AN EVALUATWE STUDY 0F RESTRUC‘HON EN MORAL DEVELOPMENT EDUCATQON FOR PARAPROFESSIQNALS Dissertation fur the Degree 0f Ph. D. MICHiGAN STATE UMVERSITY CATHERSNE M. STONEHOUSE 1976 —1M AN ELLLL 3'" - A grc many in the flé izetlon and th‘ immorality em and moral dev the younger 9-: Mar aware of the 1' therefore ask: Education? sending of ti". flow implieet: the mOI'al den} Proi ABSTRACT AN EVALUATIVE STUDY OF INSTRUCTION IN MORAL DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION FOR PARAPROFESSIONALS By Catherine M. Stonehouse A growing concern for values education is being expressed by many in the field of education. The dehumanizing course of industrial- ization and the disclosure of injustice, dishonesty, and other forms of immorality among trusted government officials focus attention on values and moral development. The question arises: What can be done to help the younger generation come to value persons and act with justice? Many persons who feel the need for moral education are also aware of the ineffectiveness of most efforts to teach morality. They therefore ask: Are there guidelines for effective, constructive, moral education? The research of Piaget and Kohlberg provides an under— standing of the process of moral development. From this understanding flow implications for teacher and parent behaviors which will facilitate the moral development of children and young people . Probably most of the persons currently involved in values/ moral edges are parents church. The behavroral 1.": comes into fc be derived fr: ' :..QIVIRI ' m... V 5 GE ‘ve‘CL (I) values/moral StUdY and wh 1' Catherine M. Stonehouse moral education are paraprofessionals in reference to education. They are parents and volunteer workers in the educational programs of the church. They are in a position to profoundly influence the moral devel- opment of a nation if they know how to act effectively. The crucial problem is that the guidelines from the research of Piaget and Kohlberg are not readily available to paraprofessionals who are involved in moral education. Moral development education concepts are found mainly in scholarly literature in the form of findings instead of behavioral implications . The major question of this dissertation now comes into focus: Can behavioral implications for teachers and parents be derived from the findings of Piaget and Kohlberg and instructional materials designed which will present a developmental perspective on values/moral education to paraprofessionals in a form that they will study and which will lead to a sound understanding and use of the con- cepts ? Moral development education materials for the training of paraprofessionals have been designed using the Briggs model for the design of instruction. Two versions of the instructional package were developed. One package presented the findings of Kohlberg in terms of stages of moral development; the other discussed the le_vels of moral development without reference to the specific stages . The materials were field tested by groups of volunteer workers in the educational program of the church. The groups were randomly assigned to the two treatments (i.e. the two versions of the instructional rc'r materials) . ..... of variance was . Correlations wer reading done, a: of the measuring to have an inter No 5: actions or ' etw between the p:. increased Sign Values/moral e several compo increased in t for Skills “‘21 Cone Catherine M. Stonehouse materials). Instructors had no special training for teaching the course. Data from a pretest and a posttest were analyzed. An analysis of variance was computed for measures, treatments , and interactions . Correlations were run between gain scores and education, amount of reading done, and attendance at group study sessions . The reliability of the measuring instrument was also tested. The instrument was found to have an inter-item reliability coefficient of .82 . No significant difference was found to exist in treatment inter- actions or between treatments . A significant difference was found between the pretest and posttest measures . The learners in all groups increased significantly in their grasp of a developmental perspective on values/moral education. Significant differences were indicated for the several components that made up the general perspective. Learners increased in their understanding of factual information and preference for skills which facilitate moral development . The findings on reported actions taken were mixed. Signifi- cant differences did occur in the behaviors reported. Some of the changes were in a positive direction, and others were negative. Still other changes were questionable, depending on one's interpretation of the data. A decrease in the tendency to misuse moral development concepts was also noted. AN EVALUATIVE STUDY OF INSTRUCTION IN MORAL DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION FOR PARAPROFESSIONALS BY Catherine M. Stonehouse A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Curriculum and Secondary Education 1976 ® Copyright by CATHERINE M. STONEHOUSE 1976 To Dolores In appreciation for many hours of extra work months of patient understanding and, Dominion Day cookies ii guidance comm? data; the forms ive attitude of 1? My ms iribition to my 1 wizh his student of my education. dissertation we: He has been fre- Consider myself mgleannng ex; h‘dfdles to be j; It has ? ‘ .Jtca lion Procra ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS A special word of appreciation goes to each member of my guidance committee. The refinements suggested by committee members during the formative stages of this project and the constructive, support- ive attitude of the entire committee has been of great value. My major adviser, Ted Ward, has made a very significant con- tribution to my learning and development. He is a man who spends time with his students discussing the ideas they are exploring together. Much of my educational philosophy and many of the ideas contained in this dissertation were forged in group or individual discussions with him. He has been free with his praise and constructive in his criticism. I consider myself fortunate to have had an adviser who believes in provid- ing learning experiences for students instead of constructing academic hurdles to be jumped. It has been a privilege to be part of the Values Development Education Program (VDEP) at Michigan State University. The Special activities provided by the program were some of my most meaningful learning experiences . The program brought together a group of persons who contributed significantly to my learning and to the enjoyment of my time at Michigan State. iii IB' ‘ l .: f "A -i. .o renew 1 lions for refine 1 WO‘. Several VDEP staff members gave specific help in my disserta— tion project. James McCue and Rodney McKean provided feedback on the measuring instrument and instructional materials used in the project. Ioseph Levine--also a member of my guidance committee--took respon- sibility for the production of a taped narration used in the training course. Steve Hoke spent many long hours refining, shooting, duplicating, and collating slide sets . This assistance was deeply appreciated. Dr. Donald M . Joy of Asbury Theological Seminary gave of his time to review the instructional materials . He offered helpful sugges- tions for refinement . I would also like to acknowledge my employer, Lloyd H. Knox, who has made possible a doctoral program at this juncture in my career. Because he values input from the field of education to the curriculum department ministries of the Free Methodist Publishing House, he has allowed me the time needed for graduate studies . This dissertation could not have been written without the help of the church groups which took part in the pilot projects and the field testing of instructional materials . The Reverend Dale Woods , superin- tendent of the East Michigan Conference of the Free Methodist Church, gave permission for selected churches in his conference to be involved in the project. The cooperation of the pastors and instructors in each of the churches selected was much appreciated. The typing of the instructional materials and the dissertation iv W35 dORE lb 36 been a genetic .‘. ‘l' deadlines. H 3' appreczation Is- in the moms: understandmg, appreciate . F 1:151 has kept me ca ate in my searc be helped to d- was done by Debra Chisholm. Her efficiency and editorial skills have been a tremendous asset . She has willingly typed for long hours to meet deadlines . Working through this project with Debbie has increased my appreciation for her as a person. Other friends have helped in many ways . Some printed, collated, and bound instructional materials long into the night or early in the morning so that my field test could begin on schedule. The understanding, support, and prayers of many have been deeply appreciated . Finally, I would acknowledge One greater than myself who has kept me calm in times of pressure. He has also, I believe, guided me in my search for a deeper understanding of persons and how they can be helped to develop their full potential. Li .s‘ L'LO is i t of EDI; .gu:s .5,“ Chap l3! 0 fl 48' TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables .......................... ix List of Figures .......................... x Chapter One: INTRODUCTION .................. 1 The Need .......................... 1 The Dilemma ............. . ........ 2 A Source of Guidelines ................. 3 The Target Audience .................. 3 Developmental Assumptions ................. 9 A New Concern for Process . . ............. 10 A Holistic View of the Person .............. 10 Interaction Between Inner and Outer Factors ...... 12 An Active Learner .................... 13 A Transacting Teacher ................. 15 Development a Natural Tendency ............ 15 Characteristics of Development ............ 17 Characteristics of Developmental Stages ........ 22 TheProblem......... ........... 24 Literature-related Problems ............... 25 Dissemination Problems ................ 29 Possible Misuses of Theory .............. 30 Summary ...... . ................. 32 The Hypotheses ....................... 34 The Task . . . . ...................... 35 Definitions ......................... 4 1 Summary . .......................... 42 Chapter TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ................ 43 The Theoretical Background for the Content ......... 43 Goals for "Patterns in Moral Development " ...... 44 Relating the Concepts of Piaget and Kohlberg ..... 49 Piaget. ..... . ................. 53 The Process of Development ............ 53 The Factors of Development ............ 52 Suggestions for Facilitating Development ..... 55 vi ‘zn-w- \ j S‘u‘uhllar} . Chapter Titre (D Deriving 1 Designing Evaluatin; The l The I he { Chapter FOLK: Reliabilit Tesiing C Cofielati v ““.. 815chle -i Ref In _ V‘s mdltiOI‘ : Kohlberg ......................... 7 0 The Pattern of Moral Development ......... . 70 Factors that Facilitate Development ......... 84 Joyce and Weil ...................... 89 Group Investigation ................. 91 N on-Directive Teaching ............... 93 The Instructional Design Literature .............. 95 Briggs ........................... 96 A Systems Model ..................... 97 Highlights of the Instructional Design Model ...... 99 Summary ............................ 100 Chapter Three: PROCEDURE .................... 101 Deriving Behavioral Implications From Theory ........ 102 Designing Instruction Using the Briggs Model ........ 103 Evaluating Instruction in Moral Development Education . . . . 118 The Population ...................... 118 The Logistics . . . . . . ............... 123 The Quasi-experimental Design ............. 125 Summary ............................ 128 Chapter Four: THE FINDINGS ................... 129 Reliability of the Instrument .................. 129 Testing of the Hypotheses ................... 130 Correlations ...... . . . . ............. 142 Evaluations From Learners and Instructors .......... 143 Learner Evaluation .................... 144 Instructor Evaluation ........ . .......... 145 Unpredicted Variations .................... 147 Summary . ................... . ....... 148 Chapter Five: CONCLUSIONS ................... 149 Significant Differences . . . . ................ 150 No Significant Difference in Treatments ............ 155 A Sample of Volunteers .................... 157 Testing Problems ....................... 157 Refinement of Instructional Materials . . . . . ........ 150 The Instructional Package Chosen for Refinement . . . . 150 General Comments on Refinement . . . . . . . . ..... 151 Refinement of the Reading Text .............. 152 Additional Research Needed .................. 153 An Instrument for General Use ............. . 153 An Additional Instructional Package ........... 154 An Instrument to Measure Transfer . . . ......... 155 vii Appendix A . . Appendixii . . Appendix C . . Bibliography . Appendix A ............................ Appendix B ............................ Appendix C ............................ Bibliography ........................... viii 166 169 175 184 . Overview of , Characteris’. Characteris‘. Age of Learn Sex of Learn Reliability C . Analysis of ‘ 10. Analysis of l mush“ ‘0 ... ll. nC'IlOIlS Rep: 12. Analysri of ‘ l3. Pearso.. Cor: LDCDVOU‘IwaI-I LIST OF TABLES Overview of Kohlberg Levels and Stages ........... Characteristics of Levels of Moral Development ....... Characteristics of Stages of Moral Development ....... Age of Learners ........................ Sex of Learners ........................ Education of Learners ..................... Occupation of Learners .................... Reliability Coefficients .................... Analysis of Variance: Treatment Interactions ........ Analysis of Variance: Measures ............... Actions Reported on Pretest and Posttest (question 13) . . . . Analysis of Variance: Treatments .............. Pearson Correlation Coefficients ............... ix 76 78 80 121 121 122 122 130 131 132 135 140 143 u— .— —— l'ne lac .k mwap—a LIS T OF FIGURES The Task ........................... 37 Group Investigation Model .................. 91 Non-Directive Teaching Model ............... 94 A Model for the Design of Instruction ............ 98 Relating the Task and the Briggs Model ........... 101 Ove develorinent h been held acrc Scholars in th cussion of val Proqrans have University, th centers. The devoted to the 1““ Sone or t; devElopment Vt CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION Over the past few‘years interest in values education and moral development has been on the rise. Values Clarification workshops have been held across the country with thousands of teachers in attendance. Scholars in the field of education have initiated conferences for the dis- cussion of values/moral1 development. Values development education programs have been established at Harvard University, Michigan State University, the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, and in other centers . The June 1975 issue of the Phi Delta Km magazine was devoted to the discussion of values and moral development. These are just some of the indications of an increased interest in values and moral development within the field of education. The Need Recent political events in the United States of America may have focused attention on values and morality. Many people have 1Throughout this dissertation "values/moral" will be used to refer to the broad area of values and moral concerns . Although there are some values which do not have moral ramifications, many values do influence interpersonal relationships and judgments of right and wrong. In general, values and moral judgments are intertwined: interdependent. For this reason they will often be linked together and discussed as values/moral concerns . l 2 wondered, How could Watergate have happened? How could men of such prominence and trust be so lacking in the values which lead to just actions ? Can parents and educators do anything to help children and young pe0ple formulate the values necessary for a just society? A look at the course of industrialization also directs atten- tion to values . Purpel and Belanger in their book, Curriculum and the Cultural Revolution, indicate that they see values education as a must . Hope for a humane world in the future rests on whether or not the valu- ing of material gain can be outweighed by the valuing of elements in life which enhance the lot of persons . Purpel and Belanger believe that the basic problems of our world are not technological but are value problems (Purpel & Belanger, 1972, pp. 12-16) . The Dilemma But trying to teach values is not a new idea. Between 1928 and 1930, Hartshorne and May were publishing their studies on char- acter education. The traits of character which they investigated were honesty and service. Honesty was tested by placing a child in situa- tions where there was opportunity to cheat, lie, or steal. Giving up an object for the welfare of another was the test for service. Hartshorne and May found that character education classes and religious instruc— tion did not influence the conduct of the child in the experimental tests . Responses were inconsistent. The situation seemed to determine whether or not the child would be honest or serve. The child who was honest in one tion seemed t 1972, pp. 45 hand there is values and In: of others. 0: moral instruct first major q; 105519 Daren: the values an honest in one situation might not be honest in another. Moral instruc— tion seemed to have been ineffective (Kohlberg in Purpel & Belanger, 1972, pp. 456-457) . Parents and educators are faced with a dilemma. On the one hand there is an increasing sense of the need to help persons develop values and moral reasoning that will enhance their lives and the lives of others . On the other hand we must face the fact that much values/ moral instruction has been ineffective. Out of this dilemma arises the first major question of this dissertation: Are there guidelines available to help parents and teachers effectively and constructively influence the values and moral development of children and young peOple? A Source of Guidelines When discussing the research of Hartshorne and May, Kohl- berg (in Purpel & Belanger, 1972, pp. 456-459) states that recent research does not lead him to question their findings . He does , how- ever, question the conclusions drawn from the findings . Hartshorne and May concluded that moral behavior is determined by the forces at work and rewards offered in a given situation. Moral character is fixed very early in childhood in the home. They deSpaired of being able to influ- ence moral character from outside the home or after the early years . In contrast to the conclusions of Hartshorne and May, Kohl— berg comments that recent research findings indicate a more hopeful view of moral development and the possible influence of education. 4 Acts of misconduct are also clearly related to two general aspects of the child's personality development. The first general aspect of the child's develOpment is often termed ego strength and represents a set of interrelated ego abilities , including the intel— ligent prediction of consequences , the tendency to choose the greater remote reward over the lesser immediate reward, the ability to maintain stable focused attention, and a number of other traits . The second general aspect of personality that determines moral conduct is the level of development of the child's moral judgments or moral concepts . (Kohlberg in Purpel & Belanger, 1972, p. 459) Kohlberg’s finding§_. Through research Kohlberg has charted the course of development of moral judgment. He finds that there is a pattern in the development of how persons decide what is right, what is wrong, or what one ought to do in a given situation. Kohlberg's find- ings provide a clue regarding the ineffectiveness of moral instruction reported in the Hartshorne and May studies . The child's view of the world and morality is different from that of the adult, and the child's way of thinking is not changed by instruction on moral behavior. Development in the way one reasons must take place before one is ready to comprehend and live by certain moral guidelines . The subjects in the Hartshorne and May studies had not reached a level of develop- ment which enabled them to comprehend the principle of honesty. Therefore moral instruction was ineffective . Moral instruction given before the child Was ready for it did not cause moral development. But Kohlberg finds that development is facilitated or inhibited by other factors which adults, influence. There are things which parents and teachers can do to facilitate development. the develop: essential to and equilibre restoring inn imitations factors of de TL; p:ovide guide structively i: young people earlier, Kohl level of deve The teacher a F 159d and KC men: 01 more Th: Piaget's insights on develgment. Piaget has also studied the development of children. He has identified four factors which are essential to development: maturation, experience, social interaction, and equilibration: the dynamic inner process of resolving conflicts and restoring inner equilibrium (Piaget in Mussen, 1970, p. 719) . Many implications for parent and teacher behaviors grow out of these four factors of development . The focus of attention. The findings of Piaget and Kohlberg provide guidelines "to help parents and teachers effectively and con— structively influence the values and moral development of children and young people. " Many factors will affect moral conduct. As noted earlier, Kohlberg identifies two of these factors: ego strength and the level of development of the child's moral judgments or moral concepts . The teacher and parent behaviors which grow out of the theories of Piaget and Kohlberg relate most Specifically to facilitating the develop- ment of moral reasoning and judgment making. The concern of this dissertation is the need to help adults be more effective and constructive as they influence the moral development of others, especially children and youth. From the broad range of fac— tors affecting values and morality, the development of moral reasoning has been chosen as the focus of attention. The following pages contain the description of an effort to make available to parents and teachers instruction on how to facilitate the development of moral reasoning. Facilitatrng :1". 1 85333110.“: . a- .. on... on values, \‘5 for parents a: researchers a -1 opment educa‘ serve them lint ins ‘ L ‘gnlts ‘ ”‘3'! uttelopmem C 6 Facilitating the development of moral reasoning is moral development education . The type of research. From the chorus of voices speaking out on values, valuing, and the influencing of moral behavior, Piaget and Kohlberg have been chosen to suggest important facilitating behaviors for parents and teachers . What is it that commends the work of these researchers as the theoretical foundation for instruction in moral devel- opment education? The findings of Piaget and Kohlberg grow out of the study of basically healthy, normal children and youth. Piaget has been involved in this task for more than fifty years . His own three children were sub- J'ects of intensive observation. Shortly after their births he began to Observe them regularly and record what he saw. This led him to impor- tant insights into the early activities of the mind and the beginning deVSIOpment of intelligence. Kohlberg's original research on moral development was the beginning of a longitudinal study. For more than fifteen years he has £011Owed the group of approximately seventy boys and men with whom he began his research. Every three years he has contacted them and asSessed their moral development. From this procedure he has been able to chart the pattern of moral development . The basic technique used in the research of both Piaget and K0hlberg is the interview. David Elkind reports that those who assist 7 Piaget in his research receive a year of training in the art of interview- ing before beginning to collect data (Elkind, 1970, 1974, p. 27) . Kohl- berg spends eight hours interviewing each of his subjects . It is through these intensive interviews that he has discovered the characteristics of moral reasoning. The studies of Piaget have been replicated by other researchers in many parts of the world. In most cases their findings corroborate those of Piaget (Elkind, 1974, p. 27). Kohlberg's study has not been restricted to his original sample. He and his associates have conducted intensive interviews with persons from various cultures . The findings indicate that there is a universal pattern of moral development (Kohlberg in Goslin, 1969, pp. 384-385) . We have noted that the research of Piaget and Kohlberg has been conducted with healthy persons . Their probes have been intensive and followed up over time. The studies have been replicated. Piaget and Kohlberg have responsibly used the interview. Many students of human development believe that the intensive interview is one of the best tools for increasing our understanding of thought processes . For these reasons the research of Piaget and Kohlberg has been accepted as a Sound source from which to draw the guidelines for facilitating cogni- tive and moral development which will be discussed in this dissertation. PiaGet has provided us with an understanding of the process of cognitive development and the factors which are at work causing development. As a1'I‘eady intimated, Kohlberg has described the pattern which is followed 8 in moral development. His theory of moral development is built on Piaget's understanding of cognitive development. In chapter 2 the theories of Piaget and Kohlberg are discussed more fully. The Targe_t Audience Volunteer adult workers within the educational program of the church were the target audience for instruction in moral development education. Tables 4, 5, 6, and 7 provide a description of the particu- lar audience for this research. Rationale. Although many peOple feel the need for more emphasis on values in public education there is also resistance to the teaching of values in the school. An example of this resistance is a bill presented to the 1975 Michigan legislature. It stated that "an employee of a public school or person brought into a public school by the administration shall not seek to subvert parental authority by acting as a change agent of attitudes, values , and religious or political beliefs of the students" (House Bill No. 4951) . Public sentiments such as those expressed in Bill No. 4951 cause many public school teachers to be uneasy about their role in values education. But values/moral education has traditionally been accepted as a major area of reSpon- sibility for religious educators. Thousands of persons are involved weekly in values/moral education within the church. Many of them are open to instruction designed to help them become more effective values/ moral educators . 9 The church acknowledges responsibility for all age—groups of persons . Parents play a major role in the facilitating or inhibiting of the moral development of their children. Many parents are involved in the church and could be influenced by its educational program. Summary. The concerns of this dissertation have been focused on instruction for volunteer adult educators within the church for the following reasons: 1. Most church educators are open to instruction in moral development education. 2 . A large force of volunteers in the church are currently engaged in trying to be values/moral educators . 3 . Through the church parents can be helped to better facili- tate the development of their children. 4. The vocational concerns of the researcher focus on the educational program within the church. Developmental Assumptions Both Piaget and Kohlberg look at human processes develop- mentally. The ideas to be discussed in the following pages will pre- sent a developmental perspective on values/moral education. A look at some basic developmental assumptions will help to provide a broader context for understanding this view of values/ moral education. Dari interes: Eor r: major concerr tion of the ca tionof those the Search ic- lhe processe. anhthom; Ebel, 1969, ; IEflect an in: the descripr 1. A110119." \ .- \icr The each Oth er is are imErdepe ular ingranCE ization and t organiSm 51H inherit a 13101 biological fUr an I 1 $ adaptatiol 10 A New Concern for Process During the last 25 years there has been a shift in the focus of interest for many who might be called developmentalists . Earlier, the major concern of many developmentalists was for the precise descrip- tion of the capabilities of children at a given age. But now the atten— tion of those who hold a developmental perspective seems to be more on the search for explanations of capabilities and a better understanding of the processes at work in development (Mussen, 1970, p. vii) . There is a shift from pure description to a search for predictive factors (Stiles in Ebel, 1969, p. 117) . The developmental assumptions to be discussed reflect an interest in the causative factors of development as well as in the description of its pattern. A Holistic View of the Person The developmentalist believes that persons must be under- stood as organic wholes . Each facet of the person is interrelated with each other facet. For example, biological and cognitive development are interdependent. Piaget (1952) states that "intelligence is a partic- ular instance of biological adaptation . . . it is essentially an organ— ization and that its function is to structure the universe just as the organism structures its immediate environment" (p. 4). Human beings inherit a biological organ, the brain, which naturally performs certain biological functions . Piaget refers to these functions as organization and adaptation (1952, p. 9). As the brain organizes perceptions and “J..- 'l' ‘5 59- - adapts to 21105 Piaget (ii M?" mat be acme level of biolo develop. Mo development logical mats: do not g‘oarar sary factors. Aric man is seen : 1970): "A ho ll adapts to those perceptions , cognitive development takes place. Piaget (in Mussen, 1970, p. 712) also believes that biological matura— tion provides the potential for cognitive development. This potential must be actualized through other experiences , but unless a certain level of biological maturity exists , certain cognitive functions cannot develop. Moral development is dependent on prerequisites of cognitive development (Kohlberg in Goslin, 1969, p. 375) and therefore on bio— logical maturation also. Again, biological and cognitive development do not guarantee moral development, but they are interrelated, neces- sary factors . Another example of the developmentalist's holistic view of man is seen in the following statement made by Langer (in Mussen, 19 70): "A holistic conception implies that mental acts are feelings as well as judgments . This means that they are both conceptual and motivated acts: the stuff of mental life and development is evaluative conduct " (p. 768) . Cognitions and affects--judgments and feelings—- are inextricably intertwined. Piaget states that there is probably no such thing as a pure cognition or a pure affect (Piaget, 19 67, p. 33) . Cognitions, affects, and behaviors cannot be separated. An affect is learned along with each cognition. Behaviors grow out of cognitions and affects but also lead to new knowledge, feelings, and attitudes . It follows that in a holistic view of persons , values cannot be .;L 1.14. ‘5‘. - J‘— _-_. organism as Cognitive fa; Biological d»; Physical wo: 12 dealt with as entities in isolation from the rest of the person. Dewey (1939, p. 52) distinguishes between an impulse or appetite and a value. After defining a value as a desire or interest with an end in view he goes on to say, "Any theory that connects valuation with desire and interest by that very fact connects valuation with behavior which is affective— ideational-motor. " Values can be understood only in the context of the organism as a unit knowing, feeling, and doing. They are based on cognitive functioning and are influenced by affective experiences . Biological development, social interactions, and experiences with the physical world will all affect values . The developmental perspective indicates that values/moral education must be based on an understand- ing of the whole person in transaction with the environment. Interaction Between Inner and Outer Factors The developmentalist believes that there is more to the human being than what meets the eye. There are activities going on within persons, and an understanding of these inner workings is important to understanding human development. Both Piaget and Kohlberg have given special attention to cog- nitive development. A. L. Baldwin (in Goslin, 1969) explains the cognitive theorist's understanding of what takes place within the person. A cognitive theory of behavior assumes that the first stage in the chain of events initiated by the stimulus situation and resulting in the behavioral act is the construction of a cognitive representa- tion of the distal environment. The later events in the chain are instigated, modified and guided by this cognitive representation. The cognitive representation thus acts as the effective environment course, be 4 inside is refer to veg‘; T": fixewi’ obs 35 to what 1' ment on the person can: neither can know about will inflcen lESpORd to 1 13 which arouses motives and emotions, and guides overt behavior toward its target or goal. (p. 326) These cognitive representations or inner workings cannot, of course, be directly observed. The only evidence of what is going on inside is the behavior of the person. The word behavior is used here to refer to verbal behavior as well as to physical actions . The developmentalist's position is that although one cannot directly observe inner processes , observing behaviors can give clues as to what is going on inside. Furthermore, to more adequately under- stand human development and be able to work with it, one must try to understand both the internal processes and the influences of the environ- me nt on the person. The holistic perspective appears again here. The person cannot be understood in isolation from the environment. But neither can the environment and external behaviors tell all there is to know about the person. The inner processes and structures of thinking will influence how persons behave in certain situations: how they reSpend to the environment . An Active Learner Another important area to explore in understanding the develOp- mental perspective is the role of the learner. The developmentalist believes that learning and development take place as an active learner is in transaction with the environment. Langer (in Mussen, 1970) de'Scribes the activity of the learner. I'- HIP-i krso“toa M‘ in organs 110531 5 men: i: 6-: ~ Lilyy Vik SITJCI‘; WhiCh : mm? the 1 .erent ind iv; meat E-‘ir'. 11! Lonmen. Th ( (33' ”19% 196 I no t *Oucht Hc 14 The organismic and comparative analyses suggest that all organisms are born with a minimal set of species-specific func- tional structures which permit them to interact with the environ- ment in order to incorporate experience and stimulation; otherwise they would not develop. . . . It is obvious that physiological structures can only assimilate those environmental properties for which it has appropriate physiological organs . Similarly, psycho— logical structures can only assimilate that experience and informa- tion for which it has appropriate mental systems . Thus it is the organism's organization that selectively determines the character of its interaction and the significance of its experiences . These experiences, in turn, feed back upon the functional structures which were the original source of the interaction. In ways that are still little understood, such feedback eventually leads to the qualitative alteration of the organization of one stage into the next more advanced stage. (p. 741) The human infant is not a blank slate on which the environment will write. Nor is the child a law unto himself untouched by the environ- ment. The infant arrives with a natural tendency to interact with the environment. As the learner actively engages in transactions, changes are made in that environment. At the same time the environment is influ- encing the learner. Similar environments have differing effects on dif- ferent individuals because of each person's unique transaction with the environment. In the developmental perspective both the learner and the environment are responsible for what a person becomes . Through transactions, the individual constructs his or her per- sohal understandings . Bruner believes that what a person knows of the Wor1d is based on a model of reality which he or she has constructed (Bruher, 1966, p. 319). Dewey cautioned his readers to remember that II no thought, no idea, can possibly be conveyed as an idea from one Person to another" (Dewey, 1944, p. 159). For the idea to exist in the 15 second person's mind he or she must think it for him or herself. The effort to communicate an idea may stimulate another person to think a similar thought, but it does not transmit the idea from one person to another . A Transactingjeacher The word transaction implies two-way activity. Not only is the learner active, but the teacher's role is also an active one. As teachers and parents come to understand the process of development they discover that there are many experiences which they can provide to facilitate development. Certain relationships need to be fostered between parent and child or teacher and learner. In Dewey's view, one of the major tasks of the teacher or parent is to provide an environment that stimulates thinking and learning. Part of this environment is a sym— pathetic, interested, involved teacher or parent. Dewey went so far as to suggest that adults have a moral obligation to influence the experi- enCes of children so that they will facilitate growth and development instead of inhibiting them (Dewey, 1938, p. 38, 1944, p. 160). Con- Cerned adults do not have to passively stand on the sidelines and hope for the best. They cannot make another person develop in certain ways , bUt they can become actively involved in facilitating deveIOpment. lJe£81013ment a Natural Tendency The developmentalist also believes that the tendency to develop is a natural endowment of every human being (Langer in Mussen, 197;. p. 7~ ready-'10 an cies to late place. W: dmon is i: actions the occerence moral deve 16 19 70, p. 741) . Developmental patterns are not within persons at birth ready to unfold automatically with the passing of time. But the tenden— cies to interact with the world and organize perceptions are present at birth. As the infant uses these natural tendencies, development takes place. When development ceases or fails to occur, a pathological con- dition is indicated. This fact is widely accepted in regard to physical development during childhood. Physical development is expected to But persons often imply by their attitudes and take place naturally. actions that they think learning and moral development are unnatural occurrences that must be stimulated from the outside. Granted, there are many factors at work in the environment which inhibit cognitive and moral development. There are many affective experiences that turn off the child's desire to learn at least some things in certain ways . But the child is born with a natural tendency to develop. The educator's role is to be part of the external environment transacting with the child, youth, or adult in the natural process of development. There is probably an optimal rate of development (Piaget in MusSen, 1970, p. 713). This optimal rate is related to the speed at which development would occur if there were no inhibiting factors and the environment provided all the needed experiences . Different facets of development will take place at different rates . Some development will take place more rapidly during certain periods of life than at other times . North Americans are often obsessed with the desire to make development take place as rapidly as possible. But why? Future put: A‘ ‘4. .9" (ML 1. development ‘ . m: bold ‘ ‘ (I) (I) a *4 :J u) C) ”a flat develop: unless inhib: was: to more development dare-lowed Or. ; . 1 . 153010651Ia the person. balance bent force the chi along with it they are con- «12k “Mural op}? Th '15.: ' 363‘ '$ ‘L Wlth ch 17 development builds upon the development that is taking place now. The mastering of one level of development is significant preparation for fur— ther development. If we believe that development is a natural process, unless inhibiting factors are at work, the person will sense the need and want to move on when ready. What advantage then is there in pushing development? Probably none. As a matter of fact, trying to force .. development may be damaging (Elkind, 1974, pp. 54-55) . On the other hand, if development takes place too slowly, this is not desirable. If inhibiting factors are holding back development, these may cause long—term hang-ups and even permanent limitations for the person. Developmental educators-—or parents-~therefore, strike a balance between relaxation and concern. They do not feel compelled to force the child to develop as rapidly as possible. They relax and work along with the natural processes of development. But at the same time they are concerned about any inhibiting factors which may be holding back natural development. Characteristics of Development The word development can mean many things . Some persons use it to refer to growth and maturation. Others might equate develop- ment with change, either positive or negative. Although maturation, growth, and change are involved in development, they are not equal to development. They describe quantitative aspects of development. The developmentalist's use of the word development refers to the qualitative 3593015 Of C D. in 5 9051111.” Maturation 1 1970.11. 71 complex trar De rather than t Specific kno tures of the : the world. 1 Goslin, teec 18 aspects of development as well as its quantitative elements . Development is change, but not just any change. It is change in a positive direction. Maturation is necessary for development, but there is more. Maturation provides the potential for development (Piaget in Mussen, 19 70, p. 712) . Other factors must come into play to actualize that potential. Development is a process which occurs as the result of the complex transaction between an individual and his or her world. Development refers to changes in internal structures of thought rather than to the adding of knowledge or skills to a person's repertoire. Specific knowledge and skills are the content of learning. The struc- tures of the mind are characteristic ways of perceiving and interpreting the world. They represent ways of organizing thought (Kohlberg in Goslin, 1969, pp. 348-349) . Content and structure are distinct but not separate. Content is processed by the structure of thinking. Struc- ture influences how one interprets content and what one does with it. But structures cannot exist without content to process . The structure is the facet of thinking which develops . Content does not develop; rather, it grows in quantity and kind. When developmentalists Speak of development they are think- ing of change which meets the following criteria: 1. Orderly 2. Unidirectional 3 . Irreversible U‘ meaningful (f discovered E Siblects the zen. v Lll mUSt l9 4 . Hierarchically Integrated 5 . Qualitative 6 . Progressively Differentiated 7 . Increasingly Articulate 8 . Actively Created 9 . Functionally Superior to but Dependent on Learning (Stewart, 1974, p. 258) A few comments on each criterion will serve to make it more meaningful (Stewart, 1974, pp. 250-258). 1. Orderly. Piaget, Kohlberg, and other psychologists have discovered an orderliness in the development they see at work in the subjects they have studied. The human organism seems to have been created with a pattern for development. As noted earlier, this does not mean that there is a pattern wired in which unfolds naturally and irre- spective of other factors . But extensive observation of developing humans has shown that their transactions with their environment lead to development which follows a certain path. Piaget describes the path of cognitive development in terms of stages . Kohlberg has identified sequential levels and stages of moral development. Several other organismic psychologists have also identified orderly development in different areas of life (Stewart, 1974, pp. 129-130) . 2 . Unidirectional. For change to be classified as develOp- ment it must be in a positive direction. For example, the developing person moves lack of differs 19.74. p. 247 3 . level, the p some major 20 person moves from rigidity of thinking toward greater flexibility; from a lack of differentiation toward increasing ability to differentiate (Stewart, 1974, p. 247) . 3. Irreversible. Once a structure has developed to a certain level, the person never loses the capability of thinking in that way. At some major transition points in development from stage to stage, persons sometimes seem to lose their capability to use newly acquired reason- ing. But this is only a temporary regression which is overcome shortly. Persons can regress in their grasp of content that they have known. But once a structure has developed, it is irreversible. 4. HierarchicallLIntegrated. The abilities which one has developed at a certain stage are not discarded when one moves on into the next stage. The capabilities are integrated into the next higher stage (Elkind, 1974, p. 71) . Through the process of development ways of thinking and reasoning are refined, expanded, or rearranged and inte- grated into the newly developing structure of the next stage. This is what is meant by hierarchical integration. Persons never lose the abil— ity to use patterns of thinking characteristic of the stages through which they have passed . 5. Qualitative. As mentioned earlier, development involves changes in the quality of thinking. It is not simply the adding of more information for the mind to process . The quality of the way in which & 5—, n: mind proce 6. 3; is toward incre to notice diite tttte between objects in th- dl‘L‘Y ‘ so «ltxemldte others , 7. mind is full are not one u t tilts 15 Wha‘ 5- (1) dew lean“ 21 the mind processes information has improved. 6. Progressively Differentiated. The direction of development is toward increased differentiation. This refers to an increased ability to notice differences . Very young babies seem to be unable to differen- tiate between themselves and other objects . As they develop they make this differentiation. The infant discovers that he or she is one of many objects in the world. It will be a few years before the child is able to differentiate between his or her point of view and the point of view of others . 7. IncreasinglLArticulate . At first the developing person's mind is full of many uncoordinated behaviors and bits of knowledge that are not organized or systematically related to each other. As develop- ment takes place these cognitions become organized and interrelated. This is what is meant by increasing articulation (Stewart, 1974, p. 247) . 8. Actively Created. Structures do not just automatically grow out of nothing. New structures are actively created by the learner in transaction with the environment of persons , things , and experiences . The creating of these new structures is develOpment. 9 . Functionally Superior to but Dependent on Learnirg. Learning and development are not equivalent terms . Certain levels of development must be reached before certain learnings can occur. But learning stimulates the construction of new knowledge which is f a!“ ~-~~-.-_ we--. uq.-- ._.- following c: .15 0‘) 22 necessary for further development. The two processes are therefore interrelated . Characteristics of Developmental Stages In the preceding discussion the word §_t_a_g§ has been used repeatedly. Stage is another word that has a wide range of meanings . Stages of cognitive development are ways of reasoning. They have the following characteristics: 1 . Invariant Sequence 2 . Qualitative Differences 3 . Structural Wholeness or Integrity 4 . Hierarchical Integration 5 . Intrastage Development 6. Interstage Construction (Stewart, 1974, pp. 273-276) A brief expansion of each of these Characteristics is in order. 1 . Invariant Sequence. For characteristic ways of reasoning to qualify as developmental stages they must appear in the same order in all persons who are observed: the sequence in which they appear must not vary. As was mentioned earlier, developmental psychologists have noted patterns of development in the persons they have studied: the stages appear in the same order in all the persons they observe. Although many aSpects of human development seem to follow sequential stage patterns , this is not true of all learning or change. not by the a reasoning L25 logic which taught to 9‘11 ttrsl advert: seems to me the ability ti ment to a me 'm use is red 23 2 . Qualitative Differences . One stage is set off from another, not by the amount of knowledge gradually acquired, but by the quality of reasoning used. The kind of reasoning used differs from stage to stage. 3 . Structural Wholeness or InteQrity. Structural wholeness refers to the fact that logic which is characteristic of a given stage is logic which can be applied to many different problems . Persons can be taught to give specific responses which would seem to indicate struc- tural advancement beyond what is expected at a certain age or which seems to make invalid the claim for invariant sequence of stages . But the ability to make a few specific responses does not constitute move- ment to a new stage . A change in the quality of the thinking generally in use is required for stage development. 4. Hierarchical Integration. Hierarchical integration has already been looked at in connection with the characteristics of develop- ment. It has the same meaning when applied to stages . The important cognitive structures of one stage are refined and integrated into the next higher stage. The developing person does not leave behind all the reasoning skills and patterns of the previous stage. The learner corrects inadequacies and builds the valid elements of the earlier reasoning pro- cesses into the new structure. 5 . Intrastage Development. Development takes place within a stage. One does not suddenly become capable of fully using all the TR"! characters: 7 r . , its fulfilling the solution 24 logical skills of a stage. As one moves into a new stage, he or she uses the new structures irregularly and sometimes inefficiently. But as development occurs the new ways of reasoning are used more con- sistently and more adequately. 6. Interstage Construction. Although each stage has its own characteristic structure, the stages are interrelated. Each new stage is the fulfillment of the preceding stage. The new structures make possible the solution of problems left unanswered in the former stage. But each stage is also a preparation for the stage to follow. The logic or patterns of reasoning being exercised and mastered at the present stage provide a foundation on which the next stage will be built. As already noted, many of the logical skills of one stage will be reintegrated to become part of the new stage. In summary, Stewart (1974) states that "the central hypothesis contained in this theory as manifested by these characteristics of the stages is that deveIOpment is an organized and coherent process of sequential qualitative changes" (p. 276) . The Problem The question has been raised, Are there guidelines available to help parents and teachers effectively and constructively influence the values and moral development of children and youth? The answer is , Yes . The work of Piaget and Kohlberg suggests ways of facilitating development. But the ideas of these researchers are not readily '. In... A-- ogg ‘4 available to p: Ill-OS: pETS OTIS C!) r“ y. ~_ otter feSearc lflElEans' 1‘. son. ThEll'I and dlSCOufE St (Wadsworth and SChOldy values/mor (ll the chum mill} COnC e 03 . ~ Pla38t's t... ‘V ‘4‘ “1“ ’qu a“ \ 2 . :v- ‘ J1 KohleH 25 available to persons involved in values/moral education. Literature Related Problems The writings of Piaget and Kohlberg are found mainly in widely scattered pieces of scholarly literature.2 Some of their best articles have been published in large, expensive professional handbooks or manuals (Goslin, 1969, Mussen, 1970). These are not accessible to most persons . Scholarly or cursory. Piaget and Kohlberg write mainly to other researchers , professional educators , and psychologists . In most instances , they do not make an effort to be understood by the lay per- son. Their writings are full of technical terminology which frustrates and discourages many persons to the point that they will not read the articles or books . Some introductory surveys of Piaget’s concepts are available (Wadsworth, 1971, Blkind, 1974) . But even these are too extensive and scholarly for the interest of many persons who are involved in values/moral education. Volunteer teachers in the educational program of the church often do not see cognitive development as one of their main concerns . Such persons would not be attracted to an entire book on Piaget's theory. Interest in cognitive development is not likely to be stimulated until religious educators see it as an essential part of 2The bibliography lists several books and articles by Piaget and Kohlberg. W .“‘a moral dev' (Kohlberg, diction to between t! aspects 0: cess of de moral dew 26 moral development . Kohlberg has written several popular articles on his findings But these give only the most cursory intro- (Kohlberg, 1972a, 1972c) . Brief articles do not show the relationship duction to his concepts . between the theories of Piaget and Kohlberg. Without an understanding of this relationship the implications for teacher behaviors are limited Attention tends to be focused on the stage-related and inadequate . aspects of the theory (the descriptive factors) rather than on the pro- cess of development (the factors that can predict the facilitating of moral development) . In the field of religious education, developmental concepts Moral Development: A Guide are beginning to appear in the literature. to Piaget and Kohlbgg by Duska and Whelan is an example. Richards, in his book A Theology of Christian Education, devotes portions of two These books , how- chapters to the discussion of Piaget and Kohlberg. ever, provide a less than adequate introduction to the concepts of The authors seem to focus almost com- values development education. pletely on the stage-related aspects of the theories . As we will see later, many behavioral implications for teachers and parents can be drawn from the four necessary factors of development identified by Piaget. These are not discussed in the literature just mentioned. Richards (1975) raises several concerns related to accepting cieVelopmental concepts for education within the church. He believes that the thinking of developmentalists "leads to the suggestion that morality is i: Piaget and K determined 6 inner potent learner with direct mater external sta ment is imp the issues i deeper ‘JndE who seeks ' tion. Mos replication descriptior il'y availa't: tion. The What a chi the factors titre whic I lchl’le lSCL5810: ._ (L) .3 “EC 27 morality is internally derived " (p. 169) . But developmentalists such as - Piaget and Kohlberg strongly emphasize the fact that development is not determined either by inner or outer forces . Development occurs as the inner potentials are actualized through the active transaction of the learner with things external to him or her. The inner principles which direct mature moral judgments are forged as one experiences living by external standards and rules . The external standards stage of develop- ment is important preparation for the next stage. It seems that many of the issues Richards raises would cease to be concerns in the light of a deeper understanding of the developmental perspective. Findings not implications . Another problem faces the person who seeks to discover developmental guidelines for values/moral educa- tion. Most of what is written presents findings of research rather than implications for behaviors which will facilitate development. Since descriptions of the stage—related aspects of the findings are most read- ily available, persons have tried to draw inferences from this informa- tion. The characteristics of the stages have been used to determine what a child can or cannot learn, but little attention has been given to the factors which inhibit or promote development. The problem of liter- ature which presents mainly findings rather than behavioral implications for teachers is complicated by the inaccessibility of the comprehensive discussions of developmental concepts . A great deal of difficult read- ing is necessary for one to acquire an adequate background from which ill...- to draw as. they can dc timings do their guide: There is of: rtleir cor develop. 1 valuing rat': l’al‘a‘ES/mor than adeqae 28 to draw educational implications . Teachers and parents are practitioners who want to know what they can do to influence values . When they find that developmental writings do not suggest many specific behaviors they go elsewhere for their guidance. Techniques are picked up from a variety of sources . There is often little concern for the theoretical roots of the techniques or their consistency with a particular view of persons and how they develop. Many commonly used techniques focus on the content of valuing rather than on the structures for understanding and processing values/moral content. From a developmental perspective this is less than adequate . Paraprofessional audience. A large segment of those involved in values/moral education are not professional educators . They are parents and volunteer workers in the church who may have limited back- grounds in educational philosophy and child psychology. In this disser- tation these persons will be referred to as paraprofessionals . For them the concepts of values development education must be presented in a nontechnical, understandable form. Their interest in theory will be short-lived unless they can see the behavioral implications which grow out of it. However, an understanding of the theory is needed to give meaning to suggested behaviors . When one is aware of the reason for a certain behavior it should be easier to generalize the behavior and adapt it to various situations . study of de‘ .i-AN “l Questions; spective on ' broader, mo: engaged in v: issues are so Ma tire on value 29 Dissemination Problems A few persons have recently been involved in an intensive study of developmental writings . They have focus ed attention on the educational implications of the theories . The results of their studies are now being shared with professionals and paraprofessionals in con- ferences and workshops .3 But to depend on these workshops and con— ferences as the main form of dissemination for the developmental per- spective on values/moral education is not adequate for our times. A broader, more rapid communication of developmental ideas to those engaged in values/moral education is needed in a day when values issues are so crucial. Many persons being introduced to the developmental perspec- tive on values/moral education respond with the desire to learn more and to share the ideas with others . Workshop leaders are frustrated by the lack of adequate literature to suggest for further study. At the same time they are encouraged by the interest. It seems that if materials were available to guide persons in exploring developmental concepts many would engage in group and individual study of the subject. Such materials would have to stand on their own. They could not assume previous knowledge in the field of education or values development. Guidance for group study would need to be designed for group leaders 3Intensive study of the work of Piaget and Kohlberg has been done by persons involved in the Values Development Education Program at Michigan State University. Asbury Theological Seminary has been another center for deveIOpmental studies . who probéi anc "1‘: ‘I ‘1... gov " C L «' man“ “5591 i 3‘ leads to as true of a ti descriptior their atten‘. theories dc istics of ti is; to deci thi sisan: Energy for 30 who probably have no special preparation for instruction on the topic . Possible Misuse of Theory Some persons have expressed concern for the use of widely disseminated information on values development education. Often a brief and comparatively superficial exposure to an educational theory leads to misunderstandings and abuses of it. This may be especially true of a theory which presents stages of development. In the past developmentalists lost the respect of many because it seemed that they spent all their time simply describing people. Others took their findings and worried if their children did not fit the descriptions precisely. Although developmentalists are now focusing their attention on the processes of development and its facilitation, their theories do have descriptive segments . Persons can take the character- istics of the stages of development and Spend their time and energy try- ing to decide precisely where others are in their development. Though this is an important task for researchers, it is a misuse of time and energy for most persons working with children and young people. Evidence of a particular stage characteristic may draw from one person a flippant or pejorative labeling of another: That was a stage two response if I ever heard one. The process of labeling can become an end in itself. Fascination with the differences in the think- ing of persons in the various levels and stages of development may capture the attention of parents or teachers . But putting a stage label on a child c stage into a and those t on another child to be toward ad‘s: lack of rind consists of 31 on a child does little to facilitate deveIOpment. When the path of development is described as leading from one stage into another there is a tendency to look down on the earlier stages and those using that form of reasoning. Any time one person looks down on another this is an abuse. Adults often consider the judgments of a child to be inadequate. Parents and teachers try to hurry children toward adult ways of thinking and acting. Such attitudes indicate a lack of understanding as to the importance of each stage in development. The pattern of moral development which Kohlberg has described consists of three levels . Within each of these levels there are two stages . The findings of Kohlberg can be discussed in terms of the gen- eral characteristics of the three levels or the specific descriptions of the six stages . Those who have introduced persons to Kohlberg's find- ings using both levels and stages presentations note a difference in the response of the learners depending on the presentation used. An intro- duction to the detail of the stages seemed to focus attention on the stage characteristics and labeling. When the levels were presented instead of the stages, interest seemed to focus more on the processes of development than on the descriptive facets of the findings . If this observation is correct, some possible misuses of the theory could be avoided by discussing levels rather than stages of moral development. 32 Summary The problem being addressed in this dissertation is many- faceted. It can be summarized as follows: 1. There is a growing interest in values/moral education but the information needed for a developmental perspective on values/moral education is not readily accessible. It exists mainly in widely scat— tered, extensive, scholarly literature. 2 . Moral development literature which is available and written in a popular style is cursory. It focuses on the stage-related aspects of the theory and does not adequately correlate the contributions of Piaget and Kohlberg . 3 . Moral development theory exists mainly in the form of findings rather than of implications . 4. Teachers and parents tend to be attracted to a variety of techniques in values/moral education. Little consideration is given to the theoretical bases of the techniques , their consistency with a partic- ular view of values/moral development, or their influence on the struc— ture of moral reasoning. 5. Many of the persons involved in values/moral education are paraprofessionals . They are more interested in practice than in theory. Literature which they will want to read must be nontechnical and clearly show the practical implications which grow out of theory. 6 . The present approach to disseminating a developmental perspective on values/moral education through conferences and workshops derelopne: their own. learners or theory may stages of it Can nateri tive on val will study . COFlCepts? developmer can be diss 33 workshops is slow. 7. Materials designed to communicate the concepts of values development education more quickly and broadly would have to stand on their own. They could assume no Special background on the part of learners or instructors . 8. Persons who receive an introduction to developmental theory may misuse it. This may be true especially when the detailed stages of moral development are discussed. The following question arises out of this complex problem: Can materials be designed which will present a developmental perspec- tive on values/moral education to paraprofessionals in a form that they will study and which will lead to a sound understanding and use of the concepts? To counteract the problems listed in this chapter moral development education4 materials would have to be in a form which can be disseminated widely. They would also need to be effective when used by persons who have no special preparation for offering instruction in moral development education other than what is presented in the instructional package . 4" Moral development education, values develOpment education, " and "the developmental perspective on values/moral education" are used interchangeably in this dissertation to refer to an understanding of the facilitating of values/moral development which grows out of the theories of Piaget and Kohlberg. (I) which ha i: a sort has I tors wno E dissertatir All MOW) r~ " Ln 34 Patterns in Moral Development5 is an instructional package which has been designed to provide moral development education for paraprofessionals . The media forms used in the instructional materials have been chosen with consideration for ease of dissemination. An effort has been made to prepare materials which can be used by instruc- tors who have no special training in moral development education. This dissertation describes the design and evaluation of Patterns in Moral Development . The Hypotheses The Specific question of this research project now comes into focus: Does Patterns in Moral Development present a developmental perspective on values/moral education to paraprofessionals in a form that they will study and which leads to a sound understanding and use of the concepts ? The following hypotheses have been tested in an effort to answer the above question. 1 . Persons having completed the training experience Patterns in Moral Development will demonstrate an increased understanding of the developmental perspective on values/moral education as presented in the instructional materials . Note: As stated earlier Patterns in Moral Development 5Prepublication versions of Patterns in Moral Development are produced and distributed by the Values Development Education Program, College of Education, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. provides cial prep for paren ment. . I m experienr Iacilitati 35 provides instruction in moral development education. It gives guidance for group and individual learning experiences . The developmental per— spective presented in the materials grows out of the research of Piaget and Kohlberg . 2 . Persons having completed the training experience Patterns in Moral Development conducted by an instructor who has had no spe- cial preparation for teaching the course will show increased preference for parent and teacher behaviors which facilitate values/moral develop— ment . 3 . Persons having completed the training experience Patterns in Moral Development will indicate that, as a result of the training experience, they have engaged in a specific action important to the facilitation of moral development. 4. Persons having received the training experience Patterns in Moral Development--treatments D1 or D2--will show less tendency to misunderstand the process of moral development or abuse the theory of values development education than will persons who have not received either treatment. Note: Treatments D1 and D2 refer to the two versions of Lanterns in Moral_]2evelopment (see figure 1). The two versions were designed to test the informal observation that persons who are intro- duced to Kohlberg's stages of moral development respond differently than do persons who are introduced to the l_e_\_r_t_a_l§ of moral development identified by Kohlberg. D1 presents Kohlberg's findings in terms of % ... den: ' to ‘iicatio: CCZSiS:eC T125 task tomcat“ “I\ . S~:.1dl“ 36 stages, D2 discusses the findings in terms of_l_§y_e_ls of moral develop- ment . 5 . Persons having received treatment D2 will show less ten- dency to misunderstand and abuse the theory of values development education than will persons having received treatment D1 . Note: Specific misunderstandings and abuses of values devel- opment education theory were looked for in the testing of this final hypothesis . The tendency to focus on stage-related aspects of the theory, placing high importance on labeling persons, looking down on those in the lower stages , or trying to rush development were all con— sidered as misunderstandings and abuses of theory. The Task The testing of the hypotheses was the final step in a more extensive task. The research project described in this dissertation consisted of two phases: a design phase and an evaluative phase. The task involved four major steps: 1 . Deriving from developmental research and theory behavioral implications for facilitating values/moral development. 2 . Deciding what learnings are essential for a sound under- standing of the developmental perspective on values/moral education . 3 . Designing instructional materials intended to lead para- PrOfessionals to a sound understanding of the developmental perspective on Values/moral education . tive phas Figure l. Ofl ,. . wuugatlon N 37 4 . Testing the effectiveness of the instructional materials . Steps 1, 2, and 3 were the design phase, step 4 the evalua- tive phase of the project . Figure 1 pictures the task. H—i» o< giro] Figure l. The Task A. Values development theory 1. Deriving behavioral implications B. Implications for teacher behaviors 2 . Deciding on essen- C. Essential understandings tials of sound under- standing D1 Instructional materials-- ' Variation 1: "stages" emphasis 3. Designing instruc- tional materials D2 Instructional materials-- Variation 2: "levels" emphasis 4. Evaluating instruc- tional materials D3 Refined instructional materials Concern over the possible misuse of values development education concepts has been discussed. It has also been noted that. some persons think they have observed different reSponses to Kohlberg's findings, depending on whether they were presented as descriptions of levels or stages . To test this observation, two versions of the instruc- tional materials have been designed. One set of materials (D 1) dis- cusses the characteristics of the six Specific Eggs of moral devel- cmeent identified by Kohlberg. The other materials (D2) present the more general characteristics of the three major levels of moral development. Except for these differences the two sets of materials are identical. ‘__——d evaluati‘f hthn ca incussec order here on the be: tate the {r earlier in frarrrework COnsuhed lOl’S and 1; Work of lo 38 The title of this dissertation indicates that it describes an evaluative study. The purpose of evaluation is to inform decisions, in this case, about instruction in moral development education. The results of the evaluation will guide the refinement of the instructional materials . D1 and D2 will be reworked to become D3 . In Figure 1, D3 appears in brackets because the actual refining of the instructional materials is beyond the scope of this dissertation. In chapter 3 the procedures used to accomplish the task are discussed in detail. But a few comments relating to each step are in order here . $22.2 Deriving behavioral implications from theory means to decide, on the basis of theory, what teachers and parents ought to do to facili— tate the moral development of their children or students . As indicated earlier in the chapter, Piaget and Kohlberg have provided the theoretical framework which has been used. Joyce and Weil (1972) have also been consulted. In Models of Teaching they describe various teacher behav- iors and the learnings which occur as a result of those behaviors . The Work of once and Weil has been instructive in the selection of specific teacher behaviors which facilitate moral development. Step 2 The second step called for identifying the learnings which are essential for a sound understanding of the developmental perspective on I in! ‘ valucsl' The ms: . “ 17.1103 uC i31911-35. tend to W985 “"139 th. (2.. (l) ‘19 1 Op; 1‘ ' . 10“- A: with kno 39 values/moral education. A key word in this statement is essential. The instructional materials mentioned in step 3 were designed as an introductory experience for paraprofessionals . The study was limited to basic values/moral education concepts . But those basics were intended to include all the concepts essential to a sound understand- ing. The learning goals for the instructional materials grew out of the concepts chosen in step 2 . A key phrase in the step 2 statement is sound understanding. A sound understanding of values development education consists of knowledge about both theory and practice. Theory which does not sug— gest appropriate teacher and parent behaviors does little to assist in facilitating development. Only limited guidance is provided by a list of recommended behaviors separated from their theoretical roots . Teachers and parents who understand the theoretical reasons for certain desirable actions will be better able to apply newly acquired skills to a wide range of situations . In the context of this dissertation a sound understandirg also implies that developmental concepts will not be misused. Persons who tend to be more interested in the characteristics of stages than in the process of facilitating development, who focus their attention on identi- inng the precise stage of others , and who depreciate early stages of deVelopment do not have a sound understanding of values/moral educa- tion. An understanding of the pattern of development must be linked With knowledge about and concern for the factors at work causing msxuc versiox 0fthe i sound L 9dueat1 mSUUm Linders: infirm the Stuc DTOgram 40 development. This calls for a correlation of the theories of Piaget and Kohlberg . Step 3 Patterns in Moral Development is the name given to the instructional materials referred to in step 3. As noted earlier, two versions of the materials were developed: one version (D 1) presented stages of moral development, the other (D2) levels of moral develop— ment . Patterns in Moral Development provided materials for a training experience which included individual study and projects as well as group discussion sessions . Step 4 A measuring instrument is necessary to "test the effectiveness of the instructional materials . " No instrument existed to test for a sound understanding of the developmental perspective on values/moral education. A major part of step 4 was the developing of the measuring instrument. The learnings chosen in step 2 as the essentials of a sound Understanding provided the criteria to be measured. The second phase of step 4 was the field testing of the instructional materials . Patterns in Moral Deve10pment was used as the study guide for classes of volunteer workers in the educational DrOgram of the church. training 41 Definitions In this dissertation a few terms have been used to carry spe- cial meanings . The following list provides the definitions of those words . Designer, Writer, Researcher——terms referring to one person. As noted earlier, this research project consisted of two phases: a design phase and an evaluation phase. The total project was conducted by one person who therefore took the roles of designer, writer, and researcher. Learners——the voluntary adult church workers who took the training course Patterns in Moral Development. Other learners are referred to as students . Instructors——the persons who taught Patterns in Moral Devel- OEment in the field test situations . Other instructors are referred to as teachers . Goal-—a broad, general statement of an outcome which is a desired result of instruction. Purpose--a statement of a desired outcome which is more Specific than a goal. Several purposes are related to one goal. The DUrposes presented in chapter 2 are the purposes of the designer which the instructional materials were constructed to fulfill. Process--the way in which persons make changes in their Understandings and perspectives as they transact with the world around 1them. In this dissertation the term is often linked with the word 42 development: a process of development or developmental process . Natural process--the way in which persons would change if inhibiting factors were at a minimum and the environment supplied the factors necessary for the facilitating of development. Summary Chapter 1 has endeavored to set forth the need for Patterns in Moral Development, materials designed to provide instruction in moral development education for paraprofessionals . To provide a context for understanding moral development education, some basic developmental assumptions have been presented. Chapter 2 provides a more detailed discussion of the theoret- ical framework for Patterns in Moral Development. It includes a look into the literature from which the contents of Patterns in Moral Devel- OEment were drawn and also the literature which provided guidance for designing the instructional materials . There have been two phases to the project described in this dissertation: a design phase and an evaluation phase. Chapter 3 gives a detailed account of the procedures used in both of these phases . The statistical findings are presented in chapter 4 . Each of 1ihe hypotheses has been tested to see whether or not it is supported by the data. The report of which hypotheses are supported by the data and Which are not is in chapter 4 . Chapter 5 deals with the conclusions of the study. CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW The instructional materials, Patterns in Moral Development, have been influenced by three types of literature. The content of the training course grows out of the research findings of Piaget and Kohlberg and the models of teaching described by Joyce and Weil. The Briggs model for the design of instruction has guided the development of the materials and the instrument for evaluating them. The section of this chapter entitled, "The Theoretical Background for the Content, " dis- cusses the specific concepts from Piaget, Kohlberg, once and Weil Which are reflected in Patterns in Moral Development. The Briggs model is examined in the chapter section "The Instructional Design Literature.‘ THE THEORETICAL BACKGROUND FOR THE CONTENT Before beginning to explore the theoretical foundations for the <30ntent of Patterns in Moral Development it will be helpful to survey the 1earning purposes and goals of this training experience. The instruc- tional materials have been designed to accomplish the following pur- poses: 1 . To help the learner grow in his or her understanding of the processes and patterns of moral development. 43 44 2 . To help the learner become acquainted with the factors which facilitate development. 3. To help the learner construct a more adequate understand— ing of his or her role as a facilitator of moral development. The ultimate goal of Patterns in Moral Development is to help those involved in the instructional experience become better facilitators of moral development. Though new knowledge will not guarantee that persons behave in new ways, it is assumed that knowledge is an impor- tant component in the process of behavior change. Instructional mate- rials which lead persons into more adequate understandings of the pro- cesses and patterns of moral development, the factors of development, and the facilitating roles of parents and teachers should contribute to helping those persons become better facilitators of development. Goals for "Patterns in Moral Development" Each of the three major purposes will be accomplished through reaching more specific learning goals . The following outline presents the goals of Patterns in Moral Deve10pment. Purpose 1 An "understanding of the processes and patterns of moral development" is made up of several concepts about human beings and how they learn. The goals of the instructional materials are to help the learners understand that: 45 a. Development is a natural process . b. Persons are actively involved in constructing their under- standings and values--view of the world--through transaction with the environment . 0. Knowledge and values cannot be transmitted directly from the teacher to the learner. d. Deve10pment takes place within the learner through organ— ization and adaptation: assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. e. All learners develop cognitively and morally according to an invariant pattern of sequential stages . The timing of deveIOpment may vary, but not the sequence. f. The way of thinking and reasoning at each stage is qual- itatively different from that of other stages . g. The thinking of the child is qualitatively different from the thinking of an adult. h. Kohlberg's levels of moral development describe the path of moral development. 1. Moral judgments consist of content (the specific judgment of what ought to be done) and structure (the process of reasoning that led to the judgment) . j. It is the structure (the process of reasoning) that indicates the level of moral judgment. k. Persons distort moral reasoning that is more than one stage above their current stage . in. rat a i. .FH .\ Hwy 46 l. The quality of thinking at each level of moral development is indicated by changes in one's: source of authority consideration of intentions concept of justice value of persons stimulus to right actions ability to take another's perspective Purpose 2 To accomplish the second purpose learners will be led in an exploration of the factors which facilitate or inhibit moral development. The goal of Patterns in Moral Development is to help the learner come to understand that: a. The four necessary factors of development are: biogenetic endowment experience social interaction equilibration b. Disequilibration is not something about which to be alarmed but can be a healthy sign of preparation for a new phase of development . c . Persons are attracted to moral reasoning that is just beyond their current moral judgment stage. u.) > u H. (I? LEE (:3 47 d. The kind of community children live and learn in has a great deal to do with their development, whether it is facilitated or inhibited. e. The most important element of the community is the quality .— of justice which the child experiences in it . f. The environment should offer a wide range of direct exper- iences. g. The environment should offer many opportunities for social interaction . Purpose 3 The final purpose has to do with the role of teachers and par- ents in moral development. The training program intends to help the learner become better prepared to facilitate moral development through understanding that: a. Teachers and parents are values/moral agents . b. The teacher or parent should endeavor to facilitate deve10p- ment, not to transmit values and moral judgments. c. Teachers or parents facilitate or inhibit moral development as they are actively involved in everyday transactions with children and Young peOple. (1. Adults should accept current forms of judging as an impor- tant phase in the process of the development of children and young DeOple . 48 e. Parents and teachers should provide an environment in which children and young people can bump into the new ideas and exper- iences they need for the next step in their development . f. One of the major roles for parents and teachers is to foster the kind of community most healthy for development--one which: encourages open discussion and sharing of ideas provides just consideration and treatment for each person encourages questioning, exploration, and reflection provides a sense of belonging allows the learner to actively participate in decision-making and carrying responsibility allows for learners to take many roles 9. Teachers and parents should provide an environment rich in direct experience and social interaction. h. Adults must try to understand the perspectives of children and young people. 1. Teachers and parents should avoid authoritarian control of children and young people. j. The teacher or parent who is effective in facilitating moral development will act as counselor, consultant, friendly critic, sounding board, and fellow learner. k. When learners are at points of disequilibrium the teacher or parent can facilitate moral development by: giving accepting support :— AU iflu «Iv Q» 35% 49 helping to clarify the questions and inadequacies causing disequilibration drawing attention to other related questions which the learner has not noticed The learning goals for Patterns in Moral Development will appear again in clusters stated at the close of the theoretical discus- sions on which they are based (see pages 61, 62, 65, 66, 69, 83, 84, 88, 89, 95, and 96). Relatiggthe Concepts of Piaget and Kohlberg During the early years of Piaget's research (1928--1932) one of the areas which captured his interest was the moral reasoning of children. The Moral judgment of the Child (1965)1 presents what Piaget discovered as he studied the child's view of rules, punishment, right, and wrong . In the foreword to The Moral JudgLnent of the Child Piaget invited other researchers to explore the moral reasoning of children in other settings (1965, p. 8). In the late 19505 Kohlberg took up this task. Piaget and Kohlbengompared The moral development research of Kohlberg was more intensive than that conducted earlier by Piaget . Kohlberg has worked with his subjects over a long period of time, returning to reassess their moral ¥ 1The first English translation of The Moral judgment of the Child was published in 1932 . The edition listed in the bibliography, however, was published in 1965. 50 reasoning and to chart its development . The oldest children studied by Piaget were in their early teens . Kohlberg has interviewed children, teenagers, and young adults . Some of his subjects are now in their thirties . The findings of Kohlberg agree with those of Piaget at some points, but they also indicate some differences . Kohlberg provides a more precise description of moral development, eSpecially at the higher levels . Patterns in Moral Develgpment presents the characteristics of moral reasoning identified by Kohlberg rather than those by Piaget. ngpitive Prerequisites for Moral Development The moral development theory of Kohlberg, however, is built on Piaget's broader, more extensive study of cognitive deveIOpment. Kohlberg (in Goslin, 1969) refers to his approach as "cognitive— developmental. " The following quote describes the relationship which Kohlberg (1972b) believes exists between cognitive and moral develop- ment: Our cognitive hypothesis is , basically, that moral judgment has a characteristic form at a given stage, and that this form is parallel to the form of intellectual judgment at a correSponding stage. This implies a parallelism or isomorphism between the development of the forms of logical and ethical judgment. By this we mean that each new stage of moral judgment entails a new set of logical operations not present at the prior stage. The sequence of logical operations involved is defined by Piaget's stages of logico-mathematical thinking. . . . But the isomorphism of cognitive and moral stages does not mean that moral judgment is simply the application of a level of intelligence to moral problems . We believe moral development is its own sequential process rather than the reflection of cognitive development in a slightly different content area . A child deprived C .3 Ce 2. it. any n Au :1. 1.“ ‘1. F 3,. an PL 2. 3 b C r n a v .. m a has 15‘ 51 of all moral social stimulation until adolescence might perhaps develop "principled" or formal operational, logical thought in adol- escence, but would still have to go through all the stages of mor— ality before developing moral principles rather than automatically reflecting his cognitive principles in a morally principled form of thought. While moral stages are not simply Special applications of logical stages, logical stages must be prior to moral stages, because they are more general. In other words, one can be at a given logical stage and not be at the parallel moral stage, but the reverse is not possible. (pp. 186—187) Cognitive development, then, is a prerequisite for moral development. Factors Common to Cognitive and Moral Development The writings of Kohlberg are full of references to the four nec- essary factors of development identified by Piaget. Since cognitive development is a necessary preparation for moral development and since biologically rooted inherited tendencies and maturation are necessary for cognitive development, it follows that the development of moral reason— ing is dependent in part on biological factors . When discussing stages of structural development Kohlberg (in Goslin, 19 69, pp. 352-361) notes that the thinking of children and that of their adult teachers is qualitatively different . It would seem that these differences exist because the inner functioning of the child is interacting with the outer world. Through interaction the child constructs a personal understanding which is not a reflection of what has been taught. Both the inner factors and experience must be considered if one is to understand development . Kohlberg's research points to the importance of social inter- action. "The main experiential determinants of moral development seem 52 to be amount and variety of social experience, the Opportunity to take a number of roles and to encounter other perspectives" (Kohlberg, 1972a, p. 15). An important inner function at work in both logical and moral development is the process of equilibration (Kohlberg, l972b, p. 194) . Through experience and social interaction the child bumps into ways of thinking and acting which are different from his or her own. This creates an inner conflict which must be resolved. Through the process of equil- ibration the conflict is resolved and development occurs . S ummary Biogenetic endowment, direct experience, social interaction, and equilibration are necessary factors for moral development as well as for cognitive development . Piaget, therefore, provides us with our basic understanding of the process of development both in the logical and the moral realms . Building on the work of Piaget, Kohlberg supplies an understanding of the pattern or path that is followed in moral develop- ment. He also suggests important characteristics of social interaction which seem to be most helpful to develOpment. Piaget's understanding of the process of development and Kohlberg's discussion of the pattern of moral development have been incorporated into the instruction in moral education described in this dissertation. 53 Ease; From the broad range of Piaget's thought we will focus on just two areas: the process by which one learns and develops and the factors that are necessary to development. The process and the factors suggest teacher behaviors for facilitating development. These will also be dis- cussed. The Process of Develogment The human brain is an active organism. Two of its important functions are organization and adaptation. These functions are at work in all persons throughout life, except possibly in the case of those who have suffered severe brain damage. Because of their constancy, Piaget refers to organization and adaptation as invariant functions (Piaget, I9 52, pp. 1-9) . As mentioned earlier, it seems that the tendency for the brain to organize and adapt is part of the biological inheritance of human beings . As the brain functions according to its natural tendencies, learning and development take place. nganization and adaptation. Organization is the activity of trying to structure and make sense out of the world. Perceptions do not pass through the senses into the mind and simply become part of a grand, unorganized collection of sights , sounds, and feelings . The mind works with those perceptions, trying to organize them into meaningful cate— gories or structures . The categories that are established and how they are related to each other become a way of thinking, a way of viewing 54 the world. A characteristic way of thinking is what Piaget and Kohlberg mean by the structure of thought. The process of trying to organize perceptions leads to the function of adaptation. Three words must be looked at to discover what Piaget means by adaptation. The words are assimilation, accommoda- pi_o_n, and guilibration. When a new piece of information is assimilated into a category or structure of the mind it is taken in without making a change in the category. Through assimilation, concepts or structures grow and expand, but they do not change in quality and thus develop. Cindy was punished for pushing her younger cousin Randy and making him cry. As a result of this experience, she added another item to her category: "things I get punished for. " She learned that punishment is meted out for pushing younger cousins as well as for hitting, scratching, and playing with the stereo. She had assimilated a new experience and the information from it into an existing mental category without changing the form or structure of the category. Accommodation occurs when the mental category or structure must be changed to assimilate new information. Let's look again at Cindy and Randy for an example of accommodation. Several years after the first pushing episode, the two children were playing together. Cindy tripped, knocked Randy down, and hurt him. To Cindy's surprise her father helped them both up and did not punish her. She had pushed her cousin and had not been punished. That did not fit her category of ”5L bu. Hr: $.- L n! .L . .. \c 9.9.1 ‘lll i ‘I .- .W A1 0 hi 5. CU 55 "things I get punished for.’ Cindy began to realize that this was not the first time she had expected punishment for an act but had not received it. What was different about this action and the others which she had expected to be punished for? Cindy discovered that her intentions made the difference. This called for a change in her mental structure. Cindy realized that not all pushing, hitting, and scratching belong in the same category. She would be punished for willfully hurting another person. But hurting someone accidentally was treated differently. Cindy had changed her way of thinking about certain actions and punishment. She had accommodated her mental structure so that she could assimilate a new awareness of an experience which did not fit into her previous way of thinking. Development had taken place. But what is it that causes a person to accommodate his or her thinking? Piaget answers that it is the process of equilibration. The human being cannot live with conflict between new perceptions of reality and current ways of understanding that reality. This conflict creates a state of disequilibration. Something must be done to restore equilibrium. In the effort to resolve the conflict, one's way of thinking is refined and rearranged: accommodated. When thinking is changed so that the new information fits , equilibrium has been restored and development has taken place. Equilibration is a dynamic, ongoing process . It is restored only to be disrupted again by a new experience (Elkind in Piaget, 1967, p. xiii). With each new equilibration, the organism becomes more integrated and more closely atuned to reality (Piaget, 1967, p. 8). 56 Piaget (in Mussen, 1970) goes so far as to state that, "It is not an exaggeration to say that equilibration is the fundamental factor of devel- opment, and that it is even necessary for the coordination of the three other factors [maturation, experience of the physical environment, and social interaction] " (p. 726) . Because of the invariant functions of the mind, organization, and adaptation, the learner is an active participant in learning and development. Persons do not passively receive input from the environ- ment. They act on the stimuli from the outside, trying to organize and make sense out of it. Through this process they construct their own understandings. Piaget (in Mussen, 1970, p. 705) is concerned that the activity of the learner not be neglected when trying to understand epis- temology. On the other hand, he does not ignore the influence of the environment. The following quote clearly states Piaget's view (in Mussen, 1970) of the interaction between learner and environment. He describes cognitive or epistemological relations as consisting "neither of a simple copy of external objects nor a mere unfolding of structures performed inside the subject, but rather involve a set of structures pro- gressively structured by continuous interaction between the subject and the external world" (p. 703) . The values of a child, therefore, will not be cepies of the values presented by teachers and parents . They will be a version of values constructed by the child. But since they are con- structed through interaction with others , the child's values will have been influenced by parents , teachers , and others in his or her world. 57 Stages of cognitive development. Piaget's studies show that cognitive structures follow a certain pattern as they develop (Piaget, 1967, 1969, in Mussen, 1970, pp. 711-713). He has identified four major stages of cognitive development: 1. Sensori-motor 2. PreOperational 3 . Concrete operational 4 . Formal operational All persons work their way through these stages in the same order. Though varied circumstances may cause some persons to develOp at a different rate than do others , the sequence of the stages does not change. The reason for this is that each stage is necessary for the formation of the next. Because cognitive structures are constructed instead of being transmitted ready-made, the developing person must construct the way of thinking characteristic to each stage in preparation for the next. Stages differ, not merely in the amount of information acquired, but in the quality of reasoning which is characteristic of the stage. A brief look at the stages will indicate some of the qualitative differences . The sensori-motor period is the period from birth to 1 1/2 or 2 1/2 years of age.2 The baby does not have words or concepts to think g 2With each stage of cognitive development an age range will be identified. Note that the ranges are broad. Persons vary in the Speed at which they develop. Biological maturation, which is related to chrono— logical age, makes development possible. But that potential for devel- C>Dment must be actualized through experience and social interaction. 58 with, but the mind of the infant is active. Sensations and motor activ- ities are organized into mental categories . These sensori-motor cate- gories are the first structures of the mind. They will be reorganized, refined, and integrated into new structures as the child develops . During the preoperational period, from the end of the sensori- motor period until the age of 7 or 8, the child uses what might be called prelogical thinking. This is a loose translation of the label used by Piaget. What adults think of as logical is the thought process which Piaget calls an operation. Operations are internal reversible mental actions (Piaget in Mussen, 1970, p. 705) . The thinking of the pre- operational child is irreversible. That is , the child cannot think back over a series of events and discover the cause and effect relationships that are there . Events tend to be seen in isolation without concern for their relationships one to another. Young children are egocentric in perspective. The possibility that others see things differently from the way they see them does not occur to preoperational children. They do not question their own think- ing because they are not aware of any way of thinking but their own. Events in the physical world are explained in terms of what children know of their personal world. Clouds run across the sky and bridges break to let boys fall into the creek as punishment for wrong actions . Piaget's conservation experiments point up two other charac- teristics of preoperational thinking: (1) It is perception bound, and (2) Only one aspect of a situation can be considered at a time. In the 59 conservation experiments the child is shown two identical containers with equal amounts of colored water in them. While he or she watches, the water from one container is all poured into a tall, thin container. The child is then asked which container has the most water. Invariably the preoperational child declares that one or the other of the containers now has more . The mind perceives either the width or the height of the liquid but cannot consider both. The fact that the child had agreed earlier that the two identical containers had the same amount of water in them is overpowered by what is seen. If attention focuses on the high water line in the thin container, the child is sure that it contains more . Though the preoperational period has many limitations, it is a time of great accomplishments . The use of language and many concepts develop during this stage . Between the ages of 7 or 8 and 11 or 12, children discover the limitations of their preoperational thinking and enter the period of con- crete Operations . Their reasoning becomes reversible. They can think back over a series of events and see the relationships between them. Instead of their attention focusing on isolated actions or conditions , children are now aware of the flow and relatedness of events . They are able to think simultaneously about several aspects of a situation-- width and height--and understand how one aspect influences another. Children capable of concrete operations have made a major breakaway from egocentrism. They have discovered perspectives that . p (Arc lo“ P08. ._ . ing.“ '(‘1 “if: 60 differ from theirs . This has caused them to question their own thinking and to discover its inadequacies . During the period of concrete operations persons can think in a logical pattern about anything that can be represented in a concrete form. The mind, however, is unable to work with abstract ideas . The fourth stage of cognitive development is referred to as the period of formal operations . When Piaget uses the term formal pperations he is referring to the mind processing ideas or concepts which exist only in abstract form and not in concrete representations . The ability to think abstractly can begin to appear between the ages of 11 or 12 and 15 or 16. Although biological maturation makes formal operations possible during the early teen years, some adults never develop the ability to use abstract reasoning comfortably. Cognitive deveIOpment can and often does stop short of formal operations . Persons who can use formal operations are able to contemplate ideas which can be described only in words . They can think of many possible results from an action and solve difficult problems mentally instead of having to work through them using trial and error. The ability to perform formal operations is a prerequisite for Kohlberg's second and third levels of moral reasoning. The foregoing is merely a scanty sketch of the stages of cog— nitive development. But even this brief survey indicates the qualitative differences in the thinking of the various stages . In one of his interpre- tive essays on Jean Piaget, Elkind (1974) comments , "One of the most in km. . , . . . mu .1» ND .1; ./|\ 6 . Ase lZ 61 serious and pernicious misunderstandings about young children is that they are most like adults in their thinking and least like us in their feel- ings. In fact, just the reverse is true . . . " (p. 51) . The thinking of young children is different from that of adults not merely because they have less knowledge. The differences are also qualitative. Goals for trainiplpurpose l . A purpose of the instructional materials Patterns in Moral Development is to help the learners grow in their understanding of the processes and pattern of moral development. Several of the learning goals which contribute to this general understand- ing grow out of the Piagetian concepts just discussed. These goals (lettered in accordance with the list on pages 45 and 46) are to help the learner understand that: a. Development is a natural process . b. Persons are actively involved in constructing their under- standings and values--view of the world--through transaction with the environment . c . Knowledge and values cannot be transmitted directly from the teacher to the learner. d . Development takes place within the learner through organ- ization and adaptation: assimilation, accommodation, and equilibration. e. All learners develop cognitively according to an invariant pattern of sequential stages . The timing of development may vary but the sequence does not. f. The way of thinking and reasoning at each stage is 62 qualitatively different from that of other stages . g. The thinking of the child is qualitatively different from the thinking of the adult . Factors of Development The four factors which Piaget identifies as the causes of deveIOpment have already been alluded to. They are the biogenetic endowment of heredity and maturation, experience of the physical world, social interaction, and equilibration (Piaget in Mussen, 1970, pp. 719- ‘ 722) . Biogpnetic endowment. The human infant is born with the inherited tendency to develop. The brain immediately begins the func- tions of organization and adaptation initiating the baby into the role of active constructor of his or her understandings of self, others, and the world. Piaget's research indicates that certain levels of maturation are necessary before one can engage in certain cognitive activities . The brain is the biological organ which processes thought. Its level of maturation influences readiness for intellectual operations . The bioge- netic factors open the potential for development . But this potential must be actualized through the functioning of the other developmental factors . Experience with the physical world. Through experience, chil- dren learn the physical characteristics of objects in their world. They also learn about relationships between those objects and the results of 63 actions on the objects . As Teddy played with the stones in the drive- way, he learned about their physical characteristics . Stones are hard, they come in different sizes, some are smooth, but others have sharp edges . The child learned through physical experience. When Teddy learns to count, he may arrange ten stones in a row and count them, beginning at the right end of the row and then at the left. After arranging the stones in a circle he counts them again. To his surprise, the number of stones remains the same whether he counts them from left to right or from right to left, whether they are in a straight line or in a circle. Teddy has learned that number remains constant when order and arrangement change . This is a new discovery for the child. Through experience with objects the child learned about relationships and the result of actions on those objects . The new know- ledge was not a property of the objects but was learned through manipu- lation of them. This kind of direct experience which leads to concepts about the results of actions upon objects Piaget (in Mussen, 1970, p. 721) calls logico-mathematic experience. Social interaction. Research indicates that the cultural and educational environment of the child accelerates or retards the rate of cognitive development. Social interaction is an important factor. It is through many social contacts with peers and adults that young children discover there is more than their way of viewing the world. This dis- covery makes a major crack in the limiting shell of the child's egocentric I 0 P?”- "H . I— 64 perspective. In social interactions, children meet cognitive and moral conflicts . As they struggle to resolve these conflicts , development takes place . Piaget (in Mussen, 1970) points out that though the social environment is important "the very fact that the stages follow the same sequential order in any environment is enough to show that the social environment cannot account for everything" (p. 721). Heredity, matur- ation, and experience are also influencing development. Equilibration. The writings of Piaget have focused attention on the process of equilibration. He sees it as a necessary factor of development . It appears that the traditional factors (maturation, experience, social environment) are not sufficient to explain deve10pment . We must therefore appeal to a fourth factor, equilibration, and we must do this for two reasons . The first is that these three heterogeneous factors cannot explain a sequential deve10pment if they are not in some relation of mutual equilibrium, and that there must therefore exist a fourth organizing factor to coordinate them in a consistent, noncontradictory totality. The second reason is that any biological development is, as we now know, self-regulatory, and that self- regulating processes are even more common at the level of behavior and the constitution of the cognitive functions . (Piaget in Mussen, 1970, p. 722) It is the organism's need for equilibrium which causes it to accommo- date mental structures so that new perceptions can become part of a unified, consistent way of thinking. If equilibrium were never disrupted, no development would occur. The organism would be content to go on in its present state. Periods of disequilibration are therefore positive signs. They are the 65 forerunners of development, for it is in the effort to restore equilibrium that major changes are made in the structure of thinking. The process of equilibration is the motor of development. Four interactipg factors . Each of the four factors is necessary for development. No one factor can adequately explain it. Development is the result of the four factors working together. The four factors of development identified by Piaget involve interaction between the inner functioning of the person and external influences of the environment. The biogenetic factors and equilibration are inner processes . Experience and social interaction are factors which call for transaction with the environment. Those who wish to facilitate development cannot change the inner functions, but the environment can be influenced. Piaget and other developmentalists believe that the person who understands the inner factors contributing to development can more effectively structure a facilitating environment. Goals for traininipurpose 2 . The concepts of the preceding discussion relate to the second major purpose of Patterns in Moral Development: to help learners become acquainted with the factors which facilitate moral development. In working toward the accomplish— ment of this purpose the learners should come to understand the follow- ing (lettered in accordance with the list on pages 46 and 47) . 66 biogenetic endowment experience social interaction equilibration b. Disequilibration is not something about which to be alarmed but can be a healthy sign of preparation for a new phase of development . f. The environment should offer a wide range of direct exper— iences. ' ‘ g. The environment should offer many opportunities for social interaction . _S__gg_gestions for Facilitatinggevelopment The holistic view of learning and development which Piaget presents affirms that teachers and parents are values/moral agents . Adults have often despaired over efforts to transmit ready-made values and moral judgments to children or young peOple . But their values/moral influence is profound. Values and moral understandings are not isolated facets of a person. There is no way that adults can keep from influenc- ing the values and moral development of persons with whom they have extensive transactions . Persons are constructing their values and their moral judgments in the everyday experiences of life. These are struc- tured largely by adults . The question is not, Can parents and teachers _ influence values/moral development? It is , Will parents and teachers facilitate or inhibit the values/ moral development of children and youth? 67 Our discussion of the factors of development indicates that teachers and parents facilitate or inhibit development through their influence on the environment. Experiences with the physical and social environment. The environment which is healthy for cognitive and moral deve10pment will be rich in direct experiences with the physical world. Children and young people will be actively involved in learning experiences . The environment will also provide Opportunity for many, varied social inter- actions . In this kind of setting new ideas will be present for learners to bump into as they are ready for them. Qpen discussion of rules . Piaget also believes that a healthy environment will not be one in which authoritarian constraint is imposed on the child. Development is facilitated when adults discuss rules and requests with children, helping them to grow in their understanding of the situation and the requests . But when children are controlled by words spoken with authority and not given an Opportunity to discover why, their development is inhibited (Piaget, 1965, p. 194) . Awareness of deve10pmental stagep. The writings of Piaget suggest that persons can better facilitate development when they under- stand how children think and what cognitive activities they can handle at various stages . Knowledge of children's thought will help parents and teachers not to focus on or push for understandings which are beyond 68 the child's capability at a given time. After studying the stages of cognitive development some schol- ars have decided that certain information and concepts should be kept from children until they are able to graSp the concepts in their fullest form (Goldman, 19 64) . But much information and many concepts that are beyond the full comprehension of children are a part of life. Children could not be isolated from them, if this were desirable. When one views learning and development as the result of construction, isolating children from certain concepts does not seem desirable. The construction of understandings which, when judged by adult standards are inadequate, is an essential step in the construction of full—blown adequate under- standings . Piaget's theory seems to suggest that adults should accept the child's grasp of a concept as an important understanding even though it is incomplete from the adult perspective. A concrete understanding Of love is right for a 9 year Old. Religious educators should not be upset if 5 year olds cannot logically relate the various things they have heard about God. Parents and teachers , therefore, should not push children to understand concepts that are beyond them. On the other hand, they need not try to isolate children from big ideas that are a part of life. Each stage of reasoning should be valued. Adults should accept the child's limited understanding Of a big idea as an important step in constructing the larger concept. Patiently, but actively, parents and teachers can then work with the child through the natural processes of development. 69 Goals for training purpose 3. Patterns in Moral Development endeavors to help the learner construct a more adequate understanding of his or her role as a facilitator of moral development. This is done by introducing the learners to the following understandings (lettered in accordance with the list on pages 47-49): a. Teachers and parents are values/moral agents . b. The teacher or parent should endeavor to facilitate devel- Opment, not to transmit values and moral judgments . c . Teachers and parents facilitate or inhibit moral develop- ment as they are actively involved in everyday transactions with chil- dren and young peOple. (:1. Adults should accept current forms of judging as an impor- tant phase in the development Of children and young people. e. Teachers and parents should provide an environment in which children and young people can bump into the new ideas and exper- iences they need for the next step in their development. 9. Teachers and parents should provide an environment rich in direct experience and social interaction. h. Adults must try to understand the perspectives of children and young people. 1. Teachers and parents should avoid authoritarian control of children and young people. 7O Kohlberg Two of Kohlberg's most complete statements of his theory are "The Cognitive-Deve10pmental Approach to Socialization" in Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research edited by Goslin and From Is to Ought: How to Commit the Naturalistic Fallacy and Get Away with It in the Study of Moral Deve10pment. Toward a Theory Of Values Develop— ment Education by Stewart contains a comprehensive survey of Kohlberg's thought and its implications for the school. These and other shorter articles by Kohlberg have provided the understanding of moral develop- ment presented in Patterns in Moral Development. The Pattern of Moral Deve10pment It should be noted that Kohlberg has studied the deve10pment of the structure of moral reasoning. He has not studied moral action. One who holds a holistic View of man would assume that there is a relationship between moral reasoning and moral actiOns . Kohlberg (1972b) makes this assumption. He sees the judgment as the controlling factor of moral behavior: Edmund Wilson (and Thoreau) failed to pay income taxes as a "matter of conscience, " while millions of their fellow citizens fail to do so for reasons of "expedience." The behaviors are the same, and no psychologist can tell them apart; it is only what the peOple involved think they are doing which sets the behavior apart. There simply is no valid psychological definition of moral behavior, in the sense that no observation and categorization of behavior "from the outside, " or "behavioristically, " can define its moral status in any psychologically valid sense. But while there is no such thing as moral behavior as such, there is such a thing as behavior which is consistent with an individual's moral principles, or which Springs from a moral decision. Before we can know anything about such 71 behavior, however, we must first know what a man's moral judg- ments or principles are. . . . Moral judgment determines action by way of concrete defini- tions of rights and duties in a situation. (pp. 228-229) In the preceding quote, Kohlberg has set forth his rationale for studying moral judgments . He also indicates the relationship which he sees between moral judgments and actions . The factors which deter- mine whether Or not a person's behavior is consistent with his or her moral principles have not been identified. Further research is needed in this area . Content and structure. Moral reasoning consists of two facets: the content and the Structure. Kohlberg (in Goslin, 19 69) defines structure as: "the general characteristics of shape, pattern or organization of reSponse rather than . . . the rate or intensity of reSponse or its pairing with particular stimuli. Cognitive structure refers to rules for processing information or for connecting experienced events " (p. 349) . The structure of moral reasoning is the way in which one decides what is right and what is wrong. It is the rationale behind moral judgments . The content of a moral judgment is the specific state- ment of what ought to be done, what is right or wrong. Specific actions might also be considered as content. It is the structure of moral reasoning which develops . In Kohl- berg's research he has probed behind the content of moral judgments to discover the structure, the way Of reasoning that led to the judgment. It is the qualitative changes in structure which he has charted in his 72 levels and stages of moral development. Kohlberg (l972b, p. 181, 1972c, p. 14) found that persons distorted moral messages that carried reasoning of stages more than one higher than their own. They translated what they heard into a rationale which they understood . The content of moral reasoning was made to fit the structure instead of new content changing the structure. Such find- ings led Kohlberg (1972c) to state that: "principles cannot be taught directly. The child must generate moral principles by himself. The task of the teacher is to facilitate the process" (p. 14) . Moral development will not be facilitated through mere trans— mission of content. It will be facilitated by the factors which influence the development of the structure of moral reasoning. In. Kohlberg's own words (1972b) , " Movement to the next stage involves internal cognitive reorganization rather than the mere addition of more difficult content from the outside" (p. 194). Content, however, is important. Persons are attracted to moral reasoning just beyond their own, but they lose reSpect for mes- sages which are below their way of thinking (Kohlberg, 1972c, p. 14, and in Purpel & Belanger, 1972, p. 473) . Content may sometimes Stim— ulate the cognitive conflict or disequilibration that initiates a new phase of development. Kohlberg seems to indicate that the importance of con- tent must not be ignored, but neither Should it be seen as the major stimulus for moral development. 73 Stggas of moral deve10pment. Through his extensive research Kohlberg has identified three levels and Six stages of moral development which he believes are universal. In the process of moral development all persons work through the same stages Of structural deve10pment. As in the cognitive domain, variation occurs in the individual Speed of moral development and the point at which development ceases but not in the sequence . In From Is to Ought Kohlberg provides a brief description of the levels and stages of moral development. Definition of Moral Stages I. Preconventional level At this level the child is responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right or wrong, but interprets these labels in terms of either the physical or the hedonistic consequences of action (pun- ishment, reward, exchange of favors), or in terms of the physical power of those who enunciate the rules and labels . The level is divided into the following two stages: Stage I: The punishment and obedience orientation. The phy- sical consequences of action determine its goodness or badness regardless of the human meaning or value of these consequences . Avoidance of punishment and unquestioning deference to power are valued in their own right, not in terms of respect for an underlying moral order supported by punishment and authority (the latter bein stage 4). . Stage 2: The instrumental relativist orientation. Right action consists of that which instrumentally satisfied one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others . Human relations are viewed in terms like those of the market place. Elements of fairness, of reciprocity, and of equal sharing are present, but they are always interpreted in a physical pragmatic way. Reciprocity is a matter of "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours, " not of loyalty, gratitude, or justice. 74 II. Conventional level At this level, maintaining the expectations of the individual's family, group, or nation is perceived as valuable in its own right, regardless of immediate and obvious consequences . The attitude is not only one of conformity to personal expectations and social order, but of loyalty to it, of actively maintainirg, supporting, and justifying the order, and of identifying with the persons or group involved in it. At this level, there are the following two stages: Stage 3: The interpersonal concordance or "md bogg-nice girl" orientation. Good behavior is that which pleases or helps others and is approved by them. There is much conformity to stereotypical images of what is majority or "natural" behavior. Behavior is frequently judged by intention--"he means well" becomes important for the first time. One earns approval by being "nice." Stage 4: The "law and order" orientation. There is orientation toward authority, fixed rules, and the maintenance of the social order. Right behavior consists of doing one's duty, showing respect for authority, and maintaining the given social order for it's own sake. III. Postconventional, autonomous, or principled level At this level, there is a clear effort to define moral values and principles which have validity and application apart from the author- ity of the groups or persons holding these principles , and apart from the individual's own identification with these groups . This level again has two stages: Stage 5: The social-contract lgcglistic orientation, generally with utilitarian overtones . Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights , and standards which have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society. There is a clear awareness Of the relativism of personal values and opinions and a correSponding emphasis upon procedural rules for reaching consen- sus . Aside from what is constitutionally and democratically agreed upon, the right is a matter of personal "values " and "opinion. " The result is an emphasis upon the "legal point of View, " but with an emphasis upon the possibility of changing law in terms of rational considerations of social utility (rather than freezing it in terms of stage 4 "law and order") . Outside the legal realm, free agreement and contract is the binding element of obligation. This is the "official" morality of the American government and constitution. 75 Stage 6: The universal ethical principle orientation. Right is defined by the decision of conscience in accord with self—chosen ethical principles appealing to logical comprehensiveness , univer- sality, and consistency. These principles are abstract and ethical (the Golden Rule, the categorical imperative); they are not concrete moral rules like the Ten Commandments . At heart, these are univer- sal principles of justice, of the reciprocgy and eguality of human rights, and of respect for the dignity of human beings as individual persons. (Kohlberg, 1972b, pp. 164—165) Table 1, prepared by Stewart, presents additional information about the stages . It shows the relatedness Of cognitive and moral deve10pment stages . The probable age range for each of the stages is also identified. From Kohlberg's expanded descriptions of the stages several developing concepts and characteristics were identified for discussion in Patterns in Moral Development. These were the following: source of authority definition Of right and wrong consideration of intentions concept of justice value of persons stimulus to right actions ability to take another's perspective Table 2 presents a brief summary of each of these concepts or characteristics by levels of moral development. Table 3 describes the characteristics for each of the Six stages . 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This section describes the source of authority to which an individual looks in making moral judgments . At Level I, persons look within themselves to their own desires and fears which dictate what should be done. Their source of authority is self—interest. For young children the main reason for choosing certain actions is to avoid punishment or gain pleasure. Level II moral reasoning turns to external standards as the source of authority. Developmentalists believe that humans have a need for competence and self—actualization. This need is a major motivating factor for development (Kohlberg in Goslin, 1969, p. 416) . Usually between the ages of 10 and 12 children begin to become aware of the inadequacies of their Level I moral judgments . They bump into persons who do things for reasons other than self-interest. They begin to see that there are external standards which they must follow to be competent and acceptable in society. Children and teenagers first look to models as their standards . Later they discover that there are rules which guide the behavior of their models . These rules are then accepted as their standards for judging right and wrong. As persons develop in their understandings of the standards or rules and begin to make them their own, they move on to Level III. Moral standards are internal at Level III. This internal source of author- ity, however, is very different from the internal source of Level I. It is not a self-centered, lawless authority, but rather it grows out of external 83 laws . These have been experienced, understood, and evaluated. The individual has come to comprehend the reason for the laws: the princi— ples out of which they grew. As these principles are understood, the individual makes them his or her own. There is a personal commitment to the principles and life is governed by them. Goals for trainingpurpose l. The following ideas from Kohlberg (lettered in accord with the lists on pages 45 and 46) have been chosen for inclusion in Patterns in Moral Development . They con— tribute to an understanding of the pattern of development. e. All learners develop morally according to an invariant pat- tern of sequential stages . The timing may vary, but not the sequence. h. Kohlberg's levels of moral development describe the path of moral development. 1. Moral judgments consist of content (the specific judgment of what ought to be done) and structure (the process of reasoning that led to the judgment) . j. It is the structure (the process of reasoning) that indicates the level of moral judgment. k. Persons distort moral reasoning that is more than one stage above their current stage. 1. The quality of thinking at each level of moral development is indicated by changes in one's: source of authority consideration of intentions 84 concept of justice value of persons stimulus to right action ability to take another's perspective Factors That Facilitate Development When Kohlberg (19720) discusses the facilitation of moral deve10pment, he focuses in on the learning community. First, and fundamentally, if you want to develop morality or a .a- sense of justice in kids, you have to create a just school, a just .. classroom environment. For the fact is that much of what kids learn comes not from books and materials , but from the moral environment and atmosphere that you establish in your classroom--your hidden curriculum. (p. 14) Experiences of justice. A community which facilitates develop- ment is one in which persons can experience and learn the meaning of justice. In Kohlberg's (1972b) view, justice is the central concept of morality. "Moral principles are cognitive structural forms of role-taking, centrally organized around justice as equality and reciprocity" (p. 193) . If persons are to construct an understanding of justice as equality and reciprocity, they must participate in a community which is just. This community will demonstrate that all persons are of value. Children and adults will be respected. Everyone will receive consideration. Through such experiences persons learn the equality of justice. The place of reciprocity in justice will take on meaning as participants in the group are helped to realize their interdependence . The influence of one 85 person's actions on another will be discussed. As the rights of all are considered, persons will experience the give and take that is a neces- sary part of justice . Experiences of social interaction. The facilitating community also provides for many varied social experiences . Research shows that nonsocial children are slower in their moral development than children who enter into many social interactions (Kohlberg, 1972a, p. 15) . The opportunity to encounter a variety of perspectives also facilitates devel- opment . Open discussion of moral concerns . When discussing the educational implications of his findings Kohlberg often refers to "match. " The idea of "match" suggests that persons will most likely assimilate moral messages representing reasoning just one stage above their current stage of moral development. When instructing teachers , Kohlberg (in Purpel & Belanger, 1972) comments: The developmental level of moral-education Verbalizations must be matched to the developmental level of the child if they are to have an effect. Ideally, such education should aim at communicat- ing primarily at a level one stage above the child's own and secon~ darily at the child's own level. (p. 473) One interpretation of the above statement is that teachers should identify the stage of development of students and then match their teaching to that level. Class discussions should be encouraged which deal with issues important to the next higher stage of development. Two problems are encountered by this approach. Classroom research indicates that in 86 most classes three different but adjacent stages of moral development will be represented (Kohlberg, 1972a, p. 16) . It has also been shown that students lose respect for messages from too low a level (Kohlberg, 1972c, p. 14) . When the teacher matches the reasoning of some mem- bers of a class, he or she will be using judgments that are below that of others . In the classroom where all students can enter into discussion and share their moral reasoning the students themselves will provide important new ideas for those who are just behind them in development to work with. Children can raise questions and clarify ideas for others . The teacher may need to suggest new questions for the most advanced students . Teachers will probably do more to facilitate development by encouraging all to enter into discussion than by trying to precisely iden- tify the stage of reasoning used by the students and in a lock step fash- ion direct the discussion to match progressively higher stages . Establishing an atmosphere in which persons feel free to share openly and honestly is important . Warmth and acceptance which build a sense of belonging are essential. An environment which allows for a great deal of interchange will facilitate development. Encouraging questioning, exploration of those questions , and reflective thought are facilitating influences . We have seen that cog- nitive conflict is an important preparation for a new phase of develop- ment. It is the structure--the why--of moral judgments that develops . The mind which is constantly asking why and exploring new reasons will 87 bump into the ideas which disrupt equilibrium and lead to structural change. Opportunities for role-taking. Kohlberg (in Goslin, 1969, pp. 399-401) believes that the fundamental social stimulus of moral develop- ment is "role-taking opportunities. ' To have the opportunity to actually take various roles, the person must be an active participant in a group or institution. The degree of involvement influences development. The more one is involved in the decision making of a group, and the more responsibility one carries for the group, the more one must take the role of others: consider their views, needs , and the effect of certain actions on them. The more experience one has in taking the role of others , the more moral development is facilitated. The first group in which the child participates is the family. He or she next moves into peer groups and finally into the secondary institutions of law, government, and work. In "The Cognitive-Developmental Approach to Socialization " Kohlberg (in Goslin, 19 69) reviews some of the literature which explores the influence of the family on development. He notes that Peck and Havinghurst (1960) identify several characteristics of family life which correlate positively with the moral character maturity of the child: com- mon participation in the family, confidence sharing, sharing in family decisions, and giving of reSponsibility to the child. Hoffman and Saltzstein (1967) indicate that inductive discipline is related to moral i;‘ 'lmmij 88 internalization. Inductive discipline involves helping the child to see the consequences of his or her actions on others . Along with discovering the consequences of actions, the child is helped to accept responsibility for those actions . Kohlberg sees a common element in these characteris— tics of family life which are related to moral maturity. They all provide role-taking opportunities . The home or classroom which allows the child to be an active, responsible participant and encourages the child to look at things from the perspective of others will facilitate development. Goals for trainirLchurpose 2 . Several of Kohlberg's ideas about the factors which facilitate moral development have been chosen as goals for Patterns in Moral Development. They are the following: (lettered in accordance with the list on pages 46 and 47) c . Persons are attracted to moral reasoning that is just beyond their current moral judgment stage. d. The kind of community children live and learn in has a great deal to do with their development, whether it is facilitated or inhibited. e. The most important element of the community is the quality of justice which the child experiences in it. Goals for training purpose 3 . Goals which lead to a better understanding of the facilitating role of teachers and parents also grow out of the preceding discussion (lettered in accordance with the list on pages 47—49): b. The teacher or parent is to endeavor to facilitate moral 89 development, not to transmit specific values and moral judgments . f. One of the major roles for teachers and parents is to foster a community which is healthy for development--one which: encourages open discussion and sharing of ideas provides just consideration and treatment for each person encourages questioning, exploration, and reflection provides a sense of belonging allows for the learners to actively participate in decision making and carrying responsibility allows for the learners to take many roles Igyce and Weil Piaget refers to himself as a genetic epistomologist. Kohlberg is a psychologist. Neither of them is an educator, though they have talked about the educational implications of their research findings . It will therefore be helpful to compare their ideas with those of educators whose major concern is instruction. In the preparation of Patterns in Moral Develognent, the writings of Joyce and Well (1972) have been used for this purpose. Joyce and Weil (1972) define teaching as, "a process by which teacher and students create a shared environment including sets of values and beliefs (agreements about what is important) which in turn color their view of reality" (p. 3). This definition of teaching is in tune with the deve10pmental perspective at several points . Both teacher and students 90 are active in influencing the environment which will, in turn, influence them. Joyce and Weil imply that the environment carries as an integral part of it values and beliefs . These, working through the environment, determine much of what is learned. The holistic view of developmental- ists brings them to the conclusion that values and beliefs cannot be separated out of the environment. Kohlberg concurs with Joyce and Weil in seeing the environment as a teaching agent. Because of this common definition of teaching Joyce and Weil provide an analysis of instructional approaches that can help identify teacher behaviors which are consistent with a deve10pmental perspective on education. There are many ways of structuring the learning environment. The way in which the environment is structured--what happens in it—- greatly influences learning outcomes . Because Joyce and Weil believe this to be true they have described for teachers a variety of ways to structure environments and thus foster varied outcomes . These ways of structuring the environment are called models of teaching. A model of teaching, as we use the term, is a pattern or plan, which can be used to shape a curriculum or course, to select instructional materials, and to guide a teacher's actions . . . . The "models" of teaching which are chosen to pattern teaching activities have much to say about the kinds of realities which will be admitted to the classroom and the kinds of life-view which are likely to be generated as teacher and learner work together. (Joyce & Weil, 1972, p. 3) Models of teaching indicate which teacher behaviors will be most likely to facilitate development . When analyzing each model of teaching, Joyce and Weil 91 (1972 , p. 17) have looked at two kinds of effects: instructional and nur- turant . Instructional effects are those which teachers set out to achieve directly through planned learning experiences . Nurturant effects are the indirect influences that come from living and learning in a certain kind of environment. Positive instructional effects may be accompanied by negative nurturant effects and vice versa. about both and strive for the most positive balance. Teachers must be concerned Two models have been chosen as the most helpful in suggest- ing teacher behaviors for those interested in moral development. These are the Group Investigation (Joyce & Weil, 1972, pp. 36-47) and the Non-Directive Teaching (Joyce & Weil, 1972, pp. 210-221) models. Grouplnvestigation Thelen is the educator from whose thought the Group Investi— gation model comes . It is also similar to the kinds of instruction which Dewey favored . Respect for Dignity of All and Commitment to Pluralism Independence as a Learner Commitment to Social Inquiry Instructional -------- N urturant Group Constructionist View of Knowledge Disciplined Inquiry ‘"“ Investigation Model I” / l I , I // l // l / j I Interpersonal Warmth and Affiliation Effective Group Process and Governance Figure 2 . Group Investigation Model (Joyce & Weil, 1972, p. 46) 92 The model. Each of the effects resulting from the use of this model is desired in values development education. Developmentalists hold a "constructionist view of knowledge. " "Disciplined inquiry" implies an active learner and teacher. The following description of disciplined inquiry pictures the activities of both teacher and learners . The model begins with the confrontation of the students with a stimulating problem. The confrontation need not be a verbal one—- it can be the provision of an experience. It can very well be a puzzlement which arises naturally--it might not be "provided" by a teacher. (Or it might!) If the students react, the teacher draws their attention to the differences in their reactions--the different stances they take, the variety of things they perceive, the different ways they organize things , and the various feelings they have. As the students become interested in their differences in reaction, the teacher draws them toward formulation of a problem, moving not to structure their problem for them, but to induce them to formulate it for themselves . After they formulate the problem, the students pro- ceed to develop an attack on it, to analyze the required roles, and to organize themselves . Next, they act and report their result. Finally, the group evaluates its solution in terms of the original purposes of the group. Then the cycle begins to repeat itself, either with another confrontation or with a problem development growing out of the process of investigation itself. (Joyce & Weil, 1972, p. 45) The learners just described are actively involved in defining problems and constructing solutions for those problems and new understandings . The teacher is actively facilitating the process . In our discussion of the healthy community for development, described by Kohlberg, we saw the importance of group participation. Group Investigation teaches "effective group processes and governance. " This involves learners in group decision making and carrying respons i- bility for the group, activities which will facilitate moral development. "Respect for dignity of all" is important to the developing. 93 concept of justice. "Interpersonal warmth and affiliation" are necessary for the free discussion of ideas needed for values/moral development. Through engaging in "social inquiry" one will encounter many perspec- tives and new ideas which are needed for the next phase in development. The goal of values development education is that values/moral develop— ment will continue throughout life. This calls for "independence as a learner. " Teacher behaviors . The teacher's role in Group Investigation is to act as: counselor consultant friendly critic (Joyce & Weil, 1972, p. 44) Together teacher and students will make rules within known boundaries . Students and teacher should share equal status in the classroom. The varied roles which students and teachers have will make a few differ- ences in status , but these should be kept to a minimum (Joyce & Weil, 1972, p. 45) . Non—Directive Teaching The Non-Directive Teaching model grows out of Rogers' theory of non-directive counseling. Rogers himself describes the application of his ideas to the classroom in Client Centered Therapy. 94 Nurtures :==::: ::=== [S elf-DGVGIORmen?) A Variety of Social and Academic Goals Figure 3 . Non-Directive Teaching Model (Joyce & Weil, 1972, p. 221) The model. The goal of values development education is to facilitate development rather than to transmit specific values or know- ledge. It is the self which does the developing through transactions with the physical and social environment. In other words, moral devel- opment is self-development, the nurturant outcome of non-directive teaching. The foundational concept of the Non-Directive Teaching model is the belief that students can be trusted to learn if they are in an envi- ronment which provides the necessary factors for growth and development (Joyce & Weil, 1972, p. 211) . This faith in the learner is shared by developmentalists . Teacher behaviors . Non-directive teaching works from the assumption that one cannot teach, but teachers can facilitate learning (Joyce & Weil, 1972, p. 213). A major task for the teacher is the estab- lishing of an environment in which learning and development will occur. 95 Threat to the self of the learner must be at a minimum (Joyce & Weil, 1972, p. 214) . In part this will be accomplished by creating an accept— ing climate (Joyce & Weil, 1972, p. 218) . Whether or not the teacher fosters an accepting climate will depend on whether or not the teacher really trusts the learners . Accepting all contributions in discussion as valid points for consideration helps persons to feel accepted. A non- threatening, accepting climate is essential to the free exchange of ideas required in values development education. Rogers suggests that the teacher should act as an "emotional and ideational sounding board" (Joyce & Weil, 1972, p. 214) . As the teacher reflects the emotions displayed or ideas shared by a student, the student can take a look at his or her emotions and ideas . This helps in the understanding and solving of problems and questions . The teacher using the non-directive model must constantly try to see things from the perspective of the learners . He or she will work to facilitate the devel- opment of learners, not to accomplish personal goals which are not shared by the students . Goals for training purpose 3 . The following goal (lettered in accord with the list on page 48) for Patterns in Moral Develcmment grows out of the Group Investigation and Non-Directive Teaching Models described by Joyce and Weil. We will endeavor to help the learner become better prepared to facilitate moral development through under- standing that: 96 j. The teacher or parent who is effective in facilitating moral development will act as counselor, consultant, friendly critic, sounding board, and fellow learner. The final goal (lettered in accordance with the list on pages 48 and 49) relating to teacher behaviors in values development education does not flow from one literature source. The writings of Piaget, Kohl- berg, Joyce and Weil provided the background for the ideas . But the specific behaviors were identified in discussion with other persons studying developmental literature and concerned about values/moral development . k. When learners are at points of disequilibrium the teacher or parent can facilitate moral development by: giving accepting support helping to clarify the questions and inadequacies causing disequilibration drawing attention to other related questions which the learner has not noticed THE INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN LITERATURE Br'ggs "A Model for the Design of Instruction" developed by Briggs has been used for constructing the instructional materials Patterns in Moral Development . 97 A Systems Model Briggs refers to his model as a "systems" model. By this he means that it is a model for predesigned materials . Objectives, meth- ods, and media are selected and developed prior to the instructional event. In contrast to this approach is the spontaneous design of instruction. Objectives, methods, and media grow out of Specific learning situations and are tailor-made for individuals or small groups . Briggs believes that there are some objectives which can be chosen in advance and that there is a place for predesigned instruction in core skills which are needed by all students . These predesigned materials can provide superior instruction because of the process of refinement to which they have been subjected. Even when using predesigned guides and media, teachers should be prepared for spontaneous refinement. These refinements can then be built into the materials for future use (Briggs, 1970, pp. 1-2). Briggs has taught his model in graduate courses at Florida State University. Students have followed the model in designing instruction. The effectiveness of their instructional packages pro- vided empirical evidence of the model's validity (Briggs, 1970, p. vii). 98 A: .0 .22 .8008 53250:: :o :33: 05 :o: 0022 0 .v 050:: 0:0:030: / m a .: j. :2030: 0.3330: 0:050:05 L :03030>0 1 0:0 00:00:: 0:0 00:00.: 0030:0050 00:05:83: 5080020 9490:2050 :0:0>0G , a: a: 8: E J Illmwmflmflll 0:033:39: 50:00:: E0000 :0 50:00:: . 02:? 0:0 A! 0.0054000 0::0030 03::000 0:005 000:00 0 :2: :O :00:00 :O :0 :2: :O a: :03 33 :03 1w A: :oquoalug: 00:0:000m500 00:03:00 33050: All 05:0»:0 0:0 0:303:00 00300030 00:00:30 0:0 3030:: 0050000 :0: 0038030 0:: :0>o All 00:05:05.0: 0:0 0:0:0:: 33:00: 330:4 0:00: 0:0:0:: 00200030 0:05 E A3 A2 5 a 99 Highlights of the Instructional Design Model The Briggs model provides a plan for designing both instruc- tional materials (steps 7—9) and the instrument (steps 2 and S) for eval- uating them. The model suggests that materials and their evaluative instruments should be tailored for each other. They both are related to and grow out of the same statement of objectives (step 1) . After the objectives have been determined they must be analyzed for structure and sequence (step 3). When objectives deal with the teaching of interrelated factual materials and skills, they must be analyzed to discover the prerequisite learnings for each objective. They may need to be arranged in hierarchical order. With other objec- tives psychological considerations rather than essential learning pre- requisites may dictate the structural sequence of instruction. Briggs offers helpful guidelines for the selection of media (step 6) . The objective in designing an instructional package is not to use as many media forms as possible. The objective should be quality instruction, and media ought to be selected to meet that objective (Briggs, 1970, p. vii) . A particular media should be used long enough for teachers and students to be comfortable with it and to use it effec- tively. But there should be enough variety of media to avoid boredom (Briggs, 1970, p. 113). Any instructional design project will have limitations which must be considered. The media chosen must be within cost limits, be usable in the time available, by persons with certain skills and resources 100 (Briggs, 1970, p. 114). The designer of instruction must decide whether the materials are for individual or group use, or both. This decision will affect methods and media (Briggs, 1970, p. 114) . The detailed description of how each step of the Briggs model was used in the design of Patterns in Moral Development will be pre— sented in chapter 3 . SUMMARY We have looked at the three types of literature which have influenced the instruction in moral development evaluated in this project. The researchers , Kohlberg and Piaget, have provided an understanding of the process , pattern, and factors at work in moral development. They also have identified some teacher behaviors which are likely to facilitate moral development . Other teacher behaviors have been drawn from the models of teaching described by the educators, once and Weil. The content of Patterns in Moral Development came from the literature of psychological research and literature resulting from the study of instruc- tion. The instructional design literature of Briggs was the third type consulted and has guided the development of the instructional materials . CHAPTER THREE PROCEDURE The discussion of procedures has been organized according to the tasks involved in the project and the order in which they were tackled. How the behavioral implications were derived from theory is explained @——+G———*@\.\ %/[ Briggs model used in L this section of the task. Figure 5. Relating the Task and the Briggs Model A. Values development theory 1. Deriving behavioral implications B. Implications for teacher behaviors 2 . Deciding on essen- C . Essential understandings tials of sound understanding D1 Instructional materials-- Variation 1: "stages" emphasis 3. Designing instruc- tional materials D2 Instructional materials-- Variation 2: ”levels" emphasis 4 . Evaluating instruc- tional materials D3 Refined instructional materials first . The steps of the Briggs model introduced in chapter 2 guide the discussion of the instructional design phase of the project (tasks 2 and 3 101 102 and the development of C , D1, and D2) , The evaluation of the materials was done through a series of field tests . The experimental design for the evaluation phase is described in the final section of this chapter. Deriving Behavioral Implications from Theory The task of deriving behavioral implications for teachers and parents from values/moral development theory involved the answering of three questions: 1. What teacher and parent behaviors most effectively work with natural processes to facilitate values/moral development? 2 . What minimum understandings are needed as a background for operationalizing these behaviors ? 3 . What concepts constitute a sound understanding of values development education? Study and Logical Deduction The answering of these questions began with an extensive study of the writings of Kohlberg, Piaget, and Stewart, with the heaviest empha- sis on the work of Piaget . Through logical deduction behavioral implica- tions were identified and the essentials for a sound understanding deter- mined. This was done over a period of months of personal study, course work , and informal discussion with others who were also searching for the implications of developmental theory. 103 Comparison with Models of Teaching The implications arrived at through logical deduction were then compared with models of teaching. The instructive and nurturant effects of the several models described by Joyce and Weil (1972) were examined. Those which led to effects most in line with the goals of values develop- ment education were identified: Group Investigation, representing the thought of Thelen and Dewey, and Non-Directive Teaching from Rogers . The teacher behaviors suggested in these models were incorporated into the behavioral implications for facilitators of values/moral development. The purposes and goals of Patterns in Moral Development listed on pages 45—49 are the implications which were derived from theory using the pro- cedures just described. DesignichInstruction Usinlthe Briggs Model The steps of the Briggs model for the design of instruction pro- vided guidance for constructing Patterns in Moral Development. How each step was used is presented in the following discussion. Step 1: State Objectives and Performance Standards As noted, the implications derived from theory became the purposes and goals for the instructional materials which were to be designed. The broad goals were restated as behavioral objectives . These were used by the designer in the development of the measuring instrument and the instructional materials . Specific objectives were adapted as new, and seemingly better ideas came to light while mapping 104 the course of instruction. The behavioral objectives have been used as a design tool but do not appear in the materials . The reason for this is that many of the instructors using the materials would not be professional educators and would not be familiar with detailed behavioral objectives . Long lists of such objectives would possibly overwhelm and confuse the paraprofes- sional. The instruction which has been designed is an introduction to a way of thinking about moral development and its facilitation. The objec- tives of such a course are more global than those for a course which builds on Specific learning prerequisites and teaches particular skills . The goals stated in the Leader's Guide for Patterns in Moral Develgpment therefore seemed adequate for this kind of introductory instruction. The Briggs model calls for the identification of performance standards in step 1. The designer had no previous experience from which to judge what performance could be expected after paraprofessionals were first introduced to the concepts of values development education. The performance evaluation conducted at the close of the instructional exper— ience provides a basis for setting performance standards when designing similar instruction in the future. Step 2: Prepare Tests over the Obnectives Briggs sees a test as an essential part of an instructional pack- age. It is tailored to a particular instruction and measures the degree to 105 which specific objectives have been met. Tests developed through his design procedure are not standard tests for generalized use. The pretest and posttest used in the evaluation of Patterns in Moral Development are therefore not intended for general use. For reasons of feasibility, the test was limited to a paper and pencil instrument. To know whether or not an instructional experience had brought about behavior change, the learners would need to be observed in action. But direct observation was not possible in this study. The paper and pencil test seemed most practical and adequate ‘ for an introductory experience. The test focused mainly on cognitive change. Some items sought to identify preference for teacher and parent behaviors which enhance development. Reports of actions taken to facilitate development were also asked for. An objective format was used to facilitate data processing. Most of the items were multiple choice, but a few called for positive/ negative evaluation of responses . Four open-ended questions appeared at the end of the instrument . The reSponses on two of these were cate- gorized, and the categories were given numbers so that they could be included in the processed data . These questions were designed to identify the concepts that stood out to the students as being most impor- tant and the actions taken as a result of the course. The other two open- ended questions provided subjective evaluation of the instructional materials and experiences . The responses from these questions will be considered when refining Patterns in MoralQevelopment but have not 106 been included in the processed data. Four categories of test items were developed. They were designed to measure the following: 1 . Factual knowledge of key concepts in moral development theory and what teachers and parents should do to facilitate moral devel— opment. 2 . A preference of teacher and parent behaviors which facili- tate moral development . 3 . Reports of actions taken to facilitate moral deve10pment. 4 . Evidence of misconceptions and tendencies to abuse values development education theory: focusing on stage-related aspects of the theory, labeling as an end in itself, looking down on those in the lower stages , or trying to rush development . Two pilot projects were conducted during the designing of the instructional materials . The measuring instrument was developed with these classes . Two forms were used as the pretest with the first pilot group. The first form consisted of six open-ended questions . The purpose of these questions was to identify the kinds of things that come to mind when the average person thinks about moral development . We were also interested in knowing the terminology which those uninitiated in values development education would use to discuss moral deve10pment. The second form was made up of fifteen objective questions growing out of the objectives for Patterns in Moral Development. This 107 form was completed after the first, and the answers on the two forms were compared. The two tests were also administered to 24 employees of the Free Methodist Publishing House. This group included editors , laborers , artists, and office staff. An expanded version of the objective pretest instrument was used as the posttest in the first pilot project. After the group had com- pleted the test, four persons were interviewed about their understanding of the questions on their posttest. From these interviews , problem word- ing was identified. For example, "transmit" had been used to mean "give a value to another person ready-made. " It was found that "trans- mit" was being translated "facilitate. " The problem test items were restated. In the second pilot project a refined version of the posttest from the first pilot was used as both the pretest and the posttest. Thirty persons completed both tests . Statistical analysis was run on the data from the second pilot. The mean score on the pretest was 32 .5 out of a possible 53 . The posttest mean was 42 .4, providing a gain score of 9 . 9 . An analysis of variance was performed, and the E score was found to be 2 . 82 . The E score needed for a .01 level of significance was 2 .46. The inter—item reliability of the instrument was tested, using the KRZO formula. It showed a .69 reliability. Item analysis was also done to identify problem questions . Two items were deleted, and five others refined. It was assumed that these changes would increase the reliability of the test. 108 The validity of the instrument was also considered. The test was developed from the same set of objectives used for the instructional materials . To double—check the content validity the instructional mate— rials were examined to be sure that each test item was adequately covered. Two graduate students who had done extensive study in the field of values development education were asked to take the test. It was assumed that if the instrument measured an understanding of values development education, these persons should be able to give correct responses on all. items . This was the case. In the light of these findings the decision was made to use the test as the instrument in the evaluation of Patterns in Moral Development. Step 3: Analyze Objectives for Structure and Segmence Briggs suggests the use of logic for sequencing. The designer should decide what prerequisites are needed for each objective. Based on this information the objectives are then arranged in a hierarchical order. The objectives are sequenced, beginning at the bottom of the hierarchy and working toward the top. This is especially important when objectives are interrelated. Psychological factors seemed to be equally or more important than a logical ordering of prerequisites in the sequencing of the content for Patterns in Moral Development. The logical considerations , however, were not ignored. Theoretical foundations were laid before behavioral 109 implications were discussed on the assumption that specific behavioral suggestions have more meaning if the person understands why they are important. Throughout the materials an effort was made to present con- cepts in an order which led to the greatest ease in understanding the ideas. Psychological considerations overruled the logical in the sequencing of discussions on the concepts from Piaget and Kohlberg. Since Piaget provides the broader, more basic understandings, it would seem logical to look at his work first. But much of the audience for whom Patterns in Moral Development was designed would not likely be ready for a study of cognitive development at the beginning of the instruc- tional experience . Most of them are not aware of the relationship between cognitive development and their tasks as religious educators . When possible, instruction should begin at a point of felt need. Reli- gious educators accept moral development as a major responsibility. They are concerned about their effectiveness in this area and therefore are open to new information about it. Because of these assumptions about the learners, the findings of Kohlberg were presented first, and the contributions of Piaget were then examined in search of a deeper understanding of the process of development . The ordering of the discussions on the healthy community for development and specific facilitating behaviors was also based on psy- chological factors . Most teachers and parents are practitioners looking for efficient, effective ways to get a job done . They hope to find 110 prescriptions of things they can do to solve the problems they must deal with. They may be unaware of the less specific but potent influence of the environment they have helped to create . In Patterns in Moral Deve1- ogment the components of a community which facilitate development were discussed prior to Specific teacher behaviors not directly related to com- munity building . This ordering was chosen to give the quality of commun- ity a place of first importance. It also allowed for a study of the learn- ing atmosphere before attention was focused on specific skills and tech- niques . The techniques may seem easier to handle and therefore distract from concern for the quality of community in the classroom or home. Stg) 4: Identify Assumed Entering Competencies The learners were adults , and it was assumed that they had basic reading skills . Many were probably not avid readers accustomed to digging specific ideas from books . The learners were not assumed to have a reading level required for scholarly literature. Most of the learners were assumed to have had experience with children and youth. The amount of experience was probably varied. Only an intuitive, informally constructed understanding of cognitive and moral development was assumed. The extent to which the intuitive understandings were similar to the concepts presented in Patterns in Moral Deve10pment was unknown at the time of design. It was assumed that there would be a mix of agreement and disagreement. The presentation of values/moral development concepts as a systematic perspective was expected to be new to a majority of the learners . Some 111 of them would find that it gave structure to the beliefs they already held. Step 5: Prepare Pretest and Remedial Instruction Basically the same test was used for the pretest and the post- test. The pretest did not ask for all the biographical data included on the posttest or for evaluation of the instructional experience. Otherwise the two tests were identical. The extensive pretest was used because of the experimental design chosen for this evaluative study. No remedial instruction was prepared. No specific prerequi- sites were identified, and, since the instruction was to be introductory in nature, a remedial package did not seem necessary. No action was taken in regard to step 5a: plan an adaptive program. Since involvement in the course was to be voluntary, those who found the course over- whelming would probably drop out as indicated in step 5b: screen stu- dents or accept dropouts . Step 5c: Or Plan a Dual-track Program A two-track program was designed but not for the purpose of providing remedial help as suggested in Sc . The two tracks or treatments , D1 and D2, were constructed to test for differences in the outcomes resulting from presentations of values/moral development theory in terms of levels or stages . 112 Step 6: Select Media and Write Prescriptions Several considerations suggested by Briggs guided the selec- tion of the media. It was decided that Patterns in Moral Development should provide both individual and group study. Interaction and sharing of ideas were judged important if the learners were to understand devel- opmental concepts and make them their own. But a group sharing time is more interesting and profitable if it has been preceded by individual study. A source containing information discussed in a group is helpful to have for personal reference in the future . Provision for individual study was made through the develop— ment of a reading text which included projects for the learner to work on. A leader's guide was designed to help instructors conduct four group study sessions . Each group session was related to one of the chapters in the reading text . The competence of the users of the instructional materials was taken into consideration when choosing media . Each item would have to be usable by a person who is a paraprofessional in the field of education. Technical terminology was avoided as much as possible in the leader's guide and the reading text. As noted earlier, many of the learners were probably not skilled at digging specific ideas out of books . Such persons seem to have dif- ficulty identifying key ideas . For this reason, reSponse vignettes were provided following each main concept in the reading text. A question was presented, or an illustration given. The learner was asked to ‘- 1 13 identify the correct answer to the question or explanation of the illus- tration. The correct answer was then given, and a brief discussion fol- lowed on why one response was better than the others . The vignettes served to check understandings and provide feedback to the learner, to highlight concepts , and to amplify the idea through illustration. A vignette sample is included in Appendix A. Cost limitations were kept in mind when choosing media. The total package was to be made available for a reasonable cost to encour- age its wide use. Media which could be distributed in printed form were chosen in most cases , partly because they are less expensive than many other forms . One slide/tape presentation was developed for use in the course. Overhead transparency masters were provided rather than the tranSparencies because of the cost factor and also because not all instructors would have access to an overhead projector. The masters could be used as posters in small groups or copied on a chalkboard. Though slides are more expensive than a filmstrip, they were used because, in many situations , slide projectors are more available than filmstrip projectors . Media were chosen to provide ease and comfort of use with enough variety to avoid boredom. Several learning experiences were common to each group session. Opportunity for project sharing was regularly given. It was hoped that this would encourage the learners to become involved in doing the projects . As those who had worked on the projects shared their experiences , the total group would be supplied 1 14 with additional information and review. A slide presentation was scheduled for three of the four ses- sions . A purpose of the slides and tape was to review concisely the concepts from the reading text which were to be explored in the session. It was believed unrealistic to assume that all the learners would have read each chapter of the text before the session in which it was dis- cussed. The main concepts of the chapter were therefore reviewed at the beginning of the session to prepare for profitable discussion. The instructor who did not feel confident in his or her grasp of values devel- opment theory could more easily use the slide/tape presentation than give an interesting lecture on the concepts . In each session a worksheet activity was provided. The work- sheets structured review, discussion, verbalization, and sharing of ideas . It was assumed that structured activities would be easier for paraprofessionals to use effectively than would general unguided dis- cussion. For the sake of interest each worksheet was different from the others . They called for categorizing, restating, problem solving, and sorting. One other activity was included in sessions one, two, and four with two in session three when no slides were used. These activities provided variety instead of following through with events similar to those of other sessions . The methods used were guided listening, a game, role play, a brief writing exercise, and a personal contract. In select- ing media and methods an effort was made to keep a balance between 1 l 5 comfortable predictability and interesting variety. Media and methods were chosen which would demonstrate the kind of teaching/learning experiences being recommended in the course. The instructor was encouraged to implement teacher behaviors which would facilitate development. Interaction and the sharing of ideas were to be encouraged. The instructor had input for each session but also was to provide for group involvement. The media and methods called for an active instructor and active learners . The attention of the instructor was also drawn to the need for fostering a warm, accepting atmOSphere in the class . The final test for a medium or method was whether or not it effectively accomplished the desired learning goal. This was a most important consideration . The prescriptions which Briggs refers to in step 6 are instruc- tions to persons who will deve10p the media pieces decided on. This type of thing was provided for the slide/tape set but not for other items since they were developed by the designer. Step 7: Develop First Draft of Materials The reading text entitled Patterns in Moral Development was designed as the basic source of information for both the instructor and the learners . Pour chapters were written: "Patterns in Moral Development": Kohlberg's findings "Development--What Is It?": Piaget's insights 116 "The Atmosphere for Moral Development": structuring a healthy community "Is There More?": other facilitating teacher and parent behaviors Two projects were included with each chapter. One was an activity to test or apply an idea from the chapter. The other was a Bible study designed to help the learners relate the concepts being examined to the broader field of religion. A leader's guide was also written. A portion of the leader’s guide is included in Appendix B. General instructions were provided along with plans for conducting each of the four 1 1/2-to-2-hour group sessions . Each session plan included: a statement of the session goals instructions for conducting the learning activities suggestions for guiding discussion helps for handling some possible questions Along with the leader's guide the instructor also received copies of all worksheets , transparency masters, and a slide/tape set. Step 8: Small Group Tryouts and Revisions Two pilot projects were conducted with the designer as instruc- tor. The first pilot consisted of two 3-hour sessions one month apart. Ten learners were involved. The second pilot was a Friday evening and Saturday workshop of about six hours with approximately 30 learners . 117 Refinements of the materials were made as a result of these experiences . One further step was taken to evaluate the materials before they were distributed for more extensive use. The manuscripts for the reading text and the leader's guide were submitted for critical review to three experts in the field of values development education. The final draft of the materials reflected the suggestions of the reviewers as well as the refinements growing out of the pilot testing. Step 9: Classroom Tryout and Revision The field testing of Patterns in Moral Development described in the next major section of this chapter was step 9 of the design model. The instructors made some adaptations as they used the materials, though they basically followed the suggestions as given. One instructor reported varying the use of some activities to be more suitable for a small class. Another group added an extra session because of interest on the part of the learners . Step 10: Performance Evaluation Performance was evaluated through the administration of the posttest described in step 2 . In addition to evaluating the performance of the learners, the performance of the instructional materials were eval- uated by the learners . They were asked to rate the difficulty of the reading materials and the helpfulness of the response vignettes . The learners also reported their degree of involvement with the instructional experiences: the group sessions they attended, the chapters read, and 118 projects completed. A copy of the posttest is included in Appendix C . A form was provided on which instructors could evaluate the instructional experiences . They were asked to indicate which learning activities they used and to give their evaluations and suggestions on each. They were also asked for general comments about the strengths and weaknesses of the instruction and the responses of their students to it. Evaluating Instruction in Moral Development Education A field test was conducted to evaluate the instructional pack- age Patterns in Moral Development. The objective was to test the mate- rials in situations as similar as possible to those for which they were designed . The Pcmulation Persons involved in the voluntary educational program of the church were chosen as the population. As mentioned earlier, church workers were selected as the target audience because they are interested in moral development, are currently involved in moral education, and because the church provides educational experiences for parents as well as children'and youth . More specifically, the p0pulation for this study was volunteer teachers involved in the educational programs of Free Methodist churches in the East Michigan Conference. Interested parents in these churches were also invited to take part in the instructional experiences . 119 The population was selected on the basis of convenience. Geographically the groups were accessible to the researcher. The conference leadership and some of the pastors were known by the researcher. This made contact and enlistment easier. From the 61 churches in the conference, nine were chosen. Seventeen randomly selected churches were contacted, and 12 of these consented to take part in the project. Three groups canceled later, leaving nine which completed the instruction. Of those which can- celed, the first decided against involvement before receiving the mate- rials . They had just finished a training course and did not want to begin another. The reason given for the second cancelation was that the designated instructor thought the material looked too difficult for the learners who would likely attend. Because of other activities the third church found that it was impossible to schedule instruction in moral development at this time . The churches involved in the project were not large. Two of the nine had an average attendance in Sunday school of less than 100, six averaged between 100 and 200, and only one had an atten— dance of more than 200 . The churches were located in cities and towns of different sizes , ranging from a population of approximately 300 to 193, S71. Instructors . The instructors were chosen by the pastor of each church, and the researcher had no control over their selection. They 120 were volunteers responding to the request to teach. Two of the classes were taught by a team of two teachers , making 11 instructors who were involved in the project. A variety of vocations were represented by the instructors . Four were educators , three were pastors , and the others were a home- maker, budget analyst, psychiatric social worker, or probate court administrator . Six of the 11 instructors had more than 17 years of formal education, four had 16 years, and one 12 . According to the 1970 United States Census of Population, only 9 .5 percent of American adults 25 years of age and over have 16 or more years of formal schooling. The level of education represented by the instructors was high. Three of the instructors had had some contact with the ideas of Piaget and Kohlberg through graduate courses or personal study. One had listened to a one-hour tape on values development education. The other seven reported no previous contact with the theory of values/moral development . No special training was given to the instructors in preparation for leading their classes in a study of moral deve10pment. They were to depend on the instructional package for their instruction. Learners . The learners were volunteers who reSponded to a learning experience offered by their church. The course of study was presented as being of interest to workers in the church's educational 121 programs and to parents . Some interested persons attended who were not currently involved in religious education and whose families were grown. Tables 4, S, 6, and 7 describe the age, sex, education, and occupations of the learners who provided data for evaluating Patterns in Moral Development. A few persons did not complete the biographical information. Therefore, the sum of the percentages does not equal 100 percent . Table 4 Age of Learners (composite of all groups) Number of Percentage of Ages persons all subjects 14- 19 3 2 . 8 20-35 43 39 . 8 36-60 54 50 . O 6 1+ 4 3 . 7 Table 5 S ex of Learners Number of Percentage of Sex persons all subjects Male 36 33 . 3 Female 68 63 . 0 122 Table 6 Education of Learners Years of formal Number of Percentage of education persons all subjects up to 11 8 7 .4 12 2 5 23 . 1 13-15 28 25 . 9 16 15 13 . 9 17 or more 27 25.0 Table 7 Occupation of Learners Number of Percentage of Occupation persons all subjects Educator 16 14 . 8 Counselor 2 1 . 9 Housewife 3 5 32 . 4 Student 2 1.9 Minister 3 2 . 8 Other: work with people 12 11 . 1 Other: work with machines 22 20 . 4 The study groups varied in size. The two largest groups had an average attendance of 24, the smallest group seven. Four groups had an average attendance of more than 20, four averaged between 10 and 19 , and two averaged fewer than 10 in attendance. 123 The Logistics The conference superintendent was the first person contacted in the process of setting up the field test. The project was explained to him, and he was given a portion of the reading text manuscript so that he could see what the content of the course would be. He gave consent for churches in his conference to be contacted. The pastors in the randomly selected churches were contacted first by telephone. The project and its purpose were explained. They were told what would be expected of their church: to provide an instructor to make a place in the church calendar for the instructional sessions to promote the course A tentative commitment for involvement was received. A letter was then sent reiterating the content of the telephone conversation. A commitment form was enclosed. It asked for the name and address of the instructor, the number of learners eXpected in the group, the probable dates for the group study sessions, and the pastor's signature . The next step was to contact the instructors . This was done by mail. The project was explained; they were told what would be expected of them and what would be provided for them to work with. One month before the date suggested for the first group study session the materials were delivered to the instructors by the researcher. 124 The instructors received a leader's guide, a slide/tape set and script, and special instructions needed by persons involved in a field test. Details to be observed in administering the pretest and posttest were given in this special set of instructions . The instructors were also asked to use the learning activities suggested in the leader's guide. A form was included on which they could record the activities they used and comment on them. The instructors were asked to keep a record of attendance on the form provided and return it to the researcher at the end of the course. A quantity of pretests , reading texts , and worksheets sufficient for the expected class was given to each group. The posttests were sent later to avoid any mix-up on the use of the testing forms . All of the materials , their use, and procedural details for the experimental instruction were discussed with the instructors . The pur- pose of this contact between researcher and instructors was not to dis- cuss the content of Patterns in Moral Develppment. Content—related questions were raised by the last instructor contacted. These questions and the researcher's responses were shared in written form with all the instructors , in order to keep the experience and procedure equivalent. The researcher's telephone number was given to the instructors so that they could call if they ran into any serious problems with the course. If an instructor should face major problems which he or she could not handle, this would mean that something was missing in the instructional package. The plan was that when the problem was reported the researcher would design an additional piece for the package to 125 handle the problem. It would be sent to all the instructors and included in the final product. There was no call for such an item. There was no contact between the researcher and the learners prior to or during the instructional experience. In each location the pro- gram was conducted by the pastor and instructor. The researcher did contact several learners in an effort to obtain more posttests from two groups which returned only a few copies of the final test. This contact was made nine weeks after their last group study session. The Quasi-experimental Design The field test was conducted according to the quasi-experi- mental design: 0 D1 0 0 D2 0 0 - Pretests and posttests D1 - Variation 1: "stages" emphasis D2 - Variation 2: "levels" emphasis The study groups were randomly assigned to treatment D1 or D2 . Of the nine churches which conducted the course, four were assigned to D1, and five to D2 . One of the churches assigned to D1 held two class sessions each week to accommodate the schedules of those who were interested in attending. This made five groups using D1 . One of the D1 groups, however, ran out of time and did not finish the pretest. Data from this group was processed for the sections of the pretest which they completed but was not included in the data relating to total scores . 126 The differences between treatments D1 and D2 occured in the first chapter of the reading text and in the section of the slide/tape set used in the first group study session. Since D1 presented Kohlberg's findings in terms of stages and D2 presented them in terms of levels with no reference to stages of moral development, class discussions on Kohl- berg's findings varied . In every other respect the two treatments were designed identically . Treatment. The treatments consisted of individual and group study. Each learner was encouraged to read all four chapters of the text- book and complete the projects at the end of each chapter. The reading and projects were to be done the week prior to the group session in which each chapter would be discussed. Four 1 l/Z—to-Z—hour group study sessions were provided. As noted earlier, the instructors were encour- aged to use the learning activities provided in their leader's guide. One group receiving treatment D2 took two sessions to cover the concepts of chapter 3 in the reading text. This brought their total number of group sessions to five . The adaptation was made because of group interest. It was suggested that the group sessions be conducted between March 14 and April 4, 19 76 . The first group to start the course began on March 7; the last group finished 00 May 16, 1976. It was also suggested that the group sessions be one week apart. Six of the groups met at weekly intervals . Two had a two-week interval once during the course, and the other two groups met irregularly 127 to allow for most of the learners to attend each session. Testing. The pretest was administered by the instructors . It was completed before learners received the reading material or attended any group sessions . It was to be administered in a group, but those who could not be present when the group took the test could complete it at home. A Special meeting one week before the first study session was suggested. At this time the learners were to take the pretest, be intro— duced in a general way to the course, and given their reading materials . The advance meeting would allow them to read chapter 1 of the textbook before the first study session and be better prepared to enter into dis— cussion. Most persons completed the pretest in a group setting. A total of 195 pretests were returned to the researcher. The posttest--printed on paper a different color from that of the pretest to avoid a mix-up-—was -to be administered, by the instructor, one week after the last group study session. It was suggested that the group gather in a special session to take the posttest. The time which lapsed between the last study session and the completion of the posttest varied considerably. Some groups handled the posttest as directed. One group finished their study sessions a week earlier than expected and had to wait for two weeks to take the posttest. In other groups the learners took the posttest home to com- plete instead of having a special session. Some were completed as much 128 as nine weeks after the final session. One hundred twenty-five completed posttests were returned to the researcher. One hundred eight of these were from persons who had also taken the pretest . S ummary The project described in this dissertation consisted of two phases, a design phase and an evaluation phase. Chapter 3 has out- lined the procedures used both in the design and evaluation of a package for instruction in moral development education. Chapter 4 presents an analysis of the data from the evaluative phase of the project. CHAPTER FOUR THE FINDINGS The findings of the evaluative research described in this dis- sertation have been grouped in five categories: findings relating to the reliability of the instrument, the testing of the hypotheses , correlations , evaluations from learners and instructors , and unpredicted variations . The findings are discussed in the order listed above. Reliabilitmf the Instrument The Kuder-Richardson formula 20 was used to test the inter— item reliability or internal consistency of the instrument constructed to measure the effects of the training experience Patterns in Moral Deve10p- M . Table 8 provides a summary of the reliability coefficients . The formula was applied to the 108 posttests of persons who completed both the pretest and the posttest. The reliability coefficient for the 64 items of the total test was . 82 . Reliability was also computed for three subsets of test items . Eighteen items were designed to measure factual knowledge of key con- cepts in moral development theory and what teachers and parents should do to facilitate moral development. The reliability coefficient for the factual subsection of the test was . 60 . 129 130 Forty-one test items were intended to measure a preference for teacher and parent behaviors which facilitate moral development. The reliability coefficient for this subsection was . 77 . The section designed to test for evidence of misconceptions and tendencies to abuse values development education theory contained only six items . A reliability coefficient of . 58 was obtained for this section of the instrument. Table 8 Reliability Coefficients Number Test section of items Alpha Total test 64 . 82 Factual items 18 . 60 Preference items 41 . 77 Misconception items 6 . 58 Note: one item was included in two of the subsections, bringing the total of items in the subsections to one more than the total number of items . Testinlof the Hypotheses A repeated measures analysis of variance was used to test for significant differences between measures , treatments , and interactions . The following matrix was used: M1 M2 T1 T2 T1 " D1 M1 - pretest T2 - D2 M2 - posttest The analysis of variance was performed for the total test and also for the subsets of items mentioned earlier. Tables 9, 10, and 12 summarize the analysis of variance data . There was no significant difference in the treatment interactions for the total test or any of the subsets . It was therefore assumed that the levels of significance found for differences between treatments and measures were true significance levels . Table 9 Analysis of Variance: Treatment Interactions Number of Level of Test section groups E score significance Total test 9 . 16 p<.70 Factual items 10 . 47 p<. 51 Preference items 9 1 . 02 p < . 3 5 Misconception items 10 . 26 p < . 62 Statistical Hypothesis 1 The null statement of the first hypothesis is as follows: Persons having completed the training experience Patterns in Moral Development will demonstrate no significant difference in their 132 understanding of the developmental perspective on values/moral educa— tion as presented in the instructional package. This hypothesis speaks of understanding and of the developmental perspective on values/moral education. The total measuring instrument was designed to test for a developmental perspective on values/moral education. The findings of the analysis of variance on the total test therefore relate to hypothesis 1 . Since the focus of hypothesis 1 is on understandings, the subset of items dealing with factual knowledge is also important for testing this first hypothesis . When the analysis of variance between M1 and M2 was com- puted for the total test it was found that p was less than .0001. For the subset of items dealing with factual knowledge it was also found that p was less than .0001. Since there was a significant difference shown, the first null hypothesis was rejected. Table 10 Analysis of Variance: Measures Number of Level of Test section groups P score significance Total test 9 151.33 p <.0001 Factual items 10 117.21 p<.0001 Preference items 9 93 . 42 p <. 000 l Misconception items 10 16 . 86 p <. 0035 133 Statistical Hypothesis 2 The second null hypothesis states that: Persons having com— pleted the training experience Patterns in Moral Development will show no significant difference in their preference for parent and teacher behav- iors which facilitate values/moral development. The subset of test items focusing on preference for skills which facilitate development was analyzed for variance. The p was less than .0001 for this section of the instrument also. A significant difference was indicated, and the second null hypothesis was rejected. Statistical Hypothesis 3 The null form of the third hypothesis states that: Persons having completed the training experience Patterns in Moral Development will indicate no significant difference in the specific actions important to the facilitation of moral development which they report having taken. Three questions were designed to provide opportunity for per- sons to report actions taken. Two of the questions were objective in format. The learners were given a list of possible actions and were asked to mark the ones they had taken. The third question was open- ended. The subjects were asked, Which of the following things have you done Ln_o__s_t of in the last month? Check 313119112 (question 14) . The Options offered were the same for the two objective questions on actions taken (questions 13 and 14) . They appear in the left-hand column of 134 Table 11. The responses to question 14 on the pretest and the posttest were compared and the chi square computed. The level of significance for the chi square was .0000, indicating that there was a significant difference in the reSponses . Most of the difference seemedto occur in regard to two possible actions . On the pretest 12 persons , 11.2% of the total population, indicated that they had tried to stimulate the devel- opment of reasoning abilities . On the posttest 25 persons , or 23 .4% of the population, reported taking such actions . The pretest indicated that 23 persons , 21. 5% of the total group, shared important moral principles with the students . Only 13 persons, 12 . 1% of the total group, reported the sharing of principles on the posttest. There was little change in the number of persons reporting no action taken. On the pretest 26.2% of the group reported no action and on the posttest, 25 .2%. Some action was reported on the posttest by 74.8% of the group. The second objective question asked for multiple reSponses: In your effort to help your students develop morally, which of the follow- ing things have you done in the last month? Check all that apply (ques— tion 13) . The yes and no responses on the pretest and the posttest were compared for each possible action. For each option, data was gener- ated for the following matrix: Rows - pretest No Yes Columns - posttest No Yes 135 m: on: mm :10 OH 0:: mm :10 mm on: ON on: om on mm on mm on 00 H: 000. move. mmoo. Soc. 0000. mooo. . 0:0300 0:05 00030:: :0: 0:0000: 0:: :0 :o:00:00:0 000:0 :: 50:: 00000:: . 00>300: 0:0: 30: o: 50:: 00050035 5033 000:0: L098 5:? 50:: 00036:: . 00:00:30 00::0000 :030030 0: 50:: 0000:0005: . 003:3: 30:: :030000 0: 50:: 0000:3005: . 00:00:33 50:: 3:3 003:0:3: 00:05 E03005: 00:0:0 . 003330 0:::0000: :0 :005:0:0>00 0:: 0:00:50 0: 003:. :00: 0:: :005:Z\00:o:00: :00: :20 0080.: :00: 0:: :005:Z\0 0:0: 00: :00: 00:0: 00: :000:0..: :0>0: 09003305 0:03:00 :50 :0300 :0 0:3. 8: :030003 :00300: 0:0 000:: :0 036:0: 00030.: : 030:. 136 . mo: 003 0:002:30 :0 :00::0: :0:0.:. .:0x0: :0::00 0: 0::000::0: 0 .:0x0: :0::00 :0 ::0:0: :0: 00:0:0 : ”0:02 . 0::08003: 0:0 00:00:30 :0:0:: :5000 0:0::0000 0: 0:030:0 0:: :0: :0:000 ::0:: :: 08:98 0: 0::0030 om o .. : 00 o n 0 ~50. :0: 000::00 00:000000 .: . 0::08000: :0:0:: ANN : I 8 0: 00:0:0: 00: 0::00::0 mm o I : mm o I 0 «mm: . 0:030000 0:: 0: 00:30:: . 0 :00: 0:: :00: 0:: :0>0: 00:00::::0:0 :0::00 :0 0::: :0:E:Z\00:0:00: :00: ::::0 :000:0..: :00::02\00:0:00: :00: 00:0:00: :000:0.: 0:030 30 00.58: 2 030: i 1 l.“ mung 137 The chi square for each Option was computed. The findings of this com- parison are summarized in Table 11 . The difference between pretest and posttest reSponses was significant for all actions but action "g.' In regard to actions "a" and "b" the largest set of responses was from persons who reported on both tests that they had taken the action. In the case of actions "c" through "h" the largest set of responses was from those who indicated on both the pretest and the posttest that they had not taken the action. For actions "a, " "b, " "d, " "f, " "g, " and "h" the greatest amount of change was from pretest reports of action taken to posttest reports of no action taken. The greatest difference for actions "c" and "e" occurred in the group of subjects who on the pretest reported no action taken, but who on the posttest reported that they had taken the action. Significant differences did occur in the reports of actions taken. However, the changes were both in a positive and negative direction. The responses to option "a" of question 14 and options "c" and "e" of question 13 indicated significant positive changes in the reported actions taken to facilitate moral development. At the close of the training experience there was a positive difference in the number of persons who reported that their major action had been efforts to stimu- late the development of reasoning abilities (14a) . An increased number of persons reported that they had encouraged students to question their own thinking (13c) and had provided experiences which introduced students 138 to new perspectives (l3e) . In regard to the preceding actions, the data suggests that the third null hypothesis can be rejected. The negative shifts must also be considered. Though the dif— ferences are significant, in some cases they are not desirable. In regard to a few of the possible actions, there is a question as to the meaning of the significant negative shifts . The possible meaning of the data is discussed in chapter 5. The third open—ended question asked, What actions, if any, have you taken as a result of studying Patterns in Moral Development? The majority of the subjects , 6O .7%, made no report of action. The next largest segment of the p0pulation was the 13 . 1% who indicated that they had been listening more to their children or students . Actions which could be classified as helping children find their own answers through discussion, offering more choices, and asking more questions were reported by 8.4% of the total group. Another 8.4% of the learners indicated that they were more tolerant, open, supportive, and reSpectful of children. Other persons , 4 .7% of the group, reported that they had reexamined and/or altered their attitudes and behaviors toward others . One person reported an effort to practice facilitating development, and another had tried to foster a sense of community. The open-ended question regarding reported actions did not appear on the pretest. Significant difference can therefore not be com- puted. Although the majority of the subjects reported no action taken, 139 those who did, were reporting behaviors which would facilitate moral deve10pment. Changes were occurring for some learners, though we cannot judge the level of significance of the changes . The findings on the third hypothesis are mixed. Some signifi— cant positive changes did occur. But there were also negative changes and a minority of persons who reported any action on the free response question. The third null hypothesis can be rejected for some behaviors but not for others . Statistical Hypothesis 4 The fourth hypothesis, stated in the null form is as follows: In regard to the tendency to misunderstand the process of moral develop- ment or abuse the theory of values development education, there is no significant difference between persons who have received the training experience Patterns in Moral Deve10pment--treatments D1 or D2--and those who have not received either treatment. To test the fourth hypoth- esis, an analysis of variance was performed on the subset of test items dealing with abuses and misconceptions of values development education theory. It was assumed that the responses on the pretest represented the thinking of persons who had not received instruction in moral devel- opment education. The posttest measured the understanding of persons who had received treatment. The p was found to be less than .0035. The fourth null hypothesis was rejected because of the level of signifi- cance obtained . 140 Statistical Hypothesis 5 The null form of the final hypothesis states that: In regard to the tendency to misunderstand and abuse the theory of values develop- ment education, there is no significant difference between persons who received treatment D2 and those who received treatment D1 . For the testing of this final hypothesis the data from the subset of test items focusing on misconceptions and abuses was analyzed. When the effects of treatment D1 and D2 were compared, no significant difference was indicated. The p was less than .60. On the basis of this finding, the fifth null hypothesis could not be rejected. Table 12 Analysis of Variance: Treatments Number of groups Level of Test section D1 D2 E score significance Total test 4 5 .19 p < .68 Factual items 5 5 3 . 51 p < . 10 Preference items 4 5 .04 p < .85 Misconception items 5 5 .29 2 < .60 It should be noted in passing that there was no significant difference between treatments for the total test or any of the subsections . On the posttest the learners were asked, What was the most important thing you learned in this training course ? Pour persons gave responses to this question which had to do with finding out the stage of 141 the learner or matching communications to the stage of the learner. Of the four who chose staging or "match" as the most important thing learned, three had received treatment D1 . Summary Three of the five null hypotheses were rejected. The following research hypotheses were therefore confirmed: 1 . Persons having completed the training experience Patterns in Moral Development will demonstrate an increased understanding of the developmental perspective on values/moral education as presented in the instructional materials . 2 . Persons having completed the training experience Patterns in Moral Development conducted by an instructor who has had no special preparation for teaching the course will show increased preference for parent and teacher behaviors which facilitate values/moral development . 4 . Persons having received the training experience Patterns in Moral Development--treatment D1 or D2--will show less tendency to misunderstand the process of moral development or abuse the theory of values development education than will persons who have not received either treatment . Whether the third null hypothesis should be rejected or accepted is still in question. Some portions of the data indicate that it should be rejected. The number of persons reporting certain behaviors did seem to change significantly. On question 14, however, there was very little 142 change in the number of persons reporting no action. But most persons did report an action. For the open-ended question on actions the major- ity of the learners reported no facilitating behaviors engaged in. Because of the inconclusiveness of the data the confirmation of the following research hypothesis is in question: 3 . Persons having completed the training experience Patterns in Moral Development will indicate that, as a result of the training experience, they have engaged in a specific action important to the facilitation of moral development. The fifth null hypothesis could not be rejected, and the follow- ing research hypothesis was not confirmed: 5 . Persons having received treatment D2 will Show less ten- dency to misunderstand and abuse the theory of values development education than will persons having received treatment D1 . Correlations The Pearson correlation coefficient was computed for the gain score of the subjects and their education, amount of reading done in the text, and the number of group study sessions attended. Table 13 con—- tains the correlation coefficients obtained. 143 Table 13 Pearson Correlation Coefficients Number of Correlation Variable subjects Mean coefficient Gain score 103 +10.12 Education 103 13-15 years of _S_ = .199 formal education Reading 103 3.12 chapters S = .003 Attendance 103 3.33 sessions §_= .001 Note: Pretests and posttests were received from 108 subjects. Five of these persons did not complete the pretest. Correla- tions were therefore run on the 103 persons who completed both tests . The correlation between education and gain score was not significant (S = . 199) . For reading @ = .003) and attendance (S_ = .001) the correlations with the gain score were significant with attendance showing a level of significance slightly higher than that indicated for reading . Evaluations from Learners and Instructors The posttest included five questions designed to provide eval- uative information from the learners . Two of the questions were objec- tive and dealt with the reading level ‘of the text and the helpfulness of the response vignettes . The other three questions called for free responses . They focused on the learner's view of the content and meth- ods used in the group sessions . As mentioned earlier, the instructors received a special form for evaluating the training experience. A section 144 of the form was to be completed after each session while the learning experiences and their outcomes were still clearly in mind. Learner Evaluation The learners were asked to rate the level of difficulty of the reading text . A few persons (5. 6%) did not respond to this question. The other learners rated the reading level as follows: very difficult 8 .4% difficult but interesting enough 34.6% that I wanted to read it a comfortable reading level 49 . 5% too simple 1 .9% The response vignettes were appreciated by most of the learners . Those who said they found them helpful made up 86% of the learners . Only one person said that they were not helpful. Fourteen persons (13 . 1% of the group) did not answer the question relating to the helpfulness of the response vignettes . The first free response question asked the learners: What was the most important thing you learned in this training course? No response was given by 24 . 3% of the learners . General comments which could not be specifically categorized made up 9 .3% of the reSponses . Theoretical information was identified as most important by 31.8% of the persons . Such things as the need for mutual respect, a sense of community, or being a friend were mentioned by 8.4%. The responses 145 of 22 .4% of the learners dealt with ideas included in the following list: the naturalness of development the importance of accepting a person's stage or level of development and the Speed of development the fact that moral development is to be facilitated, not forced awareness of their limited understanding of moral reasoning and an increase in that understanding the need for open discussion on questions in the home and classroom The remaining 3 .7% of the responses mentioned identifying a person's stage of development or matching communication to the stage of the learner as the most important ideas received from the course. At the close of the training experience 13 of the 108 learners indicated that they had unanswered questions . One learner identified two questions . Five of the questions dealt with the practical applica- tions of values development education concepts . Theological concerns were the focus of four questions , and three learners were unsure of certain theoretical points . One learner questioned the importance of knowing about specific stages of development. How to measure the learning which is taking place was the question raised by one other person. The learners who evaluated the methods used in the group study sessions most frequently mentioned the discussion and sharing of ideas as something which they enjoyed. The slides, small-group 146 activities , and the informality of the learning situation were also thought to be helpful. Several learners commented on the interesting skillful way in which their instructor conducted the sessions . The variety of activities, the role plays, visuals other than the slides, and several other features of the group learning experiences were also mentioned as things which the learners liked. Instructor Evaluation The learning activities suggested in the leader's guide of Patterns in Moral Development were used quite extensively by the instructors . All instructors used nine of the activities . No learning experience was deleted by more than two instructors . Five activities were omitted from the training of two groups , and five other activities from the training of one group. The instructors were asked to rate the general responses of their classes to the training course. Ratings were received for eight of the 10 class groups . One instructor indicated that his group felt posi- tive to strongly positive about the experience. The response of five groups was rated as positive, but the feeling of two classes toward the course was only 30-30. The instructor of one of the groups which was basically positive toward the course noted that those who came only once or twice displayed a so-so attitude toward the training. The researcher asked for a report from the instructors on any negative feedback which they received from the learners . Most of the 147 negative responses had to do with the level of difficulty of the course and the pretest. Some learners felt that the reading materials and the course as a whole were college level and therefore beyond them. The pretest apparently was frustrating and threatening to many. Some per- sons dropped out of the course after taking the pretest . One instructor reported that his learners kept asking for prac- tical applications , especially in the first two sessions . From another group came the comment that the reading text needed artwork to make it more interesting. It was also suggested that the reading material should be divided into six or eight shorter chapters . Several groups felt that the course contained too many new ideas to be covered in the four I l/Z—to-Z-hour sessions suggested. Comments on the various learning activities were also pro- vided by the instructors . They shared the adaptations they had made and in a few instances made suggestions for improvement. This infor- mation will be considered when the materials are refined. The instructors were also asked whether or not the course left any important questions unanswered. The two questions raised had to do with the application of moral development theory to society beyond the home and church. Unpredicted Variations The mortality rate was higher than expected . The pretest was completed by 194 persons. The posttest was taken by 125 persons . Of 148 these 125 subjects, 108 had also taken the pretest. The average weekly attendance for all the groups was 167.9 . The mortality rate for test completion was greater than for attendance . The pretest mean scores for persons who took just the pretest and those who completed both tests were compared. The pretest only group had a mean score of 34. 6. The mean score for the pretest/posttest group was 37 .8. The persons who dropped out of the course or at least did not complete the posttest were persons who tended to have a slightly lower level of values development education understanding prior to the training experience. From two of the class groups only two usable posttests were returned to the researcher. Several learners from both groups were con— tacted and asked to complete the test. Eight persons took the posttest nine weeks after their last class session. Their mean score was 47.6. The mean posttest score for all groups was 48.6. W The findings of this project indicate that three of the five research hypotheses were confirmed. Significant correlations were found to exist between the gain score of the learners and the amount of reading done in the text and the number of group study sessions attended. Both learners and instructors provided evaluative data on the instructional materials . Possible interpretations of the findings are presented in chapter 5. CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS Concern over the course of industrialization and its influence on all people: shock at the revelation of dishonesty, injustice, and other forms of immorality among trusted government officials . These are some of the things which have focused the attention of many educa- tors on the need for constructive values/moral education. Linked with this sense of need is the awareness that much moral education has been ineffective. Out of this dilemma comes the question: Are there guide- lines available to help parents and teachers effectively and construc- tively influence the values and moral development of children and young people? In this dissertation the above question has been answered affirmatively. The research of Piaget and Kohlberg offers guidelines for parents and teachers . However, the help which these developmental theorists could provide is not readily accessible to many of the persons involved in values/moral education. This fact raises another question: Can materials be designed which will present a developmental perspec- tive on values/moral education to paraprofessionals in a form that they will study and which will lead to a sound understanding and use of the 149 150 concepts ? The findings of this research project indicate that this sec- ond question can also be answered in the affirmative for paraprofes- sionals involved in the educational program of Free Methodist churches in the East Michigan Conference. An instructional package, Patterns in Moral Development, was designed to introduce paraprofessionals to the developmental perspec- tive on values/moral education. It was used with 10 groups of volunteer workers from the educational programs of nine churches . The instructors for the training sessions received no special preparation for teaching the course other than what was offered in the instructional package. Significant Differences At the end of the instructional experience the learners were tested for increased understanding of the developmental perspective on values/moral education and factual information on values/moral devel- opment. Their preference for parent and teacher behaviors which would facilitate moral development was also tested. For all groups--those receiving treatments D1 and D2--a .0001 level of significance was obtained for the learners' increase in understanding of the general per- spective, factual information, and preference for facilitating skills (see Table 10). A decrease in the tendency of the learners to misunderstand or misuse moral development theory was also anticipated. Such a decrease did occur at a .0035 level of significance (Table 10) . Patterns in Moral Development did make a significant difference in the 151 understandings , preferences, and misconceptions of the learners involved in the study of it . A significant difference was found to exist between the pretest and posttest responses to question 14: Which of the following things have you done _m_o_s_t of in the last month? There was a noticeable increase in the number of persons who reported trying to stimulate the development of reasoning abilities . Since cognitive development is a prerequisite of moral development, this change was considered to be positive. The number of persons who reported on question 13 (see Table 11) that among other activities they had endeavored to stimulate the deve10pment of reasoning abilities changed significantly in a negative direction from the pretest to the posttest. This information would seem to be in conflict with the preceding report. Though the negative shift cannot be denied, it should be noted that the number of persons who on the posttest reported efforts to stimulate the development of reasoning abilities was 58, or 53 .7%, of all subjects . The negative shift was made by 20 persons while 14 made a positive shift. The data indicates that a majority of the learners were endeavoring to stimulate the devel- opment of reasoning abilities . For several persons their activity in this area apparently became increasingly important during the time of the training experience. A major decrease occurred in the number of persons who reported that their main moral education activity (question 14) had been 152 the sharing of moral principles with their students . There was also a significant decrease in the number of persons who reported the sharing of moral principles as one of several activities in which they had been engaged (question 13) . The developmental perspective on values/moral education does not suggest that teachers and parents should never share moral principles . But values development education theory does indicate that the sharing of principles should not be the major method of moral education. A shift away from overemphasis on the sharing of moral principles can be interpreted as a desired outcome of the training exper- ience Patterns in Moral Develcmment. However, the materials should be reviewed to be sure that the place and importance of the sharing of prin- ciples is clearly stated and adequately explored. The number of reports of teachers and parents who had encour- aged children or young people to question their own thinking increased significantly on the posttest. From a deve10pmental perspective this was a positive shift. Very few persons encouraged students to question accepted standards . Those who, on both tests , indicated no action for this option totaled 84. Questioning standards and thinking them through is important to moral development. However, it is probably a task for the college and young adult years . If most of the learners in the project were working with children, young teens , and high school young people, their students may not have been questioning accepted standards . With these age groups adults should respond to such questions raised by the 153 student. It would be unwise for teachers or parents to push such ques- tioning before the young person is ready for it. The lack of change regarding this action is therefore not disturbing. For teachers of adults more emphasis on how to help students question and think through accepted standards would probably be helpful. The data indicated that there was a significant increase in the number of persons who reported providing experiences which would introduce students to new perspectives . This increase was a desired outcome of the learning experience Patterns in Moral Development. It was disappointing that so few persons reported engaging students in group discussion of the reasons for various moral choices . Fifty persons did not report this action on either the pretest or the post- test. Of those who did report it on the pretest, 16 did not include it on the posttest.’ The instructional materials will need to be examined to see whether or not the intended emphasis on the importance of discus- sing the reasons for moral choices has been clearly presented. A negative shift was also shown in regard to suggesting sources for students to explore in their search for the answers to moral questions . The active teacher should be suggesting helpful sources to students . This shift may, however, indicate a move away from a strongly directive, authoritarian approach to moral education. If so, it would be a positive shift. It may mean that the learners did not have opportunity for such actions . Or, the responses may be indicative of a weakness in the instruction. This final possibility will be explored 154 when the materials are refined. In regard to the actions reported by the learners some of the significant differences were positive, some were questionable, and others were negative. The cognitive and attitudinal changes resulting from the instructional experiences were more strongly positive than the reported behavioral changes . Since the purposes of Patterns in Moral Development focused on understandings it is not surprising that it seems to be stronger in the cognitive area. It should also be noted, however, that most of the behavioral changes were judged to be in a positive direction. The positive nature of the change is especially clear in the data from the free response question on actions taken. All the actions reported are positive behaviors which would facilitate moral develop- ment. The data on behavior change was based on the reports of the learners and not on observation of their behaviors . Because of the method used to obtain the data, several questions are raised. Does the data reflect a true change in behavior? Is the difference caused by certain behaviors coming to mind or being depreciated because of ideas recently discussed? On the posttest were the learners giving answers which they thought were desired? These questions could be answered only through observation. 155 No Sigificant Difference in Treatments No significant difference was found to exist between the two treatments, D1 (which presented Kohlberg's findings in terms of stages of moral development) and D2 (which presented Kohlberg's findings in terms of levels of moral development). A difference was expected only in the subset of test items designed to identify tendencies to misunder- stand or misuse the theory. It was the informal observation of workshop leaders which led to an expectation of difference. It had been noted that when the detailed stages of moral development were presented to persons they tended to focus on the stage—related aSpects of the theory. When persons were first introduced to Kohlberg's findings in terms of the broader levels of development they seemed to give more attention to the process of development . Though the research data did not support this observation there were indications that further exploration might show a significant difference . The number of items on the measuring instrument which dealt with misconceptions and abuses was small. This subset of items had the lowest reliability of any subset on the test. The number of items may have been the reason. More questions on misuses of theory might have shown a significant difference. In chapter 4 it was noted that to the question, What was the most important thing you learned in this training course? , four persons gave responses which had to do with identifying a person's develop- mental stage or matching communication to a Specific stage of 156 development. Stage labeling and "match" were identified in chapter 1 as misuses of the theory. The fact that three of these four reSponses were from persons who had received treatment D1 may only be a chance occur- rence. However, it does raise one's curiosity as to whether or not it indicates the possibility of a difference in treatment effects . In a telephone conversation with the researcher1 one of the learners made some interesting comments . He had been disturbed by the fascination with the stage characteristics which was demonstrated by other members in his class . He felt they were too concerned with where a child should be in his or her development. To him, knowledge of the stages was of questionable value. He felt that the emphasis should be on the importance of experience and trying to see things from the other person's point of view. These were the things, not education, which he believed stimulated development. He implied that others in the class did not place sufficient value on experience and the fostering of perspec- tivism. Many of his classmates seemed to view education and knowing where a child was in the deve10pmental sequence as the important facili- tators of development. The learner who made these comments was in a group receiving treatment D1 . Several questions were raised by this conversation. Was the reporter hearing his classmates accurately? Did other groups have a 1The learner with whom the researcher talked was one of sev- eral contacted by telephone because posttests had not been returned. The comments were made in reply to two of the free response questions on the posttest. 157 similar fascination with staging? Was the stage focus a passing phe- nomenon which was balanced by additional new ideas presented later in the course? Was there as great a fascination with the characteristics of the levels of development in D2 groups ? Further study and more informa- tion is needed to answer these questions and settle the larger question: Is there a difference in the effect of a stages emphasis or a levels emphasis presentation of moral development theory? A Sample of Volunteers The learners and instructors involved in the field testing of Patterns in Moral Development were all volunteers . In many research projects volunteer subjects would be considered a liability. Patterns in Moral Development, however, was designed for a volunteer population. Most workers who staff the educational programs of the church are vol- unteers and their involvement in training is on a voluntary basis . In many cases the persons who would be instructors for the training of church workers would also be volunteers . Voluntary involvement in training is a characteristic shared by the sample of the research project described in this dissertation and the broader population they were chos en to represent . Testing Problems A major portion of the negative feedback from the instructional experiences was related to the pretest. Apparently many of the learners were not accustomed to taking tests . The idea of a pretest on which a 158 person was not expected to do well seemed to be new to many. One professional educator felt that for uneducated persons the pretest was a "put-down. " Two instructors reported that several persons in their groups dropped the course after the pretest. They implied, or specifically stated, that the test caused the persons to drop out. From all the groups there was a total of 17 persons who did not return to the class after taking the pretest . In an effort to make the pretest as short as possible, questions asking for specific biographical data were included only on the posttest. It was therefore not possible to compare the education, occupation, or age of those who completed only the pretest and those who finished both tests . The only data available for comparison was the pretest means of the two groups . As noted in chapter 4, the mean score of the pretest only group was slightly lower than that of the pretest/posttest group. The pretest was apparently most discouraging to those with more limited understandings of moral development. One learner suggested that the pretest should carry a note explaining that a high percentage of correct reSponses was not expected. She also felt that the instructor should be given more explicit instruc- tions for presenting the pretest to the class . Following these two sug- gestions would probably help to make the pretest less threatening. If a pretest is included as a learning activity in the refined instructional package it should be much shorter than the one used in the 159 field test. It should probably be suggested as an optional activity to be used at the discretion of the instructor. The experimental design for the evaluation of Patterns in Moral Development did not provide for testing the value of the pretest. But the feedback suggests that the negative affects apparently created by the test may outweigh its educational value. The number of persons who dropped the course after the pretest does not explain the difference between the number of pretests com- pleted-—194——and the 125 posttests returned. Negative feelings toward tests may have kept some from completing the posttest even though they attended the group study sessions . But other factors also influenced the returns . A special session had been suggested for the administration of the posttest. Some groups did not follow this procedure. Instead, they had the learners take the tests home with instructions to return them. One group which used the take-home approach had an average attendance of 18 . Five posttests were returned. Another group with an average attendance of 14 returned only two of the tests which were taken home. An additional eight posttests were received from these two groups when learners were contacted personally and asked for their reSponses. The delayed posttest session was suggested to allow for a time lapse between the last study session and the taking of the test. The time lapse was felt to be necessary to provide an Opportunity for 160 the learners to act on their new understandings from the final session. The posttest then asked for a report on actions taken. It was also believed that a delayed test would show what learning was being retained. If the posttest had been part of the final study session more tests might have been completed. The value of the additional data might have outweighed the values of the delayed test, but this is unlikely, judging from the significance levels obtained from the available data . Part of the mortality problem may have occurred because the researcher did not adequately communicate to the instructors the impor— tance of the posttest. It is also possible, however, that the return was the best that could be expected from a volunteer population at the close of a five-week program. Refinement of Instructional Materials In the Briggs model (Figure 4) the design of instruction does not end with performance evaluation. The findings from the evaluation become feedback to suggest refinements in the instructional materials. Patterns in Moral Development will be revised in the light of the feed- back from the field test. The Instructional PackQQLChosen for Refinement The instructional package which presented Kohlberg's findings in terms of levels rather than stages has been chosen for refinement. The data did not indicate that treatment D2 (the levels presentation) was superior to treatment D1 (the stages presentation). But neither did it 161 show that D1 was more effective than D2 . The presentation of Kohlberg's findings in D2 is shorter and less complex than the presentation in D1 . If the simpler presentation of a set of concepts is as effective as the more complex it seems logical to use the simpler form. The instructional package used in treatment D2 has therefore been chosen for refinement and broader use . General Comments on Refinement The specific evaluations of learning activities given by the instructors will be especially helpful when the materials are revised. In sessions one and two at least one learning activity will be added to help the learners discover practical applications for the concepts studied. Several of the instructors and learners indicated that more time was needed for the course. One group added an extra session to provide more discussion time. Most of the learning activities which were not used were omitted because there was not time to include them in the class session. Introducing learners to new concepts, helping them make those concepts their own, and finding ways of applying them in the situ- ations of life is a time-consuming business . The refined version of Patterns in Moral Development will encourage instructors to schedule six group study periods or be sure to have a full two-hour study session if only four periods are possible. Suggestions will be included for organizing the learning activities into six or four sessions . 162 Refinement of the Reading Text One instructor felt that few church workers would take time to read a textbook, especially one that was the least bit difficult. But the average amount of reading done by the learners was slightly more than three of the four chapters (Table 13) . The correlation between gain score and amount of reading done was significant (Table 13) . The read- ing text was used and was an important part of the instruction. The response vignettes in the reading text were included to see whether or not learners would find them helpful. The data indicated that they were appreciated by a large majority of the learners . The version of the reading text prepared for broader use will have the response vignettes included . Graphics will be added to the reading text to help draw the reader into it. Hopefully, artwork can be designed which will amplify some of the concepts . Conflicting data has been received on the level of difficulty of the reading materials and the course in general. Instructors reported negative feedback on the difficulty of the reading text. One instructor felt that if the materials were to be used widely by paraprofessionals in the educational program of the church they would have to be simplified. On the other hand, 49 . 5% of the learners rated the reading level as comfortable. Those who acknowledged that it was difficult for them but interesting enough that they would read it, made up 34. 5% of the group. The reading level was rated as very difficult by 8.4%. There may have 163 been a tendency for the learners to rate the reading level slightly lower than what they actually felt it to be. Some of the negative feedback may have come from persons who did not complete the posttest on which the reading level was rated. But the fact that 49 .5% said it was comfortable for them indicates that it was manageable for a good sector of the popu- lation. Since there does seem to be an audience which can handle the reading text, no major changes are planned to simplify it. This decision has been made with the awareness that persons with limited reading skills and marginal interest in values development education may not be attracted to Patterns in Moral Development. Additional Research Needed Two kinds of further research are indicated by the current study. There is need for the research and development of an additional instructional package and also for the construction of measuring instru— ments . An Instrument for General Use The instrument used in this research project was designed specifically for the evaluation of Patterns in Moral Development. It was not viewed as a tool for general usage. Often at the beginning of a workshop or seminar on moral development it would be helpful to have an instrument which would measure the learners' level of basic values development education knowledge. No such instrument is available. Patterns in Moral Development was designed to lead the 164 learners to a basic understanding of values development education. The measuring instrument was constructed from the same set of objectives and therefore could provide a starting place for the construction of an instrument to be used in varied moral education training situations . More extensive research on the instrument would be needed before it could be considered valid and reliable for general use in measuring a basic understanding of values development education. The negative feedback received from the testing experiences in this project should be examined further when designing an instrument for use with similar populations . An Additional Instructional Package As noted earlier, 60 .7% of the learners reported no special action taken as a result of the training course. Patterns in Moral Development introduced persons to several skills but did not provide the time for developing those skills . A followup training experience is needed in which learners are helped to operationalize the teacher and parent behaviors which facilitate moral development. Teachers and parents need assistance in knowing how to use the methods of the Group Investigation model of teaching in their classroom and home situations . They need practice if they are to reSpond in a non-directive fashion as suggested by Rogers . Many persons would welcome an Opportunity to develop their ability to support and guide disequilibrated young people without stifling their active constructing of moral values . 165 The new course could be designed as a companion to Patterns in Moral Development, building on the theoretical foundation which it lays . The Briggs model would be a helpful guide for the designing of instruction to foster skills which facilitate moral development. An Instrument to Measure Transfer The evaluation of a course designed to foster certain skills would require an instrument that could measure the degree to which the skills were operationalized. The development of such an instrument would be a worthy research project. The purpose of instruction in moral deve10pment education is to bring about changes in the way teachers and parents transact with children and young people. No instrument now exists to measure the effectiveness of moral deve10pment education programs in the area of the transfer of learning to the relationships of the home and the class- room. Responsible curriculum development for moral education calls for attention to behavioral changes, not just in the adult learning situation, but out where parents and teachers transact with children and young peOple in the events of life. Learners must be able to apply their new knowledge and skills in the real situations they face each day. An instrument is needed to measure whether or not teachers and parents are becoming better facilitators of the moral development of the children and young people with whom they live and work . APPENDICES APPENDIX A APPENDIX A Response Vignettes from Patterns in Moral Development In summary, heredity and maturation provide the potential for develop- ment . Experience and social interaction are needed to make the poten- tial a reality. The process of equilibration is the inner motor of devel- opment. Time Out! Let's pause a moment and look back. The young teen class listened quietly while Mark Spoke. In his hand he held a crown of thorns . He told his classmates how he had made the crown and how the thorns had jabbed his hands . It was obvious that he had been deeply affected by the experience. He told of a new apprecia— tion for Christ's suffering, which was the topic of their current unit of study. Would you say that Mark's learning and development were the result of: A. Heredity and maturation? B . Direct experience? C . Social interaction? D . Equilibration ? 3%********************************************************** Through a direct experience with a concrete branch of thorns Mark had gained new knowledge and feelings . "B" is likely the correct answer. The maturation process may also have been at work (A) preparing him for this experience. But the new insights might not have come without the experience. # # 1* Henrietta Mears stepped forward to address the large audience. Sparkling earrings dangled above her large fur stole. Pastor Stone slouched in his seat, disgusted. This would be a waste of his time. 166 167 No one who looked like that could have anything of Spiritual importance to say to him. In only a few moments, however, Pastor Stone was lis- tening with wrapped attention. He walked from that auditorium con- vinced that Henrietta Mears was a woman of God, even though she did not dress as he had thought Christian women should. Would you say that Pastor Stone's change of attitude was due to: A. Heredity and maturation? B. Direct experience? C . Social interaction? D . Equilibration ? ********************'k************************************** Was that a hard one? The pastor was involved in an experience and other persons were present. But probably the most important factor at work here Was the process of equilibration (D). Pastor Stone was faced with a conflict between how he believed "spiritual women " looked and what he was experiencing under the ministry of a woman who did not fit his picture. He had to resolve this con- flict. He did so by reconstructing his mental category for "spiritual women" so that Henrietta Mears would fit in. He had changed the structure of his thinking to restore equilibrium. 1* # # The chalkboard in the eighth grade class was filled with ideas which had come in response to the question, "How might the prodigal son's father have responded to the boy when he came home? " The seventh grade teacher who had taught this class the year before looked at the list in amazement. "You don't know how many times I asked them a 'how might' or 'what if' question, " he said. "And I always got a beautiful blank. " Assuming that both the seventh and eighth grade teachers are equally skilled in leading discussions with young teens , what would you say is responsible for the different responses ? A. Heredity and maturation? B . Direct experience ? C . Social interaction ? 168 D . Equilibration ? *********************************************************** Did you choose "A" ? Good. Probably the difference can be explained in terms of maturation. It seems that the brain must reach a certain level of maturity before it can handle abstract thinking, and consider the many possible outcomes of a situation. # it # The teacher had divided the class into groups of two. Each pair was asked to decide what they would tell a friend about Christianity that might influence the friend to be interested in becoming a Christian. lane and Sue were working together. "That's easy, " began Sue, "I would just tell them that everyone has sinned and that Sin will be punished unless it is forgiven. If they want to have a happy life and go to heaven some day they need to ask God to forgive their sins . " "Well, I was thinking of starting in another way, " replied Jane. "1 think that it is the idea of a God who loves us that causes people to be interested in Christianity. If a person really believes that God loves him, he will want to reSpond to that love. " What cause of development has a chance to work in this situation? A. Heredity and maturation? 8. Direct experience? C . Social interaction? D. Equilibration? *********************************************************** Do you think it is "C" and "D"? Right. Through social interaction Sue is being introduced to a reason for being a Christian which is a step higher than her own reason. She may never have thought much of God's love and a person's response to that love. The new con- cept introduced by Jane may cause Sue to see the missing dimen- sion in her thinking. To restore her sense of adequacy with her own understanding and restore her equilibrium she will have to do some reconstructing of her thinking. This would cause develop- ment. APPENDIX B APPENDIX B Sample from Leader's Guide for Patterns in Moral Development INTROD UCTION Patterns in Moral Development has been designed for lay workers in the educational program of the church. It presents a certain way of under- standing how learning and development take place. The way of under- standing is technically called the developmental perSpective. In this leader's guide you will find Session plans and learning activities which are in tune with the view of learning and development that is being explored . Whenever we are teaching educational concepts we are wise to "practice what we preach. " Because we believe that learners must be involved in the construction of their own understandings, each session will include small and large group discussion activities . The learners will be sharing and refining their ideas . Learning from other class members as well as the teacher is also important. The group discussions give opportunity for this . But new concepts are not constructed out of nothing. Therefore, input is planned for also. The reading material is a major source of input. Encourage the participants to read all four chapters of Patterns in Moral Development. The slide presentations used in three of the sessions will provide a review of the ideas studied in the reading materials . In session three you will be leading your group in a discussion of the components which are essential if an atmosphere is to be healthy for moral development. It will be important that each class session dem- onstrates these components . Be careful to Show respect for your learners and their ideas . Be sure that everyone has a sense of belong- ing and is treated with consideration. Handle questions in a way that will foster openness . Provide your learners with a good model of how they should work with their students . Let me suggest that you read Patterns in Moral Develgment in its entirety before beginning to prepare for the first session. Then study each chapter more thoroughly prior to each group meeting. In this packet you will find copies of the worksheets to be used, masters for making tranSparencies or posters, and step-by-step guidance for the group sessions . May the exploration you lead be an exciting one. 169 170 Session One—~The Pattern of Moral Development Goals--To guide learners as they: Explore the pattern of development in moral reasoning which Kohl- berg has described. Differentiate between the content and structure of moral judgments . Identify basic characteristics of the three levels of moral reasoning. The Session at a Glance l . Slide presentation--the pattern of moral development. 2 . Discussion--questions raised by the Slide presentation and reading. 3 . Worksheet--completion and discussion. Differentiating between content and structure . Identifying basic characteristics of the levels of moral develop- ment. 4 . Project Sharing . Your Preparation Study thoroughly chapter one of Patterns in Moral Development . Do the projects suggested at the end of the chapter. Preview the slide presen- tation. All of these activities will help you become familiar with the ideas and feel comfortable about leading a discussion of them. If you have an overhead projector available, prepare transparencies from sheets A, B, and C in your packet. If you do not have an overhead, the diagrams could be drawn on posterboard or a chalkboard. Before the group gathers , check out the sound system for the slide/tape presentation. Be sure that the tape can be heard well throughout the meeting room. Listening to a tape that cannot be heard is very frus- trating. The Group Session AS class members arrive, be available to chat about the events of the day. In each session endeavor to create a warm, relaxed atmosphere. Let each person sense that he or she is important to you, not just as a class member, but as a person. 1 7 1 Slide Pres entation The first activity of the session will be the slide presentation. Use just the first section of the slide set--frames 1—__. Before showing the slides ask the students to jot down any questions that come to their minds during the presentation. Discussion After the group has seen the slides lead them in a discussion of their questions . You need not feel that you must answer all the questions . Turn them back to the group and let all the learners take part in coming up with the answers . Those who have read chapter one of Patterns in Moral Development will have helpful insights to offer. While group members are sharing their thoughts you will have time to consider the question, recall what you have studied, and prepare to make your con- tribution to the discussion. (And remember, if there is a major question which the group cannot satisfactorily resolve, call me. I will provide the piece that is apparently missing in the materials .) The diagrams on sheets A and B and the following information may be helpful during the discussion period. Introduce the diagrams as ques- tions are raised which relate to them. You may wish to present them even if there are no questions that directly pertain to them. The question is often asked, "What difference does Christian experi- ence--a relationship with God--make in the process of moral develop- ment?" The "clamshell" diagram (Sheet A) will help us look at this . The top half of the clamshell represents God's design for man's devel- 0pment. God has created man to develop slowly through all the levels of His developmental design. He even chose to have His Son experi- ence this same process , and He is the example of all that we were meant to be. The goal of development was to be godlikeness and perfect fellowship with God. The lower half of the clamshell represents development as we see it in fallen, unregenerate man. Since man was made in the image of God, he still bears that image and reflects the design which God created, though that design may be distorted by sin. Fallen man sets his own goal for development--his best view of man. Unregenerated persons do develop morally, some to quite high levels . We may meet God in any of the three levels of development. We will understand God and His seeking love with the eye of the level at which He finds us . When we respond to God in conversion we move into a new plane of living with new goals . We move from the lower plane of 172 the diagram to the upper. If we meet Christ while we are working through level two in our moral development, we will become a level two Christian and continue with the process of developing. Becoming a Christian does not automatically cause us to be suddenly advanced in moral reasoning. We need to be involved in the experiences and struggles that cause development. However, Christians who are responding to the leadership and instruction of the Holy Spirit and who have a Christian community which facilitates moral development should be constantly on the move, growing and developing. Diagram B highlights one of the characteristics of the levels of moral development that we have traced, one's view of the source of authority. The diagram adds another factor, the elements which liberate one from each level and allow for movement into the next. In level I the source of authority is Self-interest--avoiding pain and punishment and gaining reward and pleasure. The child responds to the external demands placed upon him but for the self-centered reasons mentioned above. As he tries to avoid punishment and gain reward he is going through the motions of obedience and through this process is learning what obedience is . When he comes to the point of seeing that obedience to external standards is a good way to know how to live and be competent he is liberated from level I and moves on into level II. At level 11 persons live by external standards . As they live by those standards they have the opportunity to grow in their understanding of them. Their experience with the standards teaches them that they can trust the source of those standards . As one grasps the principles out of which standards grow and in trust accepts those principles as his own he is liberated from level II and released to go on growing and developing at level III. Obedience and trust run all the way through the process of development. But the dominance of obedience over dis- obedience is necessary for level II. The dominance of trust over distrust leads to level III. It will be important to help the learners see why the sequence of devel- opment is always the same. Each level of development is essential preparation for the next. We do not discard one level for another. In the process of moving from one level to the next we refine, reorganize, and add new dimensions to our reasoning. We then incorporate it into the new reasoning of the new level. A person is always capable of using reasoning that is a part of a level which he has worked through. 173 Worksheet Now distribute worksheet 1. Give the class about three minutes to complete the top half of the page. They can do this individually. For each of the four examples ask the class whether they marked it content or structure. In each case ask why they answered as they did. State- ments 2 and 4 indicate Structure because they give the reason for the judgment. The others are strictly content statements . Divide the class into pairs and give them about five to ten minutes to discuss the statements on the bottom of worksheet 1 . They are to decide what level of moral reasoning is represented by each statement. When most of the pairs have completed their work bring the total group back together. For each of the five items ask: What level of moral reasoning do you think is being used in this illustration? Be sure to have the reSpondents tell why they chose the level they did. Listen carefully to the rationale the learners give for their choices . If their reasons Show a correct understanding of the characteristics of the levels give credit for this . When people read snatches of conversation such as are on the worksheet they often read into the statement more than what is there. The point of this exercise is to help the group think about the characteristics of the levels of moral development and not simply to have everyone choose the right answers . Be careful not to put students down when they do make a mistake . If a comment indicates a misunderstanding you might respond with, "Let's look at that again. " Or, "What did some of the other groups do with that item? " Or, "Let's take a minute for review. What were the char- acteristics of level .. . . ?" Or some other appropriate but non- threatening response. Use the sheet C grid to record the key characteristics that come out in the discussion. The grid indicates that each of the items on the work- sheet are designed to focus on a particular concept which changes as one develops—-one's view of intention, how right and wrong are defined, etc . After a statement has been classified as to its level, have the group tell how that concept would be understood at the other two levels . The following are some of the ideas that should come out in the discus- sion. 1. Intentions This is an example of level II. The Speaker considers intentions in judging right and wrong. Since the Speaker is most likely a child or teenager level III reasoning would not be in use yet . Level I--would not be aware of the need for considering intentions . 174 Level III-—would also consider intentions . At level 111 this consid- eration is balanced with a concern for justice. Level III reason- ing Should not be expected before the mid twenties . 2 . Definition of right and wrong This is level I thinking. Wrong is what I am punished for. Right is the commands of adults or what works out to my advantage. Level II--right is what good people do or obeying rules . Wrong is what good pe0ple do not do or disobeying the law. Level III--right is living by moral principles . Wrong is injustice or violating moral principles . 3 . Stimulus to right actions The statement represents level III thinking. The person is committed to principles . To be true to himself he must live by those prin- ciples . Level II--winning the approval of important persons and groups and the desire to do one's duty to society stimulate to right action. Level I--to avoid punishment and gain reward one will do right. 4 . Source of authority This is level II reasoning. External standards are the source of authority. Level I--self—interest is the source of authority. Level III--the source of authority is internal principles . These principles are internalized through experience with the external standards of level II. 5. Perspectivism Level III is illustrated on the worksheet. The person is considering the perspective of minorities and the powerless . Level II--persons can understand the feelings and viewpoints of family, friends, and one's own society. Level I--the person is able to take the perspective of others in situations which have been experienced. Project Sharing Close the session by letting the class members share their discoveries from working on the projects at the end of chapter one. Several will want to tell of the responses they got from children. Ask: What impressed you most in the Bible study? The answers to "e" are "content" and "structure. " Encourage the learners to read chapter two and do the projects from that chapter before the next class session. Ir--—: _ L ::.-..- -v-A APPENDIX C APPENDIX C Measuring Instrument Now . . . What Do You Think? Date: Time: Name Church 1. What would you say is meant by the term "moral development" ? a . Learning the right way to act. b. The process by which society gives standards to a person. c . Changes in the quality of moral reasoning. 2 . When explaining how moral development takes place, what would you say? a . Natural processes of maturation make moral development possible but do not guarantee that it will take place. b. Moral development takes place naturally and automatically as a person matures . ' c . Moral development depends mostly on forces outside the person. 3 . In regard to the period of life in which moral development occurs, what do you believe? a. Most moral development has taken place by the age of 7. Moral development is a lifelong process with major changes at certain ages . Since individuals are so different, there are no predictable patterns . b. c 4 . In what important way, if any, do the moral judgments of children differ from the moral judgments of adults . a. The child's judgment is not significantly different from the adult' 5 . b. The child makes moral decisions in fewer situations than the adult; this is the most important difference in their moral judgments . c . The most important difference between the moral judgments of children and adults is the difference in the kind of reason- ing they use. 5 . When the child first begins to make moral judgments he believes that 175 10. 11. 176 an action is fair if: a . It provides equal treatment for all those involved. b. It makes allowance for the differences in the abilities and needs of those involved. c . It is commanded by an adult. The primary age child (grades 1-3) believes that "right" is: a . What works out best for him or her. b. What works out best for the most people. c . Doing what God says . What might a person say that would indicate his or her level of moral development ? a . Tell of moral actions taken. b. Give reasons for moral actions or judgments . c . State what he or she believes is right or wrong. Which of the following statements gives you a clue to the person's level of moral development. a. "I am not going to take a cookie because if I do Mommy will spank me. " b. "This afternoon I went to the candy store and paid for the ice cream bar I stole last week. " c. "I believe it is wrong to cheat on a test and to copy your friend's homework. " d . All of the above. e. None of the above. A person's social contacts are important for his moral development. What else is necessary for moral development? a. Physical and mental maturation, experience, the resolution of real moral conflicts (equilibration). b. Consistent discipline, sound teaching, known boundaries. 0 . Physical and mental maturity, sound teaching, known bound- aries . The teacher or parent concerned about the child's moral development vvill: a . Encourage questioning . b. Give him moral principles which he can use when he bumps into moral conflict . c . Keep him from as many conflicting moral views as possible until at least the late teen years . In planning for moral development the teacher or parent should estab- lish with and among learners relationships characterized by: a. Mutual respect, Openness, just treatment for all. 12. 13. 14. b. C. 177 Respect for authority, willingness to learn, just treatment for all. Freedom from restraint, respect for the learners, openness . In the middle of the Sunday school class Tim announced "I don't see anything wrong with telling a lie if you aren't really hurting somebody." Which teacher reSponse do you think is best? a. b. "Why Tim, you know better than that. Lying always hurts someone and is always wrong." "Quite a few people think that way. But the Ten Command- ments say 'Thou shalt not bear false witness .' And let's remember, God gave us these laws of living because He knows what is best for us--what will make us happiest. " "That is an idea many people hold. Let's talk about it. Tell me a little more. Why do you think that it is all right to lie if nobody gets hurt?" In your effort to help your students develop morally which of the following things have you done in the last month. Check all that apply. a. b. c. d. e Tried to stimulate the development of reasoning abilities . Shared important moral principles with them. Encouraged them to question their thinking . Encouraged them to question accepted standards . Provided them with experiences which introduced them to new perspectives . Engaged them in group discussion of the reasons for various moral actions . Listened to the questions students had related to moral judgments . Suggested sources for students to explore in their search for the answers to questions about moral standards and judgments . Other Which of the following things have you done most of in the last Check only one. Tried to stimulate the development of reasoning abilities . Shared important moral principles with them. Encouraged them to question their thinking . Encouraged them to question accepted standards . Provided them with experiences which introduced them to new perspectives . Engaged them in group discussion of the reasons for various moral choices . Listened to the questions students had related to moral judgments . 15. 16. i. 178 Suggested sources for students to explore in their search for the answers to questions about moral standards and judgments . Other The teacher who understands moral development will: a. b. C. Take the time to identify the level or stage of moral devel- opment at which her students are operating. Be eager to identify a person's level or stage of moral development . Be familiar with the pattern of development and the probable characteristics of the moral reasoning of persons the age of his or her students , but will not be concerned about pin- pointing the level or stage of development of each student. Listen to three teachers describe their understanding of moral devel- opment . By each sentence mark a plus (+) if it indicates a good understanding or a minus (-) if it is a poor understanding. a. (Teacher A) "Since my second graders think concretely, our discussions focus on the concrete aspects of moral judg- ment. I encourage the children to discuss why they think a person should or should not act in certain ways . As they share their ideas they have the opportunity to exercise the level of moral reasoning they are using now. They are also introduced to higher levels of reasoning used by other children and this stimulates development as they are ready. " (Teacher B) "Most of my fourth grade students are advanced in level one in moral development. When I share ideas with them I always use reasoning just beyond them . During discussion periods I give more encouragement to students using more advanced reasoning than to those using level one because I want other students to hear the higher form of reasoning. Students are attracted to reasoning which is just beyond them. This stimulates development." (Teacher C) "Frankly, I'm not concerned about moral reasoning. Moral action is what I'm after. My goal is to teach my students to know what is right and what is wrong. " 17. 18. 19. 20. 179 With which of the following statements do you agree most fully? a. Since moral development is so important teachers and parents should continually work to Speed up that develop- ment. A child's moral tendencies are establiShed by the time he is seven. There is little teachers can do to change those tendencies as he grows older. Teachers and parents should patiently work with the natural process of moral development. Trying to push development often is not helpful. Mark a plus (+) by each statement which you think is true and a minus (-) by those which are false. 6. ‘0.- '0 Level I and level II moral reasoning represent distorted understandings which should be corrected before the ideas take root . The moral reasoning of level I and level II used by children and youth is inadequate but must be tolerated until a per- son reaches the level of maturity that makes level III reasoning possible. Level I reasoning for the child and level II reasoning for the teenager are valid expressions of their views of right, wrong, and justice. Level I and level II reasoning is important because under— standing the concepts of one level of reasoning is impor— tant preparation for discovering and understanding moral reasoning for the next higher level. Teachers and parents who are most effective in helping children and youth develop morally are those who act as: 3. O” O 0.. ('D P'h o IO :3" Counselor Consultant Source of knowledge Friendly critic Giver of moral values Sounding board Authority in control Fellow learner The atmosphere in which children and youth live is important because: a. .0 I?“ They are always learning something, though it may not be what the adult intended to teach. The things they learn informally often have a greater impact on them than what they learn as a result of lessons planned by adults . Both of the above. 21. 22. 23. 24. 180 The teacher or parent who controls behavior mainly through the use of authority: a. b. C. Facilitates moral development by teaching reSpect for authority. Inhibits moral development by prolonging unthinking dependence on the part of the child or youth. Is as effective in facilitating moral development as the person who uses a democratic approach for deciding what rules will govern the home or class . In an atmosphere of openness where students feel free to express their views teachers are able to learn Of the questions and struggles students are experiencing. Another result of openness is that: a. C. As students share their ideas many of them hear moral reasoning of a level higher than their own, are attracted by it, and stimulated to develop. As students share their ideas the more highly developed students will be forced to talk about lower level moral reasoning; if they are attracted by it, they will be inhibited in their development . Both "a" and "b" are likely to occur. With which of the following statements do you agree most strongly? a. The business of the church and home is to help children and youth develop their values and moral reasoning abilities . They should leave to the schools the task of developing general thinking skills . Thinking abilities develop as the natural result of matura- tion. Parents and teachers in the church should, therefore, focus their efforts on facilitating the development of moral reasoning because it does not develop naturally. Parents and teachers in the church should be concerned about the deve10pment of thinking abilities because the same mental abilities are used to solve mathematical problems , decide what is right or wrong, and to understand God. What experience will facilitate moral development? (Mark all that you think apply.) a. Experiences that give meaning to words such as "justice" and "love." Experiences that teach children to obey authorities without questioning . Experiences that allow persons to discover points of view that are different from their own. Associating mainly with persons who have similar values and moral standards . 25. 26. 181 e . Opportunities to perform the role of another person. f. Experiences in which the person discovers the inadequacies of his own moral reasoning. g. Involvement in making rules . h. Having responsibilities to fulfill. 1. Experiences in which the child or youth practices telling what action is right in specific situations . Mark each of the actions which will facilitate the moral develop- ment of a young person who is struggling with moral questions . a. Listen carefully to the young person's questions . b. Tell the young person what he or she ought to do . c . Be sure that you have a scriptural basis for what you tell the young person to do. d. Raise other related questions to be considered. Suggest sources of helpful information. Introduce the young person to ideas to consider in the search for answers . 9. Keep in touch with the young person throughout his or her search . Explore together some passages of scripture in which the youth can find helpful insights . . Since it is important for the young person to discover his own answers the adult will be careful never to direct the thinking of the youth. 00 (H. 1:. 1 Mark the statements with which you agree . Faith must be freely chosen. b. Persons must have an understanding of the reasons behind moral standards in order to apply them in our complex world. c . Teachers and parents must take the risk of letting young people search for and find their answers to questions of faith and morality. d. Adults should support and assist the young person as he or she tries to construct a personal understanding of what is just. e. Christian adults are responsible for designing an educa— tional program which gives Christian values and moral standards to the young. f. Christian adults Should provide their youth with an environ- ment as free as possible from conflicting beliefs and standards . 182 General information to help evaluate the materials . 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. Age: a. 14-19 h. 20-35 c. 36-60 d. 61 and over Sex a Male Female Formal education: a. up to 11 years b. 12 years c. 13—15 years d. 16 years e. 17 years or more Occupation Which group sessions did you attend: a . Pretest session b. Study session 1 c. Study session 2 d. Study session 3 e. Study session 4 f. Posttest session Which chapters of Patterns in Moral Development have you read? a . Chapter 1 b. Chapter 2 c . Chapter 3 d. Chapter 4 Which of the chapters did you read prior to the group session in which it was discussed? a . Chapter 1 b. Chapter 2 c . Chapter 3 d. Chapter 4 Which of the projects did you do? Chapter 1 a . Talked to children about cup breaking stories . b. Worked on the Moral Acts/ Moral Reasons Bible study from Matthew 5 and 6 . 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 183 Chapter 2 a. Made a special point of listening to children and engaging them in conversation. b. Did the large "3" small "7" experiment with two or more children. c . Completed the study of Paul's prayers suggested in chapter 2 . Chapter 3 a. Made definite plans to improve the atmOSphere of your class or home. b. Worked through the Ephesians 4 Bible study. Chapter 4 a . Took inventory of what you have done to facilitate the devel- opment of your students (or children in the home). b. Made Specific plans to do something to facilitate the moral development of a particular person or group. c . Worked through the Bible study on Barnabas . What was the most important thing you learned in this training course? What actions, if any, have you taken as a result of studying Patterns in Moral Development? What important questions , if any, did this training course leave unanswered? Would you say that the reading in Patterns in Moral Development was: a . Very difficult b. Difficult but interesting enough that I wanted to read it. c . A comfortable reading level. d. Too simple. Did you find the "Time Out" sections helpful? a. yes b. no What did you like most about the class sessions you attended? BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Briggs , Leslie J. Handbook of Procedures for the Desigpof Instruction. n.p.: American Institutes for Research, 1970. 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Piaget, Jean. Six Psychological Studies . Translated by Anita Tenzer. Translation edited by David Elkind. New York: Vintage Books, 19 67 . Piaget, Jean. The Moral Judgment of the Child. Translated by Marjorie Gabain. New York: Free Press, 1965. Piaget, Jean. The Origins of Intelligence in Children. Translated by Margaret Cook. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. , 19 52 . Piaget, Jean, and Inhelder, Barbel. The Psychology of the Child. Translated by Helen Weaver. New York: Basic Books , Inc . , 19 69 . Purpel, David E. , and Belanger, Maurice, eds . Curriculum and the ._: Cultural Revolution. Berkeley, Cal.: McCutchan Publishing Corporation, 1972 . Richards , Lawrence 0. A Theologyiof Christian Education. Grand - Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House, 1975. Rogers, Carl R. Client Centered Therapy. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1957. 186 Stewart, John S . "Toward a Theory for Values Development Education. " Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 19 74 . 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