A PROPOSED MODEL FOR A SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN SIERRA LEONE Dissertation for the Degree of Ed. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSHY PATRICK KORIMiA DIEH 1976 --- -~-w--—.-o.—§ 4 -.‘ — “—1.;t3 VIM“! N“ mulm‘é Alah .- IIIIIIIIIIII I» 3 1293 10276 339 Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Proposed Model for a Social Studies Curriculum for Secondary Schools in Sierra Leone presented by Patrick Korima Pieh has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Doctoral degree in Education Maj r professor \ Date January 26, 1977 0-7 639 ABSTRACT A PROPOSED MODEL FOR A SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN SIERRA LEONE By Patrick Korima Pieh The purpose of this study is to develop a model for establishing a social studies curriculum for secondary schools in Sierra Leone. A systems analysis is used to identify certain steps to be taken and decisions that must be made in establishing a social studies curricu- lum. The systems analysis procedure includes the following steps: Analysis of society Objectives: (a) societal, (b) educational Curriculum materials ' Learning and teaching process Evaluation ' (”AWN—J Implicit in this model is the attempt to relate curricular change and innovation to social change. Education is presented in this study as a sub-system of society, while the curriculum is viewed as a sub-system of education, both interacting to achieve the desired educational objectives that arise out of societal objectives. Because of the interdependency of society and the educational system, the following factors are emphasized in the model: 1. The needscrfstudents to be educated 2. The dominant values of society 3. The social realities in the society However, since the major focus of the study is on the social studies, Patrick Korima Pieh greater emphasis is put on the social realities in the society. Social studies is used in this study as a unifield of study whose content as well as purpose is predominantly social. The major focus of the study is on social issues and awareness rather than subject matter disciplines. This approach to education is especially needed for a developing nation like Sierra Leone which is faced with many problems of nation-building. The primary sources of information for the study were govern- ment reports and studies on educational development in Sierra Leone, and recent world-wide developments in the social studies field. One government aim is to make education and its educated youths more re- sponsive to the problems of nation-building. what Sierra Leone needs in its educational program today, more than ever, is an emphasis on critical thinking and problem solving. The new social studies provide a fresh look at developing these analytical skills in the classroom. Almost every social studies pro- ject in the United States today emphasizes the development of these skills. Thus, the use of analytical skills in studying social issues is strongly emphasized in this model. Attempts are made in the study to develop a systematic and com- prehensive evaluation device for any social studies curriculum. Evaluation is viewed in this study as an integral part of any curric- ulum development and, therefore, an important step in relating curric- ular change and innovation to social change. In this conteXt it relates more to evaluation of the social studies than to evaluation of the learner. Although the field of social studies is a politically sensitive Patrick Korima Pieh area of study in most developing nations, attempts are made in this study to make social studies education more development-oriented. The study provides a basis for mutual adjustment and adaptation by both society and the educational system, rational analysis, and in- novative thinking in the educational system of Sierra Leone. A PROPOSED MODEL FOR A SOCIAL STUDIES CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN SIERRA LEONE By Patrick Korima Pieh A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1976 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS There are many people to whom a debt of gratitude is owed for allowing this single step to be taken. It is humanly and conceptu- ally impossible to prioritize these marvelous people; however, I wish to acknowledge and thank each of them to the best of my ability and give special thanks: To Professor Stanley P. Wronski for directing my doctoral program; To Professors John N. Hanson, Ruth H. Useem and the late James R. Hooker for acting as members of my guidance committee; To Mr. and Mrs. F.w. Johnson of Cedar Falls, Iowa, for their support during the course of study in the United States; And, of course, to those terribly important "significant others" who, over the years, have given to me faith, under- standing and latitude to grow and learn - not the least of whom are my parents, sisters and brothers. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF FIGURES ........................ v CHAPTER I. Introduction ..................... l Statement of Purpose ................. 2 The Educational System Of Sierra Leone ....... 3 The Problem ...................... 5 National Unity And Education ............ 6 II. Review Of Literature ................. lO Education And Social And Political Development . . . l0 Social Studies ................... I9 111. Recent Developments In The Social Studies ....... 29 Relationship Between The Social Sciences . . . . . . 36 Social Science .......... . . ....... 37 Social Studies .......... . . ....... 38 Concepts And Generalizations ............. 39 Concepts ...................... 4l Generalizations ................... 43 IV. Analysis Of Selected Social Studies Projects In The United States . . . . . . . .............. 45 University Of California At Berkeley: Asian Studies Inquiry Program . . . . . ...... 46 University Of Minnesota: Project Social Studies .............. 49 University Of Georgia: Anthropology Curriculum Project (ACP) ....... 51 Summary ....................... 54 V. A Proposed Model For Social Studies Curriculum For Secondary Schools In Sierra Leone ........... 55 Analysis of Society ................. 57 Objectives ................... . . 59 Educational Objectives ............... 60 Rationale And Objectives .............. 62 Content ....................... 63 Methodology ..................... 63 iii CHAPTER Page Conditions For Implementation ............ 63 The Curriculum Materials .............. 68 Learning And Teaching Process ............. 70 Evaluation ....................... 74 Character Estimate .................. 77 VI. Conclusion: Implications And Recommendations ...... 78 APPENDIX A .......................... 83 APPENDIX B .......................... 85 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................... . . 9l iv LIST OF FIGURES Page FIGURE I Major Social Studies Concepts ............. 42 FIGURE 11 A Systems Analysis Of The Social Studies Curriculum . . 58 CHAPTER I Introduction Since l957 more than forty-one independent nations have emerged in Africa. All view education as playing a significant role in their commitment to economic and political progress. David Evans points out that most African leaders view education as being more than just a potential source of literate servants.1 In this age of transition, education in Sierra Leone must aim at cultural integration and social reconstruction, and must change according to society's present conditions and needs. Education should prepare an individual to be a productive member of his society. Unfortunately, the Sierra Leone secondary shcool was modeled after the English grammar school with its classical tradition. The primary aim has been to prepare candidates for the School Certificate, or the General Certificate Of Education, which is the passport to Civil Service, commercial firms, or the university. The curriculum, there- fore, is largely, if not exclusively, controlled by the syllabus for School Certificate. Thus, at this stage, education is mainly for erudition rather than for practical use or social reconstruction. It is indeed absurd to continue this traditional type of secondary education in a country with pressing social and national 1David R. Evans, Teachers As Agents Of National Development: A Case Study Of Uganda (New York: Praeger Publishers, l97l), pp. 4-5. l problems. The existence of vigorous external examination defeats the whole process of education; it fails to cater to the drop-ins as well as the drop-outs. Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere in Education For Self-Reliance appropriately describes the problem: The education now provided is designed for the few who are intellectually stronger than their fellows; it induces among those whoe succeed a feeling of superiority, and leaves the majority of the others hankering after something they will never obtain...2 Under the pressure of rigid examinations and orders to teach particular topics at particular times, the teacher is merely con- cerned with coaching students for examinations. He consequently fails to translate the subject matter into life-long activities. It is the role and responsibility of secondary school education to prepare pupils physically, intellectually and emotionally for effective participation in building and maintaining a new social order. Social studies should become one vehicle for drawing atten- tion to the problems of rapid economic, social and political devel- opment for promoting national integration. Statement Of Purpose The purpose of this study is to build a model for the devel- opment of a social studies curriculum for secondary schools in Sierra Leone by using a systems analysis approach. A system is defined here as the sum total of separate parts working independently and interacting to achieve previously specified objectives. The model will be an attempt to meet the following: 2Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere, Education For Self-Reliance (Dar Es Salaam, The United Republic Of Tanzania: Government Printer, l967), p. 10. 1. Needs of society 2. Needs of the learner 3. Needs of educators to be responsive to requirements placed on them by those whom they strive to serve Today, African nations and the rest of the world live in a complex and changing time. Consequently, a flexible, dynamic and up-to-date social studies program is crucial for our schools. The Educational System Of Sierra Leone The history of education in Sierra Leone or, for that matter, the whole of Africa is more or less the history of Christian missions. Formal education as known today came to Sierra Leone with the advent of Christial missionaries. The colony of Freetown came to be known as the "Athens of West Africa" and produced scholars who became clerks, civil servants, clergymen and teachers throughout British West Africa.3 The educational system in Sierra Leone is basically divided into three stages: primary, secondary and tertiary or higher. In order to move from one level to another, students must take an exam- ination. The transition from primary to secondary school (stage I to stage 2) is through a selective entrance examination. The means of entering the working world generally and the realm of higher education is by passing the terminal examination after five years of secondary schooling. That examination was the Cambridge School Cer- tificate, and now is the West African School Certificate '0' and 'A' levels.4 3E. Christian Anderson and Earl Dewitt Baker, Educational Development In Sierra Leone (Ann Arbor: Malley Lithoprinting, Inc., l9697:ipp. 5-l0. 4 The present educationsystem in Sierra Leone, as noted above, has evolved from the British tradition with its rigid classical tradition. The defects of the curriculum are apparent. Being geared both in content and in treatment to an outworn British system, it has little relation to the local environment and needs. As such, the schools are isolated from the culture and society of which they are a part. This is, therefore, a situation in which the present system of education tends to alienate the student from his culture; con- sequently, the student lacks adequate knowledge and real understand- ing of his community, the world at large and his part in it. The content of the curriculum, being mostly foreign to the student's way of life, encourages only rote memory, with the result that ed- ucation becomes merely the acquisition of inert knowledge. Secondary school students in Sierra Leone and the rest of Africa belong to the educated minority who must give leadership to their countries in all walks of life. The pattern of the past is not always the best blueprint for the future, and changing needs often require changing treatment to satisfy them. For developing nations, the educational demands of the twentieth century cannot be entirely met by nineteenth century methods. In order to fulfill these demands, Sierra Leone urgently needs the creation of a Sierra Leone secondary school system, indigenous in its content, its process and its orientation. It must be inclusive in its population, broad in its scope and adaptable in its orientation. 4West African Examinations Council, The Annual Report (for the year ending March Bl, 197l). If African nations are to remain truly non-aligned, then the schools, through well constructed programs of social studies, must bear the responsibility for developing, in the nfinds of the youth, a sense of national consciousness and the spirit of self-reliance. The Problem Sierra Leone, like most other nations, received her indepen- dence with little or no preparation for the enormous task of welding together the different factions into a single nation. His Excellency Dr. Kenneth D. Kaunda, in the Foreword of the book Education, Devel- opment And Nation-Building In Independent Africa, writes: Education in any society is a great boon - but it can also be a great curse if all it succeeds in doing in this society is to stratify it by creating an elite which is remote from the masses and which is conscious only of what society owes to it and not what it owes the society in which it has been brought up. This is the type of educational system that should be discouraged in any developing country where the crying need is for a body of properly trained men and women dedicated to the cause of putting service to society before self.5 Since independence, Sierra Leone has attempted to modify the educational system to meet her own changing needs. But recent studies indicate that the educational system does not measure up to its ex- pectations and is less responsive to the demands of political indepen- dence. Thus, the problem as viewed by the writer, is "how to make education the basis for social and national development." Implicit in this problem is the assumption that a successful program of devel— opment depends to a large extent on a good understanding of the social and cultural environment of the society. 5Kenneth D. Kaunda, "Foreword" in Education, Development And Nation Building In Independent Africa, by H. F. Makulu (London: ‘SCM Press, Ltd., l97l), p. vii. Hence, the emphasis on the social role of education should de- pend on the answers to the following questions: l. What type of society do Sierra Leoneans wish to build? 2. What type of human beings do they wish to develop? National Unity And Education The role of social integration is a problem in any society; it is even more a problem in developing nations. Because of the immensity of the problem, it seems reasonable to conjecture that no single in- stitution in society can bring about the integration that is so dil- igently sought. However, most political leaders have employed mass education as the key factor in creating a nation curt of diverse and widely dispersed linguistic groups. The situation is grave today because the masses view education as an important factor in upward mobility into the more prestigious positions in society. Inherent in this process is the conflict between the aims of politicians and those of the masses. Political leaders have attempted to mollify this conflict by making their educational policy clear in such a way that it will be directly related to the development of the nation. Education is not seen as being good for the individual so that he can make a contribution to the community, rather it is seen as a means of enabling the individual to develop for the good of the community and therefore for himself. The assumption is that schools can foster both political and social integration by developing new attitudes toward the government and the nation. Nyerere, in the concluding paragraphs of Education _For Self-Reliance, expresses the opinion that the values and subject matter of education must be aimed at producing students who will look upon themselves as ”members and servants" of a country in which justice and equality are of paramount importance. He states: But it is no use our educational system stressing values and knowledge appropriate to the past or to the citizens in their other countries; it is wrong if it even contributes to the con- tinuation of those inequalities and privileges which still exist in our society because of our inheritance. Let our stu- dents be educated to be members and servants of the kind of just and equalitarian future to which this country aspires. Some studies give support to the widely held contention that schools are integrative agents in society. This conviction is espec- ially common in the United States, where the role of schools in the "melting pot" concept has been widely studied. A well known study by sociologist James Samuel Colemen of secondary schools in the United States is an example of the application of these techniques to educa- tion.7 John Harding, et al., report several studies which give credence to the integrative role of schools.8 Musgrove, in a study of Uganda secondary school, indicates that the school was conducive to integration because former groups and loyalties were obliterated and reorganized within the school. The part played by the school, as an agent of integration, was demon- strated as far back as l9l7 when many educated elites from different parts of former British West Africa formed the "National Congress Of 6Nyerere, Education For Self-Reliance, p. 26. 7James S. Coleman, The Adolescent Society (New York: The Free Press Of Glencoe, l96l). 8John Harding et al., "Prejudice And Ethnic Relations," Hand- book Of School Psychology 2, Gardner Lindsey, ed. (Cambridge, Mass: Addison Wesley Publishing Company, I975), pp. l045-l046. west Africa," under the leadership of J. E. Casely Hayford.9 The Report of the l96l Addis Ababa Conference on African Educa- tional Development'hsperhaps the most important document illustrating the present emphasis on education in Africa. Paul Mercier, in an address to the conference, strongly emphasized the social role of education in the process of nation-building when he stated: ...a successful program of development, including economic development, is dependent to a large extent upon a good under- standing of the social and cultural environment and the pro- cesses in the nation or society concerned.1 While most studies support the assumption that education does play an important role in creating a nation made up of diverse lin- quistic groups and cultures, other studies point out the malintegra- tive role of education in developing nations. David Abernethy and Trevor Coombe in "Education And Politics In Developing Countries," Harvard Educational Review 34 (November l965), David Abernethy in The Political Dilemma Of Popular Education, and Philip Foster in Education And Social Change In Ghana, all contend that education as an agent of change can induce both stability and instability. Remi Clignet in his study on secondary schools in the Ivory Coast con- cludes: ...it is often tempting to emphasize the homogenizing influence of an educational environment. This effect is probably nnst definite when the functions performed by the schools are re- inforced by other agencies and by a mass communication system. Yet in Africa, ethnic differentials in attitudes do not seem 95. A. Ayandale et al., The Growth Of African Civilization: The Making Of Modern Africa 2 (London: Longman Group Ltd., 197T), pp. 164-168. 10Paul Mercier, Final Report Of The Conference Of African States On The Development Of Education In Africa (ECA/UNESCO 1961), p. 81. to be deeply eroded by education.... Secondly, if the atti- tudes of students from various ethnic backgrounds remain quite distinctive, it may be seen that such diversity is even more characteristic of other social environments. Namely, the school population is relatively homogeneous in such areas as ability, age, aspirations and living in sheltered institutions relatively close to external influences.... The persistence or the stressing of ethnic particularisms remains one of the major obstacles for African nations to overcome in the process of their growth.11 Whether or not education has all the disruptive consequences of which it is capable, depends upon those who shape the policy - the teachers, planners and parents. The complexities of modern societies demand a new type of education that will address itself to the needs and considerations of present-day conditions. The social change that is taking place in Sierra Leone requires a secondary education, broad in scope and adaptable to the needs and aspirations of the people. Secondary education in an independent Sierra Leone faces a new set of problems and, as such, there is a need for the inclusion of social studies in the secondary schools. nRemi Clignet, "Ethnicity, Social Differentiation And Secondary Schooling In West Africa," Cashier d'Etudes Africaines 8 (Summer, 1967): p. 378. CHAPTER II Review of Literature The review of literature will be divided into two parts. The first part will deal with selected literature on the role of educa- tion in social and political development in Africa. The second part will deal with selected literature on recent developments in the social studies. Education And Social And Political Development There is extensive literature on the impact of education on social and political development in developing nations. However, this is only a selected literature and does not fully explore all facets of African education. Articles cited have been chosen because they indicate at least some aspect of the complex relationship be- tween education and nation-building or because they reveal the variety of approaches and viewpoints available. Rapid changes in the political systems of Africa have had an observable impact on the economic and social life of the people in the newly independent nations. Involved in these changes, both economic and social, is an adaptation of the educative process from a colonial setting to an independent way of life. Africans, like their colonial masters, have increasingly viewed the schools as suppliers of fundamental skills which would satisfy a variety of 10 11 economic, social and political wants of their nations. James Sooth Coleman, a political scientist, in Education And Political Develop: ment, appropriately describes this process: Once regarded as an essentially conservative, culture pre- serving, culture-transmitting institution, the educational system now tends to be viewed as the master determinant of all aspects of change.12 In his discussion on education and political development, Coleman defines political development as: The acquisition by a political system of a consciously sought, and qualitatively new and enhanced, political capacity as man- ifested in the successful institutionalization of: (l) new patterns of integration regulating and containing the tensions and conflicts produced by increased differentiation, and (2) new patterns of participation and resource distribution adequately responsive to the demands generated by the imper- atives of equality. He identifies political socialization, political recruitment and political integration as functions of the political system clearly related to education. Political socialization is defined as the process by which individuals acquire attitudes and feelings toward the political system. However, Coleman warns that while some studies show that formal education is a decisive factor in the polit- ical socialization process, recent studies indicate that the influence of education upon political attitudes is more complicated, uncertain and variable than it was originally thought to be. 12James Sooth Coleman, Education And Political Development (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1966), p. 3. 13Ibid., p. 15. For more discussion on education and national development see Don Adams, ed., Education In National Development (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1971); Adam Curle, Educational Strategy For DevelopinggSocieties (London: Tavistock Publications, l963) and K. Prewitt, ed., Education And Political Values (Nairobi, Kenya: East African Publishing House, l969). 12 This conclusion should not be interpreted as a negation of the assumption that education is an important factor in the political socialization process. Instead, Coleman maintains that based on present knowledge: The impact of manifest political socialization in the school is highly variable, and depends not only on the context, but also on the particular content and the strength of reinforcing or negating experiences and influences in the larger environ- ment outside the school; the fact that schools in the newly developing countries have a presumptively larger role in pol- itical socialization may provide us with a clearer picture of the potentialities and limitations of the manipulation of curriculum content. Impressive evidence of the relationship between education and upward mobility is found in the progress of colonies toward indepen- dence. While western-type education was designed' primarily to serve the colonial master, it became a prime contributor to the eclipse of Western colonialism. The revolutionary role of education from a political point of view is the most important legacy of colonialism. As a result of the spread of education and acceleration of the several processes of change introduced and furthered by Western Colonialism, new associations were formed which were both communal and functionally specific in character. Sub- sequently, nationalist movements were organized for the purpose of mobilizing the population in the drive for national indepen- dence. Although primarily the creation and instrument of Western educated minority, the determined efforts both broad- ened and deepened popular involvement in political affairs.15 In appraising the revolutionary role of education in the collapse of colonial rule, Coleman warns about some of the unintended consequen- ces of the system. He cites four broad and related problems that 14Ioid.. pp. 23-24. 15Gabriel A. Almond and James S. Coleman, The Politics Of Developing_Areas (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1962), p. 553. l3 nationalist leaders must seek to solve in order to insure total political development. These include: l. Post-independence anti-intellectualism; 2. The tension between incumbent political elites and new bureaucratic and technical cadres; 3. The restricted political mobility of second generation aspirants; and 4. The economic potential of unemployed school teachers.16 Nevertheless, new nations in Africa have to adapt their colonial educational systems to solve the complex problems of nation-building. The most urgent problem is that of welding together the fragmented groups into a single nation. Sierra Leone, like other developing nations, is currently engaged in an extensive effort to restructure both the educational curriculum and the organization of school to produce a deeper commitment to its new social order. Thus, the inte- grative role of education for political development is self-evident. David Abernethy and Trevor Coombe in "Education And Politics In Developing Countries," Harvard Educational Review 35 (November, l965), examine the interaction between education and politics in the nations. They maintain that education as an agent of change may either contri- bute to or impede the persistence and stability of the political sys- tem. Based on their analysis of this complex relationship, they conclude that: The kinds of social problems which influence educational policy, or which are indirectly produced by it, are, however, regret- tably real. The magnitude of the social change with which developing countries are contending insures that their 16James Sooth Coleman, Education And Political Development (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1965), p. 27. 14 characteristic condition is one of political instability. The expansion of education contributes directly toward instability because it generates demands on the political system which that system is unable to meet. On the other hand, the adequate pro- vision of education at all levels is a necessary condition of political stability.... A considered choice of policy, however, is impossible unless those who advise governments on the making of policy appreciate the dual political role of education in promoting both order and unrest...1 A study by David Abernethy, The Political Dilemma Of Popular Education, is a valuable addition to the study of the role of educa— tion in the process of nation-building. The author addresses himself primarily to the fundamental question, "What is the impact of uneven distribution of educational opportunities for political stability?" Abernethy analyzes the variations in aspirations, constraints, and conflicts that led to the Nigerian Civil War, and suggests a number of implications for educational policy.18 But from a nation-building point of view in political as well as in economic and social terms, Nigerian education, as analyzed by Abernethy, has been dysfunctional. Other studies have indicated, at least in a primary way, how educational systems have functioned as agents of change by looking primarily at one small but influential group in political development, namely the elites. Philip J. Foster's Education And Social_Change In Ghana is a detailed analysis of the principles and practices of educa- tion in Ghana, and particularly as reflected in the elites. An elite is defined in this sense as: 17David Abernethy and Trevor Coombe, "Education And Politics In Developing Countires," Harvard Educational Review 35 (November, 1965), pp. 30l-302. 18For further reading, see Adam Curle, Educational Problems Of Developing Societies: with case studies of Ghana, Pakistan And Nigeria (NEW York, Washington and London: Praeger Publishers, 1973)] pp. 86-95. 15 A generalized reference group with capacity for setting stan- dards over a whole range of behavior beyond those in which the elite may enjoy manifest SpBeriority by virtue of the possession of specific skills. The author presents them as a major force in the rise of nationalist movements in Ghana. While taking issue with those who hold an over-simplified view of education as an autonomous motivational force in development, Foster clearly demonstrates that it is a realistic response to devel- oping social and economic conditions. He concludes his appraisal of the impact of the educated elites and Western education upon these changes with this observation: Whatever the outcome of these developments, it is clear that Western schooling has been one of the factors operating in the transformation of the new African nations. In Ghana, the schools have rarely functioned in the manner anticipated by educationists or officials and the story of their development is largely one of the unplanned consequences of educational growth...Yet without Western schools, there would have been no nationalist movement, no independence, and no Ghana...20 Edward Shils, "The Intellectual Between Tradition And Modernity: The Indian Situation," and Carl H. Landi's "Patterns Of Policy--Directed Educational Development: The Philippines" in Coleman, ed., Education And Political Development, both demonstrate how education furthered political integration. Landi writes: Education has furthered political integration in two ways. First, the gap between the culture of the most tradition- bound sectors of Christian Filipino society and one of the most modern ones is relatively slight as compared with similar gaps in other former colonial societies-...Asairesult all sec- tors of society, with the exception of the non-Christian 19Philip J. Foster, Education And Social Change In Ghana (Chicago: University Of Chicago Press, 1965), p. 5. 2Oloid.. p. 304. 16 minority, are sufficiently 'westernized' if not in their way of life, then certainly in their ideological commitments to ensure that the country is not troubled by serious political conflict between 'westernized leaders' and a 'traditional' counter-elite...Secondly, the gap between the political cultures of the rural and urban Philippines, though substantial, appears to be far less great than in the case of many developing socie- ties. Here, too, education deserves much of the credit.2 Examples of the extensive studies on the role of education in the creation and orientation of elites are those by Remi Clignet and Philip Foster, The Fortunate Few: A Case Study of secondary schools and students in the Ivory Coast; E. Franklin Frazier, "Education And The African Elite," Translations Of The Third World Congress Of Sociology 5 (I956): 99-96, and Dwaine Marvick, "African University Students: A Presumptive Elite" in Coleman, ed., Education And Pol- itical Development. While education has been an important agent for change in con- temporary Africa, it has been less responsive to change and innova- tion than other institutions. The content and orientation of the curriculum are in contradiction to events in the political arena. While most political leaders view education as the core of nation- building, the students and parents frequently view it as a means towards the preservation of status. Efforts are now being made to reform the African educational systems to reflect the needs of their society. The idea that African education should express African culture and be directly related to African needs is not, of course, a new one. It can be traced back at least to the l920$ when the Pheips- 2lCarl H. Landi, "Patterns 0f Policy--Directed Educational Development: The Philippines" in Comeman, ed., Education And Pol- itical Development (1935), p. 343. 17 Stokes Commission Report was issued. This was also the topic of the July 1962 UNESCO Conference held in Tananarive on secondary education. The conference attempted to give a definite direction to secondary education. The conference concluded: ...that secondary education in Africa should no longer retain the academic character it has had hitherto; that such educa- tion should be adapted to suit the needs and realities of the countries of Africa; that secondary education should not be the privilege of the few but it should rather be the means of raising the cultural levels of the greatest number or re- ducing to the greatest possible extent the gap between the elite and the masses.2 It is perhaps little wonder that after almost fifty-five years of criticism of African education there have been only minor changes both in the structure and content of secondary education. Avigdor Farine, "Society And Education: The Content Of Education In French African School," Comparative Education 5 (February 1, 1969): 51-66, concludes that there has been no fundamental change in education since independence, and that Africanization of the curriculum has only been a token gesture, while the structure and content remain unaltered. Allen Peshkin, "Educational Reform In Colonial And Independent Africa," African Affairs 64 (July, 1965): 210-216, compares the 1952 Cambridge and the 1961 Addis Ababa Conferences. He concludes that despite claims of a decade of progress in African education, qualitatively the schools (and, hence, educational problems) remain unchanged. Another critic of the present educational system in Africa is Abdou Moumouni. His book, Education in Africa, is a description of 22UNESCO Conference Report, Adaptation Of The General Secondary School Curriculum In Africa, Tananarive, July 1962 (Paris), p. 4. 18 education in former French Africa from 1816-1960 and of the problems that arose after independence. After a critical analysis of the sys- tem, Moumouni concludes that while colonial education was suited to the colonial days and was relatively effective in terms of assimil— ating the African into the French culture, it tended to alienate and depersonalize the African. Other studies which support similar con- clusions include Michael J. Armer, "Psychological Impact Of Education In Northern Nigeria," Proceedings Of The African Studies Association, 1967; E. Franklin Frazier, "The Impact Of Colonization On African Social Forms And Personality" in C. W. Stillman, ed., Africa in Modern World; and Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks. A. Babs Fafunwa's New Peropectives In African Education is a critical review of the present educational systems in Africa and a proposed structure for African education. Fafunwa's work provides a new direction for African education. What seems most timely of all is Fafunwa's definition of an educated African youth. He states that: Learning by rote is the traditional method in most countries of Africa. What Africa needs today more than ever before is the problem-solving, critical thinking approach to her many problems. The African, if he is to be effectively trained for his future role, should have an opportunity to acquire this approach to problems. This kind of rationale for problem- solving and decision-making is needed for all levels in the social structure.23 Fafunwa sees education as a continuing process of life and as an element in the method by which a community adapts and by which it perpetuates itself. He says that the undue importance given to 23A. Babs Fafunwa, New Perspectives In African Education (Lagos: MacMillan and Company, 1967), p. 56. 19 examinations and certificates in English-speaking Africa is so alarm- ing one wonders if this can be called a system of education or a system of examinations. The basic issue here is that the present system is too inflexible to cope with the changing needs of African societies. Examination systems can be used to change education pro- vided they are comprehensive and relevant to the African education. He suggests an evaluation of both the cognitive and affective areas of the curriculum. John W. Hanson, in a more sweeping analysis of African educa- tion, states that the crucial problem of African education is not one of educational expansion, but one of rethinking.24 In light of these observations, he maintains that if schools in Africa are to be used as effective means of perpetuating African values and aspira- tions, then drastic improvements or development of the curricula are inevitable. Social Studies The tremendous activities in the area of curriculum reform in the social studies have created major problems for social educators in defining the term "New Social Studies." These activities have been described by Smith and Cox as: The emergence of a new breed of social studies educators who span the gamut of age and experience and who are responding with enthusiasm and aggressiveness to the intellectual chal- lenges of modern society.25 24John. W. Hanson, Imagination And Hallucination In African Ed- ucation (East Lansing, Michigan: Institute For International Studies in Education, College of Education, Michigan State University, 1965). 25Frederick R. Smith and C. Benjamin Cox, New Strategies And Cur- riculum In Social Studies (Chicago: Rand McNally and Company, 1969):’ p. xi. 20 They contend that: The changes in the social studies curriculum have their source in a multitude of social forces.26 Change always has been and continues to be a fact of life, and the rapid pace of change has a special meaning for education. John S. Gibson, in New Frontiers In The Social Studies: Goals For Students And Means For Teachers, states that: The 'new urgency to man's search for meaning and identity' is particularly relevant in those disciplines concerned with man and society, past and present. It is the social disciplines that can best contribute toward this search and toward help- ing the young people of today, who will be participating cit- izens of tomorrow, to sustain and strengthen a free and open society...27 He argues that the incredible economic, social and political forces of the times are challenges that call for a search for new frontiers in education at all levels and in all subjects. Thus, the new frontiers in the social studies may seek to improve in some way the old social studies curriculum. There is an extensive body of literature on the new trends in curriculum development in the social studies, ranging from criticisms of the old social studies to new proposals for curriculum development. Jack L. Nelson, in a review of literature on the social studies, says: If the new social studies lacks clear definition, it is not because there haven't been attempts to clarify. It is the mark of a dynamic field to have unresolved conflict and a variety of advocates. Social studies education has such a body of liter- ature for your perusal.28 261nm. 27John S. Gibson, New Frontiers In the Social Studies: Goals For Students And Means For Teachers (New York: Citation Press, 1957), p. 15. 28Jack L. Nelson, "Book Review," Social Education 36 (November, 1972): 812. 21 As part of this general endeavor to define the scope of social studies and organize its basic questions into a common analytical frame, a number of the most significant Positions from the research literature will be presented here. The following works give brief surveys of historical develop- ment in the social studies: Edgar B. Wesley and Stanley P. Wronski, Teaching Social Studies In High Schools, 5th edition, Chapter 2; and Erling M. Hunt et al., High School Social Studies Perspectives. Maurice P. Hunt and Lawrence Metcalf, Teachinngigh School Social Studies, and Jonathan C. McLendon, Social Studies in Secondary Education, are other examples of general treatments of the social studies curriculum. Hunt and Metcalf emphasize issues involving normative statements and value judgments, while McLendon attempts to introduce the basic elements of social studies instruction. Mark Krug et al., The New Social Studies, deal with the extent to which materials for the new social studies meet the objectives claimed for them by their creators. While appraising the new social studies, the authors favor retention of history as the core of the social studies. They write: History, because of its total concern with human experience and its rather ill-defined boundaries, can and should serve as a body of knowledge for the social science. Social science concepts and modes of inquiry would add a new and promising dimension to the teaching of history by making all history, as taught on the high school level, conform to Croce's famous statement that all history is contemporary history.29 Jerome Bruner's The Process Of Education is. perhaps the most provocative and important work on curriculum development. His impact 29Mark Krug et al., The New Social Studies (Itasca, Illinois: F. E. Peacock Publishing Company, 1970), p. 33. 22 on the curriculum revision movement has been so great that he is 30 The idea sometimes called "St. Jerome" at curriculum meetings. of a structure is obviously basic to Bruner's thesis. Structure, according to Bruner, is not only the fundamental ideas of a subject, but it is also the internalized way of perceiving the logical rela- tions between ideas and the means of arriving at them. He relates the idea of structure to that of learning when he states: The second point relates to human memory. Perhaps the most basic thing that can be said about human memory, after a cen- tury of intensive research, is that useless detail is placed into a structured pattern; it is rapidly forgotten.31 Bruner claims a number of advantages for a structured curriculum, among which are the following: Helps students learn what is important, Helps in retention, Fosters transfer of learning, and Helps reduce the gap between scholarship and the classroom. boom—4 The term structure is used by educators both as a pedagogical and logical construct. Structure, according to Bruner, is a logical construct that is made of both substantive ideas and a mode of inquiry. Thus, grasping the structure of a subject is understanding it in a way that permits many other things to be related to it meaningfully.32 He contends that each discipline has a structure that is unique to that discipline. By teaching organizing concepts within a disciplin- ary structure, a teacher is more likely to avoid teaching fragmented 30William T. Lowe, Structure and the Social Studies (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1969), p. 33. 31Jerome S. Bruner, The Process Of Education (New York: Vin- age Books, A Division of Random House, 1960), p. 31. 32 Ibid., p. 18. 23 bits of knowledge from a field, and a student is more likely to com- prehend an area of knowledge as well as remember what he has learned. The concept of disciplinary structure for the new social studies has been a major topic for scholars in the field. But, while most scholars are not in complete agreement with Bruner, they all agree on the point that all disciplines have structure. A number of sig- nificant attempts have been made to define structure; perhaps the most important of these have been: William Lowe, Structure And The Social Studies; and G. W. Ford and Lawrence Piugno, eds., The Struc- ture of Knowledge And Curriculum. Others who have attempted to im- plement the concept of structure include Irving Morrisett, ed., Concepts And Structure In The New Social Science Curricula; Lawrence Senesh, Our Working World: Neighbors At Work: Resource Unit; Dorothy M. Fraser and Samuel P. McCutchen, eds., Social Studies In Transition: Guidelines For Charge and Paul R. Hanna and John R. Lee, "Content Studies In Elementary Schools" in John U. Michaelis, ed., Social Studies In Elementary Schools (32nd Yearbook, 1962). Joseph Schwab has approached the idea of structure in a manner similar to Bruner's. He defines the sturcture of a discipline as: "consisting in a part of the body of imposed conceptions which de- fines the investigative subject matter of that discipline and control of its inquiries."33 The most important feature of his discussion is that he relates structure directly to the mode of inquiry. Structure, according to Schwab, is made up of two fundamental ideas; the first is substantive, which is made up of concepts and 33Joseph J. Schwab, "The Concept Of The Structure Of A Disci- pline," Educational Record 43 (July, 1962), p. 197. 24 generalizations that are fundamental to each discipline, while the second includes organization and a mode of inquiry. In sum, the structure of a discipline shows how things are related in any given sphere of inquiry, provides bases for organizing knowledge in the field and helps direct the search for future knowledge. Another trend in the reform movement has been the attempt to break away from the "assign-recite text" routines in the old social studies teaching strategies. Most of the scholars in the reform movement recommend inductive inquiry and discovery methods of teach- ing on the assumption that these teaching strategies have more per- manence and, therefore, are much more transferable than isolated facts or generalizations. In viewing inquiry as the predominant method for the new social studies, Barry Beyer, Ingoiry In The Social Studies Classroom, and Edwin Fenton, Teaching The New Social Studies In Secondary Schools: An Inductive Approach, have both defined scholarly inquiry as one aspect of structure. Byron G. Massialas and C. Benjamin Cox, Inqoiry In The Social Studies, suggest that the school's role is to create a learning en- vironment in which the individual is able to inquire into major problems whether personal or representative of the large group, their attendant facts, beliefs and values, and, subsequently, to 34 This assess the available alternatives for their resolution. inquiry orientation to social studies teaching appears to be the fundamental theoretical position characteristic of the new trend in social studies education. 34Byron G. Massialas, and C. Benjamin Cox, Ioguiry In Social Studies (New York: McGraw Hill, 1966), pp. 44-46. 25 Another major source of confusion among advocates of the new social studies has been over the role and importance of objectives-- particularly those in the affective area. The confusion over affec- tive types of objectives is due partly to the fact that these objec- tives are difficult to classify. Furthermore, once classified, it is still difficult to measure the precise behavior that is expected of the student who is presumably meeting these objectives. The prob- lem becomes even more difficult when dealing with a choice of values in a given situation. Since the problem of what to value or of what choice to make in a given situation is at the heart of all social problems, major efforts have been made to resolve this con- fusion. David 12. Karthwohl et al., Taxonomy Of Educational Objec- tives; Handbook II: Affective Domain, is perhaps the most frequently cited in this area. The authors have attempted to provide a format for classifying behavioral objectives. Lawrence E. Metcalf, ed., Values Education: Rationale, Strategies, And Procedures, and Samuel P. McCutchen, Guide To Content In The Social Studies, are valuable works in the teaching of values in the social studies. Much of the literature deals with the development of social science concepts as an organizational framework for social studies curriculum. Lawrence Senesh, "Organizing Curriculum Around Social Science Concepts," in Irving Morrisett, ed., Concepts And Structure In The Social Science Curriculum, strongly advocates using social science concepts as a basis for social studies curriculum. He crit- icizes the traditional social studies program for its failure to develop analytical thinking that is necessary to understand the structure and the process of society. Senesh contends that since 26 all the social science disciplines are necessary to explain social phenomena the fundamental ideas of the discipline should be intro- duced in the school curriculum. He defines the teaching of fundamental ideas of the various social science disciplines with depth and complexity as an organic curriculum. The teaching of different units with emphasis from different areas of the social sciences is defined as orchestration.35 The development of an organic curriculum and its orchestration, according to him, is a lifetime commitment and one that should aim at developing analytical thinking. While the philosophy of organizing social studies curriculum around social science concepts is widely accepted in the field, some scholars have questioned this approach. They contend that the social sciences per se do not provide sufficient basis for a sound social education. They perceive the structure of the social sciences for a pedagogical purpose. Thus, Paul H. Hanna and John R. Lee at Stanford University developed a program in social studies around basic human activities. Continuing on a similar theme, Shirley H. Engle, in "Thoughts In Regard To Revision," Social Education 27 (April, 1963), suggests that the social studies curriculum should derive its structure from the knowledge which man has of the common, basic characteristics of societies and from the basic social problems which persist from 36 society to society. He concludes that: 35Lawrence Senesh, "Organizing A Curriculum Around Social Science Concepts" in Irving Morrisett, ed., Concepts And Structure In The Social Science Curriculum (New York: HOTt, Rinehart and Win- ston, Inc., l967):pp. 23-24. 27 In the last analysis, increasingly more informed and mature treatment of our persistent social problems is the single most important objective of the social studies.37 The social Studies Curriculum Center at Syracuse University has adopted a different approach to the task of identifying another base for the social studies curriculum. The center has focused essentially on some basic concepts which are not restricted to a single discipline, but are from several disciplines. The concepts are grouped under three categories--substantive concepts, value con- cepts, and concepts of method. This approach is an attempt to simp- lify the scope and sequence problems which are faced in the "structure of the disciplines" approach. (See FIGURE I in Chapter II.) It seems that as the task of curriculum design progresses there is a reinforcement of the idea of a multidisciplinary approach. This seems to be the message from Edgar B. Wesley and Stanley P. Wronski in Teaching Secondary Social Studies In A World Society when they state: The efforts of social scientists to identify some kind of structure within their respective disciplines can be seized upon by social studies teachers as a rationale for organizing the curriculum in such a way that fundamental ideas and modes of inquiry concerning social relationships constitute the basis of instruction rather“ than individual subject matter areas.38 The foregoing discussion is an attempt to describe some of the new trends in the social studies and is by no means comprehansive. 36Shirley H. Engle, "Thoughts In Regard To Revision," Social Education 27 (April, 1963). 38Edgar B. Wesley and Stanley P. Wronski, Teaching Secondary Social Studies In A World Society (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath .and Company, 1973), p. 84. 28 All that is given here is information about a few indispensible works of reference and other literature which has been particularly useful in devising a model for a social studies curriculum in the Sierra Leone schools. CHAPTER III Recent Developments In The Social Studies Although social studies is a latecomer to the curriculum re- form movement, social studies scholars have made considerable prog- ress in their field. Through the input of private and public funds, imaginative social studies research and programs have converged with considerable impact on social education. To summarize the new trends is both difficult and subject to over-simplification. However, there are a few basic ideas that are common to most of the programs that need to be described. The summary which follows is not comprehen- sive and it is only intended to facilitate the understanding of the most important contemporary trends. A major concern of the reform movement has been the attempt to reorganize social studies. Basic to the new social studies is an emphasis on the utility of conceptual structures of disciplines as a basis for organizing curriculum. Bruner is perhaps the most impor- tant advocate for the use of conceptual structures in curriculum development. His book, The Process Of Education,39 is one of the most important and influential works in the field of curriculum development. In explaining the term "structure," Bruner writes: Grasping the structure of a subject is understanding it in a way that permits many other things to be related to it 39Jerome S. Bruner, The Process Of Education (New York: Vintage Books, A Division of Random House Publishers, 1960). 29 30 meaningfully. To learn structure, in short, is to learn how things are related.40 He states that the task is essentially one of representing the struc- ture of the subject in terms that are comprehansible to children. However, the immediate task that confronts scholars is one of determining what comprises the basic structure of a subject. A number of attempts have been made to define structure, but there is no easy solution or ready agreement as to the nature of it. Indeed, there remains much speculation as to the meaning of the term. In my opinion, the definition by Joseph Schwab reflects the major ideas that seem to have most significance for the development of an improved social studies program. Thus, one of the general trends in the social studies is to put greater emphasis on using ideas and methodology from the various social science disciplines. History, which has traditionally dominated the social studies, is not abandoned, but has become relatively less dominant as the subject matter of the social studies. Lawrence Senesh argues that since all the social science disciplines are necessary in understanding social phenomena, the fundamental ideas of various disciplines should be taught on every level with increasing depth and complexity. He defines this approach in curriculum development as 4] This method basically "organic curriculum and its orchestration." identifies problem areas or topics, then approaches the problem in a multi-disciplinary manner: one or two of the social sciences most germane to the problem are at the core of the course with other social 41$enesh, "Organizing A Curriculum," pp. 23-24. 31 sciences contributing relevant data as needed (e.g., The Elkhart Project). Many projects take a multi-disciplinary or inter-disciplinary approach to curriculum development. This approach seems to be common with area-oriented projects (e.g., Asian Studies Inquiry Program) and history courses (e.g., The Amherst Project). Most of the pro- jects have incorporated important ideas from other disciplines in their materials. The University of Minnesota Social Studies Project blends several disciplines into its project. Other projects have attempted to develop concepts which are not restricted to a single discipline, but are common to several disciplines. This approach has been successfully employed by the Social Sciences Center at Syracuse University. While there is no unanimous agreement on the basic conceptual structure for the social studies, the mode of inquiry has been the most significant and concrete thing about the new social studies. The method itself is not new in the field of education, but it has seldom been used in the social studies. However, the rebirth of the concept has led to a wide range of intellectual debate concerning its merits for classroom teaching.42 Proponents of the new social studies emphasize the teaching of basic concepts through the use of "inquiry" approach as an alternative to the traditional emphasis on rote learning of factual information. 42For more elaborate discussion, see the following works: David P. Ausubel, "In Defense Of Verbal Learning," Educational Theory, 11, (January, 1961), 15-25; Jerome Bruner, "The Act Of Discovery," Harvard Educational Review 31 (Winter, 1961): 21-22; and Byron G. Massialas, "Revising The Social Studies: An Inquiry-Centered Approach," Social Education 27 (April, 1963): 185-189. 32 This is based on the assumption that social studies is designed pri- marily for instruction. The purpose of social studies instruction is to instill in students the skills that are vital to the decision- making process, and the ability to apply the inquiry method in anal- yzing social issues in a relative rather than purely descriptive context. Implicit in this assumption is the idea that knowledge is discovered not to be final, but the product of continued inquiry and experimental test.43 Some of the projects have developed a mode of inquiry with the assumption that by learning to follow this mode, students would be able to investigate problems independently and in a disciplined manner. Edwin Fenton lists the following six steps as mode of in- quiry in the social studies.44 1. Recognizing a problem from data 2. Formulating hypothesis Asking analytical questions Stating hypothesis Remaining aware of the tentative nature of hypothesis 3. Recognizing the logical implications of hypothesis 4. Gathering data Deciding what data will be needed Selecting or rejecting sources on the basis of their relevance to hypothesis 5. Analyzing, evaluating and interpreting data Selecting relevant data from the sources Evaluating the sources Determining the accuracy of statements of fact Interpreting the data 43Charlotte Crabtree, "Inquiry Approaches To Learning Concepts And Generalizations In Social Studies," Social Education 30 (October, 1966). pp. 407-408. 44Edwin Fenton, The Social Studies (Chicago: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1967), pp. 16-17. 33 6. Evaluating the hypothesis in light of the data Modifying the hypothesis, if necessary Rejecting a logical implication supported by data Restating Stating a generalization This model is very similar to the "five-steps in reflective" 45 Dewey and Fenton cautioned Scheme proposed in 1910 by John Dewey. that there is no set rule as to what order is to be followed: in- stead, they emphasized the use of logic in analyzing problems. En- gaging in such inquiries, according to advocates of the new curriculum, will produce autonomous learning, generate added benefits in long term recall, transfer, and instill a command of methods for continu- ing inquiry and intellectual growth. Thus, the emphasis on the process of systematic inquiry is basic to the new social studies. Practically every project claims to use discovery or inquiry teaching strategies, or some formalized inquiry into patterns such as problem-solving, reflective thinking or induc- tion. Another trend in the reform movement is the attempt to teach values to pupils. Some scholars have questioned the assumption that the social sciences per se should constitute the social studies cur- riculum, and a direct transfusion of social sciences will revive the social studies. Proponents of this view contend that since the social scientists, in their quest for knowledge, do not address themselves to value concepts (an important aspect of social studies education), they cannot claim that they are sufficient or even a necessary basis for social studies education. 45 1910). John Dewey, How We Think (Boston: 0. C. Heath and Company, 34 Shirley H. Engle is perhaps one of the strongest advocates for inclusion of value concepts in the structure of a social studies cur- riculum. Engle contends that the structure of social studies curric- ulum should emphasize general ideas or concepts and social problems. His concern with the affective as well as the cognitive dimensions of learning is well summarized in the following words: It has been my simple contention in this letter that every subject in the social studies curriculum can be continuously and usefully related to certain basic ideas essential in think- ing clearly about human affairs and to the social problems attendant in these ideas...I would therefore accept them as the structure of the curriculum and mandate their continuous and progressive mastery and organizing principle for every subject at every grade level.4 Another dimension of the movements is the search for a discipline for the social studies. Samuel P. McCutchen, in an article published "47 in 1962 entitled, "A Discipline For The Social Studies, hypothe- sizes that the existence of a discipline can weld the separate elements 48 He of subject matter into a single field with its own integrity. defines discipline as "A pattern of values which imposes a pattern of behavior on its disciples." Implicit in this definition is the effort to distinguish the purpose of the social studies from those of the social sciences and to limit the struggle amongst scholars in the field. A major implication of this approach is the assumption that social studies is a single discipline rather than a group of related fields 46Shirley H. Engle, "Thoughts In Regard To Revision," Social Education 24 (April, 1963), pp. 182-183. 475amueI P. McCutchen, "A Discipline For The Social Studies," Social Education 27 (February, 1962): 61-65. 48Ioid. 35 (history, geography, political science, economics, sociology, anthro- pology and psychology). McCutchen maintains that the failure of scholars to bring coherence to the social studies has been historical and one that can only be overcome by establishing disciplinary struc- ture of its own. He writes: ...taught in a sequence prescribed in 1916, the social studies grew out of history and political science, then history and geography. As economics and sociology have come to be included, the resultant malange has become more complicated and we have attained a goulash in which the meat, potatoes, and onions are in the same pot but are still not truly synthesized, di- gested, integrated.49 He concludes that: The beginning of wisdom is discerning, describing, and defining a discipline for the social studies is to establish the basic task, the Raison d'etre of the social studies. Perhaps the most basic reason for our public tax-supported schools is that the school is the agency set up to induct the young into this society--a society, be it noted, which distinctively aspires to be self-perfecting. Of the various tools, or areas of study available to the schools, the social studies is the most heavily relied on to carry out this assignment.50 Increased attention to the non-western world and international understanding are added dimensions to the new social studies. The primary objective is for students to understand those things that make people alike and those things that make them different, both demanding mutual respect. In an article published in the Fall of 1872, Merril F. Hartshorn talked about the shift from fostering euro- centric culture in social studies curriculum to one—world curricula to match the emerging awareness of the world condition.5] 4916id.. 61-62. Solbid. 51Merrill F. Hartshorn, "On Intercultural Myopia: ERIC Documents Evaluating Intercultural Curricula," Social Education 36 (November, 1972): 821. 36 The above discussion is an attempt to show that social studies is an evolving and changing field. The ferment in the field must not be taken as a sign of weakness but as a mark of dynamism. Since it is the mark of a dynamic field to have unresolved conflict and a variety of advocates, it is, therefore, incumbent on curriculum plan- ners to be flexible and receptive to changes gained for research in the social and behavioral sciences. Relationship Between The Social Sciences And The Social Studies The belief that the social sciences constitute a major base for the social curriculum is clearly reflected in a classic statement by Edgar B. Wesley who states: "The social studies is the social sciences simplified for pedagogical purposes."52 This relationship has caused confusion among scholars in the reform movement and made it difficult for students to understand the purpose of the social studies. While this definition has been quoted by scholars in the field, it clearly falls short of the concept held by the author. Wesley argues that although the social sciences and the social studies deal with human relationships, they differ as to standards and pur- pose. The term "social studies" refers primarily to materials for instructional purpose. Its major focus is upon social issues or problems of society, rather than upon individuals. Thus, the rela- tionship between the two can best be understood by asking how they differ, rather than merely saying that the social studies is a sim- plified form of the social sciences. It is only with such an 52Edgar B. Wesley, Teaching The Social Studies, 2nd ed. (805- ton, Mass.: D. C. Heath and Company, 1942), p. 6. 37 understanding that one can describe the common characteristics and relationship between the two. Social Science Social science disciplines are separate, organized, scholarly fields of study, whose contents are organized around cultural, social and human relationships and behavior. Each discipline possesses a unique methodology or mode of inquiry. The purpose of the social scientist is to describe and explain the social and cultural behavior of man, to search and contribute new knowledge to his or her disci— pline. As a result of these techniques, the social science disciplines are changing constantly. Scholars in this field are usually associa— ted with the academic departments of colleges and universities or some other research organizations.53 As noted above, the social sciences are separate areas of study characterized by various methods and conceptual schemes dealing with problems within their individual spheres. Thus, instead of a unity of method or a single universe of discourse, one is confronted with diverse methods in each discipline, all attempting to interpret and understand man's social life. Kingsley Davis suggests: It follows that, in so far as the prediction of actual events is concerned, the various social sciences are mutually inter- dependent because only by combining their various points of view can a complete anticipation of future occurrence be achieved.54 The social sciences have much in common and complement one 53Morris R. Lewenstein, Teaching Social Studies In Junior And Senior High Schools (Chicago: Rand, McNally and'Company, 1963), p. 6. 54Kingsley Davis, Human Society (New York: The Macmillan Com- pany, 1948), p. 8. 38 another in many respects. Current developments in each field make it impossible to incorporate all of the research materials into secondary school social studies curriculum. Thus, the question of priority concerning content selection from all the social science disciplines continues to be debated. Social Studies The social studies is a unified field, rather than a collection of subjects, and is designed primarily for instructional purposes. Wesley and Wronski in defining social studies state: The term social studies indicates materials whose content and aim are predominantly social. The social studies utilize the substantive and procedural aspects of the social sciences for pedagogical purpose...Although the social sciences and the social studies are alike in that both deal with human relation- ships, they differ as to standards and purposes. The funda- mental tests of the social sciences are scholarship and eventual social utility, whereas the fundamental test of the social studies is instructional utility.55 The social studies according to Jonathan C. McLendon, are dis- tinguishable from the social sciences in four basic respects: (1) scope; (2) size; (3) purpose; and (4) level of difficulty. In both scope and size the social sciences are much more intensive than the social studies.56 The purpose of the social studies teacher is to direct students in their learning of selected segments of what the social scientists have discovered, and to instill within students the skills and abilities vital to the decision-making process. Hunt and Metcalf emphasize this point when they write: 55Wesley and Wronski, Teaching_Secondary Social Studies, p. 5. 56Jonathan C. McLendon, Social Studies In Secondary Education (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1966), p). 68. 39 The foremost aim of instructions in high school social studies is to help students examine reflectively issues in the closed areas of American culture.57 The social studies is further distinguished from the social science disciplines by its concern for valuation. In their quest for objectivity in research, the social scientists do not address themselves to the question of value, an important component of social studies education. Shirley H. Engle, one of the articulate spokesmen for this view, writes: Practical decisions always involve valuations. Socially, responsible decision-making requires the same care in ground- ing values as that taken in grounding facts. The values in- volved in a decision may be tested against facts, that is: Does the consequence claimed for the value actually follow from that value? Values may be compared for consistency with other values with higher or more general value. In turn, more general values can be investigated for consistency with facts, etc. Social science information and modes of inquiry may be useful in the factual investigation of values, but social science does not tell us what to value, nor can it do so. The citizen's act of decision-making requires a synthesis of fact and valuation...58 Thus, there exists no absolute delimitation between the social sciences and social studies; rather, there is a difference in metho- dology and application. Concepts And Generalizations A number of basic principles for curriculum organization are implicit in the foregoing discussion. But one of the most outstand- ing principles is the current trend towards organizing social studies 57Maurice P. Hunt and Lawrence E. Metcalf, Teaching_High School Social Studies (New York: Harper and Row, 1955), p. 55. 58Shirley H. Engle, "Exploring The Meaning Of Social Studies," Social Education 35 (March 1971): 284. 40 59 The intent is to equip the around concepts and generalizations. student with structures of abstract knowledge, which have been iden- tified by subject matter specialists. The traditional emphasis on rote learning of factual information as an end itself is rejected. It is, however, my opinion that the social studies project from Syracuse University,60 under the direction of Roy A. Price, is of great importance for the development of an improved social studies curriculum. The following discussion is derived from the Syracuse Project. Concepts A concept is an abstraction which refers to a class or group of objects, all of which have common characteristics. It can be thought of as an idealized model of class or things. The implication is that words are not concepts; they can only be considered as concepts when they refer to a class or category of ideas or things. Concepts are not verbalization, but rather an abstract awareness of general attri- butes of a class. A concept can be both physical (e.g., mountain, plateau) or non-physical (e.b., power, republic). Concepts, unlike facts, are developed by the learner from his own experience. Barry Beyer has developed a sequence of steps for the teaching of concepts, with the assumption that by following this mode, students would be able to develop their own concepts. The 59Senesh, "Organizing A Curriculum," pp. 21-38. 60Verna S. Fancett, et al., Social Science Concepts And The Class- room (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, Printing Division, 1968), and Roy A. Price, Warren Hickman and Gerald Smith, Major Conoopts For Social Studies (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1965). 41 steps are as follows:61 Brainstorming Grouping and classifying Identifying interrelations Synthesizing , -Dcnrv-d Implicit in this process is the assumption that concepts are developed in the classroom out of a stimulus provided by the teacher. Thus, skillful teaching will help students identify problems in pre- sent day social, economic and cultural interaction. Since it is impossible to develop a complete list of social studies concepts, the Curriculum Center at Syracuse has focused essen- tially on the basic concepts which are not restricted to a single discipline, with the assumption that these concepts will be built on progressively throughout the student's experience. The center has specifically identified three schemes that are of great importance to the social studies, these include substantive, value and method- ological concepts. (See FIGURE I.)* The thirty-four examples selected are particularly valuable for curriculum organization. The list consists of concepts that are significant in understanding interactions among men and those that can be developed in the classroom from either inter-disciplinary or multi-disciplinary perspectives. The Syracuse Conceptual Statement is a major attempt to simplify the scope and sequence problems which are faced in the "Structure of disciplines approach" discussed earlier. 61Barry K. Beyer, Inquiry In The Social Studies Classroom: A Strategy For Teachiog_(Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1971), pp. 19-124. *Roy A. Price, Warren Hickman and Gerald Smith, Major Concepts For The Social Studies, prepared by the Social Studies Curriculum Center (Suracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1965). 42 SUBSTANTIVE CONCEPTS Sovereignty of the Nation-State 10. in the Community of Nations 11. Conflict - Its Origin, Expression and Resolution 12. The Industrialization-- Urbanization Syndrome l3. Secularization 14. Compromise and Adjustment 15. Comparative Advantage 16. Power 17. Morality and Choice 18. Scarcity VALUES CONCEPTS Dignity of Man 4. Empathy 5. Loyalty ASPECTS OF METHOD METHODOLOGICAL CONCEPT Historical Method and 3. Point of View The Geographical Approach TECHNIQUES OF METHOD Observation, Classification 5. and Measurement Analysis and Synthesis Questions and Answers Objectivity FIGURE I * Major Social Studies Concepts Input and Output Saving The modified Market Economy Habitat and Its Significance Culture Institution Social Control Social Change Interaction Government by Consent of the Governed Freedom and Equality Causation Skepticism Interpretation Evaluation Evidence 43 Generalizations Generalizations are defined as general statements or theories which state some relationship between or among concepts. They are universally applied at the highest level of abstraction relevant to all time or stated times about man, past and/or present. They have the following attributes: l. The stated generalization, or context in which it appears, shows that the author believes that there are no known exceptions. 2. The stated generalization is not limited to or by refer- ence to specific geographic or cultural boundaries. 3. The facts upon which a generalization is based are not, in themselves, generalizations. 4. Neither a concept nor a definition is here considered to be a generalization and can appear only in the context of an otherwise acceptable generalization. 5. Opinions are not considered generalizations unless the specialist also reports that the opinion, as a hypothesis, has been tested and found out to have no exceptions. 6. Generalizations must have applicability to all places in all times, or be applicable to all places within a stated period.52 In short, a generalization is a linkage between concepts, an abstraction referring to whole classes rather than specific instances or examples. It is based on inference and requires insight and com- prehension. One method for incorporating concepts and generalizations into the curriculum has been suggested by James A. Banks,63 with regard to the teaching of Black History. In an attempt to incorporate the 62Fancett, et al., Social Science Concepts, p. 8. 63James A. Banks, "Teaching Black History With A Focus On Decision Making," Social Education 35 (November, 1971): 743-744. 44 Black experience into a conceptual curriculum, Banks has identified seven key concepts from the various disciplines, which can be taught within a historical framework and which relate organizing generaliza- tions and sub-generalizations associated with Black History. This approach is very similar to the Syracuse Project, and is one that can be applied to the teaching of African experience. CHAPTER IV Analysis Of Selected Social Studies Projects In The United States Since 1960 over fifty projects have been developed in social studies, representing, as a group, virtually every phase of K-12 curriculum. Most of the projects are funded either by the federal government or private agencies. For the moSt part, these projects are housed at or near colleges and universities, utilizing the tal- ents of scholars from different disciplines. Thus, the contents reflect an acceptance, in large measure, of the structure of dis- cipline orientation espoused by Bruner and others. The teaching strategies which are proposed can generally be described as inquiry or its various derivations, e.g., "discovery" and "induction." While a specific discipline is taken as the framework of the majority of the projects, they tend to be either multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary in that they extract concepts, generalizations and data from other disciplines. Frederick R. Smith and C. Benjamin Cox have described the projects: ...each project is unique, and any similarity to other projects in goals or purposes can be attributed more to general curricu- lum and instructional theory than to purposeful planning or coordination among the projects themselves. The projects selected for analysis can be categorized as 64Smith and Cox, New Strategies And Curriculum, p. 131. 45 46 comprehensive, discipline-oriented or area-oriented. The comprehen- sive projects seek to develop complete social studies programs for more than one grade, using multiple sets of objectives and ideas from several, if not all, disciplines. The projects use ideas and methods from one of the disciplines for the focus or organization of curriculum, but do not necessarily exclude content from other disci- plines (A few of them may be discipline-oriented in title, but dif- ficult to distinguish from comprehensive projects in practice.) The content and procedures of area-oriented projects are relevant to a number of disciplines and types of objectives. A project for each of these categories will be reviewed in this chapter. University of California at Berkeley: Asian Studies Inquiry Program The program was developed in 1965 under the directorship of John U. Michaelis and Robin J. McKeown. The basic aim of the program is to develop instructional materials at all grade levels for the study of Asia. The study is made up of fifteen units and divided in- to three broad topics: Asian thought, changing patterns of Asian life and traditional patterns of Asian life. Materials included in the program are intended for the average tenth grade student, but the reading level is lower and can be used by ninth graders. The average cost of each unit is $5.00; there are no recommended films, transparencies nor artifacts. A teacher's manual accompanies each unit, giving a general statement of strategy rather than detailed lesson plans found in some other projects. The units are planned for twelve weeks but the time period can be 47 extended by use of outside materials. The teacher is encouraged to be flexible and innovative. The program covers all the social science disciplines, including history, literature, and the humanities. The rationale for developing the program is to give students a deep look into the personal lives of many Asians of the past and present. It also attempts to expose students to issues that are of universal concern, and to give them insight into the behavior of men. Since Asia constitutes 60% of the earth's population, with a variety of cultures, it is necessary that students be exposed to that continent. The course gives a different look at Asia than is found in most history or geography courses. The objectives are not restricted to one discipline nor stated in behavioral terms; rather, major emphasis is placed on the cognitive. The student is encouraged to critically investigate and analyze the economic, social and political development of the people. The emphasis is not on the great events in history as much as on the everyday lives of the masses. The authors proclaim their belief in inquiry which is defined as embracing three important clusters of skills: 1. Acquiring, comprehending and interpreting information 2. Analyzing information 3. Synthesizing information65 The teacher is encouraged not only to be innovative but to establish an intellectual climate in the classroom in which students raise 65John U. Michaelis and Robin J. McKeown. coordinators, Asian Thought Teacher's Manual (San Francisco: Field Educational Publica- tions, Inc., 1969), p. 7. 48 questions of their own and live comfortably without closure on com- plex issues. They should not play the role of final judge of the quality of answers but rather stimulate profitable lines of think- ing. The most impressive feature of the program is that the readings are based on primary sources. Most of the readings are written by Asians or by Westerners who directly observed the Asian scene. For the most part, the materials appear to be quite readable by the aver- age high school student. The use of a variety of authors is an added advantage giving the students opportunities to determine bias which may grow out of an author's role in certain events. A major weakness of the program, in my opinion, is the absence of a set of criteria for evaluating students. The authors expect teachers to develop their own evaluation devices, while cautioning that all testing must be designed to truly measure the objectives. However, it is unlikely that many teachers will have time and energy to develop a systematic evaluation. Evaluation would be much facil- itated if exemplary evaluation activities were included in the pro- gram. In summary, the program has well-reasoned strategies and se- quence of learning and teachers need preparation to use it as intended. In my opinion, the materials are consistent with the National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) Guidelines. Through careful use of the resources in the teacher's manual, the program offers choice, variety and flexibility. 49 University of Minnesota: Project Social Studies The project was developed by a team of social studies special- ists and classroom teachers directed by Edith West. After months of thorough examination of the social sciences, West and associates concluded that their project was not to be organized around a single discipline, but rather an integrated approach to the social sciences. According to West and staff: It should be noted that problems within any society are not neatly separated into political, economic and social problems... The study of societal problems, therefore, requires inter- disciplinary efforts. 65 The aim of the project is to help students apply social science methods to significant social context. The directors contend that citizenship education requires inquiry skills as well as social science knowledge. The development of values, according to the dir- ectors, is as important as learning any specific content or social science system. A statement for the teacher's guide describes the relationship between values, content and scientific skills: The sixth grade course was developed with a view of helping pupils develop many of the scholarly values identified by the center's staff for the entire social studies program. It was designed also to develop a number of attitudes related to public values or the ground rules for the operation of a demo- cratic society. It should be noted, moreover, that some of these attitudes are basic to an overall value which has not 67 been stated for each of the units - the value of human dignity. The program emphasizes inquiry as a teaching strategy, but 66Edith West, "The Social Science Disciplines," Background Paper No. 2, Social Studies Curriculum Center (Minneapolis: Univer- sity of Minnesota, 1968), pp. 14-15. 67Teacher's Guide To The Sixth Grade Course On United States History; From Community To Society, Project Social Studies Curriculum Center (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, 1968), p 50 also uses other strategies. Inquiry is defined as a strategy requir- ing students to set up and test hypotheses and often is accomplished as a teacher-led discussion. It is used to promote interest and to teach concepts, generalizations and inquiry skills. The program provides continuity and sequential development of concepts, generalizations, skills and attitudes. The organizational structure is very similar to Senesh's "organic curriculum and its orchestration." The materials consist of published books, maps, film- strips, film and sound tapes. Some of the units suggest the use of local resource persons and materials. The teacher's guide provides an overview of each course and its relationship to other courses in the curriculum. Although the project was field tested in the Speedier Pilots in Pennsylvania, and in Bellevue, Washington, using standardized tests, no specific or systematic evaluation is recommended for class- room use. This, in my opinion, is a weakness of the project, since a comprehensive evaluation of any project is one of the most impor- tant variables in curriculum development. In summary, the carefully reasoned rationale and well planned coordination and sequence of learning are strong points of the pro- gram. There is a good balance between the disciplines, and attention is given to skills and attitudes as well as knowledge. The program is an example of a comprehensive project which seeks to develop com- plete social studies programs for more than one grade. Another strong point of the project is the attempt to blend several disciplines along with objectives from personal and social dimensions. 51 University of Georgia: Anthropology Curriculum Project (ACP) The project was developed in 1964 under the directorship of Marion J. Rice and Wilfrid C. Bailey, both of the University of Georgia. Originally intended for elementary students the project has since developed materials for use in Kindergarten through senior high school. The center has developed a variety of materials for both the teacher and students, and these can be obtained from the university. The instructional materials take the form of teacher background information, pupil guides, pupil textbooks and tests. One of the basic premises of the ACP is that the understanding of a subject, such as anthropology, should begin with mastery of the terminology symbolizing basic ideas. The directors explain their rationale for selection and organization of the content as follows: Any field of knowledge, such as anthropology, consists of a system of concepts, cu“ world labels, which one uses to express ideas and describe relationships. An understanding or the mas- tery of any field of knowledge begins with an understanding of the concept system, the meaning of which expands and develops as the knowledge of the discipline is extended...68 Some of the program materials contain general objectives and often include specific lesson-by-lesson objectives. The objectives are not stated in affective terms; the major emphasis is on the cogni- tive process. Most, if not all, of the ACP materials emphasize four major areas of anthropological study: physical, cultural, archaelogical, and linguistic. Most of the curriculum is organized in cultural 68Anthropology Curriculum Project; The Concept Of Culture: Teacher's Guide Grade 4 (Athens, Georgia: Anthropology Curriculum Project, 1965), pp. 1-2. 52 imperatives, or facets of culture that occur in varying forms, thus permitting students to explore simultaneously the similarities and differences between cultures. Anthropological concepts are intro- duced in the early grades and elaborated throughout the curriculum (e.g., Grades 7—12 materials are units that reinforce anthropological concepts introduced at the lower levels). The ACP claims to be deductively rather than inductively or- ganized, although some of the lessons developed later in the project are inductive. Oscar Jarvis, one of the program coordinators, has defined deductive method as: ...the closely directed explanatory process by which children are given generalizations along with supporting evidence and are helped by the teacher to draw valid conclusions.69 Implicit in this definition is the assumption that the most effective means of providing students with a system of ideas is to present these ideas to them by using examples and by directing their practice. The strategy involves identifying and organizing the materials to be taught, and then developing some way of presenting them to the student. The strategy of the project is simple and straightforward. The materials are to be reviewed until the student has mastered them; then exercises and discussion are used to get the student to apply what has been learned. The program uses a number of interesting dir- ect strategies including programmed instruction. There are no set conditions for its implementation; students from a broad spectrum can successfully use the materials. Field 69Oscar Jarvis, "The Deductive Method Of Teaching Anthropology" Teaching Anthropology In Elementary School (Athens, Georgia: Anthro- pology Project, 1967), p. 5. 53 test data indicate that the materials can be taught by teachers with no background in anthropology. However, a considerable amount of reading and preparation time is necessary in order to feel confident in using the materials effectively. Tests to measure student achievement of cognitive objectives are included in the teacher's guide. Two forms are included for each grade so that the teacher can do pre and post-testing. The pro- ject has been field tested and, based on the data, students gained a significant amount of information about anthropological concepts after using the materials. The strengths of this project outweigh its weaknesses. To a remarkable degree, the program appears to have coherence from Kinder- garten through high school. It does not suffer from the defects of requiring teachers to write resource units and provides sufficient information for students to use. The project has great social impor- tance and could easily fit into a civics or problems of democracy course in high school. A major weakness of the project is that most of the generaliza- tions are illustrated with data from the city of Atlanta and the state of Georgia. While the concepts used can apply to any metro- politan area, students might be more motivated if the generaliza- tions dealt with other cities and states. Another criticism of the program is that too much emphasis is put on the vocabulary and method- ology of anthropology in the elementary grades. On the whole, however, the project is an excellent one. 54 Summary The three projects analyzed are by no means a cross represen- tation of all the social studies projects developed so far, but are selected examples illustrating some of the trends in the field of social studies. They provide structures that are more relevant to the Sierra Leone situation than projects such as the Harvard Univer- sity social studies project or the Amherst Units in American His- tory. The three approaches are broad enough to be adapted by schools in Sierra Leone. CHAPTER V A Proposed Model For Social Studies Curriculum For Secondary Schools In Sierra Leone It is a truism in education that no educational system exists in a social or political vacuum. Education derives its philosophy and much of its value from the culture in which it is found, assuming that educational objectives are related to the social setting in which they are supposed to function. In short, educational goals emanate from the needs of society. But, while educational objectives are societal in nature, not all the aims of society can be achieved through education. Instead, educational objectives must be aimed at the need to understand the problems of the age. It is therefore more accurate to say that educational objectives are ascertained, 7O rather than determined, by school personnel. During periods of rapid changes, it is necessary for educators to re-examine the philosophy and values of the society and the educa- tional practices for consistency. Both need to be reiterated and confirmed for they provide the basis of stability and continued progress. Other values may need to be modified or changed or new values substituted as the culture demands. The major focus of this study is on developing a model for social studies for schools in Sierra Leone. In this chapter, systems 70Wesley and Wronski, Teaching Secondary Social Studies, p. 45. 55 56 analysis will be used as a method for identifying guidelines for social studies curriculum development. A system is defined in this paper as the sum total of separate parts working independently and in interaction to achieve previously specified objectives. Educa- tion considered as a system includes curriculum and instruction, administration and management, all working together to achieve the goals of education. Roger A. Kaufman describes the systems analy- sis approach to education as process oriented rather than simply descriptive in nature.71 This approach can be a viable tool for educators. It does min- imize the likelihood of adapting prepackaged solutions before require- ments for solutions have been identified. The systems approach re- quires that the problem to be solved be identified and specified before solutions are tried. Frequently, educational agencies have unfortunate experiences with the application of solutions which are inappropriate to the problem because of logical leaps. A systems analysis approach requires that problems be solved so that the sum total of separate parts of the system working independently and to- gether can achieve previously specified objectives. The educational world is complex, and it would seem that this formal problem-solving model will serve it well. It provides the data for selecting and implementing the most effective and efficient solutions, strategies, and vehicles for getting from what is, to what is required. Against this background, the following important guidelines 7Roger A. Kaufman, Educational System Planning (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1972). 57 are provided for curriculum development.72 Analysis of society Objectives: (a) societal, (b) educational Curriculum materials Learning and teaching Evaluation mwa—a Analysis Of Society There are many cultural, social, economic and political needs of modern society which are considered vital to the common welfare of every society. The study of these is important in modern educa- tion, or at least for any social studies teacher. As stated above, Sierra Leone, as a developing nation, is under- going tremendous and far reaching changes--changes from a wholly agrarian society to a partly agrarian and partly industrial society. The society is witnessing the dawn of a new era and a new social age. It is a nation in the making, a developing nation with limitless possibilities for both success and failure, and with limitless chal- lenges for statesmanship and foresight, if not adventure. The fron- tiers must be explored, the impediments have to be removed, new vistas have to be realized and the challenges have to be met. Indeed, the tasks ahead are enormous and education is a potent force that can help steer the ship of state to safety. The following are some crit- ical needs and problems facing Sierra Leone: 1. National integration--the creation of the sense of oneness or belonging to a unified whole and of sharing the same national sentiments, problems and national entity in which genuine concern of any part of it is the genuine concern of all. 72Adapted from Wesley and Wronski, Teaching Secondary_Sociol Studies, p. 20. 58 Analysis of Societ Objectives Societal and Educations Curriculum Materials Learning and Teachin Process Evaluation FIGURE II A Systems Analysis Of The Social Studies Curriculum 59 2. Social and cultural integration--the integration of the common elements in the cultural patterns which will augment the concept of national integration. 3. Integration of the traditional elements into a new democratic framework. This is the creation of new local bodies building on the old and reflecting the new changes, the har- monious blending together of the old and new so that social changes can take place without severe cultural disruption or political disintegration. 4. Awakening of interest in agriculture which will not only increase production but also combat the prevailing nega- tive attitude towards manual labor. 5. Developing a sense of responsibility, the feeling of justifiable obligation, dedication and love towards one's community. 6. Preparation of the people for technological changes, that is, the inculcation of the attitudes, the desires and habits of life which will make the desired changes both neces- sary and desirable. 7. Placing education at the very center in the process of nation-building. In building curriculum for shcools in any society, the curric- ulum designer must take into account the needs and values of the individual as well as the requirements of society. But since the focus of this study is on the social studies curriculum, greater emphasis will be put on social rather than individual imperatives. Objectives Societal The final report of the Addis Ababa Conference of 1961 declares as follows: The development of human resources is as urgent and essential as the development of material resources...Educational invest- ment is of a long term nature, but if groperly planned obtains simultaneously a high rate of return.7 73Final Report Of The Conference Of African States On The Development Of Education In Africa, ECA/UNESCO, 1961, p. v. 60 It is against this background that the following immediate and long range societal objectives for Sierra Leone are drawn: 1. To develop the manpower needs of Sierra Leone in the light of future development. 2. To assist in social reconstruction. This implies some degree of cultural synthesis that will cut across sectional or regional boundaries (e.g., colony vs. protectorate) and ethnic groups to foster social solidarity. 3. To develop a social philosophy for national integra- tion. This philosophy should weld the new ideas to the tra- ditional way of life and keep the diverse elements together, thus forming a basis for national development. 4. To enhance political integration (i.e., the integra- tion of political activities into a common national cause, one that will transcend all boundaries). 5. To transform the present public or civil service into a service that formulates a bold, imaginative and productive policy to meet the needs and welfare of the majority of the people, instead of the present circumvented and mediocre system which is grossly inefficient. 6. To seek either to adapt the educational system inher- ited at independence to the goals of the post colonial leader- ship or develop a new system that will be relevant to the country's developmental problems and national aspirations. Educational Objectives Most African leaders view schools as major agencies for na- tional development. Students are expected to graduate with technical competence, but also with dispositions relevant to the demands of social and political development. In the measure that the society hopes to create a new political form, the upcoming generation needs to be socialized into the new modes of thought and behavior. Thus, the configuration of Socializing agents assums critical proportions. The schools are one of these agents. Based on the above description, the Sierra Leone government in 61 1970 issued "A White Paper On Education" stating the general aim of education in Sierra Leone. The following is a summary: The general aim of our educational policy is to provide every child with an education which takes fully into account: character development his interests, ability and aptitude the manpower needs of the country, and the economic resources of the state so that his educa- tion can be of use to the country and at the same time 74 provide opportunities for him to be successful in life. O-OU'QJ It must be pointed out, however, that the general aim stated above is contradictory. When viewed in practical terms, it is not always possible for educators to effectively deal with all the four broad areas identified (i.e., character development, student inter- est, manpower and economic needs of the country) on the same level. However, developing nations tend to resolve this conflict by placing greater emphasis on societal needs and, in the case of Sierra Leone, on the economic and manpower needs of the society. The following methods are proposed for achieving this general aim at the secondary level. Under the International Development Aid (IDA) project sponsored by the United States and recently approved by the Sierra Leone government, the content of secondary education is to be diversified so as to provide more technical, commercial, and agricultural subjects in eleven secondary schools throughout the country. At the same time, a curriculum revision team, using the report of a proposed manpower survey team as a guide, will revise the primary and secondary school curricula in four key subjects: science, mathematics, English and social studies. These eleven 74Sierra Leone Government, Ministry of Education, White Roper On Egucational Policy, 1970 (Freetown: Government Printing Press, 1970 . 62 schools will be extended and re-equiped to enable them to teach these subjects efficiently. The intent is for the schools to help meet the manpower needs of Sierra Leone not only at the professional and sub-professional levels (by continuing to produce an adequate flow of students for university), but also at the middle 1evel--a level which has acute shortages in both public and private sectors. The above statement is functional, inasmuch as the aim is stated in practical, useful ways which point toward desirable out- comes to be attained or behavioral changes to be learned. Education is seen in this objective as a means to enable the individual to develop for the good of the community and therefore for himself. The proposed model for social studies is an attempt to bring the above policy to realization. Rationale And Objectives The proposed social studies curriculum is an attempt to pro- vide education that is sufficiently diversified to provide the student with the abilities and skills to accept responsibility in a self-governing nation in the modern, complex world. The model is based on the needs of the Sierra Leone society, identified in the "White Paper On Education" issued in 1970 by the government. The objectives of the project include: 1. Sensitizing the student to his own environment, social heritage and the problems of a developing country. 2. Developing the ability to identify and evaluate critically the economic, social and political problems and situations he will face as a citizen. 3. Understanding the development of a democratic society, and a sense of obligation to contribute effectively to national development. 63 Specific objectives are stated at the beginning of each unit. The major concern of the project is the cognitive domain, but the affective domain is implicit in choice-making and value decision. Content The entire model is oriented toward the multidisciplinary or inter-disciplinary approach to the teaching of social studies. Social issues and awareness are developed as the core of the pro- ject. The following books are recommended but not required. 1. J. R. Bunting, Civics For Self-Government. London: Evans Brothers Ltd., 1965. 2. C. R. Niven, You And Your Government. London: Evans Brothers Ltd., 1965. 3. Christopher Fyfe, A Short History Of Sierra Leone. London: Longman's Green and Company Ltd., 1962. Teachers are encouraged to use the guidelines provided under curric- ulum materials in developing their own materials. Methodology The major thrust of the project is toward group activities using the inquiry process. Each class learns to analyze itself as a social system and develop skills in improving social dynamics. The cooperative group process. Conditions For Implementation There are no set criteria for implementing the project. The units are developed for any student in form one and two (grades 8 and 9). Teachers will be required to attend a workshop every quarter for a week to familiarize themselves with the different teaching 64 strategies proposed. Following is a proposed syllabus for forms one and two for secondary schools in Sierra Leone. The syllabus is based on the proposed social studies curriculum model developed in the study. Syllabus is defined here as a summary outline of a course of study. 65 .cowumeoaooo use ace—ecoo we muaoocoo ogu wusuoepcw mmwm»_w=e _ecowuo:=u mcmzuo toe cowum -qurmcou use uuwamuc .wocmco_ou wo muamocoo ecu muse rogucm .nsocm new wo Luuuucuzo mg» on uwampavoe zuzum < .xuwczssou oz» ecu Foozom .»_wsmm .Eoocmmm_o we“ umcwxu5-:ovmwuau mo auspm < .:o_umzuwm Eoocmmm_u we“ mcwm: I Queen 5 :_ x—anumsu mcw>wp mo «an: we xuaum < .uum .zpwEmUFom .co__cu .toscmw gnu - xu_::EEou w;u.:~ Lonup *o cowmr>mu mo muamucou age .xuwcsseoo on» c_ oucoumwmeOU _=wmomwa to» gauge ecu 3m; mung: mm_Faa=m as: ”meow: Lao .zuwczfieou a mo mwmmn mm mowpwEmw mo aesum w>_umcmasou .ucmEumsncm van wmreocasou use »p_~»o_ .zuwpmzaw ecu acumen» .auwco=u=u .cozoa we munmocou ecu muzvoeu new .nsogm _mwuom a mu zFrsaw a: .x—wsmm use use; Lao . .goaocaam FauVmOFowuom was _mo_mo_oaocgu=m =< ~»_wsmc a we was: zu_==EEou wcu cw mco_u:u_umcw emsuo azocm Lao prwc:EEoo a me peg: xuwczeeou x5 cw :owuauwumcm cm mu xFVEmu mgh An cm: mo waEmm one an zoccofieou ecu xmuou .xmucmomo» .xuw::EEoo mucenghew use mm:_u> cuss: eo acmanpw>wu 6;» e? ea>_o>e_ Soc Am wean m? o; cows: cw masocm :_ momoqczq mo acman~m> -ae we“ :2 ouaa_o_ueaa A4 mcmzuo ;u_z wcozm on go; :men An quPinmcoamwc mo mmcmm m aon>mo AN .mm:a_c Icomu new muawocoo mucwwum meoom mewm: mcowuumguu -cw qaocm F—mem m~»_ucm o» mpnm on u_:o;m mucousum AF p Esau Iumhumnmo gm>u4 meown ascomm :H mpoo;um Lou ozh vc< oco mated com msnmypxm mmwusum Fwwoom ummoaoca < 66 .mwm>mp wmcowuomm ucm Femo— msu me mcowuumpm .mcowuoesw muw mam wwuczou mowemmwu as“ .uoweumwe a mmuauwmmeoo “as; - uoeemm_o mew .uum; mmupww> .qucaou mmmwww> mgu .apwEew mem I mme_w_> mzu cw meowuauwumew acmemww_e mem ucmEccm zuwczseou mg» o» mxme emu wusuw>wccw mg» cows: cowpanwcucou mzu we ucm ucman—m> Imu muw cow mzwm> wo mw was: we use xuwc=EEoo mzu we mcwucmumcmuc: c< AN .cow>m;mn mam uuzucoo wcsuw>wucw wo mutmucmum wo cowuuucmucw mgu I mchm mmmwpw> mcu we xoow mmowo < I>oo L=o> use 30> Aw uczom we ucmEQowm>mu mg» AF N Econ .mmcmso use auwwwaeum meoom cmmzumn mocmwmn m mcw>mwzom use .mmEmgu mmmcu uczocm mcoprNwwmcmcmm mecmmco .mmwvaum mmmesz 6cm momma wo mmm mmmu vcm .mmumnmu .mzowmmsumwu Low muwaou umuompmm Icmucw ms» cw cowumcmqoou .mcom4 mgcmwm cw mam, wo gm: xmw as: mgh .mcw—oogom xgmswga mmcw Lo mmocm Eeowuawa .mcomo acemwm cw co can a .mmxmu Fmoow I xmgm>ocucoo uwwnsa wo xuzum < cowumcmaooo ucm muwwwcoo ..PPOZ 0.0.0 .Eovocwx cmuwcw< ucmwucm mco wo xvapm < .xuw23220m use »_w5mw .woocum mgu I haw—wnwmcoammc use Eoummcu .zm— mew .mcowuapwumcw cmzuo An umwwmwumm mew Quota m we mcmnsms wo maze: ucmcmwwwu so; mpmcumcoemu cu meme ma u_:ozm muaEmuu< .uum .awwEmw .Eoocmmmwu I aaocm czo m_mco mcwua—ucw mqumczuasocmwo.zv=um :uamuIcw c< .=mvcmc poosom I momwoem azocw .qaoem m mchwzmmeo .me5 exam mzu aw mcwumma pwucsou ucm umemE :mao as ou uwmw> < .auwcaséoo .auw::EEoo mg» cw mmmuoca quocoum ms» cam wwoczoo xuwczesom mew wmowuwwoa ucm owEocoum Lao xukumqmo 4u>m4 umscwucou mane—FAm 67 mcowoocow use oeooootum a: we €36 53.8-5 ea $8.,an Bots 9: a meowoocow new .owgm Icmosoe .xgoomw; I xowca coowcw< wo cowuoncmmco mew AF Emwcoowcw Emwpocowuoz Ao Emw—ocowuoz .m> Emwwocowuomm Am .mowoou mmmzu wo zoom mchooum cw gooocoom m>woocoosoo o mm: emumam zucooImco owpocoosmo o mamw_owoom cmowew< AN .Emumxm coco wo xozom 55.5 upgoz Low mow>wo mmommw owwnoo mcwnap Ioco tow m—__xm owmon on» oowm>mo mocmosom owm: AN xumwoom mcomo mecmwm mso mzwoow mam—norm owmmo ozone >Fm>wp Iom—wmc xcwco oo mocmooum nuovacw =< .AoogooEmo one Emwc=EEou .Emwwowoom AF memomxm wmwwom wmowowwoo :oomo oo ooemoom c< AF N Econ .oum .o:mEm>wo>:w .mmxop .mcwoo> ”mmwuwwwnwmcoommg Loo» I cm~wuwu owuogoosmo one Aww mcmzuo cow cowuocmowmcou can oomommm .mocmco_ow Am cowcwoo ow: oco cmepwu mzw Av mmow>smm acooco—o> Am u_coz meowumpommm oco mmwzm AN mgo oco mcomo occmwm wo :owumcmooou. AF ocmEooFo>mo cm~wuwo e we mowpwnwmcoommc huwca==oo one Aw wmcowuoz Low mow>wo wmowuw—oo cow cowuooovm Am .mcmuomw Pocowom: ucm pmoow wo accomwz wmmemomF ”mcomo .xuoumw: Foco mcw~wpwuo xocumw; Pocowooc can woooo oecmwm wo xeoomwx AN zuHhumomo om>mo umocwucou monoFFAm 68 The Curriculum Materials In proposing a social studies model for schools in Sierra Leone certain facts must be accepted. The model must reflect the needs of the Sierra Leone society or the African society instead of the European. The curriculum itself must be flexible enough to meet the challenges of new changes and skills within the society and the world at large. This calls for new ways of doing things, new skills, new tools and new knowledge. These in turn create new prob- lems and challenges. One of the anticipated problems and challenges that a new social studies curriculum will face will be that of textbooks or curriculum materials. Since there are no publishing houses in Sierra Leone and all classroom books for elementary to college level are im- ported, the need for research in curriculum-materials must be under- taken. This exercise must be a cooperative enterprise between the curriculum specialists, subject matter experts, classroom teachers and students. The Ministry of Education and the Institute of Education should, as far as they can, encourage local innovations and local materials drawn from the immediate environment in the teaching of social studies (local and oral history, local geography, and the development of materials on the Guman Dam Valley and its impact on the surrounding communities). A gold mine of untapped resource materials awaits exploration, and teachers, scholars, and institutions of higher learn- ing must play an active role in this process. The teachers and the community should be actively involved in the improvement of social studies. First, the teacher must recognize 69 and understand the social issues of the society. Second, the commun- ity should be involved through Parent-Teacher meetings, something that is presently absent in the Sierra Leone educational system. This will provide a.forum for interaction between teachers and the parents. After all, students educated in the schools have to go back and partake in the duties of the community. It, therefore, wouldtxaunrealistic to ignore the community in improving and deter- mining what should be taught in social studies. Education, as noted above, should be a function of the cul- tural matrix in which it operates. As such, any educational system must reflect the particular culture of which it is a part. When- ever education plays an effective role in the development of a nation, it is always geared to the needs and aspirations of the people. For example, in Japan after the Meiji Restoration in 1872, the policy of seeking foreign knowledge was implemented not by adoption but by adaptation; the foreign systems were adapted and grafted into the in- digenous culture. I would, therefore, propose the adaptation of the National Council For The Social Studies (NCSS) guidelines for select- ing curriculum materials.75 (See Appendix B.) The NCSS Guidelines can serve two purposes: 1. They can function as a guide for schools and commun- ities, teachers, departments and school districts interested in updating their programs especially by incorporating the most promising, recent, and visible developments in the so— cial studies. 2. They can serve as a baseline from which in even more creative directions beyond what most regard as modern and 75Task Force on Curriculum Guidelines: Gary Manson, Gerald Marker, Jan Tucker and Anna Ochoa, "Social Studies Curriculum Guide- lines,“ Social Education 35 (December, 1971): 860-869. 7O . . 7 innovative. 6 The most impressive feature of these guidelines is the ration- ale, which is consistent with Bloom's Taxonomy Of Educational Objec- times: The rationale assumes that knowledge, thinking, valuing and social participation are essential components to human dignity is a major purpose of social studies education.77 The NCSS Guidelines can provide or be a starting point for selecting social studies curriculum materials. They are broad enough to be easily adapted to the needs of Sierra Leone schools. Learning And Teaching Process The program integrates three main learning strategies: manip- ulative activities, case study or group projects and community ex- ploration. The concrete manipulative activities help students' skill in using a range of materials and physical artifacts, and to become more confident in dealing with abstract questions about their different communities. Under case studies or special projects, stu- dents working in groups under the guidance of the teacher can ex- plore and report to the class on following topics such as: A local election The Guman Valley Dam in Sierra Leone Travel and Transportation in Sierra Leone Local voluntary societies Local natural resources (fish, minerals and agricultural produce, etc.) (J'l-wa-d The students can explore these in detail by reading, debates, discussions, watching films and recreating case study events and 761bid., p. 854. 71 artifacts in the classroom. Besides enabling students to delve deeply intoeaparticular set of relationships and circumstances, these activities will also help students learn how to draw information from source materials, use the inquiry process, and arrive at in- formed decisions. Through community exploration they will have an opportunity to draw analogies between concepts introduced in the classroom, and their immediate world, and to act in support of the values to which they are exposed. Thus, the family, friends, com- munity all become potential participants and resources in a shared learning adventure. In addition to these strategies, it is imperative that the teacher maintain an open climate of discussion in the classroom to encourage student inquiry. The "authoritarian" role of the teacher that is typical of our school system must give way to a more demo- cratic process in the classroom. The democratic process of teaching is nest conducive to a desirable climate for inquiry. The teacher must view the classroom as a type of "discovery laboratory" where opinions and views of students are respected and tested. Students should be encourared to express their views, beliefs, and values on social issues being studied, knowing that their views are subject to analysis and evaluation rather than ridicule. Jan Tucker lists the following characteristics as a general description of an inquiry-centered social studies classroom: 1. The learners are active and the content is problem centered. 2. It emphasizes the systematic study of problems, issues and values. 3. It utilizes the intellectual tools of inquiry. 72 C 4. It becomes progressively less teacher directed.78 In conjunction with this general description, I would recommend the "six-phase reflective" model proposed by Massialas and Cox depicting the classroom as a forum of inquiry. - Orientation. In this phase of the procedure, students and teacher alike become sensitive to an existing problem situa- tion. An awareness of the problem may arise from a textbook passage, or springboard, which students read in the course of their preparation. Or the problem may be expressly pre- pared by the teacher and assigned as a question. An orien- tation may be gained by means of isolated tracts, summaries, ideas, or generalizations. At some point, whatever its course, this phase comes to focus on a question which calls for an explanation, relationship, solution, or policy... Hypothesis. This is the primary, declarative, general state- ment of explanation or solution; it expresses as clearly as possible the antecedent and consequent relationship, explana- tion, description, or policy which would apply to the social phenomenon under consideration. The hypothesis or hypotheses-- alternative solutions are often hypothesized--represent search models which subsequently guide the students and teacher toward relevant evidence. The hypothesis escapes the particular by restating the elements and relationships in general terms... Definition. The task of defining is really not to be isolated in the process inasmuch as meaning and definition are constant elements in all phases of reflective inquiry. Agreement on the meaning of terms is a requirement for the dialogue of inquiry. This task frequently demands the construction of operational . definitions when authoritative meanings do not fit the case. While definition is emphasized in the orientation and hypoth- esizing phases, the entire reflective enterprise is character- ized by the question, "What do you mean by ?"... Erplanation. Whereas orientation and hypothesizing tend to be inductive in nature, this phase tends to be deductive. The hypothesis is more carefully explicated in terms of logical deductions and implications, and assumptions, and premises. Qualifying and delimiting factors are more exactly spelled out. The finding of logically untenable grounds may cause a major reconstruction of the hypothesis at this time... 78Jan Tucker, "A Classroom Challenge: Teaching A Method Of Inquiry," California Social Science Review 4 (May, 1965): 30. 73 Evidenciog. The process of making reference to empirical data for support and proof of the hypothesis is conjunctive with exploration. That is, the search model character of the hy- pothesis and its implications indicate the kind of facts and evidence needed to support the hypothesis. Generalization. The conclusion of the process is the expres- sion of an explanatory, causal, correlative, or practical generalization. This statement represents the most tenable solution to the problem based on all available evidence. The generalization, however, is never taken to represent a final truth. Its tentative nature is recognized.79 While this model might seem foreign to most teachers in Sierra Leone, it does provide structure for selecting and organizing cur- riculum materials for social studies. For example, this model can be used to study problems such as: People and Technology in Sierra Leone or Rural Urban dependency and inter-dependency relationships. Teachers must constantly remind themselves that the purpose of social studies enterprise is not only to help students develop the ability to identify dependable generalizations, but to be able to outline steps to be taken, utilizing both analytic and creative processes and skills. The teacher must, therefore, strive to provide the intellec- tual atmosphere for inquiry processes. Tucker, discussing the role- of the teacher in the inquiry process, states: Finally, and most importantly, he must be willing to demon- strate in appropriate instances that he is committed to a value system based on a rational systematic analysis. Logic- ally, then, he must reject, in any inquiry classroom, the traditional role of a social studies teacher as a neutral ob- server of the social, economic and political scene--but he must be careful that his involvement is predicated upon the open-minded characteristics of true inquiry--it is a short step from involvement to indoctrination.80 79Byron G. Massialas and C. Benjamin Cox, Inqojry In Social Studies (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966), pp. 115-119. 80 Tucker, "A Classroom Challenge," p. 30. 74 It should, however, be pointed out that there may be an inher- ent contradiction in teaching the goals of socialization and in teaching the goal of critical thinking or inquiry. This may be con- tradictory in the sense that there are certain broad and specific national goals, rudimentary and basic to the task of living in any society (e.g., national conscientiousness, teaching about national heroes etc.), that cannot be fully met by the use of inquiry as a teaching strategy. It is, however, assumed that these national goals are legitimate and primary functions of the schools. At the same time, there are other national goals, problems or social issues that are open-ended (e.g., environmental education); a critical study of these types of problems may lead to different pos- sible answers and almost always will require a choice of values to be made by the student. It is, therefore, assumed irI this study that through the use of inquiry or reflective examination of such issues, students will be able to assess the consequences and possible alternatives of their conclusions. Instead of the student being taught what to value, he is now taught to be critical about almost every value. Evaluation Evaluation is an integral part of curriculum development. It is a process of determining the general effectiveness of the total curriculum or the extent to which the stated goals are being attained. In this model, two aspects of evaluation are stressed: (l) the eval- uation of the effectiveness of the proposed curriculum, and (2) the evaluation of student performance. The former includes a systematic 75 description of the various aspects of the curriculum, such as the objectives, the curriculum materials used and the learning and teach- ing process. .This involves two processes. The first process re- quires that objectives be stated in simple and concise statements. The second process includes selecting and organizing curriculum materials, and learning and teaching processes which are deemed most effective in achieving the desired educational objectives. The latter includes the evaluation of student performance. Be- cause the ultimate criterion of any educational program is the char- acter of the changes brought about in the pupil's behavior, the learner becomes the focal point of evaluation. Greater emphasis is placed on the evaluation of students in this study. Evaluation is always a difficult and tenuous process when in- volving the assessment of human experience. To evolve a scheme through which it is possible to assess a series of experiences in light of the end towards which they are directed, and to arrive at accurate estimations of the progress made, is an almost impossible task. Yet it is imperative that efforts be constantly made to discover the effects of a program on its participants. This is the intent of the evaluation process reported below. Tests 'u) neasure the course objectives will not be included. Instead, teachers will be encouraged to use the NCSS Guidelines and the Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives by Bloom and others. I would, however, recommend the following procedures in addition to those suggested above: 1. There should be less emphasis on the accumulation of specific and isolated facts. This position is based on the process of rapid change in ideas. Harold G. Shane summs this 76 rapid change as: To put it simply, change has confronted us so rapidly that we have wrenched from yesterday and thrust into tomorrow without having been given an opportunity to adjust ourselves today.81 One obvious implication of the above process is that there is no absolute knowledge, but rather knowledge is relative. Knowledge in this sense is universal and an abstraction em- phasizing the interrelationship and patterns in which infor- mation can be organized and structured. 2. Since one of the objectives of social studies is to help students think reflectively, examining, analyzing, syn- thesizing and evaluating problems of society, it is, there- fore, important that any device used for evaluation must attempt to measure these outcomes. 3. The use of a pre-test for each class is highly recom- mended. This will be an attempt to create interest among the students and to determine the extent of the pupils' knowledge of the subject matter. The results of the pre-test can also serve as a basis for planning and selection of materials to be used. 4. The affective objectives are distinctive features of the social studies; they include the realm of attitudes, be- liefs, and values. In this connection, I would suggest that the teacher keep a good record of each student using the character estimate provided below.82 The above discussion is an attempt to provide the social studies teacher with the basic ingredients of any social studies curriculum. 8lHarold G. Shane, The Educational Significance Of The Future (Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa, Inc., 1973), p. 40. 82Adapted from J. R. Bunting, Civics For Self-Government (Lon- don: Evans Brothers Ltd., 1965), p. 114. 77 Character Estimate Every teacher who knows the boy or girl concerned will mark one of these rating sheets separately and independently. The Headmaster collects these ratings and fills in the Certificate accordingly, using a "casting vote" where necessary. BELOW ABOVE LOW AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE HIGH Alertness and presence of mind Punctuality Reliability and sense of responsibility Initiative Leadership Courtesy: good manners Spirit of service Perseverance Loyalty Kindness and consideration of others Industry: diligence Modesty Neatness Self-control and discipline Common sense Judgment Moral courage Co-operation: team spirit Physical courage Honesty (comment "yes" or "no" CHAPTER VI Conclusion: Implications And Recommendations The study is an attempt to build a model for developing a social studies curriculum for secondary schools in Sierra Leone. A systems analysis model is used to identify the characteristics of the general sequence of steps involved in establishing a social studies curriculum. A system is defined in this paper as the sum total of separate parts or sub-systems working independently and in interaction to achieve previously specified goals. Education con- sidered as a system includes the following sub-systems: curriculum and instruction, administration, and maintenance component, all work- ing to achieve educational objectives. The educational world is complex, and it is often difficult to determine all its parameters. Hence, some educational sub-systems are often thought of as closed systems with no interaction with other educational systems and society. But it is artificial to think of any of the above systems as independent. All of the components actually interact in the operational world. The systems approach provides a technique for making explicit the structure and organiza- tion of an ordered whole. It provides the data for selecting and implementing the most effective and efficient strategies for improv- ing education. Educators may be more assured that a self-correcting strategy is being applied, one that will reduce the risk of overlooking 78 79 important elements in society. The systems approach is character- ized, in short, as a careful study of organizations, activities, pro- cedures, methods to identify what needs to be done, and ways in which these needs can be most efficiently met. A systems analysis model is used in this study as a conceptual framework for constructing a social studies curriculum. The model identifies guidelines and decisions that must be made in constructing any social studies program. The guidelines include: identification of societal and educational goals, selection of curriculum materials, learning and teaching process, and a comprehensive program of evalu- ation. (Each of these_steps must reflect the goals identified.) Social studies goals are part of a hierarchy of educational goals; they derive their goals from broader institutional aims and give point to instructional objectives. Since the aim and content of social studies are predominantly social, the proposed curriculum is organized around social issues and the appropriate social sciences brought to bear upon them. Emphases are placed upon the cognitive and affective objectives. BecauSe social issues within any society are not neatly separated into political, social and economic areas with no interactions, the study suggests the use of interdisciplin- ary approach to the teaching of social studies. Attempts are made to introduce students to the techniques of finding out things for themselves and acquiring critical and creative thinking skills which are necessary for a citizen in a democratic society. Social studies as a unified field of study is presented here as a vehicle for drawing attention to the problems of rapid economic, social and political developments and for the promotion 80 of national integration and self-confidence based on the understand- ing of the essential dignity of man. Efforts are being made to make education more development- oriented and pragmatic in order to contribute directly to nation- building and national development, thus, the proposed model has some implications for educational development in Sierra Leone. First, the model would reduce the disparity between the educational system and its envir0nment. Educators would be able to look at education as a sub-system of the society and see that it derives from, and supports, the societal aims of which it is a part. It provides bases for mutual adjustment and adaptation by both education and society. Furthermore, the model would provide bases for rational analysis, reflections and imagination in an educational system. Secondly, continuous evaluation of educational objectives in relation to the society will be the rule rather than the exception. Implicit in this process will be the effort to involve people at different levels of the educational system as much as possible. With regard to social studies curriculum both elementary and secondary school teachers should be actively and directly involved in the development of curriculum materials. Thirdly, the kind of learning experience perpetuated in this model will be of no avail if the present myth of certificates and the maintenance of "standards" continues to be entertained. Without de- crying the importance of external examinations, and the need for objective standards of achievement in them, one cannot claim that the West African School Certificate (W.A.S.C.) or General Certificate Of Education (G.C.E.) provides visible evidence of the holder's true 81 worth or his employability. Also, measuring achievement in the social studies is even more difficult because of the emphases on social studies skills, critical thinking and value education. Ed- ucators must address themselves to the question, "what is the place of W.A.S.C. or the G.C.E. Examinations in the educational system of Sierra Leone?"- Fourthly, the specialist teachers in history, geography and government must not view social studies as an infringement on the discipline of their subject, but rather as a unified field whose fundamental test is instructional utility. Curriculum development is a process and an everlasting product. Implicit in this statement is the assumption that the curriculum must constantly change to reflect the changing needs of the individual and society. This is even more true in the social studies whose con- tent and aims are social. In an area as wide and sensitive as social studies, it would be presumptuous for one person to think he is the custodian of the whole truth. It is hoped that the current study would initiate some follow-up studies about the teaching of social studies in Sierra Leone. The following are suggested areas in which research will be necessary if social studies is to become a vehicle for national development and nation-building. 1. The relationship between social studies, nationalism and cultural change. 2. Social studies and political socialization. 3. Developing curriculum materials for the teaching of social studies in Sierra Leone, and 4. Developing an evaluation scheme for social studies with 82 regards to the goals of the Sierra Leone Society. In closing, I would like to make the following recommendations: 1. Social studies should be introduced in Forms One and Two, in the eleven elementary schools under the International Development Aid Plan, to test the proposed syllabus. This would later be extended to other schools after a critical evaluation. 2. Teachers should be required to attend a workshop every quarter for a week. 3. The present Committee on Social Studies should be expanded from the present number (four) to twelve to include teach- ers and interested community members. 4. Since the success of any curriculum depends on the teachers, it will be necessary to introduce a methods course at the different teachers colleges. 5. Team-teaching should be encouraged at the different teachers colleges, using integrated topics within a social studies program. Developing an effective social studies curriculum for the purpose of affecting change and growth which will ensure social, political and economic development is not any easy task. It is a sensitive area and in most developing countries it could have some political ramif- ications. Nevertheless, the few suggestions made in this study de- serve attention. If they are studied carefully and then implemented, a step in the right direction will have been taken. When it is pro- perly understood and well taught, social studies can be an excellent vehicle by which education can renovate itself and alter society, thus molding individuals who will fit in the society instead of merely turning out packages of elites who do not fit in a contemporary Sierra Leone society. APPENDICES APPENDIX A Definition Of Terms APPENDIX A Definition Of Terms The following are definitions of terms used in the study. With the exception of the fourth term, these definitions are de- rived from Edgar B. Wesley and Stanley P. Wronski, Teaching Secon- l darnyocial Studies In A World Society. Civic Education: A program designed to develop citizen- ship. General Education: The program designed for all students on the assumption that it provides the minimum basis for living. Stresses social living rather than vocational training. Similar to common learning and core curriculum. Inquiry: A term used to encompass a wide range of teaching and learning strategies that stress problem solving, critical analysis, active learner involvement, and a high degree of in- ductive thinking. Integration: To incorporate into a larger unity or the organization of individuals of different groups into a common and equal membership in society or an organization. Political Socialization: That part of the total social process by which the individual creates a body of beliefs, attitudes, values, and knowledge relating to formal and in- formal aspects of governing. 1Edgar B. Wesley and Stanley P. Wronski, Teaching Secondary Social Studies In A World Society, 6th ed. (Lexington, Mass.: D. C. Heath and Company, 1973). 2James Sooth Coleman, Education And Political Development (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1965), p. 30. Coleman distinguished two dimensions of integration: "vertical di- mension" which refers to the bridging of the elite-mass gap and the development of an 'integrated' process; and the "horizontal dimen- sion" which refers to the welding together of previously separate political communities into a larger, more all-embracing policy. 83 84 Reflective Thinking: An analytical process whereby the proposed conclusion or resolution to a problem is subjected to examination in terms of previously agreed upon values or normative commitments. Social Science: Those branches of knowledge that deal with human relationships and have as their primary objective the search for knowledge about regularities in human be- havior. Social Studies: A field employing substantive concepts and procedural modes of inquiry dealing with human relation- ships and used for instructional purposes. APPENDIX 8 National Council For The Social Studies Guidelines APPENDIX 8 Although the National Council for the Social Studies Guide- lines3 are developed for schools in the United States, they consti- tute sound professional statements or guidelines for social studies curriculum. The guidelines will be relevant to the Institute Of Education in its efforts to develop a social studies curriculum for schools in Sierra Leone. They can be adopted and modified to meet the needs of schools in Sierra Leone until such a time when the In- stitute Of Education can devise a statement of standards appropriate for our schools. NCSS Guidelines These guidelines represent a set of standards for social studies programs. They are not intended to prescribe a uniform pro- gram or even to propose an ideal program. In a pluralistic and chang- ing society no single program could be prescribed even if more were known about the process of education than is presently available. Schools--their students, teachers, and communities--have basic responsibility for their own social studies programs. It is hoped that many will develop insights which go beyond the framework of standards set forth here. 3Task Force on Curriculum Guidelines: Gary Manson, Gerald Marker, Jan Tucker and Anna Ochoa, "Social Studies Curriculum Guide- lines," Social Education 35 (December, 1971): 860-869. 85 86 The Social Studies Program Should Be Directly Related To The Concerns Of Students. Students should be involved in the formulation of goals, the selection of activities and instructional strategies and the assessment of curricular outcomes. The school and its teachers should make steady efforts, through regularized channels and practices, to identify areas of con- cern to students. Students should have some choices, some options within programs fitted to their needs, their concerns, ancitheir social world. All students should have ample opportunity for social studies education at all grade levels, from K-12. The Social Studies Program Should Deal With The Real Social World. The program should focus on the social world as it is, its flaws, its ideals, its strengths, its dangers, and its promise. The program should emphasize pervasive and enduring social issues. The program should include analysis and attempts to formulate potential resolutions of present and controversial problems such as racism, poverty, war and population. The program should provide intensive and recurrent study of cultural, racial, religious, and ethnic groups, those to which students themselves belong and those to which they do not. The program should offer opportunities for students to meet, dis- cuss, study, and work with members of racial and ethnic groups other than their own. The program should build upon the realities of the immediate school community. Participation in the real social world both in school and out should be considered a part of the social studies program. The Social Studies Program Should Draw From Currently Valid Knowledge Representative Of Man's Experience, Culture, And Beliefs. The program should emphasize currently valid concepts, princi- ples, and theories in the social sciences. The program should develop proficiency in methods of inquiry in the social sciences and in techniques for processing social data. 87 The program should develop students' ability to distinguish among empirical, logical, definitional, and normative proposi- tions and problems. The program should draw upon all of the social sciences such as anthropology, economics, geography, political sciences, sociology, the history of the United States, and the history of the Western and non-Western worlds. The program should draw from what is appropriate in other re- lated fields such as psychology, law, communications, and the humanities. The program should represent some balance between the immediate social environment of students and the larger social world; between small group and public issues; among local, national, and world affairs; among past, present and future directions; and among Western and non-Western cultures. The program should include the study not only of man's achieve- ments, but also of those events and policies which are commonly considered contrary to present national goals, for example, slavery and imperialism. The program must include a careful selection from the disci- plines of that knowledge which is of most worth. Objectives Should be Thoughtfully_$elected and ClearLy Stated in Such Form as to Furnish Direction to the Program. Objectives should be carefully selected and formulated in the light of what is known about the students, their community, the real social world, and the fields of knowledge. Knowledge, abilities, valuing, and social participation should be represented in the stated objectives of social studies pro- grams. General statements of basic and long-range goals should be translated into more specifh:objectivesconceived in terms of behavior and content. Classroom instruction should rely upon statements which iden- tify clearly what students are to learn; learning activities and instructional materials should be appropriate for achieving the stated objectives. Classroom instruction should enable students to see their goals clearly in what is to be learned, whether in brief instructional sequences or lengthy units of study. Objectives should be reconsidered and revised periodically. 88 Learning Activities Should Engage the Student Directly and Actively in the Learning_Process. Students should have a wide and rich range of learning activi- ties appropriate to the objectives of their social studies program. Activities should include formulating hypotheses and testing them by gathering and analyzing data. Activities should include using knowledge, examining values, communicating with others, and making decisions about social and civic affairs. Activities should include those which involve students in the real world of their communities. Learning activities should be sufficiently varied and flexible to appeal to many kinds of students. Activities should contribute to the students' perception of teachers as fellow inquirers. Activities must be carried on in a climate which supports students' self-respect and opens opportunities to all. Strategies of Instruction and Learning Activities Should Rely on a Broad Range of Learning Resources. A social studies program requires a great wealth of appropriate instructional resources; no one text book can be sufficient. Printed materials must accommodate a wide range of reading abil- ities and interests, meet the requirements of learning activi- ties, and include many sorts of material from primary as well as secondary sources, from social science and history as well as the humanities and related fields, from current as well as basic sources. A variety of media should be available for learning through seeing, hearing, touching, and acting, and calling for thought and feel- ing. Social studies classrooms should draw upon the potential con- tributions of many kinds of resource persons and organizations representing many points of view and a variety of abilities. Classrooms activities should use the school and community as a learning laboratory for gathering social data and for confront- ing knowledge and commitments in dealing with social problems. The social studies program should have available many kinds of work space to facilitate variation in the size of groups, the use of several kinds of media, and a diversity of tasks. 89 The Social Studies Program Must Facilitate the Organization of Experience. Structure in the social studies program must help students organize their experiences to promote growth. Learning experiences should be organized in such fashion that students will learn how to continue to learn. The program must enable students to relate their experiences in social studies to other areas of experience. The formal pattern of the program should offer choice and flex- ibility. Evaluation Should Be Useful, Systematic, Comprehensive, and Valid for the Objectives of the Program. Evaluation should be based primarily on the schools' own state- ments of objectives as the criteria for effectiveness. Included in the evaluation process should be assessment of progress not only in knowledge, but in skills and abilities in- cluding thinking, the process of valuing, and social participa- tion--all the components of social studies education. Evaluation data should come from many sources, not merely from paper-and-pencil tests, including observations of what students do outside as well as inside the classroom. Regular, comprehensive, and continuous procedures should be de- veloped for gathering evidence of significant growth in learn- ing over time. Evaluation data should be used for planning curricular improve- ment. Evaluation data should offer students and teachers help in the course of learning and not merely at the conclusion of some marking period. Both students and teachers should be involved in the process of evaluation. Thoughtful and regular re-examination of the basic goals of the social studies curriculum should be an integral part of the evaluation program. Social Studies Education Should Receive Vigorous Support as a Vital and Responsible Part of the School Program. Appropriate instructional materials, time, and facilities must be provided for social studies education. 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 90 Teachers should be responsible for trying Out and adapting for their own students promising innovations such as simulation, newer curricular plans, discovery, and actual social participa- tion. Decisions about the basic purposes of social studies education in any school should be as clearly related to the needs of its immediate community as to those of society at large. Teachers should participate in active social studies curriculum committees with decision-making as well as advisory responsibil- ities. Teachers should participate regularly in activities which foster their professional competence in social studies education: in workshops, or in-service classes, or community affairs, or in reading, study and travel. 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