v L 1}"- {RY "iichigafl State Universrty W 1 ml; um; llzlljlllllllll ll 11): l Ill lg llflll um um ’ 390 This is to certify that the thesis entitled] , , g L -C j'fv’Dé/V) fr ldClO- New“ . lé-‘lC*‘Q’QQL”‘“\TOW we 625' 404067144“ Marsha/n), L4 r D’ff'imws ”436‘ R6!» rwwSWm: .‘M’lon/G A 7' ‘5 THE/A“ ,4 CH D 6. WM C '¥C ct (If \/6 .49 ef/wr IM 5 L7 (”é/vc’c é'fl o’C‘-*tTro/v Hn’ 77M" S/Xf/v’ («P/MD C- /A/ 546170.35 (NW) presented by erfl/‘f, Mus- flZ/l/V/ has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Pl» b " 'degree £3361 flynéi} fix] // 1‘ //’4 [#6745 Major professor 0-7639 "r‘fw” ' ‘w‘ i...“ ',m r ‘J . ,. -v-‘ OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. K THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG STUDENTS'S SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND, TEACHERS' ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, SEX DIFFERENCE, AND THEIR ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN SCIENCE EDUCATION AT SIXTH GRADE LEVEL IN BAGHDAD (IRAQ) By Nizar M.S. Alani A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Measurement, Evaluation and Research Design Department of Counseling, Personnel Services, and Educational Psychology 1978 6 /08 74? ABSTRACT THE RELATIONSHIPS AMONG STUDENTS' SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND, TEACHERS' ACADEMIC BACKGROUND, SEX DIFFERENCE, AND THEIR ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT IN SCIENCE EDUCATION AT SIXTH GRADE LEVEL IN BAGHDAD (IRAQ) By Nizar M.S. Alani This study was aimed at building an achievement test in elementary science education for the sixth grade in Iraq as a first step in an attempt to build files of standardized achievement tests in the elementary school; and to give, in the long run, an alternative to the Baccalaureate Examination in the sixth grade, which the Iraqi government deleted sev- eral years ago. Also, the Study analyzed the data and infor- ‘mation obtained by applying the test in various schools in Baghdad in order to test the relationships between the stu- dent's socio-economic background, sex, their teachers' aca- demic background and their effect on academic achievement of sixth grade children. Baghdad Western County was selected as the population for this Study, and 3 different districts representing 3 dif- ferent socio-economic levels were defined to be the areas Of schools and students sampled in this study. A Simple questionnaire was used to get information about student socio-economic background (SEB). This study has considered the monthly income per person, number of Nizar M.S. Alani people in family, and parents educational level as the fac- tors of the student's SEB. The results showed Significant differences between the Students in the 3 different dis- tricts and in all the three factors of SEB. The Alani Science Achievement Test (ASAT) was con- structed to cover the first 2 units of the Iraqi science sixth grade textbook and has been developed by using dif- ferent statistical procedures and techniques. The test analysis of the final edition of ASAT, which has been applied to the sample total group, showed that all test items (74 items) are good items, statistically, except item 46 which was deleted when this study design was ana- lyzed. All correlations between the subtests themselves, between the 2 units, between the subtests and the total test, and between the 2 units and the total test ranged from .422 to .927, which for the most part, are high correlations. Cronbach's Alpha for composite between the 4 subtests was .81 and between the 2 units was .80. Alpha between the Odd- even items was .765 with a (<.0001) level of significance; equal length Spearman-Brown Correlation was .867 and Gutman Split—half Correlation was .867. The total test ANOVA Showed a high level of significance between measures ((.001) and a .921 standardized item Alpha. The z-scores' distri- bution for the total test looks more like a normal than a skewed distribution. The tests of hypotheses concerning students' Nizar M.S. Alani achievements on ASAT were performed by the multivariate repeated measure analysis. The hypotheses about SEB, SEX, TAB and the interaction among them were tested by the uni- variate F ratio while the hypotheses about the subtests and interaction with it were tested by the multivariate F ratio. The three way factorial design ( 3 x 2 x 3 ) with four repeated measures were analyzed by the FINN program. The design was crossed and balanced. The study design analysis showed that the student's socio-economic background (SEB) main effect, interaction between student's SEB and their SEX, between SEX and stu- dents' teacher academic background (TAB), between student's SEB and their TAB, and between student's SEB, SEX and their TAB, the subtest's main effect and the subtests by student's SEB by TAB interaction were Significant at 9‘ =.OS. There was a difference in students' achievement according to their socio-economic background (SEB): the higher the class, the higher the achievement. There were also significant differences between each of the three classes (UMC, MC and LMC). There was a disordinal interaction between students' SEB and their SEX; boys did better than girls at the UMC and LMC levels, while girls did better than boys at the MC level. Another disordinal interaction was between students' SEX and their TAB; girls having teachers with a science or art back- ground did better than boys, while boys having teachers with a teaching diploma did better than girls. There was an Nizar M.S. Alani ordinal interaction between students' SEB and their TAB; students at the UMC level did better than at the MC level, and students at the MC level did better than those at the LMC level, on all levels of the TAB. Within the interaction between students' SEB, SEX and their TAB; boys at the UMC did better than boys at either the MC or LMC levels, on all levels of the TAB. Boys at the MC level with teachers holding a teaching diploma did better than those at the LMC level. On the other hand, girls at the UMC and MC level did better than girls at the LMC level on all levels of TAB, and girls at the UMC level with teachers having an art or teaching diploma background did better than those at the MC level. There was a difference in students' achievement among the ASAT'S 4 subtests (RM); students in both units did Sig- nificantly better in recall-type items than in understanding- type items, and also did better in unit 1 than in unit 2 in both types of items. Finally the interaction between RM, SEB, and TAB shows the superiority of students at the UMC level over those at either the MC or LMC level in nearly every subtests and with all teacher backgrounds. At the MC level, students did better in all 4 subtests than those at the LMC level when they had teachers with a teaching dip- loma, and in 3 subtests when they had teachers with the other backgrounds. In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful "O my Lord! Advance me in Knowledge" The Holy Qur'an Ta-Ha, 114 ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The completion of this study represents the encourage- ment and support of many people who have provided profes- sional direction and friendship during the course of the research. Special acknowledgment and sincere appreciation is given to Dr. William Mehrens, Advisor, Chairperson of the Guidance Committee and Director of the Dissertation. His commitment, positive concern, help and gentle encouragement were instrumental in the writer's growth and development throughout the doctoral program. Dr. Mehrens' presence throughout all these years will never be forgotten. My sincere appreciations and deep gratitude also to the members of the Doctoral Committee: Dr. W. Walsh, Dr. L. Sause and Dr. W. Warrington. To them the credit for many hours of cooperation concerning this study. The writer expresses very special thanks and appreci- ation to his parents, brothers, sisters and their families, and his wife for a life time of love and caring. To their unconditional support, I credit the successful completion of this thesis. A loving gratitudes is extended to my children, Nizar (Jr.), Modhar, Nowar and Mohammad Said, who each in their own special way understood their father's pursuit. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter. Page I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction . . I Need for the Study 2 Purpose of Study 6 Hypotheses . 7 Limitations of the Study 8 Definition of Terms 8 Overview 9 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . ll Socio-Economic Background . . . . . . . . 11 Teacher Academic Background . . . . . . . 17 Sex Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Summary . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . 27 III. PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 The Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3l Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 IV. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . 51 The Test Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Study Design Analysis . . . . . . 60 Repeated Measure Analysis On ASAT . . . . 64 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY . . . . . . . . . 78 Summary . . . . . . . . . 78 Conclusion and Implication . . . . . . . 82 Suggestions for Further Study . . . . . . 90 iv APPENDIX A ALANI SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT TEST "ASAT" The Final English Edition . APPENDIX B ALANI SCIENCE ACHIEVEMENT TEST "ASAT" The Final Arabic Edition APPENDIX C Study's Questionnarie for Student's Socio-Economic Background The Final English Edition . APPENDIX D Study's Questionnarie for Student's Socio-Economic Background The Final Arabic Edition BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 92 102 119 120 121 Table 3-1 3-2 3-3 3-4 4-10 LIST OF TABLES Distribution of Population . Students' Socio- Economic Background The Monthly Income/Person- T- Test Differences Between the Three Districts as a Whole and by Sex . Number of People/Family- -T- Test Differences Between the Three Districts as a Whole and by Sex . . . . . ’Xz Test Differences in Students' Parents' Educational Levels in the Three Districts . The Two-Way ANOVA Analysis for Student' S Socio- Economic Background and Sex Difference . . Design of Study ASAT' 3 Item Analysis . . Subtests, Units and Total Test Analysis Subtests, Units and Total Test Correlations . . . . . Odd- Even Items Analysis Total Test ANOVA . . Study Variables Main EffeCts with one Measure (Student and Total Scores in ASAT) . . Study Cells StatiStics Of ASAT Total Scores . . . Study Variables Levels Statistics of Four Subtests Scores Cell Means and Standard DeviatiOnS Of Four Subtests Scores . . . Univariate and Multivariate Repeated Measures Analysis on ASAT Scores vi Page 32 36 37 38 40 42 47 54 57 57 S8 61 63 65 67 69 Figure 3-1 4-1 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 Student's Parents' Educational Level . LIST OF FIGURES Students Scores Distribution . Graph for Graph for Graph for Graph for Graph for Presentation of Cell Means Subtest, SEB and TAB . . . Presentation of Cell Means SEB, TAB and SEX (total score) Presentation of Cell Means SEB and TAB (total score) Presentation of Cell Means SEX and TAB (total scores) Presentation of Cell Means SEB and SEX (total scores) vii Page 41 71 73 74 75 76 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction Achievement tests play an important role in the school. Standardized versions are used by administrators to section classes, place transfer students, evaluate the curriculum, identify exceptional children, and interpret the schools to the community. Guidance counselors use them as one basis for assisting students to make more realistic educational and vocational decisions. However, their most significant role is in the instructional program of the school. Here, achievement testing becomes an integral part of the teaching- learning process and has the most direct influence on stu- dent development. Testing can improve the effectiveness of the instruc- tional decisions by providing more objective information on which to base the judgments. In addition, the use of tests can have an immediate and direct effect on the learning of students. Tests can improve student motivation, increase retention and transfer of learning, and contribute to greater self-understanding (Gronlund 1968). The trend in recent research Studies on academic achievement, mostly provided by the achievement tests, 1 2 appears to be toward investigating not just the intellectual variables in explaining differences in academic achievement, but non-intellectual variables as important variables as well. Significant findings have indicated that intellectual measures account for only 35 to 45 percent of the variation in academic performance (McClelland 1969). Researchers who have focuSed on the individual learner appear unable to account for the variations in learning that may be due to the social environment. Therefore, after pro- viding good and trustable instruments to measure a student's performance, it is necessary to come to a fresh understand- ing of the individual's environment and the relationship between his performance and his environment. AS Davis has mentioned, for example, social classes form the structure of the social "maze” in which the child learns his habits and meanings (Davis 1960). Need For The Study The educational system in Iraq is a very strong cen- tralized system. National educational objectives have been 'drafted by the Ministry of Education. There is one textbook for each subject in each grade which is required for all the students in Iraq, and all the teachers must cover their grade's textbook during the academic year. There are four kinds of examinations in Iraq: a. The weekly quizzes and monthly examinations - 3 These are tests that are formulated by the teacher and should not be the same for all sections of that grade in a particular school. These are usually scored by the individual teacher. b. The mideyear examination - This is formu- 1ated by the teachers in a particular school from the subject matter taught there. This examination is for all sections of that aca- demic grade and is usually scored by the teacher of each individual section. c. The final examination - This exam is made by all the subject matter teachers in the school, and is the same for all the students in each academic grade. It is controlled by the final examination subject matter commit- tee. d. The baccalaureate examination (B.Ex.) - This exam is required for all the students in Iraq in the sixth, ninth, and twelfth grades. It is a one form test which is made and con- trolled by the Higher Central Committee of Testing and Grading, and is scored by the Central Subject Matter Committee in the Min- istry of Education. All or most of the test forms for the four kinds of examina- tions (all of them in the Baccalaureate Examination) are in 4 essay form and are almost always structured according to the contents of the textbook in that particular subjeCt. If a student fails on the final examination at the end of the school year (except the early elementary school years), he has to remain in the same grade for another year with the label "repeater." Passing the baccalaureate examination is the student's green card which enables the student to trans- fer from the elementary school to the middle school, to the high school, and finally to finish high school and receive the certificate which is necessary to gain admission to the university based only on his total score on this examination. Again, without passing this examination the student will stay in his grade and not finish high school regardless of any other criteria. An issue that comes up every year in Iraq is in regard to the Baccalaureate Examination results and about other criterion which should guide the prediction of the student's academic success at the different levels. There is a con- siderable conflict over this matter which is expressed through many complaints commonly heard, especially every summer from students, parents, administrators, educators and even the political decision makers. Newspapers, television and radio stations are almost always involved in this con- flict. Some Iraqi educators think that the Baccalaureate Exam- ination in Iraq, especially in the 12th grade, is not very dependable or reliable to be the only criteria on which to 5 base our students' transfer and admission policy. Since all the B.Ex.'s are in essay form, it is not easy to get a fair correction of all the students' answer Sheets. In addition, not all the students in the seventeen states in Iraq have the same chance to finish all the textbooks or all require- ments in the same way. Tests have become an integral part of our academic life and many, if not all, decisions are often made on the basis of a student's score. So it is very essential that we recognize the value that test results may play in the lives of the students. Since 1972 the Iraqi Ministry of Education had been thinking seriously about deleting the Baccalaureate Exami- nation in the Sixth grade, and advising and training teach- ers to use objective tests rather than the essay form test. In 1975 the Iraqi Ministry of Education deleted the B.Ex. in the sixth grade, and the problem of searching for an alter- native criterion at this level and other levels has been given and is still being given much attention. One of the major goals of the Iraqi Ministry of Edu- cation is to build files of standardized achievement tests beginning with the elementary school as a first Step. It is not easy to build a national standardized achievement test for all subject matters and for all school levels at one time. It takes a long time and requires many professional scholars. The greatest amount of attention should be given to the most important subjects and levels than the less 6 important ones. Science is one of the most important sub- jects to which the Iraqi Ministry of Education gives much attention. This study will be a small part of the educator's ef- forts in Iraq to improve our testing and grading system, and to answer some questions which we have discussed as problems. However, this research and more is needed to answer or solve these problems. Purpose Of Study This study is aimed at building an achievement test in Elementary Science Education for the sixth grade in Iraq. Moreover, the test will be analyzed with respect to validity, reliability, discriminability, and all other statistical properties. Secondly, it will be an attempt to give an alternative to the Baccalaureate Examination in the sixth grade which the Iraqi Government deleted several years ago. Thus, it will be just the first step in an attempt to build files of standardized achievement tests in the elementary schools. At the same time, this study will have the opportunity to use the-data and information which will be obtained from applying the test in various schools in Baghdad in order to answer some important questions which we have discussed as problems in Iraq. Furthermore, the study will test the rela- tionships between the student's socio-economic background, the teacher's academic background, the student's sex 7 difference and their effect on acedemic achievement of sixth grade children in Baghdad, Iraq, during the first half of the 1976-1977 school year. Hypotheses The major hypotheses to be examined in this study are the following: 1. The students' socio—economic backgrounds does not affect their achievement in science education. 2. The teacher's academic backgrounds does not affect the students' achievement. 3. The student's sex difference does not affect stu- dent achievement. 4. There are no differences in content and under- standing of objectives between the two types of test items (recall and understanding) which will be covered by the researcher's test. The following interactions will be tested: a. The interactions between the first three variables. b. The interactions between the first three variables and the repeated measure vari- able (the content and understanding of objectives). Limitations Of The Study This study is based on a sample of sixth grade stu- dents attending school during the 1976-1977 school year. The sample includes only those schools which are located in three neighborhood districts in one county in the city of Baghdad (Almansor, Hay Dragh and Alhay Alarabi, and Alsalam districts). Therefore, generalizations to other geograph- ical counties or cities, or to other grade levels within the (same county, should be made only if the reader is willing to take the responsibility for the validity of such extended generalizations. Definition Of Terms For clarity of understanding, the following terms are defined either because of their specialized meaning or because of the operational definition which is used in this study. Socio-Economic Background is defined as the student's socio-economic background according to his school area. This background will be one of three levels: upper middle class (Almansoor district); middle class (Hay Dragh and Alhay Alarabi districts); or lower middle class (Alsalam dis- trict). Teacher's Academic Background is defined as the teacher's high school background. It will be one of three levels: science background (if the teacher has graduated 9 from a science-section high school); art background (if the teacher has graduated from an art-section high school); or, a teaching certificate background (if the teacher attended the ”Elementary Teachers School" after the middle school for three academic years and graduated). Sex Difference is defined as student's sex difference (male or female). Academic Achievement is defined as the student's total score on the test to which this study is going to apply. Elementary School is defined as a public school which provides six years of education for children between the ages of six and fourteen. This formal schooling is compulsory for all Iraqi children. Overview In Chapter I the introduction, need for the study, purpose of the study, hypotheses, limitations of the study, and definition of terms used in this thesis were presented. Chapter II contains a review of the literature con- cerning the relationship of students' academic achievement to their socio-economic background, sex difference, and teacher's academic background. The design of the study is the topic of Chapter III which includes a definition of the population and the sam- ple's description, the test that has been used in the study, design of the study, testable hypotheses and analysis. Chapter IV contains the analysis of the data and a 10 discussion of the research findings. The summary, conclusions and recommendations for fur- ther research are included in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE This review presents the findings of studies focusing on the relationship between student's socio-economic back- grounds, sex differences, their teachers academic back- grounds and their achievement in elementary Science education. This review will not examine literature previous to 1965 or which studied the relationships of the factors of this study and students academic achievement in subjects other than science. It may touch some studies (i.e., studies that do not relate to science) when it talks about any factor in general. Socio - Economic Background (SEB) The relationship between Students' socio-economic back- ground and their academic achievement is Significant in most of the research findings. The evidence obtained from research has indicated that the student's family background has played a very important role in students academic achievement specially in the early years of school. As Jenks (1972, p. 143) has pointed out: On almost any reasonable set of assumptions family background explains nearly half the variation in educa- tion attainment. A family's economic status is, of course, a major determinant of its overall impact on 11 12 its children. But noneconomic factors also account for a significant fraction of family's overall effect on its children's attainment. One can enumerate a number of factors which may contri— bute to the socio-economic status of a child; there seems to be common agreement to use: parent's educational attainment; parent's occupation; total family income; the area which the family lives in; and even, sometimes, the number of people in a student's family. All of these can be considered as SEB factors which contribute to the child's achievement at school. Parental education is frequently chosen as the sole indicator of the socio-economic status of a child. Mayeske (n.d.), Hood (1968), Lowe (1968) and Coleman (1966) indi- cated in their studies that the attained educational levels of parent's and student's performance at college were cor- related significantly, and the parent's educational level has the highest contribution to the student's achievement. One of many studies which used the parent's occupation- al level as the social class index of the Student was done by Wilson (1969). The research findings indicated that a parent's occupation was the single factor most related to the academic achievement of the children. Davres (1967) did a comparative study of the performance of pupils from.low, high, and economically diversified socio-economic areas in Kansas City, Kansas. The scores of children representing the lOWbincome areas were different significantly (lower) from scores of children representing the high-income area. 13 In comparison to the relationship between student's SEB and their academic achievement in elementary science education, we can see the same trend of relationship with the student's academic achievement in general. In Iraq the relationship between socio-economic vari- ables and academic achievement of sixth grade pupils in Baghdad has been studied by Alnasery (1975). Studied were the relationship between the academic achievement and the father's monthly income, family size and father's education. The academic achievement is measured by the Baccalaureate Examination (B.Ex.) for the primary school level. (B.Ex. is given in five subjects; Arabic, English, Arithmetic, Social Studies and Science). From the sixth graders who took the B.Ex. for the academic year 1972-1973 a stratified random sample of 1620 students was drawn. Three groups repre- senting three levels of economic status were identified and 40 primary schools from each group were randomly selected. An ANOVA model ( 3 x 3 x 6 x 5 ) was used to analyze the B.Ex. grades. The relationships between students' achieve- ment in science, father's monthly income and family Size were Significant. In an attempt to determine the commonalities of sci- ence interest held by intermediate grade children in inner- city, suburban, and rural schools, Clarke (1972) investi- gated relationships between their interests in particular areas of science and, place of residence, intelligence quo- tient, social class, grade level and sex. The results of 14 this investigation Show that the achievement pattern in sci- ence was Significantly related to the community in which the student lived. Suburban children reported the highest mean score, followed by rural and urban children, respectively. The mean score of the suburban children closely approximated that of the rural children. Neither grade level, social class status nor IQ had any Significant influence on the student's science interest. The effects of a supplemental science program.on achievement of students with different socio-economic and ethnic backgrounds have been studied by Kral (1972). This study investigated the effects of the addition of a supple- mental science program to existing curricula in selected ele- mentary schools. A supplemental science program, the Elemen- tary Science Study (ESS), was introduced to the treatment group (four of eight classes randomly selected, with a total population of 189 sixth-grade students) and a placebo treatment consisting of films, current events, and discus- sions was given to the control group for one hour a week, during a twelve week period. The Stanford Achievement Test, The Home Index Scale and The Reed Science Activities Inven- tory were administered at the end of the study. Analysis of the data was accomplished using factorial 2 x 2 analysis of variance on each of the four variables. It was found that the supplemental science program made a difference in sci- ence achievement favoring the experimental group. Non- Indian students scored higher in science achievement. 15 Students with a high socio-economic background did better than did those with a low socio-economic background. The effect of science attitude on achievement was non-signifi- cant . Klein (1969) studied the differences in science con- cepts held by children from three social-economic levels. Studied were third and fourth grade children, from schools designated as exclusively serving low, middle, or high social-economic areas in St. Paul, Minnesota, to determine differences in understanding of science concepts and methods. Test items were administered orally and included fifteen questions selected from the school system basic science test plus items on how to find out answers to the questions. For the pilot study, responses from.third graders were compared in tape recorded and written form. Three-hundred-ten fourth graders in fifteen classes from nine schools were given the written test. Test scores were treated using analysis of variance and covariance with adjustments for IQ differences. It was concluded that differences in understanding science were associated with materials with all groups may not be an effective teaching method. Lower social-economic groups may need more experimentation and observation. An assessment of science achievement of five- and six- year old students of contrasting socio-economic background has been done by McGlathery (1968). Assessed was the science achievement of five- and six - year- olds from different socio-economic backgrounds. Classes included both a l6 middle-class and lower-class pre-school class and a middle- class and a lower-class first grade class. Four additional classes, which were studying a local science curriculum, were chosen to match these same grade-level and socio-eco- nomic criteria. Instruction was given in the experimental and control classes from September, 1966 through May, 1967. Achievement was assessed by administering competency mea- sures to five randomly selected students from each class after the completion of each of eight exercises. Students in the experimental group scored higher than students in the control group indicating that the impact of a curriculum structure is measurable. Five-year-olds scored as well as six-year-olds indicating that age was not a factor in sci— ence achievement with this sample. When evidence of science achievement required verbalization, middle-class students did better than lower-class children. When non-verbal behav- iors were required no achievement differences were recog- nized. Further research (Bozarth 1968) has studied the abil- ity to conserve quantities of liquid and its relationship to achievement among selected fourth grade pupils. Studied were the relationships between children's attainment of the concept of conservation of liquid and certain student char- acteristics. 'Student factors investigated were socio-eco- nomic background (high and low), status levels (conservers and non-conservers), verbal and non-verbal achievement, and science achievement. Classification of subjects by status 17 produced significant differences in favor of conservers, and by socio-economic level (high and low) produced significant differences in favor of high on the intelligence and achieve- 'ment tests used. Thus, the overall review of literature indicates that a student's family background has a substantial effect on his academic performance at school. Teacher Academic Background (TAB) The teacher's academic background has been identified in the American literature in different ways; the college's teacher program, courses which the student teacher has selected or taken in his program, teaching experience, teach— ers training programs and in-service education being some of them. The general trend in the review of literature is the non-significant relationship between teacher's academic back- grounds and either their achievement or their student achieve- ment in science. However, some results show the opposite. To investigate the influence of science training on student achievement, a study has been done by Harvey (1977) on how science training of the teacher, type of school, and student age effects the science performance of children aged 5-11. Teachers were classified as either science-trained or nonscience-trained. The author Chose to define science teachers as those having one year or more of science during their teacher-training period. This somewhat arbitrary def- inition was supported by the results of a survey of primary 18 school teachers in the south-west of England relating their attitudes towards science and science teaching. The 5 schools involved in the experiment were all primary schools (i.e., they catered to children in the age range 5-11). In these schools, all the children were always in year groups. No attempt was made to classify the schools; however, it was noted that they were situated in different parts of the city thus, each school was regarded as a separate entity. The various children within any school were divided randomly into the appropriate number of groups with the restriction that the resident teachers, in all cases, were teaching groups taken only from.their own classes. The instrument chosen to measure the performance of the children was an objeCtive-type written test. All of the groups were given the test a week after the completion of the teaching session. The statistical analysis employed in making the various com- parisons was ANOVA. The analysis indicated that there were no differences between the performance of the science- trained and nonscience-trained teachers; implying that the amount of science training is unimportant, provided that the specially structured material is being used. The Study showed student age as the only factor that significantly influenced student achievement. Shanks (1975) attempted to determine if there was a stable and preferred mode of perceptual organization and con- ceptual classification of Stimuli which influenced the abili- ty of female pre-service elementary teachers to acquire the 19 science concepts presented in a general elementary creden- tial preparation course. A significant contrast in SCST (Sigel Cognitive Style Test) occurred with only the achieve- ment-in-science factor. For high and low achievers of sci- ence concepts, the findings indicated that a person's cogni- tive style influences his intellectual ability to grasp and understand new meanings. To determine the effects of self-pacing instruction in a science methods course on teacher's achievement and atti- tudes toward science, Campbell and Martinez-Perez (1975) have indicated that teachers who were taught utilizing a self-pacing technique did not achieve significantly better or have attitudes that were different from those who were not self-paced. Another study, by Riley (1975), investigated the effect of science process training on pre-service elementary teach— er's process skill abilities, understanding of science, and attitudes toward science and science teaching. The results indicate the efficacy of process training in terms of improved process skill abilities. The study did not indicate any significant increase in the understanding of science nor any; significant change in overall attitudes toward science teaching as a result of training in process skills. Oberlin and Sanders (1973) compared the science con- tent knowledge of graduates from.Florida's New Elementary Program and graduates who had their science education in a traditional course. The comparison of science content 20 achievement between the new and traditional student groups shows the absence of any significant differences; however, about 11% of the college students scored lower than the top 10% of the sixth graders. Pinkall (1973) Studied the effects of a teacher in-ser- vice education program on fifth and sixth grade teachers, and the students whom they teach, in their knowledge of scien- tific processes, scientific content and attitudes toward science and seientists. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of a teaChef in-service education pro- gram.of workshops in Elementary Science Study (E38) and Pro- cess Science on (1) the fifth- and sixth-grade teachers who participated in the workshops, and (2) students of teachers who participated in these workshops. A Posttest-Only Con- trol group design was used to test six research hypotheses. Randomization was used to insure the lack of initial bias between experimental and control groups for both teachers and students. In experimental and control groups (each com- prised of twenty-five teachers), comparisons were made on knowledge of scientific processes, knowledge of scientific content, and attitude tOward science and scientists using three instruments. A total of 150 students in the control group and 150 students in the experimental group were tested on the same three criteria, also by using three instruments. The analysis of the teacher data revealed no Significant dif- ference between the experimental and control groups on any of the instruments. Analysis of the student data revealed 21 that the experimental group scored significantly higher (at the .05 level) than did the control group on all three in- struments. "Modern Elementary Science Curricula and Student Achievement" is a Ph.D. dissertation done by Smith (1972). In this study, comparisons of the growth in science achieve- ment of 2,000 elementary science students in six elementary science programs used in Southwestern Michigan were made. Relationships between students' ranking in class, the type of school, sex and growth in achievement were sought, as well as relationships among teacher variables (pre-service science training, post-baccalaureate training in science, perception of an experience with curriculum» experience in teaching and growth in student achievement. Data were obtained with pre- and post-tests, using the science section of the Educational Development Series of the Scholastic Testing Service. Significant relationships were identified between growth in science achievement and type of curricula used, students' ranking in class, teachers' pre-service sci- ence training, teachers' post-baccalaureate training in sci- ence, and teaching experience. Does previous teaching experience effect a teacher's competency in science? Does previous science training effect a teacher's competency in science? These two questions have been answered with Six more questions raised in White's study (1969) of contrasting patterns of in-service education. Previous teaching experience appears to have no relevance to 22 a teacher's competency in science, but the amount of pre- vious science training appears to be a significant contrib- utor to the effect of the teacher education program. Another Ph.D. dissertation (Shanks 1969) focuses on concept achievement in science and its relationship to some non-intellectual characteristics of prospective elementary teachers. It revealed that high achievers of concepts of science demonstrated an analytical cognitive style, were described as goal oriented, self-directed women with a firm- ness of character and above average intelligence, but pro- duced the lowest scores on the Elementary Teacher Scale of the Strong Vocational Interest Blank (SVIB). Finally, O'Toole's study (1966) was an attempt to determine whether fifth grade children can learn certain selected problem solving abilities through individualized instruction. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of an individualized instruction approach and a teacher centered approach on student achievement of science content and problem.solving skills, science interest, and self concept. Eighty-one fifth grade pupils were divided into three classes of 27 each: a teacher-centered active con- trol group, an individualized experimental group both taught by the researchers, and a teacher-centered passive control group taught by their classroom teacher. Course content was based on "Today's Basic Science" and AAAS Science - A Pro- cess Approach. Among the findings were (1) that the indi- vidualized method of instruction did not prove superior to 23 the teacher-centered approach in achievement of science con- tent, over all problem.solving ability, increased science interest, or the attainment of a more positive self concept, and (2) that the teacher-centered program stressing problem solving as its major objective was significantly more effec- tive in achieving the ability to identify valid conclusions than both the individualized program.and the teacher-cen- tered passive program. Sex Differences The earliest measures of some aspect of quantitative ability begin at about age 3 with measures of number con- servation, soon followed by enumeration. There appear to be no sex differences in performance on these tasks (except in disadvantaged populations) during the preschool years; or in mastery of numerical operations and concepts during the early school years. MacCoby and Jacklin (1974, p. 85) have mentioned that: The data from the large studies conducted with Head Start and Follow-Through children show the girls to be ahead. The majority of studies on more representative samples show no sex differences up to adolescence, but when differences are found in the age range 9-13, they tend to favor boys. After this age, boys move ahead, and the sex differences become somewhat more consistant from one study to another, though there is great varia- tion in the degree of male advantage reported. There is agreement about boys' superiority in math, which in turn tends to be accompanied by a better mastery of scientific subject matter and a greater interest in sci- ence. The two disciplines are of course closely linked in 24 that science relies heavily upon math in formulating its problems and finding solutions. MacCoby and Jacklin raise the question about whether male superiority in science is a derivative of greater math abilities or whether both are a function of a third factor. The review of literature in the area of sex differences relating to science education shows some differences in their results and conclusions. Results of the National As- sessment of Educational Progress are examined by Herman (1975), in the context of male and female achievement dif- ferences in 8 learning areas. In the science area 2 ques- tions have been raised by this study: Do boys and girls per- form equally well on science exercises? and if not, do dif- ferences appear for all science exercises, or only for cer- tain kinds of exercises? The findings of this study Show that with increasing age there is an increasing tendency for males to perform.better than females on science exercises. For exercises assessing knowledge of biological science the typical male-female difference is small. On some biolog- ical science exercises, performance of females is better than that of males. When the National Assessment of Educational Progress released (in past years) results from a variety of learning areas, a paper in the same field written by Mullis (1975) attempted to point out male-female differences in achieve- ment across several learning areas. Results Show that male and female performance in social sciences, mathematics, and 25 science, including numerical operation, geometry and mea- surement, are nearly equal at age nine; but males gain a substantial advantage over females by adulthood. Since 1969, the National Assessment of Educational Progress has gathered census-like information about levels of educational achievement across the country and reported its' findings to the nation. Individuals were selected for examination so that the levels of achievement they demon- strated would be representative of the achievement of the entire country (Johnson 1975). Individuals were selected from four age 1evels--9, 13, 17 and 26 through 35-—which correspond to 4 key stages in the education of most indivi- duals: the end of primary school, junior high school, high school and a few years past the end of formal schooling. The individuals were also classified according to region of the country, sex, race, parental education and size and type of community to provide additional information about types of schools and students. Achievement levels of young Amer- icans in 7 assessment areas are described in this volume-- science, social studies, music, literature, reading, writing, and citizenship. Results of the 7 assessments indicate that there are serious disparities in the achievement levels of various groups within the nation. Science is the only area of all learning areas assessed in which males almost consist- ently out performed females. At every age and in almost every aspect the levels of achievement were higher than those of females, except in knowledge of health and human 26 reproduction. The author indicated that the science assess- ment provides further evidence, if such were needed, that science is a male-dominated field, even at the elementary school level; and the most striking finding of the assess- ment is the relatively poor performance of females compared to males. O In Clarke's study (1972), which has been described in the SEB section, interest in particular areas of science was found to be significantly related to sex. For example boys were mostly interested in the earth sciences and the phys- ical sciences, whereas girls were found to be most keenly interested in the biological sciences. According to stu- dent's achievements, and for the study sample as a whole, sex differences did not Significantly effect achievement in science, but boys Showed a more favorable attitude toward science than did girls. When the school subjects were ranked, the order of preference for boys was: (1) science, (2) mathematics, (3) social studies, and (4) English; for girls the preference was: (1) social studies, (2) English, (3) science, and (4) mathematics. The same results have been indicated by Smith (1969) in that there was no significant differences of achievement between boys and girls in the elementary science program. Finally, MacDougall (1968) has also indicated in her final report about the teaching of upper elementary school science using programed materials coupled with student per- formed experiments, that the percentage of boys and girls is 27 nearly the same in each group. Summary The relationship between a student's socio-economic background (which includes the parent's educational attain- ment, parent's occupation, total family income, the area in which the family lives, etc.) and their academic achievement_ in general (Specifically, their achievement in science), shows significant differences in most of the research find- ings. The overall review of literature indicates that a student's family background has a substantial effect on his academic performance at school; and in fact, the school fac- tors themselves do not have as much effect as do the stu- dent's socio-economic background factors. The college's teacher program, courses which the stu- dent teacher has selected or taken in his program, teaching experience, teachers' training program and in-service edu- cation are some of the many different ways in which the teachers' academic backgrounds have been identified. In general, there is little evidence to show any TAB effect on either their achievement as a teacher or their students' achievements in science; however, some results Show the opposite. There are two different points of view, according to the different results of many studies, when one looks at the relationship between students' sex differences and their achievement in elementary science education. The first one 28 concludes that there was no effect by sex differences on the student's performance at the elementary level up to adoles- ence. On the other hand, the second point of view considers science as a male-dominated field, even at the elementary school level, because of the females' poor performance in comparison to the,ma1es'. CHAPTER III PROCEDURE This study can be classified as a comparative study. It is aimed at building an achievement test in elementary science education for the Iraqi sixth graders, and to have the opportunity to use the data and information which will be obtained from applying the test in various schools in Baghdad in order to answer some important questions which we have discussed as problems in Iraq. In Chapter IV, the findings for the study are pre- sented and conclusions are given in Chapter V. Population Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, is a big city which has a population of more than 3 million. It is the largest city in Iraq, containing 28% of the Iraqi population and about 40% of the Iraqi student population. Because it is a big and very old city, there are many different areas in Baghdad which differ widely in their socio-economic status and levels. The lower middle class people, for example, as well as other classes, do not live in the same area in Baghdad. They live in many separate and different areas. So, there are many different areas for 29 30 each different class and there are some areas where it is difficult to name them by definite class or level. At the same time there are many areas that are easy to classify under such classes or levels. This study is aimed at applying the test in different areas which obviously differ in their socio-economic classes. However, it is preferable to take these areas in one geo- graphical area as close to each other as possible. 1 The advice of the Iraqi Ministry of Planning's expert to the author was to take the western county of the city of Baghdad as the population for this study. The western county contains Al-mansoor District which is classified as an upper middle socio-economic class district (UMC); Al-hay, Al-arabi and Hay Dragh districts1 which are classified as middle class districts (MC), and Al-salem and Al-washash districts2 which are classified as lower middle class dis- tricts. All these above districts are located in one area as in well-to-do neighborhoods and there is no other dis- trict located between any two of them. There are 7 elementary schools in Al-mansoor District, 10 in Dragh District and 12 an Al-salam.District. Each of these-schools in all three districts contain all six grades (1-6), and there is just one sixth grade science teacher in each school. Any other elementary school in these districts 1In this study they will be named as one district under the name of "Dragh District." 2A3 in #1 they will be named "Al-salam District." 31 which does not have the two above restrictions (i.e., school which has all the Six grades (1-6) and one science teacher for all sixth graders) is not considered in the population of this study. Of the 29 science teachers in the three districts, there are 21 female and 8 male teachers; no males and 7 females in Aldmansoor, 3 males and 7 females in Dragh, and 5 males and 7 females in Al-salam respectively. There are 5 science teachers with science backgrounds in the three districts, 8 with art backgrounds and 16 with a teacher diploma; (1,2,4) in Al-mansoor, (2,2,6) in Dragh and (2,4,6) in Al-salam respectively. ‘ There are 2191 Sixth graders in all the 29 schools, 1212 males and 979 females. According to the district, there are 628 sixth graders in Al-mansoor District (306 males and 322 females), and 759 in Dragh District (428 males and 331 females), and 804 sixth graders in Al-salam District (478 males and 326 females). Table (3-1) shows the distri- bution of the population by district, student, science teacher's academic background, and sex. The Sample This planned study is designed to choose 6 groups from each district (i.e., 18 groups from the county) which differ according to their socio-economic background, sex difference and their science teacher's academic background (3 x 2 x 3 factorial design). Because of these restrictions and a DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION 32 TABLE 3-1 District Al-Mansoor Dragh Al-Salem Total male 306 428 478 . 1212 Students female 322 331 326 979 total 628 759 804 2191 Science . male 0 3 5 8 Teacher's female 7 7 7 21 Sex total 7 10 12 29 Science Science 1 2 2 5 Teacher' s Art 2 2 4 8 Academic T. Diploma 4 6 6 16 Back- Total 29 ground 33 limited number of alternatives, the sampling procedure of this study was to select the 18 groups, 6 from each district, randomly whenever that selection is available or possible. Otherwise, when the group(s) which this study is intended to sample cannot be included through random selection from a study district (i.e., if the group is the only available group in the district) that group will be included in the sample without randomization. The co-educational schools (all the schools in Alemansoor, most of them.in Dragh and some in Al-salam Districts) are considered as two groups if there are more than 20 males and 20 females in that school. Thirteen schools have been selected in the sample (containing 18 groups); 3 schools from Al-mansoor, 4 from Dragh and 6 from Al-salam Districts. The sampling procedure for students was to select them randomly from each group (20 students, either male or female for each group) if the group which has been selected has more than 30 students. If there are more than 20 and less than 30 students in the group, all the stu- dents (in that group) have been given the test first, and 20 answer sheets are selected randomly from that group. According to the socio-economic level variable (SEB) a survey has been done in the three districts, in spite of the information which is available in the Ministry of Planning, becasue the population of this study is only the Sixth grad- ers in the western county and because the information which is available is not adequate to consider the student's socio- economic differences, especially their parents' educational 34 level. A special questionnarie was designed by the author and distributed to the sample students just one day before giving the test. The questionnarie does not ask the student's name or any other Similar information about the student. The answered questionnarie, completed by the parents, was given back to the author personally by the examinee in a closed envelope prior to the test. The envelope was immediately placed in a box. The questionnarie asks about the monthly total income of the student's family (after the monthly home rent has been subtracted if any), the total number of people in that fam- ily, and the educational level of each parent. The educa— tional levels which the questionnarie included are: fin- ished Master's or Doctoral degree, finished B.A. or B.S., finished high technical diploma, finished high school (12th grade), finished middle school (9th grade), finished elemen- tary school (6th grade), could read and/or write, and could not read nor write. The monthly income by person has been calculated in Iraqi Dinar (equals $3.334 at the time of the study), and seven educational points are given to each par- ent who has finished a Master's or Ph.D. degree, 6 points to those who have finished B.A. or B.S., up to a zero to those who could not read nor write. All the results which came from.that survey are analyzed to test the significant dif- ferences, if any, between the three districts' students. 35 Table 3-2 shows the findings of the survey, and the ques- tionnaire which was used is in Appendix C The t-test was used to check the differences between the students in the three districts according to their monthly income (MIP) and the total number of people in their families (NPF) . 'X2 technique was used to check students' difference according to their parents educational levels (PEL). The two-way ANOVA was used to check student's SEB and SEX main effects and the interaction between them.in all the SEB factors (MIP, NPF and PEL). I All three districts (socio-economic classes) differ from each other, according to their monthly income by person, with a high level of significance, (see table 3-3). On the other hand there is no significant difference between boys and girls (in each district individually) in both the upper middle class and the lower middle class students. There is a significant difference between boys and girls in the mid— dle class students (see table 3-3). The same exact thing has happened in differences according to the number of people in the student's family. There is a significant difference between the three socio- economic classes and between boys and girls in the middle class students, but no significant differences existed be- tween boys and girls in either the upper middle or lower middle class students (see table 3-4). According to the "parents educational levels,‘ where UK? is used, the three socio-economic classes differ with 6 3 H>wfim wIN deUMZHm. wooHOIMOOZOZHO w>ownwoczw ZODnIH% Hsooam\ e 0m wmova\ m HOan Om wmmmznm mace. wowdnm w m m. U. m. U. :nvma szmHm wowm NH.mmw N.wwm no HM Nu owmmm wowm Hw.wmw HH.wuo zHemHm onmm aonmw boson ZHQQHO wowm HHH new owmmm sZOSnIHV Hanoam\emmmo= 7mm com: anncwmnmm w: Hnmnp Upped AH anmn mecmwm mw.wubv asarm acacmnm use nrmem owsnm cove: no firm mowHozua rm . gownwam mean. wowanm wwnwmrmm z.>.. z.m. on w:.u. menemrmm w.>. on w.m. mwnwmrma rem: awardenmw mHvHoam munwwrmm rpm: moroow AHNnr mnmmmv menumrmm awmmwm moroow Aon: «Rummy Menwmrma mHmamSnmnw moroow Aanr mammmv ooCHm Home on Enema nocwm :On «own son sauna QNO‘UlJ-‘WNl-‘§ OHNWFU'IO‘N 37 TABLE 3-3 THE MONTHLY INCOME/PERSON - T-TEST DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE THREE DISTRICTS AS A WHOLE AND BY SEX Sex 1} Monthly Income/ t-value P‘ Significance with Person 2-tail and‘= .05 i s. D. -- 120 39.95 20.90 8.67 0.000 Yes -- 120 20.79 12.21 -- 120 20.79 12.21 11.53 0.000 Yes -- 120 7.18 4.28 Boys 60 40.80 21.85 .45 .34 No Girls 60 39.10 19.90 M.C. Boys 60 17.85 11.78 4 2.57 .007 Yes M.C. Girls 60 23.72 12.62 L.M.C. Boys 60 7.19 3.89 L.M.C. Girls 60 7.18 4.65 38 TABLE 3-4 NUMBER OF PEOPLE/FAMILY - T-TEST DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE THREE DISTRICTS AS A WHOLE AND BY SEX Class Sex # # of People per t—value P4: Significance with Family 2-tail and ‘3 .05 32 S. D. U.M.C. -- 120 6.14 2.08 l -5.5 0.000 Yes M.C. -- 120 7.79 2.45 M.C. -- 120 7.79 2.45 2 -4.71 0.000 Yes L.M.C. -- 120 9.42 2.88 U.M.C. Boys 60 6.02 2.34 3 - 67 .30 No U.M.C. Girls 60 6.26 1.80 M.C. Boys 60 8.40 2.63 4 2.71 .005 Yes M.C. Girls 60 7.18 2.25 L.M.C. Boys 60 9.3 2.99 5 - 45 .34 NO L.M.C. Girls 60 9.54 2.76 39 very high levels of significance. To take the students by their sex in each district (class) no significant difference existed in the upper middle class, whereas the differences are significant in both the middle class and in the lower middle class (see table 3-5). Figure 3.1 shows these above differences in graphs. Table 3-6 shows the significant main effect of stu- dent's socio-economic background (SEB) in all its' factors 5 (MIP, NPF and PEL). On the other hand, SEX's'main effect was not significant in MIP and NPF but it was in PEL. The SEB-SEX interaction was significant in both NPF and PEL. The findings of the survey above show a sharp differ- ence between the districts which were chosen to represent the Students from upper middle, middle and lower middle socio-economic backgrounds. At the same time the findings show that the middle class sample, in fact, is two different subgroups (boys and girls), but in all they make a clear middle class which differs significantly from either the upper or the lower middle classes. In other words, the boys in the middle class differ significantly from boys in either the upper middle class or the lower middle class. So do girls of the middle class when they are compared to girls in the other classes. 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The scale mean ranged from 40.04 to 40.66 if any item is deleted. The scale variance ranged from 174.0 to 179.2 if any item is deleted. The corrected item-total correlations are all positive and ranged from .14 to .50. Finally, the tests Alpha coef- ficient is not effected by deleting any item.from the test. The Alpha values (for any item deleted) ranged from .918 to; .920. All ASAT item statistics, above, are shown in Table 4-1. ' The subtests analysis shows that subtest l (40 items of recall type-unit 1) has a mean of .6081 and a standard deviation of .201. The minimum and maximum student scores in subtest l ranged from 6 to 40 with a Hoyt's estimation of reliability of .88. Subtest 2 (20 items of understanding type-unit 1) has a mean of .495 and a standard deviation of .197. Student scores in subtest 2 ranged from 2 to 20 with a Hoyt's estimation of reliability of .74. Unit 1 (which includes subtest 1 and 2) has a mean of .571 and a standard deviation of .187, with a range in student scores from 11 to 58 and a Hoyt's estimation of reliability of .91. Subtest 3 (7 items of recall type-unit 2) has a mean of .548 and a standard deviation of .257, with a range in student scores from 0.0 to 7 and a Hoyt's estimation of reli- ability of .60. Subtest 4 (7 items of understanding 1The percentages were used here because the subtests have different numbers of items. 56 type-unit 2) has a mean of .408 and a standard deviation of .252, with a range in student scores from 0.0 to 7 and Hoyt's estimation of .57. Unit 2 (total of subtests 3 and 4) has a mean of .478 and a standard deviation of .215, with a range in student scores from 0.0 to 14 and a Hoyt's estimation of reliability of .70. Finally, the total test (74 items) has a mean of .553 and a standard deviation of .22 with a range in student total scores from 9 to 72 with a Hoyt's estimation of reli- ability of .92. The Cronbach's Alpha for Battery Composite is .81 for the 4 subtests and .80 for the 2 units (Table 4-2). Table (4-3) shows the correlations between each sub- test and each unit with the total test correlations between the subtests, and correlations between the units themselves. The correlations between each subtest and the total test ranged from .768 (subtest 4) to .852 (subtest 1). Between the units and the total test, the correlation with unit 1 was .903 and with unit 2 was .927. The highest correlation between the subtests themselves was between subtests l and 2 (.712), the lowest was between subtest 3 and 4 (.422) and the correlation between the 2 units was .678. If the test is split into two parts (odd and even items) the correlation between the two parts is .765 with a (<:0.001) level of significance. Alpha was .872 for the first part and .849 for the second part. The equal length Sperman-Brown Correlation was .867 and Gutman Split-half 57 TABLE 4.2.-Subtaats, Units, and Total Test Analysis 1,“: No. of Type- of f s D Manna Minimal: Hoyt's 8st. S. E. of Items. Items ' ' Score Score of Reliability Measuruant Sub. 1 40 Recall .608. .201 40 6 .88 .067 Sub. 2. 20 Understanding .495 .197 20 2 .74 .098 Unit 1. 60 - .571 .187 58 11 .91 .056 Sub. 3‘ 7 Recall .548 .257 7 0.0 .60 .151 Sub. 4 7‘ Understanding .408 .252 7 0.0 .57 .153 Unit 2 14 .. .478 .215 14 0.0 .70 .113 Total r..: 74 -- .553 .22 72 9 .92 .038 NOTE:- Cronbacb’s. Alpha for Composite (4 Subtests) - 0.81. _ Cronbach's Alpha for Composite (2 units) -- .80. TABLE 4.3.--Subtests, Units and Total Test Correlations Sub 1. Sub 2 Sub 3 Sub. 4 Total Sub l 1.00 Sub 2 .712 1.00 Sub 3 .585 .507' 1.00 Sub 4 .516 .492 .422 1.00 Total . 852 . 814 . 796 . 768 1. 00 Unit 1 Unit 2 Total Unit 1. 1.00 Unit 2 .678 1.00 Total . 903 .927 l. 00 58 mt: 4.4.-0dd-Even Items Analysis so. of 3““ 1"“ Correlation Inter-item Inter-item Laval of Part .__ ._ Alpha Coefficient . Items x 32 x 52 Covariance Correlation 3“"..n Parts Significance Odd- Items 37 22.16 53.86 .598 .22 .034 .156, .872 .765 .000 Even , ' Items 37 18.73 48.73 .506 .23 .030 .133 .849 Total 74 40.89 181.41 .553 .22 .030 .136 .920 NOTE: Equal length Spearmansbroen Correlation - .867. Gutman-Split half correlation - .867. TABLE 4.5.--Total Test ANOVA Source of Variation SS df M.S. F P< Between measures 587.55 73 8.05 41.21 .001 Residual $118.56 26207 .195 Nonadditivity .4187 1 .4187 2.14 .143 Balance $118.14 26206 .196 Tukey Estimate of Power to which observations must be raised to achieve additivity - .9188. Grand mean - .5526 Reliability Coefficients: Alpha - .92033 Standardized item alpha - .92110 59 Figure 4-1 Students' Scores Distribution LERTAP 2-0 HISTOGRAM TEST N0 ALANI SCIENCE TEST TOTAL TEST NUMBER OF OBSERVATIONS 8 360 MEAN a 205.92 5.0. 8 73.02 LOWEST E 2 L8 UB F P cs. 08 EACH 4 REPRESENTS 1 085; —2.14-‘ 45.67 54.33 2 0.56’ 2 ‘30156. i? * '“‘ -2.02. 54.33 62.98 2 0.56 4 1.11 ** -1.78 71.53 80.29‘ 3 0.83 ‘7 1.94 ”*3? -1.66 80.29 88.94 7 1.94 14 3.89 teeeaee ‘1.54 88.94 97060 S 1039 19 5028 ‘*I.* -I.4T 57.60 105.25 10 2.78 29 8.06 ui'iififfi— ‘2 2. -1.31 106.25 114.90 11 3.06 40 11.11 ........... __ 1-1.19 114.90 123.56 10 2.78 50 13.89 ##ittttrna -1.07 123.56 132.21 13 ‘3261 63 17.50 rrrxazwa..... -O.95 132.21 140.87 8 2.22 71 19.72 aeeeeeee -0.83 140.87 149.52 15 4.17 86 23.89 tttttuttteunttt -O.71 149.52 158517 18 w5:00”—_TUZ—_—28:89"—7373**‘iiirli'ltvtt-tfit ~0.59 158.17 166.83 11 3.06 115 31.94 etaaatntma: -0.48 166.83 175.48 18 5.00 133 36.94 .................. .-0.36 175.48 184:13 12 3.33 145* 40.28_‘?53$ivi-sen- -0.24 184.13 192.79 24 6.67 169 46.94 **I**ttttuueeeeeaeeute-s ‘0.12 192.79 201.44 14 3.89 183 50.33 eeeeenaeeaentt ' 41.00»- 201.44 210.10 21 5.83 — 204- 56.67—m*7*7*'eéitii*d*n 0.12 210.10 218.75 9 2.50 213 59.17 taaaateea 0.26 218.75 227.60 14 3.89- 227 63.06 neeaenneueeaee 0.35 227.40 236206 12 3.33 239 66.39 5&333333n-ae'“”' 0.67 236.06 244.71 15 4.17 254 70.55 sea-aeaaaeteeae 0.59 -244.71 253.36 12 3.33 266 73.89 ttttttttt-tu 13.71 25?.36 262.02 j3 331 279 77.50 *1gii*'**3"¥*i 0.83 262.02 270.67 10 2.78 289 80.28 .......... 0.95 270.67 279.33 5 1.39 294 81.67 ..... -. [.06mn-279:33’ 287.98‘_ 11 3.06 305 84.72TE???”""5""m 1.18 287.98 296.63 8 2.22 313 86.94 ........ 1.30 296.63 305.29 8 2.22 321 89.17 ........ 1:42 305.29 ‘313194 7 1.94 328 91.11 iifiitii' 1.54 313.94 322.60 6 1.67 334 92.78 4..... 1.66 322060 331e25 5 1039 339 94017 $Itti 1.78 331725“‘339:90 3 *‘—0.83 342 95.00 .==~°~~'-~ 1089 339.90 348056 5 1039 3*? 95039 ‘..$. 2.01 348.56 357.21 6 1.67 353 98.06 ...... ‘ 2.13 357.21 fi65.86 2 0.56 355 98.61 fi""’""" 2.25 365.86 374.52 2 0.56 357 99.17 9‘ _- ‘_2.37 374.52 383.17 2 0.56 359 99.72 .. 2:49 383.17 391793'““'1”—'62'2§ 3321' [00.00‘-—i""""" Mr Boundgr ,_ _ _ UB Upper Boundry _.E_ Freguency .P Percentage CF Cumulative Frequency CP Cumulative Percentage 6O Correlation was .867. All the statistics above, the scale mean and standard deviation, inter-item covariance and inter- item correlation for the two parts (odd and even items) are in Table 4-4. The total test "ANOVA” (see Table 4-5) shows an F value between measures of 41.21 with less than (0.001) level of significance. Chart 4-1 shows the distribution of stu- dent scores and their statistics. From all the test analysis, above, the_§tudy design analysis (the second part of this chapter) will be calcu- lated according to the student responses to all the ASAT items; except item 46, which has been deleted statistically from.the test. In other words, the ASAT test, which the entire analysis to follow will depend on, contains 73 items. (the ASAT English final edition is in Appendix A). Study Design Analysis Summary data, means and standard deviations of the Study's 3 independent variables, each level of the 3 vari- ables, and the total sample are presented in Table 4-6. The F value and its level of significance between the levels of each variable is presented in the same table. The students of the upper middle class (UMC) received the highest mean score (49.65), the students at the middle class (MC) received the next highest (39.26), and the students of the lower middle class (LMC) received the lowest mean (33.89). The F value of the socio—economic background (SEB), with the 61 H>urm b.m Ilmncmw m>av w >nn HNC uo.~a HH.©¢ H.oo ~.mm .OVo H. UHoHoam HNO b~.um H~.um H.Hu wowm Hmo bo.mm Hu.co H.ob .wem .mmo mmx nHHHm Hmo 9H.uw HN.mo .o¢ Honmw II was bo.cu Hw.bu .NH Nc.Hac .ooo 62 3 levels above, was 55.048 (p (.0001). Neither the teacher's academic background (TAB), nor sex (SEX), played the same role as SEB did with student scores in the ASAT. Students who have teachers holding a teaching diploma (TD) received the highest mean (42.75), students who have teachers with a science background (SC) received the next highest (40.79), while those with teachers having an art background (AR) received the lowest mean (39.26). F value to TAB main effect was 2.55 . (p (.079). SEX had the lowest effect on student total scores with a F value of .398 (p (.529). Girls received a mean score of 41.31 while the boys received a mean score of 40.56. Cell means and cell standard deviations of the 18 dif- ferent groups ( 3 x 3 x 2 ), according to student total scores in ASAT, are presented in Table 4—7. Looking at the students SEB and SEX, boys received a higher mean than girls at the UMC and LMC level, but a lower mean than girls at the MC level. 4 Taking them as 2 groups, boys and girls, they scored exactly the same as the total group. Boys at the UMC level received the highest mean, followed by those in the MC level with the next highest, and finally the LMC with the lowest (51.21, 35.40 and 35.05, respectively). The trend in the girls' results followed the same pattern (48.08, 43.12 and 32.73, respectively). Adding TAB to the picture shows boys at the UMC level, with teachers holding a teaching diploma, received the TABLE 4.7.--Study Cells Statistics of ASAT Total Scores 63 SEB SEX TAB N°é.gf X S.D. Tocal X S.D. Science 20 48.33 13.36 Boys Art 20 43.75 10.21 51.21 11.65 T. Diploma 20 58.10 7.83 UMC Science 20 51.80 12.12 Girls Art 20 49.60 9.40 48.08 11.44 T. Diploma 20 49.80 10.36 Science 20 28.85 11.53 Boys Art 20 35.40 12.21 35°40 12°78 ‘ T. Diploma 20 41.95 11.62 MC Science 20 54.25 12.08 Girls Art 20 37.75 9.45 43.12 12.99 T. Diploma 20 37.15 9.28 Science 20 29.55 10.15 Boys Art 20 37.25 12.31 35.05 11.34 T. Diploma 20 38.35 8.68 LMC Science 20 35.25 8.27 Girls Art 20 31.80 9.94 32.73 8.77 T. Diploma 20 31.15 7.84 64 highest mean (58.10), while boys at the MC level, with teachers having a science background, received the lowest mean (28.85). This was true with all the 18 different groups. According to different teacher academic backgrounds, results in student means don't show stability, but there is stability if we take boys and girls separately. Boys who have teachers holding a teaching diploma received the high- est mean, as compared with the boys having teachers who have either a science or art background. This was true in all socio-economic classes; on the other hand, girls having teachers with a science background received the highest mean when compared to the girls with teachers having other back- grounds. This, again, holds true in all classes. Repeated Measure Analysis On ASAT Table 4-8 shows means and standard deviations, for all students, according to their SEB, TAB and SEX in each subtest with the F value and its level of significance. The means and standard deviations for the total group are also pre- sented in the same table. As we have seen with student total scores, students at the UMC level received the highest mean in all subtests (.73, .62, .64 and .50, respectively). The student means at the MC level were next in ranking (.58, .47, .53 and .42, respectively), while those at the LMC level received the lowest (.51, .40, .47 and .31, respectively). F value of the SEB variable were significant at (p (.0001) in all 65 Hmrwm a.m.uumncm% u >nn Hue .mm .po ~.c¢~ .H~m .am .He ~.oum .Huw .mn .Na ~.c~u .wau .uo .N» .mm» .mwo H. Uwuwoam HNO .mu .wm .m~ .Nw .uo .~m .au .Na wove poo .ao .No .ao .- .mb .NV .36 .~m mmx .Naa .¢- .Hwo .uuo .Nan .o~u .wom .VBN nunpm Hmo .ap .Nc .mc .po .um .Nu .5H .Nu Honmw woo .¢~ .wc .am .- .um .No .ou .Nw 66 subtests. All student means in the UMC level were above total group average in all-subtests (.61, .48, .55 and .41, respectively); all means in the MC level were about even to the total average, while the means at the LMC level were below the total average, exactly as we have seen in the total scores. The TAB variable did not influence student scores in the subtests, as SEB did. This is the same finding as we have seen before with student total scores. Students with teachers holding a teaching diploma, in general, received higher means than students with teachers having a science background, who in turn, in general, received higher means than those students with teachers having an art background. For the most part, there was a lack of any significant dif- ferences. Again, SEX had no effect on student scores in the four subtests. The differences between boy's and girl's scores were unstable and did not show any significant dif- ference in any subtest. Summary data, cell means and cell standard deviations for the 4 subtests in ASAT for the 18 groups are presented in Table 4-9. The picture of the table does not differ, in general, to the picture which we have seen in Table 4-7, when we looked at the 18 groups according to their total scores in ASAT. Boys received higher means than girls in all subtests at the UMC and LMC level, while girls' means were higher than boys' in all subtests at the MC level. Boys and girls at the UMC level received higher mean scores 67 mt: 4.9.—Ca11 Means and Standard Deviation- of Four Subtests Scorn No of Subcu: 1 Subcuc 2 Subtest 3 500:“: 4 5:3 32: m g.” _. - _. .. x S.D. x S.D. x S.D. x S.D. Scianca 20 .773 .161 .613 .176 .707 .256 .551 .271 Boys Art 20 .674 .169 .537 .158 .507 .265 .351 .208 r. Diploma 20 .831 .091 .768 .168 .765 .193 .637 .279 0MB ' Scianca 20 .671 .221 .531 .178 .621 .208 .471 .304 Girls Art 20 .748 .149 .618 .169 .614 .193 .450 .287 r. Diploma. 20 .714 .136 .651 .222 .650 .229 .528 .266 Scianca 20 .423 .169 .317 .144 .486 .280 .293 .219 Boys Art 20 .505 .169 .461 .205 .408 .251 .450 .223 I. Diploma 20 .624 .178 .505 .194 .514 .262 .464 .216 at Science 20 .805 .168 .684 .195 .751 .245 .537 .266 Girls Art 20 .553 .157 .450 .115 .564 .214 .372 .229 r. Diploma 20 .569 .168 .417 .134 .478 .241 .380 .215 Sciauca 20 .447 .161 .348 .140 .408 .267 .250 .196 Boys Art 20 .543 .179 .469 .232 .529 .222 .315 .164 T. Diploma 20 .609 .128 .425 .171 .551 .207 .287 .241 not Scianca 20 .547 .132 .400 .138 .415 .221 .358 .193 Girls Art 20 .463 .183 .356 .132 .500 .246 .358 .199 r. Diploaa 20 .455 .146 .404 .109 .401 .234 .259 .159 68 than boys and girls in the MC and LMC level in all subtests. Boys at the MC level received higher mean scores than boys at the LMC level in just 2 subtests, while girls at the MC level received higher mean scores than girls at the LMC level in all subtests. As we have seen before with student total scores, boys at the UMC level having teachers with a teaching diploma received higher scores than all the other 17 groups in the subtests, while boys at the MC level who have teachers with a science background received the lowest mean scores (only for subtests l and 2). The other 2 lowest means were received by boys in the LMC level with science background teachers, and girls in the LMC level with teachers holding a teaching diploma (in subtests 3 and 4, respectively). The tests of hypotheses concerning students' achieve- ments on ASAT were performed by the multivariate repeated measure analysis. The between-subject part (i.e., hypothe— ses about SEB, SEX, TAB and interactions among them) was tested by the univariate F ratio, while the within-student part (i.e., hypotheses about the subtests and interactions with it) was tested by the multivariate F ratio. All univariate F ratios and multivariate F ratios are presented in Table 4-10. A rejection of the null hypothesis was indicated, at0(= .05, on 7 of the 15 hypotheses. The following are the hypotheses which have been rejected: - the main effect of students' SEB (F = 55.048, p< .0001) 69 TABLEZhIIL-Univariate and Multivariate Repeated Measures Analysis on ASAT Scores ~Univariate Multivariate Sources of Variations D.F. MS F P< F P< SEB 2 4.993 55.048 .0001 SEX l .0361 .398 .5286 TAB 2 .2313 2.5499 .0796 SEB-SEX 2 .6155 6.7863 .0013 SEX-TAB 2 1.063 11.726 .001 SEB-TAB 4 .3683 4.060 .0032 SEB-SEX-TAB 4 .6294 6.9397 .0001 3.332.233 m Subtests (RM) 3-340 126.763 .0001 RMéSEB 6-680 1.5442 .1661 RM+SEX 3-340 ' .0229 .9954 RMHTAB 6-680 .760 .6017 RM-SEB-SEX 6-680 1.822 .0923 RM-SEX-TAB 6-680 1.5953 .1458 RMHSEB-TAB 12-900 2.5883 .0022 RMPSEB-SEX-TAB 12-900 .8876 .5594 70 - the interaction between students' SEB and their SEX (F = 6.7863, p<.0013) - the interaction between students' SEX and their TAB (F = 11.726, p(.0001) - the interaction between students' SEB and their TAB (F = 4.06, p<:.0032) - the interaction between students' SEB, SEX and their TAB (F = 6.94, p<:.0001) - the subtest's main effect RM (F = 126.763, p<.0001) - the subtests by students' SEB by TAB interaction (F = 2.5883, p<.0022) The other 8 hypotheses were not rejected at a 95 percent level of confidence. Since the three-way interaction, among subtests, SEB, and TAB, was significant (multivariate F:= 2.5883 , with 12 and 900 degrees of freedom; p<<.0022) one profile was made for all students at the UMC level across all 4 subtests and for each level of TAB (i.e., 3 subprofiles). Two other pro- files were made (in the same way) for all students at the MC and LMC level. Figure 4-2 presents the 3 profiles (9 sub- profiles) and shows, as mentioned before, the superiority of the UMC student in comparison to the MC or the LMC students, regardless of the teacher's background (almost always an ordinal interaction between the UMC scores and either the MC or LMC scores in all subtests). Students at the MC level performed better than students at the LMC level in most areas of the three levels in TAB and in most subtests. 71 memw mumcno a-N v camp: mommmonmnpos om amHN Iowan mom mccnmmn. man can H>w um? ... ...: o 6.. no ooaoVoooooooO 3 .r ... a. 33.356 000 — I... in am I v v .IIliFZO - o - o O O O G O O. 8-- ... .. .. _ .. 0 mm.: _ éwll _ / toll _ x / e ., _ _ ,. a; wad! ... _. / a Nu m mmpmznm » w — a . >nn . 1 _ .Ih Hmcwuwoan 1L. 3 WW mu we _ 3 mo 3.2%. we _ 8. mm mm . W. 53 9 so 3 §b1_ H>u m H .m N m u m a m p m N m u m W In H .mTNy .u. m bl lthhMbmml .NN .MN pom. .uo .oH .uo .m~..+bm -mc .mN nibbl_ >Hn .Nw .um .ma .bo .uu .so .bm .kw. .mo .mw -wm thbthme .NN. .NH. .Nw .mm. .00 two rue N .uu .bN .bm . NN r 72 The univariate F ratio for the three-way interaction among SEB, SEX and TAB was significant (F = 6.9397,p<1.0001) leading to 2 main profiles being made to present this inter- action, as shown in Figure 4-3. One profile was made for all the boys across the 3 socio-economic classes, and for each level of their TAB (i.e., 3 subprofiles), while another was made, in the same way, for all the girls. Students at the UMC level, again, have the superiority in mean scores over the other classes, regardless of their SEX and TAB. There was an ordinal interaction between boys at the UMC level and all other classes, and disordinal interaction between the MC and LMC across all TAB levels. With girls the_ordinal interaction was between the UMC and LMC levels, and between the MC and LMC levels; the disordinal inter- action was between the UMC and MC levels. This holds true across all levels of the TAB. The significant interaction between SEB and TAB (F = 4.06, p23) The lack of which vitamin causes A 19 - weak nerves? _ 20 - rickets? _ 21 - scurvy? - 22 - blindness? _ 23 - gums becoming swollen and bleeding? (Q's 24—926) Which major vitamin (Ar>E) could we get from . 24 - citrus fruits? B C of the 95 25 - sunlight? 26 - carrots and liver? (Q's 27 29) Which major vitamin is needed in our bodies 27 - to protect our eyes and keep the skin and mucous lining? 28 - to have a good appetite, keep our nerves healthy and to promote growth? 29 - for our bones to grow and be healthy? Set VI (Q's 30—>34) RIGHT LEFT Which one of the above (Ar)E) represents the . . . A B C D 30 - aorta? _ _ _ _ 31 - large vein? _ _ _ _ 32 - palmonary artery? _ _ _ _ 33 - palmonary vein? _ 34 - According to the picture above, which one of the following represents the correct blood circulation movement in your body? ['11 Set VII (Q's 35'588) A: 3 B: 5 C: 7 D: 8 E: 12 Which of the numbers above is the right number of bones in the . A B C D E 35 - neck vertebrae? _ _ _ _ _ 36 - chest vertebrae? - _ _ _ _ 37 - lumbar vertebrae? _ _ _ _ _ 38 - sacrum and coccy vertebrae? _ _ _ _ _ Set VIII (Q's 39-942) A: Pelvis B: Ankle bones C: Femur D: Tibia E: Knee Cap All the bones above are parts of the lower extremity. If we assumed that we could match bones from the upper extremity with the lower ones, which one of the above would be matched with . A B C D E 39 - ulna? _ _ _ _ _ 40 - shoulder? _ _ _ _ _ 41 - wrist? _ _ _ _ _ 42 - humerus? The permanent teeth and milk teeth differ in their number either as a type or in total. However, one, or more, of the teeth types remain(s) the same in both permanent and milk teeth. 43 Which type(s) of teeth are similar, in numbers, in both permanent and milk teeth? incisor teeth canine teeth molar teeth incisor and canine teeth canine and molar teeth 0 IIIII 44 Between which one of the following pairs of organs is the "Esophegus" located? * item.46 Let 97 gullet and stomach - stomach and duodenum - liver and pancreas - pancreas and small intestine small and large intestine one of the following is the function of the regulating the level of sugar in the blood breaking up fats and oils into tiny drops breaking up all kinds of food changing food into energy protecting the body from diseases kind(s) of food do(es) your body need to stay carbohydrates proteins vitamins minerals all the above has been deleted from the test, statistically. us assume, dear student, that we could compare the 'human body to many different things in our daily lives (i.e. imanufacturing); which one of the following could relate? 47 Brain NUOCUI> IIIII 48 Heart B D E O Illll with (in army): weapon weapons manufacturer soldier officers major general with (car): exhaust gas engine oil engine steering wheel 49 Kidney with (stations): can!» I gas station water plant station train station electric plant station 50 51 52 53 54 55 E... 98 airport Spinal Cord with (government offices): 0 Illll clinical center sheriff department post office army office hospital When you eat, which one of the following prevents food or water from entering the wind pipe? A - saliva B - tongue C - esophagus D - epiglittis E - wind pipe Which one of the following parts of your body is consid- ered as a "gland"? A - heart B - stomach C - liver , D - kidney E - brain Which food requires "bile” for digestion in the body? A - proteins B - carbohydrates C - fats D - vitamins E - minerals The lung walls are constructed from millions of . NUOUU3> IIIII bronchials bronchial tubes tiny blood vessels tiny glands alveolie From which part of the heart is blood pumped (through the aorta) to regions of the body? NUOCUIP IIIII right ventricle left ventricle right atrium left atrium all the above 56 57 58 59 60 NUOIII3> IIIII Which 99 one of the following destroys the bacteria and foreign materials in our bodies? tiny blood vessels plasma alveolie red cells white cells one of the following does the craniu rest on? upper jaw bone lower jaw bone neck vertebrae chest vertebrae lumbar vertebrae kind of the following vertebrae is the largest and heaviest in your spinal column? 0 lllll neck vertebrae chest vertebrae lumber vertebrae sacrum vertebrae coccys vertebrae Between which one of the following pairs is the "ankle joint' ' joined to? tarsals and leg leg and femur femur and pelvis humeras and shoulder clavicle and shoulder one of the following functions does the ”sensory fibers” perform? receiving a stimulus from.the receptor ending and sending them to the brain receiving a stimulus from the brain and sending them to the body doing both functions in A and B above receiving a stimulus from the skin and sending them to the heart receiving a stimulus from the heart and sending them to the body Set IX (Q's 6L4>68) A: Typhoid B: Bilharzia C: Tuberculosis D: Dysentery E: Cholera "..- .II' 100 (Q's 61-763) Which one of the above diseases causes each of the following symptoms? A B C D E 61 - backache and joint disorder 62 - pain associated with many bowel movements daily 63 - violent diarrhea and vomiting (Q's 64-)68) Which one of the above diseases (A-9E) applies to each of the following statement? 64 - the flies are not considered as a means of its transmission 65 - its germs settle in the urinary bladder 66 - its germs don't enter through the mouth 67 — its germs settle in the chest 68 - its symptoms start by constipation and then followed by diarrhea Set X (Q's 69-971) Ali visited Ibraham in his house and they spent the time in Ibraham's small room; following this, Ibraham.came down with a disease the next day. Ali listed all the things which he had done with Ibraham the day before which could be the cause of transmitting the germs to him (Ali). (A): he shook his hand twice (B): he sat on his bed (C): he used his water cup (D): he used the same kleenex tissue which Ibraham.used to put on his mouth when coughing (E): he had been bitten several times by a mosquito in Ibrahamis room. Which one of the five reasons above is the most probable reason that would be the major cause of transmitting the germs to Ali if Ibraham had been sick with . . . A B C D E 69 - typhoid? _ _ _ _ _ 70 - malaria? 71 - tuberculosis? 72 Which one of the following order is the right sequence to the three cut-stages (or periods) of malaria symptoms? 73 74 Which mit to our bodies through the mouth? 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