A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF ADAPTIVE FUNCTIONING AS A MULTIDIMENSIDNAL CONSTRUCT OF MENTAL HEALTH Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY KENNETH EDWIN HALL 1977 I I II I III I I III III III III ‘ mm :2. y 365 Midfigan a University _--7_._ This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Preliminary Investigation of Adaptive Functioning as a Multidimensional Construct of Mental Health presented by \ Kenneth Edwin Hall has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PfitD. degree in Couns. Per. Serv. Major professor Date June 7, 1977 0-7639 MSU LIBRARIES n. RETURNING M TERIALS: Place In book drOp to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date Stamped below. A I' a . r v.5: (7 2I ABSTRACT A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF ADAPTIVE FUNCTIONING AS A MULTIDIMENSIONAL CONSTRUCT OF MENTAL HEALTH By Kenneth Edwin Hall The focus of the study was on adaptive functioning as a multidimensional construct of mental health. There were three major objectives. 1. To empirically investigate the adaptive functioning construct. 2. To validate an instrument designed to measure a proposed theory of adaptive functioning. 3. To identify differential levels of functioning among individuals on the criteria of General Adaptive Capacity. A four dimensional theory of adaptive capacity was proposed. The four postulated dimensions (Affective Style, Assimilation, Accommodation, Environmental Mastery) were consistent with the internal and external themes found in the literature on mental health. A 205 item instrument (the Survey of Actualization: Adap- tation) was constructed to measure the proposed theory. Responses to the inventory were collected from 25l subjects who comprised three Kenneth Edwin Hall separate samples. Sample one consisted of a group of l02 resident hall advisors. It was assumed that this sample represented a fairly homogeneous, high functioning group. Sample two comprised 120 randomly selected subjects. It was assumed that these subjects represented a heterogeneous group of diverse levels of functioning. Finally, sample three was a cross-validation sample of 29 subjects nominated as high functioning. Two distinct methods of data analysis were used in the study: factor analysis and multivariate analysis of variance. An item analysis identified 85 of the 205 items that com- prised the inventory as discriminating between high and low scores on each item. The discriminating items were factor analyzed to determine whether the items would form a factor structure consistent with one of the various proposed theories of adaptive functioning described in the study. A rationale was developed for two through seven rotations using the varimax procedure. The significance of an item factor loading was arbitrarily established at :_.40 or above. A factor was regarded as significant and interpretable if the number of high loadings on that factor accounted for ten per cent of the variance. A relationship between White's three dimensional theory of adaptive functioning and the three factor solution was found to exist. In addition, aspects of the four dimensional theory proposed for the study were related to the three factor solution. Scores fror eere weight“ to de w score esta 0n the basi and the intercorrel was reached that U thee highly inter! Multivariai the three groups SI (P< .05 and P < .( (Scheffé) identifit significant differI sen-pie and the cm! ere (P < .006) we the resident hall An inspect sahpl es led to the I- Subjec i . 'Erential levels 0 4536“ who scores factors) , Kenneth Edwin Hall Scores from the 69 items that comprised the three factors were weighted to determine the proximity of a response to the a priori score established for an item. 0n the basis of examining the reliability estimates (alpha) and the intercorrelations between the three factors, the conclusion was reached that the inventory was probably one large scale with three highly interrelated subsets of that scale. Multivariate and univariate differences were found among the three groups selected for study across the interpretable factors (P < .05 and P < .0l7, respectively). Multiple post hoc comparisons (Scheffé) identified the three samples as comprising two subsets. No significant difference was found between the resident hall advisors sample and the cross-validation sample. However, a significant differ- ence (P < .006) was found to exist between the random sample, and both the resident hall advisors group and the cross-validation sample. An inspection of the distribution of scores for the three samples led to the following conclusions. 1. Subject responses to the inventory did not identify dif- ferential levels of functioning within the separate factors (i.e., a subject who scores low on one factor also scored low on the other two factors). 2. The subjects of the random sample wereamore heterogeneous group of diverse levels of functioning than the other two samples. 3. The cross-validation sample and the resident hall advisors group were a more homogeneous, high functioning group than the random sample. A PRELIMI A MUL in A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF ADAPTIVE FUNCTIONING AS A MULTIDIMENSIONAL CONSTRUCT OF MENTAL HEALTH By Kenneth Edwin Hall A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1977 - ‘I J III“ by £3.1an EDHIN HALL 7977 Q; re“! 0"? I: G) Copyright by KENNETH EDWIN HALL 1977 To J completion o caring, pati To E being Withou completed. To Joanne who contributed immeasurably to the completion of this study through her understanding, caring, patience, and support. To Becky and to Chris for their acceptance of being without a father for a year while this study was completed. ii I wish to I Farquhar who, as I“; rajor contributor ' aresearcher, a SCI fine model for me. I also wan Dr. Hillard Narrini time, and encourag grateful to Dr. Hi tinued support ove Dr. C. S. I'anlloord gave free Instrument constru and help contri but I also wis encouraging the re study. I want. fl novicki who served assi . st my understai StUdy were of im I .EI ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I wish to express my deepest appreciation to Dr. William Farquhar who, as my advisor and dissertation chairman, has been a major contributor to my professional development. His behavior as a researcher, a scholar, and as a sensitive human being has been a fine model for me. It has been a privilege to learn from him. I also want to express my gratitude to Dr. William Hinds, Dr. Willard Warrington, and Dr. Cecil Williams for their assistance, time, and encouragement in completing this study. I am particularly grateful to Dr. Williams for his much valued friendship and con— tinued support over the years. Dr. C. S. Dietzel, Dr. Thomas Fiester, and Dr. Robert VanNoord gave freely of their time in helping edit and score the instrument constructed for the investigation. Their suggestions and help contributed much to the study. I also wish to thank Dr. Gary North for his assistance in encouraging the resident hall advisor staff to participate in the study. I want, finally, to thank Dr. Robert Wilson and Dr. David Novicki who served as statistical consultants. Their abilities to assist my understanding of the statistical procedures used in the study were of immeasurable help. ,1.“ 1. LIST OF TABL USTOF FIGL IIST 0F APPE Chapter I. THE P Nee Pur ta Pos The Def Org. II. REIIEI Over His TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES . LIST OF APPENDICES . Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . Need for the Study . Purpose of the Study . . Statement of the Problem . Postulated Dimensions . The Hypotheses Definition of Terms . . Organization of the Study II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Overview Historical Perspective Definitions of Adaptation Adjustment . . . Mental Health . Defense . Mastery. Coping . . Theories of Adaptive Capacity Global Studies of Normality. Golden Study . Grinker Study. Heath Study Silber Study Smmw. . Patterns of Growth. . Moriarty and Toussieng Study. King Study. . Offer Study Summa ry . iv Page vii ix Onto“ Ego Mecha Vaillan Kroeber Swmary HI. THE THEORY Introduct Models of General A Inner D Outer 0 Summary IV. DESIGN ARI) I Instrumen Sample Se Residen Random ? Cross-v Administr HYDOthese Factor: MUltiva' AnalySlS I Factor : MUltiva Summa Y‘y V- ANALYSIS or Item Anal. Factor An FaCtOr Results Interpr $Ummdry Factors FaCtorl FaCtor ”Ultlvarj. esultS Chapter Ego Mechanisms . Vaillant Study Kroeber Study . Summary III. THE THEORY Introduction . . Models of Mental Health General Adaptive Capacity Inner Directed Dimensions . Outer Directed Dimensions . Summary IV. DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Instrumentation . Sample Section . Resident Hall Advisor Staff Random Sample . Cross- Validation Sample . Administration of the Instrument Hypotheses . Factor Structure Hypotheses Multivariate Analysis of Variance Hypotheses. Analysis of Data Factor Structure . . . Multivariate Analysis of Variance Summary . . . . V. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Item Analysis Factor Analysis . Factor Structure . . Results of the Factor Analysis Interpretation of Factors . Summary. . Weights Assigned to Scores . . Reliability Estimates and Intercorrelation of Factors . . . Factor Homogeneity _ Factor Intercorrelations . Multivariate Analysis of Variance . Results of Multivariate Analysis Results of Univariate Analysis Post Hoc Comparisons . Distribution of Scores . Summary . . Summary Page 69 69 73 79 83 83 88 92 101 109 113 113 116 117 118 118 120 123 125 126 128 130 131 134 137 l38 139 140 141 144 159 l62 164 164 166 169 169 169 171 173 181 184 Chapter II. SUMMARY A? Collatic Conclusi Testir Factor Distri Discussi Implicat BIBLIOGRAPHY . APPENDICES Chapter Page VI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . l88 Collation of Summaries . . . . . . . . . . l88 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . l94 Testing the Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . l94 Factor Structure . . . . . l96 Distribution of Scores for the Three Samples . . 198 Discussion . . . . . . . . l98 Implications for Future Research . . . . . . . 202 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2l7 vi the 21. [2. [3. 24. LS. 26. II. 3A. II. I2. A3. 44. Relationshit Adaptive ( Relationshir Adaptive ( Relationshi; Levels of Relationship Functionir Vaillant's I KT‘OEber' S D. and D€fen£ POStulated l Chanisms Smhmry of I General A( DIStleutiOr GOO Sex Dist"'lbutior 555 and UlStrjbutiOr SEX . lVe p LIST OF TABLES Table Page 2.l. Relationship Between the External Dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity and Proposed Theories of Adaptation . 30 2.2. Relationship Between the Internal Dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity and Proposed Theories of Adaptation . 3l 2.3. Relationship Between Global Studies of Normality and Levels of Functioning on Adaptive Capacity . . . . 32 2.4. Relationship Between Patterns of Growth and Levels of Functioning on Adaptive Capacity . . . . . . . . 68 2.5. Vaillant's Hierarchy of Adaptive Ego Mechanisms . . . 70 2.6. Kroeber's Division of Ten Ego Mechanisms into Coping and Defensive Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 75 2.7. Postulated Relationship Between Kroeber's Category of Ego Mechanisms and the Dimensions of Adaptive Capacity . . 77 3.l. Summary of Personality Characteristics Associated with General Adaptive Capacity . . . . . . . . . . lll 4.l. Distribution of Resident Hall Advisors (RA's) by Class and Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l19 4.2. Distribution of Random Sample by Sex and Class . . . . ll9 4.3. Distribution of Returns from Residence Hall Advisors by Class and Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l22 4.4. Distribution of Returns from Random Sample by Class and Sex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l22 5.l. Relationship Between the Two and Three Factor Solution and Five Proposed Theories of Adaptation . . . . . l6l 5.2. Distribution of Weights According to the a ’riori Desired Score Representing a High Functioning Individual . . I63 5.3. Summary of Alpha Coefficients by Factor . . . . . . l65 vii s4, Pearson C0 Factor 56. Sumary of i6. Summary of i7. Summary of 5.8. Range i9. Skewness BIO. Kurtosis Table Page 5.4. Pearson Correlation Coefficients Obtained on each Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I67 5.5. Summary of Univariate Analysis of Variance . . . . . 170 5.6. Summary of Multiple Pg§t_flgg_Comparisons . . . . . . l72 5.7. Summary of Cell Means and Standard Deviations . . . . l75 5.8. Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l78 5.9. Skewness . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 179 5.10. Kurtosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .' . . lBl viii Figure 5.1. Plot of MI Factors LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 5.l. Plot of Means for Three Groups (l,2,3) on Three Factors (Factor 1, Factor II, Factor III) . . . . 176 ix Appendix A. I DistributiOr Survey of Ac Item Interco Three Factor LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A. B C. D Distribution of Items by Classified Scale Survey of Actualization: Adaptation . Item Intercorrelation Matrix Three Factor Varimax Solution Page 218 230 243 262 The investig limited to the study emphasis nas been Iia behavior and mental at'ianced. The resul remal individuals h. rental health have be shut that does not Furthermore, many cri tinensional concept n (I- o I 0 men a definition is etiology of any parti for health has been i: Iealti.2 Second, the CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Need for the Study The investigation of human functioning has been largely limited to the study of mental illness. Some feel that such an emphasis has been warranted because through the study of extreme behavior and mental ill health all knowledge about humans is advanced. The result has been that research directed towards normal individuals has been greatly curtailed. Studies of positive mental health have been criticized as attacking an abstract con- struct that does not lend itself to valid empirical investigation.1 Furthermore, many critics assume that mental health is a uni- dimensional concept most simply defined as the absence of pathology. Such a definition is based on two assumptions. First, given the etiology of any particular form of mental illness, the prescription for health has been that one does the opposite to create mental health.2 Second, the individual reacts to the environment as a 1Arnold H. Buss, Psychopatholggy (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1966), p. 6; W. E. Barton, "Viewpoint of a Clinician." In Maria Jahoda (Ed.), Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health «New York: Basic Books, 1958), p. 233. 2W. A. Westley, "Emotionally Healthy Adolescents and their Family Background." In Iago Gladston (Ed.), The Family in Contemporary Society (New York: International Universities Press, 1958), p. 132. ma] organism. TI necessarily affect: Advocates i emn Dough some 65 lowed, such funci aspect of the persc he fundamental iss develop some empiri ,‘noiI abnormal functi tacilitate and harp Oeinterdependence individual's person HE Problem require Thus, the c surrounds the pfObli pcWWI conflict_ WI as mental heali is it In fact a uni. ' . K GOICIStei {ohm ' arvard l 4 ’ ”Ginz Harm Iranslated y avid r(795331958) c 10.17; total organism. Therefore, poor adjustment in one area of life necessarily affects all other areas of personality.3 Advocates of the study of mental health have suggested that even though some aspects of the individual's personality are patho- logical, such functioning need not be pervasive throughout every aspect of the person's life. These advocates have indicated that the fundamental issue in the study of positive mental health is to develop some empirical correlates of mental health to investigate how abnormal functioning and normal internal development mutually 4 Other proponents have questioned facilitate and hamper each other. the interdependence of the various characteristics that make up the individual's personality. According to this latter point of view, the problem requires research.5 Thus, the critics who are involved in the controversy that surrounds the problem of human adjustment have identified two major points of conflict. First, is there value in the study of a construct such as mental health? Second, if mental health is to be studied, is it in fact a uni-dimensional or multi-dimensional construct? 3K. Goldstein, Human Nature in the Light of Psychopathology (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, l940), p. l5; C. R. Rogers, Client-Centered Therapy (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, l951), p. 510. 4Heinz Hartmann, Egg Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation. Translated by David Rapaport. (New York: International University Press, l958), p. 17; Otto Fenichel, The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., l94511 5M. B. Smith, "'Mental Health' Reconsidered: A Special Case of the Problem of Values in Psychology," American Psychology, 16 (1961). p. 306. Offer6 resp stating three expli First, the lack of tutes mental health uses "00ml SUbje car-runny mental he ofnental health- based on error or d Tess arbitrary and I expectations if men Jahoda7 mo of rental health. 5 nealth and mental i'. her the last thirty and psychiatrists he in seemingly equally tatively different < Evidence both theore ”9". Thus, the sti liltidinensional cor Offer6 responded to the first major point of conflict by stating three explicit advantages to the study of mental health. First, the lack of explicit psychological criteria of what consti- tutes mental health introduces an unknown bias in research that uses "normal” subjects as a control group. Second, evaluation of community mental health programs requires an explicit understanding of mental health. Implicit conceptions of mental health may be based on error or distortion. Finally, therapeutic goals might be less arbitrary and more in keeping with the clients' needs and expectations if mental health criteria are more explicit. Jahoda7 indirectly discussed the multidimensional quality of mental health. She suggested that the assumption that mental health and mental illness are polar opposites may be unjustified. Over the last thirty years an increasing number of psychologists and psychiatrists have begun speaking of different health potentials in seemingly equally "sick" individuals, as if they were two quali- tatively different continua. According to Jahoda there is now ample evidence both theoretically and empirically of the utility of this view. Thus, the study of mental health as a construct and as a multidimensional concept is gaining support. 6Daniel Offer and Melvin Sabshin, Normality: Theoretical and Clinical Concepts of Mental Health (New York: Basic Books, 19747, p. 180. 7Jahoda, 1958, op. cit., p. l4. one model this study was pr .3 follow require rental health and sentence or interc functioning? Smit fail to provide a Pie proposed a frami rental health that mnceptualizations ‘or understanding t Sheets of human fur The examinat has been empirically itree 0f the studies Ifadjustment. The c time” a sample of n iitlents. The researcher etal., and TindallllC M- B. Smith, V9 Mental H MEAF' I ”m ealth One model for the study of mental health that relates to this study was proposed by Smith.8 In his opinion such questions as follow require research: What is the relationship between positive mental health and resistance to mental illness? What is the inde- pendence or interdependence among various aspects of positive human functioning? Smith suggested that existing theories of personality fail to provide a suitable framework for answering these questions. He proposed a framework for the development of multiple criteria of mental health that is based on the similarities of various existing conceptualizations of personality.9 His model provided a framework for understanding the relationship and interdependence of the various aspects of human functioning. The examination of mental health as a multidimensional concept has been empirically supported by the results of at least five studies. Three of the studies researched the relationship among various measures of adjustment. The other two studies investigated the differences between a sample of normal subjects and hospitalized psychiatric patients. The researchers in the first three studies (Ellis, Fiedler, et al., and Tindall)10 assumed that a high intercorrelation existing 8M. B. Smith, "Research Strategies Toward a Conception of Positive Mental Health,“ American Psychologist, 14 (1959), pp. 679-680. 95mith's Model is outlined in Chapter II, "The Theory." 10A. Ellis, "The Validity of Personality Questionnaires," Psychological Bulletin, 42 (1946), pp. 385-440; F. E. Fiedler, et al., Interrelations Among Measures of Personality Adjustment in Nonclinical Populations," Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology, 56 (1958), pp. 345-351; R. H. Tindall, "Relationships Among Indices of Adjustment Status," Educational Psychological Measurement, 15 (1955), pp. 152-162. between various "195 functioning I" one all areas of life. intercorrelations a that there is no ev should be considere The two othi asanple group of m patients. The inves ences would be founc dimensions of their rent. Schofield and between a sample gm Sch'ZODhrenic patien‘ ’41 their early histor experiences. In the incidence of psychoeu asarple group of nor IUDJECLS contain ins t 1 in mental illness of c between various measures of adjustment would suggest that poor functioning in one area of an individual's life necessarily affected all areas of life. All of these studies found low or insignificant intercorrelations among the various measures. The results suggest that there is no evidence justifying the assumption that adjustment should be considered a unitary trait. The two other studies investigated the differences between a sample group of normal subjects and hospitalized psychiatric patients. The investigators hypothesized that significant differ- ences would be found between two groups of subjects among the dimensions of their developmental history and their current adjust- ment. Schofield and Balian“ found no significant differences between a sample group of normal subjects and a group of hospitalized schizophrenic patients. The two groups were compared with respect to their early history, adjustment, and incidence of "traumatic" experiences. In the second study, Renaud and Estess12 found no incidence of psychoeurotic or psychosomatic symptomatology among a sample group of normal subjects even though the histories of the subjects contain instances of traumatic events presumed to result in mental illness of others. The results of the two studies raise questions about the validity of conceiving of a simple, and direct nW. Schofield and L. Balian, ''A Comparative Study of the Personal Histories of Schizophrenic and Nonpsychiatric Patients," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 59 (1959), pp. 216- 225. 12H. Renaud and F. Estess, "Life Interviews With One Hundred Normal American Males: 'Pathogenecity' of Childhood," American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 31 (1961), pp. 786-801. caasal relation beta iHnms. Thus, the IE of assessing human 6 the various dimensic rare, the results 1‘6 fanctioning that CU‘ rental health as a i aninvestigation pr: iirensions of norma individuals? Can t instrument to meaSu study is an investi In thlS Stu Pathology. and as a Iii ‘ Milo" Problem 1 WI health is nc selecting and Opera imposed.” ever: C proPosed.14 m0 .. oi WOO in thls $1 11 13 :3» i "Steer . ' N. \Ch] (ChlcaQOI 8or Will , 4 Iiiep YOI‘k- 60'‘(1011 A] with Henr 1 Op. Clt. ’3’]: causal relation between certain events and later development of mental illness. Thus, the results of the studies suggest that current means of assessing human adjustment do not lend themselves to investigating the various dimensions of abnormal and normal functioning. Further- more, the results raise some serious empirical questions about human functioning that current theories of personality fail to answer. Can mental health as a construct be empirically investigated? Can such an investigation provide a clearer understanding of the various dimensions of normal functioning within an individual and between individuals? Can the dimensions be operationalized into a valid instrument to measure various aspects of mental health? The present study is an investigation of these questions. Purpose of the Study In this study, mental health is regarded as distinct from pathology, and as a multidimensional concept of various criteria. The major problem in establishing a multidimensional definition of mental health is not in proposing new criteria so much as it is in selecting and operationally defining those that have already been proposed.13 Several means of classifying mental health have been 14 proposed. A modification of Scott's classification system is employed in this study for the sake of convenience only: 13William A. Scott, "Conceptions of Normality," In E. F. Borgatta and W. W. Lambert (Eds.) Hgndbook of Personality Theory and Research (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1968), p. 976. 14Gordon Allport, Personality: A Psychological Interpretation (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1938)} Jahoda, op. cit., 1958; M. B. Smith, op. cit., 1959, pp. 673-681. General Map Health)I Self Competence I intellectual Emotional all comment I Productivlty Attitudes 10 Integration \OOO“ . . . a“ . . U C . This study will Ce“ General Adaptive CaP' While there I viewing the general ‘ there has been consii health. Some of this serial health used ir IJSIOII, however, lies the independence or 1 Characteristic of hic toneasure the same t characteristics were Partially present in st ' Idies were either m General Adaptive Capacity Healthy Self-Gratification Competence in Interpersonal Roles Intellectual Capacity Emotional and Motivational Control Commitment to People Productivity and Autonomy Attitudes Toward SeIE Integration of Self PWNO‘U‘IQEQNH This study will deal specifically with an initial investigation of General Adaptive Capacity as one criterion of mental health. While there has been theoretical and empirical support for viewing the general concept of mental health as multidimensional, there has been considerable confusion in research studies of mental health. Some of this confusion lies in the specific definition of mental health used in a study. A much greater amount of the con- fusion, however, lies in the investigator's failure to discriminate the independence or interdependence of various factors that are characteristic of high functioning individuals. Studies designed to measure the same trait achieve different results. A set of characteristics were empirically present in one study, but only partially present in another study. It would appear that these studies were either measuring different traits or they were measuring separate aspects of the same trait. Thus, the questions of particu- lar interest in this study are: To what extent does high functioning in one area of General Adaptive Capacity affect high functioning in other areas? To what extent can an'individual who functions at a high level on all of the postulated dimensions of General Adaptive 15viiiiam A. Scott, op. cit., 1968, p. 976. at a high level on The nresent objectively SCOEEd ardergraduate C0119 world in which they rentvill different the criterion of Ger additionally, it is vill differentiate b acc0nnodati0n and as and environmental mas Two of the f0 Inter directed (Accom he individual's abil‘ environment free from reeds, and to act on is abl l Capacity be distinguished from those individuals who fail to function at a high level on one or more of these dimensions? Statement of the Problem The present investigation is concerned with developing an objectively scored instrument that measures the adaptability of undergraduate college students to the psychological and physical world in which they live. It is expected that items on this instru- ment will differentiate the high and low levels of functioning on the criterion of General Adaptive Capacity as defined in this study. 16 of the items . Additionally, it is expected that a factor analysis will differentiate between the four major theoretical postulates of acconmodation and assimilation to the environment, affective style, and environmental mastery. Postulated Dimensions TWo of the four dimensions postulated in this study are outer directed (Accommodation and Environmental Mastery) describing the individual's ability both to accurately perceive the external environment free from distortion according to his/her own subjective needs, and to act on the environment in such a way that the individual is able to react as a constructive rather than a destructive force. The other two postulated dimensions are internally oriented (Assimi- lation and Affective Style): the individual is capable of selecting 16F. Lazarfield, Mathematical Thinking in the Social Sciences (Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 1954)} from the environment fulfilling with rege afull awareness anc emotional feelings. The followir stidy as designating “WW of function 1. Inner Directed I- W feelings , th l. Having a 2- Hide rang 3- Ownershil 4' Approachi 5' DlStress B. W3. goals that wi Capacity 2. Reallstic attainmen 3‘ Flexibiii 4. satisfact 5' Behaviop . Ir .. Outer [)1 reCted of adapting 0n from the environment those things that are personally gratifying and fulfilling with regard to his/her own needs; and the individual has a full awareness and/or access to the depth and breadth of his emotional feelings. The following is a list of research postulates used in this study as designating the characteristics of a person who has the capacity of functioning at a high level of General Adaptive Capacity: I. Inner Directed A. Affective Style. The ability to experience a full range of feelings, thoughts, and reactions. 1. (II-km“) Having a sense of one's limits Wide range of feelings Ownership of behavior and feelings Approaches anxiety Distress (anxiety) is maintained within manageable limits B. Assimilation. The ability to choose selectively external goals that will satisfy internal needs. 1. 2. 4. 5. Capacity to formulate ends and implement them Realistic self-ideals with regard to aspirations and attainments Flexibility with regard to response—choices Satisfaction of internal emotional needs Behavior is successful II. Outer Directed A. Accommodation. The ability to assess the appropriateness of adapting oneself to the external environment based on the Value’ goal- ]. Capacii 2_ Satl'sfa 3. ACCUI“t 4. Capac” percelV a new P 5. BehaVlO B- Environmer‘. ti \_ and novelty 1. Oriental 2, Emotiona 3. Attack 0 beyond 0 4. Regard f The assumptior he emwterion of Ge l'Idividuals will relat Ml apersonality cha lithe devised to meas "lufl t0 0the environm Glingful constructs fictive measure of Ge 10 the value, cost, and energy spent in attaining a desired goal. 1. Capacity to meet and deal with a changing world 2. Satisfaction of external requirements 3. Accurate perception of reality 4. Capacity to maintain a self-image as adequate to the perceived requirements of a new situation or in facing a new problem 5. Behavior is situation appropriate B. Environmental Mastery. The ability to experience challenges and novelty in the environment. 1. 2. Orientation toward experiences Emotional reactions are situation defined Attack of problems which possess the quality of being beyond one's current level of attainment Regard for new experiences as exciting and rewarding The Hypotheses The assumption with which this study is concerned is that on the criterion of General Adaptive Capacity. high and low functioning individuals will relate differently to the environment and manifest unique personality characteristics. It is assumed that an instrument can be devised to measure the General Adaptive Capacity of an indi- vidual to the environment. It is further assumed that psychologically meaningful constructs can be translated into items which will form an objective measure of General Adaptive Capacity. Those items with ' ' ' ( surfiment power to incfioning on the cr Staterent of the Res l. Cross—val Adaptive between viduals 2. A factor indicate dimensic environr W a}, . afpemonIS well l set-actual i za ti on. absence of Manta] 1 Eng” ll sufficient power to discriminate between high and low levels of functioning on the criterion will be factor analyzed. Statement of the Research Hypotheses l. Cross-validation of a scale designed to measure General Adaptive Capacity will produce items which discriminate between the high and low levels of functioning of indi- viduals on the criterion of General Adaptive Capacity. 2. A factor analysis of theldiscriminating items will indicate those which define the major theoretical dimensions of accommodation and assimilation to the environment, affective style, and environmental mastery. Definition of Terms Mental Health: Refers to a relatively enduring state wherein the person is well adjusted, has a zest for living, and is attaining self-actualization. "It is a positive state, and not merely the absence of mental illness." Positive mental health is a synonomous term.17 Self-Actualization: "The processes of developing one's capacities and talents, of understanding and accepting oneself; of harmonizing or integrating one's motives; or the state resulting from these processes."18 17Horace English and Eva English, A Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytic Terms (New York: David McKay Co., Inc., l972), p. 318. 18Ibid. . p. 485. Su ernormal vet believed to be m= A more solidly SUPPOY m aresult of sciE mmaHy pFOPOSEd * atirical data." A cording to Rychlak Model: A p cestualization whic orto bring it iritc rodel is used to fa Fomulation is a 55 can be Positioned i Ci'ar‘acteristic are broader concept. 23 191mm, p, OIbid., Sc 2‘Itn'd. j9nce for Persoga 19°55 . p. 45. 221bi¢., p. 23 English a 2 D. l2 Supernormal: ”Exceeding greatly the average or the normal, "19 yet believed to be consistent with natural law. Ihggry: A general principle supported by data. Theory is more solidly supported by evidence than is a construct.20 Construct: "A property ascribed to at least two objects as a result of scientific observation and comparison; a concept, formally proposed with definition and limits explicitly related to empirical data." A construct is a planfully designed model. Ac- cording to Rychlak a construct is used for theoretical speculation.2] floggl: A patterned structure or stylized means of con- ceptualization which the theoretician uses to order his/her thinking, or to bring it into agreement with an existing line of thought. A model is used to facilitate the generation of ideas or hypotheses. Formulation is a synonomous term.22 Dimension: “Any characteristic by which an object or event can be positioned in a quantitative series." Attribute, trait and characteristic are essentially synonomous terms, but dimension is a broader concept.23 19151a., p. 535. 201bid.. p. 551. 211bid., p. 115; and Joseph F. Rychlak, A Philosophy of Science fOr Personality Theory_(Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Company, 1958). p. 45. 22 Ibid., p. 57. 23English and English, op. cit., p. 153. ‘ H.331: "An ofa person by mean Inferred personalit attribute are synon Levels of F Céiacity. Thus, a in responding or pr i‘iEDtive capacity. or difficulty in re The over-a1 Chapter II» a revie is presented. In C ofthe present inve General Adaptive Ca design of the study item discrimination in Chapter IV. Ana 0i 1 variance and the thaw eter. The intEY‘ l3 113$}; "Any enduring or persisting character or characteristic of a person by means of which he can be distinguished from another. Inferred personality tendencies or dispositions." Characteristic and attribute are synonomous terms.24 Levels of Functioning: The rating of a person's adaptive capacity. Thus, a "high" level of functioning represents competence in responding or processing information on a particular dimension of adaptive capacity. A "low" level of functioning represents confusion or difficulty in responding on a particular dimension. Organization of the Study The over—all plan of the dissertation is as follows: In Chapter II, a review of the research related to this investigation is presented. In Chapter III, the underlying theoretical concepts of the present investigation and the four postulated dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity are outlined. A discussion of the general design of the study, together with consideration of instrumentation, item discrimination and selection, and sample selection is presented in Chapter IV. Analytic procedures used in the multivariate analysis of variance and the factor analysis method are also presented in that chapter. The interpretation and discussion of the analysis of variance and the factors are examined in Chapter V. The summary and recommendations for further research are presented in Chapter VI. 24Ibid.. p. 550. Chapter II 1'. scope of mental heal functioning. An historica presented in section of adaptive capacity In the secor the terms associate: this section the re this study, and 0th capacity is del inea Four propos three. Two of the es uher 0 Proposals CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Overview Chapter II is divided into six major sections reviewing the scope of mental health research and research studies of adaptive functioning. An historical perspective on mental health research is presented in section one. Particular emphasis is placed on research of adaptive capacity. In the second section, various definitions of adaptation and the terms associated with adaptive capacity are reviewed. Also, in this section the relationship between adaptation as it is defined in this study, and other terminology commonly associated with adaptive capacity is delineated. Four proposed theories of adaptation are reviewed in section three. Two of the proposals are based on empirical research; the other two proposals are drawn from existing theories of personality. The relationship between the four proposals and the theory of adaptive capacity used in this study is also presented. In sections four and five, a review of seven studies of mental health is presented. The results of four global studies of normality are reviewed in section four. In section five, three studies that found various adaptive styles among normal subjects 14 are reviewed. The ' four and five are 7‘ capacity outlined ir In section 5 on psychoanalytic u based on these theor Finally, the results of adaptive capacity According t< ;:‘.agued investigatm difficulty of making behavior of an indi\ behavioral sciences 0f traits and behav romal populations. become regarded as ‘- Until recen ad r‘ 15 are reviewed. The results from the studies reviewed in sections four and five are related to the four dimensions of adaptive capacity outlined in Chapter III. In section six, two theories of adaptive functioning based on psychoanalytic theory are presented. Results from two studies based on these theories of adaptive functioning are reviewed. Finally, the results of these two studies are related to the theory of adaptive capacity as it is defined in this study. Historical Perspective According to Offer,1 one of the major problems that has plagued investigators in the behavioral sciences has been the difficulty of making successful predictions about long-term future behavior of an individual. Current research endeavors in the behavioral sciences have, therefore, tended to identify clusters of traits and behavior which describe the variety of healthy or normal populations. In this endeavor adaptive functioning has become regarded as an aspect of mental health. Until recently, it was assumed that the route to studying adaptive functioning was through the study of deviancy, either IDaniel Offer and Melvin Sabshin, Normality: Theoretical and Clinical Concepts of Mental Health (New York: Basic Books, l974), pp. l64-l65. psychopatho1 09y regarded adaptii by the individue assured that the his/her adaptive Thus, to that there was sc view of adaptatio defense mechanism a‘Sainst internal .' lest way to study "”9 eXller‘iencing However, i rather than a unifl \\ 2” Jon . . . 95. in Psychiatry (New 16 psychopathology2 or stressful situations.3 Grinker4 and Vaillant5 regarded adaptive functioning as synonomous with the defenses used by the individual in relationship with the environment. They assumed that the "healthier" the individual's defenses the better his/her adaptive abilities. Thus, to many investigators the term adaptation implyed that there was something negative to which one had to attend. This view of adaptation was similar to the psychoanalytic theory of defense mechanisms. Defenses were erected to protect the person against internal and external threats. From this perspective the best way to study adaptation was by observing populations which were experiencing stressful reactions in highly conflicted situations. However, individuals cope with stress in a variety of ways rather than a uniform pattern of response specificity as suggested 2M. Jones, The Therapeutic Community: A New Treatment Method in Psychiatry(New York: Basic Books, 1952). 3D. A. Hamburg and J. E. Adams, "A Perspective on Coping Behavior," A.M.A. Archives of General Psychiatry, 17 (1967), pp. 277- 284; Roy Grinker and J. Spiegel, Men Under Stress (Philadelphia: Blakiston), 1948; R. S. Lazarus, et al., "The Psychology of Coping: Issues of Research and Assessment." In G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg, and J. E. Adams (Eds.), Coping and Adaptation (New York: Basic Books, 1974), pp. 249-315; I. L. Janis, 1‘Vigilance and Decision Making in Personal Crises." In G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg, and J. E. Adams (Eds.), Coping and Adaptation (New York: Basic Books, 1974), pp. 139-175. 4Roy R. Grinker, Sr., et al., "A Study of 'Mentally Healthy' Young Males (Homoclites)," A.M.A. Archives of General Psychiatry, 6 (1964). pp. 405—451. 5George E. Vaillant, “Theoretical Hierarchy of Adaptive Ego Mechanisms," A.M.A. Archives of General Psychiatry, 24 (Feb., 1971), pp. 107-118. 17 by defense mechanism theory. Thus, what causes one person to be unable to cope at a particular time does not necessarily cause the same response to the same situation at a different time. A know- ledge of the individual's background reveals what defense mechanisms an individual chooses to combat a particular stress. However, behavioral scientists6 have only achieved limited success in the past in predicting who would cope successfully under stressful conditions based solely on knowledge of defense mechanisms. Hamburg and Adams7 raised the question that the range of adaptive responses could be much broader than defense mechanism theory suggested. In recent years behavioral scientists have become increasingly interested in this question. An interest in expanding defense mechanism theory to include a broader range of adaptive responses has been reflected in the work of Vaillant and Kroeber.8 Some investigators (e.g., Heath, 1965, 1968; and Offer, 1975)9 have viewed adaptation in terms of the fit between person and environment. Adaptation was regarded as the relationship between the stability of the individual's self-structure and the individual's 50. Offer and M. Sabshin, op. cit., 1974. 7Hamburg and Adams, op. cit., 1967, pp. 277-278. 8Vaillant, op. cit., 1971; Theodore C. Kroeber, "The Coping Functions of the Ego Mechanisms." In Robert N. White (Ed.), The. Study of Lives (New York: Atherton Press, 1963), pp. 178-198. 9Donald H. Heath, Explorations of Maturity (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965); D. H. Heath, Growing Up in College (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1968); Daniel Offer and Judith Offer, From Teenage to Young Manhood: A Psychological Study_(New York: Basic Books, 1975). l8 ability to meet environmental expectations. This view of adaptation has been criticized as not emphasizing the individual's cognitive skills and capabilities in meeting environmental demands.10 In a recent publication which resulted from a conference on coping and adaptation, Hamburg, Coelho, and Adams11 emphasized the need to know more about the range of strategies employed in the general pop- ulation for meeting stressful situations. They were concerned with the observation of adaptive behavior by non-patients from a developmental point of view. They also stressed the need to develop assessment tech- niques which reliably define the variables of adaptive functioning. Definitions of Adaptation An investigation into the dimensions of adaptive capacity requires a clear distinction between adaptation and the various terms associated with it. Some investigators have used terms such as 12 adjustment (e.g., King, 1973; and Glover, 1956), or mental health )l3 (e.g., Grinker, 1962 as synonomous to adaptation. Other 10David Mechanic, "Social Structure and Personal Adaptation: Some Neglected Dimensions." In G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg, and J. E. Adams (Eds.), Coping and Adaptation (New York: Basic Books, 1974), pp. 32-44. 11David A. Hamburg, et al., "Coping and Adaptation: Steps Toward a Synthesis of Biological and Social Perspectives." In G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg, J. E. Adams (Eds.), Coping and Adapta- tion (New York: Basic Books, 1974), pp. 403-440. 125. H. King, Five Lives at Harvard: Personality Change Dgring College (Cambridge: Harvard Univ. Press, 1973); E. Glover, "Medico-Psychological Aspects of Normality." In Edward Glover (Ed.), 0n the Early Develgpment of Mind (New York: International Universi- ties Press, 1956), pp. 235-251. 13Roy R. Grinker, et al., "A Study of 'Mentally Healthy' Young Males (Homoclites)," A.M.A. Archives of General Psychiatry, 6 (1962), pp. 405-451. 19 investigators have used coping (e.g., L. Murphy, 1976; Moriarty and Toussieng, 1975; Hamburg and Adams, 1967; and Lazarus, et al., 1974);14 Mastery (Sibler, et al., 1962, Hamburg and Adams, 1967)15 and Defense (Glover, 1956; and Grinker, 1962)16 as either synonomous to adaptation or as a part of adaptive capacity. Thus, some clarifi- cation in terminology needed to be made before an investigation of General Adaptive Capacity could proceed. Adjustment According to many researchers (e.g., King, 1973; Offer, 1975; and Heath, 1965),17 the concept of adjustment has been a much narrower term than adaptation. Adjustment defined the individual's efforts to meet environmental expectations. Little or no emphasis was placed on the individual's efforts to alter the environment to 18 characterized the fit the individual's characteristics. white broader definition of adaptation by stating, "adaptation does not mean either a total triumph over the environment or total surrender 14Lois Murphy and Alice Moriarty, Vulnerability, Cgping, and Growth: from Infancy to Adolescence (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1975); Alice Moriarty and Povl H. Toussieng, "Adolescence in a Time of Transition," Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic, 39 (September, 1975), pp. 391-408; Hamburg and Adams, op. cit., 1967; Lazarus, et al., op. cit., 1974. 15Earle Silber, et al., "Competent Adolescents Coping with College Decision,u A.M.A. Archives of General Psychiatry, 5 (1961), pp. 517—528; Hamburg and Adams, op. cit., 1967. 16E. Glover, op. cit., 1956; R. Grinker, op. cit., 1962. ‘75. H. King, op. cit., 1973; Offer and Offer, op. cit., 1975; D. H. Heath, op. cit., 1965. 18R. N. White, "Strategies of Adaptation," Coping and Adaptation, ed. by G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg and J. E. Adams (New York: Basic Books, 1974), pp. 47-69. to it, but rather :ation is somethir their environments of adaptation that ervironnent and tr fit his/her own ne between organism a rent may be transf which the ego stri f‘ Sinilarly, Heacnz" behavior as to opt‘ self structures an< Thus, adjus adaptation when ref environmental exoec referred to both th expectations and to an needs. ”ental e Hcalth Typically me idem ' Mtion. Thus, 0 20 to it, but rather a striving toward acceptable compromise. Adap- tation is something that is done by living systems in interaction with 19 offered the following definition their environments." Thus, King of adaptation that included both the individual's adjustment to the environment and the individual's efforts to alter the environment to fit his/her own needs: "Adaptation is a process, a dynamic feedback between organism and environment, wherein both organism and environ- ment may be transformed or changed. The end or steady state toward which the ego strives in this process is gratification and pleasure." 20 Similarly, Heath defined adaptation as . to so regulate behavior as to optimize simultaneously both the stability of the self structures and the accommodation to environmental requirements." Thus, adjustment has been used as a narrower concept than adaptation when referring to the individual's efforts to meet environmental expectations. The broader concept, adaptation, has referred to both the individual's efforts to meet environmental expectations and to the individual's efforts to satisfy his/her own needs. Mental Health Typically mental health has been a broader concept than 21 adaptation. Thus, Offer regarded mental health as a total configuration of an individual's life experience and satisfaction _‘ 1gs. H. King, op. cit., 1973, p. 23. 20o. H. Heath, op. cit., 1965, p. 37. 210ffer and Offer, op. cit., 1975. 21 with those experiences. He referred to adaptation as the indi— vidual's style of relating to the environment. Similarly, Vaillant22 suggested that adaptive capacity is one measure of mental health. He regarded mental health as a broader concept that includes such variables as intelligence, career and marital adjustment, physical health, and the quality of interpersonal relationships as well as adaptive capacity. Defense 23 the function of defense mechanisms In psychoanalytic theory has been to mediate between the id and superego, and to protect the individual from internal and external threat. Ego psychologists24 have confined defenses to instances of adaptation in which a present danger was of central importance. Kroeber25 differentiated between psychoanalytic defense mechanisms and what he called coping mechanisms. The distinction being that the former represented neurotic functioning and the later represented healthy functioning. Thus, defense mechanisms have been adaptive processes that failed to maintain a balance between the individual to self and the environment. Vaillant26 made a similar distinction between the various psychoanalytic ego 22G. E. Vaillant, op. cit., 1971. 23Anna Freud, The Ego Mechanisms of Defense (London: Hogarth Press, 1937). 24 25 R. W. White, op. cit., 1974. Theodore C. Kroeber, op. cit., 1963. 26G. E. Vaillant, op. cit., 1971. nechanisms. He ri coping mechanisms taste Traditiona limitless sense t( shite27 suggested it to problems hai Thus, llhite's28 cc synonomous term. as defined in this 'n'hite's limited de Ccping Moriarty definition of adap internal balance a the ten“ 'EdJUStme perception and awa Elld, hEnCe, d1 StOY“ individuals by inne 28 COTQQIEHCeRSbgrt W. S S\Chc 29 \K 22 mechanisms. He regarded defense mechanisms as maladaptive and coping mechanisms as adaptive. Mastery Traditionally the concept of mastery has been used in a limitless sense to describe a variety of areas of human functioning. White27 suggested that mastery be used in a limited sense confining it to problems having a certain cognitive or manipulative complexity. Thus, White's28 concept of "Effectance Motivation" has been a synonomous term. Similarly, the concept of "Environmental Mastery" as defined in this study (see Chapter III) was consistant with White's limited definition of mastery. £29199 Moriarty and Toussieng29 defined coping similar to the definition of adaptation in this study. "Coping . . . emphasizes internal balance and lacks the aspects of concession implied by the term 'adjustment.' Coping, furthermore, implies realistic perception and awareness with a minimum of ideological restrictions and, hence, distortion. Depending on the limitations placed on individuals by inner realities, coping efforts will allow persons to deal appropriately with reality situations without cutting corners or making concessions. This development is possible because 27R. H. White, op. cit., 1974. 28Robert W. White, "Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of Competence," Psychological Review, 66 (1959), pp. 297-333. 29Moriarty and Toussieng, op. cit., 1975, pp. 395-396. reality is no lens the total picture However, 1 describe response: regarded coping as that was inconsisi ., 31 . d ncae def1ne cc under stressful cc N . . . problem sol he faces have pote welfare (i.e., a s larly when these d! CWing has referre< Stdies have referrc Htuations. In summary, a3*3Ptation; referri‘ dental requirements CDl‘pOnents. F1" rs t , rental requirements. “finial health has be Her - . 30 R' N whltl 31 Hamburg an< 32 23 reality is no longer seen as the enemy, but as a given, a part of the total picture. . . ." However, coping has typically been used in a limited way to describe responses to unusual or unexpected circumstances. White30 regarded coping as a drastic change within the life of an individual that was inconsistant with familiar ways of behaving. Hamburg and Adams31 defined coping as ". . . seeking and utilizing of information 32 defined coping as under stressful conditions.‘I Similarly, Lazarus ". . . problem solving efforts made by an individual when the demands he faces have potential outcome of a high degree of relevance for his welfare (i.e., a situation of great jeopardy or promise) and particu- larly when these demands tax heavily his adaptive resources." Thus, coping has referred to adaptation under difficult situations. Coping styles have referred to an individual's response to stressful situations. In summary, adjustment has been a narrower concept than adaptation; referring to the individual's efforts to meet environ- mental requirements. Adaptation has been defined as having two broad components. First, the individual's flexibility in meeting environ- mental requirements. Second, one‘s gratification of internal needs. Mental health has been conceived of as a broader concept than adaptation with many variables. Adaptive capacity has been one of 30R. H. White, op. cit., 1974. 31Hamburg and Adams, op. cit., 1967, p. 280. 32Lazarus, et al., op. cit., 1974. pp. 250-251. these variables. coping have been of adaptation. A number ‘ and 1968; and of“ major variable in failed to delineal gators (69-: King theory of adaptlYe rural populations Mechanic, i974)35 I based on clinical t if personality. Tr various researchers contain at least tw for the individual' Second, a theory of 'i‘Tdual's reacting tc In a longitu maddptive functi 33 .‘h' R. R. G . od1968; Offer aridm . 343 35 R. H wh'itc 36$ 24 these variables. Finally, the concepts of defense, mastery, and coping have been placed under the more general category of strategies of adaptation. Theories of Adaptive Capacity A number of researchers (e.g., Grinker, 1962; Heath, 1965 and 1968; and Offer, 1975)33 have regarded adaptive capacity as a major variable in the concept of mental health. However, they have failed to delineate the dimensions of this variable. Some investi- gators (e.g., King, 1973; and L. Murphy, 1976)34 have formulated a theory of adaptive functioning based on longitudinal studies of normal populations. Other researchers (e.g., White, 1974; and Mechanic, 1974)35 have offered a theory of adaptive functioning based on clinical experience and an expansion of existing theories of personality. There has been general agreement among these various researchers that any theory of adaptive capacity must contain at least two components. First, such a theory must allow for the individual's growth and satisfaction of internal needs. Second, a theory of adaptive capacity must provide for the indi- vidual's reacting to environmental demands. In a longitudinal study of Harvard students, King36 concluded that adaptive functioning contains two broad components. ‘ 33R. R. Grinker, op. cit., 1962; o. H. Heath, op. cit., 1965 and 1968; Offer and Offer, op. cit., 1975. 34S. H. King, op. cit., 1973; Murphy and Nmriarty, op. cit., 1976. 35R. H. White, op. cit., 1974; o. Mechanic, op. cit., 1974. 355. H. King, op. cit., 1973, p. 24. King labele this corrponent as ar the self. The indiv (feelings. 90315, V1 energy to control gUi is freer to select a The second c vhich the individual rectal demands. Kin wrpsnent, directed the individual‘s cap iiterlng the environ or causing excessive King37 concl '. . . adaptation iS efficient as far as asocial point of vi acnvity or, in cont vithdraw from social tcnsiderable stabili : . .pc1al behavior may Wt. The most ada L. Murphy38 afitive c 37Ibid. 38, iurphy and 25 King labeled the first component efficiency. He regarded this component as an internal and autoplastic factor directed toward the self. The individual who can balance various internal factors (feelings, goals, values, self-concept) without using excessive energy to control guilt and anxiety or resolve internal conflicts, is freer to select alternative ways of dealing with the environment. The second component, effectiveness, described the degree to which the individual was able to react and adjust to various environ- mental demands. King regarded this as an external and alloplastic component, directed toward the environment. Effectiveness involved the individual's capacity to meet environmental demands as well as altering the environment to satisfy internal needs without disrupting or causing excessive conflict in the environment. King37 concluded his discussion of adaptation by stating ". . . adaptation is an interaction process, . . . behavior can be efficient as far as an individual is concerned but ineffective from a social point of view. Thus, a person might be disruptive of group activity or, in contrast, might not become involved or might even withdraw from social activity, yet have little internal tension and considerable stability. The converse can also be true; effective social behavior may occur at the cost of great inner pain and con- flict. The most adaptive behavior is both effective and efficient.“ 38 L. Murphy formulated two global variables related to adaptive capacity in a longitudinal study of young children. The 37Ibid. 38Murphy and Moriarty, op. cit., 1976, pp. 116-122. variables were lab vations and psycho three year period I The data that was two global variabl teristics of adaijt Murphy39 d with opportunities environment." Spe for the best copin corposefulness of 1 Ellallores environnei level. Items corri bzys were: abilit. clarity of distinc. bl‘ince gratificat- We. and depth of Murphy COnc Fe nt was a major fa 26 variables were labeled Coping I and Coping II. Data from obser- vations and psychological tests collected on her subjects over a three year period were correlated with the two global variables. The data that was significantly correlated (P < .05-.01) with her two global variables were reported as identifying specific charac- teristics of adaptive functioning. 39 defined Coping I as the ". . . capacity to cope Murphy with opportunities, challenges, frustrations, threats in the environment." Specific items that correlated highly with Coping I for the best coping girls in Murphy's study were: motor coordination, purposefulness of movements, interest in mastering space, eagerly explores environment in new situations, speed or tempo, and energy level. Items correlating highly with Coping I for the best coping boys were: ability to balance gratification and frustration, clarity of distinction between reality and fantasy, ability to balance gratification and frustration, pleasure in tactile experi- ence, and depth of affect. Murphy concluded that flexibility of response to the environ- ment was a major factor under Coping I for all her subjects. The best coping boys were able to allow themselves "feminine" qualities without endangering their masculinity. The best coping girls could enjoy their "masculine" qualities in addition to their feminine characteristics. Coping II was defined in Murphy's study as the capacity to maintain internal integration and equilibrium. The items that 391bid., p. 117. 27 correlated highly with the best coping subjects on this variable were: low impulsiveness, tolerance of negative feelings, freedom from doubt and ambivalence, ability to control external stimulation, high threshold for frustration, tolerance for frustration, competence, task involvement, and liking of self. No distinction was made between boys and girls on the items of this variable. Mechanic40 proposed a theory of adaptive capacity from a social psychological point of view. He suggested that adaptation be viewed as a ". . . relationship between external physical and social demands on the person and his resources to deal with these." Traditionally adaptation has been viewed as one's self-perception in relation to the environment. Mechanic's proposal emphasized the individual's skills in being able to deal with environmental demands. Mechanic's proposal had three components. First, the person must have the capabilities and skills to deal with the social and environmental demands to which one is exposed. Mechanic referred to these skills as coping capabilities. Coping capabilities involved the ability to react to environmental demands, and to influence and control the demands to which one is exposed. Second, individuals must be motivated to meet the demands that become evident in their environment. One could escape the anxiety of responding to environ- mental demands by lowering motivation and aspirations. However, this response has had negative consequences for the individual's growth. 400. Mechanic, op. cit., 1974, p. 33. Third, individuals This component empi organization. Thus external needs ratt Hhite4] als capacity. His forn abilities, response White label rust be able to sec Further, the amount serves as a guide tc both accurate inforr second component wa s 1 internal conditions 28 Third, individuals must maintain a state of psychological equilibrium. This component emphasized the importance of an unconflicted internal organization. Thus, energies and skills could be directed to meeting external needs rather than resolving internal conflicts. White4] also proposed a three component theory of adaptive capacity. His formulation emphasized the individual's cognitive abilities, response to affect, and flexibility of movement. White labeled his first component information. Individuals must be able to secure accurate information from the environment. Further, the amount of information one has had about the environment serves as a guide to action. Thus, adaptive behavior has required both accurate information and the right amount of information. The second component was the individual's ability to maintain satisfactory internal conditions such as controlling unpleasant affects. White labeled this component internal organization. The control of anxiety to maintain and enhance the individual's internal organization was central to this component. Finally, White suggested that autonomy was a major component of adaptive behavior. The individual must maintain a freedom of movement in order to process environmental information, and to respond in ways consistant with self-perception. Thus, four theories of adaptive capacity has been proposed. All four emphasized the importance of the fit between environmental expectations and self-perception. They also stressed the importance of the individual's ability to maintain an internal equilibrium free 41R. w. white, op. cit., 1974. 29 from internal conflict. White, and, particularly, Murphy's formulations stressed the individual's response to anxiety and affective style as being a major component of adaptive capacity. Finally, Mechanic and, to some extent, White's formulations stressed the individual's skill and capability in mastering tasks proposed by the environment. In Chapter III of this study a four dimensional theory of adaptive capacity was proposed. The first dimension, Affective Style, attended to the individual's awareness and acceptance of feelings, and the individual's response and management of anxiety. Assimilation, the second dimension, delineated five aspects of the individual's self-structure as they relate to adaptive capacity. Accommodation and Environmental Mastery attended to the indi- vidual's perception and response to environmental expectations, and one's skill in responding to the environment. In Tables 2.1 and 2.2 the relationship between the four dimensions of adaptive capacity used in this study and the four theories of adaptation reviewed in this section is illustrated. Global Studies of Normality 42 suggested that In a review of studies of normality Bonney the results reveal some conflicting and contradictory character- istics that are present in well integrated, high functioning people. Bonney suggested that this apparent contradiction arises 42Merl E. 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The last three (impulse diversion, impulse transformation, impulse restraint) have to do with affective style and impulse control. The middle four (selective awareness, sensitivity, delayed response, and time reversal) contain elements of perception, apperception, and time factors. This grouping is roughly equivalent to the four dimensional theory of adaptive capacity proposed in this study (see Table 2.7). Kroeber suggested that a measure of mental health could be derived from his division of ego mechanisms. This measure would be provided by: (l) the frequency and effectiveness of both coping and defensive mechanisms; (2) the relative use of coping and defensive mechanisms; and (3) a qualitative description of preferred mechanisms. Kroeber conducted a two part study to test his model of ego mechanisms. He was interested in determining the extent and differential presence of defense and coping ego mechanisms in his subjects. He selected 72 (33 female and 39 male) subjects from the Oakland Growth Study88 for his investigation. The Oakland Growth Study was a longitudinal investigation of adolescent and adult development. Interview data gathered from the Block study was appraised by two independent raters in the first part of Kroeber's study. The raters judged the presence and extent of coping and defensive 88Jack Block and Norma Haan, Lives Through Time (Berkeley: Bancroft Books, l97l). TABLE 2.7.--Postulated Relationship Between Kroeber's Category of Ego Mechanisms and the Dimensions of Adaptive Capacity. Kroeber's Ego Mechanisms Dimensions of Adaptive Capacity Impulse Control: Impulse Diversion; Impulse Transfor- mation; Impulse Restraint. Perception: Selective Awareness; Sensitivity; Delayed Response; Time Reversal. Cognitive Functioning; Discrimination; Detachment; Means-End Symbol- ization Affective Style: A. Awareness and Acceptance of Own Feelings. B. Response and Management of Anxiety. Assimilation: A. Accurate Self-Percep- tion. B. Flexible Response Repertoire. Accommodation: A. Perception of Environ- mental Expectations. B. Appropriateness of Responses to the Environment. Environmental Mastery: A. Experience Oriented. B. Sense of Striving. Note: There is not a direct, one to one, relationship between Kroeber's classification system and the postulated dimensions of adaptive capacity used in this study. Kroeber's classifi- cation system is primarily internally oriented. He does not allow for the reciprocal relationship between the person and the environment. In his system, Kroeber viewed the environ- ment as essentially hostile to meeting the needs of the individual. * Proposed constructs for the present investigation. 78 ego mechanisms in each subject (inter-rater reliability ranged from P<.OOS-.OOl for men; and P<.D60-.ODl for women on a chi square test of significance; 78% to 89% of the raters judgments fell within two points of each other on a five point scale). The Rorschach test was administered to each subject for the second part of his study. Kroeber used the ratings from the inter- view data to predict defensive or coping behavior in the Rorschach test situation. Rorschach protocols were scored by three independent judges. Thirty-two scorings were checked for inter-rater reliability. Nine scores were Unreliable; fifteen gave product moment correlations between .54 to .99; the remaining eight protocol scores yielded chi square probability levels from .060-.00l. Kroeber concluded that the reliability of the Rorschach scores was questionable. How- ever, he had proposed forty-two hypotheses testing the relationship between ratings of interview data and the response to the Rorschach test. Twenty-two of these hypotheses were statistically significant (P<.05-.OOl - chi square). Generalizing from Kroeber's results are questionable since he has not replicated his study. Kroeber concluded that the differential function of ego mechanisms could be identified from interview and test data. Thus, ego mechanisms do serve a dual function. They can be adaptive when used as a coping mechanism; or they can be maladaptive when used as a defense mechanism. The psychoanalytic model of ego mechanisms has attended to only one of these functions. Kroeber's study provides some support for an expansion of the psychoanalytic model to include adaptive functioning. 79 The two models of ego mechanisms reviewed above were not comprehensive formulations of adaptive functioning. Vaillant's theoretical hierarchy attended to the individual's satisfaction of environmental demands. He assumed that the individual was adapting if he/she responded appropriately to environmental demands. Kroeber's classification of ego mechanisms was primarily internally oriented. He attended to the individual's satisfaction of his/her own needs. He viewed the environment as essentially hostile to meeting those needs. Both researchers failed to attend to the reciprocal relationship between the person and the environment. Summary Researchers in the field of normality have generally regarded the concept of mental health as multidimensional. Adaptive functioning has been identified as one of the variables of the mental health concept. In addition, a definition of adaptive capacity has been regarded as attending to the reciprocal relation- ship between the person and the environment. Researchers have agreed that a theory of adaptive capacity must contain at least two components. First, such a theory must allow for the individual's growth and satisfaction of internal needs. Second, a theory of adaptive capacity must provide for the individual's reacting to environmental demands. A synthesis of four proposed theories of adaptation was found to be consistent with the four dimensional theory of adaptive capacity outlined in Chapter III of the present study. 80 Nine studies of normal and adaptive functioning were reviewed. This review emphasized similarities and differences found among preselected normal subjects. The following points are particularly relevant to the present investigation. l. Two studies (Vaillant and Kroeber) of adaptive func- tioning based on psychoanalytic theory were reviewed. The results were suggestive of the limitations of using existing personality theory to measure adaptive functioning. Vaillant and Kroeber's models of ego mechanisms were not comprehensive formulations of adaptive functioning. Vaillant's theoretical hierarchy attended to the individual's satisfaction of environmental demands. He assumed that the individual was adapting if he/she responded appropriately to environmental demands. Kroeber's classification of ego mechanisms was primarily internally oriented. He attended to the individual's satisfaction of his/her own needs. He viewed the environment as essentially hostile to meeting those needs. Both researchers failed to attend to the reciprocal relationship between the person and the environment. 2. The need to identify the characteristics or clusters of characteristics associated with adaptive functioning has been supported by Offer's research. Coelho, Hamburg, and Adams have stressed the need to develop assessment technigues which reliably define the variables of adaptive capacity. The use of existing assessment techniques to measure normality has been criticized as not adequately distinguishing between the various dimensions of the mental health construct. 8l 3. Heath's factor analysis of his statistically significant data revealed five interpretable factors. Although his factor analytic procedures were questionable, he concluded that adaptive functioning was not sufficiently explained by a single factor or dimension. He further concluded that the allocentric and competence factors were at least two of the dimensions that comprise the adaptive capacity construct. These results were partially sup- portive of the theory of adaptive capacity outlined in the next chapter of the present investigation. 4. Investigators (e.g., Golden, Grinker, Heath, and Silber) have identified agpptive characteristics associated with preselected mentally healthy subjects. The subjects from four separate studies were characterized as: reality oriented (allocentric);_possessing a stable and accurate self-image; oriented toward achievement; displgying goal-directed behavior; and not being overwhelmed by either internal or external demands and tension. These characteristics were descriptive of the four dimensional theory of adaptive capacity used in the present study. Each characteristic was consistent with one of the four dimensions defined in Chapter III. 5. Golden and Grinker concluded that the "mental health" of their subjects was achieved at the expense of some area of adaptive functioning. By contrast, Heath and Silber concluded that the "mental health" of their subjects was not achieved by limited functioning in some area of adaptive capacity. 82 Three other investigators (Moriarty and Toussieng, King, and Offer) found a variety of adaptive styles amopg_preselected normal subjects. Moriarty and Toussieng concluded that adaptive gtyl§_was achieved at the expense of some area of human functioning. The Sensers lacked a stable internal organization; while the Censors had a constricted emotional life. By contrast, King and Offer found that some of their subjects (the Progressive Maturation group and the Continuous Growth group) achieved an adaptive style that was not limiting in some area of functioning. The descriptions of the adaptive styles of Offer and King's subjects was consistent with Heath and Silber's mature and competent adolescents. However, King suggested that his Progressive Maturation group represented two subgroups. The "modal” or average subgroup was characterized by a limited fantasy life and constricted emotionality. Thus, their adaptive style was consistent with Grinker's "homoclites" and Golden's "mentally healthy" subjects. The adaptive style of Offer's Surgent Growth group was also consistent with Grinker and Golden's subjects. Thus, it would appear that some high functioning individuals can achieve an adaptive style without limiting their adaptive capacity. However, the adaptive capacity of other individuals is achieved at the expense of some area of human functioning. The underlying theoretical concepts of the present investi- gation and the four postulated dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity are outlined in the chapter which follows. CHAPTER III THE THEORY Introduction Numerous criteria of what constitutes mental health have been proposed. The lists contain concepts that essentially agree and overlap. Disagreement arises over the weight a particular aspect of positive mental health should carry. Some writers have offered explicit global ratings (e.g., Maslow and Barron), but have failed to discriminate the effects of one's failure to operate optimally on any one of the criteria proposed.1 Others have proposed multiple criteria, but imply certain criteria carry greater weight than others (e.g., accurate perception and self- knowledge, Jahoda; moral values, meaningful commitment, and social 2 A search for consensual agreement responsibility, Allport). among the various conceptions of mental health has not been successful. Thus, the task of operationally defining a construct, such as General Adaptive Capacity, becomes a difficult endeavor. 1A. H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality (New York: Harper, 1954); Frank Barron, Creativity and Ppychologjcal Health (New York: D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., l963). 2Maria Jahoda, "Toward a Social Psychology of Mental Health," In M. J. E. Senn (Ed.) Symposium on the Healthy Personality (Josiah Macy Jr. Foundation, l950):'pp. 2ll-220; Gordon Allport, “Personality Normal and Abnormal," Personality and Social Encounter (Boston: Beacon, 1960), pp. 155-l68. 83 84 The definition of a construct must meet two criteria: 1. The definition must be sufficiently comprehensive to encompass the construct. 2. The definition must be specific enough to lend itself to empirical validation. To meet the comprehensive criteria listed above, a definition of General Adaptive Capacity as a construct must provide for the indi- vidual's growth and satisfaction of internal needs. The definition must also provide for establishing the individual's relationship with the environment. To meet the specificity criteria, however the definition is elaborated, it must be sufficiently specific to be testable. Models of Mental Health Four models of mental health were reviewed as a means of establishing the theory of General Adaptive Capacity used in this study. The four models reviewed were proposed by Scott, Jahoda, 4 From this review, Scott's explicit conceptual- Allport, and Smith. ization of General Adaptive Capacity was identified; the other formulations were broader in scope to include the more general 3Joseph F. Rychlak, "The Multiple Function of Theory," A Philosophy of Science for Personality Theory (Boston: Houghton- Mifflin Co., 1968), pp. 42-72. 4N. A. Scott, "Conceptions of Normality," In E. F. Borgatta and H. H. Lambert (Eds.) Handbook of Personality Theory and Research (Chicago: Rand McNally, l968), pp. 974-l006; Maria Jahoda, Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health (New York: Basic Books, l968); Allport, op. cit., l960; M. B. Smith, "Research Strategies Toward a Conception of Positive Mental Health," American Psychologist, l4 (1959), pp. 673-681. areview of existin inmental health. health based on cli ality. S . Scott deli specific characteri l. Adaptal 2. Flexib 3. Master 4. Capaci 5. Capac‘ 6. Succe: 7. Modif favor Scott's formulatl but was not compr to the external 9 Whale growth a Jahoda6 1 health with sever inhvidual should 51:. A. SCl 6Maria Jai 85 concept of mental health. In reviewing the models, attention was given to the two criteria of a construct listed above. Scott and Jahoda proposed models of mental health based on a review of existing theories and empirical evidence from research in mental health. Allport and Smith proposed models of mental health based on clinical practice and existing theories of person- ality. Scott5 delineated adaptive capacity into the following specific characteristics: l. Adaptability 2. Flexibility Mastery of the environment bu) Capacity to meet and deal with a changing world 5. Capacity to formulate ends and implement them 6. Successful behavior 7. Modifiability of behavior, according to its favorable consequences Scott's formulation met the specificity criteria of a construct, but was not comprehensive. He delineated the individual's adaptation to the external environment, but failed to account for the indi- vidual's growth and satisfaction of internal needs. Jahoda6 identified six approaches to the concept of mental health with several related characteristics the high functioning individual should possess: 5w. A. Scott, op. cit., 1968, p. 976. 6Maria Jahoda, op. cit., 1958, pp. 22-64. Integra 3. 83] b. A L c. Res AutODOP a. Reg b. on PerceP‘ a. PE‘ b. Emi EnvirOI a. Ab b. Ad c. Ad d. Ef e. Ca f. Ef Jahoda provided a the two criteria 0 some of the difflC Adaptive CapacitY- and satisfaction 0 H ' ' dual 5 relations met both criteria Specific. the dimensions we 0f concept of se mastery appears teristics OWEVG l 86 l. Attitudes toward Self a. Accessibility of the self to consciousness b. Correctness of the self-concept c. Feelings about the self-concept d. Sense of identity 2. Growth, Development, or Self-actualization a. Motivational processes b. Investment in living c. Self-concept 3. Integration a. Balance of psychic forces b. A unfying outlook on life c. Resistance to stress 4. Autonomy a. Regulation of behavior from within b. Independent behavior 5. Perception of Reality a. Perception free from need-distortion b. Empathy or social sensitivity 6. Environmental Mastery Ability to love Adequacy in love, work, and play Adequacy in interpersonal relations Efficiency in meeting situational requirements Capacity for adaptation and adjustment Efficiency in problem-solving ‘thQOU'QJ Jahoda provided a global definition of mental health that satisfied the two criteria of a construct. The six approaches also resolved some of the difficulties in arriving at a definition of General Adaptive Capacity. The first four relate to the individual's growth and satisfaction of internal needs; the last two relate to the indi- vidual's relationship to the environment. Thus, Jahoda's formulation met both criteria of a construct. It was comprehensive and it was specific. However, her proposal had at least two problems. First, the dimensions were not discrete. For example, the characteristic of concept of self appears in two dimensions. Secondly, environmental mastery appears to be a miscellaneous dimension of diverse charac- teristics. 87 Allport7 summarized Halmos' two principles of normality as a balance between growth as an individual and cohesion with society in developing his model of positive mental health. The two principles agreed with Jahoda's summary of the elements of positive mental health. The principles also provided a clearer distinction between the two dimensions needed to define General Adaptive Capacity. Allport8 listed the following criteria as aspects of positive mental health: 1. Ego Extension--capacity to take an interest in more than one's body and material possession. 2. Self-Objectification--ability to relate feeling tone of present experience to past experience. 3. Unifying Philosophy of Life--a frame of reference that gives meaning and a sense of responsibility to one's major activities. 4. Capacity for a Warm, Profound Relating of One's Self to Others-~extroversion of the libido. 5. Possession of Realistic Skills, Abilities and Perceptions-- coping mechanisms. 6. Compassionate Regard for all Living Creatures--includes a disposition to participate in common activities to improve the human condition. Allport's model suggested various characteristics that a high functioning person should possess. However, these characteristics lacked sufficient delineation for empirical validation. Thus, Allport's model failed to meet the specificity criteria of a defini- tion of a construct. 7Allport, op. cit., l968, p. 976. 81bid.a pp. l6l-l64. 88 The problem of discrete dimensions was somewhat resolved in Smith's development of a multiple criteria approach to the study of positive mental health. Smith9 reviewed various conceptualizations of personality and summarized their similarities. He concluded that most views of personality conceive of two functional systems within the personality of the individual--an internal and an external system. The internal system has properties that relate specifically to the individual's self-concept. The external system has properties that relate specifically to the individual's relationship to the environment. Smith suggested the following formulation: l. Internal System (Self-Concept) a. Self Attitudes b. Integration 2. External System (Relationship to the Environment) a. Perception of Reality b. Environmental Mastery Thus, Smith's model offered discrete dimensions. Each dimension had the potential theoretically of carrying equal weight in under- standing the problems of human adjustment. Hhat remained was the delineation of these four dimensions into specific characteristics that relate to General Adaptive Capacity. General Adaptive Cgpacity Two recurring themes have persisted in the literature on positive mental health. The first was inner directed and referred 9M. B. Smith, op. cit., 1959. pp. 680-681. 89 specifically to the needs and feelings the individual had about the self. The second was outer directed and referred specifically to how the individual relates to his environment and his perception of reality. These two themes were delineated into various dimensions of what constitutes positive mental health or the mentally healthy individual. Investigators in the area of mental health have emphasized these two themes as a measure of adaptive functioning. Investigators interested in the self-concept emphasized the individual's self- image or self-esteem as a measure of General Adaptive Capacity.10 IT The individual's emotional tone, and his ability to satisfy 12 internal needs were regarded as major dimensions of adaptive functioning. Ego psychologists13 have regarded the individual's ability to fit or adjust to the environment as a measure of General Adaptive 14 Capacity. The individual's perception of reality, and mastery of 10Jahoda, op. cit., 1958. pp. 24-30. nAllport, op. cit., l960. 12L. S. Kubie, "The Fundamental Nature of the Distinction Between Normality and Neurosis," Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 23 (l954), pp. 187-188. 13S. H. King, Five Lives at Harvard: Personality Change During College (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1973), pp. 20-26; H. Hartmann, Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation (New York: International Univ. Press, l95'). '4Jahoda, op. cit., 1958. pp. 49-53. 90 15 the environment were emphasized as major dimensions of adaptive functioning. Various investigators (e.g., Piaget, Helson, and Heath)16 have suggested an obvious relationship between the work of the ego psychologists and the self theorists. They indicated that adaptation is affected by the reaction of the person to the environment as well as by the action of the environment on the individual. Heath17 provided a descriptive definition of adaptation that integrates the two areas of emphasis in personality research: "To adapt is to so regulate behavior as to optimize simultaneously both the stability of the self-structure and their accommodation to environ- mental requirements." This definition was consistent with the two recurring themes of inner and outer directedness found in mental health literature. Thus, the problem of adapting oneself to the environment as a criterion of positive mental health was divided into four dimensions along the lines of the inner and outer directed themes. As an operational definition of General Adaptive Capacity, these four dimensions satisfied the criteria of comprehensiveness of a construct. 15R. White, "Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of Com- petence," Psychological Review, 66 (l959), pp. 297-333. 16J. Piaget, The Origins of Intelligence (New York: Inter- national Univ. Press, l952); H. Helson, Adaptation Level Theory (New York: Harper and Row, l964); D. H. Heath,E§plorations of Maturity (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, l965), pp. 3l7— 323. 17D. H. Heath, op. cit., l965, p. 37. 91 The following is a descriptive definition of each dimension used in this study: I. Inner Directed A. B. Affective Style--The ability to experience a full range of feelings, thoughts, and reactions. Assimilation--The ability to selectively choose external goals that will satisfy internal needs. II. Outer Directed A. Accommodation--The ability to assess the appro- priateness of adapting oneself to the external environment based on the value, cost, and energy spent in attaining a desired goal. Environmental Mastery--The ability to experience challenges and novelty in the environment. Specific characteristics associated with each dimension listed above have been elaborated by a number of writers. To satisfy the criteria of specificity of a construct the following characteristics were used in this study: I. Inner-Directed A. B. Affective Style 1. Having a Sense of One's Limits . Wide range of feelings . Ownership of Behavior and Feelings Approaches Anxiety . Distress (anxiety) is Maintained within Manageable Limits ssimilation . Capacity to Formulate Ends and Implement Them . Realistic Self-Ideals with Regard to Aspirations and Attainments 3. Flexibility with Regard to Response-Choices 4. Satisfaction of Internal Needs 5 Behavior is Successful 2 3 4 5 A 1 2 II. OuterLDirected A. Accommodation 1. Capacity to Meet and Deal with a Changing World 2. Satisfaction of External Requirements 3. Accurate Perception of Reality 4. Capacity to Maintain a Self-Image as Adequate to the Perceived Requirements of a New Situation or in Facing a New Problem 5. Behavior is Situation Appropriate 92 B. Environmental Mastery l. Orientation Toward Experiences 2. Emotional Reactions are Situation Defined 3. Attack of Problems which Possess the Quality of Being Beyond One's Current Level of Attainment 4 Regard for New Experiences as Exciting and Rewarding Various writers have emphasised each of these characteristics as being an important element in the adaptive functioning of the individual. Inner Directed Dimensions The first two dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity are 18 referred to as inner directed and relate primarily to what Jahoda Attitudes Toward the Self. In the literature on positive mental health, one area of self-attitudes has been described by the emotional life of the individual. Implied in the elaboration of this term was that one has a sense of awareness and understanding of feelings about the self. In the present study this area of self-attitudes was referred to as Affective Style. The second area of self-attitudes was described by such terms as self-consciousness, self-centeredness, and self-assertion. Implied in the elaboration of these terms was that one strives to achieve self-gratification and satisfaction of internal needs. This area of self-attitudes was referred to as Assimilation in this study. Affective Style.--The first inner directed dimension of General Adaptive Capacity referred to the emotionality of the individual. One aspect of emotionality was characterized by 18Jahoda, op. cit., 1958, p. 24. 93 the individual's awareness and acceptance of his/her feelings. A second aspect of emotionality concerned the individual's response and management of anxiety. ‘9 is discussing the characteristic of "Self- Gordon Allport, Objectification," referred to the detachment of mentally healthy individuals when they survey their wishes and desires in relation to their abilities; their opinion of themselves in relation to the 20 opinion others have of them. Cattell saw mentally healthy indi- viduals as being able to distinguish what they would like to be from what they are. The ideal self tends to merge with the real self. They have the ability to distinguish between reality, and feelings and desires.21 McLaughlin22 discussed the mentally healthy individual as being ". . . aware of his feelings, knows toward what and whom these are directed; he does not have to distort them, but can 23 entertain them even when painful. . . ." Ernest Jones referred to the psychologically healthy mind as being one in which the full capacities of the individual are available for use. 19Gordon Allport, Personality: A Psycholpgical Interpreta- tion (New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1938), pp. 165-196. 20R. B. Cattell, Personality: A Systematic Theoretical and Factual Study (New York: McGraw, 1950), pp. 656-657. 2lJames T. McLau hlin, "Normality and Psychosomatic Illness," Mental Hygiene, 34 (1950?, p. 21. 22Ibid. 23Ernest Jones, "The Concept of the Normal Mind," Inter- national Journal of Psychoanalysis, 23 (1942), pp. 7-8. 94 Both Mayman, in speaking about the self-determining attitude 24 in discussing the objectivity of of the individual, and Allport, self-perception, referred to the mentally healthy individual as not disowning any major feelings, impulses, capacities or goals in the interest of inner harmony. Thus, the relationship of the individual's emotionality to his/her adaptive functioning emphasized two areas of affective development: objective self-perception, and ownership of behavior and feelings. The three characteristics in this study associated with the individual's awareness and acceptance of his/her feelings were: 1. Having a sense of one's limits; 2. Wide range of feelings; 3. Ownership of behavior and feelings. The problem of anxiety has been a much disputed area con- cerning what constitutes a symptom and what constitutes a criterion 2 5 However, there was agreement among a number of of pathology. writers as to how anxiety relates to mental health and adaptive functioning. 24M. Mayman, The Diagposis of Mental Health. Unpublished. (Menninger Foundation, 1955)} As quoted in Maria Jahoda, Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health (New York: Basic Books, 1959), pp. 34-35; and Allport, op. cit., 1938, p. 168. 25S. Freud, The Problem of Anxiety_(New York: Norton, 1936); O. H. Mowrer, "'Sin,"the Lesser of Two Evils," American Psychologist, 15 (1960), pp. 301-304; N. E. Miller and J. Dollard, Social Learning and Limitation (New Haven: Yale Univ. Press, 19411; Jahoda, op. cit., 1958, p. 42. 95 Eaton26 suggested that mentally healthy individuals do not have an absence of anxiety, but react to their anxiety differently. Avoidance of anxious feelings or anxiety provoking situations results in limiting the adaptive functioning of individuals. Mentally healthy individuals do not shy away from anxiety but approach it. Individuals who experience and own their own anxiety allow them- selves to have access to their own internal life. "The anxiety approacher is not only able to label accurately that he is anxious. He is also able to differentiate and to discriminate that he can continue to think, to feel, and so on. Vital, internal processes are not cut off or made unavailable by the undifferentiated label, 'I'm anxious.”27 Well-adjusted individuals maintain optimal emotionality. They are neither constricted nor overwhelmed by their own reactions. 28 According to Jones, normal behavior has been synonomous with the ability to handle anxiety. Allport29 referred to the tolerance for frustration as one characteristic that distinguishes mentally 30 suggested that the healthy individuals from others. McLaughlin mentally healthy person can endure frustration and the postponement of satisfaction. 26Joseph W- Eaton, "The Assessment of Mental Health," American Journal of Psychiatry, 108 (1951), p. 83. 27em Kell and William Meuller, Copinngith Conflict (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1972), p. 207. 28 29 E. Jones, op. cit., 1942, p. 3. Allport, op. cit., 1960, p. 166. 30McLaughlin, op. cit., 1950. 96 Thus, investigators emphasized two additional areas of affective development as a measure of adaptive functioning. First, the individual's response to his/her own anxiety. Second, the individual's management of his/her own anxiety. The two characteristics in this study associated with the individual's response and management of anxiety were: (1) Approaches anxiety; and (2) Distress (anxiety) is maintained within manageable limits. Thus, Affective Style was an inner directed dimension of General Adaptive Capacity that referred to the individual's sense of awareness and understanding of feelings about the self. This dimension was defined in the present study as: The ability to experience a full ranggyof feelings, thoughts, and reactions. Specific characteristics associated with this dimension were: ((1) Having a sense of one's limits; (2) Wide range of feelings; (3) Ownership of behavior and feelings; (4) Approaches anxiety; and (5) Distress (anxiety) is maintained within manageable limits. Higerunctioning Individuals on the dimension of Affective Stylg_have access to their internal feelings. They do not avoid dealing with their feelings because they are uncomfortable. They approach things that are anxiety provoking rather than simply avoiding the anxiety. They have a high tolerance of ambiguity and use worrying creatively as a means of resolving concerns. They have a tendency to focus on the solution to problems rather than their cause. 97 Low Functioning Individuals on the dimension of Affective Stylg_have difficulty distinguishing between their own feelings and the feelings of others. Ambiguity and anxiety provoking situ- ations are difficult to deal with. The tendency is to avoid situations that are ambiguous or provoke anxiety. They have a tendency to focus on the cause of problems rather than their solu- tion. They worry about self in a non-productive way that results in complicating their concerns rather than resolving them. Assimilation.--The second inner directed dimension of General Adaptive Capacity referred to the individual's efforts to 3] defined assimilation as satisfy his/her internal needs. Piaget the active component of adaptation implying that the environment is made to provide the satisfaction one wants. This dimension was characterized by two aspects of the individuals relationship to the environment. First, the individual's ability to formulate goals and aspirations consistent with the self. Second, the indi- vidual's ability to receive from the environment that which is enhancing to the self. The nature of assimilatory activity has been integrally connected to the stability and accuracy of the self-structure. Werner32 suggested that the consequence of a poorly organized self- structure was passive response to the environment. 3lPiaget, op. cit., 1952. 32H. Werner, “The Concept of Development from a Comparative and Organismic Point of View," In D. B. Harris (Ed.) The Concept of Development: An Issue in the Study of Human Behavior (Minneapolis: Univ. Minn. Press, 1957), pp. 126-127. 98 Individuals whose self-structure was stable and accurate tuere less stimulus bound and less impelled by their own affective states. A consequence of this freedom was the clearer under- standing of goals, the possibility of employing substitute means and alternative ends. Hence, there was a greater capacity for delays and planned action. Individuals were better able to exercise choice in responding to a situation.33 Thus, individuals whose self—structure was well organized were characterized by the capacity to formulate ends and implement them, and their aspirations were consistent with the perception of self. The idea of flexibility of response-choices suggested by 34 She regarded mental Werner was further elaborated by Jahoda. health as being a "kind of resilience (flexibility) of character or ego strength permitting an individual, as nearly as possible, to find in his world these elements he needs to satisfy his basic impulses in a way that is acceptable to his fellows or, failing this, to find a suitable sublimation of them. . . ." Kubie35 appeared to agree with the importance of flexibility to the develop- rnent of mental health. "The essence of normality is flexibility, 'in contrast to the freezing of behavior into patterns of unalter- ability that characterizes every manifestation of the neurotic process, whether in impulses, purposes, acts, thoughts, or feelings." ‘ 33Ibid. 34Jahoda, op. cit., 1958, p. 42. 35Kubie, op. cit., 1954, p. 187. 99 Thus, a third characteristic of adaptive functioning on the «dimension of assimilation was flexibility of responses to the environment. Other writers also stressed the importance of the self- structure to assimilatory activity. Both Piaget and Heath36 stressed the importance of discriminating the self from the external world as a necessary prerequisite to achieving gratifi- cation of internal needs and behavior designed to meet those needs. Piaget37 suggested that a great deal of mental development (in this case, development of the self-structure) depends upon individuals having an "object concept." Such a concept requires “individuals to understand that the world is made up of objects liaving substance and permanence. The development of an object cxnncept is necessary to arrive at fundamental distinctions between the self and the external world. Heath38 indicated that assimilation is a modification of environmental information to fit the self-structure of the indi- 39 referred to adaptation as V'i dual. Along a similar vein Hartmann be'i mg a reciprocal relationship between the organism and its environ- ment. The individual with a poorly developed object concept is in a, state of confusion as to the reciprocal nature of that relationship 36Piaget, op. cit., 1952; D. H. Heath, op. cit., 1965. 37Piaget, op. cit., 1952. 380. H. Heath, op. cit., 1965, p. 20. 39Hartmann, op. cit., 1958, pp. 23-24. 100 Fiance, the individual has difficulty distinguishing between infor- rnation that is gratifying to internal needs and information that is designed to meet environmental expectations. Two final characteristics of adaptive functioning on the (dimension of assimilation were: satisfaction of internal needs, land the achievement of a sense of success through behavior. Thus, Assimilation was an inner directed dimension of General lkdaptive Capacity that referred to the individual's striving for :self-gratification and satisfaction of internal needs. The dimension \vas defined as: The ability to choose externa1_goa1s that will ssatisfy internal needs. Specific characteristics associated with the dimension were: (1) Capacity to formulate ends and implement tfliem; (2) Realistic self-ideals with regard to aspirations and attainments; (3) Flexibility with regard to response-choices; (ll) Satisfaction of internal needs; and (5) Behavior is successful. .ngh Functionipg Individuals on the dimension of Assimilation have confidence in their own identity. They choose to strive for goals that are consistant with the perception of self. Their per- Ceptions of their capabilities and of self are accurate. They have a Sense of accomplishing tasks that are satisfying to internal Vleaeacjs. Low Functioning Individuals on the dimension of Assimilation "ii<2|< a clear sense of self identity, i.e., the self-image is diffuse. Behaviors and goals are based on satisfying the needs of others or (3'1 a: distortion of internal needs. The perception of self is in- aCCurate resulting in dissatisfaction of internal needs. A i on - 101 C)uter Directed Dimensions The last two dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity were (Juter directed. They were related to the individual's efforts to rneet environmental expectations, and to achieve a sense of mastery 'in interacting with the environment. Central to these two dimensions vwas that the individual understands and accepts the fact that one lives in a world of differences. Reality is not necessarily hostile ‘to the needs of the individual. Aspects of reality have as equal a [potential of supporting and satisfying individual needs as it does ()f thwarting them. The positive aspects of the environment can sserve as a source of pleasurable challenge and stimulation for the 'individual. The ability of the individual to meet environmental expecta- trions was referred to as Accommodation in this study. The second (atlter directed dimension, Environmental Mastery referred to the iriciividual's striving to achieve a sense of competence and success. Accommodation.--Piaget4O defined accommodation as the Passive component of adaptation implying that one learns to like Whatever the environment has to offer. Central to the dimension was 't'1ea individual's perception of environmental expectations, and the appropriateness of one's responses to the environment. Wendall Johnson4] suggested that mentally healthy indi- ‘V”inceived as an effort to find a positive relationship between the ‘ 50White, op. cit., 1959. 511. Hendrick, "The Discussion of the 'Instinct to Master,'" Bychoanglyticjuarterly, 12 (1943), p. 565. 52White, op. cit., 1959. 107 self and the environment; and as the individual's effort to have an impact on the environment. Jahoda53 perceived environmental mastery as a problem- solving process rather than an end goal. Various problems and concerns in living are encountered in the life-space of the indi- vidual. Resolution of the areas of concern proceed through various stages that are accompanied by a variety of feelings. The feelings that accompany each problem-solving stage can serve as an incentive for proceeding to subsequent stages, or for abandoning the area of difficulty depending on the individual's reactions to the feelings. Feelings of frustration that overwhelm the individual lead to discouragement and abandoning an area of concern. Jahoda referred to this process as maintaining the appropriate feeling tone in problem-solving. 54 agreed with Jahoda's formulation of environmental White mastery as being a process. He suggested that environmental mastery involves the individual's attack of problems that are beyond one's current level of attainment. Erickson's55 concept of developmental stages was supportive of White's ideas. The growing child progresses through various stages of development from infancy to adulthood. Mastery during one developmental stage advances the child forward 56 to new stages of mastery. White suggested that this process of 53Jahoda, op. cit., 1958, p. 64. 54white, op. cit., 1959, p. 320. 55E. Erickson, Childhood and Society (New York: Norton, 1952). 56white, op. cit., 1959. pp. 321-324. 108 learning and mastery continues through adulthood. Through the process the individual achieves a sense of competence in environ- mental mastery. The sense of competence is motivated from a need to experience newness and novelty in the environment; and from a need to explore and investigate. Thus, mentally healthy indi- viduals constantly strive to achieve mastery over some aspect of the environment that is beyond their current level of attainment. A similar idea has been proposed by various writers (e.g., the concept of self-actualization, Goldstein, 1940; iaslow, 1954; 57 and the concept of the need for power, Sullivan, 1953). Thus, Environmental Mastery was an outer directed dimension of General Adaptive Capacity that referred to the individual's orientation toward experiences and the sense of success and competence the individual achieves through problem-solving. The dimension was defined as: The ability to experience challenges and novelty in the environment. Specific characteristics associated with this dimension were: (1) Orientation toward experiences; (2) Regard for new experiences as being exciting and rewarding; (3) Emotional reactions are situation defined; and (4) Attack of problems which possess the quality of being beyond one's current level of attainment. High Functioning Individuals on the dimension of Environmental Mastery are experience and goal oriented. Novelty and new experiences 57K. Goldstein, Human Nature in the Light of Psychopathology (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1940); Maslow, op. cit., 1954; H. S. Sullivan, The Interpersonal Theory_of Psychiatry (New York: Norton, 1953). 109 are enjoyed for their own sake as well as for the sake of satisfying environmental requirements. The feeling of competence and a sense of striving are motivated in their own right by the individual rather than motivated by forces outside of the individual. Low Functioning Individuals on the dimension of Environmental Mastery have a tendency to be reactive to the environment. New experiences have the quality of being threatening and are avoided. Personal goals are absent or are unclearly formulated. seem Researchers in the field of mental health have emphasized one of two major themes as a measure of adaptive functioning. The self theorists have emphasized an jgggr directed theme. They have regarded the individual's self-image or self-esteem to be of prime concern in understanding the problems of human adjustment. The ego psychologists have emphasized an pgter directed theme. They have regarded the indi- vidual's ability to fit or adjust to the environment as being of major importance in understanding the mental health of the individual. Those who have adhered to a unitary view of mental health have regarded these two theoretical positions as simply being dif- ferent ways of attending to the same construct. The multidimensiOnal view of mental health has regarded these two positions as speaking of two functionally different systems. Proponents of the multi- dimensional view have suggested that self-esteem and environmental adjustment are clearly related. However, an understanding of human adjustment requires investigating how these two systems mutually facilitate and hamper each other. 110 Mental health was regarded as a multidimensional concept in this study. An investigation into General Adaptive Capacity as a criterion of mental health was the theme of this study. General Adaptive Capacity was operationally defined as consisting of various characteristics that cluster around four postulated dimensions of adaptive functioning. This definition was consistent with the inner and outer directed themes found in the literature on mental health. Table 3.1 summarizes the high and low levels of functioning of the individual on each postulated dimension. It was an assumption of this study that the characteristics subsumed under each dimension were descriptive of the adaptive functioning of a person on that dimension. This assumption has been supported by mental health theory and research. Two of the four dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity were assumed to be inner directed. These dimensions attended to attitudes about the self or the individual's self-image. The first inner directed dimension, Affective Style, concerned the relation- ship of the individual's emotionality to one's adaptive functioning. ,Assimilation, the second inner directed dimension, stressed the importance of the individual's ability to satisfy internal needs ‘to his/her adaptive functioning. The two outer directed dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity emphasized the individual's ability to fit or adjust to the environment. The first outer directed dimension, Accommodation, concerned the individual '5 ability to meet environmental expectations as.an aspect of adaptive functioning. Environmental Mastery, the 111 .m:w>weum wo omcom m use »p_>wuoo oeozop xocoocop .oopcowco Fmom coo mocoweooxm .oocoweooxo Poceouxo co mooow _mcowooEm .oooweooeooo cowuoouwm coo oPQPxopw m_ Low>ogom .ouoeoooo mw pcoe:ocw>co mo cowuooocoa .ouoeoooo m? epom so :o_uooogoo .ocoe icoew>co op omcoomoe opowxopm .oowoco Poom Foccopxo sow: poopmwmcoo use “we AFweopoowmwuom moooc PmceowcH .»u?:mwo5o mo mocmeopop saw: .m:_>esoz to om: o>wpooeu .meopooeo op :owquom co mooou .oocooosoom we xuowxc< .mchFoow Pocsopcw to omcog mow: n so omcom tempo Apnoeouxmv xgopmoz Popco5:ogw>cm AFoceouxmv cowooooeeooo< A_oceouch cowuopwewmm< apoceowch 33m o>wuoowe< .o>wuooog on on xocoocoh .LooFoco to pcomoo mew mpoow .ooowo>o mew moocowcooxo 3oz .oocowcooxo Foceoucw co moooe PocowooEm .oooweoosooocw >_pco:ooem oco owmme we sow>ogom .oooeoooocw we p:oEcoew>co wo co_uoooxoo .oposoooocw we wFom mo cowooooeoo .xHWFwo_xo_w omcoomoe wo oocomo< .mooo: poceouow mo cow“ icoomwo co oomoo mw oowogo Foom Postopxm .oowmmwpom poc ogo memo: Poceoch .xow:m_o5o to oocogopou zoo .xoz o>wuoooogoucoc o cw epom ozone mowssoz .meopoogo to omooo co mooou .ooowo>o mw . soowxc< .Loopoc: one oomm> m? mmcwpooe Pmccopcw mo mmocogo3< Po>o4 mcwcowuocom saw: .zuwoooou o>wuomo< Fogocow cum: oouowoomm< mowpmwsopomgozu :o_m:oewo oouopopmoa Po>o4 mowcompocau zoo suw_m:omeoq *o >g8553m--._.m mom<~ 112 second outer directed dimension, stressed the importance of the individual's striving for competence and success to his/her adaptive functioning. It was an assumption of this study that a scale designed to measure General Adaptive Capacity would yield items which discrimi- nate between the high and low levels of functioning. It was further assumed that a factor analysis of the discriminating items would indicate those items which define the four postulated dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity. Analysis of the salient items of each factor would distinguish the levels of functioning for the individuals selected for study. The design and procedure of the present investigation are detailed in the chapter which follows. CHAPTER IV DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY In the five major sections which follow, a description is presented of the research procedures of the present preliminary investigation of General Adaptive Capacity as a multidimensional construct of mental health. The development of an instrument (the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation), designed to measure the proposed theory of General Adaptive Capacity, is reviewed in section one. In section two, the procedure for identifying and selecting the three samples used in the study is outlined. The method of collecting data for the study is reviewed in the third section. In section four, the basic assumptions underlying the study are identified. In addition, the four major research hypotheses of the study are stated. The two basic methods of analyzing the data are outlined in Section five. Instrumentation A basic component of the study was the construction of an inventory to measure the proposed theory of General Adaptive Capacity. The purpose of the inventory was to measure the four significant 113 114 dimensions outlined in the theory. Since no comprehensive instrument was found to measure the areas of interest, it was necessary to construct one. Item selection was based on the following two sources: (1) Items were extracted and edited from various scales of omnibus personality inventories. (2) Items were selected or derived from the empirical findings of studies of normality. The items selected and written for the inventory reflected the four dimensional theory of adaptive functioning (see Chapter III). Where possible, attempts were made to phrase items that would connote a positive orientation toward mental health rather than a negative orientation toward pathology. The instrument developed for this purpose was named the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation (SAA).1 The primary tests from which items were chosen were the Omnibus Personality Inventory, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, and the California Personality Inventory.2 The majority of items were derived from the research results of Heath, Golden, Grinker, Silber, and Offer3 (see Chapter II for a review of these studies). 1The Survey of Actualization: Adaptation is hereafter referred to as the SAA. 2Paul Heist, George Yonge, T. R. McConnell, and Harold Webster, Omnibus Personality Inventory Manual (New York: Psychological Corporation, 1967); s. R. Hathaway, J. c. McKinley, Manual for the MMPI (New York: Psychological Corporation, 1967); H. G. Gough, California Psychological Inventory Manual (Palo Alto, California: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1957). 3Donald H. Heath, typlorations of Maturity (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965); D. H. Heath, Growing Up in College (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1968); J. Golden, et al., "Summary Description of Fifty 'Normal' White Males," American 115 A pool of test items was constructed and scaled to a four- point Likert scale: (1) Never, (2) Sometimes, (3) Frequently, (4) Always. The rationale of a four-point scale was as follows: (1) an even number of response choices requires a person to take a position; (2) a four-point scale gives an individual flexibility in response style not found in simple true-false tests. Three persons, a clinical psychologist and two counseling psychologists, read all items. Those items marked as unclear or difficult to understand were either rewritten for clarification or dropped from the item pool. The three readers also scored each item in the predicted direction of a high functioning individual. The predicted direction of a score was determined by the criteria established in the proposed theory of General Adaptive Capacity (see Chapter III). Where dis- agreements in scoring arose on an item, the item was either dropped 'from the pool or disagreements were resolved. After several revisions these procedures resulted in a total of 205 scored items. ‘ glgurnal of Psychiatry, 119 (1962), pp. 48-56; Roy Grinker, et al., "A .Study ofT'Mentally Healthy' Young Males (Homoclites)," A.M.A. Archives 5 [ General Psychiatry, 6 (1962), pp. 405-451; Roy Grinker, "A Dynamic aStudy of the Homoclite," Science and Psychoanalysis, ed. by Jules Masserman (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1963), Vol. 6, pp. 115-134; Earle Silber, et al., “Adaptive Behavior in Competent Adolescents," A.M.A. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4 (1961), pp. 354-365; Earle Silber, et al.,T“Competent Adolescents Coping with College Decision," ELJfl.A. Archives of General Psychiatry, 5 (1961), pp. 517-528; Daniel Offer, and Melvin Sabshin, "The Psychiatrist and the Normal Adolescent, MA. Archives of General P_sychiatry, Vol. 9, No. 5 (1963), pp. 427- 432; Daniel Offer, et al., "Clinical Evaluations of Normal Adolescents," ,American Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 121, No. 9 (1965), pp. 864-872; Daniel Offer, "Normal Adolescents: Interview Strate and Selected Results," A.M.A. Archives of General Psychiatry, 17 T1967), pp. 285- 290; Daniel Offer and Kenneth Howard, I'An Empirical Analysis of the Offer Self-Image Questionnaire for Adolescents,” A.M.A. Archives of General Psychiatry, 27 (1972), pp. 529-523. 116 Each of the selected items was assigned to one of the four dimensions of the proposed theory according to item content. The number of items assigned to each dimension was as follows: Affective Style--48 items; Assimilation--49 items; Accommodation--59 items; Environmental Mastery--48 items (see Appendix A). The 205 items were placed in random order and numbered 1 through 205. Examples of items from each of the four a priori scored and classified scales are as follows: 170. I anticipate how I will feel in a situation. (Scale--Affective Style; Scored--4, Always) 98. I feel I am responsible for my actions. (Scale--Assimilation; Scored-~4, Always) 189. I am influenced by the behavior of others. (Scale--Accommodation; Scored--2, Sometimes) 110. I have a desire to learn new things. (Scale-~Environmenta1 Mastery; Scored--4, Always) A page of instructions was written to be concise and understandable. The entire inventory was stapled together into ten-page booklets (see Appendix B). Sample Section There were three major objectives of the study: 1. To empirically investigate the adaptive functioning construct. 2. To validate an instrument (SAA) designed to measure the proposed theory of adaptive functioning. 3. To identify differential levels of functioning among individuals on the criterion of General Adaptive Capacity. TO accomplish these objectives the following three samples were Selected for study from the same population: (1) undergraduate 117 resident hall advisors (RA's); (2) a random sample of undergraduate students; and (3) a cross-validation sample of college students nominated as being high functioning individuals. Resident Hall Advisor Staff Michigan State University employs a number of undergraduate college students to serve as paraprofessional counselors and advisors to the students living in each of the resident halls on campus. Application for staff positions is open to any undergraduate student above the level of freshman. Only those individuals who demonstrate a psychological understanding of themselves and the ability to help others in emotional conflict are selected to become resident hall advisors (RA's).4 In addition, each RA staff participates in an intensive paraprofessional training program. The paraprofessional training programs are conducted by psychologists from the University Counseling Center. Thus, the resident hall advisor staff represented a special sample of undergraduate students who were selected for their maturity and adaptability. It was assumed that the impact of the selection process was the identification of a fairly homogeneous, above average functioning group. An additional, screening device was developed to nominate a sample of the RA staff who functioned at high levels on each of the flaur'dimensions (Affective Style, Assimilation, Accommodation, Environmental Mastery) of adaptive capacity. However, response 4The resident hall advisor staff is hereafter referred to as RA's or the RA sample. a 118 to the screening device was poor and this procedure was dropped from the study. Three-hundred-twenty resident hall advisors were employed by the University during the 1971-72 school year. The entire resident hall staff was asked to participate in the study. Each head resident advisor was asked to encourage his/her staff to cooperate in the study. The sample consisted of approximately equal numbers of males and females. Seventeen per cent of the sample were sophomores. The proportion of juniors and seniors in the sample was 45% and 38%, respectively. The distribution of the RA's by class and sex is presented in Table 4.1. Random Sampje A computerized file of all students attending Michigan State University is kept in the Student Records Office. The Student Records Office was asked to randomly select 102 students from each class above the freshman level. The sample was evenly divided between males and females. It was assumed that the subjects selected represented a heterogeneous group of diverse levels of functioning of students attending Michigan State University. A total of 306 students were randomly selected. Twelve of those selected were RA's and were removed from the random sample. The distribution of the 294 students who comprised the random sample is presented in Table 4.2. Cross-Validation Sample A group of thirty subjects were identified as a criterion group. The cross-validation sample was a nominated group of subjects 119 TABLE 4.l.--Distribution of Resident Hall Advisors (RA's) by Class and Sex. Sex Male Female Total Soph. 36 18 54 Class Junior 57 86 143 Senior 62 61 123 Total 155 165 320 TABLE 4.2.--Distribution of Random Sample by Sex and Class. Sex Male Female Total Soph. 49 51 100 Class Junior 50 49 99 Senior 49 46 95 Total 148 146 294 _k 306 Sampled; 12 RA's Omitted from Sample; 294 Surveys distributed. 120 who were judged to be mature and to rate high on the criteria of adaptability. Six psychologists were asked to nominate five individuals. The individuals nominated were judged by the psychologists to be emotionally stable, self-actualizing men and women. The thirty subjects that comprised the cross-validation sample were all college students either at the graduate or undergraduate level. They ranged in age from twenty to twenty-seven years old. Seventeen of the subjects were male; thirteen of the individuals nominated were female. Ten of the subjects were attending Michigan State University at the time of their nomination. The balance of twenty subjects in the cross-validation sample were attending four other universities across the country at the time of their nomination. Administration of the Instrument The subjects in the random and RA samples were given SAA test booklets and two IBM answer sheets. The IBM answer sheets were used to facilitate machine scoring. The instructions on the cover of each test booklet requested information on sex, year in school, Michigan State University address, and the name of each subject. A cover letter (see Appendix B) was included in the test materials explaining the purpose of the study and requesting the cooperation from each subject in completing the test materials. Included in the letter were instructions to return the completed test materials through the Michigan State University campus mail. It was estimated that from one to two hours was required to complete the test materials. Length of time between delivering the 121 test packets and having the completed answer sheets returned ranged from a few days to several weeks. Repeated requests to have the materials completed and returned were required before many subjects would finish the task. The test materials were delivered to the two samples during the seventh week of Michigan State University's spring term. The timing of the distribution of test materials was unfortunate. Many subjects complained that they were too busy completing term papers and preparing for final examinations to take time to complete the inventory. Subjects who did complete the inventory were regarded as a "cooperative" sample. Thus, generalization of the results from the study beyond those subjects who participated is questionable. A total of 614 test packets were passed out to the RA and random samples. Forty-two per cent (120 subjects) of the random sample completed the task. The returns were distributed in approxi- mately equal numbers of males and females across the three class levels for the random sample. By comparison, the task was completed by 32% (102 subjects) of the RA sample. The proportion of RA returns was approximately equal across class levels. However, almost twice as many female RA's completed the test materials as male RA's. Thus, two-hundred-twenty-two subjects (36%) of both samples returned the completed test materials. The distribution of returns by sample is contained in Tables 4.3 and 4.4. The administration procedures and instructions for the cross- validation sample were similar to those described above for the random and RA samples. Test materials were given (or sent) to the 122 TABLE 4.3.--Distribution of Returns from Residence Hall Advisors by Class and Sex. Sex Male Female Totals Soph. 7(19.4%) 7(38.8%) 14(25.9%) Class Junior 12(21%) 35(40.7%) 47(32.8%) Senior 15(24.2%) 26(42.6%) 41(33.3%) Totals 34(21.5%) 68(4l.2%) 102(31.8%) 320 Total Surveys Distributed; 102 Returned (32%) TABLE 4.4.--Distribution of Returns from Random Sample by Class and Sex. Sex Male Female Totals Soph. 18(36.7%) l9(37.2%) 37(37%) Class Junior 21(42%) 21(42.8%) 42(42.4%) Senior 14(28.5%) 27(58.7%) 41(43.l%) Totals 53(36.5%) 67(45.9%) 120(41.6%) 306 Sampled; 12 RA's Omitted from Random Sample; 294 Surveys Distribution; 120 Returned (42% of those distributed) 123 psychologist who nominated each of the subjects that comprised the sample. The materials were then distributed to each subject and the completed test was returned to the psychologist who nominated the subject. Twenty-nine subjects returned the completed test packets. One female did not complete the task. Repeated requests to have her complete the inventory were ignored. She was finally dropped from the study. A total of 251 subjects from the three samples completed the inventory. The returned test materials were coded with an identifying number for each student who completed the task. Responses to the SAA were tabulated and punched on computer cards. An item analysis using a discrimination index value identified those items that discriminated between the high and low levels of functioning on each of the a priori classified scales (Affective Style, Assimilation, Accommodation, and Environmental Mastery).5 The procedure resulted in a reduction of SAA items from 205 to 85. The reduction of the number of items on the SAA was necessary to eliminate those items on the SAA which failed to discriminate between the high and low levels of adaptive functioning on each of the a priori classified scales. Hypotheses It was suggested earlier in the study (see Chapter II) that adaptive functioning was a multi-dimensional construct of mental 5Since the cross-validation sample was selected as a criterion group, they were omitted from this part of the study. 124 health not sufficiently explained by the absence of pathology. It was further stated that some individuals achieve an adaptive style at the expense of some area of human functioning; while the adaptive style of other individuals was not achieved by limited functioning in some area of adaptive capacity. Finally, in Chapter III, four dimensions of the adaptive functioning construct wereidentified and a proposed theory of General Adaptive Capacity was outlined. Four basic assumptions were made in the study. 1. A factor analysis of items on an instrument (SAA) designed to measure the proposed theory would yield interpretable factors. 2. The salient items that comprised each interpretable factor would discriminate between the high and low levels of functioning of the subjects in each group. 3. The subjects of each group would respond to the salient items of the SAA in predicted directions (i.e., the subjects in the cross-validation sample would represent a homogeneous, high func- tioning group; the RA sample would represent a fairly homogeneous, above average functioning group of subjeCts; the random sample would represent a heterogeneous group of diverse levels of functioning). 4. Scores on the salient items of each interpretable factor would not be related to scores on the salient items of other interpretable factors. The following research hypotheses were designed to measure these assumptions. 3,..- III IIII O Rik 125 Factor Structure Hypotheses It was proposed in Chapter III that adaptive functioning was a psychological construct consisting of various characteristics that clustered around four postulated dimensions. Thus, the first null hypothesis and directional alternate were designed to exam the results of a number of specified factor_rotations to determine whether the derived factors were interpretable within the framework of the four dimensional theory of General Adaptive Capacity. H01: There will be no relationship between factorial analysis of discriminating items (variables) on the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation and the theoretical dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity. H l: A factorial analysis of the discriminating items on the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation will form a structure consistent with the theoretical dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity. Various theorists (e.g., King, Murphy, White, Mechanic, and D. H. Heath)6 have suggested that the construct of adaptive func- tioning was composed of similar characteristics. However, they have regarded these characteristics as clustering around a different set of dimensions. For instance, King and Murphy have suggested a 6Stanley H. King, Five Lives at Harvard: Personality Change During_College (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973); Lois Murphy and Alice Moriarty, Vulnerability, Cgping, and Growth: From Infancy to Adolescence (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976); Robert White, “Strategies of Adaptation," Coping and Adaptation, ed. by G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg, and J. E. Adams (New York: Basic Books, 1974), pp. 47-69; David Mechanic, "Social Structure and Personal Adaptation: Some Neglected Dimensions," Coping and Adaptation, ed. by G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg, and J. E. Adams (New York: Basic Books, 1974), pp. 32-44; D. H. Heath, op. cit., 1965. 126 two dimensional theory of adaptation. White and Mechanic have proposed a three dimensional theory of adaptive functioning. Finally, Heath has suggested that adaptive capacity consisted of five distinct components (see Chapter II for a review of these formulations). Thus, specified factor rotations were examined to determine whether derived factors were interpretable within some other frame- work of adaptive functioning. H02: No interpretable factors will be found from a factorial analysis of discriminating items (variables) on the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation. H22: A factorial analysis of discriminating items on the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation will yield a set of interpretable factors consistent with one of the other theories of adaptive functioning. Multivariate Analysis of Variance Hypotheses The second phase of the study was to examine the relationship between the three samples selected for study and their scores on the SAA. Specifically, scores for each group on the salient items of each interpretable factor were computed. Total scores for each interpretable factor were entered into the multivariate equation to compute the F ratio. The results from this method of analysis were used to answer three specific questions. 1. Were there differences among groups across the inter- pretable factors of the adaptive functioning construct? 2. If differences across factors were found, were there also differences among groups on each interpretable factor (i.e., were differences factor-specific or the result of an interaction batween factors)? 127 3. If questions one and two were answered positively, how did the groups differ? The following set of research hypotheses were designed to answer the three questions. H03: No difference will be found among groups across the interpretable factors (dimen51ons) of adaptive functioning. Symbolically: H03: [11]], . o o 1111:]: [112]! 0 0 o 1121?]:[1-1319 . . o 1131:] where: “gf represents the population mean for the "g"th group and "f"th factor and where: G denotes the random sample 1 G2 denotes the RA sample G3 denotes the cross-validation sample H 3: A difference will be found to exist among groups 3 across the interpretable factors (dimensions) of adaptive functioning. Symbolically: H33: H03 is false If the null hypothesis (H03) is rejected, then univariate tests of significance will be computed for each interpretable factor. H04: No difference will be found among groups within each interpretable factor. Symbolically: H04: “1f = uzf = p3f 4: A difference will be found among groups within each H 4 interpretable factor. Hymbolically: H44: H04 is false 128 If the null hypothesis (H04) is rejected, then post hoc contrasts (Scheffé) will be calculated for pairs of groups (random sample/RA sample; random sample/cross-validation sample; RA sample/cross- validation sample). Analysis of Data The study was designed to accomplish three major purposes. First, the empirical investigation of the construct adaptive func- tioning. Second, the validation of a new instrument designed to measure adaptive capacity. Third, the identification of differential levels of functioning among individuals on the criteria of General Adaptive Capacity. Two distinct methods of data analysis were used to accomplish these purposes: factor analysis and multivariate analysis of variance. The following six sequential steps were employed to analyze the data of the study. 1. Prior to employing the factor analytic procedure an item analysis using the Davis7 discrimination index was calculated on each of the a priori classified scales (Affective Style, Assimilation, Accommodation, and Environmental Mastery).8 The index was used to identify those items that discriminated between the high and low 7F. B. Davis, "Item Selection Techniques," Educational Measurement, ed. by E. F. Lindquist (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1951), Chapter 9. 8Since the cross-validation sample was selected as a criterion group, they were omitted from this part of the study. 129 levels of adaptive functioning. The procedure resulted in a reduc- tion of SAA items for each scale. 2. The factor analytic procedure was used to determine whether the discriminating items comprising the refined SAA inventory empirically clustered to form a structure which defined the four proposed dimensions (Affective Style, Assimilation, Accommodation, Environments: Mastery) of adaptive functioning. The second research hypothesis was designed to determine whether factorial analysis would yield a set of interpretable factors consistent with some other theory of adaptive functioning. 3. Responses to the salient items that comprised each interpretable factor were weighted. The weights reflected the proximity of a response to the a priori score assigned to an item. 4. Cronbach's9 reliability estimate (coefficient alpha) was calculated for each interpretable factor. Coefficient alpha, an estimate of test homogeneity, was used as a measure of the internal consistency of each scale. 5. The Pearson.'0 correlation coefficient was computed on the interpretable factors. Pearson "r" is used to determine the intercorrelation between various measures of a construct. In this case, the Pearson "r" was used to determine the intercorrelation among the interpretable factors. 9Lee J. Cronbach, "Coefficient Alpha and the Internal Structure of Tests," Principles of Educational and Psychological Measurement, ed. by W. A. Mehrens and R. L. Ebel (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1964). pp. 133-165. 10William L. Hays, Statistics (New York: Holt, Rinehart and 130 6. The multivariate statistic was used to explore the nature of the relationship among the three samples and their scores on the salient items that comprised each interpretable factor of the factor structure. Factor Structure The discriminating items remaining in the Affective Style, Assimilation, Accommodation, Environmental Mastery scales after refinement of the SAA were factor analyzed to determine whether factors, empirically derived, would reflect a set of interpretable dimensions consistent with a proposed theory of adaptive functioning. The principal components method of factor analysis was used. Six separate rotations with different N factor solutions were per- formed using a varimax procedure. Fixed factor rotations specifying N=2,3,4,5,6, and 7 factors were performed. Factor analysis is a procedure for locating and defining dimensional space among a large number of independent variables (items). It is designed to locate a smaller number of valid dimensions or factors among a larger set of independent variables.11 The mathematics of the principal components solution involves the assumption that the total variance demonstrated by the inter- correlations of the independent variables (items) can be divided into independent factors or sets. These independent sets of variance represent the number of factors necessary to account for an ¥ 11Norman H. Nie, et a1., Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975), p. 10. 131 12 intercorrelation matrix. The principal components method identifies that linear combination of variables (items) which explains the most 13 Thus, the first null hypothesis would be rejected if variance. the greatest amount of variance was accounted for in the first four factors. The second null hypothesis would be rejected if a set of interpretable factors were found consistent with one of the other proposed theories of adaptive functioning. This method does not require any assumptions about the general structure of the variables.‘4 Multivariate Analysis of Variance Three of the four basic assumptions of the study (see page 124) involved examining the relationship between scores on the SAA across empirically derived factors. Scores were obtained from a group of subjects who comprised three separate samples. A particular interest of the study, was to examine the variability of scores across the selected samples. Three statistical procedures were employed to examine the data. The procedures used are designed to examine the variability of a measure (or measures) of the subjects selected for study. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique for exploring the relationship between a single dependent variable and various levels of the independent variable. However, when two or 12Raymond B. Cattell, Factor Analysis (New York: Harper Brothers, 1952), pp. 35-45. 13Jum C. Nunnally, Psychometric Theory (New York: McGraw- Hill, 1967), pp. 315-316. 14Norman H. Nie, et al., op. cit., p. 479. 132 more dependent variables are involved in a study, then multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) is required.15 Multivariate analysis permits the simultaneous examination of a vector of dependent variables across the levels of the inde- pendent variable (or variables). By contrast, ANOVA is limited to 16 The difficulty with using examining a single dependent variable. a series of univariate tests to examine each dependent variable separately is that the tests cannot attend to the intercorrelation 17 Thus, multivariate analysis was between the dependent variables. the more appropriate statistical technique for the present study. If significant multivariate differences are found (rejection of the null hypothesis), then a follow-up investigation to explore the nature of those differences is imperative.18 Thus, the present study employed the following statistical procedures as an initial and follow-up investigation of the relationship between the dependent variables (factors) and the independent variables (scores on the salient items of each factor). The multivariate statistic was used to examine the relation- ship between the interpretable factors (the dependent variables) and the scores on the salient items of each factor (the independent variable). 15Schuyer w. Huck, William H. Cormier, and William c. Bounds, Jr., Reading Statistics and Research (New York: Harper and Row Publishers, 1974 , p. 184. 16Eli Cohen and Phil Burns, "Multivariate Analysis of Variance and Covariance," User's Guide Supplement: SPSS Revisions with Local Modifications (East Lansing, Michigan: Michigan State University, 19761. p. 31. 17 18 Huck, et a1., op. cit., p. 191. Ibid., p. 181. 133 If differences across factors were found (H03 rejected), then univariate analysis was used to examine the differ- ences among the three groups for each interpretable factor. Where differences on a factor were found (H 4 rejected), post hoc contrasts (Scheffé) were calculate for each factor on the pairs of groups (random sample/RA sample; random sample/cross-validation sample; RA sample/cross-validation sample) to determine how the groups differed. The multivariate test of significance was set at the .05 level. The application of a series of univariate tests (one for each dependent variable) causes the probability of a Type I error (rejection of the null when it should have been retained) to be higher than the level of significance that is used. A similar problem arises when performing multiple post hoc comparisons. To avoid increasing the probability of a Type I error beyond the .05 level, the level of significance was partialled out for the number of dependent variables (factors) when the univariate analysis was performed. The level of significance was also partialled out for the number of post hoc contrasts performed. Three basic assumptions are made in applying the MANOVA model. (1) The effects of the dependent variables (factors) are randomly distributed and independent for all subjects. (2) The scores on the salient items (the independent variable) are normally distributed for each population. (3) The three population variances are approximately equal. The degree to which any one of the three basic assumptions is not met increases the probability of a Type I error. However, the F test is robust to violations of the assump- 19 tions particularly if the sample size is large. Thus, unless one 19B. J. Winer, Statistical Principles in Experimental Design (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,l97l), pp. 309-315. 134 or more assumptions are seriously violated, no real problem in accuracy of interpretation is likely. Summary The present preliminary investigation was designed to explore the multidimensional nature of adaptive functioning as a construct of mental health. There were three major objectives of the study: 1. To empirically investigate the adaptive functioning construct. 2. To validate an instrument designed to measure the proposed theory of adaptive functioning. 3. To identify differential levels of functioning among individuals on the criteria of General Adaptive Capacity. A basic component of the study was the construction of an inventory (the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation) to measure the proposed theory of adaptive capacity. The inventory consisted of 205 items as a measure of four significant dimensions outlined in the theory. The items were scored and classified according to the four dimensional theory. Three separate samples were selected to accomplish the objectives stated above. The RA sample consisted of the 320 indi- viduals that comprised the resident hall advisor staff. It was assumed that this sample represented a fairly homogeneous, above average functioning group. The random sample consisted of 294 subjects. It was assumed that these subjects represented a hetero- geneous group of diverse levels of adaptive functioning. Finally, .17 lief. Cofrr . CI.’ l.‘~ 135 a cross-validation group of thirty nominated subjects were judged to represent a homogeneous, high functioning group. The inventory (the SAA) was distributed to all the subjects of the three samples. A total of 251 subjects from the three samples returned completed inventories. The distribution of returns by sample were as follows: RA sample--102 subjects; random sample-- 120 subjects; cross-validation sample--29 subjects. Responses to the SAA were tabulated and punched on computer cards. An item analysis using a discrimination index value identified those items that discriminated between the high and low levels of adaptive functioning. The procedure resulted in a reduction of SAA items. Four basic assumptions were made in the study: 1. A factor analysis of items on an instrument (SAA) designed to measure the proposed theory would yield interpretable factors. 2. The salient items that comprised each interpretable factor would discriminate between the high and low levels of functioning of the subjects in each group. 3. The subjects of each group would respond to the salient items of the SAA in predicted directions (i.e., the subjects in the cross-validation sample would represent a homogeneous, high functioning group; the RA sample would represent a fairly homogeneous, above average functioning group of subjects; the random sample would represent a heterogeneous group of diverse levels of functioning). 4. Scores on the salient items of each interpretable factor would not be related to scores on the salient items of other interpretable factors. 'nwo distinct methods of data analysis were used to test the assump- tions stated above: factor analysis and multivariate analysis of variance. 136 Four major research hypotheses were generated to examine the assumptions stated above. The first two hypotheses were tested using a factor analytic procedure to determine whether factors, empirically derived, would reflect a set of interpretable dimensions consistent with a proposed theory of adaptive functioning. The remaining two major hypotheses were generated to examine the relationship among the derived, interpretable factors and the three samples selected for study. Multivariate analysis and univariate analysis of variance were used to test the last two hypotheses. The multivariate test of significance was set at the .05 level. The level of significance established for the univariate tests and the post hoc contrasts was partialled out to the number of dependent variables (factors) in the study and for the number of post hoc contrasts performed. This procedure avoided increasing the probability of a Type I error beyond the .05 level. CHAPTER V ANALYSIS OF RESULTS The results from the procedures of analyzing the data described in the previous chapter are presented in the five major sections of this chapter. The results from the item analysis is presented in section one. In section two, the factor analytic results are presented together with a discussion of the interpretable factors. The relationship between the interpretable factors and various theories of adaptive functioning is also discussed. The weighting of scores on the salient items that comprise each interpretable factor is presented in section three. The homogeneity of the items that comprise the interpretable factors is presented in section four. The intercorrelations between the factors is also discussed. In section five, the results from the multivariate analysis together with the follow-up investigation of the relationship between the dependent variables (factors) and the independent variables (scores on the salient items of the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation) is presented. 137 138 Item Analysis 1 discrimination index was An item analysis using the Davis calculated on each of the items of the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation.2 The purpose of the item analysis was to identify those items on the SAA which discriminated between the high and low scores on each item. The scores on the identified discriminating items were used to differentiate between the levels of functioning among the three groups selected for study. In addition, item analysis served the purpose of reducing the number of items (variables) below 100. The reduction of items was necessary to employ the factor ana- lytic procedure (practical problems of cost and computer central memory limitations prohibit factor analysis in excess of 100 variables). The following three steps were employed in the item analysis. First, an item by item test score was calculated for each subject in the random and RA sample3 (since the cross-validation sample was selected as a criterion group, they were omitted from this part of the study). The distribution of scores for an item was based on the a priori score of each of the 205 items that cemprised the SAA. 1F. B. Davis, "Item Selection Techniques," Educational Measurement, ed. by E. F. Lindquist (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1951), Chapter 9. 2The Survey of Actualization is referred to as the SAA. 3The RA sample represents the resident hall advisor staff. 139 Second, the Davis discrimination index was calculated for each item. Davis discrimination index values were determined by calculating the difference between the proportion of correct responses given in the upper and lower 27% of the total group taking the inventory. Three, a critical value of 30% was arbitrarily established as a cutoff score on the discrimination index. Thus, any item that achieved an index value below 30% was deleted. The three steps resulted in a reduction of SAA items from 205 to 85. The following number of items were retained for each a priori classified dimension: Affective Style - 18; Assimilation - 21; Accommodation - 24; Environmental Mastery - 22 (discriminating items are identified by an asterisk in the Appendices A and B). Factor Analysis A proposed theory of adaptive functioning was outlined in Chapter III. In the theory, adaptation was identified as a psycho- logical construct consisting of various characteristics that clustered around four postulated dimensions (Affective Style, Assimilation, Accommodation, Environmental Mastery). It was further proposed that the four dimensions, if measured, would be identified as some- what discrete, independent assessments of the adaptive functioning construct. Thus, an individual's adaptive style would represent differential levels of functioning across the four dimensions. Various other theories of adaptive functioning have been proposed (see Chapter II). The theorists (e.g., Heath, King, 140 Murphy, White and Mechanic)4 have essentially agreed that the characteristics that comprise the construct are similar to those described in Chapter III. However, they have differed in terms of the composition and number of dimensions that comprise the construct. One of the basic assumptions of the study (see Chapter IV) was that factorial analysis of the discriminating items of the SAA would yield interpretable factors. Thus, the factor analytic procedure was used to determine whether factors, empirically derived, would reflect a set of interpretable dimensions consistent with one of the proposed theories. Two research hypotheses were designed to exam the results of a number of specified factor rota- tions. Factor Structure Two distinct operations were performed in the factor analytic procedure used in the study. First, the principle components analysis was performed to establish the correlation between the 85 discriminating items of the SAA. The procedure resulted in an 85 X 85 intercorrelation matrix (see Appendix C). 'The principle 4Donald H. Heath, Explorations of Maturity_(New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1965); Stanley H. King, Five Lives at Harvard: Personality Change During College (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973); Lois Murphy and Alice Moriarty, Vulnerability, Coping, and Growth: from Infancy to Adolescence (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1976); Robert White, "Strategies of Adaptation," Coping and Adaptation, ed. by G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg, and J. E. Adams (New York: Basic Books, 1974), pp. 47-69; David Mechanic, "Social Structure and Personal Adaptation: Some Neglected Dimensions," Coping and Adaptation, ed. by G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg, and J. E. Adams’TNew York: Basic Books, 1974), pp. 32- 44. 141 components method identifies that linear combination of variables (items) which explains the most variance. Second, six separate rotations of the intercorrelated items were performed. Fixed factor rotations specifying N=2,3,4,5,6, and 7 factors were performed using the varimax procedure. The second operation resulted in six separate factor matrices with item factor loadings on each of the specified factors. The significance of an item factor loading was arbitrarily established at :_.40. Items that achieved a factor loading below the :_.40 level were regarded as nonsignificant. In addition, a factor was regarded as significant if the number of high item loadings on that factor accounted for at least ten per cent of the variance. Thus, factors that accounted for less then ten per cent of the variance were regarded as nonsignificant and uninterpretable.5 The first null hypothesis (H01) would be rejected if the greatest amount of the variance was accounted for in the first four factors. The second null hypothesis (H02) would be rejected if a set of interpretable factors were found consistent with one of the other proposed theories of adaptive functioning. 1 Results of the Factor Analysis Null Hypothesis I (H01): There will be no relationship between factorial analysis of discriminating items (variables) on the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation and the theoretical dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity. 5Dennis Child, The Essentials of Factor Analysis (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1973), pp. 45-46. Child describes these procedures as an appropriate method for identifying interpretable factors. - 142 A fixed factor rotation (N=4) was performed to testthe first null hypothesis. The proportion of variance accounted for in the four factor varimax solution was as follows: Factor I - .25; Factor II - .ll; Factor III - .11; Factor IV - .02. Since the amount of variance accounted for beyond the third factor fell below the ten per cent level of significance, the four factor solution was regarded as uninterpretable. Thus, no relationship between the four factor solution and the theoretical dimensions of adaptive functioning outlined in Chapter III was found to exist. The first null hypothesis failed to be rejected. Null Hypothesis II (H 2): No interpretable factors will be found from a factogial analysis of discriminating items (variables) on the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation. Fixed factor rotations specifying N=2,3,5,6, and 7 factors were performed to test the second null hypothesis. As was expected from an examination of the four factor solution, the proportion of variance accounted for beyond the third factor for three of the specified rotations (N=5,6, and 7) fell below the ten per cent level 6 Thus, three of the five factor rotations performed of significance. to test the second null hypothesis contained nonsignificant factors and were regarded as uninterpretable. 6The proportion of variance accounted for in the N=5,6, and 7 factor solutions was as follows. Five factor solution: Factor I - .25, Factor II - .ll, Factor III - .11, Factor IV - .02, Factor V - .02; Six factor solution: Factor I - .25, Factor II - .ll, Factor III -TT10, Factor IV - .02, Factor V - .02, Factor VI - .02; Seven factor solution: Factor I - .25, Factor 11 - .10, Factor III - .10, Factor IV - .02, Factor V - .02, Factor VI - .02, Factor VII - .02. 143 The remaining fixed factor rotations (N=2 and 3) were examined to determine if a significant set of factors were derived from these rotations. The proportion of variance accounted for in the two factor solution was as follows: Factor I - .26; Factor II - .12. The proportion of variance accounted for in the three factor solution was: Factor I - 26, Factor II - .11; Factor III - .11. Both the two and three factor varimax solutions contained a set of factors that were significant beyond the .10 level. Since the greatest cumulative proportion of variance was accounted for in the three factor solution (.48 in the three factor rotation as opposed to .38 in the two factor rotation), it was concluded that a set of three interpretable factors were identified from the factor analysis. The final step in testing the second null hypothesis was to determine if the empirically derived factors would reflect a set of interpretable dimensions consistent with one of the proposed theories of adaptive functioning. To accomplish this purpose, the two and three factor solutions were examined for their relationship to four proposed theories of adaptive functioning. The significant items that comprised the two factor solution were examined for their relationship to King and Murphy's7 two dimensional proposed theory. The significant items that comprised the three factor solution were 8 examined for their relationship to White and Mechanic's three 7S. H. King, 0p. cit., 1973; Murphy and Moriarty, op. cit., 1976. 8R. White, op. cit., 1974; D. Mechanic, op. cit., 1974. 144 dimensional formulation of adaptive capacity (see Chapter II for a review of the four formulations). In addition, the two and three factor solutions were examined to determine if the various factors were consistent with any of the four dimensions (Affective Style, Assimilation, Accommodation, Environmental Mastery) of General Adaptive Capacity (see Chapter III). Interpretation of Factors Most factor analytic studies either name or number their factors. The tradition of naming factors is followed in the present investigation for the purpose of discussion and theory reformulation. An attempt was made to confine the naming of the factors to the most obvious content of the highest loading items (i.e., those items that loaded :_.40 or above). Two Factor Solution.--Both King and Murphy have proposed two dimensional theories of adaptive functioning that have identified the construct as comprising an internal and external dimension. There was little distinction between Murphy's internal dimension (Coping II) and King's internal dimension (efficiency). Both theorists characterized this component as the ability to maintain an internal equilibrium. However, they did differ in their conceptualization of the external component. Murphy's external dimension (Coping II) emphasized the individual's flexibility of response to the environ- ment; while King defined his external component as the individual's ability to meet environmental demands. 145 The two factor solution was examined to determine the degree to which the content of the items that comprised each factor was consistent with Murphy or King's formulation of adaptive capacity. Each factor was also examined to determine if it was consistent with any of the dimensions (Affective Style, Assimilation, Accommo- dation, Environmental Mastery) of the proposed theory of General Adaptive Capacity.9 Two Factor Varimax Solution Factor I Item # Loading, ScaleC 125. When I start an important task, I feel I will succeed at it. .9324 As 112. Things turn out for me the way I expect them to. .9187 Ac 42. I like new experiences. .9150 EM 50. I learn from new experiences. .9126 EM 108. If something is really important to me, I know I will succeed at it. .9124 As 110. I have a desire to learn new things. .9015 EM 52. I feel my life has purpose. .8766 Ac 140. My enthusiasm is contagious. .8731 EM 139. I like following a set schedule. .8709 As 115. My friends comment on my high degree of energy. .8637 EM 70. I choose (make my own choices) as to how I will react to a situation. .8626 As 9It should be noted that the a priori classification of items into the four dimensions (scales) was not consistent with either the two or three factor varimax solution. «1 1 ‘L . I‘ll 135. 131. 113. 60. 69. 114. 130. 44. 68. 67. 136. 132. 62. 35. 105. 203. 177. 149. 172. 74. 146 I let other people make me feel guilty. I feel my life as meaning. I am accurate in describing my past reactions. In the future I want to do things differently than I have in the past. Feelings make me realize my humanness. I feel hopeless. I put off until tomorrow what I ought to do today I am a "now" person. I gossip a little. I fret over problems which turn out to be trivial. It's hard for me to feel good about myself when I fail. I can feel good about myself even when facing a difficult problem. Worry makes me feel hopeless. I have ways of handling my nervousness that are useful to me. If I were to relive my life, I would do much differently than I have. Getting too excited can stop me from doing something. I welcome the opportunity to take responsi- bility and do things on my own. I feel hopeful about my future. I like to work on a problem even when I know there is no clear-cut answer. Tuning in to the emotional experiences of others helps me to grow. .8504 .8328 .8318 .8286 .8233 .8051 .7778 .7776 .7154 .7042 .6978 .6885 .6422 .5841 .5637 .5338 .5175 .4889 .4771 .4690 Ac EM As Af Af As As Ac EM Ac Ac Af Af As Af As Af EM As 144. 189. 174. 173. 75. 157. 154. 85. 14. 91. 165. 193. 33. 199. 202. 104. 101. 24. 204. 94. 147 I work better alone than with a group. I behave appropriately. I have a good general idea how I will react in most situations. I feel like swearing. I am a good, solid problem solver. I am pleased with my reactions to situations. I enjoy working with a group. I feel most comfortable when other people help me make major decisions. I enjoy my feelings-~pleasant and unpleasant. My feelings are different from my reactions. I am a good example to others. I look forward to a new experience with a feeling of excitement. I feel peOple should establish their own standards. Factor II I am frustrated when things don't go right. I would rather win than lose in a game. My imagination leads me to anticipate solutions to future problems. When I make mistakes I try to understand why. I express my feelings. I enjoy learning new things. I enjoy both sad and happy feelings. I am an active person. .4054 .3824 .3737 .3483 .3481 .3462 .3254 .3108 .2842 .2555 .2539 .1212 .0659 .7739 .7082 .6653 .6651 .6365 .6259 .5948 .5870 Ac Ac EM Af EM EM Ac As Af Ac As EM As Af Ac As As Af EM Af EM 169. 90. 175. 180. 23. 141. 164. 188. 178. 77. 29. 198. 10. 195. 80. 170. 72. 191. 200. 194. 163. 176. 98. 148 I look for positive elements in new situations. I feel the best part of my life is now. I like to fool around with new ideas, even if they turn out later to have been a total waste of time. I make my own major decisions. I look forward to starting something new. I am ashamed of my feelings. I want to be around when tomorrow comes. My hunches about situations are accurate. My perceptions of a situation are accurate. I have had exciting and interesting experiences. I feel guilty when I behave inappropriately. I seek out new experiences. I worry and fret. My reactions to situations are misunderstood. I am responsible for my successes and failures. I anticipate how I will feel in a situation. Being afraid incapacitates me. It is important that other people accept what I do. Unusual ways of doing things turn me on. I am influenced by the behavior of others. Past successes tend to fall into perspective. I am a creative problem solver. I feel I am responsible for my actions. .5831 .5684 .5297 .5252 .5220 .5165 .5154 .5144 .5126 .4930 .4929 .4914 .4889 .4881 .4860 .4436 .4430 .4362 .4215 .3819 .3643 .3371 .3208 EM As As As EM Ac Ac Ac EM Ac EM Af EM As Af Af Ac EM Ac Ac EM As 149 166. When I am feeling very happy and active, someone who is blue or low will spoil it all. -.3103 Ac 3. I enjoy doing difficult things. .3027 EM 142. I am a happy person. .3008 Af 11. I calm myself down when I'm too nervous. .2324 Af 73. I feel that the best part of my life is over. .2300 Ac 17. I am confused about my feelings. .2172 Af 148. I change my way of thinking to please others. -.2036 Ac 187. Even when my plans are full of difficulties I am able to carry them out. .0842 As 19. My hunches about people are accurate. .0736 Ac 16. Failure demolishes me. .0509 Ac * As = Assimilation Ac = Accommodation EM = Environmental Mastery Af = Affective Style Factor I.--Factor I accounted for the largest proportion of the variance (.26) in the two factor solution. A total of 44 of the 85 discriminating items had the highest loading on this factor. The high loading of 32 items was significant (:_.40 or above); while 12 items had nonsignificant loadings (below :_.40). An examination of the content of the significant items suggests that it is an external factor. The content of the items focuses on the individual's learnipg from the environment. A high score on the items that comprise this factor would characterize an individual who saw himself/herself as goal-directed and competent. Murphy's external dimension (Coping I) appeared to more adequately characterize 150 this factor than King's definition of effectiveness. In addition, the items that comprise Factor I were more consistent with the Environmental Mastery dimension of the present study than they were with any of the other three dimensions (Affective Style, Assimilation, Accommodation). Factor II.--The proportion of variance accounted for in Factor II was .12. Forty-one of the 85 discriminating items had the highest loading on this factor. Twenty-seven of those items had high loadings that were significant (:_.40 or above). Fourteen items had nonsignificant loadings (below :_.40). The significant items that comprise Factor II identify the factor as being internally oriented. The content of the items suggests that they focus on the individual's emotionality; or, more specifically, it is a self awareness factor with ag_emphasis gp_ emotionality. Individual's who score high on this factor would be characterized as being aware gf_their feelings, owning their feelings, expressive pf_their feelings, and use anxiety_and worry creatively, Thus, Factor II was somewhat consistent with King and Murphy's internal dimension of adaptive functioning. However, King and Murphy's internal dimension appeared more broadly defined than the items that comprise this factor. Aspects of the Affective Style and Assimilation dimensions outlined in Chapter III were contained in Factor II of the two factor solution. Thus, the items that comprise the two factor varimax solution appeared to identify two distinct dimensions of adaptive functioning. Factor I was an external factor characterized by goal-directiveness, 151 competence, and a sense of being able to learn from the environment. Factor I appeared consistent with Murphy's Coping I dimension. This factor was also consistent with the Environmental Mastery dimension of the present study. Factor II was an internal factor that focused on self awareness with ap_emphasis pp emotionality. Both King and Murphy's internal dimensions were consistent with this factor, but their formulations appeared more broadly defined than the items that comprise Factor II. Aspects of both the Affective Style and Assimi- lation dimensions appeared to be descriptive of this factor. Murphy's two dimensional theory (Coping I and Coping II) appeared to be more consistent with the items comprising the two factor structure than King's two dimensional theory. Three Factor Solution.--White and Mechanic have proposed three dimensional theories of adaptive functioning. Similar to the formu- lations summarized above, they have identified the construct as comprising both internal and external dimensions. Mechanic proposed a single internal dimension. He defined the component as the individual's ability to maintain a psychological equilibrium. White subdivided the internal dimension into two com- ponents. First, internal organization was defined as the individual's ability to control anxiety in order to maintain and enhance internal organization. Second, autonomy was defined as the individual's ability to maintain a freedom of movement in order to process environ- mental information, and to respond in ways consistent with self- perception. 152 White's single external dimension was labeled information. He defined this dimension as the individual's ability to secure accurate information from the environment to serve as a guide to action. Mechanic identified two external dimensions. First, the individual is motivated to meet environmental demands. Second, the individual has the ability to deal with environmental demands as well as the ability to influence and control the demands to which he is exposed. The three factor solution was examined to determine the degree to which the content of the items that comprised each factor was consistent with White or Mechanic's formulation of adaptive functioning. The items that comprised each factor were also examined to determine if they were consistent with any of the dimensions (Affective Style, Assimilation, Accommodation, Environmental Mastery) of the proposed theory of adaptive functioning. Three Factor Varimax Solution Factor I Item # Loading Scale* 125. When I start an important task, I feel I will succeed at it. .9236 As 42. I like new experiences. .9178 EM 112. Things turn out for me the way I expect them to. .9171 Ac 108. If something is really important to me, I know I will succeed at it. .9054 As 115. My friends comment on my high degree of energy. .8933 EM 52. I feel my life has purpose. .8903 Ac 139. 50. 110. 140. 135. 70. 69. 114. 44. 60. 113. 131. 130. 68. 67. 136. 132. 105. 203. 204. 177. 149. 153 I like following a set schedule. I learn from new experiences. I have a desire to learn new things. My enthusiasm is contagious. I let other pe0ple make me feel guilty. I choose how I will react to a situation. Feelings make me realize my humanness. I feel hopless. I am a now person. In the future I want to do things differently than I have in the past. I am accurate in describing my past reactions. I feel my life has meaning. I put off until tomorrow what I ought to do today. I gossip a little. I fret over problems which turn out to be trivial. It's hard for me to feel good about myself when I fail. I can feel good about myself even when facing a difficult problem. If I were to relive my life, I would do much differently than I have. Getting too excited can st0p me from doing something. I enjoy both sad and happy feelings. I welcome the opportunity to take responsibility and do things on my own. I feel hopeful about my future. .8833 .8796 .8788 .8756 .8685 .8511 .8452 .8267 .8078 .8035 .7922 .7780 .7460 .7269 .6653 .6635 .6279 .5983 .5653 .5390 -.5172 -.5063 As EM Ac As Ac EM Ac Ac As Af Af As Af 172. 74. 144. 189. 173. 154. 85. 91. 165. 199. 198. 101. 169. 33. 141. 24. 180. 200. 29. 176. 157. 154 I like to work on a problem even when I know there is no clear-cut answer. Tuning into the emotional experiences of others helps me to grow. I work better alone than with a group. I behave apprOpriately. I feel like swearing. I feel most comfortable when other pe0ple help me make major decisions. I enjoy my feelings--pleasant and unpleasant. I am a good example to others. I look forward to a new experience with a feeling of excitement. Factor II I would rather win than lose in a game. I seek out new experiences. I express my feelings. I look for positive elements in new situations. I am frustrated when things don't go right. I am ashamed of my feelings. I enjoy learning new things. I make my own major decisions. Unusual ways of doing things turn me on. I feel guilty when I behave inappropriately. I am a creative problem solver. I am pleased with my reactions to situations. .4913 .4632 .3933 .3929 .3865 .2771 .2633 .2610 .1315 .7515 .7339 .7109 .7109 .6999 .6873 .6725 .6565 .6188 .5995 .5805 .5638 EM As Ac Ac Af As Af As EM Ac EM EM EM Af Af EM As EM Ac EM EM 94. 17. 164. 148. 90. 175. 195. 77. 188. 166. 14. 62. 98. 142. 170. 73. 23. 72. 202. 80. 155 I am an active person. I am confused about my feelings. I want to be around when tomorrow comes. I change my way of thinking to please others. I feel that the best part of my life is now. I like to fool around with new ideas, even if they turn out later to have been a total waste of time. My reactions to situations are misunderstood. I have had exciting and interesting experiences. My hunches about situations are accurate. When I am feeling very happy and active, someone who is blue or low will spoil it all. My feelings are different from my reactions. Factor III Worry makes me feel hopeless. I feel I am responsible for my actions. I enjoy doing difficult things. I am a happy person. I anticipate how I will feel in a new situation. I feel that the best part of my life is over. I look forward to starting something new. Being afraid incapacitates me. My imagination leads me to anticipate solutions to future problems. I am responsible for my successes and failures. .5610 .5473 .5227 .4783 .4538 .4297 .4212 .4134 .3736 .2789 .2581 .6764 .6434 .6134 .6129 .5870 .5772 .5769 .5730 -.5495 -.5423 EM Af Ac Ac As As EM EM Ac Ac Ac Af As EM Af Af Ac EM Af As As 191. 10. 104. 178. 163. 174. 75. 16. 11. 194. 187. 19. 193. the variance (.26) in the three factor solution. 156 It is important that other people accept what I do. I worry and fret. When I make mistakes I try to understand why. My perceptions of a situation are accurate. Past successes tend to fall into perspective. I enjoy working with a group. I have a good general idea how I will react in most situations. I am a good, solid problem solver. Failure demolishes me. I calm myself down when I'm too nervous. I am influenced by the behavior of others. Even when my plans are full of difficulties I am able to carry them out. My hunches about people are accurate. I feel people should establish their own standards. *As = Assimilation Ac = Accommodation Af = Affective Style EM = Environmental Mastery .5371 .5254 .5189 .5126 .5029 .4896 .4333 .4186 .3234 .3153 .2755 .1651 .1588 .1051 Ac Af As Ac Ac Ac EM EM Ac Af Ac As Ac As Factor I.-—Factor I accounted for the largest proportion of A total of 38 of the 85 discriminating items had the highest loading on this factor. The high loading of 31 items was significant ( :_.40 or above); while 7 items had nonsignificant loadings. The significant items that comprise Factor I remained essentially unchanged from the two 157 factor solution (item number 62 achieved a significant high loading on Factor III of the three factor solution). Thus, the description of Factor I as an external, Environmental Mastery or competence EQELQE,W35 unchanged. Factor I was also consistent with White's external dimension (information) and one of Mechanic's external dimensions (e.g., the ability to influence and control the environ- mental demands to which one is exposed). Mechanic's other external dimension (e.g., one is motivated to meet environmental demands) did not appear to be descriptive of the items that comprise Factor 1. Factor II.--The proportion of variance accounted for in Factor II was .11. Twenty-three of the 85 discriminating items had the highest loading on this factor. Twenty of those items had high loadings that were significant (:_.40 or above). Only three items had nonsignificant loadings (below :_.40). A comparison of the items that comprise Factor II on the two and three factor solution identified some differences. Seven of the items that had significant high loadings on the two factor solution did not appear in Factor II of the three factor solution. However, the description of the factor remained relatively unchanged. The content of the items that comprise this factor still focused on self awareness with ag_emphasis gr_emotionality. The major change in Factor II appeared to be the absence pf_items that describe response tg_anxiety. Thus, aspects of the Affective Style and Assimilation dimensions of the proposed theory of General Adaptive Capacity were still present in Factor II. In addition, the items that comprise this factor appeared to be descriptive of White's 158 internal dimension of autonomy and Mechanic's psychological equi- librium dimension. Factor III.--The proportion of variance accounted for in Factor III was .11. Twenty-four of the 85 discriminating items had a highest loading on this factor. Eighteen of those items had significant high loadings (:_.40 or above). Six items had non- significant loadings (below :_.40). The significant items that comprise Factor III identified the factor as being internally_oriented. The content of the items suggested that they focus on the individual's response tp_anxiety and the creative use pf_worrying. Individuals' who score high on this factor would be characterized as focusing on the solution to problems rather than the cause of problems. Factor III was consistent with White's description of maintaining internal organization (i.e., the ability to control anxiety in order to maintain and enhance internal organization). In addition, Factor III was descriptive of the response and management of anxiety aspect of the Affective Style dimension of General Adaptive Capacity. Thus, the items that comprise the three factor varimax solu- tion appeared to identify three distinct dimensions of adaptive functioning. As was found in the two factor solution, Factor I was an external factor characterized by goal-directiveness, competence, and a sense pf_being able tp_learn from the environment. It was also consistent with White's external dimension (information) and Mechanic's external dimension of influence and control over 159 environmental demands. The Environmental Mastery dimension of the present study was consistent with Factor I. Factors II and lll_were described as internal factors. The items that comprised Factor II focus on self awareness with ap_ emphasis pr_emotionality, Aspects of the Affective Style and Assimilation dimensions were present in Factor 11. In addition, the factor appeared to be descriptive of White's dimension of autonomy and Mechanic's psychological equilibrium dimension. Factor III was descriptive of an individual's response tp anxiety and the creative use pf_worrying. White's description of maintaining internal organization is consistent with this factor. In addition, Factor III was descriptive of the response and management of anxiety aspect of the Affective Style dimension of the present study. Summar Six separate factor rotations were examined in this section. Four (N=4,5,6, and 7) of the specified rotations were found to contain nonsignificant factors (factors accounting for less than ten per cent of the total variance) and were dropped from further examination. The consequence of finding a nonsignificant factor on the four factor solution resulted in a failure to reject the first null hypothesis. Significant factors were found in two of the specified rotations (N=2 and3). The test of the second null hypothesis was to examine the two and three factor solutions to determine if the content of the items that comprise each factor would reflect a set of interpretable dimensions consistent with one of four proposed 160 theories (Murphy and King's two dimensional theories; and White and Mechanic's three dimensional theories). In addition, the two and three factor solutions were examined to determine if the various factors were consistent with any of the four dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity. Table 5.1 summarizes the interpretation and conclusions from examining the two and three factor varimax solutions. An examination of this table indicates that the factorial procedure identified two of the four proposed dimensions (Affective Style and Environmental Mastery) outlined in Chapter III of the study. Part of one of the other dimensions (Assimilation) was also identified in the factor structure. The Affective Style dimension was descriptive of two factors in the three factor solution. The factor structure did not identify the self perception aspect of the Assimilation dimension or the Accommodation dimension of General Adaptive Capacity. Murphy's two dimensional theory of adaptive functioning (Coping I and Coping II) appeared to be consistent with the items comprising the two factor structure. The items comprising the three factor solution appeared to be consistent with White's three dimen- sional theory of adaptation (Information, Autonomy, and Internal Organization). Since the greatest cumulative proportion of variance was accounted for in the three factor solution (.48 in the 3 factor solution as opposed to .38 in the 2 factor solution), it was con- cluded that a set of three interpretable factors were identified from the factor analysis. 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co any sec» oc.:coo_ .oucouooeou .ooouoc_o-_aoo _ Elem co_u:_om Looooc ~ Assam 8.;e 55.38oe 162 rotation and White's three dimensional theory of adaptive functioning was found to exist. The second null hypothesis was rejected. The factor analytic procedure resulted in reducing the number of items on the SAA from 85 to 69. Thus, a total of 69 significant items that comprised three empirically derived factors were used to compute the results reported in the remaining sections of this chapter. In the balance of this chapter the following results from the study are reported: (1) the weighting of scores to determine the proximity of a response to the a priori score assigned to each item; (2) the reliability estimates calculated on the three interpretable factors; (3) the intercorrelation between the three factors; and (4) the results from the multivariate analysis to test the remaining two research hypotheses. Weights Assigned to Scores The responses of subjects and the a priori score assigned to an item were set on a four-point scale. The following four-point scale was established for each item: 1 - Never; 2 - Sometimes; 3 - Frequently; 4 - Always. In order to compute the differential levels of functioning across the salient items of each factor, the proximity of a response to the a priori score needed to be calculated. A system of weighting scores was designed to accomplish this purpose. Thus, the 69 discriminating items of the refined SAA were assigned the following weights; an a priori score of 1 (Never) for an item was assigned a weight of 4. Therefore, an individual who responded 1 (Never) to that item was given a score of 4. By comparison, a response of 2 (Sometimes) on that item was weighted 3; a response of 163 3 (Frequently) was weighted 2; and a response of 4 (Always) was weighted l. The weights assigned to an item according to the proximity of a response to the a priori score is identified in Table 5.2. TABLE 5.2.--Distribution of Weights According to the a priori Desired Score Representing a High Functioning Individual. _.___-_ Desired Score Never Sometimes Frequently Always l 2 3 4 Never 1 GD 3 1 1 Sometimes 2 3 @ 2 2 Possible Responses Frequently to .an 3 2 2 @ 3 Item Always 4 1 1 3 @ In Table 5.2 the a priori score representing the weight given a response of a high functioning individual is circled for each of the four possible responses to an item. Reading the table vertically, the weight assigned to an item according to the proximity of a response to the desired score is identified. Responses to all items on the refined SAA were recoded and assigned a weighted score. The higher a subjects total weighted score across the salient items of each interpretable factor, the 164 more consistent his/her responses were to a high functioning indi- vidual on that factor. By contrast, a low total weighted score on each factor would identify an individual who functioned at a low level of adaptability on that factor. Weighted score values were used to compute the results reported in the two remaining sections of this chapter. ReliabilitylEstimates and Intercorrelation of Factors Factor Homogeneity Cronbach's reliability estimate (coefficient alpha) was calculated for each interpretable factor using weighted score values. The factor analytic procedure identified three interpretable factors from the 69 discriminating items that comprised the refined SAA. It was necessary to determine the internal consistency of the salient items of each factor (i.e., what was the degree to which the salient items of each factor represented a homogeneous group of items that measure the same dimension). Coefficient alpha was calculated for each factor. A "high" coefficient would reflect a high degree of homogeneity and internal consistency among the items that comprise that factor. By contrast, a "low" coefficient on a factor would suggest that the items comprising that factor were dissimilar from 10 some common dimension or characteristic. A reliability estimate 10"High" and "low" coefficients are, to some extent, subjec- tive evaluations. The range of possible values coefficient alpha can have is between 14.00. Therefore, the highest positive value of alpha is + 1.00. Thus, a coefficient of + 1.00 would suggest that the reliability of each item comprising a factor to measure the same dimension was perfect. The closer to zero the value of alpha is, the greater the dissimilarity between the various items that 165 was also calculated for all the discriminating items of the refined SAA irrespective of the assignment of an item to a factor. Thus, the degree of homogeneity among all the discriminating items was determined. If the value of alpha for each factor was high (+.80 or above) and the overall alpha level was somewhat below +.80, then the following conclusions could be made: 1. The salient items of the refined SAA were a homogeneous measure of a multidimensional construct of which three dimensions were identified. 2. The salient items that comprised each factor were a homogeneous measure of separate dimensions of a construct. 3. The salient items that comprised a factor were a homogeneous measure of one dimension related to but relatively independ- ent of the other factors. The reliability estimates and the number of test items that comprise each factor are summarized in Table 5.3. TABLE 5.3.--Summary of Alpha Coefficients by Factor. Factor I Factor II Factor 111 Overall Alpha .83 .75 .65 .91 Test Items 31 20 18 69 comprise that factor. For purposes of the study, an alpha coefficient of + .80 or above was regarded as sufficiently "high" to be able to conclude that the items comprising a factor were measuring the same dimension. 166 From an examination of this table, the following conclusions were made: 1. The homogeneity of items that comprised Factor I (.83) was sufficiently high to conclude that a measure of this dimension of adaptive functioning was reliable. 2. The homogeneity of the items that comprised Factor II (.75) and Factor III (.65) was contrary to expectations. Thus, the reliability of these two dimensions of the adaptive functioning construct is questionable. 3. The homogeneity of the total inventory was higher (.91) than the homogeneity of each of the three scales (factors); therefore, the refined SAA was one large scale with three subsets of that scale which were highly interrelated. To further test the validity of these conclusions, a Pearson correlation coefficient was computed on each of the three factors and the 69 items that comprised the refined SAA. Factor Intercorrelations Pearson r is used to determine the intercorrelations between various measures of a construct. In this case, the Pearson "r" was used to determine the intercorrelation among the three [derived factors. Correlation coefficients were computed using the responses of each sample separately and for the combined responses of the three samples. In Table 5.4, correlation coefficients for each group by factor are presented. As is indicated in Table 5.4, each factor was highly corre- lated with the other two factors (from .45 to .81). Further, each factor is highly correlated with the overall inventory (from .82 to :96). Thus, the conclusions drawn above that the refined SAA was (”we large scale with three highly interrelated subsets would appear 167 TABLE 5.4.--Pearson Correlation Coefficients Obtained on each Factor. Factor I II III Overall 61*(n=102) 1.0 .73 .67 .94 62 (n=120) 1.0 .78 .81 .96 Factor I G3 (n= 29) 1.0 .66 .45 .90 G- (n=251) 1.0 .79 .76 .95 Gp (n=251) .75 .73 G1 (n=102) .61 .87 62 (n=120) 1 .70 90 Factor 11 63 (n= 29) 1.0 .54 .86 64 (n=251) 1 .70 90 Gp (n=251) .66 G1 (n=102) 1.0 .82 Factor III G2 (n=120) l .89 63 (n= 29) 1.0 .72 6- (n=251) 1.0 .87 G1 represents the RA sample. G2 represents the random sample. G3 represents the cross-validation sample. G- represents the overall correlation of the three samples. Gp represents the pooled within cell correlation of the three samples. 168 to be supported. Based on the results of the reliability estimates and the intercorrelations among the factors reported above, an additional conclusion was made: Since the homogeneity of the total inventory was high (.91); each factor correlated highly with the total inventory; and each factor was highly correlated with the other two factors, it would appear that the best measure from the inventory was the combined score. Thus, it would appear that the three factors that comprised the refined SAA were not discrete measures of a larger construct. While each factor apparently measured a somewhat different aspect of the larger construct, the factors were sufficiently interrelated to be indistinguishable measures of a "9" factor. There were two implications of these conclusions for the present investigation: 1. Subject responses to the SAA would not identify differential levels of functioning within the separate factors. 2. Differential levels of functioning among the groups of the study could be identified by using the combined score computed across the three factors. Multivariate analysis of variance was employed to more specifically explore the conclusions made in this section. Multi- variate analysis was also used to examine the relationship between the factors and subject responses to the salient items of the SAA. The results of the multivariate analysis is presented in the remaining section of this chapter. 169 Multivariate Analysis of Variance Results of Multivariate Analysis A multivariate analysis of variance with three levels of the independent variable (groups) and three dependent variables (factors) was performed on the data to test the third null hypothesis. Null Hypothesis III (H03): No difference will be found among groups across the interpretable factors (dimensions) of adaptive functioning. The multivariate analysis of the three factors was found to be significant (F=7.20, df = 6/492, P < .05). The null hypothesis of no multivariate difference among groups was rejected. Thus, the three groups differ in terms of mean scores on at least one of the factors. To determine which dependent variable (factor) contributed to the rejection of the null hypothesis, a univariate test of significance was calculated for each dependent variable. Results of Univariate Analysis Three univariate analyses with three levels of the independent variable (groups) and one dependent variable (factor) was performed to test the fourth, fifth and sixth null hypotheses.]] Null Hypothesis IV (H04): No difference will be found among groups on Factor I. Null Hypothesis V (H 5): No difference will be found among groups on Fact8r II. 1lThe univariate tests of no differences among groups amounts to testing three separate research hypotheses. However, the results from the three univariate tests were identical. Thus, to avoid an unnecessary repetition of identical results, they were reported together. A similar procedure was followed in reporting the results from the multiple post ppt_comparisons. 170 Null Hypothesis VI (H06): No difference will be found among groups on Factor III. To avoid an increase in the probability of a Type I error (rejection of the null hypothesis when it should be retained), the alpha level established for the multivariate analysis (.05) was partialled out for the three univariate tests. Thus, the null hypothesis of no difference among groups within each interpretable factor would be rejected if differences were found at the .017 level. The results of the three univariate comparisons are summarized in Table 5.5. TABLE 5.5.--Summary of Univariate Analysis of Variance. Sum of Mean Source D.F. Squares Square F Ratio Between Groups 2 3719.97 1859.99 19.68* Factor I Within Groups 248 23435.76 94.50 Total 250 27155.74 Between Groups 2 1586.91 793.45 19.15* Factor II Within Groups 248 10275.01 41.43 Total 250 11861.92 Between Groups 2 800.33 400.16 13.59* Factor III Within Groups 248 7300.84 29.44 Total 250 8101.17 *(p < .017) 171 An examination of this table reveals that the univariate analysis for each of the factors was found to be significant (p < .017). The null hypotheses (H04, H05, and H06) of no uni- variate difference among groups within each interpretable factor was rejected. In addition to there being a multivariate difference among groups, the three groups differ in terms of mean scores on each of the three factors. Thus, the scores on the 69 items that comprise the three empirically derived factors of the SAA differenti- ate between the samples selected for study. A series of ppst_ppt_ comparisons (Scheffé) were computed to examine the nature of those differences. Post Hoc Comparisons Multiple comparisons are designed to examine the difference between all possible pairs of groups in a study. Mean score values are used to examine the difference between groups. A total of nine Scheffé comparisons were calculated (three tests of comparison for each factor). The alpha level set for the univariate tests (.017) was partialled out to the nine comparisons. The ppst_ppt_comparisons test of significance was set at the .006 level. The results of the nine ppst_ppg_comparisons are summarized in Table 5.6. An examination of this table identifies the following differences in the groups. The RA sample (G1) and the cross- validation sample (G3) constitute one subset. No significant difference was found to exist between these two groups (G1 and G3) 172 TABLE 5.6.--Summary of Multiple Post flpt_Comparisons. Factor I (31 Items) 61** G2 G3 (98.912) (92.600) (103.207) 61 (98.912) -- 6.312* 4.295 N=102 62 (92.600) -- 10.607* n=120 G3 (103 207) -- n=29 Factor 11 (20 Items) G1 G2 G3 (64.784) (60.317) (66.724) 61 (64.784) -- 4.467* 2.406 n=102 62 (60.317) -- 6.407* n=120 63 (66.724) -- n=29 Factor III (18 Items) 61 62 63 (51.392) (60.317) (61.069) * 61 (59.392) -- 3.059 1.677 n=102 * 62 (56.333) -- 4.736 n=120 63 (61.069) -- n=29 *(p < .005) ** Gl = RA sample. 62 = Random sample. Cross-validation sample. 173 on any of the three factors. The random sample (62) constitutes a second subset. When the mean score values of the random sample were compared with those of either the RA sample (Gl) or the cross- validation sample (G3), a significant difference was found (p < .006). Distribution of Scores One of the four basic assumptions of the study (see Chapter IV) was that the subjects of each group would respond to the salient items of the SAA in predicted directions. Thus, it was assumed that the mean scores of the RA sample (representing a fairly homogeneous, high functioning group) would be significantly higher than the random sample. By contrast, it was assumed that the scores of the subjects in the random sample (representing a hetero- geneous group of diverse levels of functioning) would be more variable and the mean would be lower than either of the other two groups. Finally, it was assumed that the scores of the subjects in the cross-validation sample (representing a homogeneous, high functioning group) would be less variable and the mean would be higher than either of the other two groups. In both the multivariate analysis and the univariate analysis, a difference among groups across the interpretable factors was identified. In the results from the multiple ppst.ppt_comparisons, the three groups were found to comprise two subsets. The RA sample and the cross-validation sample (Gl and G3) comprised one subset. The random sample (G2) represented a second subset. To further explore the nature of the differences between the three groups, the distribution of mean scores and standard deviations 174 were examined. In addition, the skewness, kurtosis, and the range of scores for the three samples were examined. Means and Standard Deviations.--In Table 5.7, the mean scores and the standard deviations for each group across the three factors are summarized. An examination of this table identified the following differ- ences in mean scores and standard deviations among the three groups. 1. The mean scores of the random sample (G2) were consistently lower across the three factors from the mean scores of either the RA sample (Gl) or the cross-validation sample (G3). 2. The standard deviations of the random sample were greater then either of the other two groups indicating greater variability of scores for the random sample. 3. The highest mean scores and the lowest standard deviations identify the cross-validation sample indicating that this group represents a more homogeneous, high functioning group than the other two samples. 4. The mean scores and standard deviations of the RA sample lie between the scores of the other two samples suggesting that the RA sample represented a less homogeneous group than the cross- validation sample; but, also, a less hetergeneous group than the random sample. Figure 5.1 graphically illustrates the differences in means among the three samples. The results from the ppst,ppt_comparisons identified the differences between the random sample (GZ) and the other groups (Gl and G3) as being significant (p < .006). While 175 TABLE 5.7.--Summary of Cell Means and Standard Deviations. Standard Means Deviations N 61* 98.91 9.44 102 G2 92.60 10.35 120 Factor I G3 103.21 7.74 29 (31-124)“ G- 96.39 10.42 251 Gp 9.72 251 G1 64.78 5.66 102 62 60.32 7.30 120 Factor II G3 66.72 5.01 29 (20-80) G- 62.87 6.89 251 Gp 6.44 251 01 59.39 4.94 102 G2 56.33 6.61 120 Factor III GB 61.07 4.36 29 (18-72) 6' 58.12 5.69 251 Gp 5.43 251 61 223.09 17.89 102 62 209.25 21.85 120 Overall G3 231.00 14.47 29 (69-276) G: 217.39 21.13 251 * Gl = RA Sample; GZ = Random Sample; G3 = Cross-Validation Sample; G- = Overall means and standard deviations for the three samples; Gp = pooled standard deviation for the three samples. ** Numerical values represent the lower and upper limits of the theoretical range for each factor and for the combined factors. 176 _ _.._._ Group 1 (RA Sample) __ - _ Group 2 (Random Sample) .____——- Group 3 (Cross-Validation Sample) 105 100 95 9O 85 80 75 7O 65 60 55 50 45 40 I I I Factor I Factor II Factor III Figure 5.l.--Plot of Means for Three Groups (1.2.3) on Three Factors (Factor 1, Factor II, and Factor III). 177 differences existed between the means of the RA sample and the means of the cross-validation sample, the differences were non- significant. An examination of this graph also indicates that the differences in mean scores between the three samples is pro- portionally equivalent. Thus, the conclusion made in the previous section that the factors were sufficiently interrelated to be indistinguishable measures of a "9" factor is supported. The implication of this conclusion is that a subject's responses to the salient items that comprise a factor did not identify differential levels of functioning (i.e., a subject who scored low on one factor also scored low on the other two factors). Repge,--Table 5.8 summarizes the range of scores for each sample across the three factors. The range of scores for each factor is indicated by two separate entries on the scores for the three samples. First, the numerical value of the total range of scores is indicated for a sample. Second, the upper and lower limits of scores achieved by a sample is indicated. An examination of the values reported in this table identifies the following differences in the range of scores among the three groups. 1. There was some overlap of scores across the three samples. However, the lowest scores were received by individuals belonging to the random sample (G2). By contrast, the highest scores were received by indi- viduals belonging to the cross-validation sample (G3). 2. The range of scores was widest (most variable) for the subjects in the random sample. The range of scores was narrowest (least variable) for the subjects in the cross-validation sample. TABLE 5.8.-- Range. 178 61* 62 63 6o (n=102) (n=120) (n=29) (n=251) Factor I 83“ 49 52 28 57 (31-124) 64—113 59-111 88-116 59-116 Factor II 60 28 32 18 34 (20-80) 47-75 41-73 57-75 41-75 Factor III 54 25 27 16 29 (18-72) 42-67 40-67 53-69 40-69 Overall 207 93 109 48 112 (69-276) 160-253 141-250 202-250 141-253 * Sample; G- * RA e Sample; 62 = Random Sample; G3 = Cross-validation range for the three samples. * The numerical values in the column at the left represent the theoretical range, and the lower and upper limits of the theoreti- cal range. 179 3. The range of scores for the RA sample (Gl) fell con- sistently between the scores of the other two groups. Thus, the differences in the range of scores among the three samples were consistent with the assumption stated at the beginning of this section. Skewness.--Skewness determines the degree to which a distri- bution of cases approximates a normal curve. The measure of skewness will take on a value of zero when the distribution is a completely symmetric bell-shaped curve. A negative value indicates that the cases are clustered to the right of the mean with most of the extreme values to the left. A positive value indicates clustering to the left of the mean.12 Table 5.9 summarizes the skewness of scores for the three samples across the three interpretable factors. TABLE 5.9.--Skewness. 61* 62 63 G- (n=102) (n=120) (n=29) (n=251) Factor I -l.02 -.52 -.54 -.71 Factor II - .56 -.34 -.38 -.60 Factor III - .83 -.49 -.43 -.70 Overall -l.lO -.50 -.50 -.80 *G1 = RA Sample; GZ = Random Sample; G3 = Cross-validation Sample; G--= the overall value of skewness for the three samples. 12Norman H. Nie, et al., Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975), pp. 184-185. 180 An examination of this table reveals that the measure of skewness for the three samples across the three factors is negative. This identifies the scores for the three samples as being distri- buted to the right of the mean on a bell-shaped curve. The skewness of scores for the three samples was somewhat consistent with the assumption stated at the beginning of this section. However, it was expected that the distribution of scores for the random sample would be less skewed to the right and more representative of a bell- shaped curve. Kurtosis.--Kurtosis is a measure of the relative peakness or flatness of the curve defined by the distribution of cases. A normal distribution will have a kurtosis of zero. It the kurtosis is positive, then the distribution is peaked and narrow (leptokurtic). A negative value means that the distribution is flat and broad (platykurtic).13 The measure of kurtosis for the scores received by the three samples is summarized in Table 5.10. An examination of the values reported in this table identifies the shape of the distribution of scores for the three samples as follows. 1. The distribution of scores for the RA sample (G1) was leptokuric. Subjects' scores clustered around the mean for this group across the three factors. The shape of the distribution of scores for this group was narrow and peaked. 2. The distribution of scores for the random sample (G2) was leptokurtic on Factor I. However, subjects' scores 13Norman H. Nie, et al., op. cit., p. 185. 181 TABLE 5.lO.--Kurtosis. 61* 62 63 G- (n=102) (n=120) (n=29) (n=251) Factor I 1.13 .16 -.74 .32 Factor 11 .ll -.65 -.85 -.14 Factor III 1.08 -.40 -.65 .19 Overall 1.40 -.11 -.76 .34 *G1 = RA Sample; G2 = Random Sample; G3 = Cross-Variation Sample; G- = the overall value of kurtosis for the three samples. on Factors II and III, and the overall scores were evenly distributed across the range of scores achieved by the subjects that comprised this sample. The general shape of the distribution of scores was broad and relatively flat (platykurtic). 3. The distribution of scores for the cross-validation sample (GB) was platykurtic. Subjects' scores were evenly distributed across the range of scores achieved by the subjects that comprised the cross-validation sample. The shape of the distribution of scores for this group was broad and relatively flat. Thus, the distribution of scores for the three samples was generally supportive of the assumption made at the beginning of this section. Summary The third research hypothesis was generated to examine the differences among groups across the three interpretable factors. Since a significant multivariate difference (p < .05) was found, the third null hypothesis was rejected. Three univariate analyses were computed to test the fourth, fifth, and sixth research hypotheses of differences among groups. within each factor. A significant univariate difference (p < .017) 182 was found resulting in the rejection of the fourth, fifth and sixth null hypotheses. Multiple ppst’ppt.comparisons (Scheffé) were computed for all possible pairs of groups in the study. The ppst_ppt_comparisons identified the three samples of the study as comprising two subsets. The RA sample and the cross-validation sample constituted one subset. No significant difference was found to exist between these two groups on any of the three factors. The random sample constituted a second subset. A significant difference (p < .006) was found to exist between the random sample, and both the RA sample and the cross-validation sample on the three factors. To further explore the nature of the differences between the three groups, the distribution of mean scores and standard deviations for each of the three factors were examined. In addition, the skewness, kurtosis, and the range of scores for the three samples were examined. The means of the random sample were found to be lower than the means of either of the other two groups. The standard deviations of this group were greater than the other two groups. Similarly, the range of scores achieved by the subjects that comprised this group was wider and lower than either of the other two groups. The distribution of scores for the random sample was generally platykurtic. An examination of the measure of kurtosis together with the range indicates that these subjects' scores were evenly distributed across the wide range of scores. Thus, of the three samples selected for study, the random sample represented a_ 183 heterogeneous group pf_diverse levels pf_functioningyas_measured lay their scores pptliefl. The highest mean scores and the lowest standard deviations identified the cross-validation sample. The range of scores for this group was narrower than either of the other two groups. The distribution of scores for the cross-validation sample was platykurtic. An examination of the measure of kurtosis together with the range indicated that these subjects' scores were evenly distributed across a narrow range of scores. The scores of the subjects that comprised this group were also negatively skewed. Thus, of the three samples selected for study, the cross-validation sample represented p_homogeneous, high functionipg group as_measured py_their scores pp_tpe_§AA, The mean scores and standard deviations of the RA_sample fell between the scores of the other two samples suggesting that the RA sample represented a less homggeneous group than the cross- validation sample; but, also, a less heterogeneous group than the random sample. This conclusion was consistent with the range of scores achieved by the RA group. The shape of the distribution of scores for this group was narrow and peaked (leptokurtic). As was the case with the other two groups, the RA samples' scores were negatively skewed. Thus, of the three samples selected for study, tre_BA_sample represented a_fairly homogeneous group gf_above average levels pf_functionipg as_measured py_their scores pp_tpe_ §BA- 184 The conclusions stated above were consistent with the assumption that the subjects of each group would respond to the salient items of the SAA in predicted directions. However, the difference in mean scores between the three samples across the factors were proportionally equivilent. Thus, it was concluded that the factors were sufficiently interrelated to be indistin- guishable measures of a "9" factor. The implication of this con- clusion is that a_subject's responses tp the salient items that comprise a_factor did not differentiate levels pf_functioning (i.e., a_subject who scored low pp one factor also scored low pp_ the other two factors). Summar The item analysis procedures were designed to identify those items on the SAA which discriminated between high and low scores on each item. Eighty-five of the 205 items that comprised the SAA were identified as discriminating. The discriminating items were factor analyzed to determine whether the items would form a factor structure consistent with the proposed theory of General Adaptive Capacity outlined in Chapter III. Specified factor rotations were also examined to determine if derived factors were interpretable within the framework of one of the five other theories of adaptive reviewed in Chapter II. TWo research hypothesis were generated to examine the relationship between the factor structure and various theories of adaptive functioning. The conclusions drawn from an examination of the factor analytic results were as follows. 185 1. No relationship between the four factor solution and the four theoretical dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity was found to exist. The first null hypothesis failed to be rejected. In addition, three other specified rotations (N=5,6, and 7) were found to contain nonsignificant factors. 2. Two of the specified factor rotations (N=2 and 3) were found to contain significant interpretable factors. The content of the items that comprised these factors were examined for their relationship to any of the four dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity. Further, the significant factors were examined to determine if a relationship existed between Murphy and/or King's two dimensional theories of adaptive functioning, and White and/or Mechanic's three dimensional theory of adaptation. 3. The two factor varimax solution was found to be consist- ent with Murphy's two dimensional theory of adaptive functioning (Coping I and Coping II). The three factor solution was found to be consistent with White's three dimensional theory of adaptation (Autonomy, Internal Organization, and Information). 4. The content of the items that comprised Factor I of both the two and three factor solutions was consistent with the Environmental Mastery dimension of General Adaptive Capacity. Factor 11 of the three factor solution was consistent with aspects of both the Assimilation and Affective Style dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity. Factor III was descriptive of an individual's response to anxiety and the creative use of worrying. This factor was consistent with the response and management of anxiety aspect 186 of the Affective Style dimension. The factor structure did not identify the self perception aspect of the Assimilation dimension, or the Accommodation dimension of General Adaptive Capacity. 5. The greatest cumulative proportion of variance was accounted for in the three factor solution. In addition, there was a relationship between the three factor solution and White's three dimensional theory of adaptive functioning. Thus, the second null hypothesis was rejected. The scores of the 69 SAA items that comprised the three factor solution were weighted. The weighting of scores was necessary to determine the proximity of a response to the p_pripri score assigned to each item. Coefficient Alpha (an estimate of the internal consistency of the salient items that comprised each factor) and the inter- correlations (Pearson "r") among the three derived factors was calculated. The reliability of the three factors was found to be relatively high (from .65 to .83), but the reliability of the total inventory was higher (.91). In addition, the three factors were found to be highly intercorrelated. It was concluded that the three factors were not discrete measures of a larger construct, and that the factors were sufficiently interrelated to be indistin- guishable measures of a "9" factor. Therefore, subject responses to the SAA would not identify differential levels of functioning within the separate factors (i.e., a subject who scored low on one factor would also score low on the other two factors). This con- clusion was supported by the results from the follow-up investigation 187 of the multivariate analysis. Thus, one of the basic assumptions of the research (see Chapter IV) that the interpretable factors would identify differential levels of functioning among the subjects selected for study was not supported. Differences across the interpretable factors among the groups selected for study were identified using a multivariate analysis, univariate analysis, and Scheffé multiple comparisons. Multivariate and univariate differences were found among the groups resulting in a rejection of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth null hypotheses. Ppst_ppt_comparisons identified the three groups as comprising two subsets. The RA sample and the cross-validation sample constituted one subset. No significant difference was found to exist between these two groups on any of the three factors. The random sample constituted a second subset. A significant difference (p < .006) was found to exist between the random sample, and both the RA sample and the cross-validation sample. An examination of the distribution of scores for the subjects that comprised each sample identified the three samples as follows. 1. The random sample represented a heterogeneous group of diverse levels of functioning. 2. The cross-validation sample represented a homogeneous, high functioning group. 3. The RA sample represented a fairly homogeneous group of above average levels of functioning. Thus, it was concluded that the subjects of the three samples did respond to the salient items of the SAA in predicted directions. CHAPTER VI SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS A general interest of the present study was an examination of the multidimensional nature of the concept of mental health. Spe- cifically, the study was concerned with a preliminary investigation of adaptive functioning as a multidimensional criteria of mental health. Collation of Summaries Traditional theories of personality have regarded mental health as a unidimensional concept. These theories have been pri- marily based on data gathered from individuals who displayed dis- turbed functioning. An inherent assumption of these theories has been that mental health is the absence of disturbed functioning. Some investigators1 have proposed models of mental health that are extensions of existing personality theories. These investigators have viewed mental health as a multidimensional concept not suf- ficiently explained by the absence of pathological symptoms. 1M. B. Smith, "Research Strategies Toward a Conception of Positive Mental Health," American Psychologist, 14 (1959), pp. 673- 681; Marie Mahoda, Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health (New York: Basic Books, 1958); William A. Scott,TTConceptions of Normality." In E. F. Borgatta and W. W. Lambert (Eds.), Handbook of Personality Theory and Research (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1968), pp. 974-1006. 188 189 Researchers have emphasized one of two major themes as a 2 have emphasized measure of adaptive functioning. The self theorists an jpper directed theme. They have regarded the individual's self- image or self-esteem to be of prime concern in understanding the problems of human adjustment. By contrast, the ego psychologists3 have emphasized an ppter_directed theme. They have regarded the individual's ability to fit or adjust to the environment as being of major importance in understanding the mental health of the indi- vidual. Those who have adhered to a unitary view of mental health have ragarded the two theoretical positions as simply being differ- ent ways of attending to the same construct. The multidimensional view of mental health has regarded the two positions as speaking of two functionally different systems. Proponents of the multi- imensional view have suggested that self-esteem and environmental adjustment are clearly related. An understanding of adaptive func- tioning requires investigating how the two systems mutually facili- tate and hamper each other. 2Jahoda, op. cit., 1958, pp. 24-30; Gordon Allport, "Per- sonality Normal and Abnormal," Personality and Social Encounter (Boston: Beacon, 1960); L. S. Kubie, “The Fundamental Nature of the Distinction Between Normality and Neurosis," Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 23 (1954), pp. 187-188. 3S. H. King, Five Lives at Harvard: Personality Change During College (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1973); H. Hartmann, Ego Psychology and the Problem of Adaptation (New York: International Univ. Press, 1958); R. White, "Motivation Reconsidered: The Concept of Competence," Psychological Review, 66 (1959), pp. 297-333. 190 A review of the literature identified four theorists who agreed that a theory of adaptive capacity must attend to at least two components. FirSt, such a theory must allow for the individual's growth and satisfaction of internal needs. Second, a theory of adaptive functioning must provide for the individual's reacting to environmental demands. Some theorists (e.g., Murphy and King4) have identified adaptive capacity as containing two dimensions. Other researchers (e.g., White and Mechanics) have proposed three dimensional theories of adaptations. In the present study, the adaptive functioning construct was regarded as attending to the reciprocal relationship between the person and the environment. A four dimensional theory of adap- tive functioning was proposed. The four postulated dimensions (Affective Style, Assimilation, Accommodation, Environmental Mastery) were consistent with the internal and external themes found in the literature on mental health. In addition, the pro- posed theory (General Adaptive Capacity) was a synthesis of the various dimensions described in the four formulations of adaptive functioning found in the literature (see Tables 2.1 and 2.2 for a summary of the relationship between these various theories). 4Lois Murphy and Alice Moriarty, Vulnerability, Copipg, and Growth. from Infancy to Adolescence (New Haven. Yale Uni- versity Press ,71976); King, op. c1t., 1973. 5Robert White, "Strategies of Adaptation. " In G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg, and J. E. Adams (Eds. ), Coping and Adaptation (New York. Basic Books, 1974), pp. 47- 69; David Mechanic, "Social Struc- ture and Personal Adaptation. Some Neglected Dimensions. " In G. V. Coelho, D. A. Hamburg, and J. E. Adams (Eds.), Coping and Adaptation (New York: Basic Books, 1974), pp. 32-44. 191 A review of nine studies of normality and adaptive function- ing identified various characteristics and clusters of characteris- tics that defined differential levels of functioning of the adaptive capacity construct. These characteristics were consistent with the four dimensional theory of General Adaptive Capacity (see Table 3.1 for a summary of the characteristics). Thus, the present preliminary investigation was designed to explore the multidimensional nature of adaptive functioning as a construct of mental health. There were three major objectives of the study. 1. To empirically investigate the adaptive functioning construct. 2. To validate an instrument designed to measure the pro- posed theory of adaptive functioning. 3. To identify differential levels of functioning among individuals on the criteria of General Adaptive Capacity. A 205 item instrument (the Survey of Actualization: Adapta- tion) was constructed to measure the proposed theory of General Adaptive Capacity. Three individuals, a clinical psychologist and two counseling psychologists, scored and classified each item con- sistent with the four dimensions of the proposed theory. Responses to the inventory were collected from 251 subjects who comprised three separate samples. A group of 102 resident hall advisors responded to the inventory. It was assumed that this sample represented a fairly homogeneous, high functioning group. One hundred twenty subjects of a random sample completed the inventory. It was assumed that these subjects represented a 192 heterogeneous group of diverse levels of functioning. Finally, a cross-validation group of 29 nominated subjects completed the inventory. They were judged to represent a homogeneous, high func- tioning group of subjects. Four basic assumptions were made in the study: 1. A factor analysis of the discriminating items on the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation designed to measure the proposed theory would yield interpretable factors. 2. The salient items that comprised each interpretable factor would differentiate between the high and low levels of functioning of the subjects in each group. 3. The subjects of each group would respond to the salient items of the inventory in predicted directions (i.e. responses to the inventory would be consistent with the assumptions stated above about the nature or character- istics of the subjects that comprised each sample). 4. Scores on the salient items of each interpretable factor would not be related to scores on the salient items of the other interpretable factors. Two distinct methods of data analysis were used to test the assumptions stated above: factor analysis and multivariate analysis of variance. An item analysis using the Davis discrimination index iden- tified 85 of the 205 items that comprised the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation as discriminating between high and low scores on each item. The discriminating items were factor analyzed to determine whether the items would form a factor structure consistent with one of the various proposed theories described in Chapters II and III. Fixed factor rotations specifying N = 2,3,4,5,6, and 7 factors were performed using the varimax procedure. A rationale was developed for the two through seven rotations. The significance of 193 an item factor loading was arbitrarily established at :,40 or above. In addition, a factor was regarded as significant and interpretable if the number of high loadings on that factor accounted for ten per cent of the variance. The three factor solution was identified as containing a significant set of factors. Scores from the items that comprised the three factors were weighted to determine the proximity of a response to the a priori score established for an item. The reliability estimates (alpha) were relatively high for the three factors (from .65 to .83). How- ever, the reliability of the total inventory was higher (.91) sug- gesting that the total inventory was one large scale with three subsets of that scale. The intercorrelations (Pearson "r") were also high (from .45 to .81). In addition, each factor was highly correlated with the overall inventory (from .82 to .96). Thus, it was concluded that the 69 items that comprised the refined inventory was probably one large scale with three highly interrelated subsets of that scale. A multivariate and univariate difference was found among the three groups selected for study across the interpretable factors (P<.05 and P<.Ol7, respectively). Multiple post hoc comparisons (Scheffé) identified the three samples as comprising two subsets. No significant difference was found between the resident hall advisors sample and the cross-validation sample. However, a signifi- cant difference (P<.OO6) was found to exist between the random sample, and both the resident hall advisors group and the cross- validation sample. 194 The distribution of scores was skewed to the left for the three samples. Thus, the subjects that comprised the three samples repre- sented a fairly high functioning group of individuals. This was somewhat contrary to expectation since it was expected that the scores for the random sample would be more heterogeneously distributed. An examination of the distribution of mean scores identified the random sample as the lowest scoring group, and the cross- validation sample as the highest scoring group. Mean scores for the resident hall advisors group were between the other two samples. Thus, the distribution of mean scores for the samples was consistent with the predicted direction of responses to the inventory as stated in the third assumption listed above. Conclusions Four major research hypotheses were generated to examine the data. The factor analytic procedure was tested with hypotheses I and II. The third and fourth hypotheses were designed to examine the results from the multivariate analysis of variance. Testing the Hypotheses l. Null Hypothesis 1: There will be no relationship between factorial analysis of discriminating items (variables) on the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation and the theoretical dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity, A fixed factor solution (N=4) was performed to test the first null hypothesis. The amount of vari- ance accounted for beyond the third factor fell below the ten per cent level of significance. Therefore, the four factor solution 195 was regarded as uninterpretable. Since the four factor solution did not yield four interpretable factors, the first null hypothesis was not rejected. 2. Null Hypothesis II: No interpretable factors will be found from a factorial analysis of discriminating items (variablesl, r- on the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation. Fixed factor rotations of N = 2,3,5,6, and 7 were performed to test the second null hypoth- esis. Only the two and three factor solutions were found to contain a set of significant, interpretable factors. An examination of the content of the items comprising the various significant factors identified the two factor solution as being consistent with Murphy's two dimensional theory of adaptive functioning. White's three dimen- sional theory was identified as being consistent with the three factor solution. It was concluded that the three factor solution (accounting for the greatest amount of cumulative variance) identi- fied a set of interpretable factors. The second null hypothesis was rejected. 3. Null Hypothesis III: No difference will be found among groups across the interpretable factors (dimensions) of adaptive functioning. A multivariate analysis of the three factors was found to be significant (F=7.20, df 6/492, P<.05). The third null hypothe- sis of no difference among groups was rejected. 4. Null Hypothesis IV: No difference will be found amopg groups within each interpretable factor. Since a multivariate difference was found, univariate tests were computed on each factor to determine which factor contributed to the rejection of the third 196 null hypothesis. A significant difference was found to exist on each of the three factors (Factor I - F=19.68, df 2/248, P<.Ol7; Factor II-F=219.15,df 2/248, P<.Ol7; Factor III - F=l3.59; df 2/248, P<.017). The fourth null hypothesis was rejected. 5. As a consequence of rejecting the fourth null hypothesis, ‘ne. post hoc comparisons (Scheffé) were computed. A comparison of mean scores for all possible pairs of the three groups across the three factors resulted in the following findings. The resident hall a x .. ‘2n3‘?‘~m.¢‘w‘“ #- advisors group and the cross-validation sample formed one subset. The random sample formed a second subset. The difference between the two subsets was significant (P<.OO6). The patterning of differ- ences among the three samples was identical for the three factors. It was concluded that differential responses to the items that com- prised the interpretable factors sorted the three samples into two subsets: one comprised of the random sample, and the other comprised of the cross-validation and resident hall advisors samples. Factor Structure A summary of the factor structure is limited to the following conclusions drawn from the study. (1) An interpretation of the three factor solution is provided. (2) The relationship between the three factor solution and the four dimensional theory proposed for the study is reviewed. (3) The relationship between White's three dimensional theory of adaptive functioning and the three factor solution is provided. A more thorough summary of the results from 197 the factor analysis and the various theories of adaptive functioning reviewed in Chapter II is provided in Table 5.1. The content of the items that comprised Factor I described the factor as externally oriented with a focus on the individual's learning from the environment. A high score on the items that com- 1i; prise Factor I would characterize individuals who saw themselves as goal-directed and competent. The Environmental Mastery dimension of the present study was consistent with this factor. In addition, White's external dimension (information) was descriptive of Factor 1. Factor II was described as an internal factor. The content of the items that comprised Factor II focused on self awareness with an emphasis on emotionality. Individuals who score high on Factor II would be characterized as being aware of, owning, and expressive of their feelings. Aspects of the Affective Style and Assimilation dimensions of General Adaptive Capacity were present in the factor. Factor II was also descriptive of White's internal dimension of autonomy. The significant items that comprised Factor III described this factor as being internally oriented and focusing on the indi- vidual's response and management of anxiety. Individuals who scored high on Factor III would be characterized as focusing on the solution to problems rather than the cause of problems. Factor III was des- criptive of the response and management of anxiety aspect of the Affective Style dimension of General Adaptive Capacity. In addi- tion, White's description of maintaining internal organization 198 (i.e., the ability to control anxiety in order to maintain and enhance internal organization) was consistent with Factor III. Distribution of Scores for the Three Samples An inspection of the distribution of scores for the three samples led to the following conclusions. 1. Subject responses to the SAA did not identify differ- ential levels of functioning within the separate factors (i.e., a subject who scores low on one factor would also score low on the other two factors). The subjects of the random sample were a more hetero- geneous group of diverse levels of functioning than the other two samples. The cross-validation sample and the resident hall advisors group were a more homogeneous, high functioning group than the random sample. The mean scores of the cross-validation sample were higher than the mean scores of the resident hall advisors group across the three factors. However, the difference was nonsignificant. Discussion Some of the findings from the study were clearly supportive of the theoretical assumptions made about the adaptive functioning construct. For instance, the responses to the salient items of the inventory did differentiate between levels of functioning for the 199 three samples. However, differences were of a more global nature than was expected. The subjects that comprised each sample responded in predicted directions on the inventory, but when scores across the interpretable factors were examined, no distinction was found (i.e., an individual who responded low on the items that com- prised one factor also scored low on the items of the other two factors). There are several possible implications that can be derived from this finding. One such interpretation is that the adaptive functioning construct is, in fact, unidimensional. There is apparently sufficient overlap (interrelationship) between the iden- tified factors that they are indistinguishable measures of some larger "9" factor. An examination of the intercorrelations (see Table 5.4) of each factor with the total inventory supports this interpretation. Thus, an individual who has difficulty responding to his/ her own anxious feelings (Factor III) is also somewhat constricted in other areas of his emotional life (Factor II), and views himself/ herself as not competent to master the tasks established by the environment. Similarly, then, feelings of competence are clearly related to an unrestricted access to one's emotionality and an ability to respond to and manage one's anxiety. In terms of the interpretation offered for the content of the items that comprise the three factors, the implication is that the individual who uses worrying creatively (Factor III) is also goal-directed and competent 200 (Factor I), and aware of and expressive of his/her emotionality (Factor II). The consistency of responses across the factors was under- standable from an examination of the intercorrelation coefficients. Each factor is highly correlated with the other two factors. How- F“ ever, Factor II (emotionality) and Factor III (response to anxiety) are somewhat more highly correlated with Factor I (competence) than they are with each other. It is tempting to suggest that unrestricted access to one's emotions and an ability to respond and manage one's anxiety results in goal-directed behavior and a feeling of competence. Some theo- 6 He has retical support for this conclusion is offered by White. proposed the concept of Effectance Motivation as an instinct to master or to have an effect on the environment. White viewed the individual as achieving affective and cognitive pleasure in learn- ing from the environment. Further, he regarded individuals as being motivated to master the tasks established by the environment. Exploratory behavior was regarded as the individual's efforts to master environmental tasks. White suggests that a willingness to experience novelty increases exploratory behavior and fear (anxiety) decreases an individual's willingness to learn from the environment. However, much more research of an experimental nature is needed before White's theoretical position can be accepted. 6White, op. cit., 1959. 201 Factor I from the study could be conceptually similar to White's concept of Effectance Motivation. Factors II and III could be conceptually similar to his assumptions about responses that increase and decrease exploratory behavior. This interpretation of the results from the study is clearly beyond the scope of the present investigations, but it does have some interesting implications for future research. The findings from the study failed to identify three major aspects of the proposed theory: Self perception (an aspect of the Assimilation dimension) and perception of environmental demands and the appropriateness of meeting environmental demands (Accommodation). Several interpretations of the failure in the study to identify these characteristics are possible. One such explanation is that the inventory items related to these aspects of the theory were not explicit or powerful enough to measure the complexity of self and 7 environmental perception. Other measurement techniques (other than a paper and pencil inventory) may be needed to measure these char- acteristics. The number of responses to the inventory from the subjects that comprised the three samples was low. It was stated earlier (see Chapter IV) that the data was collected from a group of indi- viduals who were regarded as a cooperative sample. Thus, any generalization of the results beyond those subjects is questionable. It was expected that the random sample would represent a heterogeneous group of subjects with diverse levels of functioning. An examination of the distribution of scores for the three samples 202 identified the random sample as a fairly high functioning group of subjects even though their scores were significantly lower than the subjects that comprised the other two samples. The failure to identify the random sample as a more heterogeneous group may be due to the very limited response to the inventory (only 42 per cent of the random sample completed the inventory). Thus, primarily those individuals who felt good about their adaptive capacity may have responded. However, the use of college students has some clear 1 limitations to this type of study. AS a population 0f 5UPJECtS’ 1'? college students may tend to represent a fairly homogeneous group. It may be more fruitful to select a sample from a larger, diverse population. lmplications for Future Research The results of the factor analysis suggest that the adaptive functioning construct is comprised of three interrelated dimensions. In addition, a multivariate analysis of the salient items that comprised the three factors did identify a difference between the groups selected for study across the interpretable factors. These two major findings from the study suggest several implications for future research. 1. The question of adaptive functioning as being a uni- dimensional or multidimensional construct was essentially unanswered by the results of the present study. The results suggest uni- dimensionality. However, most of the item factor loadings that comprised Factors II and III were quite low (generally below :_.60). 203 An examination of the item intercorrelation matrix (see Appendix C) indicates that the items were highly correlated across the three factors. In addition, the lower correlated items tended to com- prise the salient items of Factors II and III. This would seem to suggest that additional items designed to measure Factor II and III (that are uncorrelated with Factor I) need to be generated. One F—_ possible procedure would be to generate and research a list of : salient items for each dimension of the adaptive functioning con- ' struct, but design separate studies to validate the salient list 5 a“. of each dimension. Data collected from a series of studies using samples from the same population could then be intercorrelated and factor analyzed. 2. The factor analytic procedure used in the study was a relatively simple and direct way of determining the factor structure. While the procedure is traditionally accepted, other factorial pro- cedures are available. Child7 recommends a multiple factorial pro- cedure that uses a combination of oblique and orthogonal rotations to form a factor structure. His recommendations are statistically complex and time consuming, but are potentially more precise than the procedure used in the present study. 3. It may be that current knowledge of human functioning is too limited and unsophisticated to use complex analytic pro- cedures such as factor analysis (Heath has come to this conclusion8). 7Dennis Child, The Essentials of Factor Analysis (New York: Holt, Rinehart and WinstonTTl973), pp. 53-65. 8D. H. Heath,April 28, 1977. Personal communication. 204 A combination of measurement procedures (e.g., semi-structured inter- views, projective techniques, and reports from significant others) might yield more useful data than the approach used in this study. As an adjunct to formal statistical analysis of the data, an evalu- ation of the subjects by independent raters could be a useful pro- cedure in determining the differential levels of functioning, and r—— as a means of exploring the unidimensional or multidimensional nature of the adaptive functioning construct. 4. The content of the items that comprise the three factor solution appears to be related to White's theory of adaptive func- tioning. In addition, there appears to be some relationship between White's concept of Effectance Motivation and the interpretable factors. Additional research needs to be done to determine the validity of these conclusions. The salient items that comprise the Survey of Actualization: Adaptation provide a core of test items from which additional items need to be generated. Items to measure Factors I and II (as mentioned above) are particularly weak and need to be reworked. Research needs to be conducted in this area selecting a random sample from a more heterogeneous popu- lation than college students. The present study has provided some basis for identifying high functioning individuals, but research needs to be conducted using individuals who are identified as low functioning. 5. Very little mental health research has been conducted to empirically determine differences between males and females on some identified construct. The present investigation did not alter this 205 void. Cultural stereotypes, at least, suggest that differential responses to a construct such as adaptive functioning do exist. It would seem reasonable to assume that females would respond differently than males to measures of competence, emotionality and anxiety. The assumption requires research. Thus, while no clearcut conclusions were derived from the results of the study, the investigation did raise a number of important issues that need further research. 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I anticipate how I will feel in a situation.* I am able to control my feelings. Wide range of feelings 10. 36. 47. 85. 101. 142. 196. 204. I worry and fret.* I am accurate in describing my past feelings. I am aware of multiple (having more than one) feelings in some situations. I enjoy my feelings--pleasant and unpleasant.* I express my feelings.* I am a happy person.* I like to be surprised. I enjoy both sad and happy feelings.* * Discriminating items. 219 220 Owns rather than disowns feelipgs 8. Negative feelings from others are dealt with the person sending them. 17. I am confused about my feelings.* 32. I do not want people to diminish the intensity of my feelings. 37. I get angry. 39. Other people are not responsible for my feelings. 53. My feelings surprise me. 57. I don't want others to take feelings away from me--pleasant or unpleasant. 63. When I am not feeling well I am cross. 88. Other people feel things more deeply than I do. 107. I have feelings. 121. I am not doubtful or unsure about the way I feel. 126. Good feelings are enjoyed when I experience them. 141. I am ashamed of my feelings.* 173. I feel like swearing. Anxiety is approached rather than avoided 9. Worry makes me productive. 35. I have ways of handling my nervousness that are useful to me.* 61. I have bucked the crowd. 102. Fear motivates me to do things. 109. Worrying can be productive for me. 111. I do not shrink from facing a crisis or difficulty. * O I O O O D1scr1m1nat1ng items. 221 190. If something worries me, I stick with it until I arrive at a workable solution. 205. Worry helps me plan what to do in a bad situation. The ability to maintain distress (anxietyl_within manageable limits 11. I calm myself down when I'm too nervous.* 22. When I am afraid I want to run away. 33. I am frustrated when things don't go right.* 62. Worry makes me feel hopeless.* 72. Being afraid incapacitates me.* 83. Most nights I go to sleep without ideas or thoughts bothering me. 114. I feel hope1ess.* 149. I feel hopeful about my future.* * 203. Getting too excited can stop me from doing something. Assimilation (The ability to selectively choose external goals that will satisfy internal needs) Capacity to formulate ends and implement them 1. All I can learn from a mistake is to not make it again. 55. I try to avoid past mistakes in the future. 86. The unfinished and the imperfect often have greater appeal for me than the completed and the polished. 104. When I make mistakes I try to understand why.* 128. I prefer to answer test questions that allow me to include my own ideas about things. *. .. . . Discriminating items. 139. 146. 184. 202. 222 * I like following a set schedule. I like assignments requiring original work. The hardest part of doing things is finishing. My imagination leads me to anticipate solutions to future problems. Realistic self ideals with regard to aspirations and attainments 28. 80. 123. 137. 154. 158. 175. 177. 179. 180. I want to know that something will really work before I am willing to take a chance on it. it I am respons1ble for my successes and failures. I do not dwell on the rightness or wrongness of past decisions. It is a good rule to accept nothing as certain or proved. I feel most comfortable when other people help me make major decisions. I prefer new ways of doing things rather than the old, known ways. I like to fool around with new ideas, even if they turn out later to have been a waste of time. I welcome the opportunity to take responsibility and do things on my own. The hardest part of doing things is getting started. . . . 'k I make my own major dec1510ns. Flexibility with regard to response choices 2. 45. 56. 70. I can change my plans. There's a limit to how far I'll go along with the crowd. In life there is more than one right answer to problems. I choose (make my own choices) as to how I will react to a situation. * . . . . . Discriminating items. 76. 118. 130. 145. 150. 153. 181. 223 Changing plans leaves me feeling uneasy. When faced with a big problem, I imagine various ways to solve it. I put off until tomorrow what I ought to do today.* I will laugh at a dirty joke. Compromise is a way of life with me. Before I attack a problem, I figure out various ways to solve it. I have a sense of making my choices about how I will react in a situation. Satisfaction of internal emotional needs 15. 44. 60. 74. 90. 91. 95. 96. 98. 105. 108. 193. I do not wish I could change my past experiences (I regret things less or less often than others seem to). I am a "now" person.* In the future I want to do things differently than I have in the past. Tuning into the emotional experiences of others helps me to grow. I feel that the best part of my life is now.* I am a good example to others.* I do not have trouble concentrating on things that interest me. I like to know some important people because it makes me feel important. I feel I am responsible for my actions.* If I were to relive my life, I would do much differently than I have. If something is really important to me, I know I will succeed at it. I feel people should establish their own standards.* * Q I § 0 O D1scr1m1nat1ng items. Inna- 224 Behavior is successful 13. 25. 27. 49. 79. 125. 187. Being a success is important to me. I enjoy success. My past successes influence my present behavior. I have experienced failure. My past failures influence my present behavior. When I start an important task, I feel I will succeed at it.* Even when my plans are full of difficulties I am able to carry them out.* External Dimensions (Accommodation. The ability to assess the appropriateness of adapting oneself to the external environment based on the value, cost, and energy spent in attaining a desired goal) Capacity to meet and deal with a changing world 18. 31. 51. 52. 65. 73. 78. 93. 103. 131. 138. If it were possible I would want to know my future. I am a "future" person. I feel that the best part of my life is yet to come. I feel my life has purpose.* I live in the present with one foot in the future. I feel that the best part of my life is over.* I am a "yesterday" person. I get mad easily and then get over it soon. I tell the truth. I feel my life has meaning.* It takes me a long time to get over being angry. *. .. . . Discr1m1nat1ng items. 164. 225 * I want to be around when tomorrow comes. Satisfaction of external requirements 6. 66. 82. 84. 117. 119. 144. 148. 191. 192. I enjoy working with a group.* A person should adapt himself and his ideas to the group or situation he happens to be with at the time. It is important that others understand my way of doing things before I go ahead with something. If I could get into a movie without paying and be sure I was not seen I would do it. Rules and regulations bother me. I have been in situations where I have been unable to adjust or adapt myself. I work better alone than with a group.* I change my way of thinking to please others.* It is important that other people accept what I do.* I change my way of doing things to please others. Accurate perceptions of reality 19. 89. 112. 122. 134. 162. 178. 188. My hunches about people are accurate.* I understand things better than most people. Things turn out for me the way I expect them to.* I make quick decisions about situations. I make quick decisions about people. I am more realistic than idealistic, that is, more occupied with things as they are than with things as they should be. a O I * My perceptions of a s1tuat1on are accurate. . . * My hunches about s1tuations are accurate. * O o O O O Discriminating Items. 226 Capacity to maintain a self-image of oneself as adequate to theypercieved reqoirements of a new situation or in facing a new problem 16. 20. 129. 132. 133. 136. 163. 199. Failure demolishes me.* It's hard for me to accept success. The further I get from successes the less important they become. I can feel good about myself even when facing a difficult problem. Failure makes me try harder. It's hard for me to feel good about myself when I fail.* Past successes tend to fail into perspective.* I would rather win than lose in a game.* Behavior is situation appropriate 7. 14. 21. 29. 34. 43. 58. 64. 68. 81. 99. A direct request is what gets me to do things. My feelings are different from my reactions.* I like everyone I know. I feel guilty when I behave inappropriately.* I do not carry intense feelings with me from one person to another. I am able to change my mind even about those things that I feel most definite. My table manners are not quite as good at home as when I am out in company. I do not carry intense feelings from one situation to another. I gossip a little.* Other people tell me I have strange ways of doing things. My reactions are different from my feelings. * Discriminating items. 124. 135. 152. 156. 161. 166. 185. 189. 194. 197. 227 I change the way I act to fit the situation. I let other people make me feel guilty.* At elections I vote for men about whom I know very little. There are situations in which an honest reaction is inappro- priate. Pulling on my guilt strings is not effective in getting me to do things. 1 When I am feeling very happy and active, someone who is blue or low will spoil it all. I read every editorial in the newspaper every day. I behave appropriately.* I am influenced by the behavior of others.* I feel ashamed when I behave inappropriately. External (The ability to experience challenges, novelty, in the environment) Experience oriented 4. 24. 77. 92. 94. 110. 115. 140. Past experiences are (can be) useful in solving present and future problems. I enjoy learning new things.* I have had exciting and interesting experiences.* I seem to have excess energy. I am an active person.* I have a desire to learn new things.* My friends comment on my high degree of energy.* . . . * My enthus1asm lS contagIOus. * Discriminating items. A.“ 228 151. I have enough energy to do what I want to do. 155. I prefer to do one thing at a time. 165. I look forward to a new experience with a feeling of excitement.* 201. There are so many interesting things to do I do not have time to do them all. Emotional reactions are situation defined 100. I over react to situations. 113. I am accurate in describing my past reactions.* 143. I am slow to react to situations. 157. I am pleased with my reactions to situations.* 159. My reactions rarely surprise me. 174. I have a good general idea how I will react in most situations.* 186. I regret how I react to situations. 195. My reactions to situations are misunderstood.* Problems are attacked which possess the quality of being beyond one's level of current attainment 3. I enjoy doing difficult things.* 5. I solve real life problems in my dreams. 12. Traditional ways of doing things turn me on. 30. I enjoy solving difficult problems. 46. If there is no solution to a problem, I can let it go. 48. Physiological processes take a back seat when I try to solve an important problem. 67. I fret over problems which turn out to be trivial.* 75. I am a good, solid problem solver.* * Discriminating items. 97. 120. 160. 171. 172. 176. 183. 200. 229 I like to work on a problem even when I know there's not a clear-cut, unambiguous answer. I get pleasure out of doing something well. My energy is wasted on unsolvable problems. Unsolvable problems make me try to the point of utter frustra- tion. I like to work on a problem even when I know there is no clear-cut answer. I am a creative problem solver.* Unsolvable problems make me try harder. Unusual ways of doing things turn me on.* New experiences are regarded as exciting and rewarding 23. 38. 40. 42. 50. 59. 71. 116. 127. 169. 198. I look forward to starting something new.* There is a great deal I haven't come into contact which I want to know about. I would like to travel. I like new experiences.* I learn from new experiences. I have been so entertained by the cleverness of a crook that I have hoped he would get by with it. Other people seem to enjoy new things more than I do. Uncertain and unpredictable events are exciting for me. When I get bored I like to stir up some excitement. I look for positive elements in new situations.* , :1: I seek out new experiences. * Discriminating items. APPENDIX B SURVEY OF ACTUALIZATION: ADAPTATION 230 May 19, 1972 May you ever wondered why so many studies focus on human limitations? We have. Mostly, we are surprised at how little we actually know about positive human adaption. That is why we are asking your help in filling out the attached questionnaires. It will not take much of your time. However, your answers, which will be held in strictest confidence, can help us make some new inroads in understanding some of human being's positive strengths. Will you help us? Please place the test booklets and the completed answer sheets back in the envelope. Cover up your name and address with the gummed return address label. Return the test information to Dr. William Farquhar through the campus mail. We would appreciate your returning the completed information to us as quickly as possible. William W. Farquhar Professor Kenneth E. Hall Counseling Intern 231 232 SURVEY OF ACTUALIZATION: ADAPTATION This is a survey of your choices. There are no right or wrong answers. The inventory is made up of statements about how a person feels, reacts, or behaves to a variety of situations or problems. Read each statement carefully. Answer each statement in a way that most accurately describes how you would feel, react, or behave in the situation or problem described. Answer all statements as honestly and frankly as you can. Only in this way will the results be meaningful. Do not write in the test booklet. Place your answers on the answer sheet provided for you. If “1" most accurately describes how you would feel, react, or behave, mark "1" on your answer sheet; if "2” is more accurate, mark ”2”. EXAMPLE: Test Booklet Answer Sheet 1 1 2 3 4 5 g l. // // // // // 1 (ignore column 5) l. I have experienced failure. 1 L This person marked the number "2" on the answer sheet which means that sometimes he has experienced failure or op_occasion has had the feeling that he has failed at something. Never Sometimes Frequently Always Responses- 1 2 3 4 You will find these response numbers reported at the bottom of each page to help you remember them. Now, turn the page and answer all the statements. 00 not skip any statements. Work as rapidly as you can and do not spend too much time on any one item. Remembersryou are describing how you would feel, react, or behave to the situation or problem in the statement. At the top of your answer sheet place the following information: Your name, MSU Address, Year in School,_and Sex. \0' The statements on this inventory refer to the spaces on yOur blue answer sheet numbered 1-168. Statements on the inventory numbered 169-205 refer to the spaces on your rep answer sheet numbered 1-37. 3’6") 9°50?" 12. 13. 15. 18. 20. 233 All I can learn from a mistake is to not make it again. I can change my plans. * I enjoy doing difficult things. Past experiences are (can be?) useful in solving present and future problems. I solve real life problems in my dreams. I enjoy working with a group. A direct request is what gets me to do things. Negative feelings from others are dealt with the person sending them. Worry makes me productive. I worry and fret. I calm myself down when I'm too nervous. Traditional ways of doing things turn me on. Being a success is important to me. My feelings are different from my reactions. I do not wish I could change my past experiences (I regret things less or less often than others seem to). Failure demolishes me. I am confused about my feelings. If it were possible I would want to know my future. My hunches about people are accurate. It's hard for me to accept success. * ' Discriminating items are circled. Never Sometimes Frequently Always Responses- 1 2 3 4 2]. 22. Q3. @. 25. 26. 27. 28. @. 30. 31 . 32. ®. 34. (3. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 234 I like everyone I know. When I am afraid I want to run away. I look forward to starting something new. I enjoy learning new things. I enjoy success. I think of things too bad to talk about. My past successes influence my present behavior. I want to know that something will really work before I am willing to take a chance on it. I feel guilty when I behave inappropriately. I enjoy solving difficult problems. I am a "future" person. I do not want people to diminish the intensity of my feelings. I am frustrated when things don't go right. I do not carry intense feelings with me from one person to another. I have ways of handling my nervousness that are useful to me. I am accurate in describing my past feelings. I get angry. There is a great deal I haven't come into contact which I want to know about. Other people are not responsible for my feelings. I would like to travel. I have a wide variety of interests (I seem to have a wider variety of interests than most people). Never Sometimes Frequently Always Responses- 1 2 3 4 43. 45. 46. 47. 48. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 69. 6]. 235 I like new experiences. I am able to change my mind even about those things that I feel most definite. I am a "now" person. There's a limit to how far I'll go along with the crowd. If there is no solution to a problem, I can let it go. I am aware of multiple (having more than one) feelings in some situations. Physiological processes take a back seat when I try to solve an important problem. I have experienced failure. I learn from new experiences. I feel that the best part of my life is yet to come. I feel my life has purpose. My feelings surprise me. My feelings interfere with what I want to do. I try to avoid past mistakes in the future. In life there is more than one right answer to problems. I don't want others to take feelings away from me--pleasant or unpleasant. My table manners are not quite as good at home as when I am out in company. I have been so entertained by the cleverness of a crook that I have hoped he would get by it. In the future I want to do things differently than I have in the past. I have bucked the crowd. Never Sometimes Frequently Always Responses- 1 2 3 4 5b.“, 63. 64. 65. 66. @®®® 76. §® 81. 82. <3 ®@®.= 236 Worry makes me feel hopeless. When I am not feeling well I am cross. I do not carry intense feelings from one situation to another. I live in the present with one foot in the future. A person should adapt himself and his ideas to the group or situation he happens to be with at the time. I fret over problems which turn out to be trivial. I gossip a little. Feelings make me realize my humanness. I choose (make my own choices) as to how I will react to a situation. Other people seem to enjoy new things more than I do. Being afraid incapacitates me. I feel that the best part of my life is over. Tuning in to the emotional experiences of others helps me to grow. I am a good, solid problem solver. Changing plans leaves me feeling uneasy. I have had exciting and interesting experiences. I am a "yesterday" person. My past failures influence my present behavior. I am responsible for my successes and failures. Other people tell me I have strange ways of doing things. It is important that others understand my way of doing things before I go ahead with something. Never Sometimes Frequently Always Responses- l 2 3 4 83. 84. 86. 87. 88. $6? 100. .. 102. 103. 237 Most nights I go to sleep without ideas or thoughts bothering me. If I could get into a movie without paying and be sure I was not seen I would do it. I enjoy my feelings--pleasant and unpleasant. The unfinished and the imperfect often have greater appeal for me than the completed and the polished. I am selectively open about my feelings. Other people feel things more deeply than I do. I understand things better than most people. I feel that the best part of my life is now. I am a good example to others. I seem to have excess energy. I get mad easily and then get over it soon. I am an active person. I do not have trouble concentrating on things that interest me. I like to know some important people because it makes me feel important. I like to work on a problem even when I know there's not a clear-cut ambiguous answer. I feel I am responsible for my actions. My reactions are different from my feelings. I over react to situations. I express my feelings. Fear motivates me to do things. I tell the truth. Never Sometimes Frequently Always Responses- 1 2 3 4 S5®Q 107. —J o 9 KO ®6®©36. \l as O o 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 238 When I make mistakes I try to understand why. If I were to relive my life, I would do much differently than I have. I have a good general idea how I will feel in most situations. I have feelings. If something is really important to me, I know I will succeed at it. Worrying can be productive for me. I have a desire to learn new things. I do not shrink from facing a crisis or difficulty. Things turn out for me the way I expect them to. I am accurate in describing my past reactions. I feel hopeless. My friends comment on my high degree of energy. Uncertain and unpredictable events are exciting for me. Rules and regulations bother me. When faced with a big problem, I imagine various ways to solve it. I have been in situations where I have been unable to adjust or adapt myself. I get pleasure out of doing something well. I am not doubtful or unsure about what I feel. I make quick decisions about situations. I do not dwell on the rightness or wrongness of past decisions. I change the way I act to fit the situation. Never Sometimes Frequently Always Responses- 1 2 3 4 126. 127. 128. 129. ®®§E ®©® —J-—l (IOU) (3V QEQQQQ. _a b U1 146. 239 When I start an important task, I feel I will succeed at it. Good feelings are enjoyed when I experience them. When I get bored I like to stir up some excitement. I prefer to answer test questions that allow me to include my own ideas about things. The further I get from successes the less important they become. I put off until tomorrow what I ought to do today. I feel my life has meaning. I can feel good about myself even when facing a difficult problem. Failure makes me try harder. I make quick decisions about people. I let other people make me feel guilty. It's hard for me to feel good about myself when I fail. It is a good rule to accept nothing as certain or proved. It takes me a long time to get over being angry. I like following a set schedule. My enthusiasm is contagious. I am ashamed of my feelings. I am a happy person. I am slow to react to situations. I work better alone than with a group. I will laugh at a dirty joke. I like assignments requiring original work. Never Sometimes Frequently Always Responses- l 2 3 4 In.“ I47. 150. 151. 152. 153. 155. 156. 158. 159. 160. 161. l62. @ 240 Negative feelings are incapacitating to me. I change my way of thinking to please others. I feel hopeful about my future. Compromise is a way I have enough energy to do what I want to do. At elections I vote Before I attack a problem, I figure out various ways to solve i it. I feel most comfortable when other people help me make major decisions. of life with me. for men about whom I know very little. I prefer to do one thing at a time. There are situations in which an honest reaction is inappro- priate. I am pleased with my reactions to situations. I prefer new ways of doing things rather than the old, known ways. My reactions rarely My energy is wasted Pulling on my guilt do things. I am more realistic with things as they Past successes tend I want to be around I look forward to a surprise me. on unsolvable problems. strings is not effective in getting me to than idealistic, that is, more occupied are than with things as they should be. to fall into perspective. when tomorrow comes. new experience with a feeling of excitement. When I am feeling very happy and active, someone who is blue or low will spoil it all. Never Responses- l Sometimes Frequently Always 2 3 4 ®®®®9®®5 _.a \l to Q . _..I (I) ._a 241 Having a change in my normal routine is exciting. My feelings help me to know what to do in a situation. I look for positive elements in new situations. I anticipate how I will feel in a situation. Unsolvable problems make me try to the point of utter frus- tration. I like to work on a problem even when I know there is no clear- cut answer. I feel like swearing. I have a good general idea how I will react in most situations. I like to fool around with new ideas, even if they turn out later to have been a total waste of time. I am a creative problem solver. I welcome the opportunity to take responsibility and do things on my own. My perceptions of a situation are accurate. The hardest part of doing things is getting started. I make my own major decisions. I have a sense of making my choices about how I will react in a situation. I am able to control my feelings. Unsolvable problems make me try harder. The hardest part of doing things is finishing. I read every editorial in the newspaper every day. I regret how I react to situations. Never Sometimes Frequently Always Responses- l 2 3 4 9&6 190. Q ._1 O N 99¢ . .—l -—l \o to \J 03 o @963) . 20). 9.36% 205. 242 Even when my plans are full of difficulties I am able to carry them out. My hunches about situations are accurate. I behave appropriately. If something worries me, I stick with it until I arrive at a workable situation. It is important that other people accept what I do. I change my way of doing things to please others. I feel people should establish their own standards. I am influenced by the behavior of others. My reactions to situations are misunderstood. I like to be surprised. I feel ashamed when I behave inappropriately. I seek out new experiences. I would rather win than lose in a game. Unusual ways of doing things turn me on. There are so many interesting things to do I do not have time to do them all. My imagination leads me to anticipate solutions to future problems. Getting too excited can stop me from doing something. I enjoy both sad and happy feelings. Worry helps me plan what to do in a bad situation. Never Sometimes Frequently Always Responses- l 2 3 4 7! n_-m..'_ ’7'! APPENDIX C ITEM INTERCORRELATION MATRIX 243 on .tax C o O a o O ¢\ (96.. hand (fid— n.nu ..I . J c- ..crn. . rm.~.- c:: .u .n mac“. ten“. .. “an“. o:n.. . «93”.: cnva.- . ouou.v r.~n.n . new". sn~u.. . om~¢. nn~n.c . came. an»... .0 «svm. «24m. .n «asu. «new. . can“. we... . «non. mug... . aura. “rm.. . ”cv;.c ¢:c4.: . muna. fi.mfl.. . ”an..- nn-.. . N's”. (a: .a . asm«.- cora.- . ezwv. mun“. . anew. 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