ABSTRACT
STUDENT BACKGROUND, UNIVERSITY

.ADMISSICN,.AND.ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
IN THE UNIVERSITIES CF THAILAND

by Richard John Kraft

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the university
admissions' procedures of Thailand in the light of the edu-
cational goals of the country. The evaluation was concerned
with (l) the validity of the Joint Higher Education Entrance
Examination and the Maw Saw 5 Examinations, (2) the identi-
fication of the areas of greatest difficulty in the sciences
and some of the causes, since this was the content area for
the study, (3) the influence of socio-economic factors con-
tributing to success or failure in the university, and
(4) the influence of the coaching schools and private schools
in the admission's process. The background for the study was
set with a brief educational history of Thailand, a history
of higher education and description of each of the universities,
a history and description of the National Education Council,
an analysis of the present state of testing in Thailand, and
a description of the present admissions' policies and
procedures.

The sample consisted of 368 students in the faculties
of science at Chulalongkorn, Kasetsart, and Chiengmai

Universities, all of whom completed their first year in
March, 1968. From the application forms for admittance
to the university, biodata was taken for each individual

Richard John Kraft
on the following things: sex, race, age, parent's residence,
parent's profession, type of secondary school attended, year
of secondary graduation, attendance at a coaching school,
and previous attendance at a university. The Maw Saw 5
Examination scores for each student, by subject area, were
taken from the records at the Ministry of Education, and
'the Joint Higher Education Entrance Examination scores were
taken from records at the National Education Council. The
dependent variables, scores on the first year of work at the
university, were taken from student transcripts in the
registrar's office at each faculty.

Prior to dealing with the results of the study on each
of the sociological and academic variables, an attempt was
made to give meaningful background information to aid in
the interpretation of the results. This information was
taken from studies conducted by historians, anthropologists,
sociologists, political scientists and other researchers,
who have written about Thailand. Zero-order correlations
were run on the computer to test the relationship between
the variables, and multiple correlations were used to test
the predictive power of the various examination scores when
used in combination.

The biodata did not contribute significantly to the
prediction of performance on the tests or in the university.
The Maw Saw 5 EXamination proved to be a better predictor
than the Joint Higher Education Entrance Examination, with

the English, biology, and mathematics tests providing the

Richard John Kraft
best predictions. Women performed at a higher level on the
M85 Examination and in the university, doing particularly
well in subjects involving verbal skills. There are more
Chinese students in the universities than their numbers in
the general pOpulation would seem to warrant, and they
generally pefformed at a higher level than the Thais, this
being due to many social, historical and economic factors
detailed in the study. The students from the cities and
from governmental or business homes have a significantly
better chance of getting into the university, and generally
perform at a slightly higher level than the rural students.
Younger students generally outperformed the older students,
while those from public schools did better in all subjects
except English, when compared to private school graduates.
The coaching schools were found to be a significant edu-
cational and economic institution, but the value of their
services to the student and to the educational system were
found to be lacking. It was found that mathematics was the
area giving the students the most difficulty, with the
highest levels of achievement in biology. English ability
was found to be a crucial factor in university success,
with scores on the English tests proving to be the best

predictors of success in the science faculties.

STUDENT BACKGROUND, UNIVERSITY
ADMISSION, AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
IN THE UNIVERSITIES OF THAILAND

By

Richard John Kraft

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
College of Education

1968

ACKNCWLEDGMENTS

Many people have made contributions to the completion
of this thesis. The writer acknowledges his Special
appreciation to his major advisor, Dr. Carl Gross, for
advice during the study, for constant encouragement throughw
out the doctoral program, and for guidance in helping to
shape a career in the field of education. With the aid of
Mr. Prasit Tulyathorn of the National Education Council in
Thailand, this study would not have been possible.

The writer would be remiss if he did not acknowledge
the assistance provided by the Michigan State Educational
Planning Team in Thailand, and the time and effort expended
by Dr..Archibald Shaw and Dr. Kenneth Neff. The Institute
for International Studies in Education, directed by Dr.
Cole Brembeck, provided advice and assistance in many ways.
Totthe members of the doctoral committee, Dr. Charles
Blackman, Dr. John Hanson, and Dr. James Hooker, the author
recognizes his indebtedness for the inSpiration they have
provided in the classroom, and for the part they have played
in making the past three years an irreplaceable and un-
forgettable eXperience.

Finally, the author recognizes his indebtedness to his
wife, who has patiently postponed shared time and events,
while the thesis was being completed, and without whom it
would have been impossible to complete the research and the

degree.

11

CHAPTER

I.

II.

III.

IV.

THE PROBLEM . .
Introduction
Need . . . .
Purpose . . .
Limitations .
Cverview . .

Definition of

TABLE CF CONTENTS

Terms and Abbreviations

REVIEW CF THE LITERA-TURE o o o o o o 0

United States Studies . . . . . . . .

Thai Studies

Summary . . .

EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND . . . . . . . .

Educational Background . . . . . . .

Higher Education in Thailand . . . .

National Educational Council . . . .

Testing in Thailand . . . . . . . . .

University Admission in Thailand . .

DESIGN . . . .

The Sample .

O C O O O O O O O O O O

The Instrumentation . . . . . . . . .

Statistical Procedures . . . . . . .

Collection of

Summary . . .

mta‘ O O O 0 O O O O O

111

PAGE

o3 cm -q ox 4r -? to F1 +4

\o ~o 03 CD a) (h \n c- A) PO to A) r4
:3 A) +4 a) \J «a -q a) \a (n p— L: to c-

CHAPTER PAGE
V. 4ANALYSIS CF RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Sex Roles and Academic Achievement . . . . . 95
Cultural Differences and Academic
Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Residence and Academic Achievement . . . . . 119
Occupational Groups and.Academic
Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Age Factors in.Academic Achievement . . . . . 137
Buddhism and Education . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Private Education and Academic
Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .luu
Coaching Schools and.Academic Achievement . .150
Choice of Faculty and Academic
Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .155
Science Education and Academic Achievement. .156
English.Ability and Academic Achievement . .168
The Prediction of Academic Performance . . .173
VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .179
Conclusions and Findings . . . . . . . . . .181
Discussion and Recommendations . . . . . . .190
Implications for Further Study . . . . . . .210
Possibilities of Change within the
Thai Bureaucracy . . . . . . . . . . . . .211
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .222

Primary sources 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 223

Secondary Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . .230

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . ~.- . . . . . . . . . . . PAGE
A. Zero-Order Correlations of Examination Scores
with University Achievement . . . . . . . . . 231‘L
B. Prediction of Success by Faculty . . . . . . 236
0. Sample Questions from the 1967 Joint Higher

Education Entrance Examination . . . . . . 2A0

TABLE

2.1

2.2

3.1

3.2

3.3

3.4

3.5

4.1
5.1

502

5.3

501+

5.5

LIST CF TEXBLES

Types of Studies Relating Ability and

Academic Performance . . . . . . . . . . .
Student Withdrawal Rate . . . . . . . . . .
Time wasting in Thailand Schools . . . . . .
The Pyramid of Enrollments, 1964 . . . . . .
Enrollment Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Number and Percentage of Successful

Candidates on the JREEE by Type of M35

School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Possible Points on Each Section of the

K85 Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Number of Literates in Thailand by.Age

Group (10 years or over) and Sex in 1960 .
Percentage of Women in Thai Universities

1961-1966. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Correlation of Sex and Scores on MSS Exami-‘

nation for Students on Four Science

Faculties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Correlation of Sex and Scores on the

JHEEE for Students in Four Science

Faculties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Correlations of Sex with University

Achievement as Measured by Grades Received

vi

PAGE

19
65
7o
72

77

82
88

99

100

101

101

103

5.9

5.10

5.11

5.12

5-13

5.14
5.15

5.16

5-17
5.18

5.19
5.20

5.21

5.22

Chinese in Southeast Asia: 1965 , , , , ,

JHEEE Rate of Passing by Sex and Race . .
Parent's Residence and Location of
School where Student Finished M35 . . .
Correlation of English Scores with
Residence‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cccupational Groups in Thailand, 1954
and 1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cccupation of Parents of University
Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Monthly Income of Parents of University
Students in Baht . . . . . . . . . . . .
Percentage of Successful Candidates
Based on Parent's Cccupation . . . . . .
Career Choices of University Students . .
Educational Level of Parents of University
Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Age of Candidates for University Entrants
Age of Students in Sample . . . . . . . .
Correlation of.Age with M85 Examination
Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Correlation of Age with University Grades
Number of Private Schools in Thailand . .
Percentage of Students Enrolled in
Private Schools . . . . . . . . . . . .

Passing Rate on JHEEE of Students from

Public and Private Secondary Schools . .

vii

PAGE

109

118

128

129

130

131

131

133
134

136
138
138
139
140
145

145

147

TABLE PAGE
5.23 Correlations of M55 Examination Scores

and Type of Secondary Schools. . . . . . . . 148
5.24 Passing Rates in M35 Examination . . . . . . . 149
5.25 Correlations of JHEEE Scores and Type of

School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.26 Choice of Faculty and Academic Achievement . . 156
5.27 Ranking by Faculty of Science Students

JHEEE Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.28 Mean Scores in the Sciences on the M85

Examination . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 163
5.29 Mean Scores in the Sciences on the JHEEE . . . 164
5.30 Mean Grades in the Sciences for the First

Year of Work in the University . . . . . . 166
5.31 wastage Rates in Science Faculty:

Chulalongkorn 1966-67 . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.32 Failure Rates at Khon Kaen University:

1966 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.33 Mean Scores on the M85 English Test . . . . . 171
5.34 Means on the JHEEE English Test . . . . . . . 172
5.35 Mean Scores in English at the Universities . . 172
5.36 The Prediction of Academic Success

Comparing the Total JHEEE Score and

Best Combination of Tests . . . . . . . . . 177

viii

Chapter 1: The Problem
Introduction

Thailand's educational system faces many pressures
not unlike those to be found in most: nationsof the world.
These pressures, however, are generally much greater in a
deve10ping nation than in the more advanced nations with
their highly deve10ped educational systems. The first
pressure is the growing need for highly trained manpower‘
for which the universities are primarily responsible. Im-
portant advances have been.made in recent years in raising
the number of qualified teachers, doctors and engineers,
but much more needs to be done.

The second pressure is that of the rapid expansion of
pro-university education. In 1956, Praton 7 (grade 7),
the last year of the elementary school, had an enrollment
of 69,005. By 1964, this had risen to 114,325, with
projections calling for 214,000 by 1970 and 572,003by
1986, the last year for which projections have been made.
In Maw Saw 5 (grade 12), the last year of secondary
school, the enrollments rose from 10,103 in 1956 to
32,531 in 1964, with projections calling for 51,000 by
1970 and 128,000 by 1986.1 The third pressure or factor
which must be considered is the limited resources of the
universities. These limitations include trained faculty
and restricted budgets with which to expand facilities.

lEducational Planning Office, Current and Projected
Secondary Education Pro ans for Thailand Bangkok: Ministry
mutationjmr, WW
1

 

A fourth factor to be considered is the growing num-
ber of faculties in which students may enroll. It is im-
perative for a deve10ping nation that the best qualified
students in each area are admitted to faculties in which
they will succeed and make the greatest contribution to
their country. A recent development which is increasing
the pressure on the universities is the movement from
patronage to educational qualifications as the basis for
employment. This has progressed.much faster than the
development of educational facilities, so that there are
far more young people seeking admission to higher
educational institutions than can‘be accomodated.

Nggd

The success of a student in the university cannot
and should not be predicted wholly on the basis of
achievementiest scores, nor can it be interpreted without
taking personal and environmental factors into consideration.
For the most part, the Thais have limited their analysis
to the examination system and not the broader societal
context of the admission's process.

Recent discussions in Thailand have been conducted
on the topic of which examination should be used for uni-
versity admission: the Haw Saw 5 (MS) examination which
students must pass to graduate from secondary school, or
the Joint Higher Education Entrance Examination (JHEEE),
currently used for university admission purposes. In these

discussions, however, the possibility of considering other

factors has seldom been raised, and the reliability and
validity of these two examinations has not been brought
into question. Few studies have been conducted on student
achievement in the universities, the use of the HS 5
examination and the JHEEE as predictors of university
success, the background of students, and other relevant
factors which.must be considered in an overall admission's
program. The widening gap between the university and the
secondary schools has not been sufficiently analyzed, and
the possibility of using different admissions' policies

at the new regional universities has not been studied
seriously.

An important factor which needs to be considered is
that admission to higher education is a process, a series
of selections over an extended period of time and not a
single administrative act. It must be realized that any
change in the organization or objectives at the lower
educational levels ultimately affects the admission's
process at the university level. It is also affected by
nonpacademic forces such as opportunities, asPirations
and costs; factors which have not been analyzed in
Thailand. Much of the discussion of the process and
procedures of university admission has been carried on
with no supporting data, and the arguments presented
have often been nothing more than personal preferences and
prejudices. Decisions have been.made on.the basis of

political expediency rather than scientific knowledge.

ose

The general purpose of this study is to analyze the
overall admission's policy for the Thai universities in
light of their educational goals. Specific purposes are:
1. To analyze the admission's procedures of the National
Education Council and the universities. 2. To test the
validity of the MS 5 and the JHEEE as predictors of
academic success in the universities. 3. To identify the
areas of greatest failure in the sciences and some of the
causes. 4. To analyze the socio-economic factors in.a
student's background which contribute to academic success
or failure. 5. Tb analyze the role of the coaching schools
in the admission's process. 6. To recommend changes in
the current admissions' procedures and policies.
limitations

This study does not directly reflect all the possible
socio-economic and intellective or academic factors which
are involved in a student's admission to and achievement
in the universities of Thailand. Only those factors on
which information could be found were dealt with, and no
attempt was made to deal with personality characteristics,
due to the lack of research in this area in Thailand, and
the cross-cultural difficulties which a foreign researcher
would encounter.

A second limitation is the size and character of the
sample used in the statistical part of the study. Only

students in their first year at the universities were

5
used, because of the availability of the socio—economic
data on them. The sample is also limited to students in
the pure sciences due to the need for comparability, which
would be difficult to obtain if disciplinary lines were
crossed. It was also chosen because of the need for data
on student achievement to be used in the science committee
of the University Development Commission. Only three of
the institutions of higher learning in Thailand have depart-
ments or faculties of science, so it is only those that are
used, but the study also includes supporting data from some
of the other universities, so the results are more broadly
applicable. The statistical study is also limited by the
drOpping from the sample of those with missing biodata or
academic information.

Agreement on what constitutes success is hard to obtain,
so there seems to be no better Operational index of success
in college than the attainment of a degree and its essential
prerequisite, satisfactory grades. For these reasons, the
definition of success is limited to the student's grades at
the university.

The Thai government has indicated its desire to raise
the educational level of its people, and to bring changes
into the society through the educational system. With the
present emphasis on examinations and rote memorization,
however, it is not likely that many of the things recom-

mended by this study will bring any real changes or make

any significant changes in the status quo.

Overview

In Chapter 2, the pertinent literature is reviewed.

Due to the hundreds of studies on academic prediction and
student background in the United States, the review of U.S.
research will be limited to a few works which summarize the
results in the field. In Thailand, research on these tOpics
is quite limited and attempts have been made to find all the
relevant studies for review.

In Chapter 3, the stage is set for the study with a
brief history of education in Thailand, followed by a
history of the universities. Further background information
is given on the NEC and the present state of testing in
Thailand, along with a detailed description of the present
admissions' procedures.

The design of the statistical part of the study is
dealt with in Chapter 4, with the instrumentation, and
statistical hypotheses setting the stage for the summary
and analysis of results in Chapter 5, where the data on
socio-economic and intellective or academic factors are
dealt with in detail, using the growing body of sociological
and anthropological information on Thailand to provide in-
sights into causes of success and failure.

Recommendations on admission's theory and practice make
up the bulk of Chapter 6, in addition to sections of future
research needs, and the problems of change in the Thai

Bureaucracy.

7

Definition of Terms and Abbreviations

Wat

NEC

MS

Pratom

MOE

USAID
USOM

BSCS

PSSC

A temple or religious center to be found in almost
every Thai community.
National Education Council. The governing body
of higher education.

Joint Higher Education Entrance Examination. The
selection device now used for admission to the
university.

Maw Saw. The five years of secondary education.
The MS5 refers to the examixuation which must be
passed to graduate from secondary schools.

The seven years of elementary education.
Ministry of Education. The governing body of
secondary and adult education. Headed by a cabinet
member.

Socio-economic status.

United States Agency for International Development.
United States Operations Mission - The USAID group
in Thailand.

Biological Sciences Curriculum Study.

Physical Science Study Committee.

Chapter 2: Review of Literature
United States Research

Due to the large number of studies it would be
difficult to review all of the research dealing with the
prediction of academic success in the United States, so
this review will be limited to those works which summarize
the results of individual studies.

Three types of factors have been used in the prediction
of academic success: intellective, personality and socio-
logical. Lavin deals with studies in all three areas, but
only the intellective and sociological studies will be
reviewed, as little has been done in the area of personality
factors for the prediction of success in Thailand, and the
use of such factors as creativity, motivation and personality
in the United States as predictive devices have been re-
latively unsuccessful.l Efforts to use correlations of
academic success with interest as shown on the Kuder Pre-
ference Record and the Strong Interest Inventory have been
found from .11 up to .55 depending on the group studied,
but later studies have not fulfilled these early promises.2
The four types of studies dealing with academic prediction
are outlined below. Global predictors are summarizing
variables, while multidimensional predictors make use of

several factors.

 

1Paul L. Dressel and Associates, %¥%%22€%§§g%?1
Hi her Education. Arvo E. Juola. "Selet cation
aflé—PIatement of Students.” (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,
1961). pp1 305-306

2Robert M. W. Travers, Educational Measurement (New
York: The MacMillan Company, 1955), p. 398.

8

Chart 2.1

Types of Studies Relating Ability

and Academic Performance3

 

 

 

Predictor Criterion
Global Multidimensional
Global Global ability Global ability
measure used to measure used to
predict grade- predict grades in
point average Specific courses
(A) (B)
Multidimensional Several Specific Several Specific

ability dimensions
used to predict
grade-point
average

(C)

ability dimensions
used to predict
grades in Specific
courses

(D)

 

Infa study of the Cell A type, at the graduate

level, the Miller Analogies Test was found to correlate

.21 with grades by education students.

In a multiple

correlation of the Cell C type, using the Miller Analogies

Test,

the undergraduate grade point average, and a

mathematical reasoning test, a correlation of .43 with

graduate grades was attained.

 

Lavin concludes on the

3David Lavin, The Prediction of Academic Performance
(New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1965), p. 49.

10

basis of these and other examples that the prediction of
performance in graduate school is generally lower than at
the undergraduate level due to the more select group and
the narrower range of intellectual abilities.LL
Cronbach's early review of the correlation of college
level ability tests with grade point averages finds a
correlation of .50 to .55.5 More recent research indicates
an average correlation of about .50 with a range of .30
to .70. Correlations of the Cell C variety consistently
run as high as .60 or .70 with an average of .65.6 Of all
the factors in a multidimensional study, the high school
grade point average or high school rank consistently
emerges as the best predictor. This is probably due to
the fact that high school grades represent a combination
or ability and motivational factors operating in much the
same way as they Operate in college.7 A study by Hoffman

found that the best method of predicting a student's college

grades was to determine the grades 0f former students from

 

“Ibid., pp. 50—51.

5Lee J. Cronbach, Essentials of Psychological
Testipg (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949).

6Lavin, pp, cit., p. 52

7Travers, 9p. cit., p. 386.

11

. the same high school. This is probably due to moti-
vational factors, study habits and other things which
made for academic success, rather than any inherent

ability in the school.8

More recent studies reviewed by
Lavin come to the same cnclusion on the use of high
school grades as predictors.9

Few of the studies have differentiated between males
and females, but those that have, generally find a higher
correlation for females. The highest correlations in
predicting academic success have been obtained at the
high school level. Admissions procedures in college tend
to eliminate those of lower ability, so that with the
narrower ability rangg, the correlations are generally

10
less.

The use of counseling and guidance in the prediction
process has been found to be of some value when dealing
with homogeneous populations. Travers concludes, however,
that on the whole:

There is little evidence that counseling techniques
can either upset predictions of academic achievement
or provide predictions which are better than those
obtainable from measure which hays been validated
for predicting academic success.

Measures of ability account for about 35-45% of the
variation in academic performance, which is the largest

single type of factor, but it still leaves over half

3Ibid., p. 387-
vin. gp,cit. Do 52-
1 Mt: Po-EBV:
llmverSo, 220 2232" P. 390.

 

12

unexplained. It is here that nonintellective factors
can aid in prediction.

Two types of sociological studies have been con-
ducted. The first deals with the degree of congruence
between student and teacher definition of the student's
role, followed by an assessment of the association
between congruence and level of academic performance.

The present study does not look at the effects of Specific
role relationships, but mentrates on the second type

of sociological research which deals with the effects

of various ecological and demographic characteristics upon
academic performance.

Socio-economic status (SES), as measured by occupation,
income, residence, and education is the most researched
of all ecological and demographic factors. Socio-economic
status is_a summarizing variable symbolizing a variety
of values, attitudes and motivations. Numerous studies
have shown a positive relationship between intelligence
and SE8..When I.Q. is controlled, the relationship be-
tween SES and achievement is not totally erased, so SE3
appears to summarize more than intelligence. The other
factors involved are generally called the achievement
syndrome, and studies seem to indicate a higher level
of motivation in the higher status groups. Several
studies, however, have shown that at the upper SES_levels,

the relationship to.academic performance may be inverse.12

 

12Lavin, gp,cit. pp. 124-126.

13

Studies on sex differences in academic performance
have in most cases shown females to perform at a higher
level, and also that there is a higher correlation
between intelligence and performance in females than
in.males. Differences in performance can be understood
in terms of a variety of differences in attitudes, be-
haviors, and values which are a result of differing social-
izing processes. The fact that females far outnumber
males in the teaching profession is thought to have
some significance, as is the fact that for males, aca-
demic success is an instrumental goal having important
implications for a later career, while for females this
aSpect is less crucial.13

Studies of religious background in the United States
have found Jewish children more likely to be high
lachievers, due to a value system orientation which
stresses rationality and future time orientation.
Religion is an important factor in Thai culture, but
religious differences are minimal, due to a preponderance
of Buddhists, so that studies on this tepic are unlikely
to be of any great significance.

Regional and rural-urban studies have been conducted
quite extensive1y_and seem to indicate that students from
urban settings have a higher academic performance than

those.from predominantly rural areas, however, this does

 

13itid., pp. 129-130.

14

not hold true for students from cities over g500,000.
Regional differences are indicated by higher scores on
achievement tests by students from the north. .The
meaning of these studies is ambiguous, however, due to
the level of the schools and differences in socio-
economic Status.1n ‘

When age is correlated with achievement, the
results support the conclusion that the younger Students
have a higher level of academic performance, since
older students are more likely to have had their progress
slowed by failure. .This seems to be born out in statis-
tics for Thailand, though it is not always true of
all developing nations, where students may enter
school at a later age. Research on the effect of high
school size and academic load on achievement have shown
little or no effect of these two factors on school
performance.15
ThaiLStudies

Educational research is a comparatively recent
development in Thailand. Most 9f what is done in the
field is being carried on by research members of the
Faculty of Education at Chulalongkorn University and
the College of Education at Prasarnmitr. various
sections of the educational bureaucracy have also taken.

an interest in educational research on a national scale,

 

lqubidq pp. 132.
15R1do, p. 133'

15
so that the future should be much brighter than the past.
A major impetus for national educational research at the
university level in the future will be the Educational
Data Center, recently established to collect data for
studies on all aSpects of the universities.

In 1967, the National Education Council (NEC) held
major discussions on the use of the M85 (secondary gra-
duation) examination and the Joint Higher Education Entrance
Examination (JHEEE). Very little research was available
at that time on the validity and reliability of the M85
examination and the JHEEE, but since then a research project
on the validity of them has been started at the Faculty of
Education, Chulalongkorn University. The results of these
are not yet available. Studies on student background are
limited and few have correlated achievement and sociological
factors. Research on drop—outs and student attitudes are re-
viewed because of their relevance to the current study, and
the one follow-up study conducted in recent years is alSo
reviewed.

The earliest study on the validity of the JHEEE was
completed in 1962, the first year that a joint examination
was given. In the study, students' examination scores
were correlated with their mid-year grades. The population
consisted of a non-randomized sample of 1,059 students at
Chulalongkorn University or approximately 28% of all first

year university students in Thailand. The researchers

16

concluded that the correlation coefficients were not
statistically satisfactory, and that more research
should be done to find better standards for screening
students.16
_A study published in 1963 by Pinyo Satorn took
3,325 students at Chulalongkorn University, who were
enrolled from 1956-1960. The purpose of his study was
to predict success in cdlege work from pro-university scores
on Chulalongkorn's entrance examination. His sample was
87% of the total population.and was divided into three
groups. Group A consisted of those students who graduated
without any failures. Group B was made up of those
who graduated, but who had failed one or more subjects,
and Group C consisted of those who dropped out of the
university. The findings were that 29.80% of the students
were in Group A, 44.40% in Group B and 25.80% in Group C.
A correlation of .384 was found when comparing entrance
examination scores and university grades?) Pinyo con-
cludes that the university entrance examination should
be one of the factors used to screen students, but that

former achievement in high school should not be

ignored and.that.further screening devices need to be found.17

 

16National Council of Education, ”The Cbrrelation
of the Entrance Examination Scores and the Mid-year Exam-
ination Scores: Some Characteristics of the First.Year.- -
Students of Chulalongkorn University in 1962,” The Education
Center (Nbvember, 1962), p. 9. -_—

Coll IZP$nyngzfo§n,.;fin Investigation of.the Success in
ege, 9 our of Educational Research
I (Jammy. I953). pp. 55347 '

17

Dr. Pote Sapianchai of the College of Education.at
Prasarnmitr conducted a study of the entrance exam-
ination of that institution for the entering class of
1961. In addition, the study attempted to find out the
relationship of age and parent's residence to academic
achievement. He found that the overall test score had
a low relationship to scholastic achievement, but that
a combination of five tests gave a prediction of .53.

He also found that when the grade point average of
former work was included, a much better prediction~
could be made.v Prediction was better for men, .65, than
for women, .44, but no significant difference was found
between male and female achievement or between students
from Bangkok and other areas of the country. Pete
concludes that the entrance examination provided an
unsatisfactory level of predictive efficiency for
scholastic achievement.18

A ptlot project by Mrs. Prakon Karnasut of Chula-
longkorn Faculty of Education served as the impetus for
a large scale analysis of the validity ofthe M35 examination
and the JHEEE. In the study, the records of 134 students
in the 1964 entering class in the Faculty of Education,

Arts Division, were analyzed in three subjects} Thai,
English, and Social Studies. 'The study did not attempt

to.consider.sex,.age or socio-economic differences.

 

18Pote Sapianchai, ”The Prediction of Academic '
Success at Prasarnmitr: College of Education," Bangkok,
pp. 1-30. (Typewritten.)

18

A marked relationship was found between high school grades
and those earned in the first and second year of uni-
versity. As predictors, the JHEEE did not differ from
the M35 scores, implying the the latter could be used
for entrance to Chulalongkorn University. English was
the best predictor of the three subjects, with Thai
ranking as the lowest. As is true of most U.S. studies
a high correlation between grades in the first and second
years at the university was also obtained.19

The large scale analysis is being conducted by six
master's degree candidates under the direction of Mrs.
Prakon. The basic procedures are the same as for the
pilot project, though the sample is much larger, with
the records of several thousand students being analyzed
to see the predictive ability of the university entrance
examinations. Several problems have confronted the
researchers. valid correlations in some subjects were
hard to obtain, due to the lack of correspondence between
subjects on the examinations and course work taken in
the universities. Some faculties would not allow the
researchers to gain access to student scores, while
others had alreay destroyed the records. The lack of
any unified grading procedures between the universities
or even within the university. caused some difficulty

in obtaining meaningful correlations.

 

’19Prakon Karnasut, "Abstract of a Study on the
Predictionrof University Success," Bangkok, pp.l-30.
(Typewritten.)

19

The members of the team believe that the results of
their study will show that the MSSexamination should be
used as the basic selection device, with the JHEEE used
only for final selection purposes. They see the major
failing of both examinations as a lack of objectivity.
It is the hope of the study team to publish their
results in Thai journals and that they will be used to
bring about necessary changes in the present examination

system.20

A study of student wastage explored the input and
output of Chulalongkorn University to find the causes of
the 25.80% drop-out rate. The size of the entering class
of 1959 was compared with the graduating class of 1963,
and the following statistics were found.

Table 2.2

Student Withdrawal Bate
M '— r;

 

 

Faculty # Input # Output % Output
Arts 158 95 60.12
Education 156 80 51.28
Political

Science 177 81 45.76
Commerce and

Accounting 200 78 39.00
Engineering 308 85 27.50
Architecture 72 7 9.72
Total 1072 419 39.09

 

‘The_6l% who failed to graduate on time, fell into

 

, 20Facultyof Education, Chulalongkorn University,
Bangkok, interview with Mrs. PrakOn Karnasut and sin
graduate assistants, February, 1968.

20

four categories; those who were forced to repeat courses
and are still studying in the university; those who were
forced to leave after obtaining a three year diploma;
those who were forced to leave for failure to meet
university requirements, and those who dropped out
for their own reasons. It was recommended that other
studies be conducted to test the reliability and validity
of the entrance examinations, and of the teaching and
evaluation in the universities.21
A study conducted by the Educational Planning Office
dealt with the percentage of students from various types
of schools, their background and future plans, and many
other statistics on the university entrants from 1962-1966.
The study found that of the students who either failed
the JHEEE or elected to stay out for a period of time for
other reasons, 50% became part-time students, 5% worked
for their parents, % worked as laborers, and the rest
were unemployed. It also found that for the most part
students said that they would return to their home area
after finishing university, or would work in any part of
the country. This is highly significant for the future
development of Thailand. Government service was the goal
of 48% of the students with 20% wishing to go into
businessswlittle.difference was found between the

 

. 21Pinyo Satorn, "A Preliminary Study of wastage in
Chulalongkorn University,“ Paper 10 of the International
Conference for the Advancement of Education Research held at
the Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn, December, 1963,
pp. 12-13.

21

two examinations, with student success on both examinations

being almost the same.22
Few follow-up studies have been conducted in Thailand

to see what happens to the university graduates. One

such study was conducted by the Michigan State University

Educational Planning team, and came up with the following

statistics. Over 90% of those sampled were working for

the government, and after three years, 87.7% were still

single. Close to 75% felt that their job was directly

related to what they had been trained for in the university.

The usual procedure in getting a job was through the

civil service, with only 16% gaining a position through

the influence of a friend.23

This last statistic is
strong evidence of the growing influence of educational
qualifications as the means for obtaining a job, rather
than the former widespread use of nepotism and privilege.
Two polls of student Opinion have been conducted, one
at Thammassat and the other at all four of Bangkokss
institutions of higher education. The polls found the
students to be nominal Buddhists, with 59% seeing other
things in life of much greater importance than religion.
Girls tended to take religion more seriously than the

boys. Students.looked to their friends and teachers in

 

22Educational Planning Office, " Repert of Research
on Student Entrance Examinations, l962-l966,“ Bangkok;
Ministry of Education, 1967, pp. 1-14. (Mimeographed.)

23David K. Keenan,"Follow-Up Study of university
Graduates,” Bangkok, 1965, pp. 1-7. (Typewritten.)

22

forming Opinions about the news, and the radio was the
most important news media for most of them. Greater
educational facilities, economic reforms, and a rising
standard of living were seen as the main problems facing
the government, and the students were found to be quite
anti—communist in their opinions and attitudes.2n

Students in Thailand see the improvement of courses,
better facilities, and better relationships between
faculties and between universities as the greatest
problems facing Thai higher education today. In Spite
of the forces of modernization, the overwhelming majority
of students favored traditional customs over modern ways
of doing things.25 The findingsof the most comprehensive
study of Thai students, Changing Values of Thai College
Students by Alan Guskin, will not be reviewed in this
chapter, as extensive reference is made to research in
Chapter 5.
Summary

Research on the use of intellective or academic
factors shows that the best predictions are obtained
from multiple correlations in which a batteryof
variables are used to predict the overall grade-point av-

erage. The best.single record to use in the prediction

 

2”0815, "A Study of University Student Attitudes
in (Bangkok) Thailand,” Bangkok, 1958, (Mimeographed. )

25Coordination Center for Southeast Asian Studies,
”Student Study-Thailand," Bangkok: 1963, pp.1-57.
(Mimeographed.)

23

of university success is the high school record.
Socio-economic status (SES) is the most researched

of all the ecological and demographic factors. Included
in this are such variables as occupation, education,
income, attendance at'a private or public school,
location of residence,_and other factors which go to
produce an index. Sex, religion, and urbanism are
other factors which have proven to be of value in
prediction in some U.S. studies. Much recent research
in role-relationships and personality factors in
prediction have been conducted, but these were not
reviewed in the present study.

The history of educational research in Thailand is
more recent, and the number and sophistication of the studies
is quite limited. A few studies on the validity of the
examinations have been conducted and some socio-economic
data on university students is aVailable, but much more
needs to be done in all these viufl.areas. The Educational
Data Bank, the new Research Division of the NEC, and the
many recently trained Thai university professors, in the
field of educational research, should all help to fill

in the gaps in knowledge which now exist.

Chapter 3: Educational Background

Educational Background

A brief history of education in Thailand is of value
in understanding of the present system. Three periods
can be noted:

1. The period of traditional education, from 1257-1868.

2. The period of educational expansion from 1868-1931.

3. The present period from 1932 to this day.

Traditional education was similar to a medieval guild
or monastic order, with education only for the initiate.
Students studied with a master and on the completion of
their work became his disciple. This master-pupil rela-
tionship was always sacred. Even the Lord Buddha con-
sidered himself to be primarily a teacher, so the duty of
the priests was to teach moral knowledge to all men.
Temples were the centers of learning, and the teacher
served as the practitioner of astrology, medicine and
other magical arts. The teaching method was by reciting
crisp aphorisms or metrically phrased statements, which
were memorized by the pupil.. When the essential texts
had been committed to memory, instruction was completed.

The French.missionaries, who entered. in the late
17th century, brought Western skills and Western education
to Thailand. Rama IV laid the foundations for the period

of educational expansion with his interest in foreign

 

.;Educational_Planning.Office-_.Current and Pro ected
Secondary Education Programs for Thailand. (Bangkok:
9 9P0 0

Ministry of Education,

24

25

languages and close relations with Western countries.2

The greatest individual in Thai educational history
is King Chulalongkorn (Rama V), who opened the first
secular school in 1871, breaking the monopoly of the .
priests. New knowledge, outside the priests' control,
was added. “learning continued to mitigate suffering,
but the moral rationale was diluted with pragmatic, tech-
nical considerations.'3 The king made use of the wats,
however, for most of his literacy program, thus cutting
the expense of building schools and also preserving the
old custom of Wat learning.

The Department of Education was founded in 1887 to
lay the foundation for educational expansion, and in 1898
the first National Scheme of Education was formulated.
The first scheme saw a 3-3-3 plan, which was modified in
1913 to a 3-3-3-2. Higher education began in 1916 with
founding of Chulalongkorn University.

The present period dates from the revolution of 1932,
with the resultant emphasis on education to meet the
social, economic, and political needs of the country.
Though there have been several plans since that time, the
1936 scheme of 4.3-3.2 is still in existence today.“ The

 

21bid., p. 20. p
3L. M. Hanks, Jr., 81ndifference to Modern Education
in.aLThai Farming Community.“ Reprinted from Human

Or aniz tion. XVII (#2), p. 10. .-‘
gEducational Planning Office, 22. cit., p. 4.

26

most recent National Scheme of Education promulgated in

1960 is dealt with elsewhere. By 1935, state education

was being pressed into the rural areas, as voting under

the new constitution was based on the literacy rate of a

province. Truant officers were appointed to enforce

compulsory education for all children ages 8-12. Lay

teachers were irtroduced, though many schools were still

held in Wats. The curriculum consisted of the 3-R's,

morality, history, geography, and scoutcraft. Most of

the problems in those early days of modern education are

still found today in rural Thailand: large classes,

parent's desire to keep children home to work on the farm,

cost of uniform, supplies and tuition, lack of tranSportation,

parental dislike of modern subjects, and the feeling by

most that education. is unnecessary for the farmer.5
The modern Thai educational system is deeply indebted

to Western influences. Moerman summarizes some of these

influences on education in an article on Western influence

on the Thai way of life:

The schools, their nationalism, even the nation
itself, may be viewed as imports...all children must
wear a uniform consisting of Western shorts and shirt
for boys, of Western blouse and skirt for girls....
Girls must wear their hair in Western style bangs....
A Western-style salute to a Western style national
flag, and perhaps the singing of a national anthem
inSpired by the West. (In class the children learn
about Western science....They are taught elements of

5Hanks, pp, ci ., p. 11

27

Western hygiene....New techniques, new ideas, new
values from the West age the core of the curriculum
which unites Thailand.

Even with all of the above Western influences, it is
difficult to say that Thai education is truly Western.
Great ideas are those which can be reinterpreted in another
culture and another setting, and this is what Thailand has
done. Institutions and ideas from the West are bent to
fit into the Thai society and are given a new look by Thai
values and outlooks which differ from the West.

Education is of great importance in Thai society
today, as one can most easily distinguish the ruling class
by its level of education. The ability of the educated
elite to dominate is due in part to their superior know-
ledge 1n the forms and methods of government and in their.
monopoly in this knowledge. The Thai educational system,
in recent years has become the primary recruiting agency
for the elite, an outlet for ambition, and a screening
device for candidates for important posts. The fact that
a university degree is required for most responsible civil
service positions means that the ruling class is charac-
terized by a certain degree of westernization. This is
due to the large number of secondary schools formerly run

by EurOpeans, and to the fact that a very high percentage

 

6Michael Moerman, Western Culture and the Thai we:
of Life (Berkeley: Center for Southeast Asia Studies,
Institute for International Studies. University of
California. Reprint #171), p. 46.

28

Of university teachers have been trained in Western countries.

A fact of great importance to Thailand is that, unlike
most developing nations, it has no frustrated, unemployed
educated class. The educated peOple have traditionally
gone into the civil service and with the great eXpansion
in all areas of a complex, modern government they have been
absorbed. The enlargement Of the armed forces, police,
and educational system has taken a large percentage of the
trained manpower, and with their vested interest, the
educated class has tended to be conservative rather than
radical.7
Higher Education in Thailand

With the advent of Western education, the foundations
of Thai education were laid. Higher education for many
years was closely connected to the various ministries, as
many institutions served as pre-service training centers.8
The first two institutions of higher education were the
Medical School at Siriraj HOSpital, founded in 1889, and
the law School of the Ministry of Justice established in
1897. The Royal Pages' School was Opened in 1902

to educate and train prOSpective government servants and

 

7David Wilson, Politics in Thailand (Ithaca, N.Y.:
Cornell University Press, 1962), p. 64.

8National Education Council, "Brief Information
about Universities and the College of Education,” Bangkok:
1966, p. 1. (Mimeographed.)

29

Officials. It was reorganized and expanded to be the
School of Civil Servants in 1910 during the reign Of
King Rama VI. The courses for civil servants were as
follows: education, medicine, agriculture, juriSprudence,
engineering, commerce, foreign relations and public
administration. The year 1913 saw the founding of an en-
gineering school at Hor Wang.9
By Royal Command, the Civil Service College became
Chulalongkorn University in 1916, a memorial to King
Chulalongkorn, and the Royal Medical School and the
Engineering School were incorporated into the University,
so that at the outset the University consisted ofibur
faculties: Arts and Science, Medicine, Engineering,
and Political Science.10 The courses were three years in
length and the graduates received diplomas. The years
from 1923 to 1934 saw the greatest strides being taken in
the field Of medicine, due to the support Of the
Rockefeller Foundation. A six year Bachelor of Medicine
degree was added, and the first group Of doctors was
graduated in 1928.11
Following the Democratic Revolution of 1932, Thammasat
University was founded to be the center for advanced studies

in the fields of the social sciences. The first faculty

 

9Thailand Official YearbOOk, 1964 (Bangkok: Govern:-
ment Printing Office, 1964), p. 482.

10National Education Council, ”Universities in
Thailand, ' Bangkok: p. 1. (Mimeographed. ) '

11Thailand Official Yearbook, 1964. 223 Cit-9 Po “83-

30

was in Law, whcih was transferred from Chulalongkorn
University, after its having been taken away from the
Ministry of Justice that same year. The Official name
of Thammasat University was the University of Moral and
Political Sciences, until 1952. The Chulalongkorn
University Act of 1935 gave that institution the right
to confer degrees in the fields of medicine, arts,
science and engineering.

The Ministry of Public Health took over control of
medical education in 1942, the year in which the University
of Medical Sciences was founded. The university consisted
initially of four faculties: Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy

and Veterinary Science.12

The University of Agriculture,
Kasetsart University, was founded in 1943, made up of the
former College of Agriculture and the School of Forestry,
and two new faculties, Co-operative Science and Fisheries.
The University of Fine Arts, Silpakorn University, was
founded in the same year to "render instruction, to make
research on, and to promote the work of art.', The university
is made up of four faculties: Painting and Sculpture,
Architecture, Archaeology, and Decorative Arts.13

The revolution of 1958 saw a change in administration

in that all the universities were transferred to the Office

 

1ZB'owardiaayden (eds).Ri her Education and Develo -
ment in Southeast Asia. VOl. III. (Paris: UNESCO, 1967), p.116.

w—w

13National Education Council, ”Universities in Thai-
land.” O . cit., p. 2.

31

Of the Prime Minister, rather than being under the Mini‘
stries of Agriculture, Education and Public Health. Each
university has become a public body equivalent to a
department. The universities today have been made the
responsibility of the National Education Council, whose
history and organization are dealt with in detail else-
where in this document.',

In the past few years, the efforts in higher edu-
cation have been directed to developing the provincial
universities. The resolution calling for the founding of
Chiengmai University was passed in 1960, and the_uni-
versity was Officially Opened in January of 1965. Initi-
ally the university was made up of three faculties:
Humanities, Science, and Social Science. The second
provincial university at Khon Kaen.was started in
1963, with the first class in the 1964-5 academic year
consisting of 109 undergraduates.14 The university
contained three faculties in its first year: Agrigulture,
Engineering and Science and Arts. The last provincial
university to came into existence is the University of
the South, which had its first entering class in the 1967-
1968 school year, but the students met in Bangkok for the
first year until the campuses in the cities of the south
were finished. The National Institute of Development
Administration is a teaching, training, and research insti-

 

.14

Thailand Official gearbook; 1964, 22, cit., pp.
“90"“92 o

32

tution, founded in 1966 on the merger of previous programs
in public administration, economics, and statistics, with

a new program being added in business administration.15

The College of Education is the one institution of higher
education not under the Prime Minister's office, but is
controlled instead by the Ministry of Education. It became
an institution of higher education in 1964, when the Higher
Teacher Training School at Prasarmit, Bangkok, was given
the right to grant Bachelor's, Master's and Doctor's
degrees in education.

Chulalongkorn University As stated in the introductory
history, Chulalongkorn University was the first university
in Thailand, dating back to 1916. The first faculties of
Medicine, Political Science,Engineering, and Arts and ;
Science offered only diploma courses of three years. The
offering of medical degrees was brought about through the
cooperation of the Rockefeller Foundation. A diploma of
Education was offered with the founding of the Deparument
of Education in 1930, and for a short time the Law School
of the Ministry of Justice became part of the university,
before being transferred to Thammasat University. It was
not until 1935 that the first degrees were awarded in
Medicine, Arts, Science and Engineering, and in that same
year the university departments ovarchitecture and
Pharmacy were added to the curriculum. In 1937 the Depart-

 

15National Education Council, ”Brief Information,“
92. cit., p. 13.

33

ment of Veterinary Science was founded and the next two
years saw the Departments of Dentistry and Commerce and
Accountancy begin their work.16

In 1957, the Department of Education became the Fa-
culty of Education so as to enable it tochpe with its
expanding work. The SEATO Graduate School of Engineering
was established at the University in 1959, to train
students in hydraulic, highway, and structural engineering.
In 1968, this school became an independent organization
with its own board of trustees and faculty. The Graduate
School for the University was founded in 1961, offering
Master's degrees in several fields.17

At the present time the University consists of 9
facultieS: Education, Commerce and Accountancy, Political
Science, Science, Engineering, Architecture, Arts, Graduate
School and the recently added Veterinary Science. It also
seems certain now that a Faculty of Economics will be
added in 1968, combining the economics faculty members
from Political Science and Commerce and Accountancy, which
until now had been teaching duplicate courses. All pro-
grams in the university offer a four year Bachelor's degree

with the exception of the Faculty of Architecture which

 

16Chulalongkorn UniverSity, Announcement (Bangkok:
Chulalongkorn University, 1965), p.-5.

17Ib1de , Pp. 6'70

34

requires five years. Located at the University is a

Chemistry Institute which Offers a three year diploma

course in Practical Chemistry.18
Chulalongkorn University is located in Bangkok on

part of the five hundred acres originally set aside for

the location of the campus. 'The rest of the land is

rented out by the university, and along with sizable~

endowment left by King Chulalongkorn, provides additional

funds for buildings and operating expenses.19 In 1966,

Chulalongkorn University had 7,887 students conflerringl,097

Bachelor's degrees in the previous year.

Thammasat University Thammasat University was founded in

1933 as the University of Moral and Political Sciences.

It was felt, after the revolution of 1932, that more

studies were needed in the social sciences, particularly

political science, if the democratic ideology was to per-

meate the society. Until 1949, the only degree Offered

was the Bachelor Of Law, though later courses were offered

leading to Master's and Doctor's degrees in the same field.20

By 1949, the enrollment and number of courses had reached

the place where it was felt that separate faculties were

needed, so that in that year the_university set up faculties

of Law, Commerce.and.Accountancy, Political Science and

 

, 18National Education Council, “Brief Information.”
22. cit., pp. 4-6. ' ‘ - '

19National Education COuncil, ”Introduction to
Higher Education,“ Bangkok: p. 3. (Mimeographed.)

2°Ibid., p. 8.

35

and Economics. Social Administration was added in 1954 as
a separate faculty and Liberal Arts in 1962.. The Insti-
tute of Public Administration, founded in 1955, was dis-
solved in 1966 to become the basis for the National
Institute of Development Administration (NIDA).21

Prior to 1962, the university was conceived of as an
in-service university, providing an Opportunity for any
secondary school graduate to pursue higher education in
his Spare time and to appear for final examinations when
he felt ready, a process which often meant that students
would attend the university for eight to ten years before
receiving a degree. In its total 1962-1963 enrollment of
30,500 there were only 1,000 full-time students. This
same ratio applied to faculty as well, so that in the
same year there were only 19 full-time instructors as
opposed to 352 part-time. In 1962, a selective admissions
policy was instituted so that only 1,700 students were
admitted, all as full-time students, and this has led to
a 1966 enrollment of 13,049 students, and a better faculty
ratio of 241 full-time and 289 part-time faculty.2? In_
1965 there were 929 graduate students enrolled in the uni-
versity.23

 

21The'ASSOOiation7OfISouth(EasttAsian Institutions
of Higher Learning.“ Handbook (Bangkok; 1966), p. 168.

23National Education Council, ”Brief Information.“
OJ. cit., p. 6.

36

As in the other universities, the Bachelor's programs
are Of four years in length, with Master's and Doctor's
degrees being offered in certain selected fields, though
almost no Doctorates have been given in the years the Uni-
versity has offered them.2“
University of Medical Sciences The University of Medical
Sciences traces its history back to the founding of the
Medical School at Siriraj HOSpital in 1889, which became
part of Chulalongkorn University in 1916, upon the founding
of that institution. The University was founded in 1942,,
by incorporating the Department of Pharmacy and Dentistry,
and Veterinary Science along with the Faculty Of Medicine
from Chulalongkorn University to become the new University.
Since that time, several new faculties have been added:,
Dentistry (1943), Pharmacy (1943), Public Health (1948),
Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn Hospital (1948),

Faculty of Medicine, Chiengmai HOSpital (1959), Medical
Sciences (1960), Medical Technology (1960), Tropical
Medicine (1960), Graduate Studies (1964), Faculty of
Medicine, Ramathibodo Hospital (1965).25 Changes which
have been made include the 1965 transferring of the
Chiengmai Hospital to the new Chiengmai University_and the
1968 transfer of the Chulalongkorn HosPital back to
Chulalongkorn,university.

 

2(“Thailand Official Yearbook, 1964. 22. cit., p. 487.

25The Association. 22, cit., p. 161.

37

The programs in the university vary in length from a
two year nursing diploma, to six years for an M.B. and
nine years for an M.D. Other programs include a three
year R.N., a tour year B.Sc. in nursing, a Ph.D.. in Medical
Science which is three years research after the B.Sc. and

a DDS. in six 199r3,°f '°¥F-z§.

The University had a total
enrollment in 1966-67 of 3;:14 students, with 796 fulle
time teaching staff and 461 part-time. The University,
due to the technical nature of its work, has a budget more
than twice the size of any Other university. In 1968, it
will be moving onto a brand new campus, with the most
modern possible facilities.' The Old and the new campuses
are both located in Bangkok, and make extensive use of
area hospitals, as well as the large number of practiCing
physicians who make Bangkok their home.

The Faculty of Medicine at the University is the most
popular faculty, so ‘it, continuesto get the best students
each year from the Joint Higher Education EntranceExami-
nation. Some of the other Faculties are made up of stu-
dent's whose first choice was medicine, and who after a
year Of study in pharmacy or dentistry, will try once
again to get into the medical faculty.,

Kasetsart University The predecessor Of the Faculty of
Agriculture was established in 1904 as the School of Silk
Culture, under. the Ministry Of Agriculture. In 1938, this

 

Zéflayden. 22, gi_., p. 137.

38

school became the College of Agriculture with a status Of
a junior college. In 1955, the Faculty of veterinary
Medicine was transferred from the University of Medical
Science and the Faculty of Irrigation Engineering from the
Royal Irrigation Department, to become the fifth and sixth
faculties. The 1966, the Faculty of Irrigation Engineering
was reorganized into the Faculty of Engineering and the.
Faculty of Science and Arts was founded. The year 1967,
saw the transfer of the Faculty of veterinary-Medicine to
Chulalongkorn University, so that at the present time,
Kasetsart University consists of six faculties: Agri-
culture, Economics and Business Administration, Fisheries,
Forestry, Engineering, and Science and Arts. In addition
to these faculties a Graduate School has been founded,
offering degrees in agriculture, economics, agronomy, and
animal science.27

In addition to the main campus, some 14 kilometers
north of Bangkok, the university maintains an Engineering
campus at Pakkret and three experimental farsm, two fishery
field stations and three forestry camps for research and ,
student experience purposes.28 Student enrollment in 1966
consisted of 2,726 students including 79 graduate students.

- 27Extension Office, FaCts and F1 ures Of Kasetsart
University (Bangkok: Kasetsart University, 1966), pp. 3-4.
28National EduCation Council. ”Introduction to
Higher Education,” gp. cit., p. 6.

 

39

During its first twenty years, the university granted 2,700

Bachelor's degrees, 3,843 Associate degrees and 10 Master's

degrees.29

Plans have been drawn up for a new campus near Nakorn
Fathom, but for the present, these plans have been set
aside, due to lack of funds and other difficulties. All
programs are four years in length, and all students upon
completing the third year, automatically receive diplomas.
The Master's degree consists of two years study beyond the
Bachelor's degree.

The Faculty of Economics and Business Administration
was originally the Faculty of Co-operative Science, and it
wasn't until 1952 that a degree program was instituted in
these fields. The Faculty of Fisheries depended for many
years upon technical officials from the rbpartment of
Fisheries for instruction, but now has an adequate staff
to Offer a broader range Of fields related to the science
of fisheries. The Faculty of Forestry had its inception
in the former School of Forestry founded in 1935, under
the Royal Forestry Department. It has only been in the
past ten years, however, that a significant number of
graduates have been turned out with bachelor's degrees in
this area. The Faculty of Engineering originated in the

Irrigation School of the Royal Irrigation Department,

founded in 1937.1 In.l955, it became part of the university,

 

29Extension Office, pp. c t., p. 5.

40

and in a 1966 reorganization, it became part of the Pa-
culty of Engineering.30

Silpakorn University_ Silpakorn University is also known
as the University of Fine Arts due to the Specialized
nature of the curriculum. The University had its foune
dations in the school of Fine Arts,established by the
Ministry of Education in 1934, to train Thai youth in
painting and sculpture. The University of Fine Arts was
established in 1943 with four faculties: Painting and
Sculpture, Thai Architecture, Decorative Art, and Archae-
ology. The purpose of the university is to promote re-
search and to give instruction in the various fields of
art.

The present campus is located in the same compound as
the Department of Find Arts Of the Ministry Of Education,
but in the near future will be moving to a new campus,
south of Bangkok. The close relationship with the Ministry
of Education is furthered by the fact that the Minister of
Education, M.L. Pin Malakul is also rector of the Uni-
versity.

The Faculty of Painting and_Sculpture and the Faculty
of Thai Architecture offer five year Bachelor's degree
courses, while the Faculties of Decorative Art and Archae-
ology give a four year course. Diplomas in all faculties

are automatically awarded upon the completion of the third

 

30Ibid., p. 2.

41

year.31

In 1966, Silpakorn University had 518 students and
awarded‘72 Bachelor's degrees. The faculty consisted of
63 fulletime staff members and 69 part-time. The budget
of the University is by far the smallest of any of the
universities, due to the non-technical nature Of the
courses offered and the size of the student body.

College of Education Teacher education has a long tra-
dition in Thailand, but it was not until 1954 that an
institution on higher education was given the right to
grant a Bachelor's degree in education. In fit year, the
Higher Teacher Training School at Prasarn Mit, Bangkok,
became the College of Education, with authorization to
grant a diploma in education, and bachelor's, master's
and doctor's degrees. A year later, two new branches
were added as affiliates: Bangsaen and Patoom Wan. Each
branch also Offers a four-year degree program, but differs
from the main campus, by accepting only M.S. 5 graduates,
whereas the main campus at Prasarn Mit accepts students
from lower institutions of teacher training.

The College of Education differs from the other uni-
versities in that it is under the control of the Ministry
of Education rather than the Prime Minister's Office and.
the National Education Council. The two branch campuses,

however, do make.usc of the Joint Higher Education Entrance

 

31wational Education Council, ”Brief Information.“
92, cit., p. 11.

42

Examination, which is controlled by the NEC. The College
received a great deal of aid from Indiana University for
the period from 1954-1962, with many professors from the
United States being provided, and scholarships to study
in the U.S. being awarded to over 100 staff members.32
In 1955, the College Opened its ”Twilight School"
and summer session for in-service training of teachers.
In addition to these programs the campus is Often used
for institutes, conferences and workshOps for professional
peOple. In 1956, the College began giving Special training
programs to Provincial Education officers and school prin-
cipals from all over the country at the request Of the
Ministry of Education.33 In addition to its training of
teachers both pre and in-service, the College of Edu-
cation also has as its goals the preparation of college
teachers and administrators for the teacher training
institutions, the provision of consultant services for
the educational agencies of Thailand, and the conduct of
research on education problems.3u
In 1967 there were 4,449 undergraduates and twilight
students and 141 graduate students at the main campus.

Eagrees Offered include a Higher Certificate of Education

for secondary teachers up to grade 10, a Diploma Of Edu-

 

_‘,1

2
3 Ibid., p. 14.

33The Association, 22, cit., p. 154.

3“'College of Education, Official Catalog: 1962
(Bangkok: College of Education, 1962), p.'4.

43

cation for two years work towards the Bachelor of Edu-
cation degree, and the Bachelor of Education conferred on
completion of four years of study after grade 12. Since
1961, the College has been admitting graduate students
who work for two years towards a Master's degree.
Chiengmai University The origin of the provincial uni-
versities can be found in 1941, as it was in that year
that the government decided to establish universities in
regional centers. The program was held in abeyance due
to the exingencies of the last world war and revived in
1959. On March 29, 1960, the Council of Ministers passed
a resolution for the founding of Chiengmai University.35
The university Opened in January of 1965, as the first of
several planned regional universities. Since 1963, the
organization of the university and its development has
been under the National Education Council, where it was
transferred from the Ministry of Education.

The University was initially made up Of four faculties:
Humanities, Socnal Sciences, Science and Agriculture. The
Faculty of Medicine at Chiengmai Hospital was transferred
from the University of Medical Sciences to give it five
faculties. As resources permit, faculties of engineering,
architecture, and education will also be added.36 A

graduate school is also planned for some future time.

 

35miland Official Yearbook: 1964. 92. Clto: po 490-

36Hayden, 22, cit., p. 125.

44

Due to its being a new university, and the need for
rapid expansion, the budget has been quite large. The
enrollment in 1966-67, its second year of Operation, was
1,677 students, with 258 full-time staff members, and 73
part-time. Like the other regional universities at Khon
Kaen and Songkla, Chiengmai has its difficulties attracting
students and faculty, both of whom much prefer to be in
Bangkok. All of the universities courses are four years
in length, except the Bachelor Of Medicine which is a six
year course. It is expected that more and.more students
will come from nearby provinces and this is proving in-
creasingly true.

The university has attempted to be much more resi-
dential in character than is true of the Bangkok univer-
sities, so dormitories have been provided for students,
and attempts are made to develOp a Spirit of community
with fruitful contacts between students and teachers.
Special emphasis is being given to extra-mural work and
the conduct of research for the development of technical
knowledge and for social benefit.37
Khonkaen University Khonkaen University began with the
construction of buildings in 1963, in the Northeastern
section of the country. This is the first university in
this region of over nine million people, and it is hOped
that the agriculturalists and engineers trained at Khon-
kaen will have enough background to work in the region.

 

37Ibid., p. 126.

45

In 1964, the University received its first budget and
began Operation in June, 1965.38

The university began Operation with three faculties:
Engineering, Agriculture, and Science and Arts. The
Faculty of Science and Arts serves to teach subjects of
mathematics, sciences, humanities, and English to en-
gineering and agricultural students. It is tentatively
planned that the future faculties to be added will be in
Education and Medicine.39 _

In 1966-1967, the university had 309 students, and
plans call for an eventual enrollment of approximately
600 in each faculty. The faculty consists of 69 full-time
members and 27 part-time. The area of student and faculty
recruitment is most difficult at Khonkaen, due to its
remoteness. It is some 440 kilometers from Bangkok, and
located in a comparatively small town. The university has
had a very difficult time recruiting faculty, and it has
only been through help received from the Colombo Plan that
the University has been able to staff some of its class-
rooms. At first, only 10% Of the enrollment was from the
Northeast but recent figures show that more of the students
are now from the area, which is a hOpeful sign for the

future--

 

38National Education CounCil, "Introduction to
Higher Education." 0 . cit., p. 15.

39Khonkaen'University, Bulletin (Khonkaen: Khonkaen
University, 1967), p. 3.

46

There are Mineral resources and water-Soil Conser-
vation Centers adjacent to the University Campus, and a
Highway Equipment Center, a Meteorological, and an Agri-
cultural Experiment Station.“0 The university, like the
other provincial universities, is residential in nature,
so that dormitories for students have been built on the
campus, as well as housing for faculty members.

University of the South The University of the South is

the newest of Thailand's provincial universities, and is
located in three southern cities. It enrolled its first
class in 1967 in engineering, but classes were held in
Bangkok, until such time as buildings were ready on its
own campuses. The major problems faced by this new_uni-
versity are the recruitment of students and faculty, as
there are just not enough qualified faculty members to
staff the already existing institutions, much less to

start a new one, several hundred miles from Bangkok. The
buildings of the university are almost ready for occupancy
and should be available for use in the 1968-69 school year.
The National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA)
The National Institute of DevelOpment Administration is

a teaching, training and research institution on the
graduate level, founded in 1966, to combine previous prO-.
grams in public administration, economics, and statistics,

and.to add new programs in business administration.)“1

 

Eélbid., p. 4.

.“lNational Education Council, “Brief Information.”
Op. cit., p. 13

47

The campus_is located outside Bangkok and Offers degrees
at the Master's level.

National Education Council The National Education Council
traces its history back to 1956, when the government
leaders under Prime Minister Pibul and the universities,
felt the demand for trained manpower, the need for rapid
development of higher education, and the avoidance Of‘
unnecessary duplication. As a result of these concerns
the University Council was created in the same year with
25 members under the leadership Of the Prime Minister.

In 1959, Prime Minister Sarit appointed a Committee
for Planning and Improvement of Education under Luang
Vichitvadakan. The report of that committee led to the
founding of the NEC on August 28, 1958, at which time the
University Council and office were absorbed into the new
agency. As originally set up there were 90 members, a ’
number larger than that of the National Economic DevelOp-
ment Board, a point which the Prime Minister emphasized
to point up the importance of the NEC in the Development
Plans for Thailand. This number was later reduced to the
more workable size of fifty in 1965.“2

6 According to the Act of the National Education
Council of 2502 (1959), the functions of the NEC are as

 

gzNational EduCation Council, ”NatiOnal Education

Council Keeps Growing,“ Bangkok: 1967. pp. 1-2. (Mimeo-
graphed.)

48

follows:

1.

To set up the Educational Scheme and Projects of
the nation to suit the conditions of the country
to correSpond with the economic and administrative
programmes of the country.

To study various educational problems and suggest
possible solutions.

. To study annual reports and evaluate them.

To set up the plan of raising educational funds and

. advise the babinet in order to get such financial

means for different levels of education.

To study the annual budgets allotted for Universities.
To consider the setting up, the transferring and the
dissolving Of Universities.

To consider the setting up, the dissolving and
uniting faculties or academic departments in a uni-
versity. A

To study and give its approval to the planning of

the university curricula. 3 ,

The distinguished scientist, Dr. Kamhaeng Balankura,

was named the first Secretary-General and Nai Phuchong

Bhengsri now serves as his deputy in the rapidly expanding

organization.

A new National Scheme of Education was drafted by the

National Education Council in 1960, and was put into force

in April, 1961. The new scheme discussed the Aims of Edu-

cation, the Levels of Education, the School System,

Compulsory Education and General Policies. / The Aims of

Thai Education are:

1.

The Thai peOple shall be educated according to their
individual capacities, so that they Should be moral
and cultured citizens, with discipline and reSponsi-
bility; with good health, mental and physical; and
with a democratic outlook. They should be given
knowledge and ability to carry out an occupation
useful to their country and nation.

”3'National Education Council Act 2502' (Bangkok:

2502), p. 2.

49

2. Boys and girls should receive education in school
up to the age of fifteen at least.

3. Boys and girls should strive to gain knowledge and
experiences that will serve useful purposes in their
lives.

4. Education shall be carried out to serve the needs
of the individual as well as those of society, in
harmony with the economic and political systems of
the country. It Shall comprise, inter alia.

a. Moral education - that aSpect of education which
deals with ethics and refinement, more reSponsi-
bility, and with the Spirit of service.

b. Physical education — that aSpect which deals

. with the promotion of good health, mental and
physical, and a Sporting Spirit.

c. Intellectual education - that aSpect which deals
with the improvement Of thinking, and with the
acquisition Of knowledge, techniques and prin-
ciples conducive to a useful and happy life.

d. Practical education - that aspect which deals
with habits of industry, and perseverance, and
with the training in manual skills that are
basic to good living and occupation.

Four levels of Education were set. Pre-school was
to prepare children for elementary education. Elementary
education is to be the level which aims to ”promote the
development of children towards effective learning and
desirable behaviour,” and consists of a four year junior
school and three year senior school. Secondary education
is to explore and promote the interests and aptitudes of
boys and girls "in order to prepare them for an occupation
or further education,” and consists of a lower and upper
school, each consisting of not more than three grades or
forms. The last level delineated by the Scheme is higher
education.

 

. u“"Announcement: The National Scheme Of Education,”
Published in a Special issue of the Government Gazateer,
VOl. 77. Part 86. 20th October, B.E. 2503 (1960), p. 1.

50

Elementary education is considered theITQTtOf all
children, and secondary education, while not available to
all children, must take individual differences into consi-
deration, and be divided into an academic and a vocational
stream. Education is recognized as a prime function of
the state, and all educational institutions are to be
under its supervision. Private education under state
regulation is to be encouraged, and adult education is to
be advanced.45

It is the government's intention to increase the
compulsory education level from four grades to seven, but
the final accomplishment of this is many years in the
future. The NEC drafted the six year plan of Education
for 1961-1966 with the Ministry of Education being reSpons-
ible for 137 projects dealing with the implementation of
the National Scheme of Education, and the NEC working on
some 45 projects dealing Specifically with such aSpects,
of higher education as standards, building construction,
research and the establishment Of new faculties and
institutes.“6

(:On of the major tasks of the NEC in its eight years
of existence has been the establishment of four insti-
tutions of higher.education. The late Field Marshal Sarit

 

“51bid., pp. 2-5.

‘uéKamhaeng Balankura, ”The NatiOnal Education
Council Of Thailand" (Bangkok: NEC, 1964), p. 4.

51
Thanarat saw the need for provincial universities and
gave NEG the reSponsibility for their development. His
great interest in education is seen in the following
quotation:
The progress Of the nation depends on the education
Of its peOple because education and economic condition
should go hand in hand. Provided that the national
education is good, the economic condition will be good
also. Whenever the national economy is good, the
national education will get more financial support.
The national education is, theregcre, correlated to
the national economic condition.

Chiengmai University was opened in 1965, with 291
students, but this enrollment has grown to 2,041 in 1967.
In the initial planning stages, the Ministry of Education
had charge of the University's development, but the re-
Sponsibilities were turned over to the NEC in 1964 prior
to the Opening of the university. The university, while
truly a national institution, is serving a greater number
of students from the northern provinces each year.

The University Of the Northeast was approved in 1965
at the first general meeting of the NEC. From the very
beginning, the NEC was charged with the development and
organization of the university. The university has been
aided by Australia and New Zealand. and Canada which have

provided 20 scholarhips for graduate degrees to several

faculty members each. New Zealand aided in setting up the

faculty Of agriculture, and Canada, the faculty of engineering.

”7Ihid., p. 5.

52

The University of the South was deve10ped by a
committee under the chairmanship of the Foreign Minister,
Colonel Thanat Khoman, with NEC involvement in reviewing
plans and budgets and in faculty procurement.“8

The National Institute for DevelOpment Administration
was set up to train graduate students in the fields Of
Public Administration, Business Administration and Applied
Statistics, in addition to its role as an in—service
training center for civil service officials. Once again,
the role of NEC has been one of reviewing plans and budgets
and procuring faculty members.1+9 /)

Another important part of the NEC work_has been in
the area of manpower and educational development Of higher
education. In this area, the NEC and Educational Planning
Office of the Ministry Of Education have been aided by a
team of consultants from Michigan State University<under
the initial leadership of Dr. Raymond Hatch, and more
recently under Dr. Archibald Shaw. The major projects have
been a Secondary Study completed in 1966 and a Higher Edu-
cation Staff Analysis completed in 1968. In addition to
these two large projects, many short-term consultants have
come to aid in the solution Of various problems. Two tour

groups of Thai university Officials and professors have
been.sent to the.United States, and five officers of the

 

“BNEC. 'NEC Keeps Growing.” pp. pip., pp. 14-l7o
#9Kamhaeng, pp. cit., p. 6.

53

NEC have received their master's degrees in educational
administration, while studying on grants provided by the
contract.50’},
A recent addition to the varied program Of the NEC
is the University Development Commission (UDC) which was
established on May 31, 1967.( In 1964, General NetrKhem-
ayadhin toured United States universities at the request
of the Rockefeller Foundation, following which Dean Moody
Prior of Northwestern University came to Thailand to con-
sult on higher and graduate education. These visits re-
sulted in the formation of standing committee_of the NEC
to deal with the problems Of graduate schools. In 1966,
Dean John E. Ivey, Jr., of Michigan State University
served as a Special consultant on higher education, and
noted the great lack of well-qualified instructors. He
suggested the establishment Of a Special body to aid the
Thai universities in building their capacity to give
Master's and Doctor's degrees, thus cutting down on the
great expense and wasted time involved in graduate training
overseas. ( .

A Planning Committeefiunder Prince wan Waithayakorn,

\ .
tsputy Prime Minister,}completed the plans for the UDC.
The.Commission has been set up for ten years, with the

 

50”The Organization of the Office of the National
Education Council.” Quarterly RepOrt Of the Michigan State
Educational Planning Team, pp. 1-9.

54

major task of producing a sufficient quantity and quality
of advanced degrees to meet the developmental needs of the
nation.( It is also charged with the responsibility of
developing a Ten-Year Development Plan for higher education
in Thailand.) The first priority project was a study of the
teaching of English as a second—language, which has re-
sulted in establishment of an English Language Center to
train graduate students going to the U.S. or England. The
second priority project, now underway, is a study of facul-
ties and facilities in the sciences.( Dr. Sippanondha
a noted physicist, has been appointed chairman of the
Commission and Office Space has been set aside in the NEC
Building.51

( Another important function of the NEC is the establish-
ment and improvement of facilities and departments. In its
eight years of existence, the NEC has approved the esta-
blishment of fifteen faculties and eighty-six departments.
In addition to the approval of these, it has aided in the
planning of the new campuses fer Silpakorn University,
Nida and Kasetsart University. 3

The NEC was given the reSponsibility for setting_up.

the rules and regulations to govern private universities,
and early in 1968 the final draft of a prOposed law was
completed. Projects_now underway include the develOpment

of evening classes.in the universities, a survey of agri-

 

51NEC. ”NEC Keeps Growing.” pp. cit., pp. 6-8.

55

cultural education, and a study Of nursing education and
means to increase the supply of trained nurses.

A continuing function of the NEC is the review of the
annual budgets of the universities{ which in 1967 amounted
to over 400 million baht.) The NEC also serves as the
center for the awarding of SEATO scholarships and fellow-
ships, as well as a clearing house for all other inter-
national agencies and foreign governments wishing to Offer
fellowship and aid scholarships to Thai students and
professors.( The NEC has increasingly become the Thai
Spokesman for education internationally, with Dr. Kamhaeng's
membership and leadership in such organizations as the
World University Service and some Of the activities of
SEAMES. (The South East Asian Minister of Education
Secretariat)52 >

Data collection is an important function of the NEC
with the leadership of Dr. Thamrong Bhengsri on the newly
formed Educational Data Center.: Statistics are collected
in the Annual University census on budgets, students,
faculty, libraries, and many other important pieces of
information. The NEC also serves as the Data Collection
Center for all Offices which have any responsibility for
education.

The National Education Council is a growing and
changing.organization. Early in 1968, an administrative

 

521b1do’ ppa 12-130

56

reorganization was drawn up with the aid of a Michigan
State University consultant.

In the Services Division, the University Services
Department has reSponsibility for scholarships, exchange
programs and other things to help both students and faculty
members. It is also reSponsible for the administration of
Common.UniverSity Entrance Examination. The department of
Conferences and Seminars is headed by a first class officer
as are all of the other departments. Its reSponsibilities
include all of the logistics for meetings and conferences
in addition to the planning Of professional and inter-
disciplinary conferences for teachers and professors. The
reference library and publications of the NEC are under
the Information and Library Department. The publications
include the monthly bulletin of the Office of the NEC in
addition to research findings and technical bulletins
which relate to education in Thailand.53

// The reSponsibilities and goals of the Research Depart-
ment are well summed up in the bulletin on the New Structure
of the NEC:

A If the Office of the National Education Council is

to fulfill its reSponsibilities to help the develOpment
of education in Thailand it needs to bring to its staff
persons who are knowledgeable in the area of research.
This means persons who understand and can apply researCh

methods and techniques, gather data and interpret same,
and can develoP educational models. The research phase

would not only.reSpond to projects submitted by various

53NEC."New Organization Structure” (Bangkok: NEC,
1968 ) , ppa 1-6a

57

schools and agencies associated with education in

Thailand, but should initiate studies make projections,

etc., to anticipate new develOpments.3

Within the Operations Division of the NEC an Educa-
tional Data Center has been set up in OOOperation with
the National Statistical Office, the Ministry of Edu-
cation and the universities. The use of the information
stored in the Data-Bank is available for use in reports
and in making policy decisions. The University Civil
Service Commission has charge of maintaining personnel
records on university faculty members and also recom-
mends promotions and the hiring Of new staff members.55

The University Library and Book Rental Project is in
the Special Projects Division and has charge of acquiring
books for University libraries with a fund of $200,000
contributed by the Thai government and USOM. It also is
responsible for the book rental program which has been in
Operation for two years.56

The analysis of university budgets, curricula and
facilities is one of the functions of the Analysis and
Evaluation Department which also must assess the progress
of on-going projects and set realistic Objectives for
future research. The final department is that of Project and

Program InvelOpment which is made up of three sections:

 

7

5“Ibid., p. 7.
55Ibid., pp. 9-10.
561bid., pp. 13-14.

58

Elementary, Secondary, and Higher Education. This Depart-
ment is to advise the committees on Elementary, Secondary
and Higher Education, oversee the development of the Uni-
versity Of the South, advise in teacher education, and
agricultural education, and of greatest importance, to
organize a Kingdom—wide educational planning program on
all levels and to make recommendations to the Council for
projects to ameliorate the education system in Thailand.57
Testing in Thailand

Examinations are playing an increasingly more important
role in Thailand. As the pressures for admittance to lower
and upper secondary schools and the universities increase,
examinations will in all likelihood continue to be used as
the chief or only selection device. Standardized testing
is a comparatively new thing in Thailand, having been
instituted approximately ten years ago. Since that time,
quite a number of persons have received training in the
field of tests and measurement, with several having earned
doctorates from the United States. This nucleus, con-
sisting of approximately eighty people, has been the
source Of much of the agitation in recent years for more
valid and reliable examinations Of all types and for all

8.888.

 

57lbid., pp. 16-17.

59

The first important admission examination is given by
each secondary school for students who have successfully
completed grade seven. These examinations are not standardized,
being prepared independenltly by each school. Many who fail
to get into one Of the better lower secondary schools run by
the government enter a private one, if they can afford the
tuition. At the end of grade ten, a leaving examination is
given. These have been standardized on a provincial basis
within the past two years and the Ministry Of Education has
indicated that they will soon be given on a nationwide basis,
Students are then required to pass an entrance examination
for grade 11. Formerly this was an examination made up and
given by each upper secondary school, but recently it too
has been standardized on a pnwince—wide basis and is con-‘
sidered by many to be one of the better prepared examinations.
The M35 examination for secondary graduation and the JHEEE
are dealt with in detail in the next section.

The Test Bureau at the College of Education has pre-
pared a test for use at the end of grade ten to select
students for normal schools. It has been given nationwide
and has been thoroughly analyzed by test experts for
reliability and validity. Other tests by~the same Test
Bureau have been deve10ped for selecting students for
the Bachelor's degree program at the College of

Education and an Objective test for grades three and

60

four, measuring both aptitude and achievement.58
Achievement tests have been prepared for use in the

lower elementary grades. These tests were developed by
the Department of Elementary and Adult Education, a
Department which is now in somewhat of aulame-duckuposition
due to the switch in jurisdiction of the elementary schools
from the Ministry of Education to the Ministry of the
Interior. The Department of Educational Techniques has
adOpted Thurston's Primary Mental Abilities Test for use
in the first seven grades in Thailand, and the Department
of VOcational Education, with the aid Of the Thai-German
Technical Institute has developed various tests of mechani-
cal aptitude.59

(fA recent development in standardized testing has been
the work of several testing experts at the College of Edu-
cation under Dr. Arthur Hill and Dr. Pote Sapianchai.
These men, working under USAID, have been develOping tests
for use in the selection of students for vocational schools
at the end of M83 (grade 10). Technical and commercial
batteries have been constructed with the tests being
given in January, 1967. Multiple correlationSEOf .60 and
-70.have been.obtained, and the test seems to be a valid

 

58Chaval Paeratakul, interview held in Bangkok,
February, 1968.

59Victor Noll, “Draft Proposal for DevelOpment of

Standardized Achievement Tests and Standardized Mental
Ability Tests for Use in the Elementary and Secondary
Schools of Thailand,'”East Lansing, 1966, pp. 13-14.

61

instrument. The same group has been assigned the reSponsi-
bility for developing the examinations to select students
for the initial common year in the recently Opened com-
prehensive secondary schools, and to classify the students
at the end of their first year into the academic,. tech-
nical and commercial branches Of the schools. This second
project is just getting underway and may not be completed
dmeto the USOM cancelling of the contract, funds.60 )

In addition to the changes in the M85 and the JHEEE,
an aptitude test for university admissions has recently
been constructed. It is in the process of being tested
at the present time, but the chances Of its being used
for university admission in the near future seem quite
Slim, due to the skepticism of important officials about
the examination's validity and reliability.

(TA recent change of directors of the Civil Service
Examination has brought about significant changes in that
important area of testing. Most government employees are
required to take a civil service examination to gain
government appointment. A majority of the university
graduates enter the civil service at the third grade level
and vast numbers of secondary graduates and those with
some college education enter as fourth class Officers in
the various government offices. In the past these exami-

nations were almost completely subjective, with questions

 

6oArthur Hill, interview held in Bangkok, February,
1968 .

62

in general knowledge, cultural subjects, Thai language,
English language, civil service law enduregulations,
practical subjects, and an oral examination. The following
are some questions from a representative fourth-class

competitive examination.
Questions on the Civil Service Examination
General Knowledge - Part one
1. What is the meaning Of the words ”civil servant?"
2. What are the classes and positions of civil
servants...?

4. What does "culture" mean?....

6. What is a ”good citizen?”
8. What are the duties of the Constituent Assembly?...

Thai Language
Write an essay of at least 25 lines on the tOpic
"Life as a woman is difficult, but life as a man
is more difficult.“

English Language
1. Translation of a simple paragraph into Thai....

CorreSpondence
1. Write a letter conveying certain Specified
information.

Handwriting
1. Write 200 words on a subject.

Typing
1. Type a coPy of an official letter. 61

Other examinations given by the Civil Service include the
Selective Intake Examinations in which a department may
test.for.Specific qualifications needed for a job. The

 

'” 61william J. Siffin. The Thai Bureaucracy: Insti-
tutional'Change and Development (Honolulu: East-West Center
Press, 1966), pp. 182-183.

63

third type involves promotion examinations given when a
person is ready to move up a class. Not all must take
these, as one can be promoted on the basis Of seniority,
by acquiring a degree abroad, or through social connections.

In.most cases the examinations contained little va-
lidity except that any candidate who took the time to
memorize all the extraneous information would probably
fit quite well into the bureaucratic mold. In 1967, Dr.
Vilars, a testing expert, was appointed director Of the
examination and in a very short time has instituted
sweeping changes. Realizing the impossibility of any
objectivity in grading the former examinations, and realizing
theirlack Of validity, he has instituted an objective exam-
ination, using the same titles for sections, but including
entirely different subject matter. This was done so as
not to antagonize those who Oppose the Objective testing
movement.

The new examination consists of three separate tests.
The first is an I.Q. or test Of mental abilities, and the
second a knowledge of government rules and regulations
necessary for civil service. The last section tests for
general knowledge and Special abilities. The examination
is new so it is just now being tested for reliability and
validity, but it will hopefully be a much better predictor
62

of government success than the former examination.

 

_Y

6 62Dr. Vilars, interview held in Bangkok, February,
19 8.

64

Two reports, published in 1966, pointed out the great
need for research Ini. the examination system and the de-
velOpment of new and more valid and reliable instruments.
The Secondary Study concluded that the practical effect
of:

...the examination system has been to act as a highly
restrictive factor impeding further educational attain-
ment by a large number of students.63

It went on to point out the prevailing view among
students of education consisting Of preparing for and
passing examinations. It pointed to the following sta-
tistics as an indication Of the extent to which the exami-
nation System had affected the entire educational system.
The data is presented on Chart 3.1.

The Secondary Study went on to recommend the develop-
ment of a nation-wide, objectively based examination to be
used first for an assessment of educational attainment and
only secondarily as a selection device. It also recommended
the doing away with all entrance examinations in the ele-
mentary schools. The last prOposal was to encourage students
to attend and see the school near their homes by adopting
a zoning policy.6u

The second study was by Dr. Victor Noll. In his pros
posal for a standardized achievement and aptitude battery,

he.concluded his discussion of the need for such a program

 

63Educational Planning Office, pp. cit., p. 185.

61"Ibid., p. 186.

65

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66

with_these comments on testing in Thailand:
...while some activity in test development has taken
place the work has been sporadic. More important,
there is little indication Of more having been done
than what is preliminary in serious test development....
Correlation and item analysis, attempts to build alter-
nate forms, establish norms or to carry out the other
elements Of the usual standardizagion process seem not
to have been completed anywhere. /)

The recent changes in the civil service examination,
the new tests being developed by the two bureaus at the
College of Education, and the growing numbers of trained
experts in the field of testing give hope for the future. j

The state of testing in Thailand can be pictured as
one of slow, but sure growth and understanding. Those
trained in the field and those sympathetic to the objective
standardized testing movement see the great need, but do
not dare to move too quickly. They want to be sure that
when a test is used, it is of proven validity and relie
ability, SO that their critics, and these include many
high ranking Officials, will not be able to stop their
work on the grounds that the "Old“ way of doing things
was better. The future seems bright, however, as some

Officials who formerly Opposed any change are now willing

to concede the need for Objective tests.

 

66Noll, pp. ppp., p. 14.

67

University Admission in Thailand

Admission to higher education is something which
begins much earlier than that process which takes place
between the close Of secondary education and actual enroll-
ment in higher education. In fact, it could be argued that
in a developing country such as Thailand, admission to
higher education begins at birth, as the chances of a
student's receiving a university education are vitally
affected by the family into which he is born, the area of
the country in which he resides, the racial group to which
he belongs, the student's sex, the economic status of the
parents, and a great many factors beyond the control of
the individual.67

Beyond the socio-economic factors, which determine
the child's chances for higher education, there are a series
of hurdles within the educational system over which a stu-
dent must pass to become a member of the admission's group.
The first Of these hurdles has traditionally been an exami-
nation by which students pass from Pratom 4, into upper
elementary, Pratom 5-7. The statistics for 1964 Show the
impact that this examination has along with many other
sociological factors in limiting further educational
Opportunity for Thai children. Pratom 4 had an enrollment
of 777,400, while Pratom 5 had only 180,422. Pratom 1 had

 

67Most of the information contained in this section
has notbe'en put in writing, but was obtained from interviews
with over one-hundred knowledgeable university and govern-
ment Officials.

68-
an enrollment for the same year of 1,285,553, showing that
by grade 5 only 13% Of the original admission's group were
still enrolled in the schools. In 1960, the Thai govern-
ment declared its intention Of increasing the level of
compulsory education to grade 7, but it will be many years
before this is enforceable.

The second hurdle within the educational system comes
during the upper elementary period of schooling when the
number of students dropped from 180,422 in Pratom 5 to
114,325 at Pratom 7. A formal hurdde must be overcome to
enter M81, the first year of secondary school. Students
must pass examinations given by the individual secondary
schools, so that only 94,165 actually entered secondary
school. By the beginning of secondary school, the admission's
group consists of only 7% Of the eligible pOpulation.

The third hurdle, or actually a pair of hurdles,
comes at the end of Maw Saw 3, when students passboth a
leaving examination given on a provincewide basis, and an
entrance examination to upper secondary school. It is also
at this point that students are divided into three groups;
general education consisting of arts and sciences, voca-
tional training, and teacher education. Though students
who enter teacher training and vocational schools are not
eliminated from the university, due to the fact that they .

can take an equivalency examination for an M85 certificate,

their chances of entering the university are much smaller.

The university admissions group is essentially limited,

69
therefore, to those in the arts and sciences, who total
30,392 in M84 and only 17,928 in M85. It is thus evident
that only a little more than 1% Of the original admission's
group is still enrolled in the last year of secondary
school.

Thai students must still face two more hurdles before
being admitted to the university. Approximately 70% pass
the first hurdle, the M85 examination, reducing the ad-
missions group tO arOund 13,000. Of this number only about
5000 each year are able to pass the Joint Higher Education
Entrance Examination, the final step in university admission.
Less than 3/100 Of 1% enter universities in Thailand, thus
making it one of the more select pOpulations in higher
education around the world. (The pyramid on the following
page vividly portrays the enrollment at the various levels.”

It is abundantly evident from the preceding discussion
that most Of the pOpulation has been eliminated long before
reaching the point of the final decision on admittance to
the university. The question can be legitimately raised:
How are they eliminated? In other countries, three factors
are Often considered in the selection process. Students
are selected for further education by examinations,
orientation and the various limitations on Opportunity.

In Thailand, the selection throughout the system is thought
tO be solely based on the use of external examinations,

which are supposed to be a fair and objective selective

70

Chart 3.2

apes

'aehm
sees

lumzs

mpg:
moan

Tflhfil‘
mesa?
4383562

8 53

 

 

. .68Educational'Planning Office, Secondary Education
Pr grams, pp.cit., p. 130

t‘ll '. a ‘

 

 

71

device. A counseling and guidance system has been prOposed
for use in the new comprehensive schools, but at the pre-
sent time, studentorientationis almost non-existent as

a selection device in Thailand. The third selection device
is the limitation of opportunity, by such factors as lack
of schools in the rural areas, the costs of education,:
both overt and hidden, and the lack of motivation or drive
to continue one's education.( These are dealt with in
greater detail in the discussion in Chapter V dealing with
residence, sex, race, religion and other factors which.
serve as the underlying causes for eventual admission or
rejection to the universities.)

, University admission prior to 1962, was a matter left .
Strictly up to each academic inadmnmion. Procedures varied,
but in most cases, a student was required to be a graduate
of a secondary school or have equivalent education, pass
an entrance examination given by the university to which
he was applying, and in some cases to pass an interview.)
This procedure worked, as long as the number of candidates
was limited to 2000 or 3000 a year. With the rapid expan-
sion of secondary education there were soon far more can-
didates than there were positions available in the uni-
versities. This rapid expansion is seen in these figures
for Maw Saw 5, the final year of secondary school. Approxi-

mately one-fourth of these-students were in vocational
schools and in most cases not eligible for university

72

entrance, and another third fail to pass the M85 examination,
but this still leaves around 18,000 candidates applying for
8000 places in the universities.
Table 3.3
Enrollment Trends

 

 

Year New Saw 5 Total M8 1-5
1956 105103 1555373
1958 135729 2335870
1960 25.131 294,055
1962 29.193 3275542
1964 329531 3485931
1966 estimated 6,000 91,000
1968 projection 0,000 77,000
1970 51,000 591,000
1975 72,000 '758,000..
1980 93,000 1,001,0006
1986 128,000 1,397,000 9

 

Prior to 1962, most candidates could be admitted to
one of the institutions,and those who failed to pass the
entrance examinations of the faculties of their choice
were admitted to Thammasat University which had an open-
door policy until that time. {The first joint examination
was conducted in 1961, by the National Education Council,
for the University of_Medical Sciences and Kasetsart Uni-
versity: In 1962, 10,000_candidates were eligible for
university admission. Nine thousand applied to Chulalong-
korn University, $00 to Thammasat University and 7000 to
the University of Medical Sciences and Kasetsart University.

This meant that there were several thousand candidates who

took all three entrance examinations. Seven hundred candle

73

dates were admitted to all three universities and thereby
causing 1400 vacancies in other institutions. This set

Off a chain reaction, with each faculty having to announce
for candidates next in merit to present themselves. It
sometimes took a week to fill a faculty with students, with
the result that some faculties were two months late in
starting the 1961 school year.

/”It was therefore decided to have the National Edu-
cation Council coordinate a joint entrance examination for
all the universities for the 1962 school year., This it
has been doing except for 1964, when Chulalongkorn demanded
the right to give its own examination following the death
of Prime Minister Sarit, who had originally instituted a
joint examination. The chaos, however, which resulted in
that year caused the universities to return to the joint
examination, which is still in existence today.70

From the original four universities involved in the
joint examination, the number has grown to twelve,
including the following institutions:

Kasetsart University

Khonkaen University

Chulalongkorn University

Chiengmai University

Thammasat University

University of Medical Sciences

Silpakorn University

Southern University

Thonburi Technical Institute

College of Education

College of Telecommunication
National Institute of DevelOpment Administration

 

70Kamhaeng Balankura, interview in Bangkok, January,
1968.

74

The merits of the joint examination have been listed by the
N.E.C. as follows:

1. It provides a solution to the problem Of resulting
vacancies.

2. On the whole, candidates could eventually choose
the fields closest to their requirements, being
allowed as many as Six choices in order of preference
at the various institutes. Admission of candidates
is considered on the basis of both the examination
results and the needs Of the individual candidates
in orcer of merit.

3. It saves not only funds, but time and energy on the
part of the students, the parents and the examination
committee. The students do not have to waste time ’
and money taking three to four entrance examinations
at various institutes which would involve more or
less the same subjects or topics.

4. Joint entrance examinations such as this would help
scatter the better students in the various institutes
Of higher learning.

5. It enables the collection Of accurate statistics
which would be Of value in the im rovement and
organization Of higher education.

The questions for the examination are prepared by a
committee of Six members. These individuals are professors
at the various participating institutions, and are chosen
for their competence in a particular field. Each submits
a list Of questions, the best of which are then chosen
for use on the examination. At first, most of the questions
were of the essay type, but due to the vast number of candi-
dates, pressures from testing experts, and the desire to
cover a broader segment of a field, more of the questions

are.now of the short answer variety. Seventeen patterns

 

71Thailand Official Yearbook: 1964, pp, cit., p. 495.

75

of examinations were given in 1967, but the number has

been cut back in 1968 to eight. Fields tested in 1967
included Social Science, English, Thai, Mathematics,(Elem.),
General Science, Biology, Mathematics, Chemistry, Physics,
Drawing, French, German and Special subjects. Each fa-
culty has the right to designate which examinations the
candidate must sit for, and this may total anywhere from
three to five.

Students fill out application forms prepared by the
National Education Council. A fee of 310 (50¢) is charged
for each examination taken, the students taking an average
of seven examinations, as most choose several faculties
requiring different tests. A student makes six choices
of faculties. This number was chosen, according to the
Secretary-General Of the NEC, because it was found that .
students seldom desired to enter more than six faculties,
and many never even showed up if appointed to their Sixth
choice. It has been found, however, that some good stu-
dents who picked six very difficult faculties to enter,
failed to make it into any of them and thus poorer students
were admitted to other faculties. For this reason, a
computer may be used so that students may choose up to
twenty faculties.

'The examination is given in the middle of April each
year, approximately one month after the New Saw 5, secondary
graduation examination. In the intervening month a large

percentage of the students attend coaching schools dis-

76

cussed in detail in Chapter V.) Results Of the M85 exami-
nation arejgenerally not known, so most M85 students finish-
ing that'year, plus a large number who failed in previous
years sit to take the Joint Higher Education Entrance Exami-
nation. In addition tO these two groups there are a large
number of equivalency students and vocational and teacher
education graduates who take the examination.72 Tln 1967,
the totals were as shown on the chart on the following page.
An analysis of the results of the examination is given in
Chapter V.

The examination is given in Bangkok and Chiengmai with
students having to go to one of these two locations to take
it. University professors and 3rd grade civil servants
are used as proctors for the examination, and once the
examinations have been graded, approximately one hundred
students from the University of Medical Sciences process
the scores and assign students to the apprOpriate faculties.
This large use of university students has sometimes com-
promised the secrecy of examination scores, so that in 1967
an estimated 1000 students knew the results of the exami-
nation prior to their publication.

The examinations are graded in approximately two weeks,
by the end of April. Those making up a particular question

are reSponsible ferrite grading, meaning that some are re-

Sponsible.for_10,000 essays. Often the person responsible

 

6 72Prasit Tulyathorn, interview in Bangkok, March,
19 8.

77

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78
for grading a particular question will assign it to junior
members of his department. Seldom, if ever, is a question
read by more than one person. The members of the examining
and grading committees are paid for their work on the exami-
nation.

Once the students have been assigned to a faculty on
the basis of their scores and their choices, manyfaculties
require 811. interview, which almost all students pass.
Students in medical science must take an aptitude test for
further placement as must students in some other faculties.7u
Students who fail the examination may retake it as many
times as they wish, though the chances of getting in are
Slimmer each year.

The university entrance examination is passed on the
basis of one's total score on all examinations taken, rather
than by individual fields. Thus, many students were admitted
to a science faculty on the basis Of an extremely high English
score, even though their science scores were quite low. This
problem is further analyzed in Chapters V'and VI.

The Joint Higher Education Entrance Examination has
been the subject of much discussion in the past two years
at all levels of government. In July, 1966, the First
Seminar on Higher Education met, and a discussion was held
on the buprovement of the entrance examination and the

providing of better devices to measure achievement. Three

 

1968 7“Kamchorn Manunpichu, interview in Bangkok, January,

79

criteria for a good candidate for the university were laid
down: thorough knowledge, intelligence, and adaptability.
Three methods of selection were set forth: (1) In the _
November prior to the students taking the M85 examination,
an aptitude test to measure intelligence should be given
as the basis for university admission. (2) The results
of the M85 examination in March should be accepted as the
principle for measuring student achievement. (3) The
students should have a high aptitude test score, have know-
ledge in needed subjects as measured by achievement tests,
and pass an interview before being admitted to the uni-
versity. The committee adOpted the third method giving
the following reasons: The National Education Council is
a good/clearing house, and the M85 examination is a test
of student memory, so another examination needs to be given.
The Aptitude Test will take at least ten years to develop,
and another examination is needed, anyway,to take care of
those students who failed in previous years or attended
programs other than that leading to the M85 examination.
The result of the committees deliberations were passed on
to the NEC and a new committee was appointed to further
study and improve the method of university selection.

The first meeting of 1967 of the NEC held on January
26, was Spent in a discussion of the Joint Higher Education

Entrance Examination. The Council decided to once again

use a joint examination rather than each university giving

80

its own. In November, 1967, the Executive Committee of

the NEC and the Special investigation committee recommended
to the full council that they should approve the M85 exami-
nation results as the final method for student entrance to
the universities. It was felt that if the M85 examinations
were used it would greatly arouse student interest during
their elementary and secondary schooling, and would have

a profound effect on the improvement of secondary educatipn
in the rural areas. The method suggested was for all M85
students to take their examinations as usual, and if they,
desired to enter a faculty requiring other examinations,
they should take those also, even though they were not
necessary for secondary graduation. Students who were not
in M85 at the time, but had completed it in previous years,
or who were enrolled in vocational or teacher education
schools, were to take a Special examination, with a score
being the equivalent of the M85 examination, thus providing
some comparability. Based on past statistics, the committees
recommended a quota of 60% from present M85 students and
40% from other sources. An Aptitude Test should be de-
ve10ped for use by faculties and departments, but cannot

be used until sufficient research has demonstrated its
reliability and validity.

The reasons given by the committee for the proposed

81

change were as follows:

(1)
(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)
(6)

(7)

To give a greater importance to the M85 examination.

To arouse student interest and raise the standard
of education.

To foster'and arouse an improvement plan for
secondary schools in each region.

To decrease the number of part-time short courses.
(coaching schools).

To make it fairer for every type of student.

To save time, labor, and money for the student and
the government.

The method would give similar results to that used
at the present time.75

When the report of the investigation and Executive

Committees was taken to the full National Education Council

meeting, it was defeated by a 17-15 vote. Those who voted

against it pointed to disagreement on the part of several

of the committee members, and said that if the committee

itself was not convinced of the change, the subject was in

need Of further study.

In 1968, the Joint Higher Education Entrance Exami-

nation is tO be given once again in addition to the M85.

An Aptitude Test has been deve10ped and has been tested,

but will not be used this year in deciding a candidate's

qualifications to enter the University.

The M85 examinations, as was mentioned earlier, are

given.at.the end of a students secondary work, in the

 

75N'atiOnal Education Council, minutes of meetings

of January 26, 1967.

82

beginning of March. There are three separate groups of
examinations, depending on a students program: science,
arts and general.

The M85 examination in the sciences has the following
breakdown of tests with a total possible score of 1000
points. A student must obtain a score of 500 total to pass.
In 1967, 59% of the students sitting for the examination

passed.

Table 3.5

Possible Points on Each Section of the M85 Examination

 

 

Thai 2 exams 70 + 50* = 120
English 2 exams 100 + 70' = 170
Social Studies 3 exams 35 + 35 + 50‘”* = 120
Mathematics 6 exams 60 + 20 + 20 + 50 + 40 + 50’2‘240
Physics 2 exams 70 + 70 ** = 140
Chemistry 1 exam 70 = 70
Biology 1 exam 70 = 70
Practical Exams in 35 + 35 = 70
Science
Total Points =1000

 

The questions for the examination are prepared by
University professors in thekrreSpective disciplines at~the invi-
tation of the Ministry of Education. Selected teachers of

high quality from the secondary schools are also invited to
submit questions, but only University and Ministry of Edu-

 

*Indicates two tests: comprehension and grammar
**Indicates that tests in several areas Of the sumbject
matter are given

83

cation Officials select the questions soaas to keep any
questions from getting out.

It is hOped that starting in the near future, the M85
examination will be graded on time, so that only those who
pass it would take the Joint Higher Education Entrance
Examination. Last year the unique situation arose with
some 118 students taking the Joint Higher Education Entrance
Examination and passing it, only to find that they had
failed to pass the M85 examination for secondary education.

The M85 examination is the only basis for secondary
graduation in Thailand. Daily work, mid-year examinations,
quizzes and classroom participation count nothing at the
M85 level. In MS 1-4, the mid-year examination and daily
work count anywhere from 0-50% of the final grade, de-
pending on the institution. Those institutions with
Americans on their staff or which were started by missiene-
aries generally tend to give a greater percentage of the
student's grade for daily work, than the more traditional
and often British-oriented secondary schools. Examples;ef
this are the Wattana School, a private school started by
American Presbyterian Missionaries, which gives 50% credit
for daily work and other examinations. The other extreme
is the Suankulab School, a government secondary school .
which gives only 20% credit for the mid-year examination,
with no. credit for. daily work.76

 

76Interviews with teachers and headmasters at several
Bangkok secondary schools.

84

The importance of the M85 examination and the Joint
Higher Education Entrance Examination is seen in the fact
that most Thai secondary schools Spend from 6-8 weeks at the
end of every school year preparing for these all-important
examinations. In some schools almost one-third of the
classroom time is given over to the review for and taking
of examinations. The examinations are not only important
for the student, whose future depends on his success, but
also for the teacher who is Often rated and given Special
promotions if his students do well on the examination. The
other factor used in analyzing a teacher's performance is
whether he completed the assigned syllabus in the prOper
length of time.

Both the M85 and the JHEEE are considered to be some-
what factual in Orientation, though most consider the M85
to be more of a memory testing examination, while the JHEEE
is considered to test the thought processes to a greater
extent. A study comparing the questions asked on both
examinations has never been conducted, as far as onesean
ascertain. A study of the scores on both examinations,
conducted in 1967, found the distribution of scores to be
similar on both examinations though they were higher on
the M85. Another comparative study was conducted on the
number of examinations and time Spent in each subject area

on the examinations. .The study found that the M85 is a

much more comprehensive examination, giving a student a

much greater chance to demonstrate his knowledge in more

85
aSpectS of a subject field.77
Students may retake the M85 a second time if they

fail it the first time. This examination can be taken at
the mid-year or at the end Of the next school year. Students
may repeat the JHEEE as many times as they wish. A real
problem has arisen, however, in the fact that many students,
particularly in the sciences wish to change faculties at
the end of their first or even their second, third, or
fourth years. This is particularly true of students
wishing to go into medicine, who are assigned to a re-
gular science course, dentistry, pharmacy, or some related
area. These students will Often retake the JHEEE after
their first year in university, and attempt to get into
the medical faculty. If they succeed, as many do on the
basis Of their further schooling, they must begin all over
again in the new faculty Often repeating many if not all
the courses they had successfully passed in their pres
vious year's work. In some cases, formal or informal,
transfer is allowed without repetition. At the present
time, there is no provision for transfer from faculty to
faculty within the same university, much less between
universities.

(The attitude which students take towards examinations
in Thailand is well summarized, though probably exaggerated

by this quotation from Mai Pen Rai, a book written by an

 

1‘68) 77Kamhaeng Balankura, Interview in Bangkok, March,
9 .

86

American teaching at Chulalongkorn University on her
experiences in Thailand.

In Thailand...education has a pathetic and tremen-
dous significance to the family. The Thai have a
passionate belief that education will rescue their
peOple from a sea of troubles. A failure in college
means the most exaggerated sorrow in the home and the
student is drowned by an almost unbearable sense of
having betrayed his family, his university, his country
and his king....Three weeks before examinations the
jolly Chula campus becomes a dark acreage of the
deepest melancholy. The friendly smiles and clusters
of students gloriously doing nothing vanish.p In their
place bedraggled groups of young people with bloodshot
eyes, dark circles, tense and frowning faces...worry,

gloom and threat Of destruction blanket the whole
Chula compound. 8

Recommendations based on the author's research in
Thailand and his own experiences in the field Of admissions

are made in Chapter VI.

 

78Carol Hollinger. Mai Pen Rai Means Never Mind.
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965), p. 98.

Chapter 4: Design
The Sample

The NEC in Thailand has charge of the university ad-
missions for ten institutions Of higher education. In 1967-
1968, 8,231 students were admitted to these institutions
on the basis of their examination scores and their choice
of individual faculties. Due to the intense interest in
the development of the pure sciences and the need to limit
the size of the sample, it was decided to take only those
in the pure-sciences at Kasetsart, Chiengmai and ChuLa-
longkorn Universitiesfi: Other institutions teach courses
in engineering and agriCulture,but only these three offer
bachelor's degrees in the pure sciences:> It was also felt
that it would be Of more value to study determinants of
performance within curricular groupings than to compare
averages across disciplines.

Of the 8,231 first year students, 428 were enrolled
in the faculties of science: 157 in Chulalongkorn day
cLasses, 54 in Kasetsart University, and 1211n5Chiengmai
University. Those students for whom biodata was missing
were dropped from the sample, and students who withdrew
from school before the end of the year were also eli-
minated, so that the final sample consisted of 368 first
year students. Table 4.1 Specifies the nature of the

sample.

87

88

 

 

 

Table 4.1
Variable Number inEach Category
1. Sex Male-198, Female-170. A
19-97. 20-46. 21-7. 22-7.
23 and Older-4.
3. Race Thai-274, Chinese-94
4. Rural-Urban Bangkok-121, Thonburi-32,

Chiengmai-21, Rest of
Country-194.

5. Parent's Occupation Proprietor or Self Employed-
233, Government Official-74,
Employee-14,.Agriculturalist-
27, Other-20.

6. Type Of Secondary Private-189, Public-178,

School Vocational-l.
7. Attended Coaching Yes-225, NO-l43.
School _
8. Choice of Faculty 1-32, 2-85, 3-73, 4-106, 5-58,
6-14.
9. Faculty Chulalongkorn Day ~13?
Chulalongkorn Evening-79
Kasetsart -49
Chiengmai -103
Total 3353'

 

The Instrumentation

For each variable appearing in the data,a rationale
for its inclusion in the study has to be Offered, in
addition to any other essential information which has a
bearing upon the problem.
8s; Many studies. of academic prediction have failed to
control for the sex of the subjects, but those that do,

generally point to a higher achievement level by females.

89
This has not been tested in Thailand, and the changing role
of women in Thai society makes it a topic Of great importance.
Individuals at the highest levels in the Thai government
have recently suggested the curtailing of women's higher
education, even though no studies have been done on female
achievement or on following-up the women after their
graduation from the university.
gppp Subjects were differentiated by race because the
anthrOpological and sociological studies Of Thailand have
pointed to the differences of the Thai, Chinese and Malay
populations, but no studies of academic achievement havé
ever been conducted using this as a variable. It must be
recognized from the outset, however, that the achievement
by any person is the Operation of socio-economic status,
low educational level of parents and other factors than
innate qualities peculiar to the race itself.
Environment Many factors in.a student's environment affect
his attitudes and abilities. The concern here is with the
difference in performance Of students from rural homes and
those from urban homes, and with the differences in per-
formance of students whose parents are in government,
business, employed in the money sector, or in agriculture.
Other factors discussed, but not analyzed from a statis-
tical viewpoint are religion, parent's educational level
and parent's income.
pgp. Age is an important factor because over-age students

have Often failed one or more grades, while under-age

90
students may have skipped a year. Similar studies have
pointed out the importance of this variable in the achieve-
ment level of students.
QHEEE The scores on the JHEEE are dealt with, because it
is the final determinant.of a student's admission to a
university. In most previous studies, the student's total
score was dealt with and low correlations were Obtained.
In this study, however, scores by individual fields are
analyzed along with the total scores, to achieve a higher
level of correlation.
M85 Examination In the past two years there has been
much agitation to get the NEC to use the M85 Examination
as the basis for university admission. For this reason,
an analysis of its validity as a predicting device is in
order.
Coaching Schools Thailand, like many other countries
which depend heavily on examinations for selection purposes,
has found that private coaching schools have Sprung up.
These schools are attended by many thousands of students,
yet no studies have been conducted to see what role they
play in.a student's passing the examinations.
Public and Private Schools NO comparative studies of
university achievement by graduates Of public and private
schools has been conducted in Thailand. The importance
of this is seen in the fact that over 50% of all secondary
students are enrolled in private schools, and preliminary

indications seem to show that they generally perform at

91

a lower level than students in public schools.
Choice of Faculty Students are allowed six choices of
faculties and are admitted on the basis of their JHEEE
score. NO study has been conducted to see if students
who are admitted to their first or second choice faculty
achieve at a higher level than those who were admitted to
a lower level choice, though this has been hypothesized
by several Thai educators.
College Grades The basic yardstick of education is the
judgement of the professors. In Spite Of all their short-
comings, no substitute seems to have been found for grades
or marks. The ultimate criterion is success after college,-
but agreement of what constitutes success is hard to Obtain,
so there seems to be no better Operational index Of success
in college than the attainment of a degree and its essential
prerequisite, satisfactory grades. For these reasons, stu-
dents' grades at the university were used as the dependent
variables in this study.
Statistical Procedures

Two procedures were used in the analysis of the data.
The first procedure tested the individual relationships
between the independent variables such as sex, age or race
and the dependent variables of achievement on the M85
examination, the JHEEE or in the first year at the uni-
versity. It was determined that a simple linear regression
analysis would be most suited to this taSk. The correlation

coefficient has the advantage Of reducing the data to be

92
analyzed to a single composite figure which describes the
overall relationship of two variables.

The second procedure was that of multiple correlation,
also known as multiple regression, which tested the pre-
dictive power of the variables, when used in combination.
For the purposes of performing the multiple correlation,
only thirteen of the original 29 variables were retained:
eight M85 scores and five JHEEE scores. The biographical
variables were drOpped, as the purpose of the analysis
was to test the predictive ability of the examinations.
The total scores 011 the M85 Examination and JHEEE were
not used, due to the impossibility of using a summarizing
variable on the computer. Multiple correlation procedures
make it possible to consider several predictor variables
at one time in predicting a given criteria. Under this
method, the tests selected were given a Specific weight
and the student's probable success in college could be
estimated by a mathematical formula.

Collection Of Data

During the period from June to December, 1967, back-
ground information on Thai society and education was
gathered to aid in a meaningful analysis of the statistical
data which was collected from December, 1967, through
March, 1968.

The biodata information on the science sample was
obtained from the National Education Council and the

National Statistical Office. Information on student

93
achievement was taken from student transcripts at the
Registrar's office in the Faculties of Science at Chula-
longkorn and Kasetsart Universities and the central
Registrar's office at Chiengmai University. The scores
on the JHEEE were gathered from records at the NBC and
those on the M85 examination from the Ministry of Edu-
cation. Student achievement in the universities is based
I on the first grades they received. In Kasetsart University
this means the first semester's grades, while at Chula-
longkorn.and Chiengmai Universities,it means the first
years' grades.
Summary

The pOpulation of the study consisted of 368 students
in the 1967 entering class in the Faculties of Science at
Chulalongkorn, Kasetsart, and Chiengmai Universities.
Biodata, examination scores, and university grades were
collected for each student.

The variables used in the study included sex, race,
residence, age, attendance at a coaching school, attendance
at a public or private school, parent's profession, scores
on the M35 Examination and the JHEEE, and university
achievement. Information on income, educational level of
parents, religion and other significant factors was dealt
with from a non-statistical vieWpoint.

Simple correlations were used to test the relationship
of the biodata to academic achievement, and multiple cor-

relations were used to test the predictive ability of the

94

M85
Exa
mina
tion and th
e JH
EEE

Chapter 5: Analysis of Results

Prior to dealing with the results of the study on eabh
of the sociological and academic variables, an attempt has
been made to give meaningful background information to aid
in the interpretation of the data. This information is
taken from the studies of historians, anthropologists,
sociologists, political scientists and other researchers,
who have written about Thailand. It is not meant to be an
exhaustive analysis of all the available data on a particular
topic, but rather a summary of those findings which are of
importance to this study.
Sex Roles and Academic Achievement

The status of women in Thai society has always been
fairly high when compared to other oriental cultures, and
in recent years, due to universal education, Thai women
have found themselves in an increasingly better position.
In the lower class there may even be true equality between
the sexes, but the upper-class women are more circumscribed
socially. Women are found in all parts of Thai life, with
many in the civil service and business, and an unusually
high number in medicine. One observer credits Thai women
with the important role of being the main bearers of
acculturative changes in the social Sphere because they

have the most to gain by social change.1

 

lJames N. Mosel, Thai Administrative Behavior (Bloom-
ington, Indiana}- Indiana University Press,.l9575, p. 330.

Taken from Toward the Com arative Stud' of Public Admini-
stration by William J. Siffin, ed., 19§7.

95

 

 

96

Unlike many other cultures is Asia, the nuclear family
is emphasized and extended kin relationships deemphasized.
The Thai family has been characterized as being loosely
structured. It is not unusual for a husband and wife to
be teaching in different parts of the country, or for the
husbands to be overseas studying. One couple, known to
the author, was separated for four years with the husband
going to the United States for two, followed by his wife
for two more, while he returned to Thailand. Marriage is
by preference, and divorce is quite simple. Child training
emphasizes self-reliance and independence, and the threat
of rejection or the actual disowning of children happens
more frequently than in the West.

The role of women in Thai society is significantly
affected by the Buddhist religion. If both men and women
were maximizing their merit positions, this would put a
real strain on the marriage, but the Buddhist goals of
each are qualitatively different. A man's major merit-
making is to become a monk, while a woman in giving a son
for ordination obtains the greatest amount of merit.2 Only
men can achieve the highest Buddhist goal so they must be
more sensitized to Buddhist norms. Women are more tied to
”this worldly” concerns due to the limitations on their
merit-making, so women are found in marketing, Operating

market and festival stalls, as well as having a major

 

2A. Thomas Kirsch, ”Buddhism, Sex-Boles, and the
Thai Economy,“ Bangkok: 1962, pp. 11-13 (mimeographed.)

97

voice in household financial affairs. Women are thought
to be rooted in the world by their nature, and not to have
the masculine patience needed to achieve Buddhist goals.
A woman can be calculating due to her orientation to the
world. Kirsch concludes that:
Although the factor of the Thai Buddhist orientation
to action may be only one of the factors operating in
a highly complex situation, it is one that will have
to be taken into account in any plans for the economic
development of Thailand. The present analysis suggests

that important and far-reaching changes will have to
take place in the Thai value system, changes that will

affect the place of Buddhism in Thai society and the
pattern of sex roles....The allocation of ”This Worldly"
concerns in particular economic roles to women, has
allowed men to maximize their Specializations in terms
of merit-mobility and"other Worldly"concerns. 3
Due to rapid social change there is a growing conflict
and confusion in the area of relationships between the
sexes. Young peOple, in particular, are torn between old
standards and new desires. Seweral factors, in addition
to education, have contributed to the new role of women .
in Thai society: the world-wide improved status of women,
improved world communication, western cultural patterns,
a romantic love ideal, eXpanding employment opportunities,
and the breakdown of rigid status groups.
The following occupation chart gives some indication
of the role of women in Thai society today:
Occupational Groups in Thailand
Chinese Dominated Thai Men Dominant
Business clarks, carpenters, furniture makers, repair-

men, machinists, metal workers, miscellaneous technicians,
builders, sailors, barbers, unskilled labor.

 

31bid., pp. 29-32.

98

Chinese Dominated Thai Women Dominant

Large Bus owners, managers; small bus owners, managers;
tailors, jewelers, miscellaneous craftsmen, market
sellers, weavers, dyers, Shoemakers, hotel and res-
taurant employees, actresses, hawkers, petty market
sellers.

Thai Dominated Thai Men Dominant/

High ranking government official, high status pro-
fessionals, high office staff, lower government offi- ‘
cials, government clerks, high status industrial staff,
auto, truck and bus drivers,

 

Thai Dominated Thai Women Dominant

EEEEei‘ahd semi-professional:_cooks, bakers and food

processors, hairdressers, farmers and fishermen,

market gardeners, low status domestic and service.)+
Of the five economic oriented occupations, all occur in
the Thai Women Ibminated section.

In a recent study, 75% of the women interviewed were
employed either full or part-time. It is now more socially
acceptable for a woman to work, and the Opportunities in
developing businesses and industries are very great today.
In a survey of university students,zufi$ of the men and
85.9fl of the women felt that a woman should have a career.5
With the increased cost of living, many women are forced.
to work to maintain and improve their standard of living,
along with making an education possible for their children.
With the desire on the part of modern Thai couples to live

on their own rather than with their parents, come new

expenses forcing.the women out of the home to help make

 

T—fi

91bid., p. 27.

5Alan E. Guskin, Changing values of Thai College
Students (Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University, 1963), p. 50.

99

ends meet. Even though Thai women have a higher status
lthan women in other Asian countries, there are still un-
equal prOperty rights and a double sex-standard, which
Thai women are seeking to overcome.6

The great change in the educational level of Thai
women is seen in these statistics on the percentage of
men.and women in each age group who are literate. Literacyrms
been‘ defined as the ability to read and write in any I
language.

Table 5.1

Number of Literates in Thailand by Age Group
(10 years or.over) and Sex in 1960

 

 

 

 

Age Group and Sex Percentage of Literates
to Papulation

10-19 Male 88.6
Female 85-3
Female 77.3
Female 62.9
bO-h9 Male 71.8
Female 29-9
50-59 Male 60.2
Female 11.2
60+ Male 48.7
Female 6.?
Unknown Male 63.1
Female 2.1
Total 0.8

 

6Henry M. Graham, "Some Changes in Thai Family Life,“
Bangkok: p. 9. (Mimeographed.)

7Manpower Planning Division, Fact Book on Manpower
in Thailand (Bangkok: National Economic Development Board),
p. 90.

100

At the university level, the rising enrollment of

women is an evidence of the new role of the female sex in

Thai society.

Table 5.2

Percentage of Women in Thai

Universities 1961-1966

 

 

 

 

Universities 1961 1962 1963 1969 1965 '1966
Kasetsart 19.9 21.2 23.9 25.9 25.9 26.2
Khon Kaen ---- ---- ---- 16.8 11.2 10.3
Chulalongkorn 39.8 38.3 91.1 92.1 99.2 93.5
Chiengmai vqee ---- ---- 96.7 52.9 53.9
Thammasat 20.9 21.1 21.9 27.2 26.2 38.6
Medical Sciences 98.9 98.8 96.8 98.3 50.9 99.1
Silpakorn 28.9 32.0 39.5 36.7 36.1 32.6
Total 25.7 25.9 27.0 31.7 33.6 40.4

The percentage of women in the universities in 1967

was approximately 92.5%. There are societal causes for

this rise as has been pointed out, but another important

factor is the verbal facility and ability to memorize,

which has aided Thai women to do well on the entrance
examinations.

In the sample of science students there were 198 men
and 170 women. No attempt was made to break down each
individual faculty into men and women, as most of the

analysis of the data dealt with the population as a whole.

101

Table 5.3

Correlation of Sex and Scores on M85 Examination
for Students in Four Science Faculties

N = 299

 

 

EXamination Subject Correlation Level of Significance

 

 

Thai .39 .0005
EngliSh .29 .0005
Social Science .33 .0005
Physics .31 .0005
Biology .33 .0005
Chemistry .28 .0005
Mathematics .09 .935

Total .12 .026

All of the correlations of sex with scores on the
M55 examination were positive, indicating that women per-
formed at a higher level than the men. Six of the eight
correlations were significant at the .01 level, with one
other at the .05 level.
Table 5.9

Correlation of Sex and Scores on the JHEEE
for Students in Four Science Faculties

 

N a 368
English .05 .32
Mathematics -.07 .15
Biology -.06 .21
Chemistry -.11 .02
Physics . -.29 .0005

 

Total -.26 .0005

102

Five of the six correlations of sex with scores on
the JHEEE were negative indicating that the men performed
at a higher level than the women. It is also important
to note that the correlations are much lower than on the
M35 examination. Women performed at a higher level on the
one examination requiring verbal rather than mathematical
or scientific skills.

The grades received at each of the universities shown
on Table 5.5 are treated separately, because of the differences
in grading systems, and the difficulties connected with
drawing any meaning from data which is not comparable.
Women outperformed the men in three of the four faculties,
with the highest correlations between the female sex and
achievement being obtained in the Chulalongkorn Day Science
Faculty. In Kasetsart, the men outperformed the women in
three out of five subjects and in their overall grades, but
only in physics and English were the levels of achievement
Significant. W0men consistently performed at a high level
in English, once again pointing to the ability of women in
verbally oriented subjects.

Cultural Differences and Academic Achievement

Several important works have been published in Thailand
dealing with the characteristics of three major cultural
groups: Thai, Chinese, and Malay. It is of importance
to this study to know something of the characteristics of
each of these, as they bear directly on the drive for edu-

cation and the achievement level of the students. The

103

.moams an unosoboasom noswas mamas soapmamaaoo obapmwos
Heaps mo. or» so asmoaaasmam use
Hoaoa so. or» as ssmoaeasmam u *

 

 

 

 

stem. ssmm. SH. ea. emu. ma. «assesses
wa.l teem. mm.u *tmd.n no.1 no. pnmmpommx
ma. saw. no. 50.- seam. NH. madness saoaweoaoasso

semi. ttmm. Stun. *tmm. ttmm. ##wm. hmn :Hoanoamafiso

Hesse smaawsm moasmSoapmz moamgsm amoaoam assessors

. soonssm . .. ‘ aaamaoaamm

deadwoom moumho an panammoz mo
unoaoboanod madmaobasa Spa: new no msoapmaonnoo

m.m canoe

109

figures for 1965, place the size of the racial groupings
as 82% Thai, 11% ethnic Chinese, and 7% Malay, Cambodian,
Indian and tribal.
Thai Basic Thai values were developed in a rural society,
but have been upheld by the urban p0pulation. People should
be modest, respectful to elders and social superiors, gen-
erous, hoSpitable, self-reliant, moderate and serene. The
ideal man is the Buddhist monk, who has given himself to
personal discipline, meditation, and virtuous behavior,
while the ideal woman is one who is obedient to and reSpectS
her husband, is a business expert and devout Buddhist.
Peacefulness, mildness and non-agreSSion are important
personal values. One may be educated, industrious, and
generous, but is not a good man unless he is peaceful.8

The Thais have an almost uncanny ability to assimilate
those living in their midst. This has led to a fairly
homogeneous society, deSpite many tribal groupings in the
north, the Chinese in the cities, and the Malays in the
south. Thais have a deep loyalty to the Crown and a sense
of membership in the nation—state, and almost all are
Theravada Bfud‘dlhists .\ They have:

...a conception of the good life that stresses fun,

physical comfort and security, intellectual simplicity

practicality, and a moral (as contrasted with the
natural) ordering of the universe.9

 

8Foreign Areas Studies Division, U.S. Army Area
Handbook for Thailand (washington: Government Printing
O?fice, 19635, pp. 135-139..

9Herbert P. Phillips, Thai Peasant PersOnality '
(Berkeley: University of California Press, 1965), p. 16.

105

People tend to avoid unhappy or emotionally charged
situations.v To be cool-hearted and uninvolved are general
Thai values, along with the contrasting but not conflicting
Buddhist virtues of emphatic joy, loving kindness and com-
passion for others.10 names the Japanese or New England
Puritans, work is not seen as good in itself. Pleasure
and enjoyment are the important characteristics. The Thais
have been characterized as having an almost determined lack
of regularity, discipline or regimentation. Obligations
are recognized, but are not supposed to burden the indivi-
dual unduly. The culture gives great importance to the
individual, and his right to act as he sees fit.11

The Thai family structure is of great importance in
the society. It has been characterized by many sociologists
as being a loosely structured family in which new members
are added or leave at any time. Some children wander from
place to place Spending their childhood in several different
families. It is not uncommon to find families which have
just disintegrated.12 Many children are sent to Bangkok
for schooling, and it is not uncommon for a husband or wife
to leave for several months to work in another part of the
country. Family difficulties are increased by the taking

of second wives by many of the wealthier Thais, and also

 

10Foreign Areas Studies Division, pp. cit., pp. 190-191.

11John Embree, ”Thailand: A Loosely Structured Social
System." A reprint from the American Anthropglogist, V01.
52, #2 (April-June, 1950), pp. 2-9.

12Phillips, pp. cit., pp. 25-26.

106

the fairly widespread prostitution which exists.

The psychological and motivational affects of this
type of family life cannot be underestimated. With the
looseness of the family structure there are many instances
of poor care, exploitation, rejection by foster parents,
deprivation of education, and a lack ofl secure roots. The
breakdown of traditional patterns of care for needy re-
latives and friends is throwing the needy on their own and
increasing dependence on the state or begging.13

Principles of child care are: do everything for them;
protect them from danger; entertainthem. Thai children
are seldom seen crying or acting up, and the adult Thais
lack of resourcefulness, inventiveness, and ability to
think and reason independently have been.attributed by
some authorities to the child's lack of opportunity to
deve10p his interests and Sk1118.1u

The peasant child is anything but a”tabula rasa” at
birth. He enters the world with a stock of merit or de-
merit from previous lives, which will affect his being in
this life. A child can be taught virtue and good habits,
but prenatal characteristics are the basic determinants
of his life. Child raising thus takes one of three paths.
The parents surrender to what they think are the child's

predetermined traits. The parents attempt to overcome

 

l3Graham, gp. cit., pp. 20-21.
lulbido , pp. 17-180

107
these traits, or they let the child grow up as he wishes.
Phillips concludes that: I

The parents lack of genuine concern is not lost

upon the child...(parents) proceed on the simple

assumption that if people, including children, do not

do what you ask them, they have good - and.more

important, private - reasons for responding that way;

there is no need for, or interest in self justification.15

Many problems face the Thai family, many of which are
due to pressures of modernization. With the changing reli-
gious outlook, there is a void to be filled. The increased
cost of living creates new tensions. The old ways of child
rearing and mate selection are being challenged, and all
the problems of the rural person in an urban environment
cause new marital difficulties. Rapid social changes have
produced strains between the generations.. The young have
a different outlook and expectations. The old, due to
their traditional authority, tend to dominate, and when
the young see this coming from persons inferior to them-_
selves in certain reSpects, tensions and conflicts arise.
These conflicts tend to arise more often in lower class
youth who are upwardly mobile, and whose parents are, in
general, more traditional in outlook.16

In traditional Thai culture, the ability to dupe

someone successfully or to tell a lie without being caught

 

15Phillips, gp. cit., p. 35.

16Udyanin Kasem and Praset Yamklinfung, PFamily
Status and Parent Youth Relations," The Journal of Social
Sciences Vol. 1V, No. 1 (January, 1966), p. 21.

108

is praiseworthy. Corruption in Government or in business
is generally accepted and even admired as long as one does
not get caught. This has changed some in recent years, but
is still quite prevalent.

The Thai culture is a shame culture rather than a
guilt culture, and social controls operate largely
through this mechanism. Shame is felt when one fails,
and it is perceived by others, or when one loses dig-
nity in the eyes of others. The converse of shame-
avoidance is the great value of '1ooking good' in the
eyes of otheis, even though it is only outward and
superficial.

_When it comes to education, the Thais, for the most
part, lack the Chinese and Japanese drive for learning.
The overseas degree is of great value, and attending the
best university in Thailand is of real importance, but
what is actually learned is of little importance. It is
the symbol which is important. The Thais lack the aggreslive-
ness of some of the other Asian cultures, and this may be
due in part to their national heritage of many centuries
with no colonial eXperience to make them lose confidence
in themselves. This self-confidence has been an important
factor in the ability of the Thais to assimilate the large
Chinese population.

It is no exaggeration to say that the cultural
current of Thai history in recent centuries cannot be

properly understood or analyzed apgrt from the changing
position of the overseas Chinese.

 

17Mose1, 9p. cit., p. 302.

18G..William Skinner, Chinese Society in Thailand:
An Analytical History (Ithaca, New York: Cornell Uni-
versity Press, 1957), p. v.

109

Chinese The following chart gives an indication of Chinese
population, not only in Thailand but in each of the South-
east Asian countries.
Table 5.6
Chinese in Southeast Asia: 196519

W

 

 

Thousands Total % Chinese
Ethnic P0pulation
Chinese
N. Vietnam 190 17,750 1.1
5. Vietnam 860 16,120 5.3
Cambodia 925 6,250 6.8
Laos 95 _2,500 1.8
Thailand 2,600 30,500 8.5
Burma 900 29,800 _l.6
Malaysia 3,310 9,600 39.5
Malay Penin. 2,920 8,275 35.3
Saravak 275 820 33-3
Saba 125 505 29.8
Singapore 1,900 1,807 79.9
Brunei 25 q 95 26.3
Indonesia 2,750 107,000 2.6
Philippines 950 32,300 1.4
Port Timor 5 565 .9
Total. 12,970 299,350 5.0

 

19W. E. Wilmott, ”The Chinese in Southeast Asia,”
Australian Outlook, Vol. 20 No. 3 (December, 1966), p. 259.

110

Byand large, there have been fewer and less serious
problems with the Chinese minority in Thailand than in any
Southeast Asian country. The dominant note has gone from
c00peration to assimilation. This is not to say, however,
that the Chinese and Thais have merged completely or that
there has never been and is not today any prejudice.

Commercial trade between China and Thailand was
carried on for many centuries, and Thailand paid tribute
to China from the late 13th century to the middle of the
19th century. Chinese began settling in Thailand as early
as the 16th century, but the number had only reached 3000
by the end of the 19th century. Most of the settlers were
men who took Thai wives, and by the third generation the
Chinese were thoroughly asSimilated into the Thai culture.20
The Chinese left their homeland with the aim of making a
fortune which could be returned to China. This motivated
the immigrants to enter a profession which would involve
a minimum of fixed investment in the host country and a
maximum of liquid assets which could be returned to China.
Trade was the logical profession and in this they found
little competition, as the indigenous papulations were
predominantly peasants, and the aristocrats based their

wealth on tribute, not trade.21

 

20Belen Tan-Gatue, Chinese and Chinese-Thai Relations
(Ithaca, New York: Cornell Southeast Asia Program, Far
Eastern Studies, No. 601 - Fall, 1966), pp. 1-2.

2lwnmott. pp. cit., p. 253.

111

The Chinese were favored up to the end of the 19th
century, because they controlled the cpium, gambling,
Vlottery, and liquor businesses, which brought in up to
50% of the government revenue. At the start of the 20th
century, an important change took place in the immigration,
as Chinese women came to establish Chinese homes and to
direct the sympathies and loyalties of their children to
China. Chinese schools opened to teach Chinese literature,
patriotism and traditions. Funeral and benevolent societies,
a Chinese Chamber of Commerce, and numerous language asso-
ciations were organized, all of which halted the process
of assimilation into the Thai culture. A strike and boycott
by the Chinese in 1910, first Showed the Thai the extent
of Chinese control of the economy.22

Laws to control the Chinese were put into effect
during the First World War. These laws touched all areas
of Chinese life, but only those affecting education will
be touched on here. The Private Schools Act of 1918
required all schools to register with the Ministry of
Education and to teach Thai three hours a week. All
principals were to meet Ministry requirements, and all
alien teachers had to pass Thai exams.23 The number of
Chinese schools rose sharply from 98 in 1925 to 271 in
1933. In that year a Compulsory Education Act led to

strict inSpection.and a limit of seven hours per week of

 

22Tan Gatue, op. cit., p. 2.
23Ibid., p. 5.

112

instruction in Chinese. Many Chinese hired tutors or sent
their children to China for education, and those in border
areas sent their children to Burma, Laos, Cambodia or Ma-
laya. Other children were sent to mission schools, where
they could learn western languages, receive a high quality
of instruction, receive commercial instruction, and be
under strict discipline.24

Following World War II, there was a resurgence of
Chinese education with over 175,000 pupils enrolled. In
1998, however, Prime Minister Phibulclosed all Chinese
secondary schools, so that since that time, Chinese
secondary education has been limited to elective courses
'in one or two Thai middle schools and a few evening
schools in Bangkok. Attempts were made to cleanse the
rest of the Chinese schools of political influence, to
Thai-1fy their staffs and curricula, and to limit their
financial base. In 1952, there were anti-communist raids
conducted in the Chinese schools, with principals and
teachers jailed and schools closed. Those schools allowed
to remain Open were put under the strict supervision of
police officers.25

By 1962, only 211 Chinese primary schools remained,
enrolling 83,606 pupils, and a similar number exist today.
Most of these teach Chinese only six hours a week, and their

graduates cannot read or write Chinese well enough for

 

2“Skinner, pp, cit., pp. 227-230.
251bid., pp. 265-267.

113

practical use. Almost all of the teachers in these schools
are now Thai, and the textbooks are strictly controlled,

so as to prevent any teaching of communism or excessive
Chinese nationalism. The following quotation from Jacques
Amyot sums up the state of Chinese education in Thailand
today.

An important force in the changing nature of Chinese
Education is the realization on the part of Chinese
parents that success in business comes from ability
to adapt to the Thai cultural milieu. If any second
language is to be learned, English is preferred to
Chinese. In the modern business world of the Thai-
Chinese, a Chinese gducation is more of a handicap
than an advantage.2

It is difficult to say if the government'of Thailand
followed the best path in its suppression of the Chinese
schools. Its goal of assimilation was and is a worthy
one, but the method used led to a strong intensification
of ill feeling and suSpicion between the Thai and the
Chinese and a strengthening of Chinese in-group feeling.
Possibly a better method would have been to provide an
attractive, high quality education in the public school
with electives in Chinese language and history to attract
Chinese students.

The Chinese family differs greatly from the Thai. .
Family ties are of great importance, and kinship ties
make a large, cohesive group bound by loyalty and mutual

obligation. The Chinese family has contributed in no

 

26Jacques Amyot, ”Chinese in Thailand," (Bangkok,
1966), p. 17. (Mimeographed.)

119
small measure to the conservation and propagation of tra—
ditional values. In addition to the family, there are
still hundreds of associations of individuals with similar
familial, economic, social and religious interests. Unlike
the extreme Thai individualism, the Chinese use social
pressure to cause the wayward to conform.27

The role differences between the Chineseand the Thai
families is well summarized in the following quotation:

...while the $3.11! is regarded among the Chinese as

the keystone of society, monastic order add bureaucracy
are regarded by the Thai as of greater vahne than.fmnily
ties. Finally, whereas the Chinese adopt a Confucian
organization of the family with roles and status based
on generation, sgx and.age, the Thai adhere to a family
organization with ggnsiderable room for freedom of in-
d1V1dual behavior.

There is a tendency for Thais to polarize at the
extremes of the socio-occupational structure, due to the
institutionalized status of the Thais in the 19th century,
which kept them in farming and gave the Chinese the per-
sonal freedom and geographical mobility for competition
in economic ventures. The Bowring Treaty of 1855 worked
to confirm the Thai masses in their preference for rice
cultivation and subsistence farming, and also strengthened

the Chinese hold in commerce, industry, mining and wage

labour.

 

27Ib1de ’ Pp. 6-80

28Chomchai Prachom,"TrendS Report of Studies in
Social Stratification and.Social Mobility in Thailand,”
East Asian Cultural Studies, Vol. LV, Nos. 1-9. (March,
1965), p. 192. A review of Double-Identity - The Chinese
tin Modern Thailand, 1960.

115

The social classes in Thailand are not fixed. Thai

society facilitates assimilation because the pattern of

association is weakly developed, so a Chinese has few

rigid in-group boundaries to crash in order to relate to

the Thais. Social grouping is fluid and open. Prejudice

against the Chinese is more against the group and their

economic domination than against individuals; against a

style of life, not the race.29 Eight social classes have

been defined as follows:

1.

Social Classes in Thailand

The royal aristocratic and old-time bureaucratic
families form the traditional elite, and are char-
acterized by wealth based on real estate, high edu-
cation attainment, high reSpect or prestige and high
devotion to old-elite traditions.

The new elite are the descendants of pre-modern
bureaucrats, and some from pre-modern aristocratic
class, the freeman class, and the Chinese business '
class, based on wealth from business and government,
high political power and high educational attainment.
Members are government bureaucrats, military brass,
Chinese business and financiers, and many professionals.

Chinese middle class whose class interests are com-
mercial wealth and maintenance of Chinese ways. Much
overlapping with Thai businessmen.

Thai middle class angerernment employees, small
entrepeneurs, teachers, neWSpapermen, clerks, secre-
taries and other white collar.

Chinese artisan class.

Thai artisans - chauffeurs, drivers, technicians,
hairdressers.

Thai lower class — pedicab drivers and domestic
servants.

Chinese labourers class - hawkers, barbers, actors
and unskilled laborers - now being replaced by Thai
from provinces.3O g:

 

29Nesa Vichapand, ”A Study of the Factors Effecting

Prejudice and First Impressions," (Unpublished Master's Thesis,
Chulalongkorn University, March, 1969), p. 92.

BQChomchai Prachom, _p. cit., p. 199. A review of

G. William Skinner's Chinese Society in Thailand.

116

In recent years the Chinese have been crossing over
into semi-governmental positions and many second generation
are entering the civil service. They are also moving into
ownership and management of big business and finance formerly
reserved for EurOpeans. The Thai in turn are becoming
businessmen, artisans, proprietors of small shops and clerks
in Chinese offices.

Status for the Chinese has been defined primarily in
terms of wealth, whereas for the Thai it is found for the
upper classes in relationship to royalty and landed wealth,
and for the rest in bureaucratic positions, family member-
ship and faithfulness to Buddhist principles.

Malay The third racial and cultural group to be dealt
with is the Malays in Southern Thailand. They do not form
nearly as large a minority group as the Chinese, but have
been more difficult to assimilate due to their Moslem
faith and Malay ties.

Education for the Thai-Malays begins at age six or
seven when the children begin to memorize the Koran, learn
religious principles and the Arabic script with the village
Immam for two to three hours each morning. Students are
expected to attend the government school for the rest of
the day. Considerable lip service is paid to the value of
education in competing outside the Malay villages, but
parents rarely insist on their children attending school.
Much of the resistance to education is due to conservative

Muslim elements, who feel that education makes children

117
irreligious.
Literacy enables man to disobey God. Civilization
is antireligious....The village attitude toward a
student who seriously pursues secular education is
that he is losing a certain amount of his religious
strength, that he is being contaminated by alien
(Buddhist) ideas to his ultimate detriment.3l
The problems of poor teachers, different language,
and lack of classrooms, in addition to the costs of edu-
cation do not promote the cause of public education in the
Malay villages. Even though a secondary education is the
key to upward mobility and equal footing with the Thai,
very few students attend. The Malay object to the cost
of secondary school which comes to approximately $30 per
year, and yet send 80% of their sons to the Pondok (Moslem
Secondary School), where the costs are over $75 per year.
The training in the Pondok is basically religious with
little liberal education or practical training.32
The statistics on the number of university entrants
from racial groups other than the Thai and the Chinese
gives strong backing to the view that education is not as
important to the Malay and other minority groups. ,Out of
8,231 university entrants in 1967, 6,519 were Thai, 1,961
were Chinese, and only 20 were from other racial groups.

The percentage of Chinese in the entering class was 30.1%,

while they make up only 8-11% of the papulation at large.

 

31Thomas M. Fraser, Jr... Fishermen of South Thailand:
The Mala Villa ers (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Inc., 9 , p. .

BZIbide ’ pp. 80-860

118

Many second and third generation Chinese do not wish to

be identified as such, and due to the large amount of inter-
marriage between the Thai and the Chinese, the actual per-
centage of Chinese or students with some Chinese blood is

no doubt much larger than the 30.1% who claim such a racial
identity. Some of the more popular faculties for Chinese
students are engineering, commerce and accountancy, and
medicine. The Faculty of Medicine at the University of
Medical Sciences is over 92% Chinese, and also happens to

be the most prestigious and difficult to get into.

The Chinese not only have a pr0portionally larger
group of students in the universities than the Thai, but
they also have a higher rate of passing on the JHEEE, as
is shown on the following table.

Table 5.7
JHEEE Rate of_Passing by Sex and Race

       

 

Sex and Race _V 3-'# of 2‘ _ # of_m Rate of
Candidates gggganggi Passing

Female 10,228 3,509 39.20%
Thai 8,836 2,869 32.91%
Chinese 1,379 530 38.57%
Male 13,679 9,727 39.50%
Thai 11,369 3,699 32.09%
Chinese 2,275 1,062 96.68%

 

Total 23,907 8,231 39.42%

 

119

The Chinese in the sample of 368 science students
number 93 or 26.7% of the total population.

The direction of the correlations between race and
scores on the M55 examination and the JHEEE were positive,
indicating that Chinese students generally performed at a
higher level, but none of the correlations was significant
at the .05 level. Similar results were obtained on correla-
tions between race and university achievement. Once again
the relationships were positive, indicating that Chinese
students at the university performed at a higher level,
but only at Chiengmai were the results Significant at the
.05 level.

Residence and Acaflmic Achievement

Thailand, like most developing nations, is basically
a rural society. Over 89% of the Thai labor-force is in-
volved in agriculture, and there is only one major city,
Bangkok, with a population of 1,200,000. This population
figure also includes the twin city of Thonburi. There are
several smaller cities in the 20,000 to 60,000 p0pu1ation
range, but over 80% of the people still live in small
villages. There are only 20 towns in the whole country
with more than 20,000 people, in a population of over
30,000,000.‘

The importance of rural Thailand is also seen in the
statistics that 9/5 of all students are in the elementary
grades, and 80% of these are in village schools. Education

then is more rural than urban, even though most secondary

120

schools and institutions of higher education are located
in the cities. While the village population is more nu-
merous, the influence and prestige are in the cities, so
that there is a Bangkok perSpective or bias. Bangkok and
the provincial capitals not only have better working con-
ditions, but also better chances for advancement and the
chance for new jobs. Many have concluded that too large
a prOportion of Thailand's resources are consumed in
Bangkok.33

The Thai peasant is self-reliant and rather than being
in sharp competition with his neighbors for status, he
seeks individual prestige through serving in the temple,
by being a renowned story-teller, a good farmer or a
leader in the community.31+ He also has been characterized
as one who is responsive, cooperative and complies with
verbal requests and orders, but once a Situation has been
concluded, he does what he wants, often the opposite of
that to which he has agreed.35

While the urban dweller has taken on a more scientific
outlook on life, with a resultant loss in religious fervor,

the peasant still sees:

...all human intentions...forever set within a frame-
work of cosmic, and particularly moral, unpredictabili-
ties....To them, human volition represents only one of
several indeterminants and uncontrollable factors giving
rise to events.3

 

33Harold E. Smith, “Some Sociological ASpects of Thai
Rural Education," (Bangkok: 1966), pp. 1-2. (Mimeographed.)

342hamnhaii2rachom, 22. cit., p. 202
35Phillips, gp. cit., p. 79.
36Ibid., p. 80.

121
The peasant, as a true individualist, seeks to provide
well for his family and the temple, and in turn wishes to
be left along.

Rural attitudes to education are of extreme importance
if Thailand is to deve10p as a nation, and modern education
is to make any headway. For peasants, farming was training
in habit, and virtue was the deciding factor in the quality
and quantity of one's crOps. The learning gained at the
Buddhist temple was the means of gaining this virtue, but
few could be Spared from the fields to gain much of this
religious learning. Apprenticeships were available in
some things, such as midwifery, temple repair, and boat
building. The following quotation does an excellent job
of summing up traditional rural attitudes to education,
many of which can still be found today in Thailand.

The rationale for this system of learning rested on
the peculiar concept of knowledge. Real knowledge was
assumed to be both substantial and practical, like a
tool which copes with one of life's difficulties. With-
out this knowledge or the aid of a practitioner, one was
helpless as a person required to drive a nail without a
hammer. The moral law, by showing how to mitigate
suffering in life, also provided a formula for lending
success to ones undertaking. Astrology, more particu-
larly, assisted farmers to know the prOpitious day for
planting or the hour for marrying off their daughters.
Even in music, the Thai thought, not of developing a
skill, but of instructing how to play a certain piece
on a particular instrument. Similarly, one read a given
book rather than learned to read, and, though having
learned one book helped with the next, the knowledge
of the book constituted the desired gain. Of course,
parents trained children in desirable habits, and
an individual might profit by eXperience, but these
were not education. Education dealt with important
knowledge which was discovered only by heroes or saints

122

not by ordinary mortals. Such knowledge had to be
obtained from one who had received it through the chain
of teachers leading back to the original hero or saint.
This kind of knowledge alone was education. A teacher's
reluctance to pass these often dangerous tools to un-
scrupulous hands, and a pupil's gratitude, followed
from this view of knowledge. Nor did a teacher assume
that knowledge per se equipped one to practice well;
instead he was reSponsible for giving it to no one who
might distort it or gbose personal characteristics
might jeopardize it.

The average Thai peasant has a fourth grade education
or less. This is enough for him to read and write Thai,
add, subtract, multiply, divide, understand Buddhism and
gain some knowledge of neighboring countries. Most of
what is learned, however, soon becomes a vague memory in
the past, so that after several years away from School
most of the skills and knowledge have been forgotten. A
random sample of 100 villagers in Northeast Thailand, the
country's most backward area, found an average yearly
income of $93. Eighteen percent of the people were with-
out any education, only 2% had reached twelfth grade, one more
had reached ninth grade, and most had four or less years
of schooling. Only one person read the newSpaper regularly,
while 89 indicated they never read any.38

One of the reasons for such a low level of education

among the rural p0pu1ation is that once education has been

attained, the person tends to leave the village and move

 

_r_

37L. M. Hanks,_Jr;,«“Indifference to Modern Edu-x
cation in a Thai Farming Community,” Reprinted from Human
Organization, Vol. 17., no. 2. pp. 9-10

38The Asia Foundation. .Report on the Socio-Economic
Condition of the Pe0ple of Northeast Thailand. March - April,

1963. pp. 1’70

123

to the big city. Bangkok being the ultimate goal of most
of them. Education is not so much a source of prestige as
a means to a more remunerative and easier existence than
can be offered by farming. 39

Education is a means not an end. One can leave farming
and receive reSpectable employment in Bangkok. AS one
farmer stated:

People who can read and write can't be cheated.

They can manipulate figures and write wills; they can

get non-farming jobs.
Even the wealthier rural families do not see education as
a must, believing their children have enough money to live
comfortably, so don't need education to escape to the city.

Other problems face education in the rural areas be-
sides the exodus of the educated to the cities. There are
the usual difficulties of poor buildings, inadequate equip-
ment and untrained teachers. A trained teacher is one who
has two years of teacher training after 10th grade, yet
in 1957, approximately 70% failed to meet this qualification,
and today there is still a high percentage of untrained
teachers in the classroom. Another problem is the high
percentage of repeaters, which in 1950 reached a peak of

50% of all let graders. The percentage has dropped since

 

39Chomchai Prachom, 92- cit-, p. 200. A Review of

Hogard Kaufman's Bangkhuad - A Community Stuay in Thailand,
19 O.

“OBoward Kaufman, Baagkhndd - A Community Stugy in
Thailand (LoCust valley, New York: J. J. Augustin, Inc.,
Publisher, 1960) p. 92.

129

that time, but Thailand still must solve this problem.

The curriculum tends toward fact-cramming and is
almost entirely academic. The teachers may have a syllabus
and a few texts, but seldom are there details for a working
program or suggestions on how to teach particular subjects.
Lessons are repeated in unison and memorized from the black-
board. Absenteeism is another problem facing most rural
schools. In the dry season some schools have reported 70%
of their students as absent, For many years, the law
stated that after a child's absence for 15 days in a row,
the parent could be prosecuted, so parents got around the
law by sending them back every 15th day.

The cost of books, pencils, paper, uniforms, and
tranSportation is high for a poor farmer, and often limits
a farm family to sending one boy for schooling. For the
most part the books are dull, poorly written, and contain
few if any attractive pictures or illustrations. A lack
of rapport between principals, teachers, changwat and
provincial offices, and the local population often leads
to low morale and a low quality of education. The local
Buddhist abbots generally control the collection of money
for the local schools, and this is often a source of
difficulty.41 For every five baht or five baskets of rice
given to the temple, the school only gets one.

Examinations and the preparation for them take up

much of the school year, and pupils will often fail to

 

nlIbide, p. 85-860

125
Show up for the annual state tests. One teacher expressed
the problem with parents:
When I ask parents to help their children by doing
home reading and things like that, they say, 'Lbnm ask
me to do that. It's your job. What are you being

paid for?' So there is no coOperatioE from parents
usually but some parents are helpful. 2

The teacher is caught in the middle of trying to
enforce the edicts of the ministry, but must avoid anta-
gonizing the community. The extreme centralization of
Thai education leads to some inefficiencies. The teacher
is the closest government official to the people, and as
such, takes much of the praise or abuse of the people
directed towards the government.

A.major problem which has begun to confront the rural
schools is the impact of the vast American presence in
Thailand. With over 93,000 military personnel and many
thousands of civilians, the Americans need vast numbers
of Thai interpreters, office helpers, supervisors and
other educated individuals. Most of the American bases
are in rural areas, and most of the educated Thais in the
area work either as teachers or for the government in some
capacity. With the higher wages being paid by the Americans,
the schools are being stripped of their teachers and govern-
ment agencies of their officials. The United States has
put a large amount of money into various parts of the Thai

educational system, but through its present policy, it is

 

quanks, gp. cit., p. 13.

126

in the process of undoing much of the good that may have
been.accomplished in the past.

The sources of indifference to education by the rural
p0pu1ation are of real importance. Some of the causes
already presented are a lack of teachers and equipment,
and the high cost of education for a peasant with such an
annual income of under $100. Some other causes are that modern
schooling does not conform to traditional assumptions con-
cerning education; that much of it is functionless in the
eyes of the community; that it Should be more practical,
paying more attention to the needs of the farmer, and that
modern education fails to teach morality.43

The purpose of this discussion on rural life and
has been to give a brief introduction to the life of the
peasant and to the educational problems facing Thailand,
in order to provide a perspective from which to look at
the following statistics on the occupational and resi-
dential background of Thai university students.

The urban bias in the educational system is seen in
the figures that 5711 of the 8231 entrants to the uni-
versity in 1967 were from an urban environment, defined

as living in or near a town of 20,000 or more. Only 2520

 

”31bid., p. 14.

127

were from rural areas, which have a population 12 times
greater than all the cities of Thailand. Using these
figures, it has been computed that an urban student has a
25 times greater chance of getting to the university than
does a student from a rural environment. Not only does a
child born into an urban environment have an initial ad-
vantage over the rural child, but he also has a better
chance of passing the JHEEE for university admission.
Candidates from urban areas had a 35.93% passing rate
while rural candidates had a 31.99% rate. Students from
Chiengmai, Thailand's third largest city had a passing
rate of 97.30% and Bangkok had a 91.91% rate.

Another interesting approach to a study of educational
opportunity in Thailand is a breakdown by‘ areas of the
country. The country is often divided in five areas:
North, Northeast, Central, South and Bangkok-Thonburi.
Based on the Size of the total population and the number
of university entrants, the students from Bangkok had a
six times better chance of getting into the university
than students from the Central Plains or the South; a
twelve times better chance than students from the North,
and a twenty-four times better chance than a student from
the Northeast.

Students are aware that their chances of gaining ad-

mission to the university are better if they can attend

one of the schools in Bangkok-Thonburi or in some other

city. Evidence of this awareness is the large number of

128

students who leave their homes before M33, and go to school
in other sections of the country. The following statistics

are based on the 1967 candidates for university admission.

Table 5.8

Parent's Residence and location 0&4
School Where Student Finished M85

 

 

Bangkok- Central North North- West East South Abroad
Thonburi east

Parent's , 7855 1736 2251 1501 1687 2256 1993 12
Residence

Finished 15,095 699 1099 790 971 522 770 --
M85

These statistics Show the high proportion of the education
program for which Bangkok is reSponsible. It also shows
the drawing power which the urban area has for students from
the provinces. In the sample of 368 science students, 121
were from Bangkok, 32 from Thonburi and 21 from Chiengmai.
The results of the study do not indicate any great
advantage for students from urban areas, with the exception
of English, where significant correlations were obtained on
the M85 English test, the JHEEE English test, and in Uni-
versity English grades. This only means that of those
students who entered the university there is no difference,
but as has been shown previously, the rural student is at a
severe disadvantage of ever attaining admission in the first place

place.

 

990ffice of the NEC, Report: The Joint Hi her
Education Entrance Examination: AcadEfiTE‘YEaf‘Igg73I968
(Bangkok: National Education Council, 1967), pp. 21- 23.

‘41thillulugce )6. than]. 3.1. a ,4“. —

129

Table 5.9

Correlation of English. Scores With. Residence

 

 

 

 

University MS5 ‘ JHEEE‘ 'University Grade§
Chulalongkorn Day .25** .28** .22**
Chulalongkorn Evening .02 -.Ol -.02
Kasetsart .09 .01 .08
Chiengmai .33** .22* .17

Total .15** .19** ---

 

* .05 level of significance
** .01 level of significance
In almost all subject areas the correlations were in
the positive direction, indicating a slight balance in
favor of students from urban areas, but the correlations
were not high enough, with the exception of English,to
Show any strong bias one way or the other.
Occgpational Groups and Academic Achievement
The occupation of the parents of the university stu-
dents is an important factor in their ability or chances
of gaining a university education. Thailand is basically
a rural society with approximately 80% of its peOple still
involved in farming or related occupations. Its manu-
facturing and sales sectors are expanding rapidly, but
for many years to come, a majority will be dependent upon
agriculture for their economic welfare and survival. The

following chart gives an idea of the size of the various

occupational groups and the trends.

130

Table 5.10

Occupational Groups in Thailand, 1959 and 196645
W

x

 

Occupational Groups A '2 1959 w 31966
Professors, Technical 1.0 1.9
and Related Workers

Administrative, Executive 0.5 0.5
and Managerial

Clerical 0.7 1.3
Sales _ _ 3.7 6.?
Farmers, Fishermen, Hunters 88.0 79.8

Loggers and Related Workers

Miners, Quarrymen.and 0.1 0.3
Related Workers

Workers in TranSport and 0.6 1.5
Communication Occupations

Craftsmen, Production Process 3.5 6.9
Workers and Labourers Not
Classified Elsewhere

 

Service, Sport and Recreation 1.? 2.1
Workers

Not CLaSSified Elsewhere 0.2 .0
Total 100% 100%

 

Ideally students from all types of backgrounds should
have an equal or nearly equal chance of obtaining a uni-
versity education. This equality has never been achieved
anywhere in the world, and Thailand is no exception.

Based on the number of pe0p1e in the occupational group,
an analysis of the statistics shows that the child of a,.

government official has a 268 times better chance of being

 

“5Manpower Planning Division, gp, cit., p. 22.

131

admitted to the university than does a child of a farm
family. Children from families of those in manufacturing
and industry have a 36 times better chance than a farm
child. The following breakdown of parent's occupations
was obtained for the 1967 university entrants.
Table 5.11
Occupation of Parents of University Students,"6

 

 

Parent's Occupation # enrolled % of those enrolled

PrOprietorS and 9508 53.72
Self Employed

 

 

Government Officials 2020 25.12
Employees 657 8.19
Agriculturalists 580 7.31
Others 937 5-31
Unknown 29 335
Total 8231 100.00

 

No analysis by family income was made of the 1967 entrants,
but a study done in 1969 gives some indication that there
are not many students from poor homes in the Thai univer-
sities.1 With the average Thai income of around 200 Baht

a month, the following figures show that the university

students are definitely from wealthier homes.

Table 5.12

Monthly Income of Parents 97 University
Students in Baht

 

500 or 00- 1000- 2000-«3000- 5000+ Unknown

 

less 000 2000" 3000 ’ 5000
Male 6.2 12.9 22.9 18.6 12.9 6.9 20.5
Female 511 ’7.8 19.5, 23.7 19.0 16.7 13.1

 

hécffice of the NEC, pp. cit., pp. 6.8.
”7Guskin, pp. cit., p. 16.

132

Approximately 80% of the population make 500 Baht or
less each month, yet only 5-6% of the university students
are from this income bracket. Students attending teacher
training insitutions are more often from poorer homes, but
the totals, even there, find only about 20% in this lowest
income group. It is interesting to note that girls, in
general, come from wealthier homes. Several hypotheses
have been given to explain this phenomenon. If a family
can only afford to send one child on for higher education,
they will usually send a boy, while the girls must remain
home. Many boys from wealthy homes are sent overseas by
the parents, this being particularly true of those who
failed to gain admittance to Thai universities. Many boys
are sent to military training schools, thus cutting down
on their number in the university. Boys from wealthy
families have been known to waste their time and fail to
study hard, thus failing to gain admittance to the uni-
versity. Boys from poor homes, on the other hand, realize
that education may be their only hOpe of breaking out of
their economic and social class, and thus are more highly
motivated.48

The passing rates of candidates from the various
backgrounds is quite significant. Not only are there

fewer children of farm families in the universities, but

candidates from this background have the lowest passing

 

l’8Ibid., p. 15.

133

rate on the JHEEE. Candidates who are from the families
in the employee category have the highest passing rate.
The causes of this are difficult to find, but the high
motivation of intelligent students from lower class urban
families may be a factor.

Table 5.13

Percentage of Successful Candidates
Based on Parent's Occupation

 

 

 

 

 

Parent's Occupation % of Candidates Successful
on JHEEE

Employees 90.01
Proprietors and Self Employed 37.79
Government Officials 31.05
Agriculturalists 29.59

Other

Total 39.92

 

Perhaps more Significant than the occupation of the
parents is the occupational preference of the students.
In the same 1969 study of students in Thai higher edu-
cational institutions, the occupations which were chosen by
men and women are found in Table 5.19 on the folloWing page.

Another question asked in the same survey dealt with
the ocurnpational importance that students attached to
various positions. The teaching profession ranked first
for several reasons. There was a large number of future

teachers in the sample, and the teacher is a highly re-
Spected community leader. Thailand has been placing a

139

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a.H o.~ a.m 6.5

JSMSUV'ON
JanO
MOUX QOUOU

quewuzanos

N
C
H

w.H m.m m.n m.ma
m.m 0.0 m.mH .

e
(‘N
m
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e
H

elnioaqtqoxv, \o- o

/usrtsus
JEWIBJ
sseutsng
eouetos
taxman
actIOd
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QSIQJV
JSQOBGL

mammom

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as

mpsoosum apamnobasa ho,moodozo nooamo

sa.m manna

135

great emphasis on education in recent years which has
improved the image of the profession, and for the most part,
the students accord a very high status to their professors.
The medical profession ranked high for some of the same
reasons that it does in Other countries: the high prestige,
of a man who controls life and death, the financial rewards,
and the freedom and independence of action offered by the
profession. The other positions in order of occupational
contributionwere priest, soldier, government official,
farmer, merchant, laborer, royalty.5O The low prestige
level and lack of importance attributed to farming in.a
country which is still made up of 80% farmers, is highly
disturbing, though quite eXpected from a high ' educat'
population, made up of so few students from farming homes.
The bias against merchants is to a large degree a bias
against the Chinese, who control an estimated 90% of the
business of Thailand. The low prestige level of business
has important implications for the future, because much of
Thailand's economic develOpment depends on the willingness
of people to go into business.

Although the royal family is highly revered, the Thai
university students do not rank royalty as occupationally
important for the development of their country, and they
feel that a person should be reSpected for his ability and

accomplishments, not_for his birthright.

 

50Ibid., p. 36.

136

The educational level of the parents if often a
significant factor in the motivation, desire, and ability
of a student to obtain a higher education. Thailand seems
to be no exception to this pattern. In a country where
the vast majority of the p0pu1ation has only four years
of formal education or less, the students in the uni-
versities come from families whose parent's education is
much higher, as is evidenced by the following table:

Table 5.15
Educational Level of Parents of University Students51

 

 

Educational Level Pratom 9 MSl-3 MS9-5 or No Answer

 

or less A Higher
0f Father
Male Students 25.3 20.5 28.2 26.0
Female Students 10.9 25.1 93.9 20.6
Of Mother
Male Students 53.7 19.6 10.7 21.0
Female Students 91.0 30.9 13.5 15.1

 

The application form for admittance to the university
broke down the occupational groups into only four categories:
Pr0prietors and Self Employed, Government Officials, Agri-
culturalists and Employees. These are the four categories
used with the sample of science students, though it may
have been helpful, if the categories could have been
broken down further. In the science sample, 233 students
were from business families, 79 from the homes of govern-
ment officials, 19 from employee homes, and 27 from agri-

cultural backgrounds.

 

SlIblde’ ppe 12‘130

137

The correlations of parent's occupation with success
on the examinations and in the university were generally
in favor of those students from the homes of government
officials and business proprietors, but the correlations
were not significant, except in the case of success on
the English examinations, where correlations of .18 and
.10, Significant at the .05 level were obtained.

Age Factors in Academic Achievement

The largest number of university entrants are age 18,
followed by 19, 20, and 21 year olds in that order. The
entrants, in general, range from age 15 to 23, with a few
older students in areas such as education. AS is true in
most studies of the relationship of age and achievement,
the younger students outperform their older counterparts.
This is due in Thailand to the fact that the older students
have often had to repeat one or more grades, and are there-
fore not of as high quality. On the JHEEE, the older stu-
dents are often those who have failed the examination one
or more times, or people who have dropped out of school
for a period of years, and are thus not as well prepared
for an examination, which is so largely based on the
memory ability of the students. The following chart Shows
that the younger students significantly outperform the

older students in gaining admission to the University.

138

Table 5.16

Age of Candidates for University.Entrants

 

 

Age # of Candidates # of Successful Rate of Passing

 

Candidates
15 . 13 10 76%
16 255 191 59%
17 1,952 1,022 52%
18 6,091 2,627 93%
19 5.633 2,063 36%
20 5,112 1,935 28%
21 2,090 966 22%
22 1,205 256 21%
23+ 1,579 207 13%

 

The breakdown by ages of the science sample is as

 

 

follows:
Table 5.17
Age Number
16 9
17 56
18 192
19 97
20 96
21 7

22
23+ 9

 

139

The results of the correlational analysis Show age to
be significantly correlated with scores on the M85 exami-
nation, with a negative correlation meaning that the younger
students did better on the examination.

Table 5.18

Correlation of Age with M85 Examination Scores

 

 

Examination Corre¥§§13n Level of Significance
Thai -.12 .03
English -.06 .22
Social Science -.10 .06
Physics -.16 .01
Biology -.19 .01
Chemistry -.16 .01
Mathematics -.15 .01
Total -.05 .39

 

The direction of the correlations on the JHEEE was
in favor of the younger student, but the correlations were
too low to be of any significance. In their first year at
the university, the younger students outperformed the older
students in all subjects in all faculties, with the one
exception of Physics in the Chulalongkorn Evening Science
Faculty. This is seen on the following page in Table
5.19.
Buddhism ang_§ducation

The importance of Buddhism in Thai society has been
alluded to in the discussion of the patterning of sex

190

cosmoaaaswam mo Hoboa Ho. use
cosmoahasmdm mo HoboH no. u e

 

 

 

t*MN.I 0H.I *tmN.I mH.I mo.I toméI «msmsmaso
*uN.I ma.I mo.I om.I mN.I mH.I . wnmmnemmm
oa.u s~a.u 50.- ea. asaa.u mH.u measoem saoswsoamasao
##HN pI *mH . I +2” . I mo . I atom . I atom .I ha shochaoamasso

Hence smaamsm moaemmossmz moamasm amoaoam assessors
poomnsm apamnobass

 

mousse anamao>HSD and: 0&4 mo soapmaoanoo

ma.m manna

191

roles. All aSpectS of Thai life are conditioned by the
general social value system of Buddhism. In the economic
realm, it has an important effect on the economic behavior
of the Thai people, in addition to such economic effects
as the drain of alms, the maintaining of a large monkhood,
and the construction of thousands of temples.

The loose structure of the society and of the family
is partially a result of the principal tenet of Buddhism
which is the:

...complete psychological freedom, isolation and re-
Sponsibility of every person...every person is a free
agent, reSponsible only to and for himself, and he
inevitably reaps the fruits of his own conduct.52

The individual must actively pursue meritorious action.
He can never ”rest on his own laurels,” as every act is
potentially merit-making or losing. The goal of Buddhism
may be characterized as “other-worldly," as the rewards
may not come in this life.

Buddhism has an important effect on the social
organization of Thailand. The monk stands at the pinnacle,
followed by the King and government officials, with the
mass of the peasantry standing at the bottom of the merit
and the social heirarchy. Though the amassing of ”worldly"
wealth is not a significant motivation for action for the
Buddhist, one can gain merit through the eXpenditure of
that worldly wealth in performing meritorious acts

appropriate to one's status.

 

52Phillips, pp. Cit., p. 88

192

The Thai social structure is fluid and one can move
to high social status quite easily and also be degraded
to the lowest levels with great suddenness. An.individual's
social position can be raised or lowered by the King, and
the Chinese are an example of the sudden rise and assimi-
lation into the Thai upper class. The categories of monk,
official and commoner are hierarchically ranked and mutually
exclusive, but movement between categories was and is still
frequent. Virtually no position is cut off from achieve-
ment.53

In a changing and rapidly modernizing society such
as Thailand's, the role of religion in the lives of its
people is forced to change. Attendance at wats has fallen
off in recent years, with many only bringing offerings on
Special Buddhist holidays. Whereas in past years, almost
all men served a period of time (usually 3-6 months) as
a monk, a large percentage of the modern Thai men never
enter the priesthood. The demands of life, working hours,
education, movies, and other facets of modern existence
all cut down on religious belief and activity. Mosel
points to the three areas of Thai culture as:

...rice cultivation, government and the Buddhist religion.

The first is the primary preoccupation of the rural

peasantry, the second of the urban ungr classes, and
the third the concern of both groups.

 

53K11‘80h, 920 Cite, pp. 7’110
5uMose1, pp. cit., p. 300.

193

Many only stay with Buddhism because it is the na-
tional religion, and it would be akin to disloyalty to
give it up. There are also close ties of Buddhism with ,
nationalism and individual family relationships. Buddhism,
though still outwardly proSperous, seems to be losing out
and is not being replaced by any other form of religion
or code of ethical and moral values. Many Thais feel that
Buddhisms' traditional concepts and practices are outmoded
and conflict with the education, science, materialism and
entertainment of modern Thai life. There is also the feeling
that Buddhism is losing out because most of its priests are
holding themselves aloof from modern life. Graham concluded:
Thailand's young are living in a moral and ethical
vacuum deprived of the underpinnings which give sub-
:gaai; aagiyalgg to life and stability to marriage and
One cannot understand.any aSpect of Thai life without
an understanding of the role of Buddhism past and present.
The Thai educational system has been closely linked to
Buddhism throughout most of its history, so one cannot
ignore the impact of religion on the schools. The mon-
asteries played an important educational role by implanting
reSpect for teachers on the part of their pupils. A student
was expected to honor and respect his teacher throughout
life, and this has helped to give a great deal of prestige
to the teaching profession. The Lord Buddha taught that

it was better to beaa scholar than a king, and many Buddhist

 

55Graham, pp. pap” p. 17.

199

proverbs seek to emphasize the importance of wisdom and
knowledge. The temples still hold classes on two levels.
For those with the prerequisite training, classes on theory
and philosophy are held, while for the masses, sessions
dealing with the practical aSpects of Buddhism and how to
meditate are conducted.

Religion was not included as one of the background
factors in this study, because of the difficulty of doing
any valid comparison in a state so heavily Buddhist. Sta-
tistics for 1965 Show the religious make-up of Thailand
to be 99.1% Buddhist, 3.9% Muslim, .5% Christian, and 1.5%
.Animist. There can be no doubt however,of the important
impact of religion on the attitudes of the Thai people
towards education.

Private Education and Academic Achievement

very little, if any, research has been conducted in
Thailand on the private schools. A great deal needs to
be done, however, in the light of the role the private
schools play in the total educational program. The private
schools are concentrated in Bangkok and Thonburi,. where
they account for 50% of the total enrollment, and 32% of
the total private school enrollment in the Kingdom. The
statistics on Table 5.20 point to the growing importance

of these Schools.

195

Table 5.20
Number of Private Schools in Thailand56

Type“of‘sakooi ‘ 3“ 2* ”-41. 195 M " 1932

   

 

Kindergarten 163 225
Elementary 906 1087
Iower-Mathayom 660 810
Upper-Mathayom 99 117
Vocational 259 350
Special Education 962 512

 

Total ‘ 2989 3101

 

Not only are there a large number of private schools,
but the % enrollments point to their great impact. These
figures were based on 1956-1969.

Table 5.21

Percentage of Students Enrolled
in Private Schools

 

M

Pratom l = 10.90% MS 1 = 50.07%
Pratom 2 = 7.09% MS 2 = 50.23%
Pratom 3 = 7.26% MS 3 a 50.00%
Pratom 9 = 7.66% MS 9 = 53.93%
Pratom 5 a 98.32% MS 5 a 99.29%
Pratom 6 = 98.92%

Pratom 7 a 99.79%

 

"Thailand Official Yearbook: 1969 (Bangkok: Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1969), p. 99.

57Educational Planning Office, SecondaryEducation
Stud , 22. Cite, p. 630

196

The Ministry of Education accredits those private
schools which meet the standards of the government in such
things as buildings, equipment, certified teachers and
curriculum. In 1963, 985 of the 2019 or 29% private ele-
mentary and secondary schools had government accreditation.
The government grants a subsidy to private schools meeting
certain criteria. Most of this assistance is in the form
of money for the hiring of properly qualified teachers.
Not all private schools may receive these subsidies, as
they are limited to those run by official bodies, organi-
zations, foundations and monasteries, so that schools run
for profit by private individuals are ineligible. Those
using other than the prescribed curricula- or charging
excessive fees are also ineligible for government aid.

The kindergartens of Thailand are almost completely
run by private individuals and organizations, and the
government kindergartens are used only as models. AS the
government enforces its compulsory education law through
Pratom 7 (grade 7), the percentage of students in private
schools will no doubt drop at the upper elementary level.
Private vocational schools are of the Short-course type
for the most part, offering training in Special skills.
Most private secondary Schools are of the academic variety,
because of the high costs of running a vocational school.

Until comparatively recent times, many of the private

schools, particularly those run by foreign mission societies,

were able to attract the best students. With the rapid

197

expansion of government expenditures for education and the
rising quality of the public schools, most of the better
students prefer to attend the large public schools in
Bangkok. A comparison of the success of students in passing
the MS5 examination, and on obtaining admission to the
university is some indication Of the quality of student
and the quality of instruction received in the private
secondary schools.

Table 5.22

Passing Rate on JHEEE of Students from
Public and Private Secondary Schools

 

W
Type of School NO. of No. of Rate of Passing
Candidates (Successful

Candidates
Central-Bangkok .
Public 5,188 2,931 56.97
Private 7,601 2,320 30.52
Cut of Bangkok ‘ '
Public 3,328 1,168 35.09
Private 1,239 918 33.87

 

The Government Of Thailand is considering thapassing
of an act allowing the establishment Of private colleges.
All higher education at the present time is under public
control, but with the rapid increase in qualified students
for university admission, it has been felt that high
quality private colleges should be permitted to Operate

in the near future. These colleges would have to meet
standards of accreditation as laid down by the National

Education Council, in such areas as capital expenditures,

198

academic programs, housing facilities, staff qualifications,
and admissions policies.58
In the sample of science students, 190 were from private

secondary schools and 178 from public secondary schools.
The success of the public school students is seen in the
correlations of M85 examination scores with the type of
school attended. The positive correlations indicate greater
success by public school students.

Table 5.23

Correlations of M85 Examination Scores
and Type of Secondary Schools

 

 

Examination Correlatgon 299 Level OhuSignificance
That .18 .01
English .07 .17
Social Science 195 .01
Physics .59 .01
Biology .99 .01
Chemistry .99 .01
Mathematics .19 .01

 

The percentages of students from public and private
schools passing the M85 examinations indicates the higher
level Of achievement attained by students in the public

schools.

 

58Mational Education Council, “Private Colleges,"
(Bangkok: 1968), p. 11.

199

Table 5.29

Passing Rates on M35 Examination

 

W
Type of School Science .Arts (Total

Public 78.99% 79.93% 76-51%
Private 59.93% 95.65% 49-65%

 

In the sample used in this study, however, the students
from private Schools outperformed those from the public
schools on the JHEEE. Only in English, Biology and the
Total score were the results significant. Negative corre-
lations indicate that private school students performed at
a higher level than those from public schools.

Table 5.25

Correlations of JHEEE Scores
and Typa of gghool

Examination Subject Correlation Level of Significance

 

 

EngliSh -.22 .01
Mathematics -.01 .78
Biology -.18 .01
Chemistry -.02 .61
Physics .06 .23
Total -.26 .01

 

The highest correlations between private school
students and the scores on the JHEEE were in English and
Biblogy, the lowest being in Physibs, where the students
from public schools did better.

In the university, there was no significant difference

in achievement between the students from public and private

150

secondary schools. In three Of the four faculties, the
direction of the correlations was in favor Of the students
from the public schools. Only at the Chulalongkorn Evening
Science Faculty was the direction Of the correlations in
favor Of the private school student. The only significant
correlations in university achievement were in English,
where once again, students from the private schools out-
performed those from the public schools.

Coaching Schools and Academic Achaevement

The coaching schools began approximately fifteen years
ago to prepare students for the entrance examinations ad-
ministered by the Thai Universities. With the tremendous
expansion Of the secondary schools in the past ten years
and large numbers Of dandidates competing for a limited
number Of Spaces in the universities, the coaching schools
have expanded rapidly. NO accurate statistics are avail-
able, due to the lack of supervision of these schools by
any governmental agency. All schools must register with
the Department of Secondary Education Of the Ministry Of
Education, but no statistics are filed and there is little
control over curriculum, textbooks, or teachers.

There are about ten coaching schools, all located in
Bangkok, due to the vast majority Of secondary school
afadentS,beiag strolled in the capital city. Three Of the four
types are evening schools. The first type, and the
smallest are held from July to March, for those students

who fail the entrance examination and desire to study for

 

'w

151

a full year in preparation for the next examination. The
second type is a one semester course lasting from October
to March, and is attended by a large number of students
currently enrolled in M85. The third type is the largest,
and is annually attended by several thousand students.
This type is held from the middle Of March, following the
M85 examination, until the middle of April. The fourth
type is the only coaching school conducted in the daytime,
and is held without official approval Of the Ministry Of
Education. .

Classes are generally held from 9:30-8:00 P.M., six
nights a week. The schools are divided into science and
arts just as the regular schools, and students study those
subjects over which they will be tested on the JHEEE. The
lecture method is used in all subjects, and students use
regular secondary texts, in addition to which they learn
to answer questions by going over Old examinations for
practice. A claim has been.made that 20% of the examination
questions are repeated each year, but this has never been
substantiated.

Tuition varies according to the length of the course
and the prestige of the school. For the year course,
tuition ranges from 720 to 1200 Baht (836 to $60), 360 to
600 Baht ($18 to $30) for the one semester course, and
180 to 300 Baht ($9 to $15) for the month long course.

This is a considerable amount Of money, particuAarly in

U’

152

view Of the fact that a vast number of those in the March-
April course are from poor rural homes, whose average
yearly income may not be over 8100. These students come
because they feel that the generally inferior secondary
schools in the provinces did not prepare them well enough
for the JHEEE.

The schools will generally post signs outside the
buildings in which they are being conducted. These are
usually private schools which are rented for the evenings.
Most also advertise in the paper, using the names of their
professors as a main attraction along with the success
they have had with their students in the past.

Almost all of the teachers in the coaching schools
are full-time teachers during the day. The better paying
schools hire university professors, and one claims_to have
three Ph.D's on its teaching staff in the sciences. Other
schools which charge less tuition can only afford secondary
teachers, many Of whom end up teaching the same lessons
they have taught during the day to many of the same stu-
dents. The motive for teaching in the coaching schools
is financial. There are no prestige or other factors in-
volved. The average university professor makes around
9000 Baht ($200) a month, which in Bangkok today does not
last very long. He can often earn.as much as 2000 Baht
or more a month in the coaching school which isa big help

in making ends meet. Some have been known to equal or

153

surpass their regular salary.59 It is known that in the
one month coaching school, the director can make over
60,000 Baht for himself after eXpenSeS are paid. It is
thus obvious that the coaching schools are a big business,
and a very profitable one for many Thai educators today.
The coaching schools are based on the fear that the
students have about failing the university entrance exami-
nation. Iost University and Government Officials feel
they do more psychological good than actual good for the
student, but no one is willing to close them down. The
major question which most raised about their existence
was that they give a false impression as to what real
education is. Students already have the feeling that
"education" is just preparing for and passing examinations,
and the coaching Schools seem to add to this outlook.
There can be no doubt that those students who have had
poor training or no training in a particular subject area
are aided by the schools, but for the most it is a review
of what they have learned in their regular secondary schools.
The coaching schools also tend to make the student con-
centrate less on his secondary studies, and put more time
into his work at the coaching School, which is often
taught by a more prestigious teacher. This tends to
undermine the morale and purpose of the secondary school.

If the M85 examination were used for admittance to

 

59Dr. Sawan, Interview held in Bangkok, March, 1968.

159

the university it would cut down on the role of the coaching
school, because no longer would students be able to congre-
gate in Bangkok for a month prior to the JHEEE, but could
remain at their own secondary schools. Some of the coaching
schools have advertised the names of well-known professors
as being on their staff, while these individuals may never
teach, but just sell the use Of their name. Others have
advertised false success stories of their students or the
earning of false degrees by some Of their teachers. In
general, however, the schools are honest, but must be
looked an.as a profitable businass enterprise rather than
as an educational institution.

Statistics comparing the passing rates of students
who attended coaching schools and those who did not are
not available, but it is known that in 1967,99% Of the
successful candidates for university admission.attended
one of these schools. A higher percentage Of women than
men attended; 99% as compared to 90%. Those attending the
coaching schools were concentrated in the science faculties,
with pre-medical students leading the way with 67% of their
students in attendance.

In the sample of science students, 225 or 63% Of the
total group attended a coaching school. The results Of
the study were not significant and on almost half Of the
examinations, students who did not attend a coaching school
outperformed those who did. Correlations ranged from -.09

to .05.

155

Choice Of Faculpy and Academic Achievement

It has been hypothdaed by some Thai education officials,
that students who were admitted to the faculty which was
their first choice would perform at a higher level than
those for whom it was a fifth or sixth choice. The break-
down of choices for the total sample were as follows: first
choice 32, second choice 85, third choice 73, fourth choice
106, fifth choice 58, and Sixth choice 19.

The results of a correlation Of academic achievement
with a choice Of faculty varied with each institution. In
the Chulalongkorn.£ay Science Faculty, the achievement of
those who had made it, their lst or 2nd choice was sig-
nificantly better in Chemistry, Physics, and Total Scores.
The correlations in the Evening Science Faculty were in
the opposite direction, with students making a fourth,
fifth or sixth choice, performing at a higher level. The
English score was the only Significant score, however.

The results at Kasetart were mixed, but generally in favor
Of those who made it a lower choice. Only the Biology
score was significant at the .05 level. .At Chiengmai the
results were also mixed, but slightly in favor Of those,
making the faculty a higher choice, although once again,
only the Biology score was significant at the .05 level.
Table 5.26, on the following page, shows the choice Of

rum

faculty and academic achievement.

156

Table 5.26

Choice of Faculty and Academic.Achievement

 

University N Correlation Level of
Significance
Chulalongkorn Day 137 -.19 .02
Chulalongkorn Evening 79 .13 .23
Kasetsart 99 .17 .21
Chiengmai 103 -.07 .95

 

Sciencp:§ducation and Academic Achievement

The country Of Thailand has recognized the need for
trained scientists, and in recent years many programs have
been started to produce a larger number Of university
graduates in the scientific fields. In the early days of
university education, students chose law as the faculty
which they would most like to enter, and the government
had to set up Special scholarhips and incentives to attract
students into the sciences. In recent years, however,
medicine and engineering have become the most popular,
and whereas tuition for other faculties ranges from 300
. Baht ($15) to 800 Baht ($90) per year, the tuition for
engineering is 5000 Baht ($250) and for medicine 10,000
Baht ($500). This has in no way prevented a vast majority
Of science students from choosing these two fields, as a
student can receive a government scholarship, if he promises
to work for the government after his graduation.

The past five years have seen an emphasis upon the

natural sciences, with a new program being prOposed at the

157

University Of Medical Sciences in conjunction with the
Rockefeller Foundation, to produce a Sizeable number Of
candidates, who would then go to the United States for
their graduate work. A second significant program is that
being prOposed by the University DevelOpment Commission,
whereby selected departments at each of the Thai univer-
sities would deve10p master's and eventually doctoral
programs in the natural sciences. Just as there was a
need for expansion in medicine and engineering fifteen to
twenty years ago, the greatest need today is for a rapid
eXpansion in the natural sciences. The number Of students
in the natural sciences is still quite small, only 927 of
a total Of 8231 entrants to the universities in 1967. Of
this number, only 99 chose natural science as a field they
would most like to study, the rest hoping to gain admission
to engineering, medicine, pharmacy or dentistry. Table
5.27 indicates the preference Of fields, faculties and
universities by those students who took the JHEEE science
examinations.

Perhaps the major Obstacle to the development Of
science in the universities is the low quality of in-
struction in the secondary schools. This is due to many
factors, not the least of which are the low level of
training Of most secondary science teachers and the lack
Of equipment with which to prOperly teach scientific
subjects. .Another factor in the low standard Of science

teaching is the fact that 2/3 Of the students in M89 and

158

 

 

 

Table 5.27
Ranking by Faculty of Science Students - JHEEE Scores

Faculty # of High Low Mode Median Mean

Students Score Score g__
M.SivPre.Med. 200 911 302 329 327 333
Chula.Pre.Med. 153 397 276 290 289 291
Ch.-Pre.Med. 62 393 269 269 283 287
M.S.-Pharm. 121 318 257
Chula.Sc.-Day 159 363 296 251 259 267
Ch.-Pharm. 30 313 238
M.S.-Dent. 81 297 233
Ch.-Dent. 15 292 219
Chula.Sc.Eve. 100 271 201 221 221 222
Chula.-Ed.Sc. 102 291 200
M.S.-Nursing 21 292 196
Ch.-Sc. 122 268 187 187 210 211
Kas.-Forest. 131 293 186 190 203 207
Kas.-Sc. 59 235 189 185 202 209
Kas.-As. 359 259 179
Ch.—Med.Tech. 29 299 171
M.S.-Publ.Health 61 299 170
Kas.-Fisheries 95 299 166
Kas.-Vet.Sc. 71 261 165
Ch.-Nursing 90 209 159
Chulae-EdeSCOEvee 30 198 159
Ch.-Geol. 30 227 156
Ch.aAg. 90 210 151
Kas.eAg.Econ. 59 235 150
KhonKaenaAg. 100 230 199
Chula.-Prac.Chem. 21 179 125
Ch.-Nurs.Dip1. 70 170 129 133 137 191

 

Rankings based on bottom cut-Off score.
M.S. = Medical Sciences
Chula.=Chulalongkorn

Ch. = Chiengmai
Kas. = Kasetsart
KOKO =3 Khomen

 

M85 are in the science area with its poor facilities and
lack of teachers, while the arts, with adequate facilites
and teachers, only attracts 1/3 of the students. Students
in the provinces have a smaller chance of passing the MS5

and the university entrance examination, due to the fact

159

that such things as laboratories and even good textbooks
are unknown in some rural secondary schools. ,A student
from one of these schools must memorize everything from
teacher's lectures, and consequently, when he is faced
with questions of the nationwide examinations, which deal
with experiments or even book diagrams, he is at an
extreme disadvantage.

Most of the instruction in science at all levels is
geared to the passing of an examination. Teachers lecture
and the students are expected to take notes and memorize
them, and seldom do the teachers make any attempt to use
the discovery or inquiry approach to teaching. Often the
syllabi used provide little or no help to the teacher,
giving only the main topics to be covered. At the ele-
mentary level, books, teaching aids and laboratory equip-
ment are almost non-existent, and at the secondary level
only the larger schools have them in sufficient quantity.
The examinations used in science are designed to test the
ability to recall, with few if any questions testing a
student's ability to apply, compare, find causality,
analyze or synthesize.

At the secondary level, students may choose four out
of five science courses from among three physics classes,
one biology class and one chemistry class. This often
leaves a student with important gaps in his understanding
of science. There is also a good deal of overlap between

the elementary and secondary, and secondary and university

160

courses, so that some important content is left out at the

expense of repetition. Perhaps the major barrier at the
present time is the lack of good textbooks in Thai. Trans-
lations of BSCS and PSSC books are now being done, which
should improve the situation, but efforts will still have
to be made to adapt them for use in Thailand.60

In addition to the translations of textbooks, other
efforts are being made to improve science teaching in the
secondary schools. Curriculum committees have been appointed
to evaluate and bring the curricula up-to-date, and in-
service training programs are to be started to upgrade
teachers! qualifications. The possible use of television
teaching has been considered, and plans are being laid to
provide more laboratory and audio-visual materials for use
in science classrooms.

Science teaching at the university level suffers from
most of the same problems that confront Thai secondary
schools. The problem of qualified teachers at an.advanced
level is perhaps more acute than the problem of staffing
in the secondary schools, due to the preference of Thai
students for medicine and engineering degrees, and the
desire of many qualified people to work at more lucrative

Jobs, rather than teach at the universities for $200 to

 

60For further information see Final Report of a
SEAMES Sponsored Seminar on Science and Mathematics in
Thailand: August_7-9,l96z. (Bangkok, Thailand: Ministry
of Education, 1967).

 

161

$900 a month. At the university, the understanding of
English becomes extremely important, as many of the basic
texts and almost all the supplementary texts are in English.
At the advanced levels in most of the universities, one

can find foreigners teaching in English, so the science
student must not only be able to read English, but also

to understand the Spoken language. Evidence of the
difficulty students have is the low grades many receive
from English-Speaking instructors, as compared to grades
received from Thai instructors.

A recent grant from the United States Government, which
was matched by the Thai Government, is providing $200,000
worth of science books, which should aid in building up
the research libraries, which are entirely inadequate at
the present time. Faculty have little time or money for
research, but evidence of a change in this is the 1968
budget proposed for Chulalongkorn University, which for
the first time has set apart a Sizeable sume for faculty
research. A major effort will need to be exerted in the
coming years to make science an attractive field, so
that more of the best students will choose to major in

61

it, rather than going into medicine and engineering.

 

61For further details see Frank G. Nicholls,.§
Program for the DevelOpment of Scientific Research in
Thailand (Bangkok: U.N. Program of Technical Assistance,
19615.

162

The scores on the M85 examination are usually much
higher than those on the JHEEE. Students are required to
get 600 points out of a possible 1000, and in 1967, approxi-
mately 66% of all the students attempting the science exami-
nation passed it. The details of the M85 examination were
dealt with in Chapter III, so only the results of the exami-
nation will be looked at here. Table 5.28 indicates the
mean scores obtained by the four sample groups on the M85
examination. In.most cases, students scored higher on the
M85 examination than they did on the JHEEE or in their
first year at the university. Based on their scores on
the examination, students performed at the highest level
in Mathematics followed by Physics and Biology, with
performance being the lowest in Chemistry.

The scores on the JHEEE would seem to indicate that
it is a more difficult examination. No arbitrary passing
level is set, and students are admitted to the university
faculties on the basis of their total scores and their
choice of faculties. 0n the JHEEE, it is Physics which
gives students the most difficulty, with Mathematics'
scores being almost as low. Students do best in Biology
followed by Chemistry. Table 5.29 gives an indication of
the performance levels of students on each of the exami-
nations. With 60 set as the point of passing in the
university, it is interesting to note that in only one
faculty (Chulalongkorn), and in only one subject (Biology),

did the students perform at this level. Only the Pre-

163

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mm.aom H:.e: mm.me mm.aoa Hmswcoaso
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mm.mo~ H:.:: mm.me em.moa mzflnmsm zuoxwzoamasso
No.mHm mm.me ma.mm oa.mHH awn :uoawcoamasno
_moapmaospm: manpmaaozo Nmmoaoam Hmoammsm hpamhobazb

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

coaumzaamfim mm: on» no moocoaom on» ma monoom sacs

mm.m manna

169

sodpmaaamxm some now mpnaoa ooa mapammoa o no woman mayoom Had

 

 

 

mo.mm mm.m: wa.wm do.mm Hmpoe
Hm.mm :H.H: ma.:m ma.mm «mammoaso
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madmanm . . hapmaaono awoaodm woapmamSBmz hpamaobaas

 

mmmmh mg» no mooaoaom on» ma monoom smmz

mm.m mHDmB

165

Medical students at the University of Medical Sciences
achieved an average of 60 on all five entrance examinations.

Achievement in the sciences at the university during
the first year is generally at a fairly low level. Due to
the different grading procedures, no attempt was made to
average the scores of the four faculties. In three of the
four faculties, students did best in Biology, with means
in the other three subjects either below the 60 passing
level or Just barely above it. Table 5.30 gives a break-
down of the means by faculty, in addition to the study
of the 1967 university entrants.

An analysis of the 1966 entering class was made in
three of the universities of Thailand, to find the areas
of greatest difficulty in the sciences. This analysis
was made to see what happened to the students who failed
a course the first time. After the first year, students
in the Chulalongkorn Day and Evening Science Faculties
are Joingg together, so that the statistics presented here
deal with both groups of students. Students who receive
a score below 60 must repeat the course, and any student
who fails two or three classes must repeat not only those
he failed, but also those in which he received a grade of
less than 70. Due to the large clustering of students in
the low 60's in.all subjects it is not uncommon for a
large number of students to have to retake a class even
though they passed it the first time. The following

wastage rates are based on the total of those who failed

166

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.wsdmmma ma oo 3 mpsaoa ooa no comma who mmumnws

 

 

mm.m mm.m mm.m HH.m stamawacaso
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mH.Nm so.mm Ne.mo w:.mm *wzagosm enoawcoamasso
mm.mw 05mm :mbw odmw than whostoamasno
moapmamnpma moammnm awoaoam hapmdamgo zuamnmbacp

 

 

hpamhmbagp 03p ca

xnoz mo 980M pmHam How moozmaom on» ad mmomho moms

om.m magma

167

the course the first time and those who passed it, but were
made to repeat it because their grade was less than 70.
Table 5.31

wastage Rates in Science Faculty:
Chulalongkorn 1966-67

I
I

 

 

Subject wastage Rate—
Biology 92.30%
Chemistry 97.00%
Physics 90.60%
Mathematics 60.70%

 

Using the above table as an indicator of the problem
areas,1nathematics is seen as the area of greatest diffi-
culty. Students who fail only one subject may petitiont£rJ
be reexamined. Students who fail four or five courses are
asked to withdraw from the university, though there is
nothing to prevent them from retaking the JHEEE and entering
the same faculty again. A large number of students re-
ceived a score of exactly 60 in one or more subjects. Al-
most 50% of the chemistry grades were 60, with a large
number of 60's in the other subjects also. This score is
often indicative of the fact that the student's grade was
raised by faculty action, to prevent too large a number of
students from failing. With this fact in mind, it is quite
possible that an even larger percentage of students may
have failed.

At Kasetsart University the failure rates were not

nearly as large, though there were a large number of

‘III‘I
...a ‘3, . ..lJIEEv.“

168

students receiving a 60 in Chemistry. Physics was the
area of greatest difficulty for the first year students at
Kasetsart University in 1966. Khon Kaen University does
not have a science faculty, but an analysis of student
achievement in the sciences, mathematics, and English
among their engineering students indicates many of the

same problems as are found at Kasetsart and Chulalongkorn

 

 

 

Universities.
Table 5.32
Failure Rates at Khon Kaen
University: .1966

Subject ' Failure Rate
Physics 89%
Chemistry 10%
Calculus 53%
Analytic Geometry 11%

 

Studies at Chiengmai University indicate that the
lowest achievement is in Physics and Mathematics, with
generally higher levels in Chemistry and Biology. A study
of fourth year students in the Faculty of Science at Chula-
longkorn University indicated that 99% of them had been
made to repeat at least one full year of work at the
university.

English‘Ability_and‘Academic.Achievement

The ability to read the English language is of extreme

importance for the student entering the Thai universities.

A majority of the textbooks used are in English, and most

169

students will have had several farang (foreign) professors
before finishing their bachelors degree. English is
generally taught, starting in the fifth grade, so that a
university student will have had eight years prior to his
arrival at the university. The major problem is the poor
level of elementary and secondary instruction in English.
This has been improved in recent years with several hundred
Peace Corps teachers, but for the most part, the elementary
and secondary school teachers of English know little more
than their students. The results of such poor training
often do more harm than good, and teach bad habits which
are hard to change. I

...The Siamese first year man knows what a gerundal

infinitive is and he knows what the Present Imperfect

Monetary Tense of the Infinitive Mood is....However,

~the average Thai student is talented. He can completely

segregate grammar from the English langgage. To him

it is a separate subject like English.i

Though perhaps overstated, the above quotation

summarizes the mood and attitude of many professors of
English in Thailand. In October, 1967, a survey was
taken.and tests administered by a committee of the Uni-
versity Development Commission. The report of the survey
committee is one of the more complete, and the most recent

evidence\of the state of English language teaching in

Thailand. Some of the problem areas listed by the

 

62Carol Hollinger, Mai Pen Rai means Never Mind
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965), p. 111.

170

committee are as follows:

1. Many of the English teachers lack a knowledge of
their subject and the techniques of how to teach it.

2. There is too much duplication of effort by different
departments and faculties each teaching their own
English courses.

3. There are too few teachers, too few classrooms and
the classes are too large.

9. There is a lack of integrated and graded materials.

5. Library facilities and training in their use are
inadequate.

6. The role of English lg the curriculum has never
been clearly defined. 3

Many recommendations were made by the committee in-
cluding the establishment of an English Language Center
to train graduate students going abroad for study and
-English teachers for Thai Universities. Other recommendations
included the consolidation of English teaching into one
department, the use of full-time instructors and smaller
classes. An interesting recommendation which goes against
Thai traditional grading procedures was the counting of
class work as a considerable portion of the grade rather
than just a final examination. .At the pre-university
level, the committee felt that only teachers with a good
command of the language should be allowed to teach.64

The English Proficiency Test given to foreign students

in the United States before they begin a graduate program

 

63Englishlanguage Program Committee,aj lish
language Teaching in the Universities of Thailand Bangkok:
University Development Commission, 1968), pp. 9L6.

6“Ibid” pp. 7-30.

171

was administered to 979 students in English, Economics,
'hysics, 9hemistry, iology, and :athematics. 0f the
non-English majors tested, 127 of whom were graduate
students and 196 of whom were fourth year students, only
9% received a score of 75 or better, the score needed to
begin a graduate program in the United States. Of the
English majors, only 19.9% received a score high enough
to begin a graduate program in an English Speaking country.65

The English scores on the M85 Examination, the JHEEE,
and the first year at the university are not indicative of
the low level of English ability, which these outside tests
seem to show. The mean English scores on the M85 Examination
are higher than most of the scores on the other tests.

Table 5.33

Mean Scores on the MS5
English Test

 

 

 

 

University N lupan
Chulalongkorn Day 120 117.36
Chulalongkorn Evening 59 100.59
Kasetsart 39 100.00
Chiengmai 81 107.31
Total 299 109-34

 

With the exception of Biology, students generally
perform at a higher level on the JHEEE in English than in

the sciences as is seen in Table 5.39.

 

65Ibid., pp. 3-9.

172

Table 5.39
Means on the JHEEE English Test

 

 

 

 

University N Mean
Chulalongkorn Day 137 58.51
Chulalongkorn Evening 103 99.53
Kasetsart 99 99.06
Chiengmai 79 50.10
Total 368 L 5?. 65

 

As was true on the Entrance Examination, students
perform at or near the highest levels in English at the
universities when their scores are compared to those in
:hemistry, Lathematics and 'hysics, though one often finds
*iology grades as the highest.

Table 5.35

Mean Scores in English at the
at the Universities

 

 

University N Mean
Chulalongkorn Day 137 66.21
Chulalongkorn Evening 79 60.22
Kasetsart 49 69-55
Chiengmai 103 3.17*

 

* = based on a 5 point scale rather than 100.

 

In an analysis of the 1966 entrants to the universities,
it was found that English was the subject failed the least
in each of the universities. In fact, in two universities

no students failed the subject. A great deal depends on

173

the instructor, as the statistics on two separate years
at one university indicate. In 1965, 90% of all students
failed English and a mean score of 63% was attained. In
1966, at the same school, 100% of the students passed
English, and the mean score was 79.97. Evidence such as
this gives some indication of the wide range of teaching
and also what is expected of students at each of the uni-
versities.
The Prediction of Academic Performance

One of the major purposes of the study was to test
the validity of the M85 examination.and the JHEEE as pre-
dictors of success in the universities of Thailand. The
decision was made to limit the study to one curricular
grouping, so as to make sure the sample was made up of
students, who not only took the same MS5 test and JHEEE
test, but also would be taking the same courses in the
university. The science faculties at Chulalongkorn,
Kasetsart and Chiengmai Universities met these basic
criteria. There was also the added advantage in that most
students in each faculty had the same instructors, thus
cutting down on the variability of grading procedures and
tests used in evaluation. Similar research in Thailand
has attempted to study the determinants of performance
across curricular groupings, thereby losing much of its
predictive power and validity.

The present study does not attempt to answer questions

concerning the reliability of the tests as this would be

179

a complete project in itself. Problems of standardization,
the use of essay questions, inadequate grading procedures
and other factors, however, raise important questions con-
cerning the reliability of the M55 examination and the
JHEEE. Examplasof questions from the JHEEE are listed in
the appendix.

Zero-order correlations were obtained for all tests
in each of the faculties, and multiple correlations were
used to identify the best possible combination of tests
which could be used in the prediction of grades in each
subject. The tables listing the results of these corre-
lations are found in the appendix.

With five subject scores and a total score to be
predicted for each faculty, there were a total twenty-four
predictions to be made. Using the zero-order correlations,
a test or total score on the M85 examination accounted for
nineteen of the twenty-four highest correlations. In only
five cases did the JHEEE, which is used to admit students
to the universitiesjprove to be the best predictor of
success, and of those five cases, only the biology test
in two faculties and the English test in one faculty
proved to be the best predictors of success in that par-
ticular field.

The tests which proved to be the best predictors,
regardless of the subject field were the M85 English and
the JHEEE English tests, the former proving to be the

slightly better predictor. The M85 mathematics score was

175

the most valid predictor of success in both mathematics and
physics in all of the faculties, while bothlnnlogy examinations
proved to have some validity for prediction of success in
biology in the university. Surprisingly, some of the
highest correlations in each subject field in the Evening-
Science Faculty at Chulalongkorn University were obtained
from the MS5 social science test. The tests proving to

have the least predictive ability were the JHEEE mathematics,
chemistry, and physics, which together account for 60% of
the score used for university admission at the present time.
If a total score is to be used for admission to the univer-
sity, the MS5 examination is a significantly better pre-
dictor than the JHEEE.

The multiple correlations providing the best prediction

of success in each subject at each faculty are presented in
the appendix. There is little similarity between the tests
used to predict success in each of the faculties, but the
same tests which provided significant zero-order correlations
also played a significant role in the multiple correlations.
These examinations were the two English tests, two biology
tests, and the M85 mathematics and social science tests.
The total scores on the MS5 examination and the JHEEE were
not included in the multiple correlations due to the fact
that they are summarizing variables, and therefore could
not be used in the computer.

Significant correlations were Obtained at the .01

level in most subject fields, though chemistry proved to

176

be the most difficult to predict. The highest correlations
were obtained at Chiengmai, the improbably high corre-
lation of .98 being obtained between five M85 tests and
total grades attained. The lowest correlations were in

the Day Science Faculty at Chulalongkorn University.

Table 5.36 presents a comparison of the present system
using the JHEEE total score with the best prediction if

a multiple correlation was used.

Attempts were made to use the biodata information in
the multiple correlation, to aid in the prediction of
success in the university, but with few exceptions the
biodata contribution proved to be insignificant. It was
also felt that better judgements on the validity of the
M85 examination and the JHEEE could be made, if the bio-
data was not included among the variables in the multiple

correlations.

177

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Chapter 6: Summary and Conclusions
Summagx

Six purposes or goals set forth for the study in
addition to the general purpose, which was to analyze the
overall admission's policy for the Thai universities in
light of their educational goals. The Specific purposes
were: 1. To analyze the admissions' procedures of the
National Education Council and the universities. 2. To
test the validity of the M85 Examination and the JHEEE as
predictors of academic success in the universities. 3. To
identify the areas of greatest failure in the science
faculties and some of the causes. 9. To analyze socio-
economic factors in a student's background which contri-
bute to academic success or failure. 5. To analyze the
role of the coaching schools in the admission's process.
6. To recommend changes in the current admissions' pro-
cedures and policy.

A review of all related literature in the United
States was impossible, due to the fact that many hundreds
of studies on the prediction of academic success have been
conducted. For this reason, only summarizing works were
reviewed, to gain.an understanding of methodology and
results. Attempts were made to find capies of all relevant
research which had been done in Thailand, and where no
manuscripts existed, interviews with the researchers were
conducted. The related literature in Thailand was found

to be quite limited, due to the comparative recency of

179

180

educational research in that country. Two predictive
studies have been completed in the past and one more is

in progress at the present time. Research in the area of
student background was also found to be quite limited,
while literature on admissions' policies and procedures

was almost nonexistent. The studies which have been com-
pleted indicated that the present examinations lack pre-
dictive ability, and the studies of student background
indicate a strong bias towards males, those from the cities,
and those from governmental homes.

The background for the statistical study is set in
Chapter 3, with a brief educational history of Thailand,

a history of higher education and description of each of
the universities, a history and description of the Na-
tional Education Council, and an analysis of the present
state of testing in Thailand, and a description.cf the
present admissions' policies and procedures.

The sample consisted of 368 students in the faculties
of science at Chulalongkorn, Kasetsart, and Chiengmai Uni-
versities, all of whom completed their first year in March,
1968. Sixty students were drOpped from the original popu-
lation of 928, because of missing biodata, test scores,
or their having dropped out of school. From the application

forms for admittance to the university, biodata was taken
for each individual on the following things: _sex, age,

race, parent's residence, parent's profession, type of

secondary school attended, year of secondary graduation,

181

attendance at a coaching school, previous attendance at a
university, and whether they had worked following secondary
graduation. The last two variables were drOpped from the
analysis, due to incomplete data. The Maw Saw 5 Exami-
nation scores for each student, by subject area, were
taken from the records at the Ministry of Education, and
the JHEEE scores were taken from the records at the
National Education Council. The dependent variables,
scores on the first year of work at the university, were
taken from the student transcripts in the registrar's
office at each faculty.
Prior to dealing with results of the study on each
of the sociological and academic variables, an attempt
was made to give meaningful background information to aid
in the interpretation of the data. This information was
taken from studies conducted by historians, anthropologists,
sociologists, political scientists and other researchers,
who have written.about Thailand. Zero-order correlations
were run on the computer to test the relationship between
each of the variables, and multiple correlations were
used to test the predictive power of the various exami-
nation scores when used in combination.
Conclusions and Findings
Sex and Academic Achievement
1. Women are rapidly achieving equality in Thai society
and is evidenced by their increasing role in busi-

ness, government, and education, their rising

182

literacy rate, and their increasing numbers in the
universities. Whereas in 1961, women made up only

25.7% of the university, they made up 92.5% in 1967.
Women performed at a higher level on the MS5 Exami-
nation, but were outperformed by the men on the
JHEEE.

In their first year at the university, women per-
formed at a significantly higher level than men in
the Chulalongkorn Day and Chiengmai Science Faculties,
and at a higher, though not significantly higher,

in the Chulalongkorn Evening Science Faculty, but
were outperformed by the men at Kasetsart University.
Women generally performed highest in English and
biology, while men did better in physics and math-

ematics.

Cultural Differences and Academic Achievement

5.

The Chinese student p0pu1ation is significantly
larger than the size of their race in the society
at large.

Chinese success on obtaining admission to the uni-
versity is due in part to their social status,
wealth, family structure, achievement motivation,
persecution of them by the Thai majority, and
historical factors.

Correlations of race and achievement on the exami-
nations and in the university were in favor of the

Chinese, but only at Chiengmai were the correlations

183

significant at the .05 level.

Residence and.Academic Achievement

8.

10.

11.

Rural attitudes towards education are an important
factor in the small number of rural students who
reach the university.

The costs of education, failure to identify good
rural students at an early age and poor facilities,
teachers and equipment, all contribute to the lack
of Opportunity for rural students to reach the uni-
versity.

Based on university enrollments and the p0pu1ation
of an area, students from Bangkok—Thonburi have the
best chance of attaining a university education,
followed by students from the Central Plains and
the South. The students from the North have a
poorer chance, with the Northeast having by far

the smallest percentage of students for the size

of its population.

Students recognize the need for education in the
city, if they are to gain entrance to the univere
sity, so that Bangkok accounts for 90% of all M33

graduates and 75% of all M55 graduates.

12. Although students from the urban areas have a sub-

stantially better chance of gaining admission to
the university, only in the subject field of English
did they do significantly better than those from

rural areas.

189

Parent's Occupation and Academic Achievement

13. Students from the homes of government officials have
the best chance of gaining a university education,
based on the size of the occupational group in the
population at large. Students from farming homes
have the smallest chance.

19. Less than six percent of the university students
come from homes, which have an income of 500 Baht
or less per month, the average income in Thailand.

15. Teaching and medicine are ranked as high status
professions, while business and farming are generally
looked down upon by university students.

16. Children from the homes of government officials and
business proprietors outperformed those from agri-
cultural or employee homes in the university, but
only in English were the correlations significant
at the .05 level.

Age Factors and Academic Achievement

17. The younger the student, the higher the passing
rate on the JHEEE.

18. The younger students did significantly better on
the M85 Examination.and.in.their first year at the
university.

Buddhism and Edueation

19. Buddhist teachings place a high emphasis on edu-

cation.

20. The educated class and urban people are generally

21.

185

less devout than the rural, less well educated

people.

Only in recent years has the educational system
broken away from the dominance of the Buddhist

religion.

Private Education and Academic Achievement

22.

23.

29.

25.

26.

Almost 50% of the secondary school students are
enrolled in private schools.

The students from private schools have_a signifi-
cantly lower passing rate on the JHEEE, when com-
pared to students from public secondary schools:
30.52% versus 56.97% in Bangkok-Thonburi and 33.87%
versus 35.09%in the rest of the country.

The students in the science sample from public
schools did significantly better on the M35 exami-
nation, but were outperformed by private school
graduates in the JHEEE.

The highest correlations in favor of private school
students were on the English examinations.

There was no significant difference between public
and private school graduates on university achieve-
ment, although the correlations tended to favor the

public school graduate.

Coaching Schools and.Academic Achievement

27.

The coaching schools enrolled 99% of the success-
ful candidates for university admission. No sta-

tistics on the unsuccessful candidates were available.

186

28. The coaching schools are a significant educational
and business institution hiring hundreds of univer-
sity professors and public school teachers, and
enrolling many thousands of Thai students each year.

29. No significant results were obtained when attendance
at the coaching school was compared with achievement
on the JHEEE for which it allegedly prepares. In
three of the six scores, students who had not
attended a coaching school outperformed those who
had.

Choice of Faculty and.Achievement

30. Only in the Chulalongkorn.£ay Science Faculty did
students who had made it their first or second choice
facultx significantly outperform those who had.made
it a lower choice.

Science Education and Academic Achievement

31. Medicine and its related fields along with engin-
eering are the faculties to which the top science
students most desire to gain admittance.

32. Science education at the secondary and university
levels suffers from poor instruction, lack of
facilities, equipment and libraries, overcrowded
classrooms, overemphasis upon examinations and lack
of good textbooks and teachers' syllabi.

33. A major factor in low achievement is the inability
of students to read and understand the English

language. Many of the primary and most of the

39.

35.

36.

37.

38.

187

secondary textbooks are in English, and most science
faculties have several English Speaking faculty
members.

Students generally did better on the MS5 Examination
than on the JHEEE.

Scores on the M85 Examination were highest in math-
ematics followed by physics, biology and chemistry.
In only one faculty, the Faculty of Medicine at the
University of Medical Sciences was an average score
of 60 (the passing score in the universities) attained
on the five examinations.

On the JHEEE, scores were generally highest in
biology, followed by chemistry, mathematics and
physics.

Wastage rates, based on those who failed courses

and those who passed,but were made to repeat the
course ranged from 5% in some faculties to 89% in
physics at one faculty.

In the most prestigious science faculty, Chulalong-
korn University, the wastage rates in the four
subjects were: physics, 90.60%; biology 92.30%;

chemistry 97.00%; and mathematics 60.70%.

EngliSh Ability and Academic Achievement

90. Problems in the develOpment of English language

skills include: a lack of trained teachers, a large
duplication of effort between universities, large

classes, poor teaching techniques, lack of integrated

41.

92.

188

and graded materials, poor library facilties and
too great an emphasis on grammar and not enough on
reading and Speaking skills.

The English ability of senior English majors was
such that less than 20% could begin a graduate pro-
gram in the United States or England, and only 9%
of the science majors reached this level of pro-
ficiency.

Students received higher scores on English examinations
and at the university than they did in any of the
sciences with the exception of biology. This led
to a large number of cases where students were
admitted to a science faculty on the basis of an
English score rather than demonstrated ability in

the sciences.

The Prediction of Academic Performance

93.

an.

95.

The biodata information did not contribute signi-
ficantly to the prediction of performance on most
tests or in the university, with the exception of

a significant positive correlation of the female

sex, urbanism, governmental or business home, and
private schools with English scores.

Both zero-order correlations and multiple correlations
proved to be higher in most cases, when MS5 tests

were used as the basis of prediction, rather than

the JHEEE.

The best predictors, regardless of the subject field

96.

97.

98.

49o

50.

51.

52.

53.

189

were the M55 and the JHEEE English tests.

The M55 mathematics test proved to be the best pre-
dictor of mathematics and physics grades in the
university.

Both biology tests were good predictors of success
in biology at the university level.

The M55 social science test proved to be the best
predictor of success in the Chulalongkorn Evening
Science Faculty in.most subject fields.

The poorest predictors on either examination were
the mathematics, chemistry, and physics tests of
the JHEEE.

The total score on the JHEEE now used for admittance
to the university provided zero-order correlations
of -.10 to .33 with grades in the university.

The total M55 score provided zero order correlations
of -.09 to .59 with grades in the university.
Multiple correlations using the best combination

of tests from the two examinations, provided corre-
lations ranging from .28 for the chemistry grade

at Chulalongkorn all the way up to .98 for the
total grades at Chiengmai. All the multiple corre-
lations were within the .05 level of significance,
and all but four were within the .01 level.

The highest multiple correlations were obtained for
Chiengmai University with the lowest for the Day
students in the Science Faculty at Chulalongkorn

University.

190

Discussion and Recommendations

In this section, an attempt has been made to provide
insight into some of the probable causes of the results
obtained in the study, and on the basis of those results
to make recommendations concerning admission to the uni-
versities of Thailand. It is hoped that the prOposals
are viable alternatives to present policy.

Women in the Universities The role of women in Thai

society is rapidly changing, and one of the major causes

has been the growing educational opportunity afforded to
them. Women are to be found in ever increasing numbers

at all levels of education, and they are finding their way
into numerous government, educational and business positions.
K/The Buddhist religion, with its emphasis on merit-making

for men, and the loosely knit family structure have given
Thai women freedom to enter these occupations.

The success of women on the M55 Examination could be
due to many factors. Studies in the United States and
other countries have shown women to perform at a higher
level in secondary schools, due to the nature of the schools,
the maturation level, and the motivation to succeed. The
same factors may be at work in Thailand. It may also be
due in part to the nature of the examination, which is
essentially the memorization and repetition type of test
on which women generally do better than men. The womens'
success on the verbal section of the examination is also

in line with findings in other countries, where men generally

191

do better in the mathematical and scientific areas. The
higher scores of the men on the JHEEE may be due to this
fact that men generally do better in science and mathema-
tics, which accounted for 80% of the JHEEE score.

The success of women in their first year at the uni-
versity may be due to many of the same factors, which
caused them to achieve at a higher level in secondary school,
in addition to which Thai society circumscribes more closely
what a woman may or may not do, while the male university
students can usually find many things other than studying
to do. It may be true that men outperform women at the
junior and senior levels, though there is no evidence of
this at the present time.<;Another factor leading to the
success of wmen. may bewthe fact that many of the best
male students elect the medicine and engineering faculties,
leaving the science faculties to the better women students?)
Chinese in the Universities ’The high proportion of Chinese
students in the universities, particularly in those facul-
ties of highest standing, and their greater success on the
M55 ExaminatiofiJthe JHEEE,@nd in the first year at the
university(wou1d seem to indicate that there must be some
historical, cultural, economic or social factors which
cause them to achieve at a higher level than the Thais.
Their family structure and the fact that the Chinese stu-
dents are generally from families which are both wealthier

and have a higher social status have been pointed to as

reasons for their success. Another important factor,

192

I

Eialluded to by several Chinese and Thai who were interviewed:§3
tis the discrimination which the Chinese have felt in Thai-
land. This discrimination, though not as great as in most
other Southeast Asian countries, may be an.important factor
in.motivating the Chinese to succeed and prove himself to
the society.
Rural Students in the Universities Students from outside
Bangkok have a much smaller chance of gaining access to a
university. This is due in part to economic factors such
as the cost of education, but also to the attitudes of the
rural population towards modern education. Other factors
are the low quality of elementary and secondary education
and poor facilities outside of Bangkok, which makes it
difficult for the student from the rural areas to pass the
entrance examinations. The exodus of the best students to
the cities tends to continue the inequalities which now
exist. The best teachers move to the provincial capitals
and eventually to Bangkok, leaving mainly the young, the
untrained, and/the incompetent to teach in the rural areas.
(The results of theZSEudy(dcrnotlindicate any signi-
ficant difference between rural and urban students on the
examinations and the universities. This may be due in part
to the fact that only the very best rural students made it
into the universities, and could also be due to a greater
desire on the part of the rural student to succeed and
escape his background, as it has been shown that few ever

return to their homes after graduating from the university.

193

The greater success of urban students in English is due in
part to the better teaching they receive, but probably
more importantly to the greater contact they have with
English speaking foreigners and greater access to English
magazines and books,.Another factor in the lack of signi-
ficant difference in the university between the two groups
may be the fact that a large percentage of the rural stu-
dents attended secondary school in Bangkok.
Recommendations 1. There must be a greater expenditure
on teachers and facilities for the rural schools than for
the city schools, in order to raise them to a level of
equality.

2. There must be funds made available at the local level
to pay the expenses for such things as books, supplies,
and tranSportation, of those students who cannot afford to
pay for them, so that no student will be forced to withdraw
from school for financial reasons.

3. A stepped-up program needs to be carried on to involve
the school in the life of the community and to show the
people the value of education. The education also needs
to be made more relevant to the needs of the pe0p1e.

9. A testing program needs to be put into effect which
will identify rural students, who are capable of higher
education, but who may not have been able to pass the M55
Examination or the JHEEE, due to a poor educational back-
ground.

Parent's Occupation The success of students from the homes

199

of government officials and business proprietors in gaining
admission to the university is due to many economic and
social factors at work in the society. It is also due to
the greater educational Opportunity and better education
received in Bangkok, where most of these students live.

The fact that students from agricultural homes performed
at the same or nearly the same level in the university

may be due to the factthat only the very best from these
homes made it that far, and there is a greater desire on
their part to escape their agricultural background. Several
deans and faculty members mentioned the lack of int rest

in agriculture on the part of students in general, and
more particularly by many students in the agricultural
facultieS. The reasons for this are numberous, including
the low prestige and low pay, but there is another factor
that a change in the University Admission's Policy can

help to solve. Less than 10% of those admitted to the
agriculture faculties are from agricultural homes. The
vast majority are from business and government homes who
grew up in the city. Most of these students are in the
agriculture faculty, not out of choice, but because they
could not get into another faculty. Once again, less than
10% made the agriculture faculty their first choice. Large
numbers of these students drop out after one year or retake
the JHEEE to gain admittance to another faculty.
Recommendations 1. Due to the agricultural nature of the

society and the need for highly committed, trained Specialists

195

in this critical area, greater efforts must be made to
attract top students from agricultural backgrounds. A
requirement for admittance to a faculty Should be a
genuine interest in the field. This is particularly true
of agriculture.

2. There should be no discrimination on the basis of
parent's occupation. This will mean a greater effort to
build up rural schools, provide scholarships to poor
students from agricultural homes, and other moves to end
the discrimination which now exists, which though not
overt, is nevertheless very real.

Coaching Schools The results of the study would seem to

be in agreement with the subjective judgments of many Thai
educators about the value of the coaching schools. They
are of more psychological value than actual value to the
student, and they do a great deal of harm by undercutting
the role of the secondary school and contributing to the
notion that education is nothing more than the preparing
for and passing of examinations. They do provide extra
money for teachers and professors, but in so doing they
deprive, often very poor, young pe0p1e of needed resources
for further education. They also hurt the teaching in the
secondary schools and universities, as the teachers have
to Split their time between the institutions, doing an
injustice to both places. The materials are, for the most

part, repetitious, and the teaching methodology in many

of the schools leaves a lot to be desired.

196

Recommendations 1. If the M55 Examination, an aptitude

test and other factors are used in choosing students for

the universities, the coaching schools will, in all likeli-

hood, cease to exist, thereby restoring some of the con-

fidence of the students in the secondary schools and cutting

down on an unnecessary expenditure of funds.

2. Until such time as fundamental changes are made in the

admission's process, the coaching schools must be placed i
under much stricter supervision by the Ministry of Edu-
cation and the National Education Council, and students in
should be informed of the lack of evidence to support the
claim that these schools aid substantially in a student's
gaining admittance to the university.

Private Schools At one time the private secondary schools
were considered to be superior, but in recent years the
government has put large sums of money into the public
schools, so that today the large public schools are the
ones to which the better students seek admission. The fact
that students from private schools performed at the highest
level in English may be due to the fact that many of the
private schools are run by missionary groups and have
foreigners teaching the English classes. The low level

of achievement in the sciences by private school students
may be due in part to the difficulty of attracting quali-
fied teachers of science to the low paying private schools,
and also the high cost of laboratories and science equip-

mentY/which private schools are not willing to pay.) The

197

cause of the private school students performing at a higher

level on the JHEEE may be due to the best public school

students going into medicine and engineering. 1)

thice of Faculty The study provides no conclusive evidence

that students admitted to a high choice or low choice fa-

culty do better in the university. It would therefore

seem logical to maintain the present system, whereby stu-

dents were admitted to the faculties on the basis of their i
scores and their choice.

Recommendation. With the use of the computer, a student . is
should be allowed more than six choices, perhaps 15 or 20, 1
thus making sure that the most highly qualified students
gain.admittance to some faculty.

Science Education The low achievement levels in examinations

and in the universities are due to many factors at the

secondary school level: unqualified teachers, lack of

equipment and textbooks, poor teaching methods, overemphasis

on examinations, lack of problem-solving ability deve10p-

ment, and many other factors. These same factors are at

work at the university level, as is the factor of the new

freedom which the university student has, which often con-

tributes to a lack of study and low achievement. A further

difficulty would seem to be the gap between the secondary

and university science curricula. University professors

must also ask themselves if they are not perhaps partly

at fault when 70-90% of their students fail. Perhaps uni-

versity evaluation procedures should be brought into

198

question along with the usual complaints about the ina-
dequate secondary school preparation.
Recommendations 1. Students who pass a course, should
not be made to repeat it, regardless of how they did in
their other subjects. The present policy leads to a tre-
mendous wastage of time and effort.
2. Greater efforts to coordinate the university and
secondary science curricula need to be made.
3. University professors need to analyze their own teaching
methods and evaluation procedures to see if they might not
be partially at fault for the high failure rate.
9. Greater efforts need to be made to develop problem
solving and critical thinking abilities. The use of BSCS
and PSSC materials in the secondary schools should be
helpful, but similar materials need to be developed for
the universities.
The Prediction of Academic Performance The fact that the
biodata information did not aid in the prediction of aca-
demic success is due in part to the comparative homogeneity
of the student population. There is not a significant
portion of the student population from rural, agricultural
backgrounds, and those that do make it are generally the
”cream of the crop," so no great differences should be
expected in the university.

The M55 Examination's greater validity as a predictor
can be eXplained in part by its greater comprehensiveness.

In most subject areas, it tends to be considerably longer

199

than the JHEEE, thus testing more of a student's knowledge
in.a given area. Another probable reason for its greater
validity is the fact that the M55 Examination acts as a
final examination for a full year's work in much the same
way that final examinations at the universities do, where-
as the JHEEE is not directly geared to any previous text-
books or lectures. The English tests on both examinations
proved to be good predictors of success, because of the
great importance placed on the ability to read English in
the universities. Many primary and most secondary texts
are in English and there are a considerable number of
English Speaking professors at each university.

The poor predictive ability of tests for the Chula-
longkorn Evening Science Faculty may be due in part to
the hours of the day in which these students are forced
to attend classes, and also the fact that they have the
full day off in which to work or do other things besides
study. That the highest predictions were obtained at
Chiengmai University came as no surprise, due to their
five point grading system rather than the 100 point scale
used in the other faculties. The fact that essay questions
are used, that the tests have not been tested for relia-
bility, that norms have not been established, and that few
attempts at standardization have been made, all contribute
to the low validity levels achieved.

Recommendations ’1. The M55 Test should be used as the

 

final admission's device to the university. This exami-

200

nation has proven to be the better predictor of success,
and it would (rut out duplication of effort in the giving
of two examinations.

2. Testing experts should be involved in the develOpment
of standardized instruments.

3. Greater emphasis should be placed on multiple choice
questions, and where essay questions are used, at least
three people should grade each question.

9. More questions testing critical thinking and problem-
solving abilities must be developed.

5. Greater security precautions must be taken to guard
the secrecy of the questions and the examination.

6. The grading of the objective examinations Should be
turned over to the computer as soon as possible.

7. The NEC should work closely with the Ministry of
Education, the universities, and the secondary schools to
aid in the develOpment of a valid and reliable M55 Exami-
nation.

8. EXperiments similar to the eight-year study in the
United States Should be conducted to see what effect the
curriculum followed in the secondary school has on success
in the university. ,

Regional Universities The regional universities were
created with the purpose of Spreading the benefits of
higher education to regions of the country other than

Bangkok. With a uniform admission's policy for students

from all parts of the country, however, the regional uni—
versities have ended up educating a majority of students

201

from other sections, including large numbers of Bangkok
students. The figures for the 1967 entering class give
some indieation of this problem. Of 217 entrants to Khon
Kaen University only 68 were from the Northeast, while 55
were from Bangkok-Thonburi. Only 332 of the 859 entrants
to Chiengmai University were from the North, while only

18 of the 50 entrants to the new University of the South
were from the South. If the regional universities are to
serve their constituency, Special admission's policies
must be set up for each of them. The argument has been
raised that different admissions' standards would tend to
classify them as second-rate institutions. This argument
can be countered by the facts, which show that the poorer
students, for the most part, are the ones who end up going
to the regional universities, so that they already have a
reputation which does not match that of the Bangkok Uni-
versities. The professors and administrators at the re-
gional universities stated that one of their major problems
was the fact that students from Bangkok looked down upon
their institutions, and often stayed only one year after
which they would retake the entrance examination for
admittance to a Bangkok University. These students were
also reSponsible for much of the trouble on the campuses.
It is also true that few, if any, of the students from
Bangkok have an interest in the region, and almost none
remain there after graduation. If the people of the region

are to begin to feel that it is their university, a new

202

admission's policy must be set up.

Recommendations 1. Students from the region should be
given priority, with from 70-80% of each entering class
coming from that region.

2. Scholarships should be increased in size and number to
attract top students from the area to attend their regional
universities.

3. A broader extension program should be set up to acquaint
the peOple of the region, particularly the students, with
the university and what it has to offer.

9. Due to the fact that students from the regions perform
at a lower level on the M55 and JHEEE, a certain percentage
of the students attending M55 in the region should be
guaranteed admission on the basis of their secondary work.
This figure will vary from region to region, but the tOp
10-20% of the M55 students could be admitted under this
policy.

5. A broad upgrading of the secondary schools throughout
the country, outside of Bangkok, must take place, and the
recommendation of the Secondary Study Report that students
be required to attend a school in their home area, should
be enforced, to halt the flow of top students to Bangkok.
6. Remedial programs may need to be set up in the summers
to prepare rural students who have the intelligence but

not the educational background for college work.
Admissions' Policy and Procedures AS was stated in Chapter

3, University Admission is a process conducted over many

203

years, not a decision made after a student finishes the

secondary school. With this basic concept in mind, it

becomes necessary to consider education at the elementary

and secondary levels, not just the score a student receives

on an entrance examination. By the time the final decision

is made, less than 1% of the original admission's group

remains. It is thus rather obvious that many decisions,

both formal and informal, have been made long before a 5
student reaches the JHEEE. It could be argued that ad-
mission to higher education begins at birth, as the chances ,k
of a student's receiving a university education are vitally

affected by the family into which he is born, the area of

country in which he resides, the racial group to which he

belongs, his or her sex, the economic status of the parents,

and a great many other factors beyond the control of the

individual. There are examinations after Pratom7, M53 and

M55 which a student must pass, as well as entrance exami-

nations to M51 and M59. All of these formal hurdles limit

the size of the admission's group. At the present time,

limitations of opportunity and examinations are the major

selection devices. A third device, a counseling and

guidance system, is being started in the comprehensive

school, but must be broadened for use in all the secondary

schools. This must be deve10ped to aid students in assessing

their own abilities and to guide them in making choices

for higher education.

The schools must also look on examinations as more

209

than selection devices. They must be viewed as part of

the guidance process in which students and teachers are

made aware of areas of strength and weakness. Testing
should be used for predicting and planning, not just sunning
up. In addition to testing as part of the guidance process,
the students' abilities, interests, vocational objectives
and personal or family situations must be taken into con-
sideration.

With the expansion of secondary education, the selection
process has shifted almost completely to higher education.
This has led to a view by the universities that the se-
condary schools are incapable of making reliable and real-
istic judgements about their student's ability to do uni-
versity work. It is also evidenced in the control that
the universities have been gaining over what is taught
and the examination system. This has increasingly tied
the hands of the secondary schools, who dare not innovate,
badjust their standards, or take any action which might
hurt their students' chances of passing the entrance exami-
nations. They are increasingly tied to the syllabi and
examinations, as is evidenced by the study on the amount
of time Spent in reviewing for and taking examinations.

This routinization of secondary education in Thailand
has led to a loss of reSpect for the secondary schools.

The results of this have often been to lower teacher morale,
and a feeling on the part of students that they must attend
a coaching school, if they are to be well-prepared for the
JHEEE.

i V n - '
9

205

Another area of difficulty in the admission's process

is the large number of repeaters. Approximately forty per-

cent of those taking the examination in 1967 were students

who had graduated in previous years, and in all likelihood

were taking it for the second or third time. This creates

a real pressure for admission, when there is no limit on

how many times a student may take the examination. Many i
have advocated a limit on the number of times a student i

may take the examination, but this limitation should only

. Y's-ff ' ' we

be put into effect when there is good reason to believe

.q.‘

that the system in use is choosing the best possible stu-
dents. The system in use at the present time has been
shown to be inadequate and thus any limitation would keep
many qualified students from gaining entrance to the uni-
versity. The results of the study showed no significant
difference in the university achievement between those
who entered immediately after secondary school, and those
who were forced to retake the entrance examination before
gaining admittance.

In most studies dealing with university admissions,
the secondary school grades or rank in class have con-
sistently emerged as the best predictors of academic
success in the university. It would be an.easy thing to
recommend the use of these factors in university admission
in Thailand, but until basic changes in the secondary
schools are made, such a recommendation would have little

effect. At the M55 level, the students grades for the

206

year are his scores on the M55 Examination and the same is

true for the M53 Examination scores. At the M51, 2 and 9

levels, the students grades are based from 50-90% on one

examination at the end of the year. Unless greater em-

phasis is given to daily work, quizzes, papers, and class

participation in the secondary schools, it is doubtful that

using grades from previous years would add a great deal to _
the process of choosing the students best qualified for i
the university. With this discussion as a background, the
following changes are recommended for the admissions'
policies and procedures.

Recommendations 1. Greater emphasis needs to be given in
the secondary schools to daily work, class participation,
critical thinking abilities and writing ability, with a
decreasing emphasis upon the final examination as the only
grading device.

2. A comprehensive guidance and counseling system needs
to be put into effect in the secondary schools, at the

NEC and in the universities, to aid students in making
choices of faculties and career choices in line with their
abilities, interests, and vocational objectives.

3. A large scholarShip program must be put into effect at
the secondary level to aid students, who are capable of
college work, but may drop out due to lack of financial
resources. A similarly large scholarship and financial
aids program must be set up to aid the needy students in

the universities, not just to reward those who do well

207
scholastically.
9. The universities must grant a new reSpect to Secondary
school teachers and administrators by asking for and making
use of their recommendations on students, Along with re—
commendations, the secondary schools should be asked to
rank their students, thus insuring that all students are
not given high grades just to get them into the university.
5. A carefully designed admission's form should be deve10ped,
which not only gives biodata on the student, but also eli-
cits information aboutthe student's character, motivation,
and other relevant factors. This form should be filled
out, not only by the student, but also by the principal
and teachers, who know the student best.
6. An.academic aptitude test should be deve10ped, as
rapidly as possible, to be used in addition to well de-
signed academic achievementtests.
7. .An interviewing program should be set up by each faculty
to talk with the candidates personally, thus providing one
more method of judging the abilities and motivations of the
students.
Summary of;Recommended.Admissions Process
1. In August, the NEC should administer an academic apti-
tude test, the results of which could be made rapidly
available through machine scoring. The results of the
test would be given to the student and to guidance counse-
lors in the secondary schools, who would use them in aiding

the student in his choice of faculties, and on whether he

:_ ~ Nuns-.3 n. 2...; um”
I .
- . n

208

should continue his education beyond the secondary school.
2. In September, the student would fill out an application
form. On this form, he would be asked to give not only
biographical information, but also to answer questions
concerning his interests, vocational objectives, motivations,
and also the faculties to which he wishes to be admitted.
3. The student would then request the principal and/or
teacher, who knew him best, to fill out a similar form
answering questions about his character, attitudes, academic
ability and motivation. This form would be mailed directly
to the NEC by the school. .

9. The secondary schools would be asked to send a ranking
of all their Maistudents based on their achievement during
the first four years of work. This ranking could prevent

a Secondary school from giving all their students superla-
tive ratings.

5. The NEC would then compile a list of candidates based
on their rank in their first four years, of secondary
school, their scores on aptitude tests, recommendations

of their secondary school teachers and principals, and a
subjective evaluation of their application. The individual
university faculties could then be informed of the names

of those students who would seem to be good prOSpects for
their fagqity and who had made it one of their top choices.
6. Ega;;university faculty would then be free to interview
any or all of the candidates wishing admission, thus adding

one more factor to the evaluation procedure. This could

209

take place from October through Februrary.
7. In March, the M55 Examination would be given and this
would serve as the final step in the admission's process.
Students would be accepted to their highest choice faculty
based on six factors rather than the one now in use.
Factors to be Considered in Admissions
a. Rank in class after MSl-9. - r
b. Academic .Aptitude test score. i
c. Recommendation of secondary school.
d. Application Form-Biodata Information.
e. Interview rating.
f. MS5 examination.

The admission's policy presented above is a viable
alternative to the present system in which only one factor,
the score on the JHEEE, is used. It will take a greater
investment in time, manpower and finances, but if the best
candidates are to be chosen, it seems that the selection
should not be made irretrievably at a fixed point in time
or by a Single examination, but rather as the outcome of
a many—Sided process taking as much relevant evidence into
consideration as possible. This process should be accom-
panied by careful guidance and counseling in the secondary
schools and the universities, in order to take the indi-
vidual c ‘cities of the students and the national interests

Ft
into ‘bhsideration.

210

Implications for Further Study

1.

An.analysis of the reasons for the high failure rate

in the universities needs to be conducted, looking at
such critical factors as the gap between the secondary
and higher level curricula, the evaluation procedure
and the teaching methods.

A study of the ability of various factors such as
secondary School rank, achievement test scores, apti-
tude test scores, student personality, and socioeconomic
status to predict success in the universities, not just
for the first year, but for all four years would be of
value.

A study of the achievement level of women throughout
their four years of higher education, and a followeup
study to see how many make use of their education and
work after graduation from the university.

Using the data on a revised admission's form, an annual
survey of student background should be conducted.
Causes of drop—outs at all levels should be examined
and programs set in motion to combat them.

A continuing analysis of all tests used for admission
or graduation should be made for reliability and validity.
A thorough analysis of the coaching schools should be
conducted, to gain further information about them and
their role in the educational system and the economy

of the country.

The impact of the translated BSCS and PSSC materials

on teaching and learning in the sciences would be of

211

value.
9. A detailed analysis of the private schools and their
success or failure in adequately preparing students
for the universities would be of benefit.
Possibilities of Change within the Thai Bureaucracy
A key element in understanding the Thai people is the.
difference between external behavior and internal desires.
This difference is of the utmost importance in the bringing E
about of change through and in the bureaucracy. One can
often obtain agreement to two completely contradictory g
statements, due to the fact that Thai society places great
emphasis on external reSpect, agreement, subservience,
even though the individual may disagree violently internally.
This is true in the physical as well as the social realm,
where the Thai will often take on outward signs of modernity
with no inward change of attitudes. As Thailand changes
from a rural agricultural to an urban industrial society,
a conflict between the old and the new, between the tra-
ditional and the modern, has developed. This conflict
has and will continue to bring about change to Thailand.
Since 1932, Thailand has had three major coups d'etat,
11 major revolutions, five constitutions and 21 changes
in administration. On the surface this would seem to
indicate extreme chaos, but on looking more deeply one
sees a persistence of the same laws, institutions and
leaders, year after year. Each new government has accepted

the goals and reSponsibilitieS of its forerunners. It has

212

been characterized as a "paradoxical stable instability,
an inconstant constancy."1 The major cause of this sta-
bility has been the politically neutral bureaucracy, which
has been loyal to whatever government was in power.

The bureaucracy in Thailand is the major structure
in Thai society, which both maintains the traditional and
brings about change. For this reason, it is imperative ,
that the bureaucracy be looked at, to see how it works and E
how changes can be brought about through it.

The most pronounced characteristic of the Thai bureau-
cracy is that changes come from the top. The Thai society
at large and the Thai bureaucracy both place a great deal
of importance in hierarchical status, so that it is only
persons of high status who can propose significant changes
in the manner of doing things. From childhood, the Thais
learn a reSpect for their elders and for those of higher
status, and these values are greatly enhanced in the
bureaucracy. This vertical orientation means that many
decisions which should have been made at a lower level,
are sent all the way to the cabinet for action. .An example
of this is the annual activity of the Cabinet on the JHEEE
something which in other bureaucracies would seldom, if
ever, be discussed at such a high level.

This characteristic of upward referral often leads to

a delay in decision-making or a "passing-the-buck.” Lower

 

1David Wilson, Politics in Thailand (Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1962), p. 279.

213

officials, fearful of making a wrong decision or of offending

their superiors will often substitute delay for a "no" answer

in hopes that the petitioner will withdraw his request.2 A

personal experience illustrates this tendency to avoid in-

dividual reSponsibility. A minor official in the Ministry

of Education, fearful of his position, stated that he could

only give statistical facts and would not offer Opinions on .
any subject, even those topics which he was the most know- E
ledgeable of all government officials. He, instead, made
sure that his superior was present to give the opinions.

This authoritarian, hierarchical characteristic is of great
importance to bringing about change in university admissions.
All decisions concerning the universities are the reSponsi-
bility of the National Education Council, which is under

the Office of the Prime Minister. This often means that
decisions which in other countries would be made by the
individual university are made instead by the Secretary-
General of the National Education Council, or in some cases
by the Prime Minister himself. This is not to imply com-
plete passivity on the part of university officials, as

it is in the universities that the pressures to communicate
upward are perhaps the greatest. This is due, in part, to

the fact that many university officials have received

 

2James N. Mosel, "Thai.Administrative Behavior,”
William J. Siffin (ed.), Toward the Comparative Study of
Public Administration (Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1957), p. 318.

 

 

219

foreign training and are filled with ideas which they would
like to see implemented. This is a source of growing ten-
sion, but also one of great change.
A second important characteristic of the Thai bureau-
cracy is that of personalism, which can be defined as "the
reliance upon personal relationships and personal concerns
as primary basis for behavior within the system."3 This “
personalism is the opposite of the legal-rational bureau- i
cratic model of the West, and leads to a system which
contains many personal associations based on extraorgani-
zational relationships. It also means that a high ranking
official will create a personal communications network to
gain information. These things along with the fact that
personal preferences play an important role in promotions
or new assignments are much in evidence in the NEC, where
certain individuals seem destined for high governmental
positions due to personal friendships with important figures.
This personalism often means that subordinates-may not be
treated equally, as competent staff members may be over-
loaded, while ineffective ones are given little to do, or
are given new titles but little reSponsibility.Lp
Official interactions are more personalized than in
most bureaucracies and there is an elaborate informal

organization. This is true on both a large scale and

 

3William J. Siffin, The Thai Bureaucracy; Agnsti-
tutional Change and Development (Honolulu: East-West
Center Press, 1966), pp. 161-162.

”Ibid., p. 195.

215

within individual entities such as the NEC. "EXpectationS

and predictability of others rests more on a knowledge of

a man's personal attributes than upon knowledge of the

standard behavior prescribed by the office he holds."5

This quotation summarizes the role of the various officials

in the NEC, as the preferences and prejudices of important
individuals are soon known, and the possibility of change

is dependent upon personal attributes. It is well known 5
also, that political power or lack of it is an important
factor in the current state of both the Ministry of Edu—
cation.and the NEC, as the positions of Minister or
Secretary-General are more dependent upon the individuals
holding those jobs than on the office itself.

This characteristic of personalism is of real im-
portance in the bringing about of changes in the university
admissions policy. It means that if certain individuals
can be convinced of needed changes, there is a real like-
lihood of their being made. It is also true that certain
individuals, if opposed to change, can prevent any further
action. The badership in education in Thailand today is
not strong, and as a result, education has tended to lose
out in the competition for funds and has remained static.
Those in subordinate positions realize the traditional
outlook of their leaders and are not willing to shake the
boat, thus under the present leadership change is unlikely

in the near future.

 

5Mose1, 92. cit., p. 321.

216

The third major characteristic of the system is that
of security. The Thai bureaucracy offers perhaps the only
secure position in the society, and consequently attracts
a great many for whom this is a basic value. Evidence of
the security that the system offers is that people seldom
leave it except through retirement, resignation with per-
mission, or serious violation of discipline. The pay is
poor in comparison to salaries in the public sector, but 5
most Thai prefer the status and security that the bureau-
cracy offers than the higher pay and risk of being fired g:
in private business. An annual pay increase is almost
automatic and promotions from class to class generally
come after a Specified period of time.6
This desire for security or bureaucratic survival
tends to lead to a lack of innovation on the part of many
officials. New ideas or new practices are looked on with
disfavor, and the traditional way is thought to be best.
The effect of this attitude is to do things the way they
have always been done, until a change is forced through
circumstances or through a directive from above. This
security means that many incompetent officials remain in
office throughout their lifetime, and the possibility of
their removal is so slim that most superiors do not attempt
it.
The Thai bureaucracy has several ways which it uses

to accomplish goals or reach out in new directions. The

 

6Siffin, 9p. cit., p. 221.

217

most common way is to appoint a committee to study a par-

ticular problem. Many capable individuals are known to

serve on as many as 30 government committees. These men

are usually special grade officers, who hold an official

position in the bureaucracy, but are paid for their many

committee assignments. They often hold part-time teaching

positions in addition to their many other reSponsibilities.

Committees tend to be used as a communications device, §_

and decisions made in the committees tend to reflect the

Opinion of the highest-status participant. The committees

3""...
L
_ H

are also an evidence of the quest for security, as a de-
cision made by a committee means shared reSponsibility of
the results, and is not necessarily an evidence of a widely
assessed decision. Members of the bureaucracy are paid
extra for their committee work, according to their civil
service rank, thus one finds great competition for member-
ship.

One step beyond the use Of committees is the appointing
of a commission and the creation of a new division or
section. EVen in cases where responsibility has been
assigned, if the work load is eXpanded or new duties are
given, it is the usual process to create a new section or
appoint a commission. The NEC's recent restructuring is
an example of this eXpansion through the creation of new
sections, and the creation of the University DevelOpment
Commission is evidence of a case where a new organization

was created to carry on tasks over which other groups

218

already had authority. This is also true of the English

Language Center. Cne of the causes of this proliferation

is the fact that new organizations are often needed to give

a new approach and a new impetus to a program. It is also

true that many are set up for political reasons, such as

the fact that no agreement could be reached between competing

groups over who had jurisdiction. This proliferation has

led to an increased need for coordination to prevent waste- 5

ful repetition of programs, and a competition for limited

...a.—.o—.—.-.-_ .._;. . _ 1.
. r . ' 1, ..~.

personnel and other resources.

There can be no doubt that the appointment of new
commissions and committees can and does lead to change,
but it also can mean a duplication of effort and a lack of
confrontation of important issues by those directly re-
sponsible for a program.

Another factor to be considered is that there is
minimal use made of ”hard data" in the system. Vast amounts
of statistics are collected and printed, but decision-making
tends to be more personal than objective, and the signifi-
cance of the data lies more in their source than in their
content.7 .An example of this was the collection of sta-
tistics on the JHEEE and the M55 Examinations, which seems
to justify the use of the M55 Examination. The NEC, how-
ever, ignored most of the data and made its decision to

continue both examinations on personal preferences and

 

71bid., p. 236.

219

prejudices. This subjective approach may be justified to
some extent, due to the unreliability of much of the hard
data which had been collected, but in recent years this
excuse is not as valid due to more reliable procedures and
better trained individuals.

The impetus for change in the Thai Bureaucracy often

comes from an external source. Foreign advisors from many

countries and the United Nations: have been and are being

used. .Advice from a farang (foreigner) is often accepted,

-1 nag-49.....u . -\-_.;
. .

even though a Thai may have been saying the same thing for
many years. There is evidence also that foreign advisors
are used for political purposes to further a particular
cause or aid a Thai official in gaining Special concessions.
The university officials are known to have made use of
foreigners to get larger budgets and new buildings, and
some bureaucratic officers seek foreign advisors so that
they can obtain office cars and Special travel allowances.
Over one-fourth of the current civil service law deals
with disciplinary provisions. In the period from 1959 to
1959, almost one percentper year were dismissed from the
civil service for dishonesty and other offenses. There is
a great discrepancy between the law and actual practice,
and Siffin indicates that the Thai moral code is such that
acceptance of bribes by an underpaid civil servant is condoned.8

There is a vast amount of evidence to support the contention

 

81bid., p. 225.

220

Of bribery in the civil service, and the NEC is not

exempt from bribery attempts. The university admission's

system today is much freer of graft and bribery than when

each university conducted its own examinations, but officials

of the NEC and university professors told of gifts of money,

fruit, liquor, and other items bygarents wishing to get

their children into the university. There is also evidence 2
to suggest that the universities asked the NEC to send more g
students to a faculty than they could actually handle, due
to pressures from parents, whose children just missed making i.
it into the university.

Perhaps the greatest hope for bringing change into the
bureaucracy, into education and into the system of university
admissions is through the growing number of people trained
overseas. These people return to Thailand filled with new
ideas and new hopes for implementing what they have learned.

Most are very frustrated by the traditional outlook and
slow action of the leadership and this often creates ten-
sions. The "young turks” are the source of many of the

new ideas and are the ones who are carrying on.many of the
programs. They are often forced to work circumSpectly,

so as not to offend their more traditional superiors, but
they are bringing about real changes. .An interesting
phenomenon seems to have recently come about in that the
younger generation of foreign-trained Thais see the foreign
advisors from such organizations as USOM and UNESCO, as

protectors of the traditional outlook and slow moving

221

”Mai Pen Rai" Attitude,9 and believe that these individuals
often do little to bring about any real changes in Thailand.
Cn student of the Thai Bureaucracy concluded that:

...the Thai system works; it functions fairly smoothly,
and on the whole gets things done. This is not to say,
of course, that there is no need for improvement, but
rather that what many outsiders take as points of crit-
icism is the way in which things get done. The
mechanisms for accomplishment are different from those
to which these observers are accustomed, but it must
be remembered that these are quite natural to the E
Thai. .An when an ”inefficiency" is discovered, the ;
factors leading to the inefficiency are often the
same factors which are responsible for effectiveness
elsewhere in the system.

In conclusion, it can be seen that change and progress L1
are taking place and will continue to do so within the
Thai bureaucracy. The methods of change or the outcome
may not be the same as those to be expected from a
legal-rational bureaucracy, but then Thailand is not the
West, and the causes and effects are not as evident to

Western eyes.

 

9Mai Pen Rai means never mind, or it can wait.

loMosel, 9p. cit., p. 330.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

h'r‘m'u A; W...
_ .
l

BIBLICGRAPHY
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Educational Planning Office. Current_and Projected
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Fraser, Thomas M. Jr. Fishermen of South Thailand: The
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Prachom Chomchai. ”Trends Report of Studies in Social
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Chulalongkorn University. Announcement. Bangkok:
Chulalongkorn University, 1965.

 

“away

225

College of Education. Official Catalog:l962. Bangkok:
College of Education, 1962.

 

Coordination Center for Southeast Asian Studies.
”Student Study-Thailand." Bangkok: 1963. (Mimeographed.)

Division of Research and Field Services. Indiana Univ-
ersity. Research Studies Related to the Imppovement
of Education. Chaval Paeratakul. ”Differences in
Performance on the Doctoral Admission Examinations
at Indiana University by Thai Students, Foreign
Non-Thai Students, and American Student.” Bloomington:
Indiana University, 1959.

Educational Planning Office. ”Report of Research on
Student Entrance Examinations: l962-1966.”Bangkok:
Ministry of Education, 1967. (Mimeographed.)

‘“"W

h.._.__ dig .1

English Language Program Committee. ”English.Language
Teaching in the Universities of Thailand." Bangkok:
University Development Commission, 1968.

Extension Office. Facts and Figures of Kasetsart Uni-
versity. Bangkok: Kasetsart University, 1966.

 

Graham, Henry M. "Some Changes in Thai Family Life.”
Bangkok: (Mimeographed.)

Hayden, Howard (ed.). Higher Education and Develppment
in Southeast Asia. Volumes 1,11, and III. Paris:
UNESCO, 1967.

 

Kamhaeng Balankura. "The National Education Council of
Thailand.” Bangkok: 1969. (Mimeographed.)

KhonKaen University. Bulletin. Khon Kaen: Khon Kaen
University, 1967.

Kirsch, A. Thomas. ”Buddhism, Sex Roles, and the Thai
Economy.” Bangkok: 1962. (Mimeographed.)

Michigan State University Educational Planning Team.
"Quarterly Reports, 1965-1968." Bangkok: 1965-1968..
(Mimeographed.)

Ministry of Education. Final Report of a SEAMES Sponsored
National Seminar_on Science and Mathematics lg
Thailand:.August 7-9, 1967. Bangkok: Ministry of
Education, 1967.

 

. National Scheme of Education B.E. 2503
Bangkok: Ministry of Education, 1962.

226

National Education Council. ”Brief Information About the
Universities and the College of Education." Bangkok:
1966. (Mimeographed.)

. ”Introduction to Higher Education." Bangkok:
1967. (Mimeographed.)

_______, ”National Education Council Keeps Growing.”
Bangkok: 1969. (Mimeographed.)

. ”National Educatinn Council of Thailand.”
Bangkok: 1969. (Mimeographed.)

. ”New Organizational Structure.”Bangkok; 1968.

(Mimeographed.)

. "Private College." Bangkok; 1968. (Mimeographed.)

- 543 RT}!

. “Universities of Thailand.“ Bangkok: 1969.

(Mimeographed.) 3

Nisa Vichapand. "A Study of the Factors Effecting
Prejudice and First Impressions." Unpublished
Master's thesis, Chulalongkorn University, 1969.

‘n‘\_..7~_.._..._-_ .—
. I

Noll, Victor. ”Dnaft PrOposal for DevelOpment of
Standardized Achievement Test and Standardized Mental
Ability Tests for Use in the Elementary and
Secondary Schools of Thailand.” Michigan State
University, East Lansing: 1966. (Mimeographed.)

Office of the NEC. Report: The Joint Higher Education
Entrance Examination: Academic gear 1967:1968}
Bangkok: National Education Council, 1967.

Tan-Gatue, Belen. Chineseand Chinese-Thai Relationg.
Ithaca: Cornell Southeast Asia Program. Far Eastern
Studies 601-Fall, 1966.

Thailand Government. "National Edudation Council Act:
2502.“ Bangkok: 1961. (Mimeographed.)

University of Medical Sciences, 1963.Announcement.
Bangkok: University of Medical Sciences, 1963.

USIS. "A Study of University Student Attitudes in
Bangkok, ThaiLand.” Bangkok: April, 1958.
(Mimeographed.)

D.

227

Interviews

Amphorn Vichitpan, Chief: Evaluation Section of the
NEC. Interviews in Bangkok, January and February, 1968.

Black, Robert, Director of the Fulbright Foundation in
Thailand. Interview in Bangkok, February, 1968.

Boon MxiChandanabhumma, Registnanaculty of Science,
Chulalongkorn University. Interviews in Bangkok,
January, February, and March, 1968.

Buares, Vice Redtor of Chiengmai University. Interview
in Chiengmai, March, 1968. F

Chak Sitisarn, Chief: EWaluation.Division, Impartment
of Secondary Education, Ministry of Edueation. f
Interviews in Bangkok, February and March, 1968. i

Chaval Paeratakul, Professor of Educational Research i
and Head of Research Office, College of Education.
Interview in Bangkok, February, 1968.

Chulalongkorn University. Interviews with faculty and
students, February, 1968.

Civil Service of Thailand. Interviews with American
Advisors, February, 1968.

Coburn, L. Paul. Higher Education.Advisor, National
Education Council. Interviews, January-March, 1968.

Davidson, Dr. B. Education Division, Ford Foundation-
Thailand. Interview in Bangkok, February, 1968.

Gant, George. Director. Ford Foundation-Thailand.
Interview in Bangkok, February, 1968.

Hill,.Arthur, Educational Testing Researcher at College
of Education. Interviews in Bangkok, February and
March, 1968.

Kamchorn, Manunpichuka. Profess: University of Medical
Sciences. Member of Admission's committee.
Interview in Bangkok, January, 1968.

Kamhaeng Balankura, Secretary-General of National Edueation
Council. Interviews in Bangkok, January and March, 1968.

Kavi Chutikul, Dean of Agriculture, Khon Kaen University.
Khon Kaen interview, March, 1968.

228

Klawta Kanawun, Instructor of English and Registrar,
Faculty of Engineering. Khon Kaen University.
Interview in Khon Kaen, March, 1968.

Michigan State University, Interviews in Offices of
Admissions and.ENaluation Services, November, 1967.

National Education Council. Interviews with second and
third grade civil service officials, January-March,
19 8.

Neff, Kenneth L. Research Director and.Advisor to the
NEC. Interviews in Bangkok, January-March, 1968.

Nipon Kanthasewi, Profess of Social Sciences, Kasetsart
University. Admission's committeenember. Interviews ,
in Bangkok, January and February, 1968. f

Nipon Masavisut, First Grade Officer, National Education 3 ‘
Council. Interviews in Bangkok, February and ij
March, 1968. .

Nitaya Masavisut, Assistant to the Director of the
Civil Service Examination System. Interview in
Bangkok, February, 1968.

Nongyao Kanchanachari, First Grade Officer, National
Education Council. Interview in Bangkok, Jan., 1968.

Phuchong Bhengsri, Deputy Secretary-General, National
Education. Interviews in Bangkok, February and
MaI‘Ch, 1968 o

Pimon Kalakicha, Vice-Rector, Khon Kaen University.
Interviews in Bangkok and Khon Kaen, February and
March, 1968.

Feb Sapianchi, Professor of Educational Research,
Coilege of Education. Interview in Bangkok, January,
19 8.

Prakon Karnasut, Professor of Educational Research,
Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University,
Interviews in Bangkok, February and March, 1968.

Prasert Na Nagara, Dean: Gnaduate School, Kasetsart
University. Interviews in Bangkok, February and
March, 1968.

Prasit Tulyathorn, First Grade Officer, NEC. Secretary
to Committee on University Entrance, Administrator
of the JHEEE. Interviews in Bangkok, January-
March, 1968.

229

Prasom Sathapitanon, Professor and Head of Department
of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Science,
Chulalongkorn University.. Interviews in Bangkok,
January-March, 1968.

Rapee Sagarik, Secretary-General, Kasetsart University.
Interviews in Bangkok, February and March, 1968.

Saing Vichitsongkram, First Grade Officer, National
Education Council. Interviews in Bangkok and
East Lansing, January-May, 1968.

Saisuree Chutikul, Professor of Education, Faculty of
Education, Chulalongkorn University. Interview in

W
'-

Bangkok, January, 1968. a
Sanan Sumitr, Director-General of Secondary Education, 5

Ministry of Education. Interviews in East Lansing, i

and Bangkok, June, 1967 and February, 1968. Li

Sawan, Professor at Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn
University, Interview in Bangkok, February, 1968.

Suankulab School, Interviews with administrators.
March, 1968.

Sukhum Assavesna, Dean of Agriculture, Chiengmai Univer-
sity. Interview in Chiengmai, March, 1968.

Suwan Kasetsuwan, Assistant to the Secretary-General:
Kasetsart University. Interview in Bangkok, March, 1968.

Tongsook Bongsadat, Than: Faculty of Science, Chula-
102gkorn University. Interview in Bangkok, January,
19 8.

University of Medical Sciences. Interviews with studnnts
in Bangkok, March, 1968.

Vilars, Director of Civil Service Examination. Interview
in Bangkok, February, 1968.

Vithya Pienvichitr. Lean of Engineering, Khon Kaen
University. Interview in Khon Kaen, March, 1968.

Watana School, Interviews with faculty and students
in Bangkok, March, 1968.

230

II. Secondary Sources
A. Books

A Public Develppment Progpam for Thailand. Baltimore:
The International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development. Johns Hopkins Press, 1959.

Association of Southeast Asian Institutions of Higher
Learning. Handbook. Bangkok; The Association, 1966.

Blanchard, Wendell (ed.). Thailand: Its PeOple, Its
Society, Its Culture. New Haven: Kraf Press, 1958. P

 

F3

College Entrance Examination Board. CollegeiAdmissions: ‘3
The Great Sorting. Princeton: Educational Testing ’
Service, 1956.

. College Admissions: The Interaction of Sohopl_ (7
i

and College. Princeton: Educational Testing Service,
1956.

. College Admissions: The Student from School to
College. Princeton: Educational Testing Service, 1957.

Cronbach, Lee J. Essentials of P§ychologica1 Testing.
New York: Harper and Brothers, 1999.

DeYoung, John E. Village Life in Modern Thailand. Berkeley:
University of California Press, 1955.

 

Donahue, Wilma T” Clyde H. Coombs, and Robert M.W.
Travers. (eds.). The Measurement of Student Adjust-
ment and Achievement..Ann.Arbor: University of
Michigan Press, 1998.

 

Foreign Areas Studies Division. U.S. Army,Area Handbook
for Thailand. Washington D.C.: Government Printing
Office, 1963.

 

 

Heenan, mvid K. and Chaval Paeratakul. Education in
Thailand: Eyaluation of Instruction in Thailand.
Educational Planning Office, Publication No. 1,
Bangkok: Ministry of Education, 1966.

 

Hollinger, Carol. Mai Pen Rai means Never Mind. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1965.

 

Insor, D. Thailand: A Political, Social and Economic
Analysis. London:.Allen and Unwin, 1963.

 

Muscat, Robert J. Development Strategy in Thailand.
New York: Frederick Praeger, 1966.

 

231

National Council of Education. ” The Correlation of the
Entrance Emamination Scores and the Mid—Year
Examination Scores: Some Characteristics of First
Year Students of Chulalongkorn University in 1962,"

The Education Center. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University,
1%20 8'90

 

Neuchterlein, Donal E. Thailand and the Struggle for
Southeast Asia. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1965.

 

Preliminapy Assessment of Education and Human Resources
in Thailand: Vol: I, Report of the Joint Task Forces;
Vol. 1;, WOrkingpPaperS. Prepared by the Joint-Thai
USOM Task Force, LBangkok: Thailand. Agency for
International LavelOpment, United States Operations
Mission in Thailand, October, 1963.

 

”:21

Rich, Catherine R. and Thomas A. Garrett (eds.).
Philosophy and Problem§_pf College.Admissions.

Washington, D.C: The Catholic University of America
Press, 1963.

VIA-u n. .4. x... a- :.u.r-.-.nul...4.-’u
. ., ..‘

I

Skinner, G. William. Leadership_and Power in the Chinese
99mmunity of Thailand. Ithaca: Cornell University
Press, 1958. '

 

Thompson, Virginia. Thailand: The New Siam. New York:
Macmillan, 1991.

Thresher, B. Alden. College Admission and the Public
Interest. New York: College Entrance Examination

Travers, Robert M.W. Educational Measuremept. New York:
The Macmillan Company, 1955.

Traxler, Arthur E. and Agatha Townsend (eds.).
Improving Transition from School to College. New
YOrk: Harper and Brothers, 1953.

Wilson, David. Politics in Thailand. Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1962.

 

Periodicals and NeWSpapers

Pinyo Satorn. MAn Investigation of the Success on College
Study as Compared with the Pre-University Final
Examination Scores of the Bachelor's Degree Program
Students who left Chulalongkorn University,“ The
Thai Journal of Educational Research, I (January, 1963),

38:33:

 

 

ill—‘—

 

232

C. Unpublished Materials and Publications of Universities,
Learned Societies and Governments.

Franzen, Carl G.F. Thailand: A Guide to the.Academic
Placement of Students from the Kingdom of Thailand
in the United States. American Association of
Collegiate Registrars and.Admission Officers,
Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh, 1959.

Goldsen, Rose K. and Max Ralis. Factors Related to
Acceptance of Innovations in Bang Chan, Thailand.
Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1957.

 

Heenan, David K. ”Follow—Up Study of University Graduates.”
Bangkok: 1965. (Typewritten.)

Keyes, Charles F. ”Problems Faced by Foreign Scholars in
Thailand." Summary of a Seminar held in Bangkok by
the London-Cornell Project in October, 1963.

Manoch Tanchawanich. "Higher Education in Thailand.”
Unpublished Master's thesis, Arellano University,
Philippines, 1966.

National Economic DevelOpment Board. The National
Economic DevelOpment Plan: 1961-1966. Second Phase:
1969-1966. Bangkok: Office of the Prime Minister, 1969.

 

. The Second Economic and Social Development Plan
(1967-1971). Bangkok: Government House Printing Office,
1967.

Pinyo Satorn. WA Preliminary Study of wastage in Chula-
longkorn University.” Paper 10 of the International
Conference for the Advancement of Educational Research
held at the Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn
University (December, 1963), ll-13.

Pote Sapianchai. ”The Prediction of Academic Success at
Prasarnmitr: College of Education.“ Bangkok:, 1963.
(Typewritten.)

Prakon Karnasut. MAbstract of a Study on the Prediction
of University Success.” Bangkok: Faculty of Education,
Chulalongkorn University, 1966. (Typewritten.)

Smith, Harold E. "Some Sociological ASpects of Thai Rural
Education.” Bangkok3,1966. (Mimeographed.)

J

‘1

' :5] ‘p..‘n
I ‘l‘ ' e.

#77 I - 7,.,-- r’ '. T
. i
A.

APPENDICES

 

 

Ho. wo.u no.u *mm. oH.- cam. Ho. 0H. 0H.- om. mo. HH. sews. em. 30.- Hence
w0.1**H:.I *mN.I ma. mH.|**mN. HH. N0.I NN.I 00. HN.I wa.l **mm. *twm. *om. .Hwam
Ho. no. mo.. mH. mH.u do. no. son. 00.- mm. mm. mm. team. do. do.u .spoz
MHO *WNO NH. Ho MOoI 0H0... “Con-*tlumo NH. NH. wHo *BNO *wNo WHol NNol awkgm
0H.| mH.I H.I**md_ HN.I #:N. N0. No.1 0H.I#*wm. NH.: 00. **mm. *mm. mo. .HOHm
co. OH.- mH. *mN. mH.u to. NH.1 00. 00.- mo. co. mo. saw. me. Hm.- .Soso
.05
.oHsso
me. 50.: MA. m0. No. 0H. stem. ma. *wH. *tmm. H0. ma. ma. **Nm. *tmm. Hence
ma. *MN.I HO. HH. OH.I**®.J. ##th HH. .30. NH. NO.I OO. ma. ##3m. ##0#. 3.”me
no. mo. 0H. 00.: no. 50.: *tm . *HN. *mm. *ma. m0. ca. 00. mo. NH. .mpdz
*WW. ma. **MN. 00.! OH. ©0.I *SRN. NH. **wN. *NN. OH. *mm. .30. NH. 50. .mhnm
m0. *HN.I HH. ma. no.1 ma. *tmm. H0. th *tdm. 00. m0. *mH. *SHM. *tmm. .HOHm
no. mo.- no. so. aH.- oo.. 20.- mo.. om. SH. mo.- Ho.- mo. mH. mo. .aoso
hon
.oHsso

J... Tm N O E .d IS SS n Tu W...

a n m. n a m n m. m w m. a as 3 m a. F

m _M m m. m” _L "m e "u m T. s an. cm“ "H .l
HL .L T; o a .L to TL m M. % W Ttw w.L S
m M» m w m. e 4 .A s e s q
I n... n... I
K TL. T? 0A
o (m

s d. .ssm
one
mfloapmflaamxm .>HQD

 

pooao>OH£o<_apHmao>HQD Ssz moaoom sodesHaoxm mo maoHpmAcaaoo hooao oaoN

4 Hammond

Ill:

Lgllftv he: funny-co. .l .

..H

. fires-r

HOpOHooaa pmoo

 

 

 

 

Ho>OH mo. can no deOHMHGmHm **
HobcH 0. exp pd padoHMchHm #
NH. mo.: mH.: *mH. H0. 0N. *tnm. ##mm. 3H.: H0.: 0N. 0H. HH. *mN. NH. HOpOB
mo. MH.: *3N.: 0H. oqr mm. *mm. mo. *mN.: mH.: mo.: 0H.: 00. team. Hm. .Hmsm
0H. 00.: 50.: 30. mH. NH. 0H. emwh 30.: H0. no. 00. 00.. 0H. m0.: .200:
0H. N0.: 30.: NH. mH. No. Hm. ##03. No.: wo.:**om. NN. HH. 00. H0.: .mhsm
mo. 50.: 0H.:** m. 0H.:0H. 0m. 30. 5H.: 0m. mH. 0H. 30. 0H. 0N. .HOHm
mH. Ho.: #0.: 3H. m0.:3H. *SmN. *mN. 00.: :0. 3H. 3H. NH. mH. OH. .8050
.wcoHao
*mm. mH. 30.: 00. HH. 0N. *s3m. *s03. 3H. 0H. mH. am. 30.:ssmw. 00. Hence
NH. mN.: 0H.: 0H. mNrfimm. *st. no. 0H.: *Nm. no. mH. ##03. **wN. 3N. .Hmam
HN. NH. mo. mH.: 5N. m0. 0N. **Hw. N0. wo.: mo. NH. om.: wH. 0H.: .zpdz
0N. NN. H0.: 0H.: ON. 00. *mm. ** . HH. 00. mH. NH. 3N.: Hm. HH.: .mazm
mm. mm. 0H.: HH. m0. 3H. HH. 00.: 0H. NH. aH.: H0.: 00. 3N. mm. .Hon
mm. mo. 00. am. so. 00.: #:03. *3m. mm. mm.: smm. **m3. H0. 0H. om. .aoso
.pomdm
n n. n m a m m s a m s n as H. m we
4 K e o 9 E m 1 a o K 11 to
e S m T. u. T. Ha u. m _L S eHe 9.: .L a:
I I. I. O S I. B T. S I. O I. .LU US I.
o S B m S m s B o O HOT. S
S 4 .A a u. a A+ A S He 8 q
Ta 3. n... Tu
nA Tr Tr K
c o
S S
.Dam
USO
mSodeQHSONm .bHaD

 

Aomanonov ¢.NHoaoadd

236

k u .
u .
P“:‘ . ‘l \vflb‘.: .‘

.ooHpcacsooz mmmme
.Hosa mmz .asooHSoso mmmme

 

0000. n3. 0N. .amoHon one .smHHmsm mma Hence
m000. 30. H3. anHmsm mm: soHstm
.anomHsoso mm: .amoHon
N00. 3m. HH. mm: .noHeoaossoz mm: .socz
.wOHpoaozpdz
mm: .anpmHaoso mmmme
.onaeSosbom mmmme .amoHon
0000. m3. Hm. mmm .asomHsoso mmz moHoasm
.Hcsa mm: .ooHoasm mmmme
mooo. 03. 30. .scHHmsm mos .amoHon mm: amoHon
.Hopoa oosoHom one
.amoHon mm: .anHmsm
30. mm. 00. mmmme .smHHmsm mm: anpoHaoso
Mom oopaaoood SOHpOHooam on :I
cosmoHMHame monoHam> soHpanapsoo go
no Ho>oq soHumHonaon no psooaom porno HHmsp SH mpmoe goofinsm

 

apHsomm oosoHom amu maomeOHmHsso on» no

H.m XHQZNAQd

ooqmaaomaom mo SOHchooam

237

R. NA?!
v o
31:. 11:4. IIF-‘VVI ...

mOHmeOSpmz

mmmme .Hosa mmz .scHHmsm
mmmme .ooHoosossos mm:
.amoHon mm: .amoHon mmmme

 

 

m000. 00. m3. .ooscHom HoHoom mm: Hence
smHHmsm
n000. ca. 00. mmmme .amoHon mmmme smHHmsm
.anpoHSoso mm:
.moHpcaospoz mmmme .oosoHom
HeHoom mm: .amoHon
mooo. So. 33. mma .moHpoaospoa mm: moHsoaosocz
.mmm .awpoHaoso mmmme
.amoHon mmmme .aschsoso
,.mmz .oosoHom HoHoom
0000. 00. m3. mm: .moHooaosocz mmz conasm
.smHHmsm mmmme .amoHon
mmm .oosoHom HoHoom
0000. a0. 03. was .amoHon mmmme amoHon
.asomHaoso mmmme .amoHon
mmmme .Hosa mm:
000. 03. mm. .oosoHom HcHoom mm: anpmHsoso
Mom umpflsooo¢ SOHDOHUOHA Op
cosmonHsmHm conHam> SOHpSDHHpQOO mo
MO Hmbmq QOHpmHthOO MO uQOOHmm Hmdho Hams» CH mpmwB poofiflfim

apHsOmm cocoaom mcHSo>m saowaOHOHsno men we cosmSAOhacm mo GOHpOHooam

N.m XHszmm¢

238

b?” 13...: 4
IRNIIfiPnr ...lwlhl.IH|.'lfll::: ('lr

.mOHmhnm
mmmme .mpooScsooz mmmme
.smHHmsm mmmme .coHeasm 0mg
.Hdope oosoHom 0mg .ooscHom
H00. Ha. H0. HoHoom 0mg .scHHmsm 002 Hence

0000. 00. 0a. .smHHmsm 0mg .soHHmsm mmmme smHHmsm

.amoHon 0mm .ooHuasm 0m:
.choa oosoHom 0mm .smHHmsm
0H0. a0. N0. 002 .oosoHom HoHoom 0m: .0002

.ooHnaem mmmme .anHmsm
0000. 30. H3. 00a .moHooacspez 0mg conasm

.smHHmsm mmmme .ncHnosospoz
mma .mOHpmacrpoz
mmmme .anpmHsoeo 002
.ooHoasm 0m: .coHoaem
QMH. mm. mm. mmmmh..£mHHwam mmz adOHon

.oonasm mmmme .asooHaoso
0m: .smHHmsm 0mg
.oosoHom HoHoom 0mm

 

0N0. 00. H0. .Hoooe cosoHom 0mm aneoHSoso
Mom Umpcsoooa SOHpOHoon Op
reSOOHaHQmHm cosmHmm> goHpSQHapcoo no
mo Hobcq soHuchaaoo mo anooacm acoao HHosp SH mpmoe pOOHDSm

 

apHaonm OOSOHom pacmpommm can no cosmaaomaom mo soHpoHooam

m.m mezmmm¢

239

.anHow mma
.oosoHom HoHoom 0mg .Hopoe
ooaOHom mm: .mOHmanm

 

 

0000. 00. ea. 00: .aspmHaoso 00: Hence
.anHmsm 0mm .Hoaoe
ooSOHom mm: .moamarm

0000. 00. mm. 00: .scHHmsm mmmme smHHmsm
.smHHmsm
mmmme .oosoHom HoHoom

0000. H0. mm. 002 .noHooacsooz 002 .0002
.amoHon mmmme .Hopoa
coacHom mmz .awOHon

0000. 00. 00. 00: .coHsosospoz 0m: noHoasm
.Hcpoa
coacHom mma .aapmHaono

0000. 00. 03. 0mm .amoHon mmmme amoHon
.soHHmsm mmmme .amoHon

0000. 00. mm. 002 .moHcosospoz 0mg awpmHaoso

I: I: Mom oopasoood GOHpoHooam Op
oosOOHMHQme oosoHam> aoHpanapsOo no
mo HoboH SodeHoaaOO mo pSOOHOm aooao aHosp 2H mpmoe poownsm

apHsomm cosOHom HoawsoHso or» at cosmaaomaom mo nOHpoHooam

3.m mezmmme

“APPENDIX C

Sample Questions from the 1967 JHEEE

Chemistry

1.

Complete the following chemical formulas. . . (approx-
imately half the test).

2. What is the radioactive isotOpe of hydrogen?
. What is an electrolitef
9. Questions concerning the reactions obtained in
certain eXperiments.
Biology
1. List the three differences between animals and plants.
2. Name four of the endocrine glands.
3. What are the layers of the human skin?
9. Please insert the scientific terms or meaning or an
eXplanation in the blank that follows. . .
5. True or False
a. The bone is a dead cell, therefore it has no cells.
b. The Spider has six legs.
c. The Dolphin is a kind of fish.
d. The dragonfly has 9 wings.
e. The whale is a land animal.
6. The figure below shows the metabolism of the cell.
Please insert the correct work into each Space.
7. Please insert the correct scientific term in the

blank. . .

290

APPENDIX C (continued)

Physics

1. When liquid is boiled, the value of steam compression
should be: a. equal to the surrounding atmOSphere,
b. equal to the compression of the atmOSphere at
that time, c. more than the surrounding atmOSphere,
d. less than the atmOSphere.

2. When you walk past a bus which is waiting at a traffic
light, you will feel hot because of: a. the transfer
of heat from the engine, b. the carrying of heat by
the air from the engine, c. by radiation from the
engine, d. from both radiation and transfer by air.

Social Science

1. The differences between life in rural society and
the city are...

2. The reasons pe0p1e move to the city are...

3. The groups in the social construct are...

9. True and False.

a. The poverty of the underdeveloped country is
due mostly to the poor use of natural resources.

7b. The major cause of unemployment is that society
has nothing for people to do.

c. Most of the develOping countries are in the
Industrial Community

d. Efficiency means that production concentrates on
quality more than quantity.

e. Several questions dealing with the power of

291

APPENDIX C (continued)

the King and the legislature.
f. Singapore is a State in the Federation of Maylaysia.
g. Monte Carlo is in France.

5. Fill in the Blank.

a. The Capitals of Sierra Leone, the Philippines and
Ghana are .

b. The River Rhine runs into the Ocean.

0. Beirut is in .

6. New Zealand has an area a. % of Thailand, b. i of
Thailand, 0. 3/9 of Thailand.

7. Asia a. has the coldest weather in the world, b. not
the coldest weather in the world, 0. hot as cold as
in Europe.

8. The first National Library was established in the
period of King Rama a. VI, b. IV, O. VII.

9. The Nordic is a branch of a. Polynesian, b. Australoid,
c. Caucasian.

10. A cause of the Industrial Revolution is a. Poverty,
b. The progress of science, 0. Shortage in.agri-

cultural production.

292

APPENDIX C (continued)

English
Three sections dealing with Comprehension-20%, Structure-90%,
and Expression-90%.
1. Comprehension section on U.S. and Thai relations and
the American West of the Frontier days.
2. Essay
a. tell what a habit is.
b. give examples of goOd habits.
0. give examples of some of your bad habits
d. explain how you plan to change or get rid of
those bad habits.

3. Essay on What Money Means to a Student like me.

293

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