planning: place one check by those areas incl
primary planning method -

setting objectives for he experience

 

&

L
planning recreatirnal activities
planning activities to supplement a given sche
Participation: check once if used, TWO checks
by total class group self—determined

teacher assigned small rrcups core st

site, does the

tudent groups of mixed

uded and TAO checks by the
scheduling activities
selecting activities

dule other

 

if the primary method —
small groups
aff determined groups

selected individual activities different groups for different

mixed in groups with other classes

Evaluation: check method(s) used -
teacher parent student (individual)

_T_____ _T_____
student (class or groups) site staff
special consultants other

activities

Major Purpose of Your Outdoor Education Experience: check most appropriate e

Would you like to receive a summary of the questionnaire results?

emphasis on one or two subject areas
social-living experience
human relationship experience

****I *****

general curriculum
enrichment

*****

 

Would you (or another staff member) be interested in using the Student—
Teacher Relationship Guide experimentally next fa11--for teacher
reaction?

 

1“?

Letter Accompanying Experimental Guide

1525 Ridgewood Drive
East Lansing, Mich. - M8823
Oct. 2“, 1969

Dear

Thank you for taking the time and effort to complete and
return the questionnaire you received last spring regarding
your school camp program. The information acquired is most
interesting and is providing some guidelines for future
study.

Enclosed is a copy of the preliminary findings of the study.
While there were some important differences noted, perhaps
the outstanding thing seen is that there are many ways of
approaching and successfully meeting the needs of outdoor
education. A more complete analysis of the data is being
done to be included in a final paper.

You indicated an interest in testing the experimental guide
for improving conditions to meet student—teacher relation-
ship needs. Enclosed is a copy of the experimental guide.
I would appreciate it if you would make it available to

one of your 5th or 6th grade teachers for use in planning
the next outdoor experience this fall. Attached to the
guide are suggestions for use of the guide and reporting
page for the teacher reactions. In order to have a useable
evaluation it is important that responses from the teacher
be returned. These responses should be back to me by Janu-
ary 10, 1970. If, for any reason, this will be impossible,
please let me know. The date in January will allow the
teacher to complete the project prior to the December holi-
days. A stamped, self- addressed envelope is enclosed for
your convenience.

Your assistance in this study is greatly appreciated. The
responses to the questionnaire showed interest and concern
in this area of outdoor education across the country. Thank
you again, for your contribution to this study.
Sincerely,
/s/ Charlene L. Vogan

(Miss) Charlene L. Vogan

lh8

Experimental guide - developing conditions for positive
change in student-teacher relationships

The guide has been developed with the hope that it will,
ultimately, accomplish two goals: first, it will provide

a guide to the teacher in creating conditions appropriate
to positive student-teacher relationships; and second, it
will provide a reasonable criteria for evaluating the
teacher's performance in creating the conditions. The cri—
teria, then, are established as items which can be examined
to see if the given task (the creating of the conditions)
has been carried out as part of the overall goal- or
objective.

The experimental guide includes several parts. The first
is a statement of objectives used in building the criteria.
As there is not consistency in the objectives set forth by
various camps, it is important that the base be established
from which I was operating. The objective being considered
is identified in both general and specific terms.

At the end of the guide is an extra enclosure. Since the
classroom teacher is limited in some instances in being
able to actually set the conditions he/she might desire,
five areas of involvement of administrative planning have
been identified. Along with the identification are sugges-
tions of ways in which the administrative planners might
assist the teachers in reaching optimum conditions for
working with her students. Allowance is made in the
Reaction Report for these areas. It is not considered that
alterations will be made in administrative planning for the
purpose of this study.

Use of the Experimental Guide

While the criteria are designed to be used in an evaluative
manner at the completion of this study, their purpose for
use now is to get reactions to them from classroom teachers
working with students in the outdoor programs.

In using the criteria, then, teachers at this time should
consider each item as a behavioral objective and try to
determine if it has relevance to the experience, provides
suggestions for new ways of preparing for and operating in
the experience, and gives non-threatening help.

'The steps to be used could be given as follows:
Step 1 - Mark the items listed in the criteria which
you cannot do the planning and structure in
your specific situation.

149

Step 2 - Mark those items which are already a part
of your procedures.

Step 3 — Proceed through the remaining items--
attempt each one of the new steps--while
continuing with those listed that you
already perform.

Steps 1 and 2, when marked, can be transferred directly to
the reporting form.

The date for the return of the report forms is January 10,
1970. There is no need to return the experimental guide.

Thank you for your assistance in this study. I hope you
will find the benefits of the guide will out—weigh the
time spent in it's employment and in completing the reac-
tion report.

150

REACTION REPORT
For Use With the Experimental Guide
Experimental Guide - developing conditions for positive

change in student-teacher relationships.
Return Date - by January 10, 1969.

 

SCHOOL DISTRICT

 

(Include city- state, please) (School)
TEACHER(optional)

School Grade No. of Students No. of nights
Was this your lst outdoor experience

 

In questions 1, 2, and 3--respond by giving_the guide identi-
fication (i.e. - l - b - 5)

1. Identify which of the items you have already
been using:

2. Identify those items which you were not able to carry
out due to the nature of your situation and/or school
planning: ‘

3. In regard to the items that you tried for the first
time:
a. Which were the easiest to incorporate into
your program?

b. Which were hardest to incorporate?

0. Which ones do you feel need to be deleted or
changed?

d. Which do you feel were the most beneficial?

u. If there are items or general areas you feel should
be included in the guide, please note them:

5. Do you feel that these conditions provided any
significant change in your opportunity to work
with your students? (if you can give a 'for
instance' please do)

6. Can you identify what seem to you to be the greatest
'blocks' in developing student-teacher relationships
either in schools or during the outdoor experience?

APPENDIX C

SUMMARY OF RESPONSES

151

152

General Information from All
Questionnaire Respondents

The following is a summary of all responding to the ques-
tionnaire regarding general organizational factors. The
reporting data is in the form of the percentage of responses.

1. Having a site director-~core staff and/or

outdoor coordinator . . . . . . . . . . 88%
2. Classroom teacher accompanies class . . . . 98%
3 Other Staff present:

Special consultants . . . . . . . . . 57%
Student teachers . . . . . . . . 50%
Parents (for various reasons) . . . . . . 15%
Older school students . . . . . . . . 50%

A. More than one class present at the -
site (usually). . . . . . . . . . . . 91%

5. Length of stay:

1 night - 7% 3 nights — 5%
2 nights - 17% u nights - 5u%
day only - 5% 5-6 nights - 12%

6. When more than one class is present the
classes are:
mixed for all activities . . . . . . . “1%
mixed for some activities . . . . . . . N3%
completely separate activities . . . . . 16%
7. The major planning is carried out by:

the school system . . . . . . . . . . 55%

the individual school . . . . . . . . 22%

the class . . . . . . . 5%

various combinations . . . . . . 18%

Teacher preparation:

1. Help provided prior to going to camp . . . . 7uz
2. The training is given: at the school . . . . 30%
at the site . . . . 7%

both . . . . . “5%

3. The training is required . . . . . 30%

U. A printed guide (or other material)
is provided . . . . . . . . . . . . 76%

The material included in the printed guides and materials
were fairly similar.

7uz . . . include general and specific objectives
of the program
63% . . . include activities for subjects, house—
keeping routines and policies and rules
MO - 52% . . . include methods of planning with class,
unique aspects of the outdoors, recrea-
tion suggestions, evaluative tools
23 - 32% . . . include discipline procedures, maps and
charts, and development of student—
teacher relationships.
uo% indicate they include additional information.

153

Summary--Questionnaire Responses of
Forty Selected Schools

 

The primary data study was made on forty responses selected
from those forwarded. These were selected on the basis of
school grade and number of nights included in the experience.
Fifth and sixth grade groups were identified as the most
Usual grades to have the resident outdoor experience—-and
these age groups were selected for this survey. A minimum
of 3 nights spent at the site was determined as the second
criteria. It is felt that the student-teacher relationship
would have a better opportunity to be affected with this
length of an experience.

In brief the 'typical' program would be described as one in
which--

(50% or more of the MO respondents indicated

an affirmative)

a 5th or 6th grade class, with it's classroom teacher,
joins other classes at a camp site that is supervised
by a site director/coordinator and core staff. The
core staff is assisted by older students, student
teachers and special consultants.

The classes attending camp mix for all events with
the student groups determined by either the core
staff or assigned by the teacher. The class will
most usually have planned the objectives for the
experience and least often have planned recreational
activities.

The teacher accompanying the class will have had the
opportunity to receive special help prior to going
and will have a guide or printed material available
for use in preparation. Curriculum enrichment and

a social living experience will be the main pur-
poses of the event. In addition 90% of the groups
would have special evaluations by students, teachers,
and core staff.

Several factors in the picture, however, are confusing.
While 90% indicate evaluations are used, only “6% provide
material or information to the teachers about evaluations
in the preparation. Again while 7h% indicate that the
classes set their objectives, 7N% also say the general and
specific objectives of the program are provided in the
printed material. These two points indicate a possible
inadequacy of this summary through either misinterpretation
of the meaning of the questionnaire designer by the respon-
dents or a dual process used in the programs. Other such
interesting differences will appear throughout the reporting.

15“

In order to see if there are any factors that greatly
differentiate the school procedures detailed studies were
made in three areas:

1. Those in which the planning is done by the
school system vs. other methods.

2. Those in which all classes are mixed for
activities vs. those that combine other methods.

3. Those in which teacher preparation is compulsory
vs. those in which it is voluntary.

The highlights and the percentages of these studies follow.

In general terms geographic location of the camp programs
did not have any great relationship to the responses.
There was noted, however, a similarity among schools in
the same state.

General Information--the sample group selected for the
study can be described as:

Having programs having the main purpose of General
Curriculum enrichment and a social living experience.
They have a site staff, supplemented by consultants,
student teachers and older students along with the
classroom teachers. The major planning is done for
the total school system and more than one class uses
site at a given time. The classes attend for N
nights and mix with the other classes for all activi-
ties. The classroom teachers have been provided with
prior help on a voluntary basis. A written guide is
provided for the teacher.

Eighteen states are represented in the sample--ranging
from Rhode Island to Hawaii. More than one school or
school system is included from seven of the states.

On the average responses from schools in states with a
large number of outdoor education programs tended to

be more structured from an administrative point of view
than the others. In at least one instance this can be
accounted for by the state giving the purpose and
guidelines for the programs. It can be guessed that in
the other such states this similarity results from
consultation and discussion among the various school
representatives.

In relation to the three categories being studied--method
of planning, method of student participation, and method
of teacher preparation, there does not seem to be a single
preferred combination of approach.

155

**A particularly interesting feature did appear, however--
required teacher preparation was indicated only in
programs having total system planning.

The combinations appear in the following frequencies:
Total system--voluntary preparation--

mixed classes . . . . . . . . 25%
Total system—-required preparation--

non-mixed classes . . . . . . . . . . 23%
Non-total planning-non-required

preparation-non-mixed . . . . . . . . . 20%
Non-total planning--non~required '
preparation-~non-mixed . . . . . . . . 17%

Total system--non-required planning-n non-mixed . lu%
Total system—~required preparation-—
mixed classes . . . . . . ._ . . . . . 8%

Non-total planning--Non—required preparation,
mixed/non-mixed o o o o o o o o o o o 0%

Due to the methods used in marking the questionnaires a
percentage report is being used. For general study of a
category, items which were checked by 50% or more of the
respondents in that category were considered representative.
In the comparisons between categories for special interest
purposes a 20% difference between the responses of the two
categories was selected.

The three areas considered for separate study were selected
on the basis of 1) they seemed to have a bearing on the
student-teacher relationship during the outdoor experience,
and 2) there were sufficient differences in responses to
proVide a comparison. Two other areas had been considered
as indicative of influencing student-teacher relationships
but there was not sufficient differences in responses.
These were the presence and absence of a core staff and the
attendance of one or more than one class at the site at a
time.

156

Complete Analysis of Responses to Parts III, IV and VI
of the Questionnaire

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Planning hethod Student Organ. Teacher Prep.
System Other All Mix. Other Require. Volun.
Area 1 % % 1 z %
Staff
1 meet with teacher prior 63 77 66 76 77 6?
2. meet with class prior 62 53 61 52 5“ 50
3. 50% teaching responsibility '60 23 M2 3 U6 3?
u. establish schedule/timing '82 56 CE 78 '81 63
5. arrange special events '80 “7 '55 78 77 90
Special Consultants
1. present for all classes 5“ 36 30 “8 38 39
2. all students meet with them b0 L0 30 LE 50 E7
3. primary role--to teach class '36 53 3 “8 38 Q7
to consult with teacher '12 BO '11 2 12 U
to go with class '20 “0 '17 38 27 30
Classroom Teacher
1. in total charge of class '20 53 21 30 L7 37
2. work only with some szbjects '{2 b7 25 39 31 33
3. accompany & otserve only 72 E: 6? EU 69 63
“. coordinate--handle problems 60 E3 5? t“ *7" A:
In joint c ac: group:--
1. work only with own group 32 33 0 67 '5H 26
2. teach special areas “DU “7 32 24 38 26
3. consult in sJecial areas 30 20 *AU 22 35 33
“. observe mixed groups 6“ 50 '68 38 ’33 65
:he Class
‘lahnihg methcis—-
,1. set object ves for trip to 60 63 5? 62 56
2. plan recreaticn If 2C 1" lg *31 'l
3. supplement 3 given schedule 25 U0 3* 33 31 33
“. schedule own activities ' 8 53 PI 29 “f ”t
5. select activities *‘8 #7 3: 58 h' 3c
Participation methods--
1. total class, together 2? 2C '11 U5 3? 25
2. teacher assigned groups 33 E7 '33 l? 23 }_
3. individual activities If 13 7 l” '31 c
u. mixed with other classes 20 13 '36 10 31 -L
5. self-determined groups 12 13 11 2h 33 ll
6. site staff assigned groups 16 7 '37 IU 31 19
7. different groups re: activity 12 13 ll 19 *5! 8
Major purpose ofgprogram
1. special subject emphasis '36 13 *“2 19 23 37
2. general curriculum '60 87 '57 76 77 60
3. social—living experience 52 6O '37 72 CM 56
u. human relations experience Uh U0 '26 52 ”52 33

 

'--indicates areas of percentage significance of about 205 or more difference.

157

Preparation of Teachers

 

The responding schools included in the study indicated

a variety of subject areas were part of the teacher prepara-

tion.
material.

I. Frequency

 

Most

Least

11. Frequenpy
Most

Least

III. Frequency

Housekeeping (100%)
Objectives

Subject activity
Policies & rules

Planning methods

Recreation ideas

Student-teacher
relations

Classes all mixed

 

 

Most

Least

Overall, the areas most frequently included are:

Subject activity
Objectives
Housekeeping

Evaluative tools
Recreational ideas

Required Preparation

Subject activity

Objectives

Policies & rules

Aspects of outdoors

Housekeeping

(9 of 11 items over
85%)

Maps & charts
Planning methods

These were covered through meetings and/or written

Total System Planning, Other Methods

Aspects of outdoors
Recreation ideas
Subject activity

~Planning methods

Housekeeping
Evaluative tools

Various Groupings

Subject activity
Objectives
Policies & rules
Maps & charts

Evaluative tools
Planning methods

Voluntarnyreparation

Subject activity
Housekeeping
Maps & charts

Evaluative tools
Recreation ideas
Student-teacher
relations
Planning methods

subject

activities, housekeeping procedures, objectives of the pro-

gram and policies and rules.

tioned include:

Those least frequently men-

planning methods, evaluative tools and

recreational ideas.

APPENDIX D

EXPERIMENTAL GUIDE

158

159

EXPERIMENTAL GUIDE

 

Criteria for Evaluating a Teacher's Performance in
Effecting Conditions for Positive Change in Student-
Teacher Relationships

Charlene L. Vogan
Michigan State University

160

EXPERIMENTAL GUIDE

 

Criteria for Evaluating Teacher Performance in
Effecting Conditions for Positive Change in
Student-Teacher Relationships During an Outdoor
Education Experience
Preliminary Information:
If we consider the development of good student-teacher
relationships as part of the purpose of an outdoor
education experience, it is essential that objectives
be established to this effect and that guides for
furthering this purpose be made available to the class—
room teacher. As the first step in this goal, the
following Objectives of Outdoor Education are proposed:
1. To extend the school environment to provide
increased opportunities for carrying out
on-going classroom activities,
2. To explore the use of outdoor oriented
activities that contribute effectively to
the motivation and learning in specific
subject areas,
3. To establish conditions that foster changes
of a positive nature in student-student

relationships,

A. TO ENLARGE THE DIMENSIONS FOR POSITIVE CHANGE
IN STUDENT-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS,

5. To encourage the appreciation for, the care
of, and activities in the outdoor learning
environment.
Next, in order that the general objectives do not remain
as just pleasant thoughts, it is important to develop

specific objectives around which actual planning can be

done.

161

In this guide the emphasis is placed on the Nth objec-
tive—-the area of student-teacher relationships. More
specifically, as will be seen, special attention is

given to the conditions that can affect a positive

change in relationships. Once the specific objectives
are developed, the major task is ready to be undertaken--
the identification of criteria for meeting the deter—
mined objectives. The resulting criteria can then

become an effective guide for the classroom teacher

and can serve as a starting point for evaluating the

teacher's success in meeting the objectives.

Establishing Specific Objectives:

 

--General Objective--

A. To enlarge the dimensions for positive change
in student-teacher relationships.

--Specific Objectives--

A. To identify factors in the master planning
that have an important affect upon student-
teacher relationships and to design the
planning to facilitate these relationships,

B. To identify and to design an eXperience to
effect the specific changes desired,

C. To identify and to provide suggestions for
meeting those conditions in the experience
that the classroom teacher can effect.

while‘Specific Objectives A and B are not the main focus
of this guide, they are included here to provide a more

complete picture. In order to serve a purpose they

will need to be more fully developed-—this will be seen

162

in the treatment of Specific Objective 3. Item B is

definitely the task of the classroom teacher along with
Item C. However, the teacher's knowledge of individual
students and the class group would be necessary to give

Item B any further enlargement.

The master planning mentioned in Item A has a vital
affect upon the degree of change which an individual
teacher can create. Too often a combination of admin—
istrative expediency and a forgetfullness of the unique
teacher—class relationship infringe upon the ability

of the teacher to help her class gain the maximum
potential of the experience. Symptoms of this problem
would be: inflexibility in schedule for needs and
interests of individual classes; relegation of the
teacher to a 'second-class' status at the camp; develop-
ment of an 'elite' attitude in the core staff and
planning group; and lack of acknowledgement of the
necessary carry-back role of the teacher in relation

to the class. As this area is so vital to the teacher's
role, sample entries for a guide in administrative plan-

ning are included at the end of this paper.

163

Ahmnommp
no: .cowpoa m wmv on can gamma 0» oxHH
oasoz now was; go mmoofi wcaxcfinp :H meadoca .m

 

madampsa
Hmsoa>fiocfi pom mmoofi mm Ham: mm .moHpH>«uom
pom mafiasopw no mass m30H9m> on» whoaaxm .m mcficsmao
nomfi>om cw mm Hams mm unmofiofipnma w mm gnos .H :a mucoosuw spas snos on .o
Eon» op

peoppoaefl who: wwcfinp mo moan» pmn3 uso ocfim
ocm wcHQEmo coon o>mn 0:3 mucooSpm suds gasp .m

cofimesoo
nooouso wcfispoocoo moaofippm Hmpo>ow poop .m
wQHCLSpoh
con: oo oasoo so» pmcu man» can on oopmaop mocmfipmaxm opp mo Hmfipcouoa
mwcficu mo uwfia m mucoosum Sufi: mmmamna .H on» no mmoconmzm cm xomm on .o

mquUSpm on» wcoem
woodpfippm o>fipfimoq ocm cofimmSomHo mwmpsooco .m
wamow Hmcompou nmfianmpmo .m

 

mpcmGSpm oocofipoaxm ozp mo omoamzm one
ocm mopmHoOmmw on meson m>HpHmoQ Ca xmwom .H psonm zpfipoocfim ufinfinxo 0» .o
map» on» so
0206 on Hafiz xpoz Scans cfi mmmnm ofiufiomam
omocp pom opmaopa op maopm Hmfiooam oxmp 0» .m
mocofinoqxo on» on samppoq
pmzp oopommo moonmxpoz cam mwcapmms ocoppm .:
opfim on» 0» Como o>mc on: mnocomop Sufi: xamu .m mosofihoaxo
mocofipoaxm nooouso pcwficpo>o cm o>mn .m map psoom owwo ocm cocoofimcoo
now: on ow beam on» spa: ompcfimsqom mEoomo .H Ihaom mo mcHHmom m cfimw on .m
. ”cocofiamaxm on» on Loapa AH
mfitmpfiao mm>Huomfipo

 

.mfiumpfiso mumfipoopoam mo wcficHEnopmo opp ocmulzpoommm.cmo Locommp
Eoonmmmao on» was» msOHuHocoo zmfiucmofi oe:nuo m>fipomwpo afimfiooam no pameaoam>mo

16A

.ouo .Eoop mcficfio .oomam wCH>HH mm
nosmlnmppommo ompHCfiopooo chandmn Hafiz pan»
mpcm>m mo mmopm amofimcoo ou mmmHo on» mam:
pH mozmfiz mmwao on» ma moaua>apom

CH mamafiofipnwa on masopw ponpo opH>GH
mamas Lsoz mo Eon» Ham» 0» one mumonopcfi
pawn» pzoom chance“ on masopw nozpo on» on
spans on mm>au~pcmmmpaom pamoSpw ommnsoocm
mafia seam can

um spam one pm on Hafiz on: mnonommu cam
mommmao mo mommomoom ocm moss: map ongomm

cofiumsam>o

now mHooa on» wcfiamoopa :fi oocmofisw o>fiw
mops comm mumsam>o on was:

oumfinaopoam wcficasnmpmo Ca Eon» spa: xnoz
oopmsaw>m on on poms

wwcfinp awn: wcHCHEnopoo CH mucoUSpm spasm
mcoHpMSHm>o

no mmoapsa on» psoom mucoUSpm on» and: saw»

acmoSpm comm pom zaoo m mafiamqopa

CH Eon» pmfimmw was com: on on moa>mnon on»
mCHCHEpopoo a“ mmmao on» 0» cosmofizm m>Hw
mofi>mcmn wcfiosmwmh mucoUSpm wcoEm psoEoonwm
opfisomp pmcp mofiufi>fipom mo pwHH m opmampa
mamom pawn» wcfinmaaasooom pom mmofisw
mafixsoz wcfipmoopa ca mpcmoSpm on» umfimmm
sapwopq on» mo mammcaso

pohms ocm mafia mo camcoa o» coapcoupm Sufi:
pmHH Hmcfim m mcfimcmpnm 2H mucoozpm spas xpoz
oo ow mwcfizp ofisoomomlco: ocm oHEoomom

mo mpmfia .mpcoUSpm on» spas .ohmampa ou

mqsopw mmmao mozuo

npfiz mofipfi>apom mumcaomooo on
wcfipmqoma :fi mucoozpm umfimmm on .w

mHoop m>HuMSHm>o wcfi
Iaoao>oo :H mucooSpw umfiwmm on .m

monoupmm noa>mcon ocm mamow
wcficHEpmpmo CH mpsmosum mofisw op .m

 

mammpfino

wm>fipomnpo

 

.omscfipcoonlo o>Hpomnoo ofimfiooam no pcmEQoHo>mo

165

EoommmmHo on CH
omSmCCQ mHHmsm: poC omOCp zmeCmoHllmCoHp
ICmCo>Coo HmECOMCH mCHpso mpCmosum CuHs
pommsowHo onQOp wCOHCm> on» umHH on any

wmopzomon Cmeo ocm mquszwCoo an pooH>
Iona mmeHCsuCooao HmHoon CH mprHOHpCmQ

quCSpm m an pzwswp

mm wCHCp 30C mCo pmmmH pm CCmoH on an»
CoCCmoH

H mm mpH>Hpom oCo ammoH um CH opmaHOHpCma

oumoHoCH

om oHsoz omCoamoC pCoospw wH ummpouCH

on» oCMCm ocm .asonw on» an omHm ooCcmHQ
CH .mpHSmCSQ umoCouCH HmComCom pCOIzCCMo
Conwooo on» on mHmpmHCQopaaw mmono
Empwopa

HmCoHpmmCooC mmmHo omCCmHQ CH oquHoHpCmQ

mmmHo me Cqu
zCCOC m onCm .wCHCCmHQ CH opmHCQOCan mm

.opm
.mCOHmHomo mmemoooC ..C0HmmC:oo. pCmosum
.OHEmomom "oHop wCHowICo on mHomOHo opmHoC
oHsoz mops mHCp CH CoHumsCHpCoo . . .

.opm .mHmHCoumE .onm opmHCQoCan onmampa
ouwHCQoCan mH mm

mmmHo Csoz op CoHuoCCumCH pooCHo osom o>Hm

moHQOp HCCoHpmmCm>Coo psonm
.mmoCCmao. Cm owwpsooco on .o

,.CoCCmoH. o>Hpom cm on on .o

zHHmComCoQ .m

mHHmConmomopq .H
nooCoHCoaxo on on opsoHCpCoo 0» .m
”ooCmHCono Cooopso on» wCHpso Am

 

mHCmQHCo

m>HpomHao

 

.oosCHpCoollo w>Huomnoo onHooom mo pCoEQoHo>mo

6
6
l

xooopxop m oCszoC poC oo pCm mHmHCoume
Hansme mm: ume monomonaqm wCHComop COHo>oo

mCommmC on» poCQCoHCH
oCm moHuHHHomm on» no mm: on» on mCHCHmuCoQ
mmHCC on» wCHCCmoCoo mpCoospm on» «Canons

Cosm.

Co mom: mHnHmmoa on» mmsomHo oCm mpCoonm
Csz moHpHHHomm mHCmHHm>w on» Cm>o ow
mooCCOmoC

ecm mmeHHHomC mg» Csz CmHHHemC ascomp

muCoEoE omHCCCCCC omen»

Co mosHm> on mquCoCHlleHmeu nCm szon
MCHmez pCoom oEHu on» mHHCCmCmo CoonCoo
muHsmCCQ HCComCmQ Com

mEHp ooHComComuC: mm: pCmosum Como mep mom
Humon pm on on mpmmmoooC pan

ao>HmCopxo 00» on uOC oooC mHva .opo .mnnoC
.wCHommC .oohgoo .wCHmezluHmzoCoC HmComme
Com Hap Comm oEHp mo pCCoEm pom m on:
AoooCsoCCm on on omoC p.Cmoocv 30%

Cqu mep on CmHz mpCoosum CH oHomHHm>m CCm
oCsopm on CCm .oEHpnomCm. CHmmCCoz mHsooCom

.wCHCOHumosv poC .COHpmmCo>Coo cwsopnu
umConmw on CHCOCm mHCB .mpCoosum Csom

Co Como psoom CoHpMECOMCH mo pHolloopCmHCo
HooCom CoCalzoC m pmHH Cwo :0» CH mom
.CoponCo>. CmonCoo soc» prp onQOp

UCHC Cmo.:oz CH mom 0» mmeCozloo o>Comno

woCHusop EoopmmmHo usonm
.mmmCHsmuowCou. m quo>oC on .m

onuHHHomm on» no om: o>Hpommmm
oCoE CH mpCoonm umHmmm on .o

zHo>Huoommo oCoE
oEHp mHCmHHm>m on» mm: o» .o

 

mHCmCHCo

m>HpomHno

 

.omCCHpCoonlo m>Hpomnno OHCHoon mo quEQoHo>oo

 

mmHuH>Hpom EooammMHo
Lao» mo puma m osoomn CCo Co ops mep mHHme
Co mooCH zoC mo has on» CH mCmCm muCoCCpm
Csoz ocm so» was» mMCHCu z ammoH pm mmHuCoCH .m
mmoCoHComxo map on COHCQ
m>mC COC oHso3 30% mep 30C EooCmmeo on»
CH om: Cwo Co was so» meHCp 36C : ammoH
um zmeCooH so» Coo .moHpH>Huom aswsoHHou mwooH oCm mHHme 3mC mm: oCm
Com mmmvH mo pmHH .mmeo on» wCHoCHoCH HOC .H soopwmmHo on» on xomn wCHCn on .n

mCono an oopmosvop
on use as mCOHpmsHm>m CmCuo sz mpCov
Isum on» Csz pzozpamo oCm .CHmHaxo .mmsomHo .2
Comooga .mom mHllmoCmHCoaxm
one no uHsmoC H mm mmmnm 3mC mCm wCH
upmsHm>o Com oomC on mpCoospm Cqu mmsomHC .m
memo opommn
CmaHmmU ooCumE COHumus>m on» onHom .m

COHpmsHm>m HCCOp on» son COHumsHm>o on» CH
7. mEHp m oCHECmpmo .mpHm me wCH>moH op COHCQI .H mpCopspm on» CpHB oCma on .m
,m "ooCmHCmaxm on» wCHonHom Am

mmeH>Hpom Com Eopmmm zoosn m COHm>mollmeHCp
oo o» Coopo CH ConowOp wzmsz mmmHo map
m>mC op szmmoooC no mCHHmmC sz mEooCo>o .m
CoCCmE .mmmHo. m CH mpCooCum wCHpmom oHo>m .:
meHp Como spammoomC pH mHlleHmo
wCOmmmC on ouwCHm>o A.opo .mHmoE pamoxmv
ow on puss pH ComwoC mCu Czoo pan oCm pH Co
mp0C m ome .ommCCQ CwHHEHm m Co =.. . .
on om oCm noun pmss m3=|uzmw Com mEHp Como .m
demo um oCoc on on xCoz Coupsz mo mmsme
oCm pCsoEm on» psoom muCoospm Csz CmHQ .m

 

 

mHCmpHCo m>HpooHno

 

.ooCCHpCoonlo o>Hpomhno oHCHooqm Co quEQOHm>oo

168

These criteria may be incomplete for some teachers and/or
settings. Please feel free to try other items you may
think of either as alternates to ones given or in addition

to these.

An important point not covered in this guide is considera-
tion of the nature or extent of change that these conditions
might effect. These areas of study would be included in
development of the criteria for the specific objective con-

cerned with the changes desired.

"The many sides of personality which are almost automati-
cally drawn out when teacher and pupils share a real
experience may never be seen in the more restricted atmos-
phere of the classroom . . . One of the significant benefits
that comes to teachers and pupils who share in the vivid

and adventurous experiences that outdoor education offers

is that of a better understanding of each other."1 It is

to this end that these criteria have been developed . . .

in the hope that the restricted atmosphere of the classroom
may be banished from the outdoors and the full potential of

this different environment may be experienced.

 

1Outdoor Education for American Youth, Julian W.
Smith, Chairman, American Association for Health, Physical
Education, and Recreation (Washington, D.C.: National
Education Association, 1957). p. 31. »

169

SAMPLE ENTRIES FOR AN ADMINISTRATIVE

PLANNING GUIDE

1. Personnel

A.

Administrative personnel should be minimal in
number and, where possible, should be able to
serve in a consulting and advising role with
students

The use of short-term specialists should be
discouraged OR encouraged to the degree that
the individual persons can operate within an
open and flexible framework and to the degree n—
that the practice does not result in the
development of rigid time sequence. Further,
use of specialists should be in relation to
the needs of the individual classes. b:
The classroom teacher is the key person working
with the class and to as great a degree as
possible matters of planning and scheduling of
time needs should be left with the teacher and
the class.

Non-professional staff, teaching aids, quali-
fied teenagers, and others should be used when
the program warrants it.

 

II. Facilities

A.

Arrangement of structures (and use) should be
conducive to free-flow movement of students
without excessive concern for safety and
supervision.

Within the structures and the immediate sur-
rounding area there should be places that lend
themselves to use by individuals, for quiet
conversation, and small group activities.
Instructional materials should be located with
consideration to the nature of their use and
accessible to those that wish to use them.
Only those tools or supplies, that, by their
nature present an unnecessary risk, should be
under special supervision. '

III. Resources

A.

Listings of natural resources and special areas
should be made available to the classes for
their planning. Areas presenting special

safety concerns should be identified for student
consideration. ‘

IV. Rules
A.

170

Lists of teaching aids and general program
materials available should be prepared for
use by student planning groups.

Planning groups should consult with the
appropriate administrative staff persons
regarding resource potentials not identi-
fied on the list. This would apply
specifically to special interests of the
class.

and Regulations

Definite rules and regulations that result
from political sub—divisions and from the
governing school board(s) should be given

and identified as such. These should be
minimal as far as student involvement is
concerned and will deal mainly in the manage-
ment area (i.e. sanitation).

Necessary rules concerning food service,
nursing and medical care, and use of danger-
ous equipment and materials and site areas
should be prepared--with classroom teachers
understanding of the rules is important for
the purpose of interpreting to the students.
When more than one class will be participating
on the site at the same time, guides for
sharing joint responsibilities, such as
housekeeping and dining-hall duties, should be
prepared and provided ahead of time to the
teachers and students.

Keeping in mind the teacher as the key person,
much planning should be left to the students
and teachers. Areas here would include:
behavior, personal belongings, what to bring
for specific uses, recreational activities,
etc. Guides could be provided to the teacher.

V. Scheduling

A.

Scheduling of on-going camp activities, as far
as emphasized areas, should be done on the
completion of student interest planning.

When more than one class are using the facili—
ties, coordinated scheduling should be done at
the site by coordinators AND teachers.

Basic hours, such as meals, nursing hours,
quiet hours, and use of special areas such as
waterfront, riding, etc. should be made avail-
able to the planning groups.

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When multiple group use is anticipated,
suggested time blocks for use of special
personnel and areas and equipment should be
given--not WHEN but how long for each group,
thus permitting equal opportunities. Other
class time would not necessarily need to be
scheduled ahead but could be done at a
planning meeting immediately upon arrival.
Time for recreational events should be left
to planning groups--this time can be used by
individual classes, inter-class groups and/
or small group interests.

No effort should be made to, nor should there
be concern shown, about having every hour of
the day accounted for in advance with a
scheduled activity. Allow for new interests,
unexpected adventures, and just "doing
nothing."