DIFFUSION OF EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIONS IN THE ~ - GOVERNMENT SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THAILAND Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY FREDRIC J. MORTIMORE' 1968. _ _—me” I This is to certify that the thesis entitled DIFFUSION OF EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIONS IN THE GOVERNMENT SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THAILAND presented by Fredric J. Mortimore has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree inEdUlCfltiOU flag—We M aim- nrofessor Date May 13, 1968 0-169 .|.l l I l E l Tlr",, ABSTRACT DIFFUSION OF EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIONS IN THE GOVERNMENT SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THAILAND by Fredric J. Mortimore This study was designed: 1. to determine how decisions to adOpt or reject new educa— tional practices for utilization in Thai government secon- dary schools are made by officials in the Ministry of Education. to determine how educational innovations are diffused to, and why they are adOpted or rejected by, government secon- dary school teachers in Thailand. to determine the degree of beneficiality perceived by Thai government secondary school teachers to be derived from adoption of selected innovations. to delineate those personal, interpersonal or perceptual variables—-if any-~which can be identified as Contributing to or inhibiting receptivity to change of government secon- dary school teachers in Thailand. to formulate for consideration by change agents and scholars recommendations leading to improvement in the ability of Thailand's government secondary education system to absorb, diffuse, and adopt new educational practices. An attempt is made to test more than 150 hypotheses predicting directional relationships between fifty independent and three dependent -1- -2- variables. The former are grouped under the following headings: (1) demographic variables; (2) perceptual variables; (3) communica- tion variables; (4) psychological and personality variables. The three dependent variables are: (1) time of awareness; (2) time of adoption; (3) perceived beneficiality of the innovations. Pearsonian product-moment correlation coefficients and least- squares delete analyses were employed to test the predicted relation— ships between independent and dependent variables. Pre—coded questionnaires were administered to 629 government secondary school teachers, employed by 38 schools in 32 Provinces. Thirty-two secondary school principals and 62 Provincial Education Officers also completed questionnaires, although the data derived therefrom are not analyzed or reported. Interviews were conducted with numerous Ministry of Education officials in Bangkok and at Pro- vincial Education Offices; the information derived from interviews constitutes the basis of a chapter dealing with "Social Norms and Bureaucratic Management of Education in Thailand." The following ten innovations were selected for study: (1) use of Peace Corps Volunteers as teachers; (2) teaching of handicrafts; (3) formation of Parent-Teacher Associations; (4) employment of guid- ance counseling; (5) organization of the school into departments; (6) use of slide projectors and slides; (7) coeducational organiza- tion; (8) use of objective tests; (9) employment of class discussion; (10) assignment of reading in library books. Seventeen of the fifty independent variables were found to -3- correlate significantly with awareness at the 5 per cent confi- dence level. Twenty of the fifty independent variables were found to correlate significantly with adoption at the 5 per cent confi- dence level. Thirty of the fifty independent variables were found to correlate significantly with perceived beneficiality of innova- tions at the 5 per cent confidence level. DIFFUSION OF EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIONS IN THE GOVERNMENT SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THAILAND BY Fredric J. Mortimore A Dissertation Submitted to . Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1968 PREFACE To a greater extent than is perhaps normally true of doctoral re- search projects, that reported herein reflects the effort of not one individual but the interest and assistance of numerous dedicated people. To the chairman of my guidance committee, Dr. Cole 3. Brembeck, I would like to express my most heartfelt appreciation for the infinite patience he has shown in the face of frustrations that only those who have participated in cross-cultural research projects can fully appre- ciate; his counsel and advice have proven invaluable. The pervasive influence upon this project of Dr. Everett M. Rogers will become immediately apparent to any who may chance to read this dissertation; the imprint of his effort to expand our knowledge of those factors which combine to constitute the diffusion phenomenon appears on every page. There are those men who by dint of character, personality, and insight seem to provide just exactly that material assistance or moral support demanded by time and circumstance; such an individual is Dr. Donald Leu, and to him I extend my especially wanm thanks. Without the unstinting support in Thailand of Dr. Raymond N. Hatch, Chief-of-Party, Michigan State University Advisory Group, this project might not have extended far beyond Don Muang Airport. He also knows, I am sure, how much I have valued his continuing friendship over -11- a.number of years. Drs. David K. Heenan and Stanley P. wronski, also members of the M;S.U. Advisory Group in Bangkok gave this project much- needed consideration at crucial junctions in the data-gathering pro- cess. My Thai counterpart, Muangchai Tajaroensuk, deserves special praise for the generally patient understanding he extended a "farong" who, at one time or another, unwittingly violated nearly every canon of good taste valued by his countrymen. Dr. Nan Lin, Mr. Richard Joyce, and Mr. Donald Swartz at various times during the course of this project served as both my on-campus con- tacts and suppliers of technical service, without either of which the research could not have continued; they have my most profound apprecih- tion. Last, but not least, I would like to extend my appreciation to those Thai teachers, school principals, Changwad Education Officers, and other government officials whose cOOperation made this project possible in a most basic sense. Dr. Kaw Swasdi Panish, Director of the Educational Planning Office, Mflnistry of Education, was especially kind. Financial support for this research project was provided in large measure under the Agency for International Development--Michigan State University Educational Planning Contract. Additional support was derived from a grant made by the Inter-University Research Program in Institution Building. -iii- TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PREFACE O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O is 1.. LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 0 Vi. LIST OF FIGURES AND GRAPHS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii Chapter I 0 THE PRO ELEM O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1 Need Purpose Hypothesis Theory Overview II. REVIEW OF THE DIFFUSION LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . 10 Innovation Characteristics and Diffusion Communication and Diffusion Social System and Diffusion Time and Diffusion Personal Characteristics and Diffusion Information Sources and Diffusion Summary III. SOCIAL NORMS, BUREAUCRATIC SUB-CULTURAL VALUES, AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION IN THAILAND . . . . . 25 Social Norms and Bureaucratic Behavior Organizational and Managerial Impediments to Decision-Making and Diffusion of Innovations Communication and Communication Feedback Channels IV. RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION . . . . . . . . . . 75 Research Design Sampling Procedures and Selection of Sample Schools Instrumentation Translation of Questionnaires Field procedures Analysis -iv- Page Chapter v 0 ANALYSIS OF DATA 0 O O O O O O 0 O O O 0 O O O O O O 1- 1 6 Testing of Hypotheses Non-Correlational Data Summary VI 0 CONCLUSION O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1 5 6 Probable Short-Range Influences on, and Trends in Thai Government Secondary Education Probably Longer-Range Influences on, and Trends in Thai Government Secondary Education Recommendations for Improving the Ability of Thai Educators to Ingest and Diffuse Innovations Need for Additional Research OUTLINE MAP OF THAILAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 . . 185 LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX A: TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE INSTRUMENT . . . . . . . . . . . 192 -v- LIST OF TABLES Table Page I. Classification of Innovations Studied by Thailand Diffusion Research Project . . . . . . . 89 II. Total and Regional Figures for Government Secon- dary Academic Schools in Thailand . . . . . . . 112 III. Total and Regional Figures for Sample Schools . . 113 IV. List of Sample Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 V. Predicted and Obtained Relationships between Independent and Dependent Variables . . . . . . 119 VI. Rank-Order of Independent Variables, Explaining Variance in Dependent Variables as Provided by Least-Square Delete Analysis . . . . . . . . 131 ___-A_‘___—— Figure or Graph 1. 10. 11. LIST OF FIGURES AND GRAPES Lin Innovation Dissemination and Diffusion MOdel O O I O I O O C 0 O O O O I I O O O O O O Paradigm of Innovation Adoption by Government Secondary School Teachers in Thailand . . . . . Paradigm of the Adoption of Innovations by An Individual within the Social System . . . . Organization of the Ministry of Education . . . . Organization of the Department of Educational Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graph Indicating Responses to an Innovation by 629 Thai Secondary School Teachers: Class Discussion Method . . . . . . . . . . . . Graph Indicating Responses to an Innovation by 629 Thai Secondary School Teachers: Objective Tests 0 O O O I O O O O O 0 O O O 0 Graph Indicating Responses to an Innovation by 629 Thai Secondary School Teachers: Assignments in Library Books . . . . . . . . . Responses to Ten Innovations by 629 Thai Secon- dary School Teachers: Percentage Aware of Use of Innovations in Thai Schools . . . . . . . . Responses to Ten Innovations by 629 Thai Secon- dary School Teachers: Reported Use of Innovations in Thai Schools . . . . . . . . . . Responses to Ten Innovations by 629 Thai Secon- dary School Teachers: Percentage Rating the Innovations as "Very Beneficial" . . . . . . . -Vii- Page 11 23 24 33 54 135 136 137 140 143 145 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM The government of Thailand--in cooperation with representa- tives of other" countries and international agencies--has committed itself to accelerating, through a variety of means, the political, social and economic modernization of that Kingdom. The vigor with which national develOpment can be pursued depends in large measure upon the effectiveness and efficiency of Thailand's educational sys- tem in performing its assigned task of providing trained manpower; without an efficacious educational enterprise, it is unlikely that political, social and economic modernization can be either rapidly accomplished or long sustained. Thai and foreign personnel committed to this developmental task are attempting to create an educational system capable, among other things, of providing for the Kingdom's present and future need for scientists, technicians and other high-level manpower; this institu- tion-building effort must, of necessity, concern itself with change-- the diffusion and adoption of those educational innovations which will both permit expansion in the number of those being educated and insure improvement in the political, social and economic utility of the educa- tion provided. It has become increasingly apparent that identification -1- -2- and measurement of those factors which either impede or enhance the diffusion and adaption of educational innovations in Thailand are im- perative if indigenous and foreign personnel engaged in institution building are to make the maximum contribution of which they are cap— able. There can be no doubt, however, that if dramatic improvements are to be made in existing education in Thailand, new methodologies must be communicated throughout the system and be adopted by its com- ponent members and agencies; the traditional system cannot adequately serve modern needs. What is true for Thailand is, of course, true for other develop- ingiggg developed nations; Mort (1946: 199-200) has observed that ". . . The average American school lags 25 years behind the best prac- tice," and while Brickell (1961) reports that.considerable educational experimentation has characterized the post-Sputnik era, there can be little doubt that utilization of improved educational technology in the United States and other developed countries lags far behind re- search and develOpment. So of the world-wide need for better and more complete informa- tion concerning the diffusion process there can be no question; what remains is the necessity to gather additional data, test stated hypo- theses and correlate the findings from various regions of the world in order to generate, if possible, cross-culturally applicable methods of accelerating the diffusion process. Pugpose The five-fold purpose of the research project herein reported flows directly from the needs alluded to above: -3- To determine how decisions to adopt or reject new educa- tional practices (innovations) for utilization in Thai government secondary schools are made by officials in the Ministry of Education. This process entails determination of the origins of educational innovations, their sponsorship, and the form and channel of their eventual communication to ”using" persons (teachers) or agencies (schools). To determine how educational innovations are diffused to, and why they are adopted or rejected by, Thai government secondary school teachers. Special emphasis has been placed upon a determination of the influence exerted by selected demographic, sociometric, communication, technical and personality variables. To determine the degree of beneficiality perceived by Thai government secondary school teachers to be derived from adoption of selected innovations. An attempt will be made to assess what influence, if any, beneficiality perceived by teachers as resulting from adOption has upon their per- sonal ad0ption decisions. To delineate those personal, interpersonal, and/or percep- tual variables-—if any--which can be identified as contri- buting to or inhibiting receptivity to change by Thai gov- ernment secondary school teachers. To formulate for consideration by change agents and scholars recommendations leading to improvement in the ability of -4- Thailand's government secondary education system to ab- sorb, diffuse and adOpt new educational practices. Hypothesis Very broadly stated, it is hypothesized that--among Thai govern- ment secondary school teachers-~a patterned relationship will be found to exist between awareness time, adoption time and benefi- ciality perceived as deriving from adOption of selected innovations (dependent variables), on the one hand, and demographic, sociometric, communication, technical and personality considerations (independent variables), on the other.1 If such patterned and therefore predic- table relationships are found to exist, then the implications for future control of diffusion and adoption by change agents in Thai- land become manifest; manipulation of the environment within which awareness of innovations, adoption of innovations, and personal commitment to innovativeness become at least theoretically possible. Coupled with the findings of other studies--conducted in different settings-—it is to be h0ped that the results of this research will contribute in some small way to development of a more comprehensive and more useful theory of social change than that with which we must now be content. Theory Commenting upon the adequacy of theoretical constructs with 1A detailed statement of statistically testable hypotheses will be found in tabular form in Chapter 5, ”Analysis of Results." -5- which both scholars and change agents must currently work, Rogers (1962) has observed that: Many of the findings are organized around a series of generalizations which summarize the evidence available about the relationships between two or more concepts. Truth claims have been established for these generalizations, yet they seldom can be considered to be principles until much more research is completed. As such, the generalizations range some- where between hypotheses and principles. (p. 7). Theories of diffusion sufficiently broad and inclusive both to explain and predict the phenomena thus depicted would, of neces- sity, draw elements from--among others--the academic disciplines of communication, individual and social psychology, sociology and anthropology; a satisfactory theory of diffusion would, in short, synthesize insights gleaned from fields designated as the "behavioral sciences." Few such broad generalizations, or theories, have as yet been formulated, but theory building is, above all, a process of suc- cessive approximations, and the result of past diffusion research has been to enhance our ability to make ever more encompassing statements about the nature of this phenomenon. One method of classifying the body of generalizations which have been formulated to explain and predict the phenomenon of dif- fusion is represented by what Rogers 1(l962:19) has termed the es- sential elements in analysis of diffusion; these are "(1) the inno- vation, and (2) its communication from one indihidual to another, (3) in a social system, (4) over time." Generalizations reported by Rogers (resulting from a survey of the research literature) under these several headings include: (1) The Innovation: As perceived by members of the social system, its rate of adoption is affected by: (2) Its (a) (b) (C) (d) (e) The relative advantage of a new idea; The compatibility of a new idea; The complexity of an innovation; The divisibility of an innovation; relatively earlier adopters may perceive divisibility as more important than do later adopters; The communicability of an innovation communication from one individual to another: (a) (b) (C) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) Impersonal information sources are most important at the awareness stage, and personal sources are most important at the evaluation stage in the adoption process. Cosmopolite information sources are most important at the awareness stage, and the localite information sources are most im- portant at the evaluation stage. There is little evidence that lack of knowledge about innovations actually delays their adoption. Awareness occurs at a more rapid rate than does adoption. Impersonal sources of information are more important than personal sources for rela- tively earlier adopters of innovations than for later adopters. Cosmopolite sources of information are more important than localite sources for relatively earlier adopters of innovations than for later adopters. Earlier adopters utilize information sources that are in closer contact with the origin of new ideas than do later adopters. Earlier adopters utilize a greater number of different information sources than do later adopters. Personal influence from peers is most impor- tant at the evaluation stage in the adoption process and less important at other stages. The extent of promotional efforts by change agents is directly related to the rate of adoption of an innovation. Change agents have more communication with higher-status than with lower-status members of a social system. (3) Igfa (a) (b) (C) (d) (e) (f) (a) social system: Innovativeness of individuals is related to a modern rather than to a traditional orientation. An individual's innovativeness varies di- rectly with the norms of his social system on innovativeness. Innovators are perceived as deviants by other members of their social system. Innovators perceive themselves as deviant from the norms of their social system. Differences in innovativeness between indi- viduals are a more important barrier to the flow of ideas in a social system where the norms are modern than where they are tradi- tional. Social system norms on innovativeness seem to determine, at least in part, the innova- tiveness of Opinion leaders. Opinion leaders conform more closely to social system norms than do the average member. (4} Over Ting: (a) (b) (C) (d) (e) AdOpter distributions follow a bell-shaped curve over time and approach normality. The first individuals to adopt innovations require a shorter adOption period than do relatively later adOpters. The awareness—to-trial period is shorter for relatively earlier adepters than for later ad0pters. The awareness-to-trial period is longer than the trial—to—adoption period. The trial-to—adoption period is longer for relatively earlier adopters than for later adepters. (f) A crisis emphasizes the relative advantage of an innovation and affects its rate of adop- tion. These, then, are some, though not all, of the generalizations which an examination of the diffusion research literature discloses as having resulted from previous research effort in this field; with few exceptions they must be considered micro-generalizations (or -g- micro-hypotheses, or micro-theories) in that individually they ex- plain or predict only one facet of a more complex process. The research project herein reported represents an attempt to test certain of the generalizations enumerated above in a cultural and organizational setting radically different from that in which research leading to these generalizations was originally conducted. Except, perhaps, to hypothesize that generalizations found to be valid in a Western setting hold equally true (or do not hold equally true) in the setting of Thailand, this project is not conceived to be one having as its primary purpose the generation of new hypo- theses. Overview The pertinent literature is reviewed in Chapter 2 for the pur- pose of indicating hosvthis study is related to those diffusion re- search studies which have preceded it in time. Chapter 3 is devoted to description of the organizational milieu within which this re- search project was conducted--the Ministry of Education, Kingdom of Thailand; attention will be given to formal (and where possible, informal) relationships between major subdivisions within the Ministry and to the geographic organization of Ministry field offices as this phenomenon bears on the diffusion of innovations. Chapter 4, given over to a description of research design, contains information on sample selection, instrument (questionnaire) design, the field data- gathering procedures employed, and discussion of the methods proposed to analyze relationships between dependent and independent variables. -9- An analysis of results will be found in Chapter 5,and Chapter 6, Summary and Conclusions, represents an attempt to do what the chapter heading suggests--summarize what has gone before and draw conclusions of possible use to change agents. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE DIFFUSION LITERATURE A search of relevant literature reveals that the research re- ported herein is the first dealing with diffusion/adaption under- taken by an American national within the educational system of a Southeast Asian country. Without, therefore, the benefit of a "research tradition" upon which to build, this study was and is viewed as largely exploratory in the sense that thehypotheses tested were not generated on the basis of an intimate familiarity with Thai cultural, social, political and educational norms. They were, rather, drawn almost exclusively from relationships which had been found to exist between independent and dependent variables by diffusion/adaption research undertaken within Western cultural milieu. The review which follows, therefore, is devoted to discus- sion of theory and research findings resulting from the efforts of American scholars, writing in American (or other English language) books or journals who, for the most part, advance their postulates without specific reference to the social, cultural, political or educational environment of Thailand. To what extent the relation- ships found to exist between selected independent and dependent variables in more highly developed Western countries are applicable to the less well-developed country of Thailand will be discussed in Chapter 5, "Analysis of Results." -10- -11- Rogers (1962:12-19) has identified four elements as being crucial to analysis of the diffusion of innovations; they are (l) the innovation, (2) its communication from one individual to another, (3) in a social system, (4) over time. Katz (1961) is in essential agreement with this typology advanced by Rogers. Lin (1966:14) posits the following model to organize and facili- tate study of innovation dissemination and diffusion: Fig. l.--Lin Innovation Dissemination and Diffusion MOdel I Memory I Feedback - I I IS stem 4" E System 4‘ I l I I I 4 I I ___. _I __j Decision I g rInformation AdOptive Internali-I :[ '7:‘ Making 'hDissemination““__£xposure Behaviorrfnzation I mpff I (Diffusion) E . . * ‘i I I . g I E=Reinforcement System : I Source Process I Receiver | Effect Study Study Study Study Both the Lin model and the Rogers' typology have the virtue of concep- tually clarifying what is, in essence, an extremely complex process-- thus facilitating study of this phenomenon in totdlor isolating for investigation its constituent sub-processes. ‘lpnovation Characteristics and Diffusion Returning to Rogers' typology, studies which have dealt speci- fically with the characteristics of innovations as these influence rate of adoption include those of Kivlin (1960) and Tucker (1961); the former, who asked 20 judges to rate 11 characteristics of 43 -12- agricultural innovations, found that the highest correlations were to be found between rate of adOption and (1) relative advantage, (2) complexity, and (3) compatibility. Tucker, employing a methodology similar to that used by Kivlin, found that divisibility, compatibility, relative advantage and complexity were not significantly related to rate of adoption of farming practices in one Ohio county--although the relationships were all in the expected or predicted direction. Re- search to determine the relationship between profitability (a measure of relative advantage), compatibility and rate of adoption has been undertaken by Mansfield (19613), Brandner and Straus (1959), Wilkening (1952b) and Griliches (1957, 1960a, 1960b) with inconclusive results; Griliches concludes from his studies that relative advantage (prdfita- bility) goes farther than compatibility to explain adoption among farmers, while Brandner and Straus conclude that compatibility rather than relative advantage constitutes the better independent variable in predicting adOptive behavior by agriculturists. Rogers (1962), in summarizing the findings of past research on characteristics of inno- vations as they influence rate of adoption, states: (1) The relative advantage of a new idea, as perceived by members of a social system, affects its rate of adap- tion. (9. 126) (2) The compatibility of a new idea, as perceived by mem- bers of a social system, affects its rate of adoption. (p. 127) (3) The complexity of an innovation, as perceived by mem- bers of a social system, affects its rate of adOption. (p. 130) (4) Divisibility of an innovation, as perceived by members of a social system, affects its rate of adoption. (p. 131) -13“ (5) The communicability of an innovation, as perceived by members of a socral system, affects its rate of adoption. (p. 132) Communication and Diffusion The importance of communication to diffusion and adoption of innovations has been duly recognized by research workers, as has been the differential impact of various communication media at the sev- eral adoption stages. Rogers (1962) cites studies by Bowers (1938), Ryan and Gross (1943), Wilkening (1952b), Rogers and Beal (1958a), Beal and Rogers (1960), and Rahim (1961) to substantiate his generali- zation that: "Impersonal sources of information are more important than personal sources for relatively early adopters of innovations than for later adopters." (p. 179) "Cosmopolite sources of information are," he (Rogers, 1962: .179) says, "more important than localite sources for relatively earlier adopters of innovations than for later adopters," and cites studies by Campbell (1959), Rogers and Leuthold (1962), Carter and Williams (1959), Rogers and Burdge (1961, 1962), to support this hypothesis. Research by Rogers (1961b), Beal and Rogers (1959), Carter and Williams (1959), Beal and Rogers (1960), Rogers and Burge (1961, 1962) and Rogers (1958a) suggest that ”Earlier adopters utilize information sources that are in closer contact with the origin of new ideas than later adopters." (Rogers, 1962: 181). Finally, Rogers states that "Earlier adopters utilize a greater number of different information -14- sources than do later adepters," substantiating this claim by citing the work of Coughenour (1960b), Fliegel (1956), Marsh and Coleman (1955a), C0pp (1956), Emery and Oeser (1958.) Social System and Diffusion Cultural and social system norms, defined as the most frequently recurring pattern of overt behavior among members of a particular social system, are now recognized as greatly influencing the probability that- any given innovation will be diffused, adopted or rejected. Ralph Lin- ton (1952z74) has observed, in fact, that: If we know what a society's culture is, including its particular system of values and attitudes, we can predict with a fairly high degree of probability whether the bulk of its members will welcome or re- sist a particular innovation. Rogers(l962) maintains that ". . . innovativeness of individuals is related to a modern rather than a traditional orientation" and . "an individual's innovativeness varies directly with the norms of his social system on innovativeness" (p. 71). He then goes on to distin- guish between the salient features of each as follows: In general terms, a social system with tra- ditional norms is characterized by: (l) A less developed or complex technology. Subsistence agriculture is the most common occupation. (2) Literacy and education are at a relatively low level. Communication via word of mouth is more prevalent than by mass media. (3) Little com- munication by members of the social system with outsiders. Most individuals are localites rather than cosmopolites. (4) Lack of economic ration- ality. Primary group relationships such as -15- friendliness and hospitality are highly valued as ends in themselves rather than as means to ends. (5) Lack of ability to empathize or see oneself in others' roles, particularly the roles of outsiders to the system. In comparison, a modern social system is typified by: (l) A develOped technology with a complex division of labor. . . (2) A high value on science and education. (3) Cosmopo— liteness of social relationships. New ideas enter the social system freely from external sources. . . (4) Planning is careful and de- cisions are economically rational . . (5) Ability to empathize and see oneself in the other fellow's shoes. (p. 61) Time and Diffusion The time dimension of diffusion (adoption) is another which has received a great deal of attention from research workers in this field. Consequently, a number of interesting and conceptually useful hypo- theses or generalizations have been formulated to explain the rela- tionship between demographic, sociometric, communication and other independent variables with the dependent variables of adoption beha- vior, internalization, attitude toward change, intelligence, awareness and innovativeness--among a host of others.1 One particularly significant finding of past diffusion research is that, when plotted over time, adoption of an innovation follows a bell-shaped curve. When plotted cumulatively, this adoption curve is 1See Everett M. Rogers.g£‘a1., Code Book for the MSU Diffusion Documents Center,Department of Communication Working Paper 10, AID Diffusion Project. (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, [by the department], July 1966). One hundred fourteen dependent vari- ables have been listed by the authors. -16.. essentially "S" shaped. Chapin (1928), who studied adoption of the city manager form of government, is reportedly the first scholar to employ the idea of an "S"-shaped adopter curve, and his hypothesis was thereafter tested by Gilfillian (1935) with data on shipping inventions, Pemberton (1936a) with data on the adoption by states of postage stamps and compulsory school atten- dance laws, and by Ryan and Gross (1943) using data on adoption of hybrid seed corn (Rogers, 1962: 152-153). On the basis of studies already cited [plus those of Griliches (195/), Rahim (1961) and Mansfield (19613)], Rogers (1962: 158) concludes that ". . . adopter distributions follow a bell-shaped curve over time, and approach normality." Based upon the empirically-determined tendency for adoption to follow a bell-shaped curve when plotted over time, research workers have categorized adopters by dividing the continuum into segments varying in number from three (Wilkening, 1956) to seven (Holmberg, 1960). Rogers (1962), having reviewed categorization systems ad- vanced thus far, and in an attempt to encourage consensus and stan- dardization in use of adopter categories, postulates five stages, as follows: 1. Awareness stage, at which the individual is exposed to the innovation but lacks complete information about it. The indi- vidual is aware of the innovation, but is not yet motivated to seek further informa- tion (pp. 81-82). 2. Interest stage, characterized by efforts of the individual to seek additional -17- information about the innovation. The individual favors the innovation in a general way, but he has not yet judged its utility in terms of his own situ- ation (p. 82). 3. Evaluation stage, at which the individual mentally applies the innovation to his present and anticipated future situation, and then decides whether or not to try it (p. 83). 4. Trial stage, at which the individual uses the innovation on a small scale in order to determine its utility in his own situation (p. 84). 5. Adoption stage, which represents a deci- sion by the individual to continue full use of the innovation (p. 86). Rogers holds that this categorization satisfies the three important conditions of being (1) consistent with the nature of the phenomenon; (2) congruent with previous research findings, and (3) potentially useful for practical applications. (Rogers, 1962:79). Personal Characteristics and Diffusion Research by Lionberger and Coughenour (1957), Rahudkar (1961), Lowry.gt.al. (1958), Gross (1942), Jones (1960), Rogers (1961b), Beal and Rogers, (1960), and Rogers and Burdge (1961,1962) suggests that younger pe0ple tend to be more innovative--when innovativeness is measured by time of adaption--while studies by Hoffer and Stangland (1958a), Beal and Rogers (1960), and Sheppard (1960a) found older age associated with innovativeness; several studies have found no signifi- cant relationship between age and innovativeness (Rogers, 1962:172). It has been hypothesized that, generally speaking, younger people will -18.. be more innovative than will the old and this phenomenon is attribu- table in part to the fact that, in rapidly changing cultures, the younger generation learns a more modern set of cultural values than do those who were socialized during an earlier, more traditional era. (Rogers, 1962: 174). It would appear that earlier adopters have higher social status than have later adapters--a1though the type of innovation under study may constitute an intervening variable. Studies which have found a positive correlation between high social status and innovativeness in- clude those by Duncan and Kreitlow (1954), Lowry.g£.a1.(l958), Rogers (1958a), Sizer and Porter (1960), Fliegel (1956), Marsh and Coleman (1955b), Lionberger and Coughenour (1957), Rogers and Burdge (1961, 1962), and Jones (1960). Formal education as a measure of social sta- tus has been found to be positively related to innovativeness by Rogers and Pitser (1960), Hobbs (1960), Coughenour (1960b), Straus (1960a), Hoffer and Stangland (1958a), Rahim (1961), and Sheppard (1960a). Whether the unit of analysis is the individual or an institution, innovativeness appears to be highly correlated with affluence. Ross (1958), having reviewed studies dealing with the diffusion of innova- tions among public schools, concludes that level of financial support is the one independent variable most predictive of innovativeness. Rogers (1962:176) reports that a review of the literature dealing with ad0ption of agricultural innovations shows that high farm income and innovativeness have been shown to be correlated in 18 different studies. -19.. Studies by Mansfield (1961b), Sutherland (1959), and Enos (1958) all show that larger and more prosperous industrial firms tend to be more innovative. Rogers (1962:177-178) concludes that "earlier adopters are less dogmatic, less rigid, and more rational than later adopters," point- ing to findings of Copp (1956), Dean.gt.al. (1958), Emery and Oeser (1958), Bemiller (1960, Rogers (1957b), and Coughenour (1960b). Information Sogrces ago Diffusion Yet another important area of the diffusion and adoption pro- cess which has been subject to intense research investigation is that dealing with information sources. Studies by wilkening (1952b), Rogers and Beal (1958a), Beal and Rogers (1960), Copp.g§.gl. (1958), Rogers and Pitzer (1960), Rahim (1961), Beal and Rogers (1957s), and Katz (1961) have led Rogers (1962:99) to generalize that: ".'. . im- personal information sources are most important at the awareness stage, and personal sources are most important at the evaluation stage in the adoption process." Substantiated by the findings of studies conducted under the auspices of Beal and Rogers (1957a), Wilkeningug§.§1. (1960), Ryan and Gross (1943), and Katz (1961), Rogers (1962:102) further con- cludes that: "cosmopolite information sources are most important at the awareness stage, and localite information sources are most impor- tent at the evaluation stage." Falling very nearly within the tautological category is a propo- sition which states that awareness must precede adoption of a new idea; research studies conducted by Hoffer (1942), Emery and Oeser (1958), -20- Coughenour (1960b), Rahudkar (1961), Lackey and Larson (1961) all indicate that adoption of new ideas varies directly with exposure to information about the innovation under study. Rogers (1962:303) has written that ". . . the concept of percep- tion is a key dimension in understanding the diffusion of ideas"; many of the independent variables of central concern in the Thailand diffusion study deal with the perceptions of individual teachers as these relate to their social environment--the school and educational community at large. Summary Figure 2, an adaptation of the Rogers' adaption paradigm (1962:306), attempts to link conceptually the study herein reported with earlier theoretical constructs. (Rogers' original paradigm has been included as Figure 3 to facilitate comparison.) As this study reflects the rationale represented by Rogers' paradigm, a comparison of Figure 2, Figure 3, and Table V may serve to indicate how this research has been built upon a foundation formed of the findings in earlier diffusion studies. It should be noted that this study design does not incorporate all elements of the Rogers' paradigm presented in Figure 3; of the antecedents listed under "Actor's Identity" therein, only five of the six listed by Rogers are of concern here; "mental ability and conceptual skill" have been omitted from this study. "Perceptions of the Situation" were conceived by Rogers as being objective measures or evaluations of the situation in which actors found themselves, while -21- in the plan followed for this research these antecedents are viewed as quite subjective, being based upon how the actors (teachers) them- selves perceive the situation and their interaction with it. The antecedents listed in Figure 2, together with measures of communica- tion behavior, constitute the independent variables of this study. Only the initial and final steps in the five-stage adOption process--awareness and adoption--are of concern in this study and, together with perceived beneficiality of the innovations, constitute the dependent variables. Perceived beneficiality of innovations is postulated to represent a summation of (1) relative advantage, (2) compatibility, (3) complexity, (4) divisibility, and (S) communica- bility; it is anticipated that, if these characteristics of the in- novation are indeed of importance to respondents when deciding to adopt or reject a given innovation, their relative importance, or unimportance, will be reflected in the final over-all judgment of beneficiality and decision to adapt or reject. Similarly, over-all judgment of beneficiality, when combined with the decision to adapt or reject employment of the innovation, is seen here as a rough measure of "internalization," which Lin (1966:11) defines as ". the extent to which a member perceives the innovation or change as relevant and valuable to his role performance in the organization." As will be seen from an examination of Chapters 4 and 5 of this dissertation, the research reported herein draws very heavily upon 2See Table V for a complete listing of dependent and in- dependent variables. -22- generalizations, findings and methodology resulting from prior dif- fusion studies reviewed in this chapter. This review of the diffu- sion literature serves to illustrate that, at least based upon findings of research conducted in the United States, there does emerge a patterned relationship between awareness time, adoption time, and beneficiality perceived as deriving from adoption of selected innovations (dependent variables) on the one hand, and demographic, sociometric, communication, technical and personality considerations (independent variables), on the other; the task re- maining before it is determined if such patterned relationships hold for the Thai milieu (the central focus of Chapters 4 and 5) is to elucidate some of the characteristics of the milieu--the task undertaken in Chapter 3, "Organization and Management of the Ministry of Education." henna mwnu now moHomHum> uamuuoaon .n thum mwou mom mmauowmumo oHomem> unmocmmmucH .m mmmwsmfiowumamu ufimwaum wow mufimwdum mo mfiOHummoumm .o mmmwsmooauoamu Home cam mummm mo mcowuamoumm .m endgamoowumHmu uofiummsm vow .mmHOHummsm mo mcowugmoumm .N mmamm mo maoaummoumm .H mmmoomm ZOHHmOQ¢ .l! cowuamoumm m.um:ummH >H HHH HH H Ab Hague cowumaam>m ummuouaH mmmawum3< 2 . A v. + % > 93 nmwumay humeEOm _ _ a¢ow>m5mn _ lumm cam Hmowwoaozommm .N m noHumofioaaeoo Hmaowmmmmoum .N “ mmmanmwum> owsamnwoama .H “wu0H>m£mo doaumowo55500 Hmumdwu .H “ huwuamoH m.um£ommH II: _ _ _ _ _ __ __ _ L I] F _ J4 paOHuoou< oofiumowobssoo \14 mHADmmm mmmoomm mHzmamUMHz< onmaflmga aw mumsomma Hoosom humvnoomm ucmEch>ow he nowumov< aowum>ondH mo Ewwumumm .N musmwm «AHHHHfimOHgOU om. Ammwfifimfifl «HOOn—Um suaoanama>ao .e .summv use: we“ I huwxmaqaoo .m mo mowumflumuomnmnu .m GfiOUm fiOfi ~AUHHHDHUNQEOU .N mw>Hu~HwUfiH Ufiw vmsafluooo mwmudm>wm m>HumHQM .H munwmuumaoo owaoaoom .N mwmfim>wum>oaaw no coaum>oaaH mzu mo mowumwumuomumso vm>wmoumm mauoa Emummm Hmwoom .H _ coaumouwm msu mmmooma ZQHHmooa mo maoauaooumm a > >H HHH HH H Humow4 HmwuH SOHumSHm>m ummumuaH mmmamumzd t e . _ _ _ _ HmormnmmEHuHmSOmuom .N _ muHHomoEmoo .H . _ _ _ _ _ \ moamncwu ‘ uncomwm mwnm numwmma cowawmo .o wmmamuwaomosmoo .m woumum Hmwoom .o Hawxm Hmoummofioo one suaoaem 13st .m mmaam> .N humwxq< uhoHHSUmm .H m cowumoom umumm: -24- can ova F_._._._———-—-——\r .._..——---—-‘3i- 1___-__—.».. dowuaocm wmscfiucoo Ala. mmousom coaumauomaH auaucmeH m.uouo< mHADmmm mmmoomm mHZMQmUmHz< Emummm Hmwoom m awsuHS Hmdwfi>wuaH so he Gowum>oacH no mo Sowumow< msu mo Ewfiumumm .m ouswwh CHAPTER III SOCIAL NORMS, BUREAUCRATIC SUBrCULTURAL VALUES, AND ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION IN THAILAND Rather than give in exhaustive detail an outline of education in Thailand (data readily available from other sourcesl), this chap- ter will present only that information which is germane to an under- standing of the forces in the Thai educational system which either impede or enhance ingestion and diffusion of innovations. First we shall discuss the social norms and bureaucratic behavior which underlie Thai education, and demonstrate how these two factors influence employees of the Ministry to accept or reject innovations; insight into the nature of change within the Ministry is the object of this section. Social Norms and Bureaucratic Behavior Several studies have been published recently which deal 1Bangkok, Thailand: Division of Educational Information, Minis- try of Education. National Scheme of Education (1960), 16 pp. Abhai Chandavimol, Education in Thailand. Bangkok, Thailand: Ministry of Education, (1963), 23 pp. Bangkok, Thailand: Ministry of Education, Department of Educa- tional Techniques, Educational Developments in Thailand (1964), 148 pp. Bangkok, Thailand: Ministry of Education, Educational Planning Office, Current and Projgcted Secondary Education Programs for Thailand: Manpower and Educational Development Planning Project, Pub- lication No. 9 (1966), 258 pp. [See especially Chapter 2.] Bangkok, Thailand: Preliminary Assessment of Education and Human Resources in Thailand: Report of the Joint Task Force, Vol. I (1964), 456 pp. -25- I! I"! ll Illlll' J III 1 'ul lell .‘l Ti.ll|lll \ -26.. Specifically with normative social behavior within the Thai bureau- cratic subculture--the social setting with which this research project is primarily concerned and within which it was conducted. These re- ports provide the Western social scientist with extremely valuable in- sights into the social values and norms of those who comprise a bureaus cratic structure which, as will be shown later, appears on the surface to violate nearly every basic tenet of the classical weberian model. But in recognition of the fact that this bureaucratic structure is firmly embedded in a more comprehensive social matrix, attention is first di- rected to an elucidation of several basic Thai social norms, the under- standing of which is essential to an appreciation of those norms opera- tive within the bureaucratic subculture. According to Wilson (1962:73-84), the Thai world view--deriving largely from Theravade Buddhism--perceives the universe in terms of a moral continuum. All elements of the cosmos are related to one another in terms of power--determined by virtue and moral value; moral value, in turn, is measured by the degree of "good" inherent in an element. The relative position of a human being is determined by the degree to which one is subject to the will and power of others or, conversely, to what extent others are subject to the will and power of oneself. By logical extention, a "just unity" can be said to exist between virtue and power; those who have power are good and deserve power or, put differently, those who are powerful are good and deserve power; by this definition, power justifies itself, for it is the manifestation of, or reward for, "goodness." -27- In addition to the tenets of Theravada Buddhism, magic and pseudo-science (astrology, palmistry and numerology) provide other clues to the Thai Weltanschauung. Magical practices center around the general principle that manipulation of some formula-~material, verbal or ceremonial--will achieve the desired effect. The pseudo- sciences of astrology, numerology and palmistry are believed to im- part an understanding of the universe; Thai informants with some comprehension of western science and scientific method are likely to draw a parallel between the two systems of knowing--frequently maintaining that either astrology or numerology represents the more dependable system. As for the spirit world, Wilson (1962:76) observes that: The ancient animistic belief that the universe is peopled with spirits attendant upon a variety of persons, places, and things remains vital in much of the (Thai) papulation today. These spirits provide an explanation of the world be- cause it is understood that they are powerful and their wills may cause events. . . . The important aspect of spirit beliefs is that these beings are subject to propitiation and thereby can be manipu- lated in such a way as to improve the situation of the propitiator. By this means the lowly may manipulate the powerful and gain desired ends. Wilson summarizes his discussion of general Thai cultural values by .noting: These generalized virtues (benevolence, sympathy, non-involvement) manifest themselves in the social behavior of the Thai by their adherence to the be- lief that the proper manner of ordering specific social relations is by expression of respect. Sym- bols and gestures of respect from lower to higher -28- status are the very stuff of the actual rela- tionships between persons. Even in the lang- uage. . . differences of status and the re- apectful aspect of these differences are an integral part of the vocabulary. (p. 79) Translating these (and other) basic Thai cultural values or norms into terms descriptive of Thai administrative or bureaucratic behavior, William Siffin (1966) notes that efficiency, productivity and rationality are not dominant values--observing that ". . . the authority which gives order and impetus to bureaucratic action is not primarily the limited legal-rational authority of the Weberian model so often applied in the study of Western systems." (pp. 159-160). The author then goes on to enumerate the following dominant social value orientations of Thai bureaucrats: l) “Hierarchical status, which is inherently valued within the bureaucracy and its setting. The primacy of this value is suggested by the fact that the bureaucratic system is to a considerable degree organized and operated to give meaning and support to status. 2) Personalism or the reliance upon personal relationships and personal concern as primary bases for behavior within the system. In a sense, this is the antithesis of the personali— zation of the idealized legal-rational bureau- cratic model. Membership in the bureaucracy is viewed and valued as a way of life, and is too meaningful to be subjected to formal rules and regulations. Such rules would--if effective --reflect central sources of meaning and auth- ority in society beyond the bureaucracy, superior to it, and superior also to the political power center of the society. 3) Security, or the desire to preserve one's membership in the system is also a basic value. . In the Thai system, security is not found -29- through compliance with explicit, universalistic productivity standards, although other clearly visible (but often particularistic) norms are guides to behavior intended to protect membership in the system. The significance of security as a value lies partly in the fact that the bureaucracy is a way of life and a source of status, and that there are few, if any, attractive alternatives to the bureaucracy within the larger society. There are other values in the Thai bureaucratic sys- tem. . . and while one hesitates to say so, . . one of these . . . might simply be saguk, or"fun." The abiding enjoyment of social pleasures, the ten- dency to regard social and ceremonial activities as a legitimate dimension of the bureaucratic way of life, and the lack of appreciation shown to grim, earnest, manifestly serious, driving officials-- these are some indications of the value which is placed upon sanuk. Certain other value orientations are notable for their apparent absence, or for the relatively small support they receive in the Thai bureaucracy. These include secular rationality and the related value of efficiency. Likewise, functional performance, or persistent emphasis upon productivity, is not highly valued in the system. Finally, innovation is not highly valued. Generally, innovation is linked with a purposive orientation, a problem-solving posture,and a concern with adminis- trative rationality. Innovation, too, is likely to be a resPonse to unavoidable external pressures for change and adaptation. In a bureaucratic sys- tem which tends to be valued for itself rather than as a productive, responsive instrumentality, inno- vation is not highly relevant, and may be regarded as undesirably disruptive. (pp. 161-163) While both the larger Thai culture and bureaucratic subculture are generally resistant to change and innovation, the high value and great reliance placed upon personalism and status as guides to bureaucratic behavior combine to permit acceptance of certain new ideas--while closing the portals just as effectively to others. The difference between adoption -30- and rejection of a particular innovation appears to rest on several identifiable factors, chief among these being compatibility of the innovation with cultural or subcultural values, and source of spon- sorship; it is this latter which best serves to relate social norms and interpersonal relationships with the decision taken by an indi- vidual member of the bureaucracy to adOpt (support) or reject (thwart) a given innovation. Ronald Nairn (1966) has analyzed in detail the failure of two United Nations' educational projects in Thailand to attain their pro- jected goals; these projects were the Cha-Chachoensao Educational Pilot Project and the Thailand UNESCO Fundamental Educational Center (TUFEC). Nairn underlines the importance of sponsorship to success of an innovative undertaking in his finding that . . the decision-making group in Thailand is small and easily definable, and has sufficient autonomy to act with great freedom. . . . al- though little of moment can be done in Thailand without the approval of this group, obtaining their sanction gives one great freedom. There- fore, to gain government support, one must be able to reach this circle. (p. 97). Again, specific reference to the failure of the community development project, Nairn notes that . . the TUFEC operation was assigned to the Ministry of Education. The consequence of this basic decision was that united Nations officials, regardless of level, simply did not have the ear of those who mattered. At best the chief of mis- sion might have reasonable access to the minister of education, but more probably to an undersecre- tary. As has been noted earlier. . ., this was not where power was located in the Thai hierarchy. (p. 109) -31- To summarize the interrelation of personalism and social norms as they influence decision-making and adoption of innovations, the Thai bureaucrat is compelled by the force of internalized values to accept (adapt) those innovations sponsored by a prestigeful superior so long as such adoption does not run counter to other, equally well- internalized norms or values of his culture or subculture. Personalism plays an especially strong part in such calculations because prestige does not attach to the office but, rather, to the office-holder as a person; titles in the Thai bureaucracy are not necessarily indicative of the power to command compliance. It may be inferred from what has been said thus far that the type of change or innovation proposed will also determine, to a large extent, the reaction to its introduction by members of the Thai "elite." Nairn illustrates the relationship between rreceptivity to innovation and cultural values by citing two interesting examples: The Pilot Project failed. . . not because the machines supplied by USOM and Shell were too complicated, or because Thai youth was ineducable in these fields, but because the project did not assess the specifics of the local. . . cultural situation. UNESCO believed that there was a "universal hunger for education," whereas something to the contrary may have been true. At best, there may have been a very specific hunger for certain types of education where rewards were clear and where one was not called upon to transgress too many cultural boundaries. The Pilot Project did not make prior evaluations of these matters. (p. 66) The United Nations agencies perhaps thought in a rather vague way that they were promoting change. But in the eyes of the elite they were not. Every fresh-water well that was dug, every young man or woman trained to go forth and work in villages, every school \/I -32- that received a better-trained teacher, or every child who was taught to wash his hands before eating, an actual fact helped preserve the st - tural concepts of the elite. A happy, contenfgd peasantry and a privileged but socially conscious elite--which, it must be remembered, did not im- pose social barriers to peasant mobility into its own ranks--seemed to have the best chance of struc- tural survival when the peasant was helped to be cleaner, healthier, and more efficient in the fields. In this sense, therefore, the Operations of the United Nations agencies and the attitudes of the Thai elite were in harmony. (p. 108) Administrative Organization of the Ministry of Education In this section we will present an outline of the organization and management of the Ministry of Education, together with a descrip- tion of administrative relationships within the Ministry as they are "officially" or "formally" envisioned. Observations will be made on how such relationships Operate in practice and influence decision- making. Administrative relationships within the Ministry of Education are diagrammed in Figure 4; as shown by this officially prepared'or— ganization chart, the Ministry is composed of two offices and eight departments. The Minister of Education is a political appointee and sits on the Cabinet where he theoretically represents the interests of educa- tion and educators in decisions involving national policy. His "offi- cial" relationship to the Prime Minister and other members of the Cabinet is that of educational advisor, and he is theoretically held responsible for execution of directives issued by the Cabinet which affect education. -33- :oHumUSwm uasu< muu< muwmmw< doaumosom cowumosom mmsuaanomy one newumosom coaumuaefl scam moOHwHHmm Hmowmhsm umnummw HomoHumUSvm mumufimEmHm Hmdowumoo> hnmvnoumm mo mo mo «0 mo mo wo wo ufimsuummmo unmEuummoo udoEuHmamQ ucmEuumamo ufioEuHmmmo ufimEuummmn udeuummma udmfiuummon am muoowmmo dewumooom Hmcowwmm NH%IIIIIIIII| coamw>wo HmHSuHSU PFC but: i mumoflwmo dowum05um wo3wfimnu an m umum mo humuouoom Hmumwcwz oSu ou humumnumm sou mo moawmo cowumosom mo umumaoflz _ SEES 3°33 om games/E Same/S Hmehmuxm mocmaam Hmuuamu u now ass; Amujawdn.y .mwu;n&oHv A mnomm SHDSM -34- The Minister's Secretary and the latter's staff are responsible for assisting the Minister in performance of his duties--nearly all of which are ceremonial, social, cultural and/or representational. Responsibility for coordination of program execution with other gov- ernment agencies may be assigned by the Minister to his Secretary, as may duties connected with preparing speeches, answering correspon- dence and writing reports. Khuru Sapha was created by law in 1945, and all government school teachers are required to become members--paying, in addition to fre- quent special assessments, annual dues of 20 baht (B 20.00 equals $1.00) each. This government-sponsored professional organization has as its primary "official" functions: (1) advisement of the Minister on methods of improving teacher welfare, (2) consultation with Ministry officials in development of elementary and secondary school curricula, and (3) organization of pre-service and in-service teacher-training programs. The Executive Board of Khuru Sapha--of which the Minister is Chairman, and the Under-Secretary of State for Education is Vice-Chairman, with all Directors-General holding membership--approves the appointment, pro- motion, transfer and termination of members and is also charged with raising academic standards of teachers. Khuru Sapha also publishes three monthly professional journals. The Under-Secretary of State for Education has responsibility for over-all management of the national education establishment; his is the highest ranking professional civil service position in the Ministry of Education. Whereas the Minister of Education is a political appointee -35- and his duties are largely representational in nature, the Under-Secre- tary is expected to confine his activities to planning, organizing, directing, staffing and controlling activities of the agency. The latter is charged with coordination of program activities within the Ministry and COOperation with other government agencies in resolution of problems associated with education in which these other offices may have interest. The Office of the Under-Secretary of State for Educa- tion is made up Of five divisions and an office, namely: (1) Central Division (2) Finance Division (3) External Relations Division (4) Educational Information Division (5) Cultural Division (6) Educational Planning Office These divisions and office, together with two Assistant Under-Secre- taries of State for Education and their staffs, comprise the secretfirjat of the Ministry. Reaponsibility for Operational management of education and educational service functions rests with eight departments within the Ministry: (1) Department of Secondary Education (2) Department of VOcational Education (3) Department of Educational Techniques (4) Department Of Teacher Education (5) Department of Physical Education (6) Department of Religious Affairs -36- (7) Department of Elementary and Adult Education (8) Department of Fine Arts Collectively, these departments are charged with meeting the profes- sional needs of regional, provincial, district and local educators and education Officers. Specialized staffs within these eight de- partments provide educational leadership, business management, tech- nical and other services to subordinate levels. Each department is under the supervision Of a Director-General who is assisted in his administrative tasks by a Deputy Director-General, a Secretary and Chiefs of specialized divisions. Divisions, which vary in number from department to department, depending upon the functions assigned and/or performed, are in turn subdivided into sections, each directed by a Section Head. The Department of Secondary Education supervises all govern- ment secondary general or academic schools within the Kingdom, and administers certain regulations impinging upon Operation of private secondary schools (the latter enrolling roughly half of all Thai secon- dary school students). Budget preparation, contractual arrangements for construction of schools and provision of supplies, legal matters, collection of statistical information, and maintenance of Official records--together with supervision of curricula and methods of instruc- tion--are central and important responsibilities which have been as- Signed to this department. Within the Department Of Secondary Education there are six main divisions, namely: -37- (1) Office of the Secretary (2) Supervisory Unit (3) Division of Educational Evaluation and Examination (4) Division of School Finance (5) Division of Private Schools (6) Division of Government Schools Secondary education has been divided, administratively, into two streams, the general or academic stream being the responsibility of the Department Of Secondary Education, while schools teaching voca- tional subjects are supervised by the Department of Vocational Educa- tion. This picture is complicated by the fact that some academic or general schools administered by the Department of Secondary Education offer vocational or pre-vocational instruction, while all schools ad- ministered by the Department Of Vocational Education provide instruc- tion in academic as well as vocational subjects. Much of the curricula taught in vocational secondary schools du- plicates that Offered in those supervised by the Department of Secondary Education--the major difference being that vocational secondary schools Offer, in addition to courses in the academic curriculum, others sup- posedly leading directly to employment in trades or occupations. The Department of 2pc§tional Education has been charged with developing several vocational curricula, promoting acceptance by Thai youth of vocational education and preparing students for citizenship roles. Training programs have been devised which range in subject mat- ter from farming to skilled industrial crafts; while programs in many .n .I'I‘..|lll. .llll '- ‘I-III -33- Of these areas are offered, few of any government vocational schools prepare students adequately to enter trades or occupations directly upon completion of their programs. Technical assistance to the various departments in development of teaching aids, textbooks and curricula is to be provided by the Department of Educational Techniques; it has the additional respon- sibility of stimulating use of audio-visual aids and encouraging the teaching of science. Lists of books approved for use in government and private schools are also prepared by this department. While im- provements are to be seen both in the use of audio-visual aids and in the teaching of science, fewer of these improvements can be attri- buted to efforts of the Department of Educational Techniques--which is inadequately staffed, trained and financed--than to those of foreign governments and international agencies. Ministry allocations to schdols do not contain provision for purchase Of audio-visual aids; such equip- ment of this nature as may be found in government secondary schools is purchased with funds secured, through various means, by the schools themselves. The Department of Educational Techniques neither produces nor stocks films, film strips, slides, tapes or records; these items, when utilized for instructional purposes, have been obtained by in- dividual schools either from foreign businesses with Offices in Thai- land or from foreign government information agencies. The only sig- nificant programs to improve the availability of equipment used to teach science are those sponsored by UNESCO, UNICEF, and the Uhited States government. -39- The Departmppt of Teacher Trainipg has responsibility for (1) training prospective teachers to provide instruction in particular aspects of the secondary curriculum, (2) organizing and supervising in-service training programs for teachers already employed, and (3) conducting qualifying examinations for those in-service teachers who wish to upgrade their academic and professional qualifications. Func- tional organization of the department varies considerably from the "official" organization; three units--In-Service Training Division, Teacher Training Schools Division, and the College of Education (Presarn Mitr)--all operate teacher education programs. Among the tasks assigned to the Department of Physical Education are those of (1) providing instruction leading to personal safety and physical fitness, (2) providing instruction in health standards and the physiology Of the human body, and (3) training teachers of physical edu- cation; this department is also responsible for the Boy Scout Movement and the Junior Red Cross program. The College of Physical Education in Bangkok is operated by the Department of Physical Education. The Department of Religious Affairs does not itself sponsor or even supervise educational programs; it is, rather, a coordinating and service agency (1) supporting and overseeing various religious agencies, (2) managing ecclesiastical property, (3) promoting and supporting pub- lic ethics and morals, and (4) :coordinate religious activities in Thai- land with those Of other Buddhist countries. While administrative supervision of elementary education has re- cently been transferred to the Munistry of Interior, a Department of -40- Elementary and Adult Education still exists within the Ministry of Education. Before transfer of this responsibility to Interior, in early 1966, this department was by far the largest in the Ministry. While the Ministry's relationship to elementary education is dras- tically altered by the recent transfer, it retains responsibility-- at least temporarily--for:‘ (1) Improvement of Instruction (supervision) (2) Preparation of curricula and syllabi (3) Establishment of educational standards (4) Selection of school sites (5) In-service training of elementary school personnel (6) Testing and measurement (7) Research (8) Demonstration (9) Educational Planning. The Depagtmpnt of Fine Arts is: ...responsible for preserving, reviewing and disseminating information about Thai art, his- tory, literature, customs, architecture and (the artistic works associated with) Buddhism... By means Of exhibits, performances, concerts, lectures, publications and other educational activities the Fine Arts Department also prO- vides the public with an Opportunity to grow in knowledge and appreciation. "7 2Bangkok, Thailand::Ministry Of Education, Department Of Fine Arts, The Departpppt 9g Pipe Arts; FppctionI Reppopsibilitiep, Aims (1964), pp. 1-2. -41- It manages the National Library and the National Museum--both of which have branches outside of Bangkok--and operates the School of Fine Arts ". . . for the preservation and promotion of classical forms Of Thai Art, including sculpture, painting, and the special techniques characteristic of Thai decoration."3 The SchoOl of Dra- matic Arts is also Operated by this department. Ministry supervision of schools is handled through a network of 12 Educational Regions and 71 Provincial (Changwad) Education Of- fices. Regional Education Officers are nominated by the Under-Secre- tary of State for Education and report to him; although each Regional Education Officer is responsible for all education in an average of six Changwads, Education OfficerS‘in Provinces under his jurisdiction have, inexplicably, no line relationship with him, with the result that Changwad Education Officers-—and Ministry personnel--largely ig- nore the Regional Offices. It is assumed by Ministry officials and Changwad Education Officers alike that the only significant responsi- bility of the Regional Education Officer is administration of in-service training programs conducted for the benefit of teachers in his region; to assist him with in-service training of teachers he has a staff of supervisors who are seconded by Ministry departments upon his nomina- tion. While Changwad Education Officers theoretically report to the Ministry through their Regional Education Officers, this policy has never been followed in practice; Regional Education Officers exert no 3Ibid., p. 4. -42- direct influence over Changwad Education Officers. In the absence of meaningful educational leadership by Regional Education Officers, supervision of all education in the Provinces rests with Changwad Education Officers. The functions performed by Changwad Education Officers are numerous, including budgeting, supply, person- nel and finance. They handle administrative details for elementary, vocational and secondary schools, and are also responsible for the local affairs of all departments within the Ministry. Although a supervisory unit exists in each Province, supervision of instruction has not been a major preoccupation of the Changwad Education Officers; there are, surprisingly, no secondary supervisors attached to Changwad-level offices. Just as each education Region is subdivided into Provinces or Changwads, so also is each Changwad subdivided into several adminis- trative units known as Amphurs. To each Amphur is assigned an Amphur Education Officer and staff, but as these officials in their profes- sional activity are restricted to supervision of elementary schools, their functions will not be outlined here. Gazing with unpracticed eye upon the organizational structure of the Ministry as outlined above, the Western observer is prone to liken it to administration of Education in France--for indeed they appear, in many respects, to be very similar. Each is headed by a Cabinet Minister who, by virtue of access to other national leaders and direct participation in national decision-making, is in a position to coordi- nate educational management with economic, political and social deveIOp- ment plans. Responsibility for attainment of educational goals established -43- by governmental leaders has,'apparen§ly in both cases, been delegated to professional educators and senior civil servants, who through de- cisions made in day-to-day administration, are in positions to pursue rationally and efficiently these long-range national goals. Both, it wouidrappear; havé’established line and staff organizations equipped to carry on the specialized functions required to attain educational goals and each has set up a network of geographically dispersed offices through which supervision of education throughout the nation is made possible. Both have apparently established national curricula, cen- tral control of teacher preparation, systems of frequent and standar- dized examinations to control promotion of students from grade to grade and to separate streams for those intent on vocational and academic goals. MOst importantly for this study, perhaps, both--by virtue of their centralized control and clearly delineated lines of communica- tion, authority and responsibility--should find the dissemination of information and diffusion of innovation much more easily accomplished than might be possible in decentralized or plural systems such as, for example, those of the United States or Canada. Those who theoretically establish national policies on such mat- ters as teaching methods, curricula, student services, teaching aids, school finance, teacher preparation and educational administration occupy contiguous offices in the Ministry of Education; therefore, one might as- sume that coordination of these matters and communication of decisions made would be relatively simple. So, too, should be assessment of com- pliance with directives pertaining to new or revised policies. -44- But appearances--in the forms of organization charts, statements or national goals and schemes of education--are deceiving, for both or- ganization and administration of education in Thailand depart widely from published organization charts and public statements of policy. While some considerable disparity between ideal and actual, theory and practice, is to be found everywhere, it is perhaps true that, especially in developing countries such as Thailand, the form but not the substance of rational organization and administration has been adopted. In par- tial response to pressure from Western "experts" and with hopes that outside financial assistance will result therefrom indigenous political leaders foster the myth that the government enterprise is rationally administered; it appears to be hoped that by placing traditionally oriented civil servants within a setting described by Western bureau- cratic terminology, their organizational behavior will be guided by legalistic, universalistic norms. That such has not been the case in Thailand is now relatively well documented. (Riggs, 1966; Stiffin, 1966; Wilson, 1962; Nairn, 1966). Qgganizational and Managerial Impediments to Decision-Making and Diffusion of Innovations Research and observation have suggested that diffusion and adop- tion of new concepts of technology do not "just happen"--at least very rapidly; an institution may, it is generally conceded, influence the rate at which innovations are diffused, either within the organization itself or to the clientele it serves, by the managerial framework it employs and by the diligence with which it pursues policies specifically -45- designed to permit or encourage flexibility of response to a changing environment. In diffusion and organizational literature the Coopera- tive Extension Service in the United States is frequently cited as an agency which has consciously set for itself the task of promoting im- provement in the human condition by diffusion of new techniques and technology; through the years it has devised and followed organiza- tional and managerial policies reasonably well suited to attaining the end sought by these means (Rogers, 1967e). It is facile and perhaps natural for the Westerner to assume that the Thai Ministry of Education-—like the Cooperative Extension Service--is or should be dedicated to improvement in the human condi- tion through change and, on this basis, judge organizational and ad- ministrative policies of the Ministry harshly. But in order to ap- praise realistically the performance of an organization, especially one embedded in a second culture, it is essential first to determine the function which the organization in question was established to perform; it serves no worth while analytical purpose if the outside observer ascribes his values or goals to the foreign institution. If we assume with Riggs (1966) that we find in Thailand an ex- ample of a "bureaucratic polity," much of the apparent disparity between ideal and actual, theory and practice, which is perceived as we view Thai bureaucratic behavior becomes readily understandable. Under what Riggs has chosen to call ”...this prismatic model," we understand "formalism" to mean...”the introduction of a new structure, alien to indigenous practices and life ways, but adapted to serve new functions, -46- different from those served elsewhere..." (p.7). The Western bureau- cratic model adopted by King Chulalongkorn and Prince Damrong in about 1892 as a vehicle for rational and efficient administration of the Kingdom's business has, since that day, been constantly adapted by Thai civil servants to meet the more traditional yet still broadly accepted need for attainment, legitimation and defense of personal power, prestige and status. The Thai civil service is quite simply seen by those employed therein as a structure whose most meaningful and defensible purpose is the conferment of Status, the legitimation of status, and the defense of status; while Thai bureaucrats would nearly all hold that some benefit to the public might well and perhaps even should result from their efforts, any suggestion that public service could or should constitute the raison d'etre of a bureaucracy is greeted with that good-natured tolerance reserved for the naive. The Thai government civil servant appears to be convinced that all government bureaucracies, everywhere, exist only to distribute the spoils among those who participate in their management. (The Thai bureaucratic polity exists first and foremost to serve its own ends, to confer and apportion power, prestige and status among those members of society who are fortunate or shrewd enough to find positions within the official government hierarchy. Only in these terms, rather than as an instrument designed specifically for public improvement through change and adaptation of the programs it offers, can present organizational and managerial policies of the Ministry of Education be comprehended by foreign observers. -47- This is not to say, of course, that change and adaptation do not take place within the Ministry of Education--some of it educationally beneficial. Alterations in structure and/or revision of managerial policy are frequently demanded by foreign powers as the price which the bureaucracy must pay for financial or technical assistance. Then, too, members of Thai governments have long shown an acute awareness of the fact that, if they are to maintain independence from outside interference, they must meet certain minimal foreign expectations (Wilson, 1962: 3-9). Statements such as the National Scheme of Edg- cation, prepared by the Ministry of Education in 1960 for foreign con- sumption, stand as implicit recognition of the need to placate the compulsive "public service" propensities of potential and actual "donor nations." Fortunately for those who would peer behind organization charts and statements of policy to determine how the Ministry of Education is actually organized and administered, the Thai government has encouraged research by outside agencies or individuals, and Thai civil servants have been--for the most part--quite candid in reSponse to questions posed by foreign interviewers. Those citations of organizational and managerial practices which appear below are, therefore, based upon (1) personal observations made while assigned by the Michigan State Univer- sity Advisory Group to the Educational Planning Office as Field Director of Research, (2) conversations and interviews with a cross-section of Thai civil servants; (3) conversations ,wi'th American and other foreign technical advisors working with the Ministry of Education, and (4) published'material. -43- To proceed from the general to the specific, broad, long- range decisions which determine the future development of education in Thailand are made in the Cabinet and not in the Ministry of Educa- tion. MOst such decisions, moreover, are based not on merit but on political power considerations. As Wilson (1962) has indicated, the basis of political power and influence in Thailand has histori- cally been "clique membership" (pp. ll6-142)--control of the educa- tional establishmentlhas traditionally been one of the more conveni— ent pawns in recruiting members to contending cliques and/or reward- ing clique members for their continuing loyalty. As noted by Wilson (1962:277), ". . . politics has become a matter of competition between bureaucratic cliques for the benefits of government. In this compe- tition the army--the best organized, most concentrated, and most powerful of the branches of the bureaucracy-~has come out on top." The recent transfer of over-all responsibility for elementary educa- tion to the Ministry of Interior, headed by General Praphas Charusathien, Commander-in-Chief of the Army, is widely recognized within Thailand as an example of this phenomenon; a decision to locate the various fa- cilities of the new and as yet unopened University of the South in different Provinces is also generally regarded by foreign observers as politically expedient but educationally dysfunctional. The present Minister of Education is unable to significantly in- fluence decisions made by the Cabinet which determine future development of education because, among other things, he is not considered a "coup group" member. ‘The significance of such membership status is illustrated -49- by the following passage from Riggs (1966:213): A single clique is usually not strong enough to seize power by itself. Consequently, it must form an alliance with other cliques, often producing a "coup group." The members of such a "coup group" have drawn together and exchanged vows of mutual COOpera- tion and solidarity . . . A coup group or khgna which has seized power is likely to feel insecure at first. MOreover, it may lack members with enough experience to administer ef- fectively all of the cabinet positions, especially those requiring the most technical knowledge. In addition, it wishes to prevent foreign intervention; hence, it must restore peace and order as quickly as possible. To meet all of these problems, it is likely at first to ask non-members--experienced bureaucrats and public men with prestige--to join the cabinet... Such "fellow-travelers" or allies of expediency are regarded as expendable as soon as the new ruling circle has gained enough experience and has consolidated its power. . . . Cliques and factions consist of individuals who are often bound together by ties of friendship and long-standing acquaintance, typically reaching back to school days and sometimes also including kinship, frequently by marriage. Members typically hold of- ficial positions in the bureaucracy. . . . Increas- ingly, they have been military officials, but civilian bureaucrats also played decisive roles in these cabi- net groups. Without the political power required to influence significantly Cabinet decisions affecting education, formation of over-all educational policy becomes the prerogative of other, more powerful Cabinet Ministers. Within the Ministry of Education itself, neither the Minister nor the under-Secretary of State for Education has sufficient power to deter- mine unilaterally the course of events, for each department Operates more or less autonomously. ,The power to remain autonomous and to go their separate ways is given to the Directors-General of departments -50- by virtue of (1) their direct or indirect access to powerful Cabinet Ministers who can wield influence to guarantee independence of action, and (2) lack of organizational and managerial skills which would permit the Ministry secretariat to enforce clear demarcations of reSponsibility and authority. In the absence of such guidelines--and in view of the v////// fact that inter-departmental communication and coordination are-con- spicuous by their absence--line and staff relationships are frequently confused, general policies are soon abandoned or ignored by subordi- nate offices, essential anciliary services are not forthcoming at the proper time or in the right quantity, and the several levels of educa- tion (elementary, secondary, university and adult) remain unarticulated. The Ministry of Education has until very recently (mid-1966) lacked any machinery whatever for long- or short-range planning; in the absence of clear-cut objectives which might require planning for attainment, this shortcoming has not been sorely felt. Planning in the past has entailed a casual review by the Under—Secretary of disparate and occa- sionally conflicting programs or projects submitted for his approval by relatively autonomous departments; in the absence of research (or even factual) data upon which to base an opinion concerning over-all needs of educational develOpment in Thailand, the Under-Secretary has been wont to approve frequently competing projects or programs submitted by Directors-General--checking only to insure that budgetary requests con— form to the prescribed format and that arithmetic computations have been correctly performed. The marked lack of educational objectives--and planning capacity -51- to effectuate such objectives--has served to obscure the fact that, as presently constituted, the Ministry is almost totally lacking in machin- ery to effectively coordinate plans, projects or programs cutting across departmental lines. Coordination is confused with cOOperation, and the techniques for getting cooperation are used ineffectively in an at- tempt to bring about coordination. It has been said that had confer- ences not been known elsewhere, the Thai bureaucracy would have found it necessary to invent them! Meetings and conferences are endemic, but clear-cut decisions are rare; such decisions as may be forthcoming are of questionable Jalue, as many conference participants are not qualified by either experience or training to deal with the matters un- der consideration. Political behavior (whiskey-soda coordination, as . it is known to the Thai) frequently dominates such meetings, and deci- sions when reached tend to reflect friendship or an exchange of favors. V////// Finally, and most importantly, such meetings become a device for shar- ing, and hence avoiding entirely, personal responsibility. At present, whiskey-soda coordination is employed as a substitute for executive de- cision—making. There tends to be confusion throughout the Ministry of Education between line and staff functions. If it is essential to the efficiency of any large organization to maintain clear distinctions between "line" or program functions and "staff" or program control and support functions, then this confusion must be viewed as contributing significantly to in- efficiency and mismanagement. In the Office of the under-Secretary, for example, both line and staff functions are performed, frequently with both -52- kinds of functions assigned to the same division. A.number of staff (program support) functions, such as architectural design, which serve every department of the Ministry are lodged in divisions within depart- ments when they rightly belong under the direct supervision of the Under-Secretary and his staff. Program control functions--such as auditing, assessment and evaluation--are now assigned to line depart- ments responsible for management of programs, resulting in the absence of impartial and realistic assessment of program effectiveness. Within departments, divisions and sections, new projects are fre- quently assigned to‘gg‘hgg units created specifically to administer them without provision for their permanent integration into on-going and closely related programs of the agency. Currently, to cite an example, there exists within the Department of Secondary Education a Project Coordinating Unit, a Canadian Loan Project Unit, an Agri- cultural Education Project and a Comprehensive School Project; none of these,§g.flgg projects, or their attendant staffs, have official recognition outside of the Department itself, all have implications for programs within existing divisions of the Department, and none are being coordinated with one another or with on-going programs. Reason would dictate that these special projects, and others like them scattered throughout the Ministry, should be integrated into normal administrative machinery. As the Department of Educational Technigues is responsible for adaptation and diffusion of the three innovations chosen for study in this research project, a closer examination of the organizational and -53- management problems found therein should serve two salutary purposes; (1) since the administrative and organizational policies and practices of this Department do not differ significantly from those found in other departments, the problems encountered will illuminate those created elsewhere as the result of bureaucratic management, and (2) familiarity with the inner working of this Department may help to clarify under- standing of the obstacles confronting diffusion of educational inno- vations to using agencies (schools). The Department of Educational Tethnigues, as noted earlier, is the center for develOpment of techniques of instruction in the Ministry. It has responsibility for conducting certain types of educational re- search, for organizing syllabi, for producing and standardizing text- books, for authorizing textbooks used in schools, and for producing educational equipment and learning aids for schools. The organization which this Department employs to achieve its purposes is shown in Figure 4. The.2gg§bggk_2iyi§igg develops and re- vises school curricula and syllabi. It considers and approves text- books, teachers manuals and supplementary books. It also (quite incon- gruously) promotes music appreciation and music instruction in schools. The'gg2§§§$§§§;_gég§_2;yigjgg encourages schools and teachers to produce and understand the use of teaching aids, and operates a materials workshop, a library, and a natural science museum for the benefit of teachers and students. While the teaching aids produced by this Divi- sion should logically be consistent with textbooks and curricula, there appears to be no arrangement for securing such consistency. A new agency, awn: mow< -oaeaa coauuwm kHOumHonmA enasoguuso w mmmuan mfiOMuNH meHH “an: acne -3358 a _54- wcfimflmua mow>momucH uwcb -maaaee< moucmo mmmmumumz amcowumosem masses 4 sea: W o>wumuu I Cowuomm somuuommasm s0fluomm Loumommm cam zo>umm Coauowm coauowm coauowm xoonuxmw e 11 snows: muomwoum cowuoom Esamowpuso cam hmmuan ammowumosom mommcwm mowuoom mowuomm Cowuomm mowuoom mamwmoumz mowumflumum oumme ll owns: HmcofiuosuumcH Hm:o«umomvm Icommouuoo Edflumu mowww>wo hHMumHomm umamHm cowmfi>wa mxoonuxma mow< Hemogumudwm cowww>qo Lommwmom we“ mo mommmo . .H gxll >xxg. _ Hmnmcwu mouommwo mnu mo mowwmo mosvflccome Hmcowumosvm mo unusuummoa — T I -55- the Educational Materials Center, has been established to obtain the qualified staff necessary to produce visual aids and similar ma- terials; although the Educational Aids Division and the Educational Materials Center are functionally one and the same, creation of a separate unit is a familiar gambit employed by all government de- partments to circumvent civil service manning tables too rigid to accommodate changing manpower needs. The Eibrary and Museum Section of the Educational Aids Division presents natural science exhibits, supervises a children's library, and arranges lecture series. The Planetarium, while appearing to occupy division status, is a separate unit and represents an anachroniém in the Department of Edu- cational Techniques. The Research Division was formerly comprised of three sections, but the functions of two--educational statistics and educational projects --were transferred to the Educational Planning Office. The Survey and Research Section conducts a few research studies on topics it considers related to the techniques of teaching, such as programmed instruction, methods of teaching modern mathematics and science instruction. The Office of the Secretary handles general services for the De- partment--correspondence, personnel, bookkeeping, budget preparation, etc. Conversations with personnel from the Education Division of the United States Operations Mission who work closely with the Department of Educational Techniques disclose the following weaknesses; -56- (1) The organization structure is illogical. The Educational Materials Center and the Educational Aids Division exist as two divi- sions--both constructing instructional materials and promoting their use. The reason for establishment of separate units is to obtain suitably qualified staff members. The Educational Aids Division contains a library and museum section but the Planetarium is essen- tially the same thing, an additional learning resource facility; the latter Operates as a separate technical unit in order to secure the skilled staff necessary to service it but denied to the Educational Aids Division by rigid organization and manning policies. The Text- book Division is in reality another learning resource center--the only difference between it and the other two units with similar func- tions being the types of learning resources for whose development and promotion it is responsible. (2) An extremely narrow definition of the functions to be per- formed by curricula and instruction pervades the Department; responsi- bility for providing a structured, articulated progression of learning experiences through the use of psychologically and sociologically vali- dated content, teaching methods and materials suited to the needs of children with dissimilar intellectual endowments and coming from diver- gent socio-economic backgrounds is not recognized or acknowledged. While the Department should lead in formulating curriculum changes, it appears to view its role as that of an expediter or promoter and to emphasize the construction of teaching aids and adoption of textbooks; evidence of this restricted view of the curricular role is provided by -57- the fact that this important task has been assigned to "the Textbook Division." While the Department of Educational Techniques does or- ganize instructional material and content, it does not adequately translate Thai educational aims into gradeélevel objectives suitable for evaluation nor does it provide means for evaluating those objec- tives. There are no full-time subject matter specialists in the de- partment and there is no evaluation unit. (3) Although both the Educational Aids Division and the Educa- tional Materials Center acknowledge responsibility for diffusion or dissemination of the books, materials, curricula and syllabi produced by them, no official recognition of this role is to be found; the or- ganization chart of the Department makes no provision for a unit with such re5ponsibility. Interdepartmental committee meetings, publica- tions and personal communication with supervisors, Changwad Education Officers, principals and teachers are the only channels of communica- tion available to disseminate knowledge of the materials available-- and discussions with Ministry of Education personnel in the provinces disclose that many, if not most, are unaware of materials other than textbooks and syllabi available from the department. 7(4) The Department of Educational Techniques lacks a formal means of evaluating the effectiveness of syllabi and texts it produces and distributes. It also is without means of trying out its products on an experimental basis and subjecting them to objective analysis before of- ficial recognition is conferred. The impediments to decision making and diffusion of innovations -58- created by the organizational and managerial practices discussed thus far are formidable. Looking first at the decision-making process, an absence of explicit educational objectives renders it impossible for Ministry personnel to engage in meaningful long-range planning, for this latter function assumes that objectives have been first formulated and then Operationalized. Much as planning assumes objectives, so co- ordination assumes planning; the dearth of both operationalized objec- tives and meaningful planning renders the paucity of coordinatiVe machinery within the Ministry understandable and, indeed, predictable. Given the absence of these preconditions for "rational," "patterned," and "cumulative" decision-making, a systems analyst might well predict the seeming illogic encountered so frequently in both organizational and managerial practices employed by the Ministry. When marching to the sound of a different drummer, distinctions between line and staff functions lose their meaning; assignment of staff functions to an essen- tially Operational department or assignment of line functions to a unit performing predominantly staff duties appear to be less a breach of managerial etiquette. Establishment of,ag‘hgg units to oversee new projects, rather than assigning responsibility for their management to existing divisions, also seems less horrendous. If conference, legitimation and defense of personal or organizational status rather than single-minded pursuit of educational objectives are the primary L//” goals sought; "horse trading," exchanges of political favors and "whis- key-soda" coordination come to represent functional means. Especially if one views the pursuit of status as a "zero-sum game," collective -59- rather than personal decisions, diffuse rather than well-defined re- sponsibility become thelging‘gga‘ngn of survival--for today's ally may switch allegiance tomorrow and become a member of the contending cli- que. Nominally, executive decisions such as those to inaugurate, con- tinue or discontinue programs and projects come to be based on rather shrewd calculations of who or which group will gain or lose status, prestige and power thereby. As for the diffusion of innovations in a milieu such as that de- scribed here, one would suspect that the source of sponsorship and cal- culations of increments to power, prestige and status which might result from adoption would weigh heavily. So, too, one suspects, would visi- bility which might result from adoption or non-adoption; if "significant others" push adOption of school libraries or encourage formation of Boy Scout troops, failure to adopt either is easily determined by visual in- spection. Non-adoption of the discusSion method of instruction or assign- ment of reading in library books, on the other hand, is more difficult to detect by simple visual inspection. One would suspect that what has come to be termed "compliance behavior," rather than personal and profes- sional commitment,might better describe decisions to adopt innovations made by members of the bureaucracy. To summarize this section, the following are seen as some--though certainly not all--of the organizational and managerial impediments to decision-making and diffusion of innovations found within the Ministry of Education: (1) The Minister of Education is a relatively powerless member of -50- the Cabinet, with the result that his views, and those of other pro- fessional educators within the Ministry, can be, and frequently are, ignored when decisions are reached which significantly affect the fu- ture development of education in Thailand. Decisions such as that to transfer responsibility for elementary education from the Ministry of Education to the Ministry of Interior are made by the Cabinet on the basis of political calculations rather than on the basis of rationalizing the goals or administration of education, with the result that coordina- tion and integration of new methodology is complicated beyond necessity. In so far as important decisions such as that cited above have the effect over time of (inadvertently) establishing the objectives for education in Thailand, it can be postulated that these fundamental educational objec- tives will reflect the confusion of changing political pressures rather than a consistently and rationally formulated purpose such as one might expect if decisions setting basic educational objectives were made by the Cabinet and responsibility for their attainment were delegated to the Ministry of Education. (2) Effective and coordinated administration by the Ministry of even the essentially haphazard policies established by Cabinet decision is rendered impossible in light of the inordinate constraints placed on decision-making by rigid civil service rules and Cabinet involvement in matters dealing with day-to-day management of the educational enterprise. Neither the Minister of Education nor the Under-Secretary of State for Edu- cation is master of this ship. Their freedom to formulate and pursue rational, consistent and coordinated policies is severely circumscribed -61- by the necessity to honor educationally dysfunctional decisions made elsewhere serving essentially non-educational ends. This managerial sterility is reflected in the ability of Directors-General to main- tain their autonomy of Operation and decision-making, an autonomy which results in the debilitating pursuit of personal power, prestige, and status. Coordination of programs has been rendered nearly impossible by virtue Of the very fact that departments are, in the Thai system, ”competing" rather than ”OOOperating" entities. Failure of Directors- General to cooperate in maintaining the organizational integrity of the Department of Elementary Education stands as mute testimony to the fact that relative position within the Ministry structure is more important to the individuals involved than is integration of educational efforts. (3) Managerial and organizational policies for administration and e- valuation in the Provinces are weak, illogical and ineffectual. By ig- noring and/or circumventing Regional Education Offices, the Secretariat of the Ministry violates the logic Of a narrow Span of control. Seventy- One Changwad Education Officers theoretically report directly to the Under- Secretary of State for Education; in reality, these officials too find ample room for autonomy of Operation and freedom from supervision. Chang- wad Education Officers, nominally responsible for supervision of secondary education within the area of their reSponsibility, have no secondary edu- cation supervisors assigned tO their staffs. A communication link vital to the diffusion of educational innovations from the Ministry Offices in Bangkok to the Provinces is thus cut. Secondary education supervisors as- signed to the staffs of Regional Education Officers could (theoretically) -52- fill this gap were it not for the fact that they have been isolated and that the number of secondary supervisors assigned to them is too small to accomplish the tasks required. (4) Combining Of line and staff responsibilities results in the in- ability Of Ministry executives to monitor and evaluate independently the extent to which operating units do or do not comply with their directives. For example, the Changwad Education Officer who is requested by his superior to improve library facilities in his Province is unlikely to report noncompliance, and in the absence of independent evaluation could report compliance when such has not been the case. Ministry officials in Bangkok contend that Regional and Changwad Education Officers have estab- lished audio-visual centers from which schools may borrow moving picture projectors, slide projectors, tapes, films, film strips and film slides, but personal inspection of many such offices Of both types turned up not one audio-visual lending service. Individual secondary school principals, especially those whose schools are located some distance from the Changwad Office, enjoy as much independence from supervision as do the Changwad Education Officers themselves. While many Changwad Officers attempt to visit each school under their supervision at least once every two years, others do not, and specialists assigned to the staffs of Changwad Education Offices are restricted to working with schools in nearby :villages by the -53- absence of either transportation, transportation funds, or per diem allowances.4 As a result of the unwillingness or inability of Chang- wad Education Officers and supervisory personnel either to diffuse in- formation about innovations or to assess the extent of their use, this important communication and feedback link between Bangkok and the indi- vidual school carries fewer messages than it theoretically could. (5) Personnel policies are dysfunctional. One hears it said fre- quently by foreign Observers of Thai bureaucratic behavior that the civil service contains provision for reward but not punishment. The ./~ fate which confronts an incompetent or ineffectual government employee is transfer to another, supposedly less crucial, post. Operating in conformance with the rules of a "bureaucratic policy," ineffectual tea- chers, school principals, supervisors, Changwad Education Officers and other Ministry employees are allowed to serve in the bureaucracy until retirement and/or qualification for pension. Conversely, talented tea- chers, principals, and Provincial and Regional personnel generally find it possible to Obtain transfers which take them to larger population centers, eventually ending up at a Ministry post in Bangkok. The effect of this movement by talented personnel away from the villages and toward “ 4In a mimeographed report issued recently by the United States Op- erations Mission, Thailand, it was reported that 24 elementary education supervisors in the three Changwads of Ubon, Sakon Nakhon and Nakhon Phenom each have an average of 100 schools and 336 teachers to supervise; to accomplish this supervisory task they are allotted the sum of 10 baht” ($.50) per school per year. Comparable figures for support of secondary school supervision are not, unfortunately, contained in this report, "A Digest of a Brief Survey of Education in Ubon, Sakon Nakhon and Nakhon Phanom," UBOM, Bangkok, Thailand (undated), 8 pp. -64- the capitol is to leave education of children in the hands of those least qualified by training and intellectual ability to perform this important task, while attracting to functionally sterile and higher status positions in Bangkok those who might actually improve the quality of education in Thailand's classrooms. Were Ministry, Regional or Chang- wad offices organizationally and managerially structured to utilize fully the talents of these talented personnel, a net gain for educa- tion could be postulated as the result Of such movement, but new ar— rivals from the Provinces to central administrative positions soon learn that conformance to traditions, rather than the innovativeness which may have helped them gain their new positions, is the road to survival and promotion. Commun cati d Communicat Feedb ck Ch e 8 ‘Within the Ministry of Education, as is true for any large bureau- cratic organization, "formal" or "Official" channels of communication transmit only a small proportion of the total communication load required to manage and monitor the enterprise; as will be shown below, the Thai bureaucracy employs, for the diffusion of information, several communi- cation channels not ordinarily accorded such importance by comparable Western entities. Addressing himself generally to the relationship between communi- cation and decision-making, Siffin (1966) stated that . . . "The data of decision-making are to an impressive degree personal rather than objective, -55- and their significance tends to lie in their source more than in their content." (p. 236) He continues: "Perhaps because of its lime ited relevance, much of the 'hard data' generated in the system tends to be unreliable anyhow, so that the personalized, subjective approach to decision-making is supported by the dubiousness of the available al- ternatives." (p. 237) Touching first upon the more conventional channels of communica- tion--those heavily utilized by most bureaucratic organizations-~record8 . maintained by offices at every level in the hierarchy carry perhaps the heaviest load of "Official" information or data. While much useful come munication is transmitted via this channel, an inordinate amount of record-keeping represents evidence to minimize responsibility for parti- cular occurrences and events. Siffin (1966:236) nicely summarizes the prevalence of records and record-keeping when he observes that " . . .The ubiquitous police kiosk would be fundamentally unfurnished without its large journal into which someone is usually scribbling entries, and it exemplifies the fact that written records are made about practically everything recordable that concerns the operations of the bureaudracy." While personal inspections are in many bureaucratic organizations a means by which higher-ranking Officials seek information about the state of affairs within the area of their jurisdiction, Thai civil servants use them more often to transmit than to receive intelligence; government Of- ficials in the field tend to talk rather than to listen. Siffin, howa ever, records an exception to this rule: -66- A truly masterful Thai administrator I have known made a success of his field visits by convincing most of his subordinates of his paternal pride and interest in their work and their particular problems, and by loosening their tongues with liquor. The dinners that went with his in- sPections became lively and uninhibited discussions. (Siffin, 1966:237). He goes on to point out that this behavior may be considered extraor- dinary, Observing that . inspection tends to be a formalism, unless some particular trouble has already occurred and needs to be set right . . . With all its utility, inspection has its.limitations as a source of reliable knowledge of what is going on. In the Thai bureaucracy these limi- tations are enhanced by the effects Of status. On in- spections, one commonly sees the inspectors talking instead of listening; the posture of subordinates is usually deferential and protective. (p. 237) A communication channel, perhaps unique for the sheer volume and diversity of information (and misinformation) it carries, is the ubiqui- tous grape vine; this far—flung network is very likely a model of its kind, reaching from Bangkok to the remotest village and abetted by the fact that Thais appear to be both keen Observers and inveterate gossips. Deepite the obstacles presented by relatively poor roads and a shortage of vehicles, the Thai citizen appears to be rather well traveled. Within the Ministry of Education, the necessity that Changwad Education Officers come to Bangkok monthly for the purpose of picking up money used to pay school principals and teachers provides an ideal Opportunity for the col- lection Of information in the national capitol for transmission back to the Province; the efforts of these officials is bountifully supplemented by those of traveling supervisors and other personnel from the central Office. As each school principal must journey monthly to the Provincial -57- capitol to receive his pay and that of his teachers, he serves to dif— fuse information gathered in Bangkok by the Changwad Education Officer to his village and its environs. Ministry-planned and sponsored visitations by school principals and teachers to "model" or "pilot" schools to observe the use Of inno- vations is reportedly being used on a limited scale to diffuse knowledge of certain new practices. Thai informants report that the United Nations Pilot Project at Cha-choengsao was the first large-scale Ministry use of this communication channel; in this case, large numbers Of Changwad and Amphur Education Officers, school principals and teachers were brought by train and bus from all parts of the Kingdom to view this experiment. While these informants convey the impression that this experiment failed to effect widespread diffusion of innovations introduced at Cha-choengsao --reportedly because principals and teachers viewed Cha-choengsao as a "special case"--the use of such visitations has not been totally discon- tinued. Committee meetings, in addition to the function of blurring reSpon- sibility for particular decisions as suggested earlier, serve also to dif- fuse information--although their usefulness as a source of communication is mitigated by the fact that credibility or authoritativeness tends to be more a function of the speaker's status than any legitimate claim to expertise. But because of their frequency, if fOr no Other reason, com- mittee meetings serve as channels for the communication of considerable intelligence. Rules and regulations abound in the Thai bureaucracy, and for this Ill Illlll 'l I III"! I .|I|‘|l|l \ . -68- reason constitute a most important source of communication from higher to lower levels in the hierarchy. While the system of reward and pun- ishment (to say nothing of the civil service examination system) neces- sitates familiarity with these rules and regulations, they are quite frequently honored only in the breach. In reality, many regulations promulgated by the Ministry to govern administration of the system are contingent upon certain pre-conditions--thus providing "acceptable" grounds for non~compliance; regulations specifying permissible student- teacher ratios (conditional upon the availability of teachers) or some of those which establish minimum qualifications for teachers (contingent upon the ability to employ individuals possessing these qualifications) are examples in point. This channel of communication appears to be infrequently used, however, to diffuse information about, or require adoption of, educational innovations; it may represent a much too inflexible tool for this purpose. Two of the most effective channels of communication for transmis- sion of change-oriented information would appear to be educational jour- nals and in-service training programs sponsored by Offices at various levels Of the hierarchy. In addition to the ten "Officially" recognized journals devoted exclusively to diffusion of information about education, a number of Regional and Changwad Education Officers (following a precedent set by the Changwad Officer at Chiengrai) now publish their own journals for distribution to teachers and principals in their area Of responsi- bility. In-service training programs and conferences are also being used increasingly by these Officials to facilitate the transmission of information from Bangkok to the Provinces. -69- Certainly one Of the more colorful, exotic and unique methods of communicating to government Office holders both their responsibilities and the fate which awaits those who fail in performance of their duties (but of interest now only to historians, as the practice has been aban- doned) is the official oath of allegiance quoted by Siffin (1966:27-28) in part, as follows: We, the slaves of the Lord Buddha, beg to offer to His Majesty...our personal oath, pledging our loyalty, in the immediate presence of the Buddha, the sacred teachings and the sacred priests. If we, the slaves of our Lord Buddha, are not firmly fixed in true natural gratitude..., or if we disclose our minds to the people or rulers of other regions which are hostile, and plot that others do evil to...the King; if we see with our eyes, hear with our ears, or know that others are abOUt to do evil to His Majesty, and do not bring forward the subject for investigation, so that it may be especi- ally brought tO the knowledge of His Majesty, but delay with evil intent, with ingratitude, and lack of honesty, and with evil purpose...: we pray the deities of lands and forests; the guar- dian deities; the atmOSpheric deities; the goddesses who care for the earth, especially the powerful dei- ties who are located where is the great white Umbrella, emblem Of royalty, may plague us with evils, destroy our lives, effect our destruction and death by break- age, by severance; cause our death by lightning and thunderbolts, by royal weapons, the powerful royal sword, by poison, and the power of land and water animals; let there be some opportunity for the de- struction Of the perfidious ones; let swift destruc— tion come; let us not escape all great disasters... We beseech the power Of the deities to plague with poisonous boils, rapidly fatal, and all manner of diseases, the dishonorable, perverse, and treacherous; plague with untimely, wretched, and appalling deaths, manifest to the eyes of the world. When we shall have departed this life from earth, cause us to be sent and all to be born in the great hell, where we shall burn with quenchless fire for tens and thousands of ages and limitless transmigrations. And when we -70- have expiated our penalty there, and are born again in any world, we pray we may fail to find the least happiness in worlds of pleasurable enjoyments... If we remain firmly established in gratitude and honesty, and do not contemplate rebellion..., we beg the land, the forest, and the atmospheric deities, and the four great guardians of the world..., and the guar- dian deities that protect His Majesty by night and by day, and the deities that protect the palace, and the deities stationed to protect the twelve royal treasuries, and all the deities, the armories, and ministers, and great royal property; we entreat you all to assist, and protect us who perform all Official duties faith- fully; grant us prosperity and happiness in this and in other worlds... ' To insure that government officials "got the message," each was required to take this oath twice yearly. Turning now to the subject of information flow from lower echelons of the Ministry to decision-making centers, reports, records and personal observations made as officials travel in the field constitute the prin- cipal means of "Official" feedback. Reports and records as sources of in- formation which might serve as the basis for decision-making and program modification both suffer from the disability of having been prepared for the attention of higher ranking officials by those possessing‘less pres- tige. Generally, speaking, the Ministry appears to lack a mechanism for I" digesting and using the data contained in the mountains of records and re- ports which it regularly receives from lower echelons. Inspection trips by high-ranking Ministry officials, as noted earlier, tend to be formal, and dysfunctional in the sense that these Officials have a propensity to talk rather than listen--thereby missing the opportunity to learn about the nature Of problems encountered by teachers and school administrators as these latter attempt to execute Ministry programs. -71- In the nearly total absence of Officially sanctioned means Of ex- pressing their frustrations and airing their problems, Ministry personnel in large numbers resort to what again appears to be a uniquely or charac- teristically Thai solution: the poison pen or accusatory anonymous letter. Such communications reportedly emanate in truly impressive numbers from every level of the bureaucracy; most frequently addressed to those occu- pying positions of higher status in the Ministry--up to and including the Minister--they provide these officials with some considerable informa- tion about conditions in the field. National, regional and Changwad level meetings and seminars convened to discuss particular educational problems also provide Ministry Officials with an Opportunity to receive feedback from school teachers and principals. Again, however, status differences prohibit an uninhibited exchange of in- formation; as a consequence, such meetings are not as useful as they might be. Concluding this section, there appears to be general agreement among foreign observers of the Thai scene that poor communication and feedback constitute serious problems to program accomplishment. Siffin (1966), for example, wrote that: There is little systematic communication into the bureaucracy . . . The transactional relations be- tween the bureaucracy and its environment tend to be particular and personal, and to depend upon subtleiand informal (and, sometimes, illicit) arrangements be- tween individuals and the bureaucratic agencies with which they are involved . . . . The quality Of bureau- cracy-environmental communication seems to be fraught with significance for the future. . . Reliable feed- back from the environment concerning the actual effect -72- of bureaucratic activities grows more important. But status barriers and the absence of any meaningful and widespread mechanisms for articulating--let alone aggregating—-interests are serious barriers to such feedback. (pp. 240-241) As a summary to this chapter, the following rather extensive quote from Siffin (1966) serves to combine nicely many of the observations made earlier concerning cultural values as they give shape and form to organiza- tion and management of the Ministry of Education. These comments are es- pecially valuable as they conclude with a description of the forces which influence the pattern Of change within Thailand and its bureaucracies. The .‘. . arrangements which influence and con- trol bureaucratic behavior are parts of the visible, deliberate devices for ”energizing" the administra— tive system. Along with the pattern of authority. they direct and produce certain kinds of behavior. These arrangements reflect more subtle, underlying cultural influences--influences more fundamental than the immediate bureaucratic arrangements. Systematic studies of these cultural characteristics and the ways in which they affect bureaucratic behavior remain to be made, but some relevant evidence is available, and a certain amount of speculation is not without its merit. Buddhism, the benign, a-political Theravada Buddhism Of Thailand, is beyond all doubt a potent acculturating and socializing force. The norms that a man should keep his temper under control, that he should be bene- volent, that he should be tolerant of the behavior of other individuals--these find their sources in Buddhism. The limited intensity of most personal relations, and an apathetic posture toward secondary associations generally, also seem related tO Buddhist tenets. Buddhism subordinates the affairs of the world generally to a concern with escaping from it. It offers a variety Of sources of protection against anxiety for ‘r/' the individual, but it is not social-action oriented. It ascribes no particular merit to purposive, impersonal administrative organizations. At best, productive bu- reaucratic behavior is Buddhistically neutral, and not -73- highly meaningful. The personal relationships of members of the bureaucratic system are something else; Buddhist tenets afford a plentiful set of guides and norms for interpersonal relationships. Limited studies of the Thai personality...pro- vide a picture Of a man who is relatively self- satisfied, who views his world in terms of personal status and the differential status of those with whom he has meaningjul relationships, and whose concern in this world is self-protection and the achievement of his own status desires. Judging from limited data, Thais tend to re- gard the proper person as "carefree," "generous," and "gentle," and to be relatively well pleased with their self-perceptions in relation to this model. Their political posture is largely apathetic and beyond that, spectatorial, and their posture toward adminis- trative organizations peg §g_seems to parallel it. Looking out on the world, the individual tends to regard the information that comes to him in terms of its social utility in the manipulation of the behavior of others and in the maintenance of status relationships. The meaning and utility Of knowledge seems to depend upon the craftsman who made it, or more specifically, the social status of the infor- mation's source. This suggests an intensely per- sonalistic perspective, and one with little bias in favor of impersonal empirical data as a basis for perception and action. The typical Thai seems to show great flexibility in slipping from one role to another--as long as the roles are of the same status level. Diffuse bureaucratic roles, Whose most explicit components are status definitions, are thoroughly compatible with such personality characteristics. The recipro- city which is a pervasive, if not Officially man- dated element of bureaucratic relationships, is also thoroughly consistent with the loose social struc- ture, the benevolent tolerance sanctioned within it, and the personalistic Thai Weltanschauung. In short, the Thai culture appears to be marked by the persistence of the traditional, and not by any marked tendency to break with it. So, too, has the bureaucracy been distinguished by the persis- tence within it of values whose antecedents lie far back in society's history, values which remain sub- stantially compatible with its broader cultural context. -74- Fortunately, that culture has been marked by impres- sive capacities for adaptation. But the changes which have taken place within it have not represented a pro- found break with tradition so much as the changing ex- pression of persistent tradition to meet new needs. The techniques by which the contemporary bureaucracy is energized do differ greatly from those which were commonplace before the Chakri Reformation; but the central premises upon which those techniques are based are hardly new. (PP. 242-243) CHAPTER IV RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION Research Design The research design finally chosen to effectuate the Thailand Diffusion Research Project was dictated by a number of interrelated considerations, the nature of which should be made explicit if the reader is to comprehend fully all that follows in this and subsequent chapters. It had been determined in the early stages of conceptualization that this study would be descriptive and correlational rather than ex- perimental and manipulative. The choice of a descriptive and correla- tional design necessitated that information from a rather large sample of respondents be obtained and that those subjectsselected would re- flect faithfully the universe from which they had been drawn. Self- administered, pre-coded questionnaire instruments rather than personal interviews were employed to Obtain data because (1) the sample size was to be very large, (2) trained Thai interviewers in sufficient numbers were not available and could not be trained in the time allotted, (3) the cost which use of interviewers would entail was well beyond the amount budgeted for data collection, (4) use of inexperienced Thai in- terviewers would have multiplied the probability Of error, and (5) logistical support was not available to sustain a large force of field interviewers. -75- -75- It was also assumed from the outset that, in addition to any con- tribution which it might make to the store of data available for schol- arly use, this study should generate information which government offi- cials could use in reaching policy decisions leading to increased capacity Of the Thai educational system to ingest and diffuse innovations. The stipulation that this research be action-oriented, together with the ac- tuality of present Ministry organization and administration patterns, necessitated that data be Obtained not only from "target personnel" (sec- ondary school teachers in this case) but from "gate-keepers" in the system (Ministry Officials, Changwad Education Officers and school principals) as well; three separate questionnaire forms were required-~0ne each for sample teachers, school principals and Changwad Education Officers. (In- formation from Ministry officials was procured by means of personal inter- views.) Only data derived from partial analysis of teacher questiOnnaire instruments will be discussed in this report; information Obtained from a more complete analysis of teacher questionnaires plus data derived from school principals and Changwad Education Officers will appear in monographs and journal articles scheduled for future publication. The companion goals Of (l) obtaining as much information as pos- sible from a crossesection of sources, (2) collecting information which would lend itself to various types of cross-analyses, and (3) select- ing for study innovations whose adoption required a diversity (variety) of decision patterns by the several hierarchical levels-~posed serious problems of choosing innovations about which respondents would be questioned. It was concluded that these three goals would be best served if the innovations -77- selected for study were arranged in various decision patterns accord- ing to the following classification: (1) adoption of certain innovations studied should reflect "system" (Ministry) and/or "school management" (principal) decisions which, once made, would require compliance by sub- ordinate units (schools) or individuals (teachers); (2) adoption of cer- tain innovations by subordinate individuals or administrative units should require, as a pre-condition, prior adoption by a superordinate individual or agency; (3) adOption Of certain innovations by subordinate individuals or administrative units should.ng£ require, as a pre-condi- tion, prior adOption by a superordinate individual or agency; (4) adOp- tion of certain innovations by the school as a unit should require, as a pre-condition of individual teacher adoption, expenditure of non- apprOpriated school funds; (5) adOption of certain innovations by the school as a unit should‘ggt require, as a pre-condition Of individual teacher adOption, the expenditure of non-appropriated school funds; (6) adOption of certain innOvations by individual teachers should re- quire that they learn tO manipulate or Operate mechanical devices; (7) adoption Of certain innovations by individual teachers should,ngt re- quire that they learn to manipulate or Operate mechanical devices; (8) adoption of certain innovations by individuals and/or administrative units should represent a very marked departure from traditional (pre-WOrld War II) educational practice; (9) adoption of certain innovations by in- dividuals and/or administrative units should represent only a negligible departure from traditional (pre-World War II) educational practice. In addition to the criteria noted above—~which represent various decision pat- terns and pre-conditions necessitated for personal and/or unit adOption-- -73- it was deemed advisable to select for study innovations whose date of introduction into the Thai educational system ranged along a time dim- ension; certain educational practices were to have been known in Thailand for many years while others studied were to have been introduced much more recently. With these criteria in mind, a four-man panell identified ten educational innovations which would become the Object of study; two, use Of secondary school libraries as a teaching-learning resource and coedu- cational organization of government academic secondary schools, were pur- posefully selected for study in greater detail than were to be the remain- ing eight. (As questionnaire instruments would have been prohibitively long were all ten innovations studied in great depth, it was decided to plumb deeply for information about, and attitudes toward, adoption of only two of the ten new practices selected.) Table I contains a list of the ten innovations selected for study, classified on the basis of those cri- teria enumerated above; the analysis of data for this report, however, has focused on teacher adoption Of, and perceived beneficiality Of, only those three innovations which they, as individuals, could adopt without prior approval by the "system" or "school management": (1) class discussion method Of instruction; (2) Objective tests; and (3) use of the school li- brary as a teaching-learning resource. Immediately following will be found a description of each of these three innovations, together with (l) the (ap- proximate) year Of introduction, (2) the reported means by which it was 1The group consisted of Dr. Everett Rogers, Dr. Donald Leu, Mr. Nan Lin, and Mr. Fredric Mortimore. -79- introduced into the system (Sponsorship), (3) some indication of the channels reportedly employed to diffuse knowledge of the innovation, and (4) some comments on how each innovation was observed to be used (or mis- used) in the sample schools. .Qlass Discussion¥flethodgg§_Instruction: For the purpose of this study, "class discussion method of instruction" has been defined as the solicitation by teachers of student participation in an exchange of in- formation and views on the subject matter taught, with the intent of en- couraging and developing among students (a) analytical thought, (b) prob- lempsolving ability, and (c) the ability to express themselves clearly, concisely and forcefully. "Hard" or "reliable" information about the introduction and dif- fusion of this innovation proved extremely difficult to obtain from Minis— try of Education officials. ‘Most of those interviewed indicated that use of class discussion dated from."sometime shortly after World War II." Genesis of the innovation was traced by officials interviewed to the re- turn of Thai educators from America, where those sent following World war II first observed its use in practice. Two informants felt that the estab- lishment of Presarn Mitr Teacher Training College in 1950--patterned on the American model and ushered into existence under terms of a teneyear contract between AID and Indiana University--marked the first exposure of Thai teachers in significant numbers to this form of instruction. Both Indiana university faculty members teaching at Presarn Mitr and Thai per- sonnel trained at Indiana who later returned to teach at Presarn Mitr re- portedly employed discussion extensively in an attempt to demonstrate its strengths and procure its acceptance by those who would shortly take up -80— positions in either Provincial teacher training colleges or government secondary schools. While no one Thai was identified as a champion of this instructional method, informants were unanimous in reporting that its use at Presarn Mitr in training future teachers and school administrators has been the chief, if not the only, means of diffusing awareness. Several informants interviewed could recall having read articles in Thai educational journals which discussed this instructional technique, but as sufficient funds were not available to do a search of the litera— ture and have any such articles as may have been written translated, these reports remain unsubstantiated. Reflecting, in part, Continental European influence, the Thai educa- tional system has traditionally relied almost exclusively upon the lecture as a means of instruction; students are required to keep extensive notes on lectures given by teachers and, having committed these to memory, recite in- formation verbatum when called upon to do so. Important évenment‘gg'lglgg, such as the Maw Saw 5 (school leaving), university and Civil Service en- trance examinations, are largely tests of the individual's memory and only infrequently measure his ability to reason or apply facts to solution of concrete or hypothetical problems. Though failing to account for avoidance of discussion, a partial explanation for the traditional reliance upon lectures and memorization in the classroom is to be found in shortages of printed textual material available to both students and teachers. More important, perhaps, in determining the former is generally inadequate preparation of teachers in government secondary schools, over half of whom are unqualified by Ministry standards (themselves very "liberal") to teach the courses for -31- which they are now responsible. Lastly, reliance upon lectures and memorization would seem to accord well with the Thai norm placing high value on deference to one's elders--in this case, deference of pupils to their teachers; informants found it difficult to conceive that Thai teachers would accept with equanimity a challenge of their views (au- thority) by pupils during the course of "discussions." Although 62fper cent of the sample teachers indicated that they use classroom discussion as an instructional method, its employment was only infrequently observed while visiting sample schools; instruction encoun- tered was, for the most part, "wooden" and "formal," with little oppor- tunity or encouragement given to student participation beyond "choral response" and individual recitation. (Only eighty-three, or 13 per cent of the sample teachers, had attended Presarn Mitr Teacher Training Col- lege, where they themselves might have participated in classroom discus- sion.) One possible conclusion to be drawn from this discrepancy be- tween reported use of discussion by teachers and classroom observation is that this instructional technique is employed only sparingly but by a high percentage of teachers. Conversations with both Thai and American informants disclosed that the overwhelming majority of teachers and principals view, as their chief responsibility, the preparation of students to pass examinations which, as indicated earlier, measure the pupil's grasp of "facts." Concluding this review of classroom discussion as an instructional technique, both the present goals of secondary education and the model offered future teachers by those who presently teach in secondary schools -82- and teacher training institutions would seem to favor perpetuation of the lecture-memorization tradition. Those who will enter teaching in the future are now forming their expectations about teaching and are rewarded for memorization of lectures. Only a small minority--those Who attend Presarn Mitr Teachers Training College-~will have been exposed to informed use of classroom discussions, and theirs will be an uphill fight against long-established tradition to gain acceptance for this new instructional methodology. Use of Objective Tests: For the purpose of this study, objective tests have been defined as those which employ questions requiring for answer pre-determined, forced- or multiple-choice responses. This innovation was reported by respondents to have been intro- duced by UNESCO specialists working with the Cha-choengsao Pilot Project schools-~meaning that it was first introduced no earlier than 1950-1951. The names of two Thai educators have been closely associated with objective testing: Dr. Paiboon Ratanamangala and Dr. Chawan Paratagul-- both of whom received their graduate education in the United States. Dr. H. Coulthard Burro, a UNESCO specialist in English language instruction, was named by two respondents as the one foreigner who has been most influential in diffusing information about this innovation. Dr. Paiboon, then principal of the experimental boys secondary school at Cha-choengsao, organized a training seminar at Bang Saen Teacher -83- Training College in 1954 which, attended by 200 secondary school prin- cipals, had as its major aim the diffusion of information about use of objective tests. During the school vacation period in 1955, Dr. Paiboon, with the assistance of Dr. Burrow, organized another training session for school principals; to this second meeting dealing with objective tests (which lasted 12 days and was held in Bangkok at Triam Udom Suksa School), all 333 principals of government secondary schools had been invited. The numerous papers presented at this second conference of school principals were assembled into a 352epage report which contained, in addition to an extensive bibliography, examples of objective tests developed to measure pupil achievement in Thai language, English, mathe- matics, social studies and several other subjects. The intent of confer- ence planners had been that principals would return to their respective schools and train individual teachers in use of objective tests; this goal, informants felt, was not achieved. One member of the Supervisory 'Unit, Department of Secondary Education, volunteered the information that, to her knowledge, many principals attending the 1955 conference made no effort whatsoever to convene meetings of teachers to explain what had transpired at the summer conference. This same informant ventured the Opinion that the publication containing papers presented at the conference Probably found its way into the personal library of principals and has, with few exceptions, never been exposed to scrutiny by school teachers. This official felt that the conference would have been much more success- ful in attaining its goal had both teachers and principals been invited to attend. -84.. Mr. Chawan, now*teaching at Presarn Mitr Teacher Training College, has reportedly spent a great deal of his own money and devoted nearly all of his time to the measurement of achievement, using objective tests; his text-~in Thai--on tests and measurement is reportedly used at Presarn Mitr in all courses dealing with this subject. Dr. Chawan has the distinction of having been given a special grant by the King to continue his experi- mentation in the use of objective tests, and is known throughout Thailand as one of the few academics who will travel anywhere in the Kingdom to ad- dress teachers on his specialty. Numerous articles, written by Dr. Chawan, Dr. Sampong Siri-Jaron or Dr. Paiboon,dealing with objective testing, have appeared in educational journals. The Department of Secondary Education appears to have played a very passive role in diffusing knowledge about, or attempting to gain ac- ceptance for objective testing techniques. In-service training programs dealing with this subject have been held in some Provinces but with little initiative from the Department. Ministry officials questioned about this apparent lack of initiative convey the impression that they perceived the initiation of such programs to be within the jurisdiction of Regional and Changwad Education Officers. One Ministry official, when asked why objective tests appeared to be used so infrequently by classroom teachers, replied that their use requires teachers to first obtain paper and stencils--for which there is no provision in the school budget; then type the stencils, which is time—consuming (even assuming that the teacher knows how to type), and then must Operate the mimeo- graph machine (assuming that the school possesses one in working order). -35- A measure, perhaps, of the extent to which objective tests have been accepted by Ministry officials is the fact that the National school-leaving examinations (Maw Saw 5) are today still predominantly subjective, with perhaps ten per cent of the questions being of a true-false or matching nature. Use of the School Library as a Teaching-Learning Resource: For the purpose of this study, this innovation is defined as the requirement by teachers that students read assignments from books kept in the school library. The first secondary school library was reportedly established in 1907 at King's College, a Palace School maintained for children of the Royal Family. In 1952 the Ministry of Education adopted and announced the policy that all government secondary schools should establish a li- brary. Rajabapit School in Bangkok has been identified as the first government secondary school in Thailand actually to require regular use of the library by students; while this project was designated as an "ex- perimental program" by the Ministry, none of the respondents questioned knew'of published findings resulting from this "experiment." In 1956 the Department of Secondary Education appointed, for the first time, a library supervisor; the woman chosen for this position, Miss Ranjuan Intera-Kamhang, had just returned from the United States where she had received an M.A. degree in library science. Miss Ranjuan reports that at the time of her appointment there was little understanding of, or interest in, libraries as teaching-learning tools among Thai teachers. In 1956 also, the Ministry of Education and AID embarked upon the -86... General Education Development (GED) program, a ten-year project to im- prove education in the Provinces. under the GED program, secondary schools in Chiengmai, Yale and Ubron Provinces received financial support for im- provement in their libraries. By late 1957 or early 1958, Miss Ranjuan reports, libraries in these government secondary schools had been im- proved to the point that they constituted effective teachingnlearning facilities. Based upon recommendations contained in a report by Dr. Norris A. Gelfand (UNESCO library specialist), the Ministry of Education in 1962 established a Library Committee. While the Library Committee has not been especially effective and meets only infrequently, certain few recommen- dations originating with that body have come to fruition-~including one suggesting that teachers receive credit toward certification as a result of courses completed in library science. The Under-Secretary of State for Education is Chairman of this Committee, and Directors-General of all departments are members. The Library Association of Thailand--a nongovernmental voluntary association has, since its founding in 1955, promoted improvement of Government school libraries. The Association publishes a bi-monthly Library Bulletin, sponsors an annual meeting attended by librarians from throughout the Kingdom, has encouraged formation of Association chapters at the Changwad (Provincial) level, sponsors a traveling book display reacha ing twenty Changwads each year (begun in 1964), and offers, in cooperation with the Ministry of Education, a nineeday in-service training program for government school teachers, designed to train them as school librarians. After completing three of these nineuday in-service training programs, the -87. participating teacher is awarded a "Certificate of Completion"; 1,500 teachers reportedly have received such certificates thus far. The Library Association of Thailand has now joined with Khuru Sapha to spon- sor library-science training programs at Regional Education Centers; these programs, usually of two weeks' duration, are most frequently offered during the summer months when schools are closed. Government schools do not receive Ministry funds for the purchase of library books so must rely for their acquisition upon gifts and special library fees collected from students. Stringency of Ministry appropria- tions is also directly reaponsible for the fact that with a few excep- tions secondary schools cannot hire full-time librarians; teachers with instructional responsibilities are appointed to supervise the library as a part-time or "overload" responsibility. —Respondents express the opinion that most secondary school tea- chers--especially older teachers--do not know how to use the library as a teaching-learning resource, they never having been required to use li- braries in the course of their own education. Citing the lack of western- trained librarians and library science educators, some respondents feel that it will be many years before substantial numbers of secondary school students will perceive the use of library books as a natural part of their education. Among the schools visited, the adequacy of libraries varied widely. In smaller, rural schools, the library frequently consisted of only popular magazines and a few stray books piled in one corner of a classroom. In other schools, large numbers of books were neatly filed on shelves, classified -88- by subject matter fields. Generally, libraries, whether large and well- organized or small and unorganized, were poorly patronized. Many libra- rians, whether full or part-time, appeared to prefer that books remain neatly shelved rather than to encourage their circulation. One library was visited in which a card catalog was neatly maintained and even a record of book usage had been kept. Many of the books found in school libraries are popular fiction and would be of little use as reference works for courses offered in the curriculum. Most if not all magazines are of the lurid, popular variety-- and these are heavily read by students and faculty alike. Several schools visited had extensive holdings of English language books, but these, ac- cording to informants, get very little use because neither teachers nor students have sufficient command of the language to use them profitably. Examination of English language textual materials disclosed few signs of use. One gains the impression that Thais are not avid readers and, beyond newspapers and papular magazines, do not seek out information ffom the printed word. This impression was substantiated by the observation of a Ministry official, educated in the West, who ventured the opinion that even well- educated Thais would be unlikely to seek information from books. -89- TABLE I - Classification of the Innovations Studied Vocational Education Use Of Library Parent-Teacher Associations Peace Corps Volunteers Departmental Organization Guidance Counseling Class Discussion Audio-Visual Aids Objective Tests - Coeducation 10 11 12 13. System or school management deci- sion requiring compliance by indi- vidual teacher Adoption by individual teacher re- quires prior adoption by super- ordinate unit or individual Adoption by individual teacher does not require prior adoption by super- ordinate unit Teacher adoption requires expendi- ture of nonappropriated funds . Teacher adoption does not require expenditure Of nonappropriated funds . Teacher adoption requires Operation Of mechanical devices Teacher adoption does not require Operation of mechanical devices AdOption represents very marked de- parture from traditional practice AdOption represents moderate depar- ture from traditional practice Adoption represents only slight de- parture from traditional practice Innovation introduced before WOrdd War II Innovation introduced since World War II but before 1955 Innovation introduced since 1955 X 1 —— ‘.‘__A A ‘ _. A... -__._-._. - ._. - A ..4_ta ‘ L-LAAA., N AA;_._J_L_A_‘ ‘ -90- Sampling Procedures and Selection of Sample Schools Using a table of random numbers and a list of all government aca- demic secondary schools in Thailand provided by the Ministry of Education, a random, stratified, prOportional sample Of schools in this category was drawn in which to administer questionnaire instruments; all vocational secondary schools and private secondary schools were purposely omitted from the sample. The 38 academic secondary schools selected for inclu- sion in the sample (8.64 per cent of the total in this category) employ 732 teachers (8.27 per cent of all teachers in government academic secon- dary schools), and, on the basis of 1965 figures, enroll 13,325 pupils (8.54 per cent of the total enrollment of all schools in this category); due to absence of some teachers at the time questionnaires were adminis- tered in their respective schools, only 629 Of the 732 teachers employed by Sample institutions (85.92 per cent) completed instruments. Of the 38 sample schools, twenty-four (63.53 per cent) enroll both boys and girls (260 of the 440 government academic secondary schools in Thailand [59.09 per cent] are coeducational), seven sample schools (18.23 Per cent) enroll only girls (87 or 19.77 per cent of the total universe are Of this type), and seven sample schools (18.23 per cent) enroll only boys (93 or 21.13 per cent Of the total universe are of this type). As may be seen from an examination Of these figures, coeducational schools are slightly over-represented in the sample, while those enrolling only bOYs or only girls are slightly under-represented. The extent to which sample schools are representative of the universe--in terms of geographical location, number Of teachers employed and enrollment--may be determined by -91- comparison of Table II with Table III; sample schools, it will be seen, reflect very faithfully these characteristics of the universe. In Table IV, sample schools are listed and pertinent information about each is presented. An outline map of Thailand with boundaries of Education Regions and geographic location of sample institutions will be found on page 184. With a universe of 8,846 government academic secondary school teachers and a sample size of 629 subjects, it is possible to infer popu- lation means with 95 per cent confidence that they are within IS per cent of the sample means; correlations of 1.0783 or greater are significant at the .05 level, and correlations of f.1028 or higher are significant at the .01 level.1 1Amethodological caveat should be noted; as indicated in the first paragraph of this section, schools--not individual teachers-~constitute the unit Of random selection for inclusion in the sample-~all teachers present and the principal of each school selected being administered the questionnaire instrument. Moreover, in order to Obtain not only a random but a stratified and proportional sample Of teachers, random selection of schools within any one given geographic region (Northern, Central, etc.) was used only to that point where the number of teachers employed therein re- flected the proportion Of teachers employed by all government schools in that region to the total Of teachers employed by such schools throughout the Kingdom. Citing an example to illustrate this sampling procedure, 29.17 per cent of all government academic secondary school teachers are employed by such schools in the Central geographic region; the further random selection Of schools located within this Central region was dis- continued at that point where the number Of teachers employed by the schools thus far selectedequalled or nearly equalled, 59.17 per cent of the sample size required to work at the .05 level. While use of this sample selection procedure would appear, on the surface, to favor inclusion of teachers em- ployed by larger urban schools, a test of means shows that such has not been the case; sample schools employ a mean Of 19.2 teachers each, while the national mean for government academic secondary schools is 20.1 each. Confidence levels and correlation figures--quite properly it is felt-- are based on the assumption of a random sample. -92- Instrumentation As suggested earlier (Chapter I, p. 8), a central purpose Of the research undertaking herein reported is to test within the Thai environ- ment certain selected hypotheses generated by diffusion research scholars working largely within Western milieu. Wherever possible, therefore, in- dividual and scale items used to operationalize and measure variables in Thailand were similar if not identical to those which had been employed in previous diffusion research studies. The study by Lin (1966) referred to elsewhere was designed to serve, among other things, as a pre-test for the Thailand research project; details of scale construction and validation in this preetest may be Obtained by reference to that study and a published monograph by Lin‘_§._l. (1966). Sixty-one teachers employed by two government academic secondary schools in Bangkok (Wat Prabpra School and Kunnati School) were induced to complete questionnaires so that scales used could be pre-tested. Tea- chers participating in the pre-test were also asked to identify questions which had proved difficult to understand in their initial form and to sug- gest ways in which the instrument could be improved to facilitate rapid completion; as few comments were forthcoming from pre-test participants, it was assumed that a characteristic Thai reluctance tO question the judgment of higher-status persons (a foreigner and a Ministry Of Education Official) was responsible for this reticence. Scale items drawn from American studies and selected for inclusion in the pre-test were modified as necessity dictated and then translated into the Thai language, while additional questions designed to tap variables -93- for which scale items had not previously been develOped were similarly translated into Thai after formulation, and included in the pre-test. Al- though the Bangkok pre-test had been perceived as a means of eliminating "poor" scale items, delays in (l) coding pre-test instruments, (2) deli- very of code sheets from Bangkok to Michigan State university for analy- sis, and (3) obtaining inter-item correlations from Michigan State Uni- versity--resulted in the necessity to use scale items on the final instru- ment for which inter-item correlations had not been obtained; all scale items included on the pre-test were, therefore, incorporated into the instrument finally used in the field. Some few items were later drapped from scales in the computation of final correlations on the basis of low inter-item correlations computed using test and pre-test data. Before proceeding to a narration of translation procedures, addi- tional comments regarding modification of questions and construction of new scales seem warranted. As a general policy--based upon conversations with Thai informants, experience with the pre-test, and advice from AID research workers who had completed survey research studies in Thailand-- it was decided to pre-code item responses wherever possible; this exten- sive pre-coding was necessitated by (1) the unavailability in Thailand of trained coders who could be relied upon to make relatively sophisti- cated coding decisions, (2) experience with the pre-test (which contained numerous open-ended items), indicating that Thai teachers simply would not provide some information requested using this type of questions, and (3) a desire to shorten the time required by participants to complete the instrument (which was 58 pages long and contained 214 items). Response -94- categories for items 94, 95, 118 and 119 on the final instrument were derived from answers provided by pre-test respondents to similar, Open- ended questions on that earlier questionnaire. Another basic decision which had the effect of altering many re- aponse categories used by Lin on the Michigan pre-test was that of elimi- nating (for some questions) midpoint, indeterminant responses such as "don't know" and "not sure"; it was the consensus among AID personnel who had previously conducted survey research in Thailand that, on forced-choice items, respondents would frequently elect "indefinite," ”noncommittal," or "neutral" responses, were this option offered. (Limited use was made of the "I don't know" response when reason suggested that, without its in- clusion, respondents would be forced to guess at or manufacture answers.) Decisions to retain or eliminate items comprising scales measuring independent variables were based on the following criteria: (1) whether inter-item correlations were in the expected (or same) direction, and (2) hOW'WEII each item correlated with all other items supposedly measuring the same variable. Analysis of test and pre-test data resulted in use of the following scales and scale items for computation of correlations. Mass Media E osure Sca e - Inde endent Variables tems 1—8 A endix A pp. 194-321. Whereas respondents in the united States had been requested to in- dicate if they had read a newspaper, listened to the radio, watched tele- vision, read from a book or read a magazine within the twenty-four hours immediately prior to answering the questionnaire, teachers in Thailand were asked if they had done so within the immediately previous seven days--this -95- change based upon the assumption that exposure to mass media is probably less frequent in Thailand than in the United States. en- nd C osed-M ded ess tems 121-140 A endix Ai,pp.227-3l): Lin (1966), in the Michigan pre-test, had modified the Troldahl- Powell (1965) short form of the Rokeach (1960) Dogmatism Scale by insert- ing a seventh response (don't know) at the midpoint; in the Thailand study, response categories used on the original Rokeach scale and the Troldahl-Powell short form were retained. Inter-item correlations on the Bangkok pre-test ranged from -.002 to -.450; nevertheless, all questions were retained for use on the final instrument. Need for Autonomy (Items 141—143,AAp2egdix A, p..23l -): These questions in the Michigan pre-test had been slightly revised items used by Vroom (1960) on his "Need for Independence" scale; questions used in Thailand were identical to those employed by Lin, save for abandon- ment of midpoint indeterminant response of "4. don't know." Inter-item correlations on the Bangkok pre-test were .20, .24 and .58. Self-Perceived Degree of:Persona1 Participation in WOrk-Related “‘froblem-Solving and Decision-Making (Items 153-154, AggethxiAm 2'2342 These items (used on the Michigan pre-test in what Lin chose to call a "Psychological Distance Scale") were reworded for greater clarity, and the midpoint indeterminant response of "4. don't know“ was eliminated. Inter- item correlations on the Bangkok pre-test were .47 and .51; these items were based on Fleishman's (1955) scale. -95- erce ved s cholo ca D ta ce between Se and rinc a1 Items 155- 59 éggggdix A, 22.234-352: Four of these five items (155, 156, 158, and 159) are items taken originally from Fleishman's (1955) scale and revised for use in the Michi- gan pre-test (Lin's "Psychological Distance Scale," items 68, 69, 70 and 71); all were slightly reworded for use in Thailand with midpoint indeterminant response (added by Lin) omitted. Inter-item correlation from the Bangkok pre-test ranged in value from .34 to .63; all five items were retained for use in the final instrument. Perceived Degree of Participation by Other Teachers in work-Related Problem-Solvi and Decision-Makin Items 144-145 endix A . ): These items, based also on Fleishman's (1955) scale and used on the Michigan pre-test (Lin's "Psychological Distance Scale," items 60 and 61) were also slightly reworded for greater clarity, and Lin's midpoint indeterminant response was deleted. Inter-item correlation between these two items on the Bangkok pre-test was .71, and both items were retained for inclusion in the final instrument. e e ved P cho 0 ca Dist ce between Other Teachers and Princi a1 Items 146-150 endix A .23 ~33 : Four of these five items (146, 148, 149 and 150) are also based on Fleishman's scale and were used in the Michigan pre—test (Lin's "Psycho- logical Distance Scale," items 62-62); they were slightly reworded for greater clarity and the midpoint indeterminant reaponse which had been added by Lin was dropped. Inter-item correlations on the Bangkok pre-test ranged in value from .29 to .69. -97- Re orted Fre ue c 0 Performance Feedback from Princi al to Self - 1 endix A .235 : Both items were used in the Michigan pre-test (Lin's "Downwardf Feedback" scale, questions 73 and 74 on his final instrument); questions and response categories used in Thailand were reworded and response op- tions reduced in number from five to four. Inter-item correlation on the Bangkok pre-test was .48. Reported Fgeguency of Performance Feedback from Principal to Other Teache 3 Items 1-15 A e dix A . : These questions were adapted from the Michigan pre-test also (ques- tions 73 and 74, Lin's "Downward Feedback"scale). The inter-item correla- tion on the Bangkok pre-test was .48. - Se -Perceived Cha e Orientation Items 188-190 and 200 endix A . 4 : Inter-item correlations for questions 188-190 on the Bangkok pre- test ranged from ,03 to .13; item 200 was negatively correlated with questions 188-190, so was dropped from scale in computing final corre- lations. Self-Desigpated Ippovation Opinion Leadership (items 40-43I Appendix A, Inter—item correlations for these questions were not run using Bangkok pre-test data, but correlations from data obtained from sample teachers show values ranging from .13 to .28. -93_ Self-Perceiyed Legitimacy of Participation in WOrk-Related Problem- Solvipg and Decision-MakipgALItems 186-187L Appendix A, pp. 243-44): Inter-item correlation between these two items was .34, using data obtained from sample teachers. These two items were among the three used in the Michigan pre-test (questions 85 and 86 on that instrument). Sglf-Perceived Role Satisfaction (Items 192 app 198, Appendix AI pI 246}: Two of the four items used on the Michigan pre-test (questions 100 and 101 on that instrument) were included on the final questionnaire used in Thailand; three items had been employed to measure this dimension on the Bangkok pre-test, but one was deleted as it did not correlate posi- tively with the other two; Bangkok pre-test correlation values were -.54 to .13 and .49, while the inter-item correlation derived from sample teacher data was -.51. Self-Perceived Feelin of Securit Items 193-195, Appendix A. D. 2452: The three items which constitute this scale were taken from.the Michigan pre-test, although midpoint indeterminant response was once again deleted. Inter-item correlations on the Bangkok pre-test were .39, .47, and .49. .§e1f-Perceived Tegghing,Abilitv (ItEms 181-185, Appendix A, pp. 243-43): Inter-item correlation figures for these five items on the Bangkok pre-test ranged from a low of .64 to a high of .81. -99- Perceived Pgincipgl Ratipg of Teachipg Ability (Items 166-179, Appendix Inter-item correlations on the Bangkok pre-test for these items were from a low of .35 to a high of .76. Perceived Peer Ratipg of Teaching Ability (Items 171-175, Appendix A, pp.239-402: Inter-item correlations derived from Bangkok pre-test data for these items resulted in a spread of values from .47 to .76. Perceived Student Rating of Teaching Ability (Items 176:180, A endix A, ppg240-4l ): Bangkok pre-test data revealed inter-item correlations of from .47 to .82 for these five items. Fre uenc ‘of Professional Meeti Attendance Items 24-25 A endix A, pp. 198—99): The.correlation between these two items was .08, using data derived from teachers in the sample; correlation between these two questions was not computed using responses from teachers in Bangkok pre-test schools. Perceived Chgnge Orieptation of Principal (Items 162-165, Appendix A, pp. ZBQ-ZQ: Adapted from "Change Orientation oftflmePrincipal" scale used by Lin (items 76-79), question 162 has not been used in computing relation- ships, as inter—item correlations disclosed that it does not correlate highly with items.163-l65; Lin's midpoint response was eliminated, leaving a six-item response category on the instrument used in Thailand. -100- Vertica Communic t tems 202 203 204 endix . .7 : These three items were employed to measure the comparative fre- quency of communication between respondents and school principal, as perceived by the teacher; Lin had measured vertical communication, using a two-item scale (items 80 and 81 in his instrument). With minor rewording of questions and response categories to obtain greater clarity, both Lin items were included in the three-item scale used in Thailand. Reported Frequency of Communication between Principal and Self about Use of Library gs Teaching-Leagping Resource (Item 82, Appendix A, p.g]§): In an attempt to study in depth the factors influencing adoption under conditions of optional decision-making, respondents were asked to estimate the relative frequency of vertical communication with their prin- cipal concerning use of the library as a teaching-learning resource. Ipformation about Facilities Necessapy for Use of the Librapy as a Teachi -Le rnin esource Items 7 -73 A end x A . - : Inter-item correlations for these three items, using sample rather than Bangkok pre-test data, were .14, .18, and .22. The remaining independent variables were measured using responses to one rather than to two or more questions. Table V., p.119 contains a listing of all independent variables, indicating which items on the questionnaire form found in Appendix A were used to measure that variable. -lOl- Dependent Variables Awareness (Items 44, 47, 50, 53, 56, 59, 62, 65, 68,fand 98, Appendix A, pp. 203, 204, 205, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 220); For the purpose of determining correlates of awareness among Thai government academic secondary school teachers, awareness time (number of years ago that the respondent had first heauiof an innovation) was summed across the ten items; while reason does not dictate that awareness scores for all ten items need be highly intercorrelated, it is interesting to note that all values were positive and ranged from a low of .10 to a high of .47. It is encouraging to note, furthermore, that correlations for awareness of the three innovations comprising the dependent variable of "adoption" (objective tests, classroom discussion, and use of the li- brary as a teaching-learning resource) demonstrated high intercorrelation --.47, .41, and .39 when adjustments for years of teaching experience had been made. As awareness constitutes one of the three dependent variables em- ployed in this study, further elaboration of the concept and its importance to diffusion theory is perhaps warranted at this time. Awareness has been termed by Rogers (1962: 81~82, 112-113) as that stage at which the individual is first exposed to the innovation; awareness, by this defini- tion, precedes later stages of the adoption process and therefore represents the beginning of a sequence. Measures of the elapsed time between awareness and adoption, an important feature of most diffusion studies, must of necessity establish with some certainty time of initial awareness if lag is to be computed. -102- Ado tion Items 64 6 nd 0 A endix A . 210 211 As indicated earlier (Chapter IV, pp. 76-77), this report attempts to identify the correlates for adoption of only three of the ten innova- tions about which sample teachers were questioned; i.e., Objective tests, classroom discussion, and use of the library as a teaching-learning re- source. These innovations have in common the possibility of individual teacher adoption (or non-adoption), and it is with individual correlates of adoptive behavior that this report is concerned. For the purpose of determining the correlates of adoption among sample teachers, adoption times (number of years ago that the respondent had first used the innovation) for these three innovations was summed; intercorrelations among adaption times for these three innovations pro- duces values of .17, .28, and .39 when adjustments had been made for length of teaching experience. On the basis of adoption time, diffusion research scholars have formulated the concept of innovativeness, defined as the degree to which an individual is relatively earlier than other members of his social system in adapting new ideas (Rogers, 1962:19). With innovativeness as the criterion, adapter categories have been postulated which permit classification of individuals as (1) innovators, (2) early adopters, (3) early majority, (4) late majority, and (5) laggards. Using this five- category classification system, the relative position of any given indi- vidual on the continuum is determined by comparing his adaption time with the mean adoption time for all individuals in his social system. With group mean adoption time as the midpoint of a standard bell-shaped -103- curve, adopter category boundaries may be determined by laying off standard deviations; the lower boundary for ippovatogs becomes that point representing two standard deviations above the mean; the lower boundary for,eg;ly_ggpp§p;g becomes that point representing one standard deviation above the mean; the lower boundary for apply majority becomes that point representing the mean adoption time for the social system; the lower boundary for,1g§g_ppjpg§£y becomes that point representing one standard deviation below the mean; and,lggggpg§ are defined as those whose adoption time is more than one standard deviation below the group mean. Perceived ngefipiality (Itepg 63, 66, gnd 69, Appendix A, pp. 209, 210 and 2122: Beneficiality items for each of the ten innovations studied were in- cluded to determine, first, the correlates of "generally favorable" or "generally unfavorable" attitudes towards new ideas, the rationale being that in a largely traditional subculture to which innovations had been introduced only recently in any great number, a bi-modal distribution would manifest itself. Thai informants had Speculated that a rather small number of teachers who might be considered "progressive" would look upon almost any innovation as being "very beneficial" or "somewhat beneficial" or "not at all beneficial." The data do not support this hypothesis, as responses fail to group bi-modally. Secondly, beneficiality items were perceived as a means of measuring what Lin (1966:11) had chosen to call "internalization"--"the extent to which \ -104- a member perceives the innovation or change as relevant and valuable to his role performance in the organization." While a later study will at- tempt to determine the correlates of perceived beneficiality, using re- sponses to all ten questions of this type, the results reported here are based on reSponses to only the three items indicated above--which parallel the innovations for which correlates of adoption are computed. Translation of Questionnaires Three Thai nationals, working independently, were engaged to trans- late into the Thai language questionnaire items originally written in Eng- lish. Two of these three are professional translators employed in this capacity by the united States Operations Mission (AID) in Bangkok, and the third, Mr. Muangchai Tajaroensuk, is an official in the Educational Planning Office, Ministry of Education. Mr. Tajaroensuk had been as- signed by his superiors to serve as Thai counterpart to the American Field Director of Research, and was later engaged in every facet of data col- lection. Having obtained three independently accomplished translations of questionnaire items, these were submitted to Dr. Kaw Swasdi Panich, Di- rector of the Educational Planning Office, for his examination; noting several points at which translators had not interpreted items identically, Dr. Kaw-~with the help of Mr. Tajaroensuk--sought to choose that Thai interpretation which most adequately reflected the intended English usage. (Dr. Kaw had studied for many years in the United States, obtaining his Ph.D. in Education from the University of California; Mr. Tajaroensuk had -105- obtained his M.A. in Education from Michigan State University.) This Thai version of questionnaire items, resulting from the collaboration of Dr. Kaw and Mr. Tajaroensuk, was that used on the Bangkok pre-test instru- ment. On the basis of comments obtained from pre-test respondents, Dr. Kaw and Mr. Tajaroensuk made several slight modifications and this ver- sion, in turn, became that used in final data collection. Field Procedures Several weeks before leaving Bangkok to collect data from schools in any given geographic region, letters were sent to Changwad Education Officers in whose Provinces sample schools were located and to principals of schools to be visited; these letters served to announce the date (or dates) that the research team would be at any given school and, very gen- erally, to describe the purpose of this projected visit. Rather than proceed directly to sample schools, visits were first made to Changwad Education Officers, and the research project explained to them in some detail. If the sample school was located in a town or village other than that serving as headquarters for the Changwad Education Officer, a courtesy call was made also to the Amphur Education Officer in whose district the school was located. Courtesy calls were made to the offices of several Regional Education Officers--but in only one case was this official found to be available. In general, Changwad and Amphur Education Officers expressed pleasure in the consideration shown them and their office by these meetings, several remarking that Ministry of Education officials were wont to visit schools -lO6- under their jurisdiction without notifying them in advance that such a visit was to take place or calling upon them to describe the reason for their visit. While neither Changwad nor Amphur Education Officers appeared to have great interest in the research project itself, team members were, without exception cordially received in every area visited; these meetings with local education officers proved very useful as a means of learning something of the problems faced by field representatives of the Ministry of Education, and provided insights into the educational enterprise as seen through the eyes of these officials. On several occasions both members of the research team were invited to have dinner with Changwad or Amphur Educa- tion Officers to continue discussion of educational--and other--problems facing that Province. Having met with Changwad and/or Amphur Education Officers during the early morning hours, the sample school was visited and arrangements were made with the Principal to administer questionnaire instruments after regu- lar school hours. An interview with the principal was conducted, usually in the early afternoon, and school facilities visited. It was during this period preceding administration of the questionnaire that an attempt was made to examine the school facilities, talk with the principa1.about prob- lems encountered in administering his school, learn something about the local economy and gain some insight into his perception of the educational challengesfacing Thailand. At an hour appointed by the principal, usually between 2.30 and 4.00 p.m., teachers and principal would gather in a room--frequent1y the library --for the purpose of completing questionnaire instruments. Mr. Tajaroensuk, -lO7- the Thai Ministry of Education official who had been chosen to serve on the research team, would at this time explain that the research project had been sanctioned by the National Research Council and was being conducted under the auspices of the Educational Planning Office, Ministry of Education. In these introductory remarks Mr. Tajaroensuk stressed the necessity that all questions be answered candidly, and drew attention to the fact that reSpondents could not be identified. At this point questionnaire forms were passed around and respondents were requested to read the covering pageS(see Appendix A, pP-192-93). Mr. Tajaroensuk then demonstrated the correct procedure to be followed in answer- ing questionnaire items. As an illustration, the correct method to be em- ployed in answering questions 4, 9, 14, 17, 27, 32, 38, 47, 48, 49, 94, 95, 213 and 214 was demonstrated. After briefly defining each of the ten in- novations about which questions were asked, reSpondents were instructed to begin answering questions on the instrument, and Mr. Tajaroensuk indicated that he would be available for individual explanations where needed. Neither teachers nor principals appeared to have undue difficulty understanding the questionnaire instrument or what was required of them. Many teachers and some principals--especially older respondents--obviously experienced difficulty reading; many in this latter group were observed to read aloud or underline (with their finger) passages being read. In nearly every instance it proved impossible to restrain teachers from consulting one another when items 21-23 were reached; few appeared to be sure of an- swers to these factual questions, and it proved very difficult to impress them with the need to answer independently. At the end of each day, individual reSpondents were identified from -168- a list of teachers--giving sex, age, and subject(s) taught--provided by the principal; each school had been assigned a code number and each teacher within individual schools was also assigned a number identifying him (or her) on the master lists. The vast majority of teachers and principals completing instru- ments had expressed little interest in obtaining reports of the results, and few bothered to ask the purpose which was to be served by conduct of the research project, leading to the conclusion that relatively little appreciation exists within these groups of the goals which research can serve or might serve. Ana 8 3 Before correlations between independent and dependent variables could be obtained, several adjustmentsto, or transformations of, raw data were required; these are explained below._ An error check was conducted by scanning printouts of data decks to identify illegal codes; when illegal codes had been identified, ref- erence was made to original code sheets to determine if the error dis- covered represented a punching error and where this proved to be the case, new cards were punched. Illegal codes which could not be attributed to punching error were corrected by reference to questionnaire instruments, these illegal codes having been traced to improper coding; very few il- legal codes were discovered which could be attributed to incorrect coding. Adjustment, or transformation, of "no response" codes was accom- plished by assigning either "sample" or "school" mean values; if respondents -lO9- failed to answer questions soliciting information of a general type (mass media exposure, dogmatism scale items, etc.) they were assigned, as their reSponse value to that item, the "sample" mean value; while for those questions pertaining to the year in which their school had adopted specific innovations, they were assigned as their response value on that item (or those items) the "school" mean value. Of the 629 teacher respondents, 155 or 24 per cent had five or fewer years of teaching experience, and, since it was assumed that they could not have been aware of or have adopted innovations before becoming teachers, their awareness and adoption time scores would not validly re- flect innovativeness (early awareness) in comparison to their peers with longer vocational experience. Inspection of frequency distributions for awareness and adOption indicated a generally normal distribution over the time ranges covered. Based on this assumption of normal distribution, "lag years from assump- tion of teaching to adoption" were calculated for each coding category; for example, teachers reporting 6-8 years of teaching experience and adop- tion of an innovation 1-2 years ago could have from four to seven lag years between first employment and adaption. This lag year range was lo- cated on a continuum and, assuming normal distribution over that range, the probably awareness or adoption year for individual respondents was estimated. Based on this procedure, the following adjustment codes were determined for teachers with few years of teaching experience: -110- Years of Teaching Experience Adoption or Adoption or Awareness Awareness Raw Score Code Agjusted Score ng9 Less than 2 years of experience 0 0 1 3 2 6 2-5 years of experience 0 O 1 2 2 4 3 5 4 6 6-8 years of experience 0 O l 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 6 In an effort to determine how these adjustments would affect the sample, a random sub-sample of 52 respondents with five or fewer; years of teaching experience was drawn; raw scores for these 52 respondents on two of the ten awareness and adaption items were compared to the above ad- justment scores to determine how raw scores would be affected by this adjustment. Results were as follows: Extent of Code Category Change Awareness-AdOption Awareness-Adop- _» I;em.No. 1 tion Item.No. 2 None 12 12 One category change 1 0 Two category changes 35 36 Three category changes 4 4 N . 52 52 Approximately 66 per cent of those respondents with five or fewer years of teaching experience were affected by this adjustment and had their code category adjusted upward by from 2 to 4 years. -111- While other transformations of raw data were required, these involved simple reversals of scales common to analyses of this type. -112- TABLE II - Totalwandeegional Figures for Government Secondary Academic Schools in Thailand Total Figures for Geographic Areas Geographic Number Per Cent Number Per Cent ’ Area of of of of Schools Tetal Teachers Total Bangkok-Thonburi 63 14.32 2,763 31.23 Central Thailand 164 37.27 2,580 29.17 Northeastern Thailand 81 18.41 1,374 15.53 Northern Thailand 77 17.50 1,135 12.83 Southern Thailand 55 12.50 994 11.24 Totals 440 100.00% 8,846 100.00% Total Figures for Educational Regions Educational Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Region of of of of Sc 00 Total Teache 3 Total Bangkok-Thonburi 63 14.32 2,763 31.23 Central Thailand Region I 32 599 Region V 38 620 Region VI 53 725 Region XII it; 536 Totals 164 37.27 2,580 29.17 Northeastern Thailand Region IX 19 338 Region X 23 "452 Region XI __§_‘_t _...§.§.‘.'. Totals 81 18.41 1,374 15.53 Northern Thailand Region VII '41 587 Region VIII ‘_2§ __2£§ Totals 7 18.42 1,135 12.83 Southern Thailand Region II 18 292 Region III -24 ‘ :31 Region IV . __1,§ ..__... Totals 55 12.50 994 11.24 -ll3- TABLE III - Total and Regional Figures for Sample Schools Total Figures for Sample Schools for Geographic Areas Geographic Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Area of of of of Schools Sample Teachers Sample Bangkok-Thonburi 5 13.15 201 31.95 Central Thailand 14 36.89 168 26.70 Northeastern Thailand 8 21.05 94 31.94 Northern Thailand 7 18.42 ’87 13.83 Southern Thailand 4 10.52 79 12.55 Totals 38 629 Total Figures for Sample Schools for Educational Regions Educational Number Per Cent Number Per Cent Region of of of of Schools Sample Teachers Sample Bangkok-Thonburi 5 13.15 201 31.95 Central Thailand Region I 1 12 Region V 2 40 Region VI ' 7 ~63 Region XII ,_;& 53 Totals 14 36.84 168 26.70 Nbrtheastern Thailand Region IX 1 10 Region X "3 "60 Region XI J; .__24 Totals 8 21.05 94 14.94 Northern Thailand Region VII “2 "38 Region VIII ,_§ _£2 Totals 7 18.42 87 13.83 Southern Thailand Region II 0 0 Region III *2 a: Region IV ,_2 ____ Totals 4 10.52 79 12.55 -114- : mHH omen so mooawuuoo n whom Hm RN mad x ErmxmuMmmnmz NH onmhmuuwm Esmxmumm mH neon ma mm m-H x nanoHne HH onnnanoonm onane nH .oooo a m m-H Hx eonnnuoe oH one: HnHm anH mH .oooo oH AH m-H xH eonanone no nsn-nenm NH .oooo «H nH mnH x nononeonoooop mo onooonnw HH .oooo m a m-H Hx nannneonm onoanz no moom memo: OH .oooo a o m-H Hx neHooeonm ouoanz no Hnooonoe mo .oooo o n muH Hx mammmsomm cuoxmz no Emummonouoxnwmaucoz mo Ufimemfih—r Emummmfiuuoz .oooo mH ON m-H H> . HnoonoH «N nanoon Henenm mm .oooo a a m-H HHx woonnm Hm nonsense mm .oooo m m m-H H> nanoosn ON anon am .oooo m e m-H H> «annexe om naooon eonmonm om .oooo oH oH m-H H> naeooan oN :nooaoe-nsmon: noose mm .oooo a oH m-H H> naeooan om :onnuo-neoom: essence om neon ow om m-H > unoomnm oH onooeononEnmoom mm .numOU #H OH MIH > ENwaCOmuD—umm wH :Hmfinnwuufié fim3m£¢D£UIfl£umzz Hufioxwfiwm NN .oooo a HH m-H H> nuooonnom AH wooo-p HN .oooo e e muH H> unswmso 0H ammmsomumusuam ON anHo om om m.H HHx onnmeooeo-neu mH Hnouno-ooo mH .oooo OH HH muH HHx ommwcoOSUumnu ma :¢o%m%muuH3 ouozuom: waoxmawsmm ma nHuno oH mH m-H HHx aoanz onoanz oH aoanz nuoaoz Hum AH .oooo NH ma nuH H epomeuUEmm ma :doxmunfimmnuomwzz ammnESumHM 0H oomawmne Hmuufioo nHuno on no m-H H xochnm mm amuseHmm mm .ooou um um mIH H whoofiosH nu xoxmanwfimm um3 mm anno om No m-H H noooooee AN unease one noonm om neon an no m-H H Hnonooea AN sunspoz onoz one an .oooo no em m-H H Huooeoee AN newaHm one on mum as w a m a man .I. . m. mmn nmm nmm m an men we nan am “Tn man wan a me nan mm mm. S T N T E m G E R C M- .nno nnw S Aux-- not M mHoonom meEmm Mo umHH I >H aflmmH A a. n-LHZIH...ZAUHVV old. ace-om n! H has: a... NJ. M! 0- Hannah III N! .vH alien/5‘. A QBHHZH—LF ZCC\ . ll IIIIIII.| ‘ -115- moons ownemumoow woeeamEou now «HH omen mom anG 3 S m-H HHH Eon-55 om :33on Eon-mm nonusm: E-onsoeo nun-mm mm whom «N «N mud >H HnmuM mu noxoanuwomnnuumaa< Nm .vooo o m MsH >H Haumm «N mhmuuwz wfiomeamx Hm neon mm mm TH HHH nae-meow mu angst-ionsnnnz on ofimHHmnH ehosusom .cooo m, e Mga HH> uwcomm co Emumaoamnouanmwdn 85mm 50 mHHHQ um um msH HHH> omum mo umuooumz co neon 2 cu TH HH> assoc-now no zen-Bog nose?- oonnx-nnenm no mango ea ma mud HH> «meuosxom no :Homumnaoob: Hmuonxom Huumm so .38 o e TH HH> noose-Son mo anon-52 mo .wooo m CH maH HH> uavmumus No Hmnuwm No .38 .- m TH HHH> seen-5H Ho woos-8m S t d 0. d . s a mewsn N a man a .1n rMm feo ael m W @wN om mo 1. e m 0 h 1 S d 1.. e 8 h 0 e me an. .nnwmm n an nan an “an h a a 8 0 e E G n e h N 8 O A S C C m e T n N T. m E R C A % C S T T. AcmnzHHzoov nHooeom oHn-nnm no ”EH-H . RH 53 8323208 CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF DATA Testing of Hypotheses An attempt has been made in the research herein reported to test more than 150 hypotheses predicting directional relationships between fifty independent and three dependent variables. Rather than state for- mally each of these numerous predicted relationships (which would add little to reader understanding), a tabular summary of them has been provided in Table V. In addition to predicted directional relatibn-- ships between independent and dependent variables, Table V also con- tains the Pearsonian product-moment correlation coefficients obtained from analysis of teacher questionnaire data--thus permitting the reader to determine immediately which hypotheses (predicted relationships) are supported by analysis of the data and which have not. Correlation coefficients shown in Table V are, as indicated ear- lier, significant at the 5 per cent confidence level when their values ex- ceed ‘33.0783 and are significant at the l per cent confidence level when their values exceed ‘5 .1028. In order to make perfectly clear the prOper use of Table V, hypo- thetical statements of predicted directional relationship between the first independent variable (age) and dependent variables (awareness, adoption, and perceived beneficiality of innovations) are taken from -116- . I .II I'll! Dl All!r|l\ . l '| 1| ~117- Table V and presented together with associated accept-reject statements which follow directly from the correlations obtained. H othesis . e of Teachers W 1 Be Positivel Correlated with Aggrenegg of ghe Innovations Studied This statement says, in effect, that the older the respondent, the relatively earlier he will have become aware of the innovations under investigation. Table V shows a correlation of -.222. Thus analysis not only fails to support the hypothesis but suggests that age and aware- ness are negatively correlated; that is, younger teachers appear to be- come aware of the innovations under study relatively earlier than do older teachers. (It should be recalled at this point that awareness scores were adjusted for years of teaching experience; this adjustment had the ef- fect of removing the "penalty" which would otherwise have been imposed upon younger teachers recently entering the profession.) H othesis 2. e of Teachers Will Be Ne at ve Correlated with Adoption of the Innovations Stpdied This statement says, in essence, that age will be inversely related to adoption of innovations; i.e., younger teachers tend to ad0pt innova- tions relatively earlier than do their older colleagues. Table V shows a correlation of -.063; the predicted relationship is not supported by the analysis, for while the value obtained was negative, as predicted, this value did not reach the magnitude (-.0783) at which it would be sig- nificant at the 5 per cent level of confidence. -118- H othesis 3 e of Teachers W Be Ne ti e1 Correlated with Perceived Beneficiality of the Innovations under Study In effect this statement predicts that the relationship between age, on the one hand, and perceived beneficiality of innovations, on the other, will be negative; that is, younger teachers will tend to perceive the innovations studied as being more beneficial than will their older colleagues. Table V discloses that the analysis of data produced a correlation of -.OO6; the predicted relationship was not supported by analysis of data. Although an inverse relationship be- tween the independent and dependent variables was found, the resultant value did not reach that magnitude at which it could be said with .95 confidence that the difference was attributable to other than sampling error . and Dependgpt Variables Independent Variables ,,2Fp§pggpp_yg;ggplg§________ Perceived Time Time Beneficial- of of ity of Awareness Adoption Innovations Predicted directional relationship of independent with dependent vari- able ( ) and correlation coeffici- ents resulting from analysis of data. HH— I. DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES 1. Age (213)* (+) --222 (-) --063 (-) -.006 2. Sex--Male (112) (+) .021 (+) -.015 (r) -.069 3. Years of teaching ex- perience (10) (+) -.234 (-) -.061 (-) -.050 4. Years of teaching ex- perience at school by which now employed (11) (+) -.204 (-) .032 (-) -.033 5. Total income (210-211) (+) -.008 (-) -.056 (-) -.052 6. Level of education attained (l6) (4) H H on (+) .004 (r) -.048 7. Duration of residence in urban setting (205) (+) -.038 (+) .018 (r) -.047 8. Level of education at- tained by father (208) (+) .016 (+) .022 (r) -,_§§ 9. Level of education at- tained by mother (209) (+) -.038 (+) .011 (r) -.034 II. PERCEPTUAL VALUES A. Perceptippp 9; Self l. Self-perceived change orientation (188-190) (+) ,122 (+) .045 (+) .038 2. Self-designated inno- vation leadership (40-43) (+) .190 (+) .213 (+) ,1§9 ‘r; * Number in parentheses refers to‘item.numbers on teacher questionnaire instrument; see Appendix A. =3 ignificant at . 01 eianiF-Icant at .05 ~120- Independent Variables Dependent Variables Time Time Perceived of of Beneficial- Awareness Adoption ity of Innovations 3. Self-perceived role sat- isfaction (197-198) (+) .004 (f) .023 (r) IE 4. Self-perceived feeling of security (193-195) (+) -.033 (f) .003 (t) .11 LO 5. Self-perceived teaching ability (181-185) (+) .040 (r) (+) H |e O O 00 LAD B. Perceptions of Superiors and Superior-Subordinate Rglationships l. Perceived principal rating of teaching ability (166-170) (+) .053 (+) .02a (+) E. 2. Perceived psychologi- cal distance between self-and principal (155-159) (-) .045 (-) -.009 (-) -. 9 N 3. Perceived psychologi- cal distance between other teachers and principal (146-150) (-) .047 (-) .002 (-) -.1 O 4. Perceived degree of personal participa- tion in work-related problem-solving and decision-making (153-154) (+) .017 (+) .005 (+) -.003 5. Self-perceived legi- timacy of participa- tion in work-related problem-solving and decision-making (186-187) 2 (+) .017 (+) .005 (+) .034 ::significant at .01 __significant at .05 -121- Independent Variables Dependent Variables Perceived Time Time Beneficial- of of ity of; Awareness AdOption Innovations 6. Perceived degree of teacher-participation in work-related prob- lem-solving and de- 9 cision-making (144-445) (I) -.022 (+) .015 (i) .067: 7.iPerception of princi- pal's attitude toward use of the library as a teaching-learning resource (76) (+) .033 (+) .078 (1) H O‘ o 8. Perception of need to consider principal's attitude toward use of the library as a teach- ing-learning resource when making a para a1 adoption decision 88) (-) -.011 (+) .031 (+) .059 9. Perception of Under- Secretary of State's attitude toward adop- tion of new educational practices--genera1 (37) (+) -.016 (4) -.057 (+) .013 10. Perception of Ministry of Education officials' attitude toward use of the library as a teach- i -1 (:3) earning resource (+) .122 (+) .103 (+) H \D O‘ 11. Perception of the need to consider the atti- tudes of Ministry of Education officials to- wards use of the library as a teaching-learning resource when making a personal adoption de- cision (90) (-1 -.031 (.) -.017 (1) .025 ::significant at .01 __significant at .05 -122- Independent Variables Dependent Variables Time Time Perceived of J of Beneficial- Awarenes Adoption ity of Innovations 12. Perception of Minis- try of Education In- spector's attitude toward use of the li- brary as a teaching- learning resource (81) ({) H L») \O H O 0‘ l. (+) (r) IE C. Perceptions of Peers and Peer Relationships 1. Perception of peers' attitudes toward adoption of new edu- cational practices-- general (34) (4) .054 (+) .053 (t) H \I O 2. Perception of peers” attitudes toward use of the library as a teaching-learning resource (75) (+) 'r-‘ V1 J) N) O\ N (f) H U1 0) (+) 3. Perception of the need to consider the atti- tudes of peers toward using the library as a teaching-learning resource when making a personal adoption decision (87) (-) -.=%=_ (-) .022 (-) 0 H b u) 4. Perceived peer rating of teaching ability (171-175) (+) .014 (+) H H U1 H b (X) (+) D. Perceptions of Students and Student Relationships 1. Perception of students' attitudes toward use of library as a teach- ing learning resource (78) (+) (+) H W O A + V \O O I. =significant at . 01 ._.significant at .05 -123- Independent Variables Dependent Variables Time Time Perceived of of Beneficial- Awareness Adoption ity of Innovations 2. Perception of the need to consider the atti- tudes of students toward use of the library as a teaching-learning re- source when making a personal adOption de- cision (86) (-) .008 (-) .040 (-) .0 u) 3. Perceived student rating of teaching ability (176-180) (I) .059 (+) (+) .021 IE III. COMMUNICATION VARIABLES A. General Communication . Behavior 1. General mass media ex- posure (1,2,5,7,8) (+) .052 (+) H b.) \l (+) IE B. ProfesSional Communi- cation Behavior-~General 1. Reported number of pro- fessional journals read (9) (+) H b (I) H DJ CD (+) (f) IE 2. Frequency of profession- al meeting attendance (24.25) (+) .058 (+) .038 (+) .065 Q. Professional Communi: cation—Behavior-- Vertical 1. Vertical communication --genera1 (202-204) (+) .010 (+) .068 (r) 51;; 2. Reported frequency of performance feedback from principal to self (160-161) (+) -.005 (+) O \l VD (+) I IE 2::significant at .01 __significant at .05 ~124- lIndependent Variables Dependent Variables Time Time Perceived of of Beneficial- Awareness AdOption ity of Innovations 3. Reported frequency of performance feedback from principal to other teachers (151-152) (0) -.000 (+) .199 (r) IE 4. Reported frequency of communication between principal and self about use of library as a teaching-learning resource (82) (t) (I) (I) Iv: I8 IE 5. Reported frequency of communication between Ministry of Education inspectors and self about use of the li- brary as a teaching- learning resource (85) (+) .078 (t) .056 (+) .072 D, Professional Communica- tion Behavior—-Hori- zontal 1. Reported frequency of communication between peers and self about use of the library as a teaching-learning resource (83) (+) .124 (t) N \l 00 Ul U) (+) .1 2. Reported frequency of communication between peers and self about non-work-related sub~ jects (201) (+) - 035 (+) .030 (+) .030 IV; PERCEPTIONS OF THE INNOVATIONS l. Perceived functional compatibility of using the library as a teach- i -1earning resource (3%) (+) .025 (i) 0.066 (f) -.030 :=significant at .01 __significant at .05 -125- Time Time Perceived of of Beneficial- Awareness Adoption ity of Innovations 2. Reported frequency of communication between peers and self about non-work-related sub- jects (201) (+) -.035 (1) .039 (1) .030 IV. PERCEPTIONS OF THE INNOVATIONS 1. Perceived functional compatibility of using the library as a teach- ing-learning resource (.92) (+) .025 (4) -.066 (f) - 030 2. Perceived relative ad— vantage of using the library as a teaching- learning resource (93) (f) .026 (+) 11] (f) 239 3. Perceived disadvantages of using the library as a teaching—learning resource ( 94) (-) .021 (-) -.019 (-) -.014 4. Perceived advantages of using the library as a teaching-learning resource (95) (I) .122 (+) ll§ (f) 112 V.PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PERSON- ALITY VARIABLES l. Open-mindedness (121-149) 0) 1.1 (1) .027 (0-151 2. Need for autonomy (I) -.023 (f) .037 (+) .062 ::significant at .01 __significant at .05 -126- It is now possible, on the basis of data presented in Table V, to draw profiles of those Thai government academic secondary school teachers who are (l) aware of innovations relatively earlier than are their peers, (2) are innovative--adopt educational innovations relatively earlier than do their peers, and (3) perceive educational innovations as relatively more beneficial than do their colleagues; these profiles are given below. Respondents who are aware of educational innovations relatively earlier than their peers tend to be younger (I-1) and to have had fewer years of teaching experience (I-3). Early-knowing teachers tend also to have attained higher levels of formal education (I-6) and to read a lar- ger number of professional journals (III-Bé1)--ostensibly for the pur- pose of keeping abreast of new educational developments. They perceive themselves as oriented or receptive to change (II—A—l) and, moreover, consider themselves Opinion leaders on the subject of educational inno- vations (II-A-Z). Communication between themselves, on the one hand, and both their principal (III-C-4) and teaching colleagues (III-D-l), on the other, is relatively frequent and appears to be purposely directed toward discussion of professional matters. These individuals appear to be es- pecially sensitive to the evaluation which both teaching peers (II-C-Z) and students (II-D-l) [but not necessarily their principal] place upon greater awareness of innovations; they apparently feel that the high repute 1Parenthetical references given after various words refer to letter- number codes identifying independent variables in Table V; the generaliza- tions advanced may be checked by referring to coefficients of correlations contained in that Table. -127- of students and colleagues is an essential ingredient to maintenance of this generally favorable concept of self (lI-A-l). Teachers in this group appear to view the educational "establishment" as encouraging changes in secondary education (II-B-lO; II-Bm12), and perceive themselves to be local champions for this cause (II—A-l; II~A-2); they reputedly seek out and question Minis- try of Education Specialists about use of innovations when these latter of- ficials visit their schools (Illuc-S). Lastly, these "progressive" teachers appear to be relatively more open-minded than are their less innovative peers (V-l). Comparatively more innovative respondents-ethose who tend to adept innovations earlier than do their peersc-appearto perceive themselves as highly competent teachers (II—A-S) and feel that their principal (II-B-l), their teaching colleagues (II-C-4) and their students (II-D-3) share with them this high self—rating of their professional competence; there is also satisfaction with their teaching role (II~A-3). They view themselves as communicating frequently with their principal (III-C—4) and peers (III-D-l) on the t0pic of new educational practices and consider themselves opinion leaders on this subject (II-A-Z); discussions with their principal elicit, among other things, a degree of performance feedback (III-C-Z). While these teachers perceive Ministry officials (II-B-lO) and inspectors (II-B-lZ), their principal (IluB-7), peers (Iioc-Z), and pupils (II-D-l) as favoring adoption of at least certain innovations, they apparently feel that their own judgment rather than the attitudes of others must constitute the final arbiter of any adoption-rejection decision (II-B-8; II-B-ll; II-C»3)--and they adept only these innovations which in their judgment are of proven -128- worth (IV—4). Lastly, these individuals appear to have greater exposure to both mass (III-A-l) and professional (III-B-l) communication media than do their less innovative peers. Thai secondary school teachers who view the innovations under in- vestigation as highly benefitical-uview themselves as secure in their posi- tions (II-A-A) and satisfied with their roles as educators (II~A-3). They consider themselves accomplished in their chosen vocation (Il-A-S) and feel that their principal (II-B-l), peers (II-Ca4), and pupils (II-D-3) share with them this favorable selfurating of professional competence. Members of this group apparently see their own positive attitude toward the beneficiality of at least certain new educational practices (IV-2; ll-B-4)as being shared by Ministry officials (Il-B-lO) and inspectors (II-B-lZ), their principal (II-B-7), peers (II-C-l; II-C-Z) and students (II-D-l). These teachers also apparently feel that communication and com— munication media are important, for their exposure to both general mass media (III-A—l) and specialized professional media (III-ELI) is reportedly quite frequent. They report discussing work—related topics with Ministry inspectors (III~C-S), their principal (III~C~4) and peers (III~D~1) relatively often, These respondents consider themselves to be opinion leaders on the subject of educational innovations (III-Ae2) and, quite inexplicably, they would seem to be relatively closed-minded (or dogmatic) as well (V~1)0 In reading the separate profiles sketched previously the reader may have observed that certain of the independent variables were corre- lated significantly with all three of the dependent variables; an examination -129- of those traits common to teachers scoring.high on awareness, adoption and perceived beneficiality of innovations produces the following pro- file: These members of the Thai teaching profession are distinguished from their colleagues by a firm conviction of their own opinion-leader- ship; they are apparently of the view that their teaching peers look to them for information about, and legitimation of, new educational prac- tices. This form of dependency they undoubtedly perceive as being well justified by virtue of the fact that, by their own claim, they are the first to learn of new educational practices. Professional journal readership is significantly more frequent for those teachers scoring high on awareness, adoption and perceived benefi- ciality of innovations than for those not so distinguished. What is im- portant in this regard is perhaps not so much the congruence of actual and professional journal readership-~which is impossible to measure-~but, rather, an apparently well-defined realization among certain Thai teachers that opinion leadership is linked to the necessity for remaining informed. Another interesting characteristic of individuals comprising this group of teachers is the extent to which they perceive their generally favorable attitudes toward one innovation studied in depth (use of the library as a teaching-learning resource) as reflecting the interest of "significant others." The pattern which emerges is remarkable for its consistency; positive correlations were found between awareness, adoption and perceived beneficiality of this innovation, on the one hand, and the following highly interrelated dependent variables, on the other: (1) per- ception of Ministry of Education officials' attitudes toward use of the -130- library as a teaching-learning resource; (3) perception of peers' attitude toward use of the library as a teaching-learning resource; and (4) perception of students' attitudes toward the use of the li- brary as a teaching-learning resource. A final pattern of responses characterizing members of this group reflects the frequency of interpersonal communication about the innova- tion under study. Awareness, adoption and perceived beneficiality of using the library as a teaching-learning resource was consistently corre- lated with (1) reported frequency of conversation between peers and self about use of the library as a teaching-learning resource; (2) reported frequency of communication between principal and self about use of the library as a teaching-learning resource. Having obtained from zero-order correlation several apparent cor- relates of awareness, adoption, and perceived beneficiality of innova- tions, independent variables which were significantly correlated with the dependent variables were submitted to least-square multiple regres- sion (least-squares delete) analysis. The end product of such analysis is a rank-ordering of independent variables; that independent variable contributing least to variability in the dependent variable is "deleted" first, that which contributes least among those remaining is "deleted" next, etc. While the basis for retention--or deletion-~may vary, independent variables appearing in Table VI each contributes to variance in the dependent variables at the 5 per cent level of signifi- cance; following each independent variable, listed in descending order of importance, is noted the percentage of (1) total and (2) partial variance explained by each. -131- TABLE‘VI— Rank-Order of Independent Variables, Explaining Variance in Dependent Variables as Provided by Least-Square Delete Analysis . Awareness Percentage of Percentage of Total Variance Partial Variance Independent Variable Explained Explained 1. Years of teaching experience 5.65 45.66 2. Self-designated innovation opinion leadership 3.53 28.55 3. Perceived change orienta- tion of principal 1.80 14.51 4. Number of professional journals read 1.40 11.28 Totals 12.40% 100.00% LL, AdOption 1. Self-designated innovation Opinion leadership 4.12 64.66 2. Mass media exposure 1.52 23.84 3. Age .70 11.60 Totals 6.35% 100.00% Table VI (continued) LII, Perceived Beneficiality Independent Variable 1. -132- Percentage of Total Variance Percentage of Partial Variance Self-designated innovation opinion leadership Perception of peers' atti- tudes toward use of the library as a teaching- learning resource Mass media exposure‘ Closed-mindedness Number of professipnal journals read Reported frequency of per- formance feedback from principal to self Explained Explained 2.49 22.29 2.27 20.36 2.08 18.65 1.65 14.77 1.36 12.27 1.30 LL.66 Totals 11.18% 100.00% -133- The results from least-squares delete analysis appearing in Table VI can be interpreted as reflecting one or a combination of the following effects: (1) Despite the large number of independent variables selected for measurement, those most closely associated with change ori- entation and adOption of innovation have escaped identification, and thus analysis; (2) Thai teachers are a remarkably homogeneous group in terms of their orientation to change; and/or (3) unidentified "structural ef- fects" are Operative, but unidentified and unmeasured. Other than the fact that it serves to justify the considerable ef- fort thus far invested in data collection, this latter hypothesis has additional merits to recommend its serious consideration. It would, for one thing, go far to explain the remarkably low aerO-order correlations reported in Table V. It would also tend to substantiate impressionistic evidence, obtained while visiting a large number of study schools, that even the comparatively innovative educator in Thailand required substan- tial support from peers, superiors, and subordinates before committing himself to accept change. Stated differently, Thai educators as a group are relatively disinclined to take risks or set themselves apart from peers by indulging in experimentation; in this society characterized by a considerable homogeneity of worldhview, the still largely conservative "innovator" is difficult to distinguish from the mass of those even more fully wedded to continuation of past practices. Identification or differ- entiation of these "innovators" from the mass into which they so nearly blend requires the development of much more sephisticated instruments than those which have served adequately in Western societies where greater heterogeneity of world-view among members results in a broader dispersion of attitudes. -134- Thus, as with first-order correlations, least—square delete anal- ysis turns up few characteristics unequivocally distinguishing the "in- novator" simply because the latter are only slightly more change-oriented than are their "less innovative" peers; fluctuation in measures of inde-i pendent variables occurs within a very narrow range along the continuum of theoretically possible values. Ngg—Correlgtgongl Data Before proceeding to a more speculative consideration of the data derived from correlational analysis (which concludes this chapter), at- tention will be directed to presenting what is in fact merely frequency distribution data; these data are presented with the hope that they prove informative to both scholars interested primarily in diffusion research and those concerned more generally with the broader field of Thai educa- tion. Figures 6, 7 and 8 (pages 135, 136 and 137) contain information on rates of awareness and adoption for the three innovations of primary in- terest here, as measured over the ten-year period (1956-1966); in conjunc- tion with these data will be found bar-graphs depicting distributions of perceived beneficiality for each innovation. It is interesting to note that of the three innovations, objective tests (which 87 per cent of the respondents rate as either very or somewhat beneficial) have diffused most rapidly--being used, reportedly, by 96 per cent of those responding-~while class discussion method of instruction is rated very or somewhat beneficial by fully 92 per cent, although used by only 62 per cent of the 629 sample teachers. -135- No. coma qoma New.“ Goa.” + .4 n u u .1 t wmma . momma w a u 1 was m an a. 1 and m a b C .1. l f 1 e a a In...“ D rlo\MN y 0 a a N V t e o .Ill N .N .8 1,. V .m .m Team .1 e as; b 1.. a v. .1 r C. e .1 "v f e m r b 6..wa to a .m e m 0 S mmosouwté ll..ll..l. II £03334 l 111 N00." vosuoz scammouman mmmflo "muosoLmWoH Hoonum Mum. vacuum Human. awe he ms..oH._.um>o¢cH 035. cu monsoomum I w unsmfim ~136- oomo some 1, q- N -40 O‘ H -r- O \O ..m H omma cruu, “ so.a 1 O ”we «a c 1. H“ .m sw.as e .m m s. .1 .b a. a II n .1 .l. e C 1.. b .1. a f t N” m a e e V b t t v.. m m a V am.ao 1 a ti. 1| ac awn mm 06 Sb xmm «new a3? I ”muonomma Hoozom momma o>auouflao muonuum3<|||nllu aoHumon< hmmvaooom «mnH awe No mooHum>ooflH Nm fins Nmm nu me IuNmn ILNOOH manna ouimwmuoomom n n ouowwm .83 83 3% $3 83 . 82 m . . °\° O‘ N °\° \DI 0‘ N Not at all beneficial Not veg: beneficial —l37- Somewhat beneficial " m ” m n _ _ i . am e Nwa Jana .Nom $5.50 4... an .1 C .1 f e m M. 11.19% m a $34 In lull. \\\ mug m wadmlllmmm oofiumon< -u .382 mmoom financed a“ mucus Hmm< "muonumme Hoosum mmmmcooom wde mww an muowum>oosH mousH ou momamNWom u w madman '138.-.- American and other Western scholars familiar with contemporary edu- cational practices in Thailand--especially in its rural areas--may well find the foregoing figures-~and those which immediately follow--difficult to reconcile with personal observations; these individuals, more so than other readers unfamiliar with Thailand, will view these figures with some skepticism, as does this writer. Among the factors contributing to unre- liability of data reported are: first, the fact that no attempt was made on the instrument to determine either the extent of knowledge possessed by respondents, or the intensity of innovation use; these acknowledged weaknesses of the instrument may lead, in the first instance, to inflation of "awareness" figures, and, in the second, to misunderstanding or misin- terpretation of "adaption" figures. Both awareness and adoption, it is here suggested, are continuous rather than dichotomous variables-~although in this and other diffusion research literature not employing an innova- tiveness scale, they have been treated dichotomously. Secondly, there can be little question that most Thais tend to treat any paper and pencil exercise as an "examination" or "test"--for which there are supposedly "correct" or "incorrect" answers. (Phillips, 1965: llfo; Sjoberg, 1960:285-295). This deeply ingrained and perhaps culturally-linked characteristic (especially among educators thoroughly imbued with the sanctity of examinations) may well have served in this instance to bias responses toward inflated assessments of awareness, adop- tion, and perceived beneficiality of innovations. Discussions with Thai educators leave little room for doubt that even those conscientiously committed to the preservation of "traditional" patterns of education are -139-- sensitive--and flexible--enough to don a mantle of progressivism when cir- cumstances suggest that this is the "appropriate" position. Thirdly, there is perhaps operative here a variant of the "courtesy bias" (Jones, 1964) so frequently encountered in Southeast Asia and which manifests itself as a propensity on the part of respondents to provide that answer which the latter senses will most "please" his foreign inter- rogator. This phenomenon should be classified, not as a habitual tendency to dissimulate or prevaricate, but, rather, as the result of a desire to please by providing answers which the situation suggests the interrogator would "like" to receive. (Phillips, 1965:70-71). Finally, the prevalence among Thais of a desire to be found by others "attractive" or "appealing" may well lead teachers to falsely represent themselves as members of a "modernizing" élite. Figure 9 presents in diagrammatic form the percentages of respon- dents reportedly aware that the various ten innovations are being used in Thai government secondary schools; these figures represent current (1966) awareness. It is important to recall that these awareness figures—-even to the extent that they accurately reflect reality--say nothing whatso- ever about the extent of knowledge possessed by teachers. Numerous and extended conversations with both Ministry supervisors and Presarn Mitr faculty members suggest that the average secondary tea- cher understands very little about the innovations under study. Quantita- tively, few saphisticated texts and/or articles dealing with these sub- jects have yet appeared in the Thai language, and while English language texts and/or articles in some numbers are to be found in the Presarn Mitr ~140- Teachers: Percentage Aware of Use of Innovation in Thai Figure 9 - Responses.to Ten Innovations by 629 Thai Secondary School Schools an 2 axoom mumuan .L n.“ muaoecwfimmdw 9 Wu 5 posse: 1* o, dowmmoumqn mumao mumflH u>auounbo maoonom Hoaofiumoavooo uouounoum meaam was seesaw H§0.3% musoauumoun ops“ fiowumufifimwuo 96.3% mafiaomaoou ooamvwso fioHumHuomm< Hunoouyuufioumm 90'8‘ 88.5% muwmuofivomm mo wflanomofi mum ISONUH m6 mhmmuflb uHo> mmuou mumom 94.1% 100% 75% 50% 25% _ -l4l- library and offices of Ministry supervisors, the average Thai teacher possesses neither ready access to such information sources nor the Eng- lish language proficiency to read them. Some measure of the frequency with which various Thai language in- formation sources are employed by teachers is provided by examining re- sponses to Question 74-nreprodqud below: "I first learned that some teachers in Thai govern— ment secondary schools require that their students read assignments from library books...(choose only one)." Frequency Response Categories of Response Per Cent from one of my college in- structure 239 38.08 From a teacher in a Secondary school 118 18.76 From the principal of a secon- dary school where I taught 82 13.03 At a conference 1 -- From an Amphur Education Officer 2 -- From a Changwad Education Officer 1 -- From a Ministry of Education publication 98 15.58 From a Ministry of Education directive 6 -- From a school supervisor (inspector) 37 5.88 From a college textbook 16 2.54 While studying abroad 1 -- No response 28 4.35 Careful examination of responses and respoise frequencies discloses that fully 80 per cent of those new teaching in Thai government secondary schoolSwnnnanever themselves required to read assignments from library books during the course of their own secondary education-~having first heard of this practice from sources not ordinarily available to secondary -142- school pupils. Mbreover, approximately 38 per cent of all respondents appear to have finished.bg£h their secondary and teacher-training pro- grams without being exposed to knowledge of this practice. Finally-- and perhaps most inexplicably--one respondent reports having first heard that some Thai secondary school teachers make assignments in library books while studying in the United States. It becomes clear on the basis of this information why teachers find it difficult to incorporate library assignments into their own teaching pattern when it is recognized that very few of those teaching today were ever themselves exposed to this practice during their own early education. Figure 10 depicts, in bar graph form, reported adoption for all ten innovations; as these figures do not coincide with purely impression- istic evidence obtained from observations made while visiting Thai schools, they should perhaps be seen as suggesting the propensity of teachers to accept future changes rather than as a measure of past adoption. The impression that reported adoption falls far short of observed adoption also suggests that, in future diffusion research conducted in Thai schools, some objective measure of adoption-—frequency, intensity, and/or competency of use—-be included in the research design. Survey re- search methodology in developing areas would perhaps prove much more re- liable were it wedded to, or combined with, observation. e—143- Figure 10 - Responses to Ten Innovations by 629 Thai Secondary School Teachers: Reported Use of Innovation in the School axoom humunwa a“ muaoacwamm< 71.9% vosumz coamwsomaa sumac . 62.375. mummy o>wuuofino 00 mHoonom Hwaoflumoovmoo _fiJL27 Hauoohoum mvflam new movwam , 29L6% mufioauummoa ouaH aofiumuwamwuo £3.52, , wcwfiomabou adamwwnw 51.37 A1 aowumaoOam< Hosoooanuamumm 18. muwmuowvamm mo wnasomoa 85.7% muosomoa mm muoou nasHo> mauoo oommm 7 100% 75% 25% 50% -144- Figure 11 reflects the percentage of respondents viewing as "very beneficial" the introduction of ten innovations about which their judgment was requested. Although comparable data for other countries (including the United States) have not been found, it would appear that secondary school teachers in Thailand are, as a group, rather young; the median age of sample teachers is 33.7 years. Presented below is the distri- bution of ages for those 629 sample teachers completing the question- naire instrument: Age Frequency 4.2er Cent 20-24 21 3.34 25-29 229 36.40 30-34 174 27.67 35-39 74 11.76 40-44 57 9:06’ 45-49 33 5.40 50-54 27 4.29 55-59 14 2.54 60 or above 0 -- Of the 629 respondents, 331 were female and 298 were male. Fig- ures for distribution of educational level attained, derived from an- swers to question 16 on the instrument, are given below: Highest Educationgl LevelfAttained Frequency Per Cent High School (Maw Saw 5) Graduation Certi- ficates only 17 2.70 Secondary School Teachers Certificate 378 60.09 Secondary School Teachers Certificate plus In-service Training 37 5.88 B.A. Degree 187 29.72 MLA. Degree 1 ~- In reaponse to question 14, one hundred seventy-two teachers indicated the names of Thai universities or colleges attended; the distribution is -l45- Percentage Rating the Innovation as "very beneficial" Figure 11 - Responses to Ten Innovations by 629 Thai Secondary School Teachers: axoom %umun«q ca «unmacmHmm< 67.7%. gonna: fioammsoman mango 36.97 momma m>auounno mHoosow HoaOHumosvoou 00 uouoomoum wvfiam was seesaw 60.1% manuauumaon oufia flofiumuwflmwuo 16 . % mafiaomasoo oofimvfiso 73.0% aoaumaoOmm< Honomoeuuaoumm O mummuoavsmm mo magnomow muonoMoH mm muoou unbao> mmuou oomom 100$ 75% 50% 25% , -l46- given below: Thai University Attended Frequency Per Cent Chulalongkorn University 44 6.89 Presarn Mitr College of Education 86 13 67 Pratumwon College of Education 10 1.58 Bang Saen College of Education 22 3.49 10 1.58 Thammasat University Seven teachers indicated, in response to question 15, that they had attended a foreign university; all listed the college or university attended and these are as follows: Foreign University Attended Distribution University of Bristol (England) University of London (England) Dublin University (Ireland) Trinity College (Ireland) Sydney University (Australia) University of Michigan (U.S.A.) Whitman College (U.S.A.) r—a'r-Ir—Ir—Ir-dr-Ir-a A total of 106 respondents indicated, in response to question 18, that they had traveled abroad; the countries visited, together with the numbers visiting each, are listed belows Country Visited Frequency Per Cent 46 7.31 Laos 39 6.20 Malaysia Philippines Japan Burma Australia U.S.A. Singapore Taiwan England France New Zealand Finland HHHHP—‘HNNNQM I I -147“ That a comparatively large percentage of secondary school teachers in government-operated institutions in Thailand are relatively inexperi- enced is illustrated by the following figures which were derived from responses to question 10 on the instrument asking for the total years of teaching experience: Total Years of Teaching Experience Frequency Per Cent 2 years or less 19 3.02 2-5 years 136 21.62 6-8 years 146 23.35 9-11 years 107 17.01 12-14 years 58 9.20 15-17 years 52 8.26 18-20 years 26 4.13 More than 20 years 85 13.51 Some measure of mobility is provided by the figures given below which were derived from responses to question 20: "In how many other Thai government secondary schools have you taught?" No. of Schools in Which Formerly Employed Frequency Per Cent None 312 49.60 One 191 30.58 Two 78 12.40 Three 26 4.13 Four 10 1.59 Five 7 -- Six 2 -- Seven 1 -- Only 155 of the sample teachers had at one time or another taught in private secondary schools, while 472 had spent their entire teaching career in government secondary schools. Answers provided by reapondents indicate that Thai teachers as a group are fairly heavy "consumers" of mass and professional media; -148- 578 (92 per cent) of the 629 reSpondents reported owning radios, 409 (64 per cent) reported having regular access to television receivers, and nearly all appear to read newspapers and general circulation maga- zines several times weekly. Listed below are the titles of professional educational journals published in Thailand, together with the number of respondents reporting having read each within the 30-day period immedi- ately preceding completion of the questionnaire: Professional Journal Read Frequency Per Cent Mittayasarn 512 81.39 Mitr Khru 249 39.58 Secondary School Journal 213 33.86 Mittayacharn 98 15.58 Educational Center 96 15.26 Science 70 11.12 Mathematics 48 7.80 Educational Radio 40 6.35 Juntr Kasem 30 4.76 Vocational School Journal 18 2.86 It would appear on the basis of these figures that educational journals of a more general nature command much wider readership than do the more Specialized publications-—by no means an unusual or unex- pected finding. Cross-fertilization of educational ideas and diffusion of aware- ness can, of course, be enhanced by employment of numerous methods; while wide distribution of educational journals represents one such method, attendance by teachers at meetings convened to describe and dis- cuss new methodology represents another. In response to questions 24 and 25, teachers indicated the extent to which they have been involved in such conferences within the past year. Following are the frequencies -149- of such attendance: "Within the past year have you attended any meetings of Government secondary school teachers held in other Changwads?" No 430 Yes 169: No. of Times 1-2 times 152 3-4 times 7 "Within the past year have you attended any meetings of Government secondary school teachers held in Bangkok?" No 439 Yes 190: No. of Times 1-2 149 3-4 22 5-6 5 7-8 1 9-10 0 11-12 1 13 or more 3 In view of the fact that secondary school libraries visited ap- peared to be, on the whole, so poorly or inadequately used in Thailand, it is interesting to note the frequency with which various advantages and disadvantages of their required use are selected by teachers for whom adoption represents an individual adoption choice; distributions for answers to both questions 94 and 95 on the instrument are given on page 151 in order of frequency with which the response was chosen: ~150~ "94. Please circle the number preceding those items listed below which you consider to be disadvantages of assign- ing reading in library books." Resgogse Selectiggs No. of Per Cent Reapondents The libraries of many Thai government secondary schools contain an insufficient selection and number of books to render reading assignments in library books meaningful. 381 60.57 Thai government secondary school stu- dents do not read well enough to derive great benefit from reading as- signments in library books. 306 47.05 Many Thai government secondary school teachers find themselves incapable of incorporating outside reading into their classroom work. 268 41.01 The lack of trained librarians in Thai secondary schools serves to reduce the effectiveness of library facilities to the point where such assignments are meaningless. 254 40.38 Many Thai government secondary school teachers do not know how to assign and supervise reading in library books so that students will derive benefit therefrom.. 221 35.29 Time Spent in reading from library books would be better spent devoted to classroom lectures and exercises. 74 11.76 The reading of library books does not serve to improve the test scores of Thai government secondary school students. 29 4.61 -15;_ "95. Please circle the number preceding those items listed below which you consider to be advggtages of assigning reading in library books." Res se Select ons No. of Per Cent Respondents The breadth of knowledge possessed by Thai government secondary school students who regularly read library books is greater than that of stu- dents who do not read library books * regularly. 458 71.22 Assignment of reading in library books serves to improve the reading skill and reading comprehension of Thai government secondary school students. 412 65.50 Thai government secondary school students who are assigned reading in library books obtain better under- standing of the subject matter than do those who must rely for knowledge upon lectures and textbooks onlyo 344 54.69 Reading the biographies of famous figures in Thai history provides Thai government secondary school students with models which they then emulate. 239 37.99 Thai government secondary school students frequently learn more as a result of reading library books than they do if such reading assign- ments are not made. ’ 219 35.29 Thai government secondary school stu- dents who read assignments in library books obtain higher scores on exami- nations than do those students who do not read such assignments. 130 20.66 It is worth noting that teachers seem to recognize quite frequently their own professional inadequacy; the second, third and fifth most fre- quently mentioned reasons why library assignments are not more generally ‘15:— employed certain strong elements of self-criticism. And while school libraries are in most cases inadequately equipped to perform the function for which they are intended, there is every reason to believe that the resources presently available are not being fully utilized--largely, one suSpects, because of teacher apathy or antipathy. It is paradoxical that even though 306 respondents give student reading deficiencies as a reason why library assignments are not more frequently made, fully 65 per cent (412 individuals) concede that such assignments possess the potential of improving reading skills. It is also interesting that teachers select rather infrequently from among the advantages of library assignments the effect which such practice might have upon test scores; given the over—riding importance assigned by both teachers and pupils to performance on school-leaving and other examina- tions, one suspects that (were reading assignments viewed as contributing significantly to improved performance on such tests) they would be made much more frequently than is now the case. Summary In summarizing the findings, it might be well to speculate briefly on why such comparatively low correlations between independent and depen- dent variables resulted from analysis of data. Considering first‘gyggg— ‘gggg, it is manifestly obvious by reference to Figure 9 that the propor- tion of teachers reportedly aware of the ten individual innovations is uniformly high; with so little "spread" or distribution in awareness scores, it becomes difficult to identify statistically the correlates -153- which unequivocally distinguish between relative time of awareness. Had more ingenuity been exercised in measuring comprehensiveness of knowledge (that is, degree of awareness), a broader distribution of scores would probably have resulted. Imprecision of measurement may also account in part for the failure to identify more of the correlates of adOption. Hindsight suggests that frequency or intensity of innovation use should have been included as a dependent variable and that, had measurement of this variable been successful, additional correlates of true adoption--as distinguished from trial use--might have then become identifiable. In the case of perceived beneficiality, distributions of responses were again highly skewed (see Figures 6, 7, 8); 87 per cent of all re8pon- dents viewed as either "very beneficial" or "somewhat beneficial" the use of objective tests, while comparable figures for use of class discussion and library assignments were 92 per cent and 97 per cent respectively. This extremely narrow range of responses renders extremely difficult the identification of characteristics distinguishing between those favorably and those unfavorably disposed toward the innovations. Lastly—-pertaining to measurement of all independent and dependent variables--there remains the question of response reliability. In dis- cussions with the Thai informants about the degree to which answers pro- vided to questions can be relied upon, these informants counsel caution. Thais quite candidly characterize their fellow countrymen as "devious," "untrustworthy," or "unpredictable." Phillips (1965:164) encountered this same reaction among his Thai informants, quoting one as saying, "We [Thai] people have many minds, different hearts. Whatever others say, we -jjfis can't be sure whether it is true or not." In everyday conversation, the Thai is infinitely more concerned with the form than with the content of his speech; there appears to be operative an expectation among Thai that the listener will discount the (obviously) exaggerated in any case, leaving no reason for editing one's own statements for veracity. Despite the difficulties experienced in precisely measuring both independent and dependent variables, this research project, it is felt, has contributed substantially to our understanding of the attitudes to- ward educational innovations held by Thai government secondary school teachers. It is apparent, for example, that while we may not judge these teachers as adequately informed about innovations reéently in- troduced by either foreign scholars or Thai educationists, some mini- mum level of awareness has been achieved with encouraging rapidity. Even more importantly, perhaps, there is evidence that both Ministry officials and individual teachers now realize the importance of aware- ness and have begun to exploit professional journals, in-service con- ferences and extension-type programs to improve awareness. Adoption of improved practices, as one might expect, has lagged behind awareness in more or less predictable patterns. The better edu- cated, more widely travelled Thai educators--those comprising the Minis- try of' Education officialdom--have perceived the need to redirect tradi- tional philosOphy and practice in Thailand and now work closely with foreign governments and international agencies to create institutions (such as Presarn Mitr Teacher Training College) through which western educational techniques might be brought into Thai schools. Failure of -155- certain such institution-building programs undertaken with the technical assistance of external agencies merely points up with dramatic clarity the lack of planning, organizational and managerial skill which will continue to plague the Ministry until such time as there emerges a top-level management group possessing these skills. But individual teacher adoption of improved educational practices, it is hypothesized, should move rather rapidly once the Ministry has been organized to provide educational personnel with the necessary skills and materials. Generally positive attitudes toward the bene- ficiality of change and improvement attest to the favorable climate which exists within teacher ranks for the future introduction of im- proved practices. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION In previous chapters of this presentation the research problem was delimited, the diffusion literature was reviewed, organization and management of government secondary education in Thailand were discussed, and both research design and the preliminary results of correlational analysis were reported. There remains the need in this final chapter to re-examine the insights obtained from the literature, questionnaire responses, and personal interviews with the intent of recasting these data in ways which will lead to a fuller understanding of educational policy-making in Thailand as it is influenced by cultural or subcultu- ral values and in turn determines the nature and direction of probable future changes in Thai educational practice. The first section below is devoted to a discussion of contemporary educational practices as observed in government-operated secondary schools in Thailand, and centers on the current usage of those innovations studied during the course of this research project. It is felt that contemporary practices and attitudes suggest the probable trend of educational develop- ments in Thailand during the next two to five years. Probable longer-range influences on educational organization, man~ agement and methodology will be discussed in the second section below; drawing upon this consideration of probable longer-range influences, a s156- —157- prognosis of receptivity to change and innovativeness during the period from five to ten years hence will be offered. The (admittedly speculative) considerations found in both the first and second sections below assume that the educational establishment con- tinues to employ current management policies and does not radically alter the organizational framework now in use. The third section of this chapter is devoted to an enumeration of those purposeful measures which Thai political and educational leaders might consider for implementation in order to meet the challenges posed by a modernizing and rapidly changing world environment. In the fourth and last seétion of this chapter some general sugges- tions are set forth regarding the direction which future educational research in Thailand might well take. Probable Short-Range Influences onI and Treads inI Thai Government Secggdary Education Given the continuance of policies and practices currently subscribed to by the Ministry of Education, it is believed quite unlikely that educa- tional innovations such as those studied in the course of this research project will, in the near future, be employed effectively and on a broad scale by government secondary schools. Although questionnaire-derived information would suggest that awareness and use of innovations have dif- fused rather rapidly, impressions derived from visits to a cross-section of schools, and information obtained during the course of interviews, point to the conclusion that the former-~taken by itself--is apt to be misleading. While impressive numbers of teachers report having learned of the several -158- innovations under study, and not a few reported use of those innova- tions, the instrument used is now perceived as having been insuffi- ciently saphisticated to measure the extent of innovation usage.1 Both personal observations and discussions with Ministry Supervisors suggest that only a relatively small percentage of Thai secondary school principals and/or classroom teachers possess an understanding of these innovations sufficiently detailed to permit effective in-school or classroom utilization. In order to document more adequately the generalizations ad- vanced above, while at the same time giving readers some added insight into current utilization of the innovations studied, the following in- formation is presented. It became evident during the conduct of personal interviews with Ministry officials that, while those who govern Thailand and administer the educational system may, when talking to Western educators, subscribe in general terms to the adoption and/or adaptation of certain Western- developed educational innovations, encouragement of national unity, eradi- cation of illiteracy and dissolution of ethnic differences through expan- sion of contemporary educational practices constitute for them much more pressing develOpmental tasks. In pursuit of this goal, those limited financial resources available to the educational establishment are now being expanded almost entirely on construction of schools, expansion of 1The instrument used was intended to measure only the following dependent variables: (1) time of awareness; (2) time of adoption; and (3) perceived beneficiality; it is now felt that it should also have been designed to measure intensity of use. ~159- teacher-training institutions, and training of personnel to staff ex- panding Ministry offices, teacher-training institutions and schools; little Thai money available to support education is currently being devoted to improvements in existing educational methodology. Such funds as are being spent for this latter end are now provided by for- eign governments and international agencies. Qualitative and techni- cal improvement of contemporary educational practice apparently is viewed by those who now establish educational priorities as deserving only minimal attention and marginal resources. Evidence of this relatively low level concern for educational modernization and improvement by top-level Ministry officials is to be found on every hand. Schools being built today, for example, reflect ,//’ no evidence of intensive effort toward design improvement, as they are identical in every important respect to schools built twenty and thirty years ago; the materials used, the physical layout of rooms, corridors, and offices, and the furnishings themselves are merely more recent rep- licas of those found in much older school buildings. The Ministry of Education has formally recognized the essentiality of neither library books nor audio-visual materials--including maps and charts--to the contemporary educational process; funds to purchase either category of materials must be generated by the schools themselves; no provision is made in Ministry of Education appropriations for this pur- pose. Released time is officially provided in $23: schools for neither school librarians nor guidance counselors; those teachers who may volun- teer or be appointed to perform these services must do so while carrying ~160~ full-time teaching schedules--with a predictable impact on the level of performance obtained. Mimeograph machines and stencils necessary for the reproduction of objective tests or teaching aids must be provided by the individual school, as must tools and materials needed in voca- tional education classes. (Exception to this latter generalization are those pilot schools participating in the UNICEF vocational education project.) Teaching methods employed by many, many teachers are today very similar, if not identical, to those methods growing out of Wat-centered‘// education. In public schools, a Western observer is struck forcibly by the extent to which formalism permeates the classroom and school-site environment. A high degree of rigidity characterizes the behavior of both pupils and teachers. Discussions, in the fullest sense of that term, are almost never encountered in Thai classrooms. Individual reci- tation appears to be much less common than choral response by class members as a group. Both the curriculum itself and the manner in which classroom activity is conducted are clearly designed to foster and incul- cate "moral behavior"--i;e., respect for authority. Guidance counseling in Thai secondary schools has come to signify, for both teachers and students, provision by the former of ”moral guid- ance" to the latter. From what could be learned during the course of conversations with school guidance counselors and counseling supervisors in the Ministry, vocational guidance as such is notable by its absence; school counselors have not been provided either general data or specific employment information essential to this type of guidance. Academic coun- seling has been described by school guidance personnel and principals as -l61- a function of individual teachers. Only problems involving "immoral be- havior," discipline and personal adjustment are referred to school guid- ance counselors and these, it has been reported, are generally dealt with in terms of the behavior expected from a good Buddhist, a good son, a good citizen, or a good student. Except in UNICEF project schools, cumu- lative records are not maintained on individual students, and standardized personality or aptitude tests are unknown. Absence of Ministry concern for improvement in existing educational methodology and technology is also reflected in the selection and promo- tion policies leading to appointment of Education Officers. While indivi- dual exceptions can be cited, Changwad and Regional Education Officers ap- pear,on the whole, to lack respect among school principals and teachers; as these officers must necessarily play an important role in any moderni- zation effort inaugurated by Ministry policy makers, their position vis-a-vis both those higher and those lower in the hierarchy becomes extremely im- portant. As seen by teachers and principals, most Changwad Education Officers are ill fitted to perform the functions prerequisite to modernization and improvement of contemporary Thai secondary education. They are seen as predominantly political in orientation and are concerned largely, if not wholly, with the minutia of financial administration and record-keeping. Secondary school principals point out that few Changwad Education Offi- cers possess familiarity with the problems confronting secondary education, most having come to their administrative posts through the elementary school system. (Only seventeen per cent of the Changwad Education Officers ~162- in Thailand have been secondary school principals, and a rather meager 26 per cent have served as secondary school teachers at some time in their careers.) Both school principals and teachers charge that Chang- wad Education Officers are generally less well educated than those whose efforts they are called upon to supervise, and indeed only 25 per cent of those now holding such positions have more than twelve years of formal schooling. Secondary school principals claim that both elementary school experience and the relatively poor academic preparation of Changwad Edu- cation Officers render the latter ill-prepared to offer constructive sug- gestions for improvement of the secondary education process; 50 per cent of the 65 Changwad Education Officers questioned concurred that they are generally not seen by government secondary school principals and teach- ers as a good source of information about new educational practices. Fully 75 per cent of this group responded that even other Changwad Edu- cation Officers probably do not consider them good sources of information about new educational practices at the secondary school level. On the basis of this information, it can be assumed that neither Changwad Edu- cation Officers themselves nor those who staff secondary schools under their direction perceive the former as concerned with qualitative im- provement of contemporary educational methodology and technology. As for those occupying administrative posts in the Ministry itself, few of those interviewed appear to perceive the Changwad Education Officer as playing a creative or crucial role in educational improvement. Minis- try bureaucrats seem to share with principals and teachers the view that Changwad Education Officers perform functions largely, if not totally, tangential to the principal concerns of classroom teachers. For their -l68- part, Changwad Education Officers complain that they are too frequently ‘ bypassed by both those below and those above them in the structure. They feel that Ministry officials too often deal directly with individual secondary school principals and that they are consulted by neither Minis- try officials nor school principals about pedagogical problems with which they should be concerned. However much the deficiencies in educational management and method- ology catalogued above may serve to affect adversely the quality of edu- cation now received by Thai secondary school pupils, these deficiencies-- individually and/or collectively--are merely symptoms of the disease, not its underlying cause; to focus undue attention upon these symptoms serves only to divert attention from consideration of their etiology--dySfunc- tional bureaucratic policies and practices. While powerful political figures in the high echelons of government clearly have it within their power to demand and obtain a more rationalized administration of the King- dom's educational enterprise, they-~as well as those directly responsible for executive leadership in the Ministry of Education itself--are heirs to a bureaucratic tradition which stifles planning while encouraging drift, discourages decision making and encourages indecisiveness, rewards un- remitting pursuit of personal advancement while penalizing energetic pursuit of organizational goals, discourages inter-agency cooperation while encouraging uncoordinated effort--and serves generally to frustrate change and improvement. Personal and organizational initiative are sacri- ficed under this,tradition to protect members of the bureaucratic polity from the unpleasant task of adjustment to changing societal needs. ~164~ The avoidance of accountability which this last statement implies is an Option of government bureaucrat-politicians because Thai society is now almost completely bereft of organized interest groups, political parties or legislative bodies which in other countries serve to aggre- gate and articulate demands of the body politic upon political and bureau- cratic policy makers. Past and present Cabinets have found it possible, through various means, to "discourage" the formation of organized interest groups and political parties which might challenge the power and preroga- tives of those who administer the state apparatus. David Wilson (1962:277) has commented in this regard that "As much as the leadership of the Thai revolution (1932) might have wished things to be otherwise, it was not able to muster much popular interest outside the bureaucracy upon which to base itself. As a result, politics has become a matter of com- petition between bureaucratic cliques for the benefits of government." It should be pointed out, however, that while those who engineered the revolution of 1932 reportedly desired a pOpular base for their power and authority, subsequent governments have repeatedly dissolved popularly elected national assemblies which challenged the hegemony of Cabinet of- ficials. The short-range implications for education and other government- provided services of this bureaucratic autonomy from.public pressure are profound, and go far to explain why it is the subcultural norms subscribed to by government bureaucrats, rather than attitudes toward specific inno- vations held by teachers and principals, which in the immediate future will limit innovativeness and change in Thai secondary education. The modernity of a political system, as Riggs (1966) has postulated, ~165~ can be measured in part by the extent to which the functionally special- ized state bureaucracy has been brought under effective control by poli- tical institutions outside the governmental bureaucracy. These extra-' bureaucratic political institutions serve the twin functions of both for- mulating public demands which eventually become government policies, and significantly "activating" the bureaucracy to meet changing societal needs. Implicit in this proposition is the assumption that administra- tive duties required of bureaucratic officials are always onerous and that the resultant rewards of office are never adequate to satisfy all f their desires. L Unless the public possesses sanctions sufficiently power- V ful or threatening to secure a substantial level of conformity to its de- mands, it cannot rely upon its bureaucracy, as an instrument of adminis- \// tration, to reliably translate need into reality. In the absence of any center of power and policy-making external to the bureaucracy, a govern- ment elite becomes the spokesman and instrument of its own interests rather than those of society at large. In the absence of organized, articulate and demanding clientele (political parties) external to the bureaucracy, both high and low-ranking employees of the Government are free to ignore the hard choices required to provide the Kingdom with a continually improving educational system, and devote their full energies to achievement of what Riggs (1966:326-327) has termed "the operational code of a bureaucratic polity." That code, as postulated by Riggs, is reproduced below and may be considered the guiding norms of government bureaucrats in Thailand: 1. As much as possible, reduce the work load for officials. This refers especially to the content -l66- of bureaucratic work--i.e., avoid the necessity v/ of making hard decisions, of having to choose between alternatives. . . . 2. As much as possible, reduce tensions between the bureaucracy and the public, since any measures V// Which incur the wrath or resistance of the people would only make life more difficult for the of- ficials. . 3.. . . . pressure may be imposed on other offi- cials to secure as much income as possible. The need for income is so great that one may justifiably im- pose tributes upon others for direct payments, but one should do so in moderation to avoid violating the first two norms. 4. Finally, . . . it is important to be well situ- ated within the bureaucracy, since all positions are not equally desirable. . . . Hence, it is an Oper- ating rule to seek promotions, transfers, and changes or revisions of one's job assignments if thereby the prospects of satisfying the other norms can be en- hanced. Rules of seniority and security of tenure may be regarded as a correlary to this norm, since a domi- nant bureaucracy must have a relatively simple and easily applied set of rules for deciding whom to promote and for protecting attained privileges. Perhaps equally important, status must be rewarded. If the essential rewards of the system are to be accorded to those who rise within the hierarchy, then the rule of deference to superiors follows as an inflexible norm. Such deference reflects the admiration and respect anyone who is "upward- mobile” feels for those who have succeeded. Per- haps more important, those below know that the pace of their own climb upward depends upon the support and patronage of superiors whom they cannot, therefore, afford to antagonize. Finally, if cul- tural values prevail which induce ordinary citizens to defer to officials on the principle that "right makes might," then how much more surely will sub- ordinate officials pay homage to higher officials on the same grounds." The short-range implications for educational modernization result- ing from adherence by Ministry of Education employees to these unstated -l6Z- "operational rules” portend a period during which future methodological and organizational improvements, like those of the past, will be lim— ited in scepe, unplanned in execution, and largely divorced from the pressing demands\of national development. Individual Changwad Edu- cation Officers, secondary school principals, and teachers will be found who, within the limited range of their competence and authority, // .,// will press forward with minor improvements in existing practice, but basic and badly needed curricular reforms will not be forthcoming soon, effective articulation of secondary with elementary and higher educa- tion will not be accomplished, rationalization of organizational struc- ture-~de5pite pressure from foreign advisors--will not be achieved, badly needed upgrading of technical competency among Ministry function- aries will be ignored, educational planning will be avoided, and ad- herence to the "operational rules" of the bureaucratic polity will persist unabated. Agrobable Longer-Range Influences on,#gnd Trends in, Thai Government Secondary Education _ It is believed that the pace of change in Thai secondary education will inevitably accelerate during the years five to ten years Hence. The imperatives of political survival and economic develOpment may even force , / ‘v Thai governmental leaders to reorganize drastically--or abolish in its present form~-the Ministry of Education. But regardless of the method by which it is accomplished, there can be little doubt that a combination of economic and political factors will force substantial changes upon publicly provided secondary education in Thailand. Recent acceleration -l68- in the rate of economic develepment--and a desire by most Thai citi« zens that this pace be maintained, and, if possible, acceleratedo-will ., force upon political leaders decisio s whlich in the recent past they 3 have found it possible to avoid. While recent increases in Thailand's gross national product have resulted in large part from growth in tourism and application of tra- e/’ ditional agricultural methods to ne.w land brought under C"lthdt10u, future expansion will undoubtedly derive largely from the application of Science to H2 it Jture and a dramatic surge of industrialization. Both scientific exploitation of the soil and n scent industrialization will have the effecr of crearlng plwvrt"l inter est groups demanding of political leadership that governmeatuoperated publi 1c edu cart.n provide the number and t3 ype of highly. *:rai ed tachnicians required by a techni- cally more sophisticated economy. ‘ 1.1versal literacyr 0””1r112 in access by the masses to printed information and news fr rem tte "outside” world will also make educational demands upon Thailandgs polir foal leadership. Whereas the illiterate acy for his childr :, lit- peasant aspires to little more than mere liter erate parents will in at .1. asingly demand an appropriately technica‘ or sci- entific educ‘tinn for their cffsprin '30 There is also Is at 0:; to bel eve that the Buddhist hierarchy will increasingly support modernization of secular education. Many of Thai- land'g most influential Buddhist abbots have recently begun to encourage \v material improvement of sec Jar education in wp Count. vprovinces, build- ("a ing andr "Hf1tting botzh elementary and se ondary schools with funds de ri.v ed =169h from public donations. It is felt by many Thai observers that Buddhist leaders will concern themselves increasingly with the total welfare of Buddhist laymen and, over time, may constitute a powerful voice in the campaign for a general improvement in living conditions. Past and present efforts of foreign governments and international agencies to provide educational assistance to Thailand should, within the next five to ten years, begin paying substantial dividends. As the newer and better teaChertraining institutions, such as Presarn Mitr, themselves graduate more qualified teachers and then begin to impact upon the training provided by other institutions, it can be expected that classroom instruction will improve at an accelerating rate. Better-prepared graduates of secondary schools will permit yet further improvement of higher education, leading to yet another and further upgrading in the quality of primary and secondary education provided. Continuing political instability in Southeast Asia will also con- stitute a powerful spur to educational improvement in Thaland. Thai political leaders are apparently well aware that the country's continued autonomy is heavily dependent upon their ability, now and in the imme- diate future, to provide a rapidly improving standard of living for Thai citizens. So-called "subversive elements" in the Northeast and South have forced the Thai government to expend substantial money and effort toward improvement of public education in those regions; this, it is believed, portends a pattern of response by the government which will result from continued generalized instability throughout Southeast Asia. Yet another powerful influence upon the probable longer-range im- provement of Thai education is reflected in the increasingly large number -l70- of the country's young citizens being sent to Western countries for advanced training.. While the sons of high government officials or the wealthy have for several generations been sent to England or France for univer- sity education, talented Thais from all walks of life are now being sent V// abroad in truly impressive numbers. This program is now rapidly building that reservoir of Western-trained manpower which is a necessary prerequi- site to provision of modern technical training by indigenous schools. A seventh powerful impetus to the longer-range improvement of Thai public education is provided by the example of foreign-operated schools. Some wealthy Thai citizens and high-ranking government officials now reportedly enroll their children in private schools operated by foreign agencies or individuals in the belief that the foreign language and science instruction offered by these institutions is superior to that provided by all but the very best--and highly selective--government- operated schools. Although it would be extremely difficult to measure their impact, the presence of numerous Peace Corps Volunteers in Thai secondary schools may have a significant long-run influence upon improvement of teaching methodology and technology. Conversations with Peace Corps members teaching in government secondary schools leaves one with the impression that these young volunteers perceive their effectiveness in obtaining accep- tance of new methods by their Thai teaching colleagues as questionable. But continuation of the program over a number of years, especially if more experienced teachers can be obtained, should result in a greater willingness on the part of Thai teachers to experiment with new methods and materials. Determined effort by the government to improve communication within Thailand should, if the present pressure is maintained, begin to have an —l7l— appreciable impact upon modernization of education within the next four to six years. Educational supervisors, Ministry officials, Regional and Changwad Education Officers, principals and teachers now find it diffi- cult to travel even short distances to perform their duties, or develop their competency. With improvement of surface and air transportation, mail and telephone service, Thai educators will find it less difficult to obtain information of improved methodology and innovative programs. In-service programs to improve use of new practices (now impractical be- cause of poor or nonexistent transportation facilities) should become in- creasingly frequent and better attended. Supervisors and specialists sta- tioned either in Bangkok or Provincial offices should find it increasingly easy to reach outlying schools rather than, as presently, restrict their efforts primarily to those schools located near their base of operation. Recent increases in the number of professional educational journals being published on a regular basis should, as the quality of articles im- proves, provide vital assistance to teachers in up-country schools. The Changwad Education Officer in Chiengrai Province has recently begun to publish an educational journal directed specifically to the teachers un- der his jurisdiction; this innovative effort to better inform teachers in one geographic region of new educational practices will undoubtedly find emulators in other Provinces and, in time, should have the effect of con- siderably broadening the base of information available to teachers. There is some evidence to suggest that in-service training and re- training programs currently sponsored by Khuru Sapha, Regional Education Officers and the Library Association of Thailand--among others--are -172- improving in quality as experience is accumulated. While no immediate and dramatic improvement in contemporary programs of this nature can be expected, the next decade should see considerable expansion in the num- ber of such programs offered and improvement in their over-all conduct. The net effect of these and other probable influences will be both to considerably improve the quality of pre-university education available through government-operated schools in Thailand and to place considerable pressure upon Ministry of Education leaders to contribute more positively and more imaginatively to national goals, through development of new and innovative educational programs. In anticipation of such pressure, Min- istry executives might well begin to consider steps such as those enumer- ated below to render their organization a more effective tool in develOp- ment and diffusion of new educational technology or methodology. Recommendations for Improving the Ability of Thai Educators to Ingest and Diffuse Innovations Chapter III of this dissertation contained a discussion of organi- zation and management practices currently found in the Ministry of Edu- cation; that chapter also contained an enumeration of some administra- tive problems flowing from such practices. The more important may be summarized as follows: 1. Subordinate offices lack direction from superordinate offices, while departments, divisions and sections are frequently operated as separate or even competing entities. To state the matter differently, policy direction from higher to lower units is inadequate. The Under- Secretary of State for Education requires to perform his executive ~173— reSponsibilities effectively and with authority—-management information, technical services, and research data not now available to him. 2. Many departments, divisions and even units are prevented from more effectively contributing to the over-all educational effort by in- adequate organization structures. There is little evidence to suggest that functional organization principles are followed. Staff services, such as budgeting, personnel and accounting, are in most cases either nonexistent or too weak to be used for support and/or control purposes. 3. Operationally specific goals for the various levels of pre- university education have not been established against which present programs might be realistically evaluated; the "Scheme of Education" promulgated in 1960 is inadequately specific as a guide to establish- ment and evaluation of grade-by-grade programs. Schools and teaching personnel are not now regularly inspected and evaluated using uniform, objective criteria. Regular and validated reports on educational pro- grams are not now prepared, using either uniform or objective criteria. 4. Elementary and secondary education are unarticulated and do not provide continuous development toward predetermined educational goals. If the Ministry of Education is to function as a single entity under unitary executive leadership, the following organizational and managerial changes might be considered for implementation: (1) Operating under very broad policy guidance from the Minister of Education, the Under-Secretary of State should be delegated whatever authority is re- quired for his much more forceful direction of Ministry affairs. ~174- (2) As his first important act, the Under-Secretary of State for Education should establish a Commission to aid him in formulating a meaningful revision of the "Scheme of Education." In formulating this national plan, the under-Secretary should feel free to call for assistance upon leading Thai (and if necessary, foreign) educators. Special attention should be given in the Iformulation of any such plan to specificity and pro- vision for objective measurement or evaluation of con- gruence between plan objectives and actual program operation. ' (3) The Office of the Under-Secretary should be reor- ganized, and provision should be made therein for con- tinuous planning and centralized management services. Program or line functions now administered by the Under-Secretary's Office should be delegated to ap- propriate line Departments. There should be estab- c/' lished within the Under- Secretary's office an evalu- M.“ ation unit charged with reaponsibility for continuously evaluating the curricula, materials of instruction, quality of supervision, quality of school administra- tion, and effectiveness of specific educational pro- grams in achieving the goals set for them. This latter should work closely with similar units within each of the Regional Education Offices. —l75- (4) Unless the Department of Educational Techniques can be reorganized and re-staffed to perform this function successfully, special units should be estab- lished within the Department of Secondary Education to promote development, understanding, and use of school libraries, guidance counseling, objective tests, audio-visual aids and other innovations essen- tial to improved education. (5) Regional Education Offices should be considerably strengthened and should become an effective and impor- tant link between Ministry Offices in Bangkok and Changwad Education Offices. Regional Education 0f~~ ficers should be given responsibility for training teachers and principals in the use of innovative edu- cational practices. There should be attached to each Regional Education Office specialists in library Opera- tion, use of audio-visual equipment, employment of guidance counseling, and other educational innovations. An inspection and evaluation unit should also be es- tablished within each Regional Education Office to pro- vide independent assessment off in-school programs. Meetings, conferences, and other forms of in-service training programs directed to education of teachers in the use of innovations should be much more intensively employed than at present. -l76- (6) Based on questionnaire-derived data which suggests that these teachers who consider themselves well-informed are most likely to adopt educational innovations, it is suggested that a series of meetings be convened--first at the individual school level, then later at the Changwad level, still later at the Regional level, and finally at the national level—-which would be attended only by teachers, and at which teachers would discuss the value and correct employment of selected innovative practices. Similar "escalating" but separate meetings, addressed to this same question, should be convened for school prin- cipals, Changwad Education Officers, and Regional Edu- cation Officers. Each such group would then be charged with drawing up a report and set of recommendations for increased utilization of innovations. Such a proposal, if adapted, would serve the dual purpose of both better informing teachers of existing problems and involving them in decision making. (7) The Department of Educational Techniques should be considerably strengthened with the addition of technically qualified personnel who can devise training aids which will be used by Regional Education Offices to educate teachers in the use of important innovations. These highly qualified Specialists should be available to Regional Education Offices in the planning and conduct -l77- of in-service training programs. (8) Much greater use should be made of Thai university personnel in the planning and conduct of in-service teacher training programs. University faculty members should be employed during vacation periods by both the central Ministry and Regional Education Offices for this purpose. (Civil Service regulations would very probably need to be revised if this proposal were to be adopted.) (9) Introduction and training of personnel in the use of certain crucial innovations might well be contracted for with outside agencies. The contract with International Business Machines Corporation under which that company not only furnished equipment but also trained Thai per- sonnel in its use offers one alternative. Foreign com- panies from which audio-visual equipment is purchased might also be requested to train teachers in their use and even work with Ministry of Education specialists in the design of material coordinated with curricular con- tent. Similarly, the Ministry might contract with a foreign or domestic company to produce student cumula- tive record forms, but might require that the contractor also agree to train school personnel in their maintenance and use. 10. Pursuant to recommendation No. 9 above, a significant number of senior Thai academicians should be sent abroad -178- for periods of no less than six months to participate in non-degree and largely practical programs leading to de- tailed knowledge of important new educational technology and methodology. It is further suggested that the countries chosen as training sites be those which have found it pos- sible to upgrade education significantly without the bene- fit of vast financial injections; Israel suggests itself as one promising location for such training. (11) Many more Thai educators sent abroad for training should be enrolled in technical, non-degree programs than is currently the case. While broadly trained and scholarly theoreticians are required to design new educational pro- grams, such persons are now available within Thailand-- were the government to bring them together and utilize them fully. What appears to be most lacking in contem- porary Thai education is a large number of Specialists com- petent to develOp such things as aptitude tests suitable for use in Thai environment, meaningful film strips, Slides, moving pictures and other audioevisual displays, guidance counseling manuals, objective testing techniques, health education practices, agricultural education texts, and other Specialized methodology or tools. ~179- Need for Additional Research The study herein reported was originally conceived as an explora- tory effort only; a principal purpose was and is to encourage qualified Ministry of Education and university personnel in Thailand to undertake empirical research seeking answers to that country's pressing educational problems. If Thai education is to adapt to a rapidly changing social, political and economic world environment, both those who administer the system and those from abroad who provide technical assistance must have at their disposal much more "hard" data than are currently available to them. As so very little empirical research has been conducted within the educational system of Thailand, and because much of that which has been conducted is of questionable value, the need for further, well- conceived research is great. But from this obvious need for additional data it does not follow that any and all research will be of equal value or contribute equally to the more rational development of Thai education. Especially in light of the extremely limited financial and human resources available for this purpose, it is most essential that research priorities be established at an early date., If limited research funds are to be Spent wisely, pri- orities must be agreed upon; the resultant research effort must reflect the interests and efforts of all parties participating in this hndertaking. It must be recognized at the outset, however,that very few Thai nationals will be found who possess the necessary training to design and supervise sophisticated field research. Leadership and technical skill must, there- fore, emanate from international agencies and foreign governments. -180- Such research as may be undertaken by foreign scholars in Thailand should reflect, first and foremost, the pressing educational needs of that Kingdom. Diffusion research may well be the central concern of a small group of American and other foreign scholars, and there is reason to believe that further efforts in this field will contribute significantly to development of improved education in Thailand. But the most urgent needs for research on education in Thailand, as indicated above, should be determined by a commission or panel of experts drawn from the educational establishment in Thailand. It is here postulated that the most fruitful research findings in the imme- diate future will result from efforts to determine what are, and what should be the goals of education in Thailand. Until such time as under- lying educational goals can be determined, articulated, and widely ace cepted, all subsequent activity will represent largely sterile effort. These goals must be formulated in a manner which will permit their op- erationalization and lead to realistic assessment of all educational programs. The economics of education in Thailand is a second area in which much more research effort could profitably be expended. The feeling exists on the part of certain knowledgeable foreign observers that cur- rent plans for expansion of primary and secondary education in Thailand may prove to be dysfunctional when viewed from the perspective of eco- nomic development. Studies should also be undertaken within the near future to de- I termine how bureaucratic norms influence educational decision making. ~181- If further diffusion research is to be undertaken in Thailand, it is here suggested that greater immediate results might be obtained from employment of intensive rather than survey research methodology. Employ- ment of anthropological methodology, especially sentence completion and in-depth interviews, should prove most rewarding. Phillips (1965) has found a sentence-completion instrument he devised to be very effective in the Thai milieu. Future correlation studies, of course, might well build upon the experience resulting from this study. Such research should ideally be very limited in scope. A second research methodology which deserves more consideration than it has thus far been accorded would entail the continuous study of selected educational changes from the time of their introduction into Thailand. Employing methods based upon the "tracer element" principle currently used so successfully by horticulturists and biologists, research efforts utilizing this methodology would begin the study of diffusion at the earliest stage of an innovation's introduction. An attempt would be made to remain in very close contact with those officials responsible for the decision making function to determine what factors influenced their innitial adoption and what factors determine the selection of diffusion strategies. "Before" and "after" studies would be conducted to identify those factors influencing various members of the educational hierarchy to react favorably or unfavorably to the innovation. Diverse diffusion strategies might actually be employed in various sections of the Kingdom to determine their differential impact and success or failure. In an attempt to test what influence Regional Education Officers might conceivably have upon the improvement of educational practice, it -182- is here suggested that one of the strategies selected might well entail involvement of several such officials in programs of diffusion. In other geographic regions Changwad Education Officers might well 'be given responsibility for the diffusion process. A research project such as that sketched in outline form above has the merit of permitting controlled experimentation to determine what strategy, or combination of strategies, best suits the Thai educational milieu. Several large and potentially revolutionary educational programs are now at the early stages of development; any one of these might well become the object of a "tracer element" research approach. It might also be extremely interesting to undertake one or more diffusion studies employing as "objects" uniquely Thai educational innovations. It may well prove to be true (as one informant suggested) that innovations brought to Thailand from Western countries challenge traditional prerogatives of secondary school teachers. There emerged a feeling during the course of this investigation (unsupported or unchallenged by the data gathered) that those educational innovations which either enhanced the teacher's prestige or left it unsullied were more readily diffused and adopted than were those Western imports which tended to challenge or deprecate the teacher's prestige. If one were to assume, given the Thai world-view, that employment of certain innovations (such as manipulation of sophisticated audio-visual equipment) serves to enhance the teacher’s prestige in the eyes of students, while utilization of others (such as the class discussion technique or assignment of library readings) permits challenges to the -183- knowledge and thus prestige of teachers, one might well uncover a number of interesting correlations. There is reason to believe that the most innovative teachers in Thailand make rather extensive use of educational journals to keep abrest of new developments in their field. This finding suggests the need for additional studies to determine the validity of this finding. A content analysis of journal articles dealing with selected new practices might well turn up means by which this important communication channel could be improved. As so little empirical educational research has been conducted in Thailand it represents a very rich lode for those who will undertake the task. American students who seek a challenging arena for their research could do much worse than Thailand, for they will find in that happy Kingdom a great deal of work to be done and certainly one of the most congenial atmospheres in which to work. The efforts of American scholars in Thailand are repaid many fold by the congeniality and innate hospitality of their hosts. ~184- : . ‘ l I I 5 J .' . / ~,~ l a r t, i " 1’” 1 . umunn \ " L. \ o ,‘ g -r r . \ 1‘ ; ‘ l‘ \ _a A, "‘ m r ”“0““ P. f , uxuou , . ‘ . ‘ ‘ x I ‘ ‘ I . 4 0 ~, 1 o 'J I ~‘ ‘ ““0. [AK 1' ~\\ ‘_~; vmuwm : l r_ _ . 1. ”A“. 2 7 . K, ’ \ . ' . o - . ~ , _ . p ‘ o r o l ‘ mucnnun . Wmmomu '3’. mm \. k A ~ 1 . , \ I \,' I 1 ‘4 \ ~ — ' ¥.‘ V~; \_ ‘ I . . V I". ulna-tum: “ ' 1' \‘ — I, o , UINAmwu 5‘ . .x I f 5‘... .l Isumu ‘ o. ' arm ‘ um , umm , t "may IIVOI ; unto» _ or” 3 o p I My." 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Leadershin and Sugar- 8 " n at ° Ev u t 0 Su e sor Tr i 1 Program. Columbus: Ohio State University Bureau of Educational Research. Fliegel, Frederick C. (1956). ”A Multiple Correlation Analysis of Factors Associated with Adoption of Farm Practices." Rural Sociology, 21:284-292. ~187 Gillfillian, C. S. (1935). The Sociology of Invention. Chicago: Follett. - Griliches, Zvi (1957). "Hybrid Corn: An Exploration in the Economics of Technical Change." Econometrics, 25:501-522. (1960a). "Congruence versus Profitability: A False Dichotomy." Rural Sociology, 25:354‘356. (1960b). "Hybrid Corn and the Economics of Innovation." Science, 132:275-280. Gross, Neal C. (1942). "The Diffusion of a Culture Trait in Two Iowa Townships." (unpublished M.S. Thesis). Ames: Iowa State College. Hobbs, Daryl J. (1960). "Factors Related to the Use of Agricultural Chemicals on Iowa Farms." (unpublished M.S. Thesis). Ames: Iowa State University. Hoffer, Charles R. (1942). Acceptance of Approved Farming Practices Among Farmers of Dutch Descent. East Lansing: Michigan Experiment Station Special Bulletin 316. Hoffer, Charles R. and Dale Stangland (1958a). "Farmers' Attitudes and Values in Relation to Adoption of Approved Practices in Corn Growing." Rural Sociology, 23:112-120. Holmberg, Allen (1960). Personal Communication. Ithaca: Cornell University. Jones, Emily L., (1963). "The Courtesy Bias in South-East Asian Surveys." .International Social Science Journal, XV:70-77. Jones, Gwyn E. (1960). "Factors Affecting the Adoption of New Farm Practices, with Particular Reference to Central Wales and the East Midlands." (unpublished B. Litt. Thesis). Oxford, England: Oxford University. Katz, Elihu (1961). "The Social Itinerary of Change: Two Studies on the Diffusion of Innovation." Human Organization, 20:70-82. 4188- Kivlin, Joseph E. (1960). "Characteristics of Farm Practices Associated with Rate of Adoption." (unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation) University Park: Pennsylvania State University. Lackey, Alvin S. and Olaf E. Larson (1961). "The Prediction of Farm Practice Adoption over Time." (unpublished paper), Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University. Lin, Nan (1966). "Innovation Internatization in a Formal Organization." (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation). East Lansing: Michigan State University. Lin, Nan,'n£‘nl. (1966). .Ihe_Diffusion of nn Innovation in Thgee Michi- gan High Schools; Institution Building through Change. East Lansing: Institute for International Studies in Education. Linton, Ralph. (1952). "Cultural and Personality Factors Affecting Economic Growth," in Bert F. Hoselite (ed.), The Progress of Underdeveloned Areas. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Lionberger, Herbert, and C. Milton Coughenour (1957). Social Structure and Diffusion of Farm Information. Columbia: Missouri Agricul- tural Experiment Research Bulletin 631. Lowry, Sheldon,.n§.nl. (1958). "Factors Associated with the Acceptance of Health Care Practices among Rural Families." Rural Sociology, 23:198-202. Mansfield, Edwin (1961a). "Technical Change and the Rate of Imitation." Econometrics, 29:741-766. (1961b). Innovation, Use of FirmI and Market Structure. (mimeographed report). Pittsburgh: Carnegie Institute of Tech- nology, Graduate School of Industrial Administration. Marsh, C. Paul, and A. Lee Coleman (1955a). "Differential Communication Among Farmers in a Kentucky County." Rugnl Snciology, 26:93-101. (1955b). "The Relation of Farmer Characteristics to the Adoption of Recommended Farm Practices." Rugal Soclolngy, 20:189-296. -189- Mort, Paul R. (1946). Princinles of School Administration. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. Nairn, Ronald C. (1966). ‘lnternational Aid to Thailand: The New Colo- nialism? New Haven: Yale University Press. Pemberton, H. Earl (1936a). "The Curve of Culture Diffusion Rate." American Sociological Review, 1:547-556. Phillips, Herbert P. (1965). Thai Pensant Personality: The Patterning of Inter-Personal Behavior in the Village of Ban Chan. Los Angéles: University of California Press. Rahim, S. A. (1961). The Diffusion and Adontion of Agricultural Pra - tices: A Study in a Village in East Pakistan. Comilla: Pakistan Academy for Village Development. Rahudkar, W. B. (1961). "Testing a Culturally-Bound Model for Accep- tance of Agricultural Practices." (unpublished M. A. Thesis). Manhattan: Kansas State University. Riggs, Fred"W. (1966). Thailand: The Modernization of a Bureaucratlc Polity. Honolulu: East-West Center Press. Rogers, Everett M. (1957b). "Personality Correlates of the Adoption of Technological Practices." Rural Sociology, 22:267-268. (1958a); "A Conceptual Variable Analysis of Technological Change." Rural Sociology, 23:136-145. (1961b). Characteristics of Agricultural Innovators and Other Adonter Categorles. Wooster: Ohio Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion Research Bulletin 882. (1962). Diffusion of Innovatinng. New York: Free Press of Glencoe. (1967a). "Developing a Strategy for Planned Change." (mimeographed paper presented at Orange, California, June 12-13, 1967). East Lansing: Department of Communication. -190- Rogers, Everett M., and George M. Beal (1958a). "The Importance of Personal Influence in the AdOption of Technological Changes." Social Forces, 36:329-335. Rogers, Everett M., and Rabel J. Burdge (1961). Muck Vegetable Growers: Diffusion of Innovations Among Snecialized Farmers. Wooster: Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station Research Circular 94. (1962). Community_Norms, Opinion LeadershinI and Innovative- ness Among Truck Growers. Wooster: Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station Research Bulletin. Rogers, Everett H., and Frank O. Ieuthold (1956). Demonstrators and the Diffusion of Fertilizef Practices. Wooster: iOhio Agricul- tural Experiment Station Research Bulletin 851. Rogers, Everett M.,.nn‘nl. (1966). Code Book for the MSU Diffusion Documents Center. East Lansing: Department of Communication. Rokeach, Milton (1960). The Openynnd Closed Mind. New York: Basic Books. Ross, Donald H. (1958). Administration for Adantability: A Source Book Drawing Together the Resnlts of More than 150 Individual Studies Related to the Question of Why and How Schools Innrove. New York: Metropolitan School Study Council. Ryan, Bryce and Neal C. Gross (1943). "The Diffusion of Hybrid Seed Corn in Two Iowa Communities." Rural Sociology, 8:15:24. Sheppard, David. (1960a). A SuryeynAmong Grassland Farmers. London: Central Office of Information Social Survey 274. Siffin, William J. (1966). The Thai Bureaucracy: Institutional Change and Develonment. Honolulu: East-West Center Press. Sizer, Leonard M, and Ward F. Porter (1960). The Relation of Knowledge to Adontlon of Recommended Practices. Morgantown: west Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 446. -l9l- Sjoberg, Gideon (1960). The Preindustrial City. Glencoe, Illinois; The Free Press. Straus, Murray A. (1960a). "Family Role Differentiation and Techno- logical Change in,Farming." Rural Sociology, 18:249-256. Sutherland, Alistair (1959). "The Diffusion of Innovation in Cotton Spinning." Journal_of Industrial Economics, 72118-135. Troldahl, Verling C., and Fredric A. Powell (1965). "A Short Form Dogmatism Scale for Use in Field Studies." Social Forces, Tucker, Carlos F. (1961). Prediction of Rate of Adoption from Charac- teristics of Farm Innovations. (unpublished M.S. Thesis) Colum- bus: Ohio State University. Vroom, Victor H. (1960). Some Personality Determinants of the Effects of Participation. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Wilkening, Eugene A. (1952b). "Informal Leaders and Innovators in Farm Practices." Rural Sociology, 17:272-275. (1956). "Roles of Communicating Agents in Technological Change-in Agriculture." Social Forces, 34:361-367. Wilkening, Eugene A., n£_nl. (1960). "Use and Role Of Information Sources Among Dairy Farmers of Northern Victoria." (Paper pre- sented at the Rural Sociological Society). University Park, Pennsylvania. Wilson, David A. (1962). Politics in Thailand. Ithaca: Cornell Uni- versity Press. APPENDIX A Teacher Onestionnaire Instrument The United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organiza- tion (UNESCO),has designated 1960-1970 "The Decade of Development." During this ten-year period all nations--rich and poor, develOped and underdeveloped-~have been urged to cooperate with one another to combat those universal enemies of_nll mankind--disease, hunger, and ignorance. But this is to be a creative war, not a destructive war; this is to be a war,'nn£ of man against man or nation against nation, but of man united, of nations united, striving to increase the welfare 0f.éll mankind everywhere. If disease, hunger and ignorance are to be eliminated as major sources of human unhappiness, however, education must be improved-- and this improved education must be made available to all the world's people. Illiteracy must be abolished and new skills must be provided so thAt people everywhere can improve their standard of living. The research project in which you are about to participate may, with your c00peration, help not only the peOple of Thailand but also those people of other lands who desire, as do the citizens of Thailand, a better life for themselves...and their children...and their children's chil- dren. Research projects similar to this one are being conducted in Brazil, Nigeria, India and the United States of America. The knowledgeo obtained from this study will be combined with the knowledge gained in -192- -l93- in these other countries and in this way all countries can benefit; this study is truly an international undertaking. If this study is to prove fruitful those who answer this question- naire must do so with complete candor; they must tell us what they really believe. We do not ask you to place your name on this questionnaire be- cause we do not wish to knownnnn has answered; we wish only to determine what a large number of people think. We realize that this is a long questionnaire and one that is diffi- cult to answer. But if you answer this questionnaire well, you will have the satisfaction of knowing that you have personally contributed to an important international study. -l94- Teacher Qnestionnaire Instrument IN THE FOLLOWING SEQUENCE OF QUESTIONS, PLEASE CIRCLE THE NUMBER PRECEDING THE CORRECT ANSWER AND, WHERE REQUESTED, WRITE IN THE INFORMATION WHICH WE HAVE ASKED YOU TO PROVIDE. Example: Within the last 7 days I have been to the movies. 1. 7 times 5. 3 times 2. 6 times 6. 2 times 3. 5 times 7. 1 time 4. 4 times 8. Not at all 1. Within the last 7 days I have read one or more newspapers on . 1. 7 days 5. 3 days 2. 6 days 6. 2 days 3. 5 days 7. 1 day 4. 4 days 8. 0 days 2. Within the last 7 days I have listened to the radio once or more on . l. 7 days 5. 3 days 2. 6 days 6. 2 days 3. 5 days 7. 1 day 4. 4 days 8. 0 days 3. Within the last 7 days I have listened to the Ministry of Edu- cation Radio Station (Vithayu Suksa) once or more on . 1. 7 days 5. 3 days 2. 6 days 6. 2 days 3. 5 days 7. 1 day 4. 4 days 8. 0 days -195- Do you own a radio? 0. No 1. Yes Within the last 7 days I have watched television once or more on.. 1- 7 days 5. 3 days 2. 6 days 6. 2 days 3. 5 days 7. 1 day 4. 4 days 8. 0 days Is there a television receiver in the house where you live? 0. No 1. Yes Within the last 7 days I have read from one or more books on. 1. 7 days 5. 3 days 2. 6 days 6. 2 days 3. 5 days 7. 1 day 6. 4 days 8. 0 days Within the last 7 days I have read from "general interest" magazines (such as Siam Rath Weekly or Pimp Thai Weekly) on. 1. 7 days 5. 3 days 2. 6 days 6. 2 days 3. 5 days 7. 1 day 4. 4 days 8. 0 days Please circle the number preceding the names of those profes- sional journals listed below from which you have read within the last 30 days. 1. Secondary School Journal 2. Wittayasarn 3. Wittayscharn 4. Juntr Kasem 5. MitrnKru 6. Educational Center 7. Mathematics 8. Science 9. Vocational School Journal Y. Educational Radio 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. -196- For how many years have you been a teacher? 1. Less than 2 years 5. 12-14 years 2. 2-5 years 6. 15-17 years 3. 6-8 years 7. 18-20 years 4. 9-11 years 8. More than 20 years For how many years have you been a teacher in this school? Less than 2 years 5. 12-14 years 2-5 years 6. 15-17 years 6-8 years 7. 18-20 years 9-11 years 8. More than 20 years $‘UJBJPJ In how many other Thai government secondary schools have you taught? 0. None 1. One 5. Five 2. Two 6. Six 3. Three 7. Seven 4. Four 8. Eight or more Have you ever taught in a private secondary school? 0. No 1. Yes Did you attend a Thai college or university? No Yes Which one Chulalongkorn University Prasarn Mitr College of Education Pratumwan College of Education Bangsan College of Education Silpakorn University Kasetsart University Thammasat University l—‘O (DNOU‘IJ-‘LDN Did you attend a foreign college or university? 00. No 01. Yes Please list below the foreign colleges or universities attended, Institution Location -l97- 16. Please indicate the highest educational level you have completed. 1. 2. 3 4. 5. 6. High school certificate (Maw Saw 5). Secondary school teachers certificate (2 years of college) Secondary school teachers certificate plus additional courses College diploma (Bachelors Degree) College degree (Master's Degree) Doctor's Degree (Ph. D.) 17. How many courses in physical and/or biological sciences did you complete in your college and university training? _mm-I-‘UJNH None 1-3 courses 4-6 courses 7-10 courses 11-15 courses 16 or more courses 18. Have you ever traveled outside of Thailand? 0. 1 4. 5. No Yes Please list below the countries you have visited and the purpose of your visits. Country Visited Purpose of Your Visits 7 (Tourist, study, etc.) 19. Do you know the name of the Director-General, Department of Secon- dary Education? 0. 1. No Yes His name is . 2. Mr. Sanan Sumitr 3. Mr. Kriang Tamsakul 4. Mr. Bhunthin Attagara 5. Mr. Charoon Vongsayanha 6. Mr. Bhongs Sakdi Varasundharosoth -198- 20. Do you know the name of the Director-General, Department of Educational Techniques? 0. No 1. Yes His name is . . 2. ‘Mr,CSanan“Sumitr 3. Mr. Kriang Tamsakul 4. Mr. Bhunthin Attagara 5. Mr. Charoon Vongsayanha 6. Mr. Bhonga Sakdi Varasundharosoth 21. Rhodesia is. l. A city 2. A country in 3 North America 4. Australia 5. Africa 6 Middle East 7. Latin America 8. I don't know 22. Do you knOW'WhO is the present Prime Minister of India? 0. No 1. Yes The Prime Minister's name is. 2. Mr. Nehru 3. Mr. Shastri 4. Mrs. Gandhi 5. Mr. Menon 6. Mr. Dessi 23. Prime Minister of Communist China U. N. Ambassador from South Viet Nam . Foreign Minister of Japan . Secretary General of the United Nations . I don't know 0 is U Thant? Wh 1 '2 3 4 5 24. Within the past year have you attended any meetings of govern- ment secondary school teachers held in other Changwads? 0. No 1. Yes 1—2 times 3-4 times 5-6 times 7-87times . 9-10 times 11-12.times 13 or more times mVOUI-kwN -199- 25. Within the past year have you attended any meetings of govern- ment secondary school teachers held in Bangkok? 0. No 1 Yes About how. many times? 2. 1-2 times 3. 3-4 times 4. 5-6 times 5. 7-8 times 6. 9-10 times 7. ll-12 times 8. 13 or more times 26. How many of your five best friends are also teachers? None of my five best friends are also teachers. One of my five best friends is also a teacher. Two of my five best friends are also teachers. Three of my five best friends are also teachers. Four of my five best friends are also teachers. All five of my best friends are also teachers. ONM-L‘LDNH 27. Please list below the names of the three teachers in this school whom you most respect_as good teachers. 3. __ 28. Please list bEIOW’the names of the three teachers in this school whose opinions on new educational practices are usually most valuable to you. 1. 2. __ 3. 29. Please list below the names of the three teachers in this school from whom you most frequently ask advice when you have problems related to teaching. 30. 31. 32. 33. -200- Please list below the names of the three teachers in this school who are, in your opinion, most active in community affairs (affairs outside the school). 1. 2. 3. Please list below the names of the three teachers in this school who are, in your opinion, most willing to use new educational practices. How, in general, would you characterize your attitude to adoption of new educational practices? 1. I usually have a very favorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 2. I usually have a cautious but somewhat favorable atti- tude to adOption of new educational practices. 3. I usually have a somewhat unfavorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 4. I usually have a very unfavorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. How, in general, would you characterize the attitude of your school principal to adoption of new educational practices? 1. I think my principal usually has a very favorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 2. I think my principal usually has a cautious but some- what favorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 3. I think my principal usually has a somewhat unfavorable attitude to adOption of new educational practices. 4. I think my principal usually has a very unfavorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 34. 35. 36. 37. -201- How, in general, would you characterize the attitude of your fellow teachers in this school to adoption of new educational practices? 1. I think they usually have a very favorable attitude to adaption of new educational practices. 2. I think they usually have a cautious_but somewhat favorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 3. I think they usually have a somewhat unfavorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 4. I think they usually have a very unfavorable attitude to adOption of new educational practices. How, in general, would you characterize the attitude of your Amphur Education Officer to adoption of new educational practices? 1. I think he usually has a very favorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 2. I think he usually has a cautious but somewhat favorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 3. I think he usually has a somewhat unfavorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 4. I think he usually has a very unfavorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. How, in general, would you characterize the attitude of your Changwad Education Officer to adoption of new educational prac- tices? l. I think he usually has a very favorable attitude to adOption of new educational practices. 2. I think he usually has a cautious but somewhat favorable attitude to adOption of new educational practices. 3. I think he usually has a somewhat unfavorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 4. I think he usually has a very unfavorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. How, in general, would you characterize the attitude of the Under- Secretary of State for Education to the adoption of new educational practices? 1. I think he usually has a very favorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 2. I think he usually has a cautious but 2'somewhat unfavorable attitude to adoption of new educational practices. 3. I think he usually has a somewhat unfavorable attitude to adOption of new educational practices. 4. I think he usually has a very unfavorable attitude to adop- tion of new educational practices. -202- 38. Listed below are several categories Of people who have some inter- est in how well you teach. The Opinion that some of these people have about your ability is probably very important to you while the Opinion that others have Of your ability is probably less important to you. Please rank these people in the order Of im- portance which you attach to their Opinion Of your teaching ability. (1 - most important; 2 - second most important; 11 - least important) School Students Minister Of Education Changwad Governor Parents of students School principal School teachers Amphur Education Officer Changwad Education Officer Nai Amphur Minister of Interior Under-Secretary Of State for Education llllllllll 39. Please circle the number preceding those topics in the following list which you have discussed with other teachers during the last six months. C‘kfl-l-‘bJNH Teaching handicrafts in Thai Government Secondary Schools Improvement and use of the school library. CO-education in Thai government secondary schools New textbooks Use of Objective testing techniques Use of audio-visual aids in teaching (film projectors, films, slide projectors, slides, tape recorders, maps, pictures, flannel boards, etc.) Use Of American Peace Corps Volunteers as teachers in Thai government secondary schools. Formation Of Parent-Teacher Associations in Thai government secondary schools Guidance counseling in Thai government secondary schools Organization Of government secondary schools into departments Class discussion method of instruction 40. During the past six months have you told someone in this school about any of the new educational practices listed in question 39? 0. NO 1. Yes 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. -203' Compared with the other teachers in this school, do you think you are (l) more, or (2) less likely to be asked for your Opinion about the new educational practices listed in question 39? l. I think I am more likely to be asked for my Opinion about new educational practices than are most of the other teachers in this school. 2. I think I am less likely to be asked for my Opinion about new educational practices than are most Of the other teachers in this school. DO you have the feeling that you are generally regarded by the other teachers in this school as a good source Of information about new educational practices--such as those listed in question 39? 0. NO 1. Yes When you and your fellow teachers in this school discuss new educational practices, which do you most frequently do? 1. I usually listen while others talk. 2. I usually talk while others listen. 3. I usually talk and listen aboutnequally. Have you heard that American Peace Corps Volunteers are now teaching in some Thai government secondary schools? 0. No 1. Yes About how many years ago did you first hear that American Peace Corps Volunteers were being used as teachers in Thai government secondary schoOls? . Less than 1 year ago or 2 years ago or 4 years ago or 6 years ago or 8 years ago or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago. \DNUILDI-i 2 3 4. 5. 6 7 8 What is your Opinion about the use of the American Peace Corps Volunteers as teachers in Thai government secondary schools? I believe that the use Of American Peace Corps Volunteers as teachers in government secondary schools is, on the whole, very beneficial somewhat beneficial not very beneficial not at all beneficial «l-‘WNH -204- 46. Is an American Peace Corps Volunteer teaching in this school now? 0. NO X. I don't know 1. Yes About hOW“many years ago did an American Peace Corps Volun- teer first teach in this school? Less than 1 year ago or 2 years ago or 4 years ago or 6 years ago or 8 years ago or 10 years ago Mere than 10 years ago mNOkfl-L‘LDN \OVU'iDJH 47. Have you heard that some Thai government secondary schools now teach handicrafts to their students? 0. NO 1. Yes ~ About how many years ago did you first hear that some Thai government secondary schools were teaching handi- crafts? Less than 1 year ago 1 or 2 years ago 3 or 4 years ago 5 or 6 years ago 7 or 8 years ago 9 or 10 years ago . More than 10 years ago CDVGU'ivl-‘LJJN 48. What is your Opinion about the teaching Of handicrafts in Thai government secondary schools? I believe the teaching Of handicrafts in government secondary schools is . very beneficial somewhat beneficial not very beneficial not at all beneficial $‘u3hlh‘ -205- 49. Does this school now teach handicrafts to its students? 0. X. l CDNONUI-L‘UJN NO I don't know. Yes About how many years ago did this school first teach handicrafts? 83 than 1 years ago or 2 years ago or 4 years ago or 6 years ago or 8 years ago or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago \OVUIWHS' 50. Have you heard that some Thai government secondary schools have now formed Parent-Teacher Associations? 0. l CDNO\UIJ>UN NO Yes About how many years ago did you first hear that some Thai government secondary schools had formed Parent-Teacher Associations? 38 than 1 year ago or 2 years ago or 4 years ago or 6 years ago or 8 years ago or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago \DNU‘IU’HS‘ 51. What is your Opinion about the formation Of Parent-Teacher As- sociations in Thai government secondary schools? I believe that Parent-Teacher Associations are... 1. very beneficial 2. ~somewhat beneficial 3. not very beneficial 4. not at all beneficial -206- 52, Does this school now have a Parent-Teacher Association? 0. NO X. I don't know 1 Yes About how many years ago did this school first have a Parent-Teacher Association? Less than 1 year ago 1 or 2 years ago 3 or 4 years ago 5 or 6 years ago 7 or 8 years ago 9 or 10 years ago MOre than 10 years ago CDVO‘M-l-‘UON 53. Have you heard that some Thai government secondary schools now provide guidance counseling for their students? 0. NO 1. Yes About how many years ago did you first hear that some Thai government secondary schools were providing guidance counseling? Less than 1 year ago or 2 years ago or 4 years ago or 6 years ago or 8 years ago or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago (DVO‘U'I-L‘LDN \ONU‘IUJH 54. What is your Opinion about the provision Of guidance counsel- ing in Thai government secondary schools? I believe that provision Of guidance counseling in Thai government secondary schools is . Very beneficial Somewhat beneficial Not very beneficial Not at all beneficial D~O3h3hd -207- 55. Does this school now provide guidance counseling for its students? 0. NO X. I don't know 1 Yes About how many years ago did this school first provide guidance counseling for its students? Less than 1 year ago or 2 years ago or 4 years ago or 6 years ago or 8 years ago or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago m\l0\U'I-L‘UJN \OVUIUJH 56. Have you heard that some Thai government secondary schools are now organized into departments? (departments Of science, department of social studies, etc.) 0. NO 1. Yes About how many years ago did you first hear that some Thai government secondary schools were or- ganized into departments? Less than 1 year ago or 2 years ago or 4 years ago or 6 years ago or 8 years ago or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago CDVOMDUJN \DNUIUJH 57. What is your Opinion about the organization of Thai government secondary schools into departments? I believe that organization Of Thai government secon- dary schools into departments is . 1. Very beneficial 2. Somewhat beneficial 3. Not very beneficial 4. Not at all beneficial -208- 58. Is this school now organized into departments? NO I don't know Yes About how many years ago was this school first organized into departments? Less than 1 year ago 1 or 2 years ago 3 5 7 I-INO or 4 years ago or 6 years ago or 8 years ago 9 or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago (DVO‘UI-l-‘UJN 59. Have you heard that some teachers in Thai government secon- dary schools now use slide projectors and slides to aid them in teaching their students? 0. No 1 Yes About how many years ago did you first hear that some Thai government secondary school teachers were using slide projectors? Less than 1 year ago 1 or 2 years ago 3 or 4 years ago 5 or 6 years ago 7 or 8 years ago 9 or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago (DNO‘U‘J-‘UDN 60. What is your Opinion about the use Of slide projectors and slides as teaching aids in Thai government secondary schools? I believe that the use Of slide projectors and slides as teaching aids is . 1. Very beneficial 2. Somewhat beneficial 3. Not very beneficial 4. Not at all beneficial -209- 61. Does this school now have a slide projector which you could use in your teaching? 0. X. 1 CDNO‘U‘I-L‘UJN 62. Have you teachers 0. 1. (DNOLfl-PWN NO I don't know Yes About how many years ago did this school first acquire a slide projector which you could use in your teaching? 33 than 1 year ago or 2 years ago or 4 years ago or 6 years ago or 8 years ago or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago \ONUIUHE‘ heard that some Thai government secondary school now use Objective tests? No Yes About how many years ago did you first hear that some Thai government secondary school teachers were using Objective tests? Less than 1 year ago 1 or 2 years ago 3 or 4 years ago 5 or 6 years ago 7 or 8 years ago 9 or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago 63. What is your Opinion about the use of Objective tests in Thai government secondary schools? I l. 2. 3 A believe that Objective tests are. Very beneficial Somewhat beneficial Not very beneficial Not at all beneficial -2¢0- 64. Do you now use Objective tests in the courses you teach? 0. NO Yes About how many years ago did you first use Objec- tive tests in the courses you teach? 88 than 1 year ago or 2 years ago or 4 years ago or 6 years ago or 8 years ago or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago H GDVO‘UI-bLDN \ONU’IWHS' 65. Have you heard that some Thai government secondary school teachers now use the class discussion method Of instruction? 0. NO 1. Yes About how many years ago did you first hear that some Thai government secondary school teachers were using the class discussion method Of instruction? Less than 1 year ago 1 or 2 years ago 3 or 4 years ago 5 or 6 years ago 7 or 8 years ago 9 or 10 years ago . More than 10 years ago oouoxmbwm 66. What is your Opinion about use of.the class discussion method of instruction in Thai government secondary schools? I believe that the class discussion method Of instruc- tion is:. . 1. Very beneficial 2. Somewhat beneficial 3. Not very beneficial 4. Not at all beneficial -211- 67. DO you now use the class discussion method Of instruction in the courses you teach? 0. NO 1. Yes About how many years ago did you first use the class discussion method of instruction? Less than 1 year ago 1 or 2 years ago 3 or 4 years ago 5 or 6 years ago 7 or 8 years ago 9 or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago IMPORTANT THE FOLLOWING ITEMS ARE DESIGNED TO DETERMINE YOUR ATTITUDE TO THE VALUE OF ASSIGNING OUTSIDE READING TO THAI GOVERNMENT SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS. PLEASE READ EACH STATEMENT OR QUESTION CAREFULLY BEFORE GIVING YOUR RESPONSE. PLEASE ANSWER EVERY QUESTION. FOR THE PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY, ASSIGNMENT OF READING IN LIBRARY BOOKS MEANS THAT THE TEACHER REQUIRES THAI SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS TO READ FROM BOOKS OTHER THAN THE REGULAR TEXTBOOKS USED IN THE COURSE. SUCH READING ASSIGNMENTS WOULD BE CONSIDERED SUPPLEMENTAL. THE BOOKS FROM WHICH READING IS ASSIGNED MAY BE KEPT EITHER IN THE CLASSROOM OR IN A SCHOOL LIBRARY ROOM. 68. Have you heard that some teachers in Thai government secondary schools now require that their students read assignments in library books? 0. No 1. Yes About how many years ago did you first hear that some teachers in Thai government secondary schools were re- quiring their students to read from library books? 2. Less than 1 year ago 5. 5 or 6 years ago 3. l or 2 years ago 6. 7 or 8 years ago 4. 3 or 4 years ago 7. 9 or lO.years ago 8. More than 10 years ago -212- 69. What is your Opinion about the idea that students in Thai govern- ment secondary schools should be required to read library books? I believe that this requirement is educationally . 1. Very beneficial 2. Somewhat beneficial 3. Not very beneficial 4. Not at all beneficial 70. DO you now require that your students read assignments in library books? 0. NO Yes About how many years ago did you first require that your students read assignments in library books? Less than 1 year ago or 2 years ago or 4 years ago or 6 years ago or 8 years ago or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago H oouoxmbwm \DVU‘IWH 71. Does this school now have books which are of use to the students in the courses you teach? O. No X. I don't know 1 Yes About how many library books does this school nnn have which would be of use to the students in the courses you teach? Less than five books 6 to 10 books 11 to 15 books 16 to 20 books 21 to 25 books ‘26 to 30 books More than 30 books. CDNO‘U‘I-I-‘LDN 72. 73. 74. -213- Does this school now have a separate room (library) in which books are kept? O. X. l (DVO‘WbUJN NO I don't know Yes About how many years ago did this school first set aside a room to be used as a library? Less than 1 year ago 1 or 2 years ago 3 or 4 years ago 5 or 6 years ago 7 or 8 years ago 9 or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago Does this school now have a person trained in library work to supervise the school library? 0. X. l CDNOLD-L‘LAJN NO I don't know Yes - About how many years ago did this school first ac- quire the services Of a trained librarian? Less than 1 year ago 1 or 2 years ago 3 or 4 years ago 5 or 6 years ago 7 or 8 years ago 9 or 10 years ago More than 10 years ago. I first learned that some teachers in Thai government secondary schools require that their students read library books (choose only one) 1. 2. 3. t<> Whil 102. How, in genera than 1 year ago 2 years ago 4 years ago 6 years ago 8 years ago 10 years ago than 10 years ago d that some Thai government secondary schools on a coeducational basis.;..(choose only one) From one Of my college instructors From a teacher in a government secondary school From the principal of a government secondary school e.I taught conference From an Amphur Education Officer From a Changwad Education Officer From From a Ministry Of Education directive From From a college textbook a Ministry Of Education publication a school supervisor (inspector) e studying abroad 1, do you think your school principal would feel about converting all separate boys and girls government secon- dary schools t I think 1. 2 3. 4. 5 O coeducational schools? his attitude would be . Very favorable Slightly favorable Slightly unfavorable Very unfavorable I can't imagine what his: attitude might be. 103. 104. 105. 106. -222- How, in general, do you think your fellow teachers in this school would feel about converting all separate boys and girls government secondary schools tO coeducational schools? I think their attitude in general would be . 1. Very favorable 2. Slightly favorable 3. Slightly unfavorable 41 Very unfavorable 5. I can't imagine what their attitudes might be. How, in general, do you think your students would feel about converting all separate boys and girls government secondary schools to coeducational schools? I think their attitude in general would be . 1. Very favorable 2 Slightly favorable 3. Slightly unfavorable 4. Very unfavorable 5 I can't imagine what their attitudes might be. How, in general, do you think your Amphur Education Officer would feel about converting all separate boys and girls govern- ment secondary schools to coeducational schools? I think his attitude would be. Very favorable Slightly favorable Slightly unfavorable Very unfavorable . I can't imagine what his attitude might be. Ul-L‘UJNH How, in general, do you think your Changwad Education Officer would feel about converting all separate boys and girls govern- ment secondary schools to coeducational schools? I think his attitude would be . Very favorable Slightly favorable Slightly unfavorable Very unfavorable I can't imagine what his attitude might be. UlJ-‘OONp—I 107. 108. 109. 110. 111. -223- How, in general, do you think Ministry Of Education Officials would feel about converting all separate boys and girls govern- ment secondary schools to coeducational schools? I think their attitudes in general would be . 1. Very favorable 2 Slightly favorable 3. Slightly unfavorable 4. Very unfavorable 5 I can't imagine what their attitudes might be. About how many times within the past three months have you discussed coeducation with your school principal? 7 or 8 times 5 or 6 times 3 or 4 times 1 or 2 times m-l-‘WNH About how many times within the past three months have you discussed coeducation with your fellow teachers in this school? 7 or 8 times 5 or 6 times 3 or 4 times 1 or 2 times MbWNH The attitude Of students to attending coeducational govern— ment secondary schools should influence the decision Of whether or not to convert‘nll separate boys and girls govern— ment secondary schools to coeducational schools. 1. I agree strongly 2. I agree slightly 3. I disagree slightly 4. I disagree strongly. The attitudes Of Thai teachers to teaching in coeducational government secondary schools should influence the decision of whether or not to convert'nll separate boys and girls govern- ment secondary schools to coeducational schools. I agree strongly ' I agree slightly I disagree slightly I disagree strongly. J-‘UONH 112. 113. 114. 115. -224- The attitudes Of Thai secondary school principals to coeducational government secondary schools should influence the decision Of whether or not to convert.nll separate boys and girls government secondary schools to coeducational schools. I agree strongly I agree slightly I disagree slightly I disagree strongly. bWNH The attitudes of Changwad Education Officers to coeducational government secondary schools should influence the decision of whether or not to convertunll separate boys and girls govern- ment secondary schools to coeducational schools. 1. I agree strongly 2. I agree slightly 3. I disagree slightly 4. I disagree strongly. The attitudes Of Ministry Of Education Officials to coeducational government secondary schools should influence the decision of whether or not to convert all separate boys and girls govern- ment secondary schools to coeducational schools. I agree strongly I agree slightly I disagree slightly I disagree strongly. bwmr—l In the preceding five questions you have been asked to express your Opinion about which people in the Thai educational system should be involved in deciding whether or not.nll separate boys and girls government secondary schools should be converted to co- educational schools. As some Of these people may favor convert- ing all separate boys and girls government secondary schools to coeducational schools and some Of them oppose this idea, we would now like you to indicate which group (or individual) should have the power to make a final decision on this matter. Please circle the number preceding that group (or individual) which you feel should have power to make the final decision. 1. Students 5. Changwad Education Officers 2. Teachers 6. Director-General Of the Department 3. School principals of Secondary. Education ' 4. Amphur Education 7. Under—Secretary of State for 'Officers -: Education ' 8. Minister of Education 116. 117. 118. -225- Teachers who teach in coreducational government secondary schools must conduct their classes differently than do those who work in either separate boys or girls schools. 1. I agree strongly 2. I agree slightly 3. I disagree slightly 4. I disagree strongly. Students who attend coeducational government secondary schools usually Obtain higher scores on tests than do students who at- tend separate schools for boys or girls. 1. I agree strongly 2. I agree slightly 3. I disagree slightly 4. I disagree strongly. Please circle the number preceding those items below which you believe to be.nisadvantages Of coeducation in Thai government secondary schools. 1. Attending coeducational government secondary schools encourages immoral behavior among Thai students. 2. Thai government secondary school students do not learn as well a when boys and girls attend ' ‘classes toggther;. 3. Discipline is more difficult tO maintain in Thai government coeducational secondary schools than in separate schools for boys and girls. 4. Coeducation is not the traditional form Of secondary education in Thailand. 5. Students who attend coeducational government secon- dary schools do not express themselves freely be- cause Of the fear of shame. 6. Thai boys and girls do not mature at the same rate, so although students may be of equal age the girls will be more emotionally mature than the boys in government coeducational secondary schools. 7. ImprOper forms of address and speech are learned when Thai boys and girls attend classes together in government coeducational secondary schools. -2zs. 119. Please circle the numbers preceding those items below which you believe to be advantages Of coeducation in Thai government secondary schools. 1. A system of coeducational secondary schools is cheaper to build and maintain rather than a system Of separate schools for boys and girls. Thai boys and girls learn better to adjust to the Opposite sex in coeducational secondary schools. Thai boys and girls try harder to learn in the presence of the Opposite sex in coeducational secondary schools. Sex education is made easier in coeducational secon- dary schools. Thai boys and girls nrefer coeducational secondary schools to separate schools for boys and girls- Competition for good grades makes both boys and girls study harder in coeducational secondary schools. 120. After weighing all the advantages and disadvantages of coeducation in Thai government secondary schools, what is your conclusion? 1. 2. I feel that-nll Thai government secondary schools should be organized on a coeducational basis. I feel that nll Thai government secondary schools should be organized on the basis of separate schools for boys and girls. , I feel that.nll Thai government secondary schools should be organized on a coeducational basis for students in grades M.S.l-M.S.3 only. I feel that fill Thai government secondary schools should be organized on a coeducational basis for students in grades M.S.4—M.S.5 oniy. I feel that the Thai government should continue the present practice Of organizing some government secon- dary schools on a coeducational basis while maintaining others as separate schools for boys and girls. -227- IMPORTANT LISTED BELOW ARE SOME STATEMENTS PEOPLE HAVE GIVEN AS THEIR OPINION ON SEVERAL TOPICS. YOU MAY FIND YOURSELF AGREEING STRONGLY WITH SOME OF THE STATEMENTS...DISAGREEING JUST AS STRONGLY WITH OTHERS. WHETHER YOU AGREE OR DISAGREE WITH ANY STATEMENT, YOU CAN BE SURE THAT MANY OTHER PEOPLE FEEL THE SAME AS YOU DO. 121. In this complicated world of ours the only way we can know what's going on is to rely on leaders or experts who can be trusted. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole disagree very much. O‘MbWNr—i HHHHHH 122. My blood boils whenever a person stubbornly refuses to admit he's wrong. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘UIDUJNH HHHHHH 123. There are two kinds of people in this world: those who are for the truth and those who are against the truth. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘kfl-l-‘UJNH HHHI—IHH 124. 125. 126. 127. 128. Most people O‘U‘I-DDDNH 'O HHI-IHHH -228- just don't know what's good for them. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. To compromise with our political Opponents is dangerous because it usually leads to the betrayal of our own side. o‘mswar-a Hl-lHl-IHH It is Often on until one has had a chance to hear the Opinions Of those one respects. oxmwar-I HHHHHH agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. desirable to reserve judgment about what's going agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. The present is all too often full of unhappiness. It is only the future that counts. C‘U‘J—‘WNH I-ll-ll-ll-IHH agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. Of all the different philosophies which exist in this world there is probably one only which is correct. O‘U‘IbWNH HHHHHH agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. 129. 130. 131. 132. 133. The highest -229- form Of government is a democracy, and the highest form Of democracy is a government run by those who are most intelligent. O‘U‘IJ-‘UJNt-l HHHHHH agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. The main thing in life is for a person to want to do some- thing important. 1. I 2. I 3. I 4. I 5. I 6. I I'd like it to solve my omwar-d HHHI-IHH Most Of the agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. if I could find someone who would tell me how personal problems. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. ideas which get printed nowadays aren't worth the paper they are printed on. GmbUJNH HHHHHH agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. Man on his own is a helpless and miserable creature. O‘U‘iwat-l HHHHHH agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. -230- 134. It is only when a person devotes himself to an ideal or cause that life becomes meaningful. l. I agree very much. 2. I agree on the whole. 3. I agree a little. 4. I disagree a little. 5. I disagree on the whole. 6. I disagree very much. 135. Most people just dufi't give a "damn" for others. 1. I agree very much. 2. I agree on the whole. 3. I agree a little. 4. I disagree a little. 5. I disagree on the whole. 6. I disagree very much. 136. The [nited States and Russia have just about nothing in common. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. C‘U‘DWNH HHHHHi-i 137. In a discussion I often find it necessary to repeat myself several times to make sure I am being understood. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. @111»me HHHHHH 138. While I don't like to admit this even to myself, my secret ambition is to become a great man, like Einstein, or Beethoven, or Shakespeare. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree 3 little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘U'IL‘WNH eihaeleleaea -231- 139. Even though freedom of speech for all groups is a worth- while goal, it is unfortunately necessary to restrict the freedom of certain political groups. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. ome-‘wNu—I HHHHHH 140. It is better to be a dead hero than to be a live coward. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘U‘IJ-‘UJNH HHHHHH 141. When I have a problem I like to think it through myself first without help from others. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole disagree very much. O‘Ln-DUDNH HHI—IHHH 142. Everybody is responsible for his own life and no one else can live life for him, so I make my own decisions and judgments. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. mmwae—i HHHHHH 143. I go ahead and do things which I believe are right regardless of what other people think. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘U'I-I-‘UONH HHHHHH -232- IMPORTANT FOLLOWING ARE A SERIES OF NINE STATEMENTS DESCRIBING HOW YOUR SCHOOL PRINCIPAL MAY BEHAVE TOWARD THE OTHER TEACHERS IN THIS SCHOOL. PLEASE READ EACH STATEMENT CAREFULLY AND THEN SELECT THE ONE ALTERNATIVE WHICH BEST SUMMARIZES THE EXTENT OF YOUR AGREEMENT-OR DISAGREEMENT WITH THE STATEMENT. 144. "The principal of this school usually doesn't explain his decisions to the other teachers even when these decisions affect them.” agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘U13‘UJNDP‘ HHHHHH 145. "The principal of this school frequently makes decisions which affect the other teachers without consulting them first." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘U'I-PUJNH HHHHHH 146. "The principal of this school is usually very kind and understanding when he talks to the other teachers." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘U‘I-l-‘LJDNH HHHHHH 147. "The principal of this school is usually friendly and the other teachers can discuss their problems with him." 1. I agree very much. 4. I disagree a little. 2. I agree on the whole. 5. I disagree on the whole. 3. I agree a little. 6. I disagree very much. -233- 148. "The principal of this school wants the other teachers to consider him their very good friend." 1. I agree very much. 2. I agree on the whole. 3. I agree a little. 4. I disagree a little. 5. I disagree on the whole. 6. I disagree very much. 149. "The principal of this school associates with the other teachers even when there is no official business involved." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. 0\U1¢~Can>ha Flhihihlhihl 150. "The principal makes the other teachers feel relaxed when he talks to them." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘UIbUJNt-l HHHHHH 151. "The principal of this school gives the other teachers en- couragement in their work. ." Very frequently. Quite frequently Quite infrequently. Never. J-‘UJNH 152. "The principal of this school offers the other teachers sug- gestions to help them improve their teaching performance." Very frequently Quite frequently Quite infrequently Never. war-d 234- IMPORTANT FOLLOWING ARE A SERIES OF NINE STATEMENTS WHICH MAY DESCRIBE HOW YOUR SCHOOL PRINCIPAL BEHAVES TOWARD YOU. PLEASE—READ EACH STATE- MENT CAREFULLY AND THEN SELECT THE‘QNE ALTERNATIVE WHICH BEST SUMMARIZES THE EXTENT OF YOUR AGREEMENT OR DISAGREEMENT WITH THE STATEMENT. 153. "My principal usually doesn't explain his decisions to me even when these decisions affect me." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. omwar—t HHHHHH 154. "My school principal frequently makes decisions which affect me without consulting me first.” agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. omwar-a HI—II—II—IHH 155. "My school principal is usually very kind and understanding when he talks to me." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree 3 little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘U‘I-l-‘LQNH HHHHHI—l 156. ”My school principal is friendly to me and I can discuss my problems with him." 1. I agree very much. 4. I disagree a little. 2. I agree on the whole. 5. I disagree on the whole. 3. I agree a little. 6. I disagree very much. -235- 157. "My school principal likes me to consider him my very good friend." 1. I agree very much. 2. I agree on the whole. 3. I agree a little. 4. I disagree a little. 5. I disagree on the whole. 6. I disagree very much. 158. "My school principal associates with me even when there is no official business involved." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole.“ disagree very much. Gm-t-‘LDNH HHHHHH 159. "My school principal makes me feel relaxed when I talk to him." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. mm-bUJNt-d HHHHHH 160. "My school principal gives me encouragement in my work. ." 1. Very frequently 2. Quite frequently 3. Quite infrequently. 4. Never 161. "My school principal offers suggestions to help me improve my teaching performance. Very frequently. Quite frequently. Quite infrequently. Never 4‘me -236- IMPORTANT FOLLOWING ARE A SERIES OF FOUR STATEMENTS WHICH THE PRINCIPAL OF A THAI GOVERNMENT SECONDARY SCHOOL MIGHT MAKE. PLEASE READ EACH STATEMENT CAREFULLY AND THEN SELECT THE‘QNE ALTERNATIVE WHICH YOU THINK YOUR SCHOOL PRINCIPAL WOULD CHOOSE AS BEST SUMMARIZING THE EXTENT OF HIS (OR HER) AGREEMENT OR DISAGREEMENT WITH THE STATE- MENT. PLEASE ANSWER AS YOU THINK YOUR PRINCIPAL WOULD ANSWER: 162. "Personally, I feel I can adjust to changes easily." My principal would . agree very much agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole disagree very much. omwar—I 163. "Most changes introduced into the Thai government secondary schools within the last ten years have contributed very little to improving education in our schools." My principal would . agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. omwar—I 164. "If we wish to maintain a healthy, stable educational system in Thailand we must keep it the way it is and IESISt the temptation to change." My principal would . agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. (I‘m-Dri-A -237- 165. "I really believe we could do a much better job, or at least do just as well if things didn't change so much in our schools." My principal would. agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. . disagree a little disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘UJ-‘WNH IMPORTANT PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING FIVE QUESTIONS ON THE BASIS OF HOW YOU THINK YOUR PRINCIPAL FEELS ABOUT YOU. 166. How do you think your school principal would rate your over-all teaching ability? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest \lO‘U‘lbLQNH 167. How do you think your principal would rate your ability to get along with students? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest. VomeNr—l -238- 168. How do you think your principal would rate your ability to enrich instruction (go beyond the textbook)? . Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest. \no‘wwaH 169. How do you think your principal would rate your methods of teaching? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest \JO‘UIJ-‘WNt-l 170. How do you think your principal would rate your methods of classroom discipline? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest \JCfiU‘L‘WNH -239- IMPORTANT PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING FIVE QUESTIONS ON THE BASIS OF HOW YOU THINK YOUR TEACHING COLLEAGUES FEEL ABOUT YOU. 171. How do you think your teaching colleagues in this school would rate your over-all teaching ability? Outstanding Among the beat Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest \lO‘kflwap—I 172. How do you think your teaching colleagues would rate your ability to get along with students. Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest. \lO‘kfiJ-‘UONH 173. How do you think your teaching colleagues would rate your ability to enrich instruction (go beyond the textbooks)? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest \JO\U1$~OJKJFJ 174. How do you think your teaching colleagues would rate your methods of teaching? 1. Outstanding 4. Above average 2. Among the best 5. Among the best 3. Very good 6. Below average 7. Among the poorest. -240- 175. How do you think your teaching colleagues would rate your methods of classroom discipline? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest. \JC‘UTDWNH IMPORTANT PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING FIVE QUESTIONS ON THE BASIS OF HOW YOU THINK YOUR STUDENTS FEEL ABOUT YOU. 176. How do you think your students would rate your over-all teaching ability? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest \IONUIbb-JNI—l 177. How do you think your students would rate your ability to get along with them? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest \lO‘Kfl-DWNr—I -241- 178. How do you think your students would rate your ability to enrich instruction (go beyond the textbook)? Oustanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest. \lO‘kfiL‘LONr—I 179. How do you think your students would rate your methods of teaching? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest. \JO‘U‘vDUJNl-d 180. How do you think your students would rate your methods of classroom discipline? . Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest. \JC\Ul£‘thJhd -242- MPORTANT PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING FIVE QUESTIONS ON THE BASIS OF HOW YOU JUDGE YOUR OWN COMPETENCE. 181. Comparing yourself with your fellow teachers in this school, how would you rate your over-all teaching ability? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest. \IoUI-l-‘wNv—I 182. Comparing yourself with your fellow teachers in this school, how would you rate your ability to get along with students? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest \lO‘U‘lDb-JNl—I 183. Comparing yourself with your fellow teachers in this school, how would you rate your ability to enrich instruction (go beyond the textbook)? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest. \IONUIJ-‘LQNH -243- 184. Comparing yourself with your fellow teachers in this school, how would you rate your methods of teaching? 1. Outstanding 2. Among the best 3 Very good 4. Above average 5 About average 6 Below average 7 Among the poorest. 185. Comparing yourself with your fellow teachers in this school, how would you rate your methods of classroom discipline? Outstanding Among the best Very good Above average About average Below average Among the poorest. \IOMDWNH IMPORTANT FOLLOWING ARE A SERIES OF NINETEEN STATEMENTS WHICH MAY DESCRIBE HOW YOU FEEL ABOUT DEALING WITH YOUR SEVERAL PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL MATTERS. PLEASE CIRCLE THE NUMBER PRECEDING THE RESPONSE WHICH BEST SUMMARIZES THE EXTENT OF YOUR AGREEMENT OR DISAGREEMENT WITH THE ' STATEMENT. PLEASE ANSWER EACH QUESTION. 186. "If the School Principal wants to get things done he should go ahead with what he thinks will benefit the school without asking the teachers.” agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘U’I-L‘UJNH HHHHHI—I 187. 188. 189. 190. -244- "It really isn't the job of teachers to take part in any dec1310n-making discussions regarding school matters." agree very much agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. ombwmw HHHI-IHH "If we want to maintain a healthy and stable educational system in Thailand we must keep it the way it is and resist the temptation to change." “ agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. omwar—I HHHHHH "Most changes introduced into the Thai government secondary schools within the last ten years have contributed very little to improving education in our schools." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘U‘bWNH HHHHHH "I really believe that we Thai government secondary school teachers could have done a much better job, or at least done just as well, if things had not been changed so much in our schools." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little disagree on the whole. disagree very much. OU'IJ-‘LANH HHHHHH -245- 191. "I think the teachers in this school get along with one an- other better than those in other Thai government secondary schools in this Changwad." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. omwaH HHHHHH 192. "I think the teachers in this school help one another more than do teachers in other government secondary schools in this Changwad." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. omwar-i HHHHHH 193. "I feel I get along well with my teaching colleagues in this school." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. ombwmr‘ PlhihiFlFihi 194. "I don't feel secure and relaxed as a teacher in this school." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. O‘MDWNH HHHHHH 195. "I feel at home in this school and nothing makes me nervous or uneasy." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. amb‘wwr—a HHHHHH 196. 197. 199. 200. -246- "I feel that I am really a part of this school." omwar-a HHHHHH agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. "Generally speaking, I don't like being a teacher.” C‘U‘IwaH HHHHHH agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. "I like my teaching job in this school." omwav—t HHHI—ll—H—l agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. "If given an opportunity to do the same kind of teaching at the same pay in another Thai government secondary school, I would teach Chm-DWNH HHHHHH in the other school." agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. "Personally, I feel I can adjust to changes easily." O‘U‘IJ-‘LONI-i HHHHHH agree very much. agree on the whole. agree a little. disagree a little. disagree on the whole. disagree very much. 201. 202. 203. 204. -247- "Compared with most other teachers in this school, I talk with my teaching colleagues about non-academic school activities. . ." 1. much more frequently than the others. 2. somewhat more frequently than the others. 3. just about as often as the others. 4. somewhat less frequently than the others. 5. much less frequently than the others. "Compared with most other teachers in this school, my school principal talks to me about my classroom work . . ." much more frequently than with the others. somewhat more frequently than with the others. just about as often as with the others. somewhat less frequently than with the others. much less frequently than with the others. mwar—a "Compared with most other teachers in this school, my prin- cipal talks to me about discipline problems. ." much more frequently than with the others. somewhat more frequently than with the others. . just about as often as with the others. somewhat less frequently than with the others. much less frequently than with the others. mJ-‘wNH "Compared with most other teachers in this school, my prin- cipal talks to me about the problems of teaching. ." much more frequently than with the others. somewhat more frequently than with the others. just about as often as with the others. somewhat less frequently than with the others. much less frequently than with the others. UI-l-‘wNv-I -248- MPORTANT THE REMAINING QUESTIONS ASK YOU TO PROVIDE SOME PERSONAL INFORMATION. LET US REMIND YOU AGAIN THAT YOUR NAME WILL NOT APPEAR ON THIS QUES- TIONNAIRE: _N_Q % WILL KNOW WHO FILLED IT OUT. WE WOULDN‘T ASK YOU TO GIVE SUCH PERSONAL INFORMATION IF IT WEREN'T ESSENTIAL TO THE SUCCESS OF THIS RESEARCH PROJECT. -—-—----—----—-~—-— ---—--~—------- 205. For how many years of your life have you lived in a town or city of more than 10,000 population? 1. Lessthan 5 years. 2. 5-10 years. 3. 11-15 years. 4. 16-20 years. 5. 21-25 years. 6. 26-30 years. 7. More than 30 years. 206. For how many years of your life have you lived in a town or city of less than 10,000 population? 26-80 years. More than 30 years. 1. Less than 5 years. 2. 5-10 years. 3. 11-15 years. 4. 16-20 years 5. 21-25 years. 6. 7. 207. What is your father's occupation? Farmer . Professional man (doctor, dentist, lawyer) Business man Unskilled, semiskilled or skiller laborer Civil government official Member of the Army, Navy or Air Force Professional educator (college) or school teacher. \lO‘U‘J-‘LONH -249- 208. Please circle the number preceding the highest level of formal education attained by your father. No formal education 1-3 years of schooling 4-7 years of schooling 8-10 years of schooling 11-12 years of schooling Some university or college education College graduate. VOMwat-I' 209. Please circle the number preceding the highest level of formal education attained by your mother. No formal education. 1-3 years of schooling. 4-7 years of schooling 8-10 years of schooling 11-12 years of schooling Some university or college education College graduate. \lO‘U‘S‘UJhJF‘ 210. What was your government salary last month? 3 750 or less. . E 751-900 B 9o1-1,2oo B 1,201-1,500 ,501-2,050 r<:x ¢>a>\xo\uat~oahara 211. Do you own land, own a business, or have any other outside source of income besides your government salary? O. No Yes How much was your outside Income last year? H 2. Less than B 1,000 3. 1,000-3,000 a. 3,001-5,000 5. 5,001-7,000 6. 7,001-10,000 7. 10,001 or above -250- 212. SEX 1. Male 2. Female 213. AGE 1. .20224 6, 45-49 2. 25-29 7. 50-54 3. 30-34 8. 55-59 4. 35-39 9. 60 or above 5. 40—44 214. Please circle the numbers preceding the subjects which you now teach. 1. Thai language 10. Chemistry 2. English language 11. Biology 3. Civics and Ethics 12. Arithmetic 4. Geography 13. Algebra 5. History 14. Trigonometry 6. General Science 15. Statistics 7. Mechanics 16. French 8. Heat, Light & Sound 17. German 9. Electricity & Magnetism (Physics). WE WOULD LIKE TO EXPRESS OUR SINCERE APPRECIATION FOR YOUR COOPERA- TION IN HELPING US WITH THIS VERY IMPORTANT RESEARCH STUDY. WE HAVE GREAT HOPE THAT THIS STUDY, TOGETHER WITH OTHERS OF A SIMILAR NATURE BEING CONDUCTED THROUGHOUT THE WORLD, WILL HELP TO IMPROVE EDUCATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. THE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY WILL BE VALID ONLY IF YOU HAVE ANSWERED EVERY QUESTION. IF YOU FAILED TO ANSWER A QUESTION, PERHAPS YOU WOULD GO BACK AND DO SO NOW. YOU MAY WRITE ANY COMMENTS WHICH YOU HAVE ABOUT THIS QUESTIONNAIRE ON THE BACK OF THIS PAGE; THEY WILL BE APPRECIATED. "THUNT