ABSTRACT THE PURSUIT OF EXCELLENCE THEME IN AMERICAN EDUCATION, l9h0 - 1963 by Shirley Alice Brehm This study focuses upon an assessment and a deline- ation of factors contributing to the development of the Pursuit of Excellence theme in public education. Teachers, educators, the public-at-large, and academicians have evi- denced an increased concern for, and an acceptance of, the heightened emphasis on elementary and secondary school sub- ject matter based upon the structure and methods of inquiry of academic disciplines. The method used was an historical analysis over a ‘twenty-three year time span, from World war II to the present. The analysis consisted of investigating four themes emerging from concerns of public school teachers, educators, the pub— 1ic in general, and the academic community. Professional education journals, educational society yearbooks, reports of education conventions, respected lay journals, and educa- tional publications other than those previously cited comprised the major sources used in the investigation. The analysis of the theme, Teachin 3 Profession, dealt with the strivings of the profession for increased Shirley Alice Brehm recognition, status, and welfare, during the period under study. The theme, Education as a Disci line, explored the efforts of professional educators to develop unique methods of inquiry and knowledge concerning education as a field of study. The theme,.Mgnpower Concept of Education, was an investigation of the factors which were derived from the national security needs and the attendent shortages of highly trained personnel, as well as factors arising from the need for minimal education of all citizens. Many pressing prob- lems confronting educators have had as a source the dilemma of determining the appropriate use of human resources. The analysis of the Pursuit of Excellence, as a theme, focused upon concerns of both educators and academicians for educa- tion of high quality, based on the emerging concept of de- veloping school subject matter around the structure of any given discipline. Each of the themes seemed to be interwoven with the others. In most instances, the public school was central to each thematic development. The major findings suggested by this study include the following: (1) There has been no single cause for the current concern for the emphasis on quality in education as evidenced by the heightened academic standards in public education. (2) While educators had been basically concerned with quality education, they had been essentially unable to moti- vate the larger community to overt action toward this end a , a.“ . ilgflawflkukngnz berm». . Shirley Alice Brehm until assisted by groups which promoted the need for educa- tion as it related to national security requirements. (3) Educators had drifted away from the academic disciplines in search of significant knowledge pertinent to the discipline of education. Academicians had, at the same time, lost any real contact with the public schools. Since the mid-1950's both groups have attempted to make important contributions to one another's involvement in the public school function. Education as_g:Qiscipline has contributed to the understanding of the act of teaching and the act of learning through an emphasis on the process of developing learning skills, and the academic disciplines have contributed revised concepts regarding subject matter based on the structure of the disciplines. (a) As teachers achieved higher status, they tended to become more professional in their outlook. In turn, they supported the movement toward quality education by becoming involved in subject matter developments originating in other disciplines. (5) Excellence has been recognized to include cre- ativity, sensitivity, moral commitment, and quality in all walks of life, as well as heightened academic accomplish- ments. It becomes the responsibility of education to en- courage excellence in its many, varied forms. Shirley Alice Brehm (6) The launching of Sputnik I in 1957 was an inci- dental, rather than a causal, factor in the development of heightened concern for academic subject matter and standards. Copyright by SHIRLEY ALICE BREHM 19_65 THE PURSUIT OF EXCELLENCE THEME IN AMERICAN EDUCATION, 19a0 - 1963 By Shirley Alice Brehm A THESIS Submitted‘to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1964 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -~ The writer acknowledges her sincere appreciation to Dr. Charles A. Blackman, major advisor, for his understand- ing, encouragement, and advice during the preparation for and the writing of this dissertation. The writer is also grateful for the assistance and guidance given her by Dr. Calhoun C. Collier, Dr. Carl H. Gross, and Dr. Gilbert W. Mbuser, who served as members of the guidance committee. ii Chapter I. II. III. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . TABLE OF CONTENTS Statement Of the Problem 0 e e e 0 Historical Antecedents e e e o e e The Progressive Education Era . Factors Leading to the Pursuit of E Related StUdies e o o e o e o o o The Method of Research . . . The Theoretical Framework . Limitations 0 e o e e e e 0 33810 Assumptions 0 e e e e e 01-. efide‘ee 0 e 0100 0(De«ee pa 0 eyes side‘s. O 0 etc. 0:30 ea 0 o 04.0 O‘De‘ee THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEME, TEACHING AS A PRO- FESSION O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C An overv19w e o o e e e e e e e e o e o e e e Concerns of Practicing Classroom Teachers . . Professional Association Support and Mebership in the 19HO'8 e e e o e e e e e e e e o e e The National Emergency Conference for Recruit- ment 0 o e e e e e e e e e e e o o o e 0 Establishment of the TEPS Commission . . . . . The Teaching Profession in the 1950's . . . . Criticisms of the Existing Professional Stand- ards and Schools in the 1950's . . . . . Improvements of the Teaching Profession, 1946- Academic Disciplines Become Involved in Teache Preparation 0 o e o o o e o e o e e o e e 0 Chapter Summary and Generalizations . . . . . THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEME, EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O A Definition of Education Disci 1i e . The Beginnings of EaucatIon a DIscI IIne Methods of Inquiry Us e3 PrIor to I955 . . . Educftion as g Discipline in the 1930's . . e g etween esearc and Practice . . . The Problem of Specialization Within Education Social ReConstruction and Reform . . . . . . . 111 r Chapter Page Effects of Werld War II on the Discipline . . 67 Immediate Postwar Circumstances in Education 69 Subject Matter: Pertinent Questions . . . . 71 A Change of Emphasis Regarding Curriculum and InStruCtion e e o e e o e e e e e e 75 Factors Affecting Criticisms of Education Dur- ing the 1950.3 0 e e e e o e e e e e o e 79 Contributions From Psychology and Social P3YChOlogy o e e o e e e e e e e e e o o 82 Chapter Summary and Generalizations . . . . . 86 IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEME, MANPOWER CONCEPT OF E DU CAT ION O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 8 9 Introductory Statement . . . . . . . . . . . 89 The Emergence of the Concern for Manpower . . 9O ‘Manpower in a Democratic Society . . . . . . 93 World War II and Human Resources . . . . . . 94 The Conservation of Human Resources Project . 96 Public Recognition of the Need for Education 99 The National Council on Manpower . . . . . . 100 The Korean Conflict Influences Manpower . . . 102 Federal and Privately Endowed Developments . 103 Complications in "Man" Versus "Manpower" . . 107 ‘Manpower Concept and Secondary Schools . . . 112 Chapter Summary and Generalizations . . . . . 115 V. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEME, PURSUIT OF EXCEL- LENCE O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 118 Prelimina Considerations . . . . . . . . . 118 Educationa Concerns Prior to World War II . 119 Education for All YbUth e e e e e e e e e e e 120 The 1938 Educational Policies Commission . . 12h Social Emphasis in Education . . . . . . . 127 Alternative Emphases for Education - 19A0 . . 130 Some Weaknesses in School Programs of the 19‘0'3 e e e e o e e e e e o e e o e o e 0 13“ Thinking Versus Indoctrination . . . . . . . 135 The Critics Of the 1950.3 0 e e e o e o e e e 138 Reconciliation is Needed . . . . . . . . . . 1L0 Subject Matter Revisions Begin . . . . . . . lhh RCSOIUtions by Acadam1C1ans e e o e e e e e o 1A6 Other Contributions by the University of IlliflOis e o o e o o e e e e e e e e e 150 Additional Events in the 1950.3 0 e o e e e e 151 College Entrance Examination Board . . . . . 152 The School Mathematics Study Group . . . . . 153 Other Experimental Programs . . . . . . . . . 15!. iv Chapter Page Interim Observations . . . . . . . . . 160 Problems with the Term, "Excellence" . . . 163 Chapter Summary and Generalizations . . . . 167 VI. THE INTERRELATIONSHIP OF THE FOUR THEMES . . . 171 Summary 0 o o e e o o e e e e e e e e e e e 171 CODClUSions e e e e o e e e e e e o e o e e 191 Implications for Education 0 o e e e e o o e 195 The Need for Additional Studies . . . . . . 197 A Final Statement 0 e e e e e e e e e o e e 197 SEIECMD BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 199 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Improving the quality of public school education has become a matter of increasing interest in the United States during the past two decades. The acceptance of uni- versal high school education had been accomplished prior to this increased concern for quality. The emphasis turned from preoccupation with providing for growing numbers to one of increased concern for quality and quantity education for all. Numerous experimental programs have developed which have involved the participation of university academic sub- ject matter specialists as well as public school teachers and professional educators in the planning and implementa- tion of new curricular proposals. The subject matter con- tent of the new programs has been founded on the structure and the methods of inquiry unique to a particular discipline. This approach has been at variance with both the traditional subject matter’methods and content which had tended toward a piece-meal acquisition of facts and the core and life ad- justment curricula which had stressed individual needs and social processes. For a brief period the byword for the recent curricular reform movement in American education has been called the Pursuit of Excgllgnce. -1- -2- Statement of the Problem The de fgcto situation in the l963-6h year is that content is being taught that did not exist a decade ago, or even five years ago. With this change there is an emphasis on knowledge based upon the structure of content areas rather than with the exclusive concern for factual information in content areas. There also exists a newly developed communi- cation between the academic disciplines and education as a discipline, between subject matter and the methods of teach- ing it most effectively. Academicians and educators are engaged in fruitful conversation with one another. This study is focused upon the historical develop- ment of the Purggit of Egcellence theme in education and an assessment of the major factors which contributed to its development. Also examined are the factors which led to the increased concern and the corresponding acceptance by educators, teachers, academicians, and the public-at-large of the heightened emphasis on elementary and secondary sChool subject matter based on the structure of academic disciplines. Historical Antecedents While the approach to resolving the problems of edu- cation is modern, the underlying question is an old one. There is still as much validity in the query, ”What knowl- edge is of most worth?" as there was when Spencer attempted to answer it a century ago. Each generation must come to -3- grips with this question anew, and in times of rapid change the resolution of the question takes on added importance. There were, in the 1950's, anonymous claims that to strengthen subject matter meant returning to the schools of the 1890's. While the subject matter of these earlier schools was derived from academic disciplines and written for the most part by university academicians, the approaches used differed from those developed in \the 1950's. Rugg and Shumaker1 labeled the 1890 brand of subject matter a com- parUmentalized set of academic pigeonholes based on end products of logic with no attention to how children learned. Furthermore, the secondary school in 1890 was pri- marily a college preparation institution, and according to Bardeen,2 the standard of preparation must fit the demand. . . . The Latin High School in Boston must give a fit for Harvard 0r Yale in eve way equal to that of the two Philips Adademics [sic. , because if it did not its best scholars would go to the Phillips Acade- mies: but it would be absurd for'a Michigan high school to give the same training. In that state the great majority of the college boys go to Ann Arbor, and there a Harvard fit would be a positive disadvantage, putting them so far ahead of the rest of their class on the start that they would grow careless and lose J-Haro1d Rugg and Ann Shumaker, The con -Cent red Sghool (gonkers-on-Hudson, New York: W0rId 500% 50., I928), pp. 7"]. o 2C.'W. Bardeen, "Effect of the College-Preparatory High School Upon the Attendance and Scholarship in the Lower Grades," N-t on- Education Associ:tion Addre-se- : d Pro- c;:. 0;; t. ': “111160138. 3'. '0 .‘ztfla31ngton’ i. .: ‘¢e -ssociat on, =" , p. 26. -4- their habits of study. In Ohio, again, where the college standard is still lower, a Michigan fit would be out of place: while in some of the newer cities of the West, where a Baptist or a Methodist or a Presbyterian university was staked out with the first grocery store and blacksmith shop, it is some time before an Ohio fit is needed.3 Fischer,“ writing well after the fact in 1959, de- scribed two shortcomings of the 1890 schools. First the schools prepared only a few people for adult life roles, and second, the schools failed to offer opportunities for any but those academically inclined 0r talented. The Progressive Education Era Cremin5 has delineated the events that followed the 1890‘s in the rise and decline of progressive education. He pointed out that the World War I period was the divide be- tween earlier progressive education movements and those of the thirties. With the cessation of hostilities, progressive educa- tion again quickened amidst Wilsonian promises of a new and better world. But somehow the movement, like Progressivism writ 1ar e, had changed. During the twenties, as the intel ectual avant garde became fas- cinated with the arts in general and Freud in particu- lar, social reformism was virtually eclipsed_by the rhetoric of child-centered pedagogy. During the thir- ties when influential groups within the profession sought to tie progressive education more closely to 3M. “John H. Fischer, "The Priorities Question in Educa- tion," Teacher; College Record, LXI (October, 1959), p. 3. 5Lawrence A. Cremin, Th Tr f0 tion of the Scho 1 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, I9§IL 337 pp. .. 5 .. political Progressivism the movement was racked by a paralyzing partisanship from which it never fully i323!§§§§‘..§€t§€e"§§i§ Xiirlihfihhigfififiifififs°e§f the 1950's the enthusiasm, the vitality, and the dgive were gone, all that remained were the slogans. Cremin concluded that the progressive education move- ment collapsed because of (l) distortion and strife within the ranks of educators, (2) the negativism inherent in the movement: "the early progressives knew better what they were against rather than for,"7 (3) the call for an inordi- nate amount of teacher time and ability to make the inte- grated studies successful. In addition, (4) the movement was a victim of its own success in that many of the reforms pledged by the Progressives were adopted, yet the Progres- sives were unable to formulate the next steps, (5) a general swing toward conservatism.after World War II occurred in both social and political thought, (6) the progressives "committed a supreme political blunder during the thirties vwmn they allowed the movement itself to become profession- alized"8 for they then lost the support of a coalition of businessmen, farmers, trade unionists, and intellectuals. Lastly, (7) progressive education failed because it did not Sgpld., p. 181. 7Ibid., p. 3A8. 8M" p. 350. . -6- keep pace with changes occurring in American society.9 Factors Leading to the Pursuit of Excellence Thus times changed and with the changes have come interdisciplinary interests in elementary and secondary school curricula. Bruner10 reported on one interdiscipli- nary conference at Woods Hole,.Massachusetts in 1959. He related that the earlier efforts of a group of competent physicists in developing secondary school course content were prompted because of the tremendous gap which had de- veloped "between physics as known by the physicists and physics as taught in school, a gap of particular importance because of the revolutionary advances in science and'the crisis in national security."11 Bruner continued, But as the effort broadened, as scholars and sci- entists from other disciplines entered the field, a broader objective began to emerge. It is clear that there is in American education today a new emphasis upon the pursuit of excellence. There appear to be several things implied by the pursuit of excellence that have relevance not only to what we teach, but to how we tiach and how we arouse the interest of our students. 2 Bruner expressed the concern that pursuit of excel- lence must not be limited to gifted students only. A major 911213.. pp. 31.8-3 so. 1QJerome S. Bruner, Th Process of Educ tion (Cam- bridge: IHarvard University Press, I96I), 95 pp. 11Ib1d., p. 70. 1219 g. -7- quest remains one of devising materials . . . to challenge the superior student while not destroying the confidence and will-to-learn of those who are less fortunate. We have no illusions about the difficulty of such a course, yet it is the only one open to us if we are to pursue excellence and at the same time honor the diversity of talents we must educate.13 ‘ The Woods Hole Conference report was widely read, and it stated the direction that various studies in curric- ulum reform were taking. Yet another event occurred at nearly the same time. The National Education Association authorized the establishment, in 1959, of the Project on the Instructional Program of the Public Schools (Project on Instruction). The Project was given a major task: to make recommendations to the education profession and the general public whiéh would serve as guides in improving the quality of the instructional program.14 Under the aegis of the Project, a seminar on Social Forces was held in 1960, and in 1961 the significant Disciplines Seminar met at the NEA Center.15 Professional educators, teachers, and academi- cians met together to plan and develop the several reports 2212- 14Richard I. Miller, Education in a Ch n Societ , A Report prepared for the Project on nstruct on as ng- ton, D. 0.: National Education Association, 1963 , p. 1. 15National Education Association, PEQEQCt on Instruc- tion; A Prgliminggy Report, A Report Prepare t e ro- ect on nstruct on as ngton, D. C.: Nation Education Association, 1961), p. 6. 13 -3- which were the outcome of the Project's work and which will certainly serve as focal points for future discussion rel- ative to curriculum development. Related Studies A review of related studies evidenced the omission of research in determining the origins of the Pursuit of Excellegce theme in public education. There were, however, several studies which reviewed closely related topics. Hennis16 critically analyzed the philosophical, psychological, and methodological foundations of the core curriculum in educational theory from 1918 to 1958. Sal- antin017 made an historical analysis of curriculum planning and attempted to isolate factors which tend to prevent modern curriculum planning from keeping up with needed changes. Blackington18 investigated the construct of life adjustment as it related to the life adjustment movement in American education. 16Rucker Sterling Hennis, Jr., "The Philosophical and Psychological Feundations of the Core Curriculum in Edu- cational Theory: 1918-1958," Dissert tio Ab t cts, V01. XXII, part A (unpublished Ph.D. KissertatIon, The University of North Carolina, 1961), p. 3547. 17Alphonse Philip Salantino, "An Historical Analysis of modern Curriculum Planning,“ Dis ert tion Ab tr cts, V01. XXIII, Part 1 (un ublished Ed.D. EIssertatIon, Tfie Univer- sity of Buffalo, 962), pp. 1266-1267. 18Frank Blackington, "A Philosophical Analysis of the Construct 'Life Adjustment' and Its Implications for Education" (un blished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 19 0). -9- Rugg's19 massive treatment of the progressive edu- cation movement provided a basis for understanding the pre- lude to the present as did the work by Cremin20 cited earlier. A series of essays edited by Smith and Enn1821 attempted to reassess educational concepts and beliefs. Critical examina- tions were made of such concepts as "learning by experience,” "needs and the needs curriculum," "uses of subject matter," "a concept of teaching," and other constructs evident in edu- cational literature. Lieberman22 used an analytical approach in an endeavor to clarify the meaning of equality of educa- tional opportunity. The Method of Research The focus of this study was that of assessing, re- lating, and evaluating the causal factors leading to the de fggto situation in secondary and elementary schools of discipline-centered course content, which emphasized quality as well as quantity. The historical method of research was 19Harold Rugg, F0 dati ns for American Education (Yonkers-on-Hudson, New YorE: NorId 500E Company, I9A7), 20Cremin, op, cit. 21B. Othanel Smith and Robert H. Ennis, Editors, d Conce t 1 Education (Chicago: Rand, McNally and Company, , pp. 2ZMyron Lieberman, "Equality of Educational Oppor- tunity " Harvggg Educationgl Reyiew, XXIX (Spring, 1959), pp. 128-136. -10- used. Within the broad framework of the historical method several alternatives were available. The possibility of analyzing the image of American education during a twenty year period from the reports concerning teachers and the schools in the popular press was one approach. This was not used. Nor was the approach used which would compare the development of intellectual activity within education to intellectual activity in other disciplines, namely the sci- ences, over a twenty year period. Instead, there developed an approach to chronicle both events and ideas relating to education in the period under examination. This involved a rather thorough immersion in the intellectual climate of the period under study as well as a greater knowledge of the societal affairs of that period. A mere listing of dates and ideas was insufficient, however, for the purposes of an historical research, particularly one which was to trace the development of a movement toward quality as well as quantity in American education. There developed an under- lying theory to provide the structure for the research. The theoretical framework has consisted of four separate, but related, themes. The development of these themes comprises the bulk of the research undertaken here. Initially, the author read widely from professional educational journals and from respected lay journals cover- ing the twenty-year period under study. These included: ngghggg lelegg Recgr ; School R view: Sch 01 d Societ ; -11- N tion' Schools; Educational ngdership; NEA Journgl; E19; menta - School Journal; and others from the field of pro- fessional education. Lay journals surveyed in detail in- cluded: S turda Review; The Repgrter; Hggpgr's Magazine; Perspgctivgs, U.S.A.; and others not specifically directed. toward educational problems. From this extensive reading a feeling for the time span under study evolved. Furthermore, the reading served as the basis for the development of the theoretical framework used throughout the ensuing study. As the theory deve10ped, other sources of information were utilized which were more specific to the formulation and development of the themes intrinsic to the theory. Some of these sources included: educational society yearbooks; recorded proceedings of educational organizations' confer- ences; published reports of’meetings; resolutions passed by organizations; and opinions of qualified observers. Every attempt was made to use primary sources. How- ever, in much of the data at hand, the line between primary and secondary sources became a thin one and at times was erased completely. As a consequence, the writer has been faced continually with the need to resolve questions per- taining to the relevance of data, to the concensus or lack of concensus expressed by other writers, and to the degree of involvement permitted in ancillary issues. -12- The Theoretical Framework The purpose of this study has been to retrace the history of a movement emphasizing quality as well as quan- tity in education and to examine pertinent causes in light of a theoretical framework in order to understand the move- ment more fully. The theoretical frame of reference is as follows. During the period from 1940 to 1963, public school instructional personnel (teachers) through most of their professional organizations were concentrating major efforts on teacher welfare and security issues. Curriculum develop- ments were clearly secondary in importance in light of the other factors of salary, prestige and so forth. While teachers were concentrating much of their non-instructional effort on changing their own status, they in a sense de- faulted by not keeping up with advances in knowledge in the academic fields. The striving of the profession to gain status through increased remuneration and stronger stand- ing comprises Theme I, Teaching as a Pppfession. This is explored in Chapter II. Closely related to the Teachipg aa a Pppfession theme is a second theme called Education as a Discipline. The segment of the educational world under investigation in this theme is comprised of the professional educator at the university level as opposed to the teacher in the public -13- schools. To assist in the arbitrary separation of groups of people, educators have been compared to that of the sci- entist and the teacher to a professional. The National Manpower Council distinguished between scientists and pro- fessionals as follows: . . . the distinguishing mark of scientific activity is the pursuit of new knowledge through research, while professional activity consists primarily in providing services made possible in the application of existing knowledge. In a formal sense, the sci- entist per orms a research function, while the pro- fessional is a practitioner.23 The efforts of educational researchers then, have been those of developing and utilizing the methods of in- quiry unique to the study of education. The coalescing of this knowledge has led to the development of a discipline of education. The movement toward a discipline of educa- tion began early in the twentieth century. The educational researchers, or as defined here the professional educators, were involved in their own inquiries relative to learning, and to teaching, and they, as did the practicing teachers, defaulted by not attending the co—developments in knowledge in disciplines outside of education. The efforts of educa- tors to develop methods of inquiry and a body of knowledge unique to the study of education comprises Theme II, Educa- tion aa a Discipline, investigated in Chapter III. 23National Manpower Council, "Introduction," A Polio for Scient fic d Profession wer (New York: Co um ia n vers ty rose, 5 , p. . -14- The third theme, the Mapppwer Concept of Education explores the contributions of the larger society to the problems of curriculum development in the years immediately after world War II. This context has been one of notice- able shortages in several technical and professional fields. A military concept, "manpower" became an important criterion for seeking educational means of training, allocating, and using human talents to the utmost due to the limited nature of high level talent and the rapidly increasing demand for such talent. In the field of education this theme was evi- denced by the efforts to reduce the teacher shortage and the impact this concern for manpower had on the public under- standing of education. The'Mapppflar Concept of Education is the third theme, and it is investigated in Chapter IV. The remaining theme, the Pursuit of Excellence, is the culminating theme derived in part from all three pre- vious themes. In the Paraait of Eacellence emphasis has been placed on knowledge. Knowledge implies the best uses of human talent, as developed in "manpower," and also the impingement of all disciplines, academic as well as educa- tion, on the act of learning and the act of teaching. While the gapapat of Expellence theme was a separate entity, it also has become the unifying thread leading from theme to theme. Teachers and educators saw Purspgt of Excellence initially as democratic education for all youth. Educational -15- critics saw this emphasis as a tendency toward mediocrity in that insufficient educational opportunity was developed for academically apt learners. Educators tended to take one route to excellence while academicians sought another route to excellence. The most recent result has been a mutual learning on the part of individuals in both groups. As a consequence, criticism of education has shifted sig- nificantly in the l960kn While the term "pursuit of ex- cellence" has been used in this study because it appeared in the literature for a brief period, this does not mean that a single definition for the term exists. Nor does this study attempt to analyze all meanings of the term as used. Instead the following arbitrary definition of "pursuit of excellence" has been used: curriculum based on knowledges derived from methods of inquiry and the structure of a dis- cipline. The development of the fourth theme, Pursuit of Excellence has been dealt with in Chapter V. Chapter VI summarizes the factors contributing to present concerns for, and developments in school curricula predicated upon, an emphasis upon academic discipline structure. It also points to needed research and further implications or understandings for education. It is integral to the theory that the four themes are intricately interwoven. To deal with them at all, how- ever, the strands must be separated for closer examination. Elementary and secondary curriculum development today have -16- as the basis these separate but interwoven strands. The following analysis is based on the theory that the particular emphasis placed on the separate themes by different elements within the educational family and in society in general, have caused a pulling apart, as it were, of the total fabric. As a consequence, the very individuals who must make educa- tion a trustworthy, cohesive implement for social better- ment have been exposed to criticism and confusion. By examining the past, it is possible to see the evolution of these themes and the probable causes of the present concern for the heightened academic standards in American public education. Limitations The scope of this study has been limited to the years 1940 to 1963, with the exception of the development of Egupatipp as a Disciplipe theme which had important historical preliminaries prior to l9h0. The study does not investigate teacher preparation. This has been an important concern, and one which has been closely related to both Theme I and Theme II. As difficult as it was to ignore teacher preparation, this was considered to be outside the scope of this study. In a similar fashion an extended analysis of the impact of federal influences through the National Science Foundation or of nationa1.influences through privately -17- endowed foundations has been placed beyond the scope and intent of this study. Also beyond the scope and intent of the study were topics relating to education of the gifted; post-high school education of college bound and non-college bound; vocational education; educational developments for veterans; and many closely related areas. Furthermore, the study has been limited to pr0posals for change rather than the implementation of these proposals in real schools. The societal factors inherent in the need for changes have not been analyzed, but have been accepted as contributing factors. _' The study does not examine in detail the pontent of the experimental curricular programs developed in the aca- demic disciplines for elementary and secondary school students. Neither does it explore the ranges of knowledge developed in the academic disciplines at the growing edge of research. Lastly, an attempt to answer the question, "Pursuit of excellence for what purpose?" has not been the major focus of this study. Implications have been dealt with in the concluding chapter as the interrelationships of the four major themes were interwoven into a whole. The issue itself has not been resolved in this study. In summary, this study has been one of analyzing the factors contributing to the development of the Papsuit of Eacellenpe theme in American elementary and secondary -13- education as expressed in the literature since 19A0. The analysis has been of an historical nature. Basic Assumptions An assessment of the type undertaken in this study has been predicated upon certain basic assumptions. The first assumption has been that there was no single cause for the development of a Pursuit of Excellence emphasis in American education in the 19505 and 1960un Therefore, it has become relevant to find and to trace the several causes leading to the pronouncements as stated in the literature. Closely related to this assumption was one which was stated by Edwardszh when he said that education can never be an autonomous process separated from the society which it was to serve. A third assumption was that the ideas and Opinions stated by qualified observers were pertinent to the times, and have reflected more than one individual's biases. In short, the aspects of concensus were assumed when the‘same themes were repeated by several individuals. Therefore, the material dealt with in this study has been material of the times. . Lastly, it has been assumed that the concerns with curricular subject matter based on the structure and methods 2“Newton Edwards "Introduction," Review of Educ - W. XIX (Fefiruary. 191.9). p- I. -19- of inquiry of a given discipline will continue to be impor- tant for the next few years in American education. Therefore, predicated upon the above assumptions and bounded by the limitations, the study of the factors contrib- uting to the deve10pment of the Pursuit of Excellence theme in American education has been undertaken. CHAPTER II THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEME TEACHING AS A PROFESSION An Overview While the four major themes dealt with in this study are interwoven, the first two, Teaching as a Profession and Education Disci line, are even more closely intermeshed. Both are components of the instrument customarily recognized as the public school. It is also part of the overall theory that these two elements have tended to become disparate in the past, with the practicing teachers losing communication with the professional educators and the educators with teachers through social lag or even obsolescence. This has resulted in a dichotomy between the professional educators and "those who are doing the high quality job of teaching children."1 The problems of communication between the two sets of educational personnel are well-known in the educa- tional complex, ranging through diverse and numerous attempts lMorris Meister, "Statement of Dr. Morris Meister, President, Bronx Community College," Hearin 3 Before the Sub- committee on Education of the Committee on Eabor and PuEIic WeIfare on 3. E356. A EiII to Improve tfie QuaIlt o E e- mentary an econ ary Education, pri and 2; I§§Z. United States Senate, Eighty-sevent ongress, Second Session, Sup- erintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., 1962, pp. 22 and 29. -20- -21- to up—date curricula, to provide inservice education, and to improve pro-service education for teachers. The exten- sive problems of relating educational practice and educational experimentation or theory are far too involved to be fully explored in this context, but the mention of them is made to give recognition to the possible impact upon the central prob- lem of this chapter. One other caution is necessary at this point. To examine the two themes they must be separated. This separa- tion is not intended to make the two themes mutually exclu- sive of one another. There is much overlapping between professional educators and practicing teachers in terms of goals, understandings and procedures. What is intended is only to heighten the differences for the sake of contrast so the two themes themselves attain visibility, before submerg- ing once again into the main stream of thought. Concerns of Practicing Classroom Teachers Practicing classroom teachers in the 19606 have been drawn for the most part from a population born in the 1920's and 193OEn The chaotic social conditions of those two dec- ades have been delineated elsewhere and are recognized his- torical facts. Those teachers still practicing in public schools who were teaching during those post-W0rld War I and depression years have experienced many types of frustrations and were often positioned as second-class citizens within -22- their own communities. Low salaries, lack of tenure, poor working conditions, insufficient shielding of their private lives based on superfluous issues as whether one smoked or not or if a married woman should teach, all attributed to the teachers' concern regarding their vocational role. As the national economy became more affluent, teachers, through their professional organizations, such as the National Edu- cation Association and the state affiliates, sought to improve the working conditions and the status of their livelihood by pressing for higher wages and better instructional facilities and materials, as well as achieve a professional prestige. Broudy,2 writing in 19A0, discussed the teachers' concept of themselves as professionals as opposed to the general public's concept of teachers as "white-collar craftsmen." He pointed out that a discrepancy existed "between the prestige teachers would like to have and the prestige accorded them by the public."3 Broudy examined several avenues to prestige, but concluded that the best route to increased prestige was through an extended training of a more abstract nature. Here- tofore preparation for teaching had generally been of low quality and accessible to nearly anyone and everyone. Brief periods of training were commonplace prior to 19A0, with 2H. S. Broudy, "Academic Requirements and Profes- sionallgrestige," School and Societ , LI (January 6, 19A0), PP- - . 31bide , p. 70 -23- minimal state certification requirements. As an example, granting the Michigan State Limited Certificate for teach— ing kindergarten through grade eight after two years of post-high school training had only been terminated as.re- cently as 1956.4 Secondary teachers had had for a longer period higher requirements by requiring a baccalaureate de- gree for certification. Teaching was viewed as a job, not as a profession. Practicing teachers were concerned with attempting to resolve the problems of: (l) prestige, which in turn involved cer- tification; (2) the role of women in the profession, often reflected by the double pay schedule for men and women: (3) the relative importance of secondary teachers as compared to elementary teachers; (A) low salaries and unemployment during the depression years; and (5) a general attitude of vocationalism versus professionalism. Professional Association Support and Membership in the 19A0's The published reports of the National Education Association annual conventions provided the documentation for Theme I. As the major official voice of the teachers, this source proved to be invaluable. -The NEA noted in the “Clair L. Taylor, One-Hundred and Third Re rt of the Su erintendent of Publ c nstruct on or t e lennium ¥g§§-§E, State 0? MIcEigan, Department of PuEIIc Instruction ns ng: Department of Public Instruction, 1957), p. 85. -24.. 19h5-19A6 Proceedings of the Convention that a steady in- crease in NEA membership, over 3A0,000 "gives added strength to the organized profession and has made possible the ex- pansion of our services."5 Additional emphasis that year was centered on research, which underlay "campaigns for teacher welfare-~salaries, tenure, pensions, and all the rest."6 Other evidences of the growth of the organization and the profession it represented was the addition of the divisions for adult education, including services to veter- ans; audio-visual instruction, and a travel service for teachers. The National Emergency Conference for Recruitment Similarly, Schlagle remarked about the teacher short- age as a national problem, and reported on an emergency con- ference called to "develop an action program for recruiting, preparing and retaining competent people as teachers."7 The National Emergency Conference was held at Chautauqua, New York, on June 27-29, 1946 at which time 400 professional and lay leaders from throughout the nation conducted an intensive study on: recruitment; guidance; selection; pro-service education; certifica- tion; placement, employment, and induction; working 5F. L. Schlagle President of NEA, "Significant Achieve- ments," National Education Association Addresses and Procezd- ins B ‘ - o ‘ew ork °- ., o . 3 and .1, Washing- ton, D. C.: ‘ationa Eoucat on Association (hereafter called the NEA) 19h6), De 210‘. 6Ibid., p. 24. 7 1a., p. 25. -25- conditions; salaries; tenure and retirement; achieving public recognition for teaching; professional standards for teacher preparing institutions; finance as related to upgrading the profession. The above listing of problems confronting the profession was one to concern the NEA as well as the profession for the next two decades. Establishment of the TEPS Commission At the NEA national convention in July, l9h6, fol- lowing the Chautauqua Emergency Conference, the Delegate Assembly abolished the Committee on Teacher Preparation and Certification and replaced it with the National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards. This action had been an outgrowth of the Chautauqua Conference. The Commission is charged to become the voice of the rank and file of the organized teaching rofession of our nation in matters of recruitment, se ection, prep- aration, certification, and advancement of professional standards, including standards for institutions which prepare teachers. It aims to be a factor in developing further a vigorous, well-organized, competent profes- sion, which now numbers over one million elementary, secondary, and higher education teachers in public and private schools.9 The TEPS Commission, during the l9A6-l9h7 academic year, undertook to bring the teacher shortage to the attention of 8Committee on Teacher Preparation and Certification, NEA Aggfeasea apd ProceeaingsE Buffalo, 12&§-1¥&6 Vol. 83 an A as ington, . .: , , pp. -AA2. 9National Commission on Teacher Education and Pro- fessional Standards, NEA Addresses and Proceedin s Cin- ci ati l , Vol. 85 as ington, . .: , , p. 2 . -26- the American public. All news media were utilized to pub- licize the need for teachers as well as the recommendations for achieving a solution to the problem. In addition, the Commission pressed for minimum salaries for B.A. degree certified teachers at 82,400, and advocated a regularly in- cremented salary séhedule. The Commission further urged that state certification requirements be raised and called for the elimination of emergency licenses. In terms of internal organization the TEPS Commission called for the establishment of parallel state commissions to work with the national Commission. Lastly, the 1946-1947 TEPS Commission made this comment. I As its efforts to publicize the teacher shortage and established professional salary standards have taken hold in the nation, the Commission has turned its em- phasis upon the improvement of teaching. The Commis- sion considers an improvement in the quality of edu- cation to be essential, not only to justify the standards of salary which are promulgated, but also as a means of making further gains in the status of teaching. This aim was emphasized in the teacher- selection campaign and was the basic theme in the National Conference for the Improvement of Teaching held at.Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. Organized similarly to the Chautauqua Conference, the Oxford Conference was intended to give parallel emphasis to the improvement of salaries and other conditions sur- rouding teaching. The Commission feels strongly that further rogress will come only through balanced atten- tion to 0th these elements.10 Other conferences in this series sponsored by TEPS included the Bowling Green Conference, 1948, which dealt 1°1p;d., p. 273. -27- ‘with pro-service education; the New Hampshire Conference, 1949. on in-service education; and the Indiana Conference in 1950-1951, at which time evaluation criteria for teacher education programs were examined. During the 1949-1950 year, the TEPS Commission inaugurated the publication of 22a Janpal of Teacaer Education. In the 1950 report, as found in the NEA Addresses and Proceedings, the TEPS Commission stated, A significant development during the year was the grow- ing momentum within the profession for the formulation and application of adequate standards for institutions which are approved for the preparing of members of the teaching profession. Although the teaching profession is the last of the learned professions to come to grips with this basic problem, the positive steps taken dur- ing this past year point toward an early achievement of this necessary goal.ll In addition, the TEPS Commission recommended more state and local action in TEPS; that all states establish at the earli- est feasible date minimum requirements of four college years of professional preparation for initial teacher certification and the states which can do so, move to a five-year prepara- tion requirement for the initial certificate. While the goal has not yet been achieved, substantial progress has been made in the direction of raising certification require- ments. Certainly the TEPS Commission gave evidence of this far-sightedness over a decade ago. 11NCTEPS “Report,” NEA Addresses nd Proceedin 3, St, gguaa, 1250, Vol. 88 (Wh5hIngton, D. 5.: NEA, I955) P 3 -23- The Teaching Profession in the 1950's As inflation affected the dollar value, the TEPS Commission 1951, revised the salary figures to $3,000 to $8,000, as the necessary equivalent in current dollar values of the $2,400 to $6,000 salary standard set in 1946.12 The 1951 report went on to say, We now face a world situation and a national emergency that threaten the very foundations of professional standards in teaching. The pressures of war, infla- tion and the manpower shortage can wipe out the gains of the past five years and sink the profession of teaching once more and possibly even deeper in the mire of insecurity, instability, and public indiffer- ence. Under existing pressures, the schools can soon be flooded with unqualified teachers, working condi- tions can quickly become intolerable, and the general quality of instruction can be diluted to the level of shodiness in a very short time. Salaries, security, prestige, morale-~all these things rest upon the foundation of professional standards and they must rise or fall with those standards.13 In this year the TEPS Commission called for the NEA to con- demn the practice of granting temporary teaching licenses to persons unable to meet regular certification requirements; to reaffirm the need for four years minimum college training for initial certification and the five-year requirement where possible; and called for the implementation of the salary schedule cited above. 12NCTEPS "Report," NEA Addresses and Proceedi s Sap Franciscp, 1251, V01. 89 (WashIngton, D. 5.: NEE, I951), p. e . 13Ibid., p. 309. -29- Meanwhile the NEA Committee on Professional Ethics had revised the 1941 NEA Code of Ethics and presented this new code for adoption at the 1952 Representative Assembly session at the National NEA convention.1h By 1952, the TEPS Commission reported teacher preparation had improved remark- ably since 1946, when only slightly more than 50 percent of all employed teachers were college graduates. It was esti- mated that in 1951-52, 70 percent of all employed teachers had completed baccalaureate or higher degrees, in spite of the fact the number of teachers had trebeled since 1946. One of the major activities of the TEPS Commission during 1951- 52 was the participation in the efforts to bring about the establishment of a national accrediting procedure for teacher education which resulted in the proposed National Council for Accreditation in Teacher Education. The NCATE resolu- tion was adopted by the Representative Assembly July 2, 1952, and the Council was organized the following November.15 Criticisms of Existing Professional Standards and Schools in 1950's Despite the reports of progress in raising standards along with pay, teacher preparation and education in general 1“National Education Association, "Commission on Pro- fessional Ethics Re rt," NEA Addresses d Proceedin 3 .Mi Beach, 1252, V01. 9 (washIngton, D. C.: NEE, I953), p. 223. 1SNCTEPS, "Re rts," NEA Addresses d Proceedin s, thpoit, 1252, V01. 9 (Washington, D. C.: NEA, I952), pp. -30- received a broadside from Edgar W. Knight, professor of educational history at the University of North Carolina. In comparing Americans' faith in education to their faith in universal salvation through the Christian church, Knight stated that both movements were born in poverty and in an atmosphere of social contempt, nurtured sparingly by phil- anthr0py, and each was, in its own way, obstructed by con- flicting philosOphies or partisan politics. Both slowly grew to become a powerful force in the lives of men. How- ever, Knight went on to say, one of the important lacks in public education was that of the proper education of teachers. There is no common agreement among the professional educationalists on how best to prepare teachers and managers of the schools, and this has become an in- creasingly acute issue as the public educational arrangements of this country have increased in quantity. This is today about as controversial as dogmas for plat- forms ever were among the ecclesiastics and politicians. In education there has been no official hierarchy or party machine to determine dogmas oruplatforms or to sett e unseemly disputes on what sho d be taught in the schools or who should teach it. . . . State educa- tional associations and even the big and powerful NEA have seemed to content themselves with passing resolu- tions on the need for better teachers, and of course for more money to pay them; but the grave responsibil- ities of preparation of the teachers and managers of the country's largest social endeavor have been compla- cently left to the countless teacher-education insti- tutions, which it has been said, sometimes appear to be in cahoots with the certification bureaus of state departments of education, some of whose specialists, it has also been said cannot always qualify for the certificates they issue to those who go about the Middle- towns trying to teach and manage the schools. This condition is in striking contrast to those in some other professions. Physicians determine who may be -31- physicians; lawyers, who may be lawyers; engineers, who may be engineers. . . . 6 , Knight further commented on the relatively low intellectual caliber student enrolled in teacher preparation programs, citing studies by Bagley and Learned, Learned and wood, Edu- cational Testing Service, and others to support his argument. It is interesting to note the time correlation be- tween Knight's comments and the inception of the National Council for Accrediation of Teacher Education. Organiza- tional efforts were actually underway at the time Knight was writing. The current 1952 thought concerning improving teacher preparation was more widespread than Knight sought to acknowledge. This further reflects Broudy's concerns of 1940 in which he pointed out that teacher prestige would be improved by affording training of a more abstract nature. Steps were being taken to set into operation a means of im— proving selection and preparation of teachers. The crucial years of 1951-53 were reflected by an- other commission report: The National Commission for the Defense of Democracy Through Education of the NEA. The re- port stated: The academic year 1952-53 has seen some recession of the effectiveness of the attacks against the public schools throughout the country. Altho there have been very threatening situations in local areas, there have 16Edgar W. Knight, "Some Disturbing Educational Con- tradictions," School d Societ , LXXVI (November 29, 1952), pp. 338-3390 _32- been very few reports of school crises that have de- veloped out of the efforts of the violent detractors of education, educators, and educational publications and materials. The failures of our enemies have been largely due to two ma or factors: (a) the entire personnel of the loca school systems, from the presi- dent of the board of education to the custodians, have come to realize the importance of improving relation- ships with the public in spite of the tremendous burden of other duties that school employees are carrying today, and (b) those who have attacked the schools have been so immoderate, dishonest and unreasonable in their charges that they have generally been rejected by the vast majority of citizens in each community when the real facts concerning the school situation have been made clear.17 The following year the Defense Commission re- ported: Some of the individuals who seemed to be most active in developing, inciting, and encouraging destructive criticism of public education became less active and less effective during the 1953-54 academic year. Lu- cile C. Crain, who edited a leaflet of purported "re- views" of textbooks, announced that her periodical has ceased publication. Amos A. Fries, one of the first to issue bitter tirades against the leadership of the teaching profession in his bulletin, Friends of the Public Schools, has not been heard of for more than eight months. Allan 2011 has not interfered in a school trouble spot in nearly a year.18 I. L. Kandel, commenting on the crisis years of the early 1950!» singled out two motives for the criticisms be- setting education at that time: ”Hostility to the rising costs of education and falsely pr0pagated fear of subversive 17National Commission for the Defense of Democracy, "Report," NEA Addresses and Proceedin 3 Miami Beach 1 , Vol. 91 (WasEington, D. C.: NEA, I953), p. 3I§. 18National Commission for the Defense of Democracy, "Report," NEA Addrasses and Proceedings, New York City, 1255, Vol. 92 (Was ngton, D. C.: E , 54 , p. 3 . -33- activities in the schools.”19 He went on to comment that the hostility to the rising costs of education were based on an ignorance of the educational needs, increasingly larger enrollments, and improved standards for teachers. Concern- ing the fear of subversive activities in schools, Kandel attributed this to a general hysteria which swept the nation in the post-World War II years, with charges inspired by "super-patriots" who ignored a careful examination of the facts. Improvements in the Teaching Profession 1946-1956 The TEPS Commission, in rounding out a decade of operation, reported in 1956 the progress achieved during the preceding years. From 15 states requiring the bachelor's degree for beginning elementary teachers in 1946-47, 31 states required the degree in 1955-56. In 1946-47, only 45% of all employed teachers had a baccalaureate degree, while in 1956 this had risen to 68% of all employed teachers, and average salaries had risen from $2,080 to $4,000 by 1955-56. In 1946-47, 123,000 teachers or one in seven held emergency certification. By 1955-56 this number had dropped to 80,000, or about one teacher in fourteen. In 1946-47 only 41,000 19I. L. Kandel, "we Must Educate our Masters," School d Societ , LXXVI (July 19, 1952), p. 44. -34- teachers completed undergraduate degree preparation, whereas in 1955-56 the number was 96,000.20 The TEPS report for 1957 commented, In 1955. the Commission, putting together all factors and available data, was able to predict a steady im- provement in the teacher supply situation and to pre- dict that by 1962 the situation, if standards continued to be raised, would be improved to the extent that the annual production of teachers would be sufficient to supply the two basic requirements of (a) teachers to staff new positions and (b) to replace those who leave the profession each year. Moreover, the Commission, in its report The Cruci 1 Years, in that year predicted by 1965, assuming a continuation of the Professional Stan- dards movement unhindered, the profession should be able to achieve a reasonable balance in teacher supply and demand for all purposes at all teaching levels and fields. By 1950, the movement was beginning to overcome condi- tions which hindered the profession during World War II and a reasonable balance in teacher supply and demand was in prospect when the Korean War again created a na- tional emergency, resulting in extreme manpower shortages in all fields. Between 1950 and 1954 there was a steady decline in college enrollments and in the annual pro- duction of teachers, as well as the production of pro- fessional personnel in other fields. In 1955 this downward spiral was checked, and the production of tea- chers showed a slight gain. In 1956 and 1957 signifi- cant gains were made in the annual production of teachers, with gains each year in the production of high-school teachers of approximately 16% over the previous year, and the overall sin in the production of teachers of approximately 1 . The 1957 Production reached a total of 116,573 teachers at all levels of preparation, with 107,452 of these being degree graduates. The elementary degree teacher gsoduction, which in 1946 was estimated to be about 10, 0 and in 1948 was reported by the first annual study of teacher supply and demand to be 13,827, reached an all-time peak in 1957 with the production of about 42,796. College enrollments in 1956-57 surpassed 20 NCTEPS "Re ort " NEA Addresses and Proceedin 8, Portland, 1256, Vol. 4 (WasEIngEon, D. C.: NEA, I956), pp. 32 -33 . -35- all predictions, totalling 3,230,000, about 40% of the current 18- 21 age group. This is the best possible omen for improving teacher supply.21 In 1957, the report went on to say, the Future Teachers Asso- ciation was divided into a high-school and a college group, retaining the FTA name for the high-schools, and initiating the name Student National Education Association for the col- lege age organization. Academic Disciplines Become Involved in Teacher Preparation In 1958, the TEPS report stressed the continued shortage of teachers, particularly at the elementary school level. New problems were faced in terms of the holding power of teaching. The report stated that nearly one-third of all newly prepared teachers each year did not take jobs teaching. In addition, another 90,000 left the profession each year for one reason or another. "These large attritions indicate that corrective measures are needed to permit teach- ing to compete with industry for the services of qualified personnel."22 Another significant problem faced by the Com- mission that year was the sustained attacks upon public 21NCTEPS,"Report " NEA Add asses and Proceedings, PailadeLpgia, 1252, Vol. 55 Was ington, NEA, 57), pp- -A . 22NCTEPS, "Re port " NEA Addresses and Proceedin s, Clegeland, 1258, Vol. p96 (Washington, D. C.: NEA, I953), p. O -36- school and teacher education and certification procedures, brought about in part by the Russian demonstration of science and technology, increasing costs in public education, and the population explosion, Rather than preparing answers to these attacks, the Commission has pursued the constructive policy of attempting to stimulate improvement in teacher edu- cation and certification procedures, in line with new and increased demands upon the schools.23 The constructive policy indicated above was implemented by six regional conferences sponsored by TEPS which dealt with "The Teacher Education Program--Basic Principles and Issues." The regional conferences were used to plan the agenda for the 1958 national TEPS conference which was to emphasize the cooperative approach to the improvement of teacher educa- tion, "with the involvement of a relatively large proportion of papresentativea of the academic disciplines in colleges apd universitias preparipg teachers."24 The above statement was one of the first to be made by the NEA regarding the necessity of involving the academic disciplines in teacher preparation. This was expanded upon in the 1959 Proceedings report. The chief focus was upon efforts to bring about a partnership in the strengthening of teacher education and certification. The campaign of vilification and recrimination had gotten out of bounds and the com- mission in collaboration with several large and 23Io1d., p. 353. 2‘*Ihld., p. 354 (italics added). -37.. influential association representing the liberal arts fields, sought to bring the dissident elements to- gether through the co-sponsorship of the 13th Annual National TEPS Conference, held on the campus of the Bowling Green (Ohio) State University, June 24-28, 1958. Progress was made in this conference toward establishing a sympathetic understanding of and in- augurating a concerted attack upon the problems of improving teacher education. There was apparent will- ingness on the part of those representing the academic disciplines to assume their share of responsibility for deve10ping a high-quality program of teacher edu- cation. This conference, ca led by the New York Times an "historic conference," resulted in a pop ar e- mand for the Commission to continue this cooperative approach. The 1959 National TEPS Conference, to be held at the University of Kansas (Lawrence), June 23-26, 1959, will study the desirable content of teacher-education curricula.25 This report continued to discuss the teacher shortage and holding power of teaching, especially in the fields of sci- ence and mathematics. The Bowling Green Conference, 1958, was the first of three such c00perative conferences instituted by the TEPS Commission. It dealt with "The Education of Teachers: New Perspectives." The following two conferences, Kansas, 1959, and San Diego, 1960 were entitled respectively "The Educa- tion of Teachers: Curricular Programs" and "The Education of Teachers: Certification." These conferences resulted in a greater recognition of the need for sustained consider- ation and emphases of future TEPS activities as well as the 25NCTEPS, "Report " NEA Addresses and Proceedin 3, St. 3 uis l , Vol. 97 (WasHIngton, D. 9.: NEA, I959), p. . -33- New Horizons Project, initiated by TEPS in 1959, and "de- signed to develop definite statements to serve as guides for national, state, and local action programs for profes- sional organizations and individuals working toward complete professionalization."26 By 1961, a fourth cooperative conference of the academic disciplines and professional educational associa- tions had met at Pennsylvania State University at which time attention was directed to the basic requirements of action at the national, state, and local levels for the realization of the major purposes and programs set forth in the New Horizons report. Chapter Summary and Generalizations In the preoccupation with raising pay, improving working conditions, and attempting to raise standards for certification, it would appear that those agencies repre- senting the practicing teachers seemed to have failed to take note of two important factors: (1) they assumed the subject matter content to be stabilized and penultimate in nature, and (2) they failed to reorient their perspective in terms of what professionalism would mean once it was achieved. Fifteen years after Broudy's comments concerning 26NCTEPS "Report," NEA Addresses and Proceedin 3 Los Angeles, 1260, Vol. 98 (washington, D. 5.: NEA, I959), p03 0 -39- the need for training of an abstract nature, Burton W. Gorman wrote in 1955. A most disappointing experience is to talk to a teacher who seems to have no vision of the future of his profession. The fact that so many in teach- ing fail to see it playing a vastly larger and more significant role in the life 30, 40, or 50 years from now is the main drawback to educational progress today. The teacher must have a vision of a greater profession in order to make a positive contribution to the fruition of that vision. Organization, public relations, budgets, buildings--all are important but in no way substitute for the grasp of what is to be and what can be. Administrators and school boards, since 1946, in their desparate efforts just to keep schools open and to provide "sitters" if not teachers for all children, have been forced to resort to personnel policies of expedience with little regard for the long-range con- sequences.27 Some of the expediencies to which Gorman referred were those indicated earlier, the permitting of emergency certification for teachers due to enrollment expansion and the unavailability of fully qualified teachers. Problems of certification have continued to be pressing. The pro- fessionalization of a large group, well over a million in- dividuals, is not an easy task. Practicing teachers them- selves, because the financial conditions and the working conditions count heavily in feelings toward work, have pre- empted much time and energy to the promotion of a stronger lobby in the form of the professional organizations 27Burton W. Gorman, "The Teaching Profession To- morigg," School apa Society, LXXXII (October 29, 1955), p. e -40- representing them. But such pressing problems as the con- tent of the curricula or methodological innovations have tended to be bypassed by the practicing teachers. Yet these important areas are certainly part of a developing profession. Oddly enough, classroom teachers themselves have been slow to recognize their nearsightedness in omitting these from their areas of concern. In retracing the evolution of the theme, Teaching as a ProfeSsion, at least two factors have been present. One has been the concern with higher pay, prestige, and working conditions as evidenced by the continued references in the NEA reports. This has been the rallying point of the practicing teachers. The second factor has been the concern for better prepared teachers. This has been the main concern of those in professional education, but not necessarily those prac- ticing in elementary or secondary school classrooms. Such writers as Broudy and Knight have acted as the spokesmen for thiS»movement. There is little evidence to suggest that practicing classroom teachers gave any concern for this important factor, and in fact the lack of comment tends to suggest that classroom teachers for the most part ignored this element. In addition, the slow development of improved standards of acceptance to teacher candidacy and the con- tinued use of the emergency certification provisions sug- gest a reticence on the part of classroom teachers to -41- accommodate this factor as a necessary part of professional- ization. The evidence supporting the development of the concern for better prepared teachers has been cited in the reports stating the initiation of NCTEPS, NCATE, and lately the Fund for the Advancement of Education Conference of leading professional educators in teacher education at Palo Alto, June through August, 1960 at which time a critical reappraisal of the professional aspects of teacher education were studied.28 The latter concern, improved teacher preparation, so evident today and still without solution, has been compli- cated by still another element. Nordberg, Bradfield, and Odell, professors of education, in 1962 wrote concerning the "menace” of the non-professional teacher. These reluctant teachers, according to these writers, reflect the m0vement toward trade-unionism, and these teachers look upon their positions as jobs only, "piecework tasks with established price tags."29 The authors call for many reforms including: finer screening of candidates for teaching; regular restricted credentials to replace emergency certification; incentives 28Elmer R. Smith, editor, To Cher Educ tion. A Re- apppaaai fl(New York: Harper & Row, gu EIIsEers, I952), p. 29H. O. Nordberg, J. M. Bradfield, and wm. C. Odell, "Teachers and the Pursuit of Excellence," School d Societ XC (February 24, 1962), p. 76. -42- for superior teaching to be established; a re-examination of guaranteed employment; a re-evaluation of the school _ calendar as well as local control of education; a possible reorganization of the comprehensive secondary school; and a provision for greater technological assistance for all teachers. The immensity of the tasks outlined points to the difficulties yet to be overcome for teaching to become a profession in the true sense. In conclusion, these two decades under study have been ones in which the teaching profession has been striving for increased prestige and status which in turn were dependent upon higher standards of professional preparation of a more abstract nature. Improved teacher welfare, including higher salaries, guaranteed employment, and improved working con- ditions were also a part of professional concerns. The TEPS Commission, comprised of teachers and educators, has been instrumental in deve10ping broader public and professional understanding of these problems. The resolution of pro- fessionalism versus trade unionism still awaits action in the present era. The evolution of the teaching profession from 1940 to the 1963 standing has been the theme Teaching as a Professioa. CHAPTER III THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEME EDUCATION AS A DISCIPLINE The problems encountered in attempting to delineate the foundations and the history of the discipline of educa- tion movement are many. The trend toward educators per- ceiving their field as a particular set of knowledges with a particular set of methods of inquiry has recently been accen- tuated by pervasive questions raised in the context of teacher preparation and in the philosophical bases for edu- cation. The exploration and development of the theme of education as a discipline necessitates a beginning further removed from the present than the last twenty years. Much has been written concerning the education movement of the early part of this century. Nevertheless, some reference must be made here to provide a basis for the present. A Definition of Education as a Discipline The theory underlying this theme is that professional educators, those individuals in colleges and universities attempting to explore problems of education at both the theoretical and the practical, implementation levels, have been and still are desirous that education be recognized as a discipline. -43- -44- Haskew,1 in a 1959 Horace Mann lecture at the Uni- versity of Pittsburgh, cited the central concern of education was with school and defined this as "all organized attempts to cause people to learn what is considered valuable by deal- ing with them in agencies known as schools."2 According to Haskew, subject matter, the teachers and the students are the hub of the wheel and all other ancillary school concerns are the spokes. Haskew differentiated between education as a social institution and education as a discipline. Inasmuch as the concern undertaken here has been Education aa_a‘Dis- ci line, it has been pertinent to summarize Haskew's defi- nition of education as a developing academic discipline. He stated, "This discipline is devoted to the philosOphical and empirical study of what people should learn in school. It is devoted to the production, synthesis, and systemization of knowledge of how people learn in schools. It is devoted to ascertaining the most efficient procedures for conducting schools in which people do learn."3 If educators were to develop a discipline of educa- tion, the distinct and unique knowledge of education l Americ '3 Press, Laurence D. Haskew, The Disci line of Education and Future (Pittsburgh:j University of PittsEurgh 5 p 59 PP. 2Ibid., p. 7. BIbide , pp. 314‘350 -45- discipline-wise will be that of the methodology of teaching, in pursuing the content of the act of teaching and the act of learning, the selection and organization of content cus- tomarily viewed as curriculum making. A distinction is made here between the methods of inquiry into the methodology of teaching and the methods of inquiry into the content areas of the subject matter. In all likelihood, an individual pursuing methods of inquiry into distinct subject areas as chemistry, or history, or biology, or English would tend to be a specialist in that subject or content area. The problems of delineation in this matter are not to be treated hastily. A good part of the present concern for education rests with a lack of defini- tion or distinction between the education specialist and the subject matter specialists in terms of curriculum develop- ment. But for discrimination at this time, the educator-- the bona fide researcher or theorist in education, is one who attempts to build the distinct and unique knowledge of the discipline of education on the methods of inquiry par- ticular to that discipline, as a research chemist would build the unique approach upon the knowledges inherent in chemistry. This attempt to delineation must be kept in mind, inasmuch as this particular theme is elusive and diffuses easily into other concerns. One other distinction should be made. This concerns other workers in the public schools. -46- ‘ Teachers, administrators, specialists such as curriculum directors and subject matter supervisors, are not necessarily included in this group manifesting concerns for education as a discipline. While they may contribute indirectly to the movement, it is felt that their main concerns are bound up with the more practical problems of running a school, in- structing children using methods and knowledges that they themselves have not originated, but rather have adapted after a professional inculcation of pro-service or in-service training. Some of these individuals in practical situations may make contributions or innovations on forwarding the discipline of education movement. More than likely they will not. The literature has only recently evidenced the use of the term of education as a discipline. One of the more pronounced uses of this term came about as the result of the Fund for the Advancement of Education Conference on Teacher Preparation. John Walton, Chairman of the Department of Education at Johns Hopkins University, in a discussion on the role of the school and the preparation of teachers made this observation. If we look at the prestige of the academic disciplines --which may have little relation to the quality of the work done-~we observe that a kind of law operates on the campus that the less a discipline borrows from other disciplines the "purer" it is; and the more other dis- ciplines borrow from it, the more prestige it has. To illustrate this, let us take the continuum of mathe- matics, physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, and -47.. sociology. The order of scholarly prestige would appear to follow the order of the listing of the disciplines. If there were any discipline "purer" than mathematics it is logic. It is not relevant here to ask whether or not some of the disciplines low in the order of "pureness" and prestige have tried too hard to imitate the disciplines from which they borrow and have neglected their own subject matter, but such imitation may be a hazard. If we look at education we observe that it is a discipline, or field of study, from which no other disciplines borrow, and which borrows practically everything it has. Therefore, if the law that we have mentioned actually operates, we can expect less prestige for education than for any other field of study. However, the degree of "pureness" may not be the sole criterion for the prestige of a discipline. The intellectual integrity and ability of the professors and students who engage in the study of a subject can add to its prestige as well as to its development. Since the discipline of education does not provide its own intellectual standards, the quality of the work done in it, as well as its prestige, depends on the ability and integrity of the people studying it. The disciplines of high prestige tend to attract bright stu- dents and competent scholars. These disciplines are intellectually exciting. There are indications now that there is so much general interest in education that a fair number of capable students will want to study the subject. If they are encouraged to do so, they are likely to make the study of educational phe- Eomzna more stimulating and attractive than it now 80 Implicit in this statement is the motivation, if only from prestige or status, impelling education toward a discipline. Also implicit, in the last paragraph, is the host of intellectual concerns focusing upon education as a discipline which tends to elevate education academically into more prestigeful circumstances. “John Walton, "The Role of the School," in Smith, op.cit., pp. 35-36. -43- Quite in contrast with Walton's statement, a more recent comment by James B. Conant5 indicates that education should not be considered a discipline. Based on investiga- tions of the requirements for teacher preparation and his own analysis of what professional information is desirable for teachers, Conant lists four "components of the intellec- tual equipment that would be a prerequisite to the develop- ment of teaching skill."6 Among these components are a democratic social understanding, ways behavior develops in children, child growth, and principles of teaching. With the identification of the four components, Conant raises the question as to whether or not there is a science of educa- tion. He points out that there is a "relation of science to certain other practical arts,"7 and the need exists to deal with "disciplines that yield predictive generalizations and those that are useful where value judgments enter. In practical situations, like teaching, the two are never sepa- rable."8 However, he points out in a summarizing statement to the rather lengthy development of his argument that, Teachers like physicians, think in terms of predictive generalizations as well as arguments derived from 5James B. Conant The Education of Americ Teachers (New York: McGraw-Hill 00E Company, Inc., 1953), pp. IIZ- 125. 6Ibid., p. 113. 7Ibid., p. 117. 8Ibld., pp. 118-119. -49- general principles. Some people would like to com- - bine these two modes of thought and speak of a single, all-embracing science of education. The question is whether it is useful to try to cover with the word "science" a vast field of human activity directed toward practical ends, I have come to the conclusion that it is not. Perhaps it is only a question of terminology. However, I prefer not to speak of the science of engineering but of the engineering sci- ences. I doubt that there is or ever will be a science of medicine, yet I am sure enormous strides forward have been made in the medical sciences. Therefore, I think it would be better to discuss the academic dis- ciplines that have relevance for the labors of the teacher than to try to talk in terms of a developing science of education. In other words, I shall examine academic disciplines-~which might be called educational sciences or educational disciplines--rather than the science or the discipline of education.9 Perhaps it is only a matter of terminology as Conant suggests. If so, there is an urgent need to clarify this terminology. Perhaps the problem is conceptual in terms of educators perceiving their functions in pursuing the search of truth, whether in theory or in practice. At any rate Conant's insights in 1963 may well be indicative of the state of affairs in education, the state of the discip- line. Others have not viewed this status as such, and the era just ending, and for that matter, the era just beginning, needs a representation of the route traversed to permit Conant to make the observations he has made, or for that matter to allow walton to describe education as the dis- cipline from which none others borrow. The development of 9Ibid., p. 120. -50- the theme, Education a§_a Disci line, attempts to disclose the historical evolution of a distinct educational phenomena: the striving toward disciplinary status by educators. The Beginnings of Education as a Discipline A significant development in the history of education as a discipline was reached with the publishing in 1926 of the Twenty-sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. The Society itself an outgrowth of the National Herbart Society, has reflected the outstanding trends in education. The Twenty-sixth Yearbook has been re- ferred to numerous times in the literature in the ensuing years, and still towers above the educational landscape as a landmark of distiction. Harold Rugg, the Yearbook Chair- man, wrote in the forward: From time to time, in a dynamic society it is imper- ative that we stand aside from the movement of affairs to review trends, to assay products, to map new paths. The chief outcome is reorientation, a balanced per- spective; especially needed in these days of vigorous experimentation. It is most important that those who are constructing our school curriculum shall maintain an overview of the total situation: lacking that, ' their orientation will be biased, their emphasis mis- placed. There is grave danger that they will continue to commit themselves uncritically to plans and move- ments--to take up the current modes only to discard them as unthinkingly as they adopt them. . . . Syn- thesis is needed especially because of the gap between curriculum and child growth . . . no problem confront- ing the school is more insistent or more difficult than the rechanneling into one broad stream of these isolated currents of practical and cultural life. In fifty years of curriculum-making the greatest need has been a comprehensive overview of the currents -51- of American life and education, appraisal of all the factors in the educational situation. . . . Each of the three outstanding forces engaging in the organization of the curriculum during the past thirty-five years cer- tainly has lacked a complete overview. .Each was biased toward academic formulae, child interests, or the sci- entific study of society. The successive national com- mittees, for example, have viewed the school from the starting point of fixed boundaries of subject matter and have been thoroughly committed to doctrines of scholarship and discipline. The protagonists of the philosophy of dynamic growth were also limited in their attack, a though much closer to the truth than the subject matter specialists. They focused their attention so sharply upon the child that they tended to ignore the real end points of growth in our current complex order. Similarly, the newest group of our- riculum reformers, students of the more scientific study of education, have been somewhat unduly immersed in their techniques. Hence, they, too have moved on a tangent, emphasizing the study of social needs and tending to minimize child growth.10 The committee for the Twenty-sixth Yearbook of NSSE was unusual in its composition and its methods of work. The members of the committee11 reflected the total range of phil- osophical orientation from building a curriculum around child activities and interests to a curriculum which stressed prep- aration for adult life. The committee sought to ”discover loHarold Rugg, ”Forward," Qgrraculum-Magng: Past and P esent, Twenty-sixth Yearbook o t e ationa ociety for'the Study of Education, Part I (Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1926), pp. x-xi. 11Committee members for the 26th Yearbook of the NSSE 'were: Wm. C. Bagley, Franklin Bobbitt, Frederick G. Bonser, George S. Counts, Stuart A. Courtis Ernst Horn, Charles H. Judd, Frederick J. Kelly, Wm. H. Kilpatrick, Harold Rugg (Chrm.) and George A. works. -52... agreements and clarify divergencies."12 The method used was one of five roundtable discussions each lasting one or two days and meeting over a period of two and a half years. The General Statement of Curriculum-making was published as a concensus of this committee's deliberations, with individual positions on matters of emphasis divergent from the General Statement published in succeeding chapters of Part II of the Yearbook. As often is the case, the forward-looking General Statement, quite revolutionary in its day, has proven to be a rather consistent guide for much curriculum work leading to the present. Perhaps the caution Rugg13 expressed to his readers concerning the General Statement was not always heeded. He stressed the danger in blindly following the principles of the General Statement, rather than doing in- dividual hard-thinking concerning these principles. The purpose of the General Statement was to serve as a basis for continued forums within many educational groups. It was not a prescription to be made mandatory in establishing curricular developments within the numerous school systems. Paul R. Grim points out the uniqueness of this committee in that theirs was not the static orientation 12Harold Rugg,é "Introduction," The Foundation of Cppfapplum-making, nty-sixth YearbooE o? the NatIonaI oc ety or t e StudK of Education,Fart II (Bloomington Illinois: Public So 001 Publishing Company, 1927). P- 3. 13Ibid., p. 8. -53- found in previous curricular work. Curriculum research prior to 1925 emphasized "economy of time,“ "cutting out the dead wood," "minimum essen- tials," and "educational shortages"--a11 to determine what to salvage from the traditional curriculum. Effec- tive research techniques were used to make these studies. Few studies questioned the organization of society. Curriculum research was primarily concerned with keeping the curriculum alive to the times by having it contain material to function that day. 4 Methods of Inquiry Used Prior to 1926 For a review of the science of education up to and including the 1920s» the Twenty-sixth Yearbook of the Na- tional Society for the Study of Education gives a full account. Briefly reviewed, some of the significant advances in techniques and sources of problems followed the lines of two inquiries: social needs and psychological findings. Rugg stated that to about 1910 college and private school administrators along with subject matter specialists con- trolled the curriculum which was dominated by concerns for "scholarship, mind training, and knowledge for knowledge's sake."15 This was followed by a period where quantitative approaches were used: school surveys, question blanks and so forth. A conspicuous change, particularly in committee membership, came with the National Education Association ‘ thaul R. Grim, "Designs for Curriculum Development," 0 Jougnal of Edacational Reseapch, XLII (September, 1948 P0 . 15Rugg, op. cit., Part I, p. 67. -51,- Committee on the Economy of Time, which emphasized scientif- ically determined grade placement of socially worthwhile materials of learning.16 The focus on life needs was made apparent in the reports of this committee.17 An outgrowth of this movement was shown by the construction and use of tests in subject matter areas and in inventories of current curriculum content. Rugg pointed out that by 1920 the scientific move- ment had begun to be reflected in textbooks in the skill subjects. Spelling and arithmetic books were offered for use in which the scientifically determined content reflected the skills needed in everyday use of adults and children.18 Rugg commented in the summary of the chapter on "Curriculum-making and the Study of Education" in this manner. Social analysis merely gives us the techniques and knowledges we should have on ta . For the basic in- sights and attitudes we must re y, as we do for the statements of the goals of education, upon human judg- ment. It is imperative, however, that we make use of only the most valid judgments. The forecasting of trends of the social movement, the perception of the focal problems and issues, and the connections under- lying them, demand erudition and maturity that eventu- ates only from prolonged and scientific study of society.19 161bid., p. 68. 17See the following National Society for the Study of Education Yearbooks for Reports on the Committee on Econ- omy of Time: Fourteenth (1915) Sixteenth (1917), Seven- teenth (1918), and Eighteenth (1919). 18m, 020 Cite, Part I, p. 730 lgIbide, p. 820 -55... The Twenty-sixth Yearbook emphasis was succinctly expressed in the above statement. The movement away from subject matter specialties and from knowledge for its own sake, was underway. The inclusion of society as a major focus in educational endeavor was clearly apparent. As stated earlier, there was needed a careful synthesis of so- ciety, child development, and subject matter. The techniques for researching these problems were slowly developing. In- deed, there was much of the nature of minutae that would have to be explored and reported, but the movement of §Q_: c ti a a Dis 1 1 no was launched. Education aa a Discipline in the 19403 The ferment in educational thought brought about by the publishing of the Twenty-sixth Yearbook for the Na- tional Society for the Study of Education led to a sequel in the work of that Society. Rugg presented to the NSSE Board in 1933 a proposal to develop a yearbook on "The Science of Education." Rugg was to chair this committee, but due to many other commitments, the chairmanship was later turned over to Dr. Frank N. Freeman. The Yearbook outline was revised, and ultimately published in 1938.20 The major 20Guy-M. Whipple, editor, "Editor's Preface," The Scjantific Movement in Education, Thirty-seventh YearbESE o t e ationa Society or t e Study of Education, Part II {3%33mingt;§, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 2P0 0 - 56- purposes of the Thirty-Seventh Yearbook were those of attempt- ing to assess educational deve10pment since the previous yearbook on the subject a decade earlier (the Twenty-Sixth): to review the development of methods of inquiry in the vari- ous phases of educational research; to relate research to practice; and lastly, to raise questions concerning the role of scientific study in the field of education. It was made apparent early in the yearbook that "science” was rather liberally interpreted to accommodate much that had been recorded in this yearbook. Freeman21 wrote in the introductory chapter of the Thirty—seventh Yearbook that the committee chose to use the more liberal interpretation of science of education and therefore the Yearbook stressed a, . . . broad descriptive account of the methods and results of a systematic study of education. Some of the methods are more exact than others and some of the fields of education have been more adequately inves- tigated than others. much of the study would not be deemed "scientific" in the strict sense of the word. It does constitute, howeveri an effort to secure as e exact information as possib to serve as the basis for practice.22 21Frank N. Freeman, "Introduction: The Purpose and SCOpe of the Yearbook," The Scientific Movement in Education, rty-seventh Yearbook of the NationEI SocIety for tEe Study Of Education, Part II (Bloomington, Illinois: Public School P“blishing Company, 1938), p. 3. 22Ibid. -57- The fields within education under investigation in- cluded: administration; teacher education; curriculum; general methods of instruction; several special methods of instruction of handwriting, reading, spelling, English usage, mathematics, natural sciences, social studies, practical arts, music and art, and home economics. Additional investigations were made concerning classification, grading, promotion and certification of pupils' accomplishments; determining and dealing with individual differences; dealing with classroom control and discipline; guidance in education; and higher education. Concerning the methods used, Freeman emphasized that there was no single method, rather several methods may be used to attack the problems in a given field. Furthermore, the methods used were not necessarily coordinate with the various areas of study. The diversity of problems under in- vestigation, the lack of sophistication in the methodology of inquiry, and the difficulties of true experimentation using tight controls of variables and the capabilities of replication of these experiments, when carried on, were .Particularly felt as contributors to questioning these sci- entific investigations in a strict scientific sense. The methodology of research used up to 1937 included the his- torical, comparative, and documentary research method; the social survey and community studies; statistical analysis and comparison, especially since the late 1920's; the laboratory -53- method as a means to investigate the nature of learning in some specific areas such as music, reading, or handwriting; classroom experimentation involving rotation of teacher and students, and the equivalent group method involving statis- tical comparisons; the case study method for longitudinal studies of individuals; the methods pertaining to diagnosis as an approach to remedial instruction and individual in- struction; and the whole broad field of testing--achievement, intelligence, aptitude, and personality. Completing the laundry-list of methods were included the ideas of tech- niques of observation as a means of gathering data, and the use of questionnaires and rating scales.23 The Lag Between Research and Practice Cushman and Foxzh attempted to trace the transla- tion of educational research into school practice. It was their opinion that the gap between research and school prac- tice was as great as it had been in 1927. According to Cushman and Fox five major factors continued to contribute to the maintenance of this gap: -—.—. 23NSSE, Th? §ciapt5fip Movament in Education, Thirty- seventh Yearbook 0 t e Nat on 00 ety or the Study of .Education, Part II (Bloomington Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1938), pp. 1-390. 21'0. L. Cushman and Guy Fox, "Research and the Public School Curriculum," The Scientific Movement in Education, rtybseventh YearbooE o? tEe NationaI SocIety for the Study Of Education, Part II (Bloomington, Illinois: Public School I’ubILishing Company, 1938), pp. 67-78. -59- l) the limited training of the teacher, 2) the limited amount of significant research carried on by the public schools 3) the constant transfer of those persons most competent to lead in promoting the use of research from ublic-school to college and univer- sity positions, A the provincial attitude of many teachers and administrators, and 5) the limited sig- nificance of much that passes for research.25 Concerning the gains made in the decade, Cushman and Fox found that the digesting and reporting of research had im- proved and that some outstanding long-range curriculum im- provement plans in public schools were underway, including the Pragressive Education Association's Eight-Year Study.26 Covering a broader scope in educational thought, Guy Whipple,27 NSSE Yearbook editor from 1916, reviewed the significant contributions of the sixty-seven volumes of the Yearbook of that Society to the scientific movement in edu- cation. There was sufficient evidence for Whipple to gen- eralize certain trends or cycles that had occurred in the deliberations of various Yearbook committees over the years the Society had been engaged in publication. The six stages of the cycle listed by Whipple were: 25Ib1do, p. 780 261bid., pp. 74-75. 27Guy M. Whipple, "The Contributions of This Society to the Scientific Mbvement in Education with Special Refer- ence to the Trends in Problems and Methods of Inquiry," The Scientific Movement in Education, Thirty-seventh Yearbook-— 0? the fiational Society for the Study of Education, Part II (Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1938), pp. 257-272. -60- (l) a stage characterized by a predominance of in- dividual opinion or pooled Opinion, becoming probably rogressively more expert; $2) a stage characterized by the injection of quanti- fication and featuring assembleges of data in his- ' torical summaries, analyses of reports, surveys of riotice, outcomes of questionaires [sic], and the e 3 - (3) a stage characterized by insistence upon refine- ments of statistical method, upon measurements, scales, and standardization, culminating in recipes, prac- tical rules, remedial devices, and numerous instruc- tional and administrative recommendations; (A) a stage characterized by the appearance of new techniques, like the interview, visitation, the case study, less precise but in a way more comprehensive and more ambitious than the methods of the third stage; (5) a stage characterized by attempts to formulate objectives more recondite than factual acquisition, to analyze the learning processes for skills, atti- tudes, and sentiments regarded as potentially teach- able, and to lay out the instruction accordingly in a given field of subject matter longitudinally through- out the grades . . . and possibly, (6) a stage characterized, rather curiously, by a re- turn to a considerable extent, to the approach used in the first stage--witness, for example, the yearbooks on activism, on music, on international understanding, and perhaps the current volume on guidance. This swing back toward opinion, granted there be such a swing, might be conditioned by some intrinsic cycle of method, some necessity of intellectual progress; it seems to me more likely, however, to be conditioned by the attempt to attack new and broader problems for which at present we lack precise techniques of in- vestigation in which case the resort once more to the expression of opinion is just an accident.28 Whether the cyclic nature of educational research was an accident because broader issues were under discussion, or whether this was a cycle of thought in a develOpmental intellectual process, it remains to be seen. Educational _ 28Ibid., p. 270. -61.. research is a youthful venture, and much remains to be dis- covered. While the development of research techniques will not be viewed in a comparative fashion between two eras of research, or between education and another discipline, it is obvious that the field under investigation reported here is extremely broad-~so much so that one is hard-pressed to make any general statement concerning the over-all advance- ment of knowledge. Secondly, while individual techniques of inquiry in the various educational investigations have been refined up to the present, few new techniques have been developed. Furthermore, refinement and development have been at the technical stage for the most part; rarely have these evidenced a new underlying theory or for that matter, a different approach to testing an existing theory. The preceding section has not been meant to be viewed as an abbreviated baedeker of educational research methods. Rather it has been included to give a brief account of the state of these research methods at the time of the publica- tion of the yearbook in 1938. The Problem of Specialization Within Education As one reads the extensive listings of studies, techniques, and investigations undertaken up to 1937, with an eye to the research which has followed this period, the comment by Conant cited earlier, in which he questioned the validity of a single discipline of education, takes on -62.. more significance. There are, in a sense, fields of study within education, that contribute to the development of education. Perhaps these are the education sciences, or the education disciplines. Certainly these fields (edu- cational psychology, curriculum, teacher education, and special methodological areas are examples) are specific enough to permit depth specialization. It has been, to a degree, these specializations that have plagued the educator. The wholeness of education as a discipline has not yet been achieved but instead it can be viewed as separate specialties loosely knit together by virtue of dealing with immature learners in an instructional situation. The very fragmenta- tion of the approach has caused concern because there has been no overarching theory within which to house the various specific investigations of educational research. This does not mean that there should be only one school of thought’ as far as a theoretical approach to education as a discipline is concerned. There may be, and probably should be, more than one. Taking other disciplines as comparisons, one usually finds at least two major theoretical positions from which ideas develop. The theoretical position provides the View'of reality, and of man, and these ultimately are re- flected in the constructs of the discipline and the practical 1mPlementation of the research carried on to test the several theories. This appears to be lacking in education in this century. Continuing to pursue the similarity for a moment, -63- using other disciplines as models, one finds that when the schools of thought grow too divergent another school develops which attempts to synthesize the approaches. Synthesis is aided not only by the growing separate sets of inquiry within the discipline, but often is aided by developments outside the discipline, which the discipline in turn "borrows" and adapts for its uses. Witness the effect of the "open energy systems approach" initiated in the field of physics and the spread to biology, geomorphology, and other branches of the natural sciences. It would appear that up to the publication of the Thirty-seventh Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, there existed no one school of thought in educational research, let alone two or more schools of thought to stimulate one anothers' educational inquiry. The umbrella of a given educational theory did not exist at this time in our history. Pieces of research were evidenced in a haphazard manner, in something of an amateurish way, like Sunday picnickers picking pebbles from a beach. Perhaps the ideas and results had some inherent value in themselves for the searchers making the discoveries. However, without a general classification or framework within which to put these finds, their value to education assumes that characteristic Of a pretty collection unrelated to a generic whole which ‘Knild be constituted as a discipline. -6h- Dewey, examining the relative positions of science and philosOphy in education had this comment. The trouble with education does not proceed from the introduction of scientific and vocational activities. It proceeds from the inconsistent mixture of the values inherent in these subjects with those derived from tra- ditions and customs that originated in the prescien- tific and predemocratic age but that still endure in the educational system. Systematic deve10pment of the values potentially present in personal and social ex- perience, as that moves under control by scientifically informed intelligence provides a road out. The im- mediate task of a philosophy of education is to clar- ify the meaning of such a movement in terms of subject matter and methods from the very beginning through the university. This task is negative as far as criticism is concerned with the materials, methods, and aims that hold over from the traditions and customs of a prescientific age. It is positive in that it dis- closes values inherent in experience as that is trans- formed through the efforts of those who are actuated by practical and collective intelligence. The prom- ises of education and of social life are identical in this respect. A philosophy of education faithful to the possibilities of experience and scientific method will not of itself accomplish the needed change. But it will contribute by making clear the road to be followed and the goal to which it leads.29 Social Reconstruction and Reform Within the context of the late twenties and the early thirties, attention had been directed more and more toward social needs and a society-centered school. In the center of this new focus of attention was the Teachers College ‘ 29John Dewey, ”Determination of Ultimate Values or Aims Through Antecedent or A Priori Speculation or Through Pragmatic or Empirical Inquiry," The Scientific Movement in ggygggpign, Thirty-seventh Yearbook o t e at ona Society Or'the Study of Education, Part II (Bloomington, Illinois: Public School Publishing Company, 1938), pp. 1.84-4.85. -65.. Discussion Group composed of Counts, Childs, Raup, Newlon, Cottrell, Rugg and others with William Kilpatrick as chair- man. As an informal group of social foundations of educa- tion professors at Teachers College, the Group met regularly from 1927 to 1934. and off and on until after the war began in 1939. These distinguished educators of that era investi- gated social issues of education on many fronts.30 Based on Veblen's theory of society, the group served as the focal point for originating two forces in American education, the founding of a journal called The Social Frontier (l93h). and organizing the John Dewey Society for the Study of Education and the Culture (1935). The movement was directed at social reconstruction leadership for schools and attention to adult education. The Teachers College Group, to set the John Dewey Society in motion, enlisted the help of "Fellows" located in numerous colleges and universities. The primary function of the Society was to publish yearbooks. Both the listing of the board of directors31 of The Socigl Frontier 30 Harold Rugg, Foundations of Americ Education gonkesrg-on-Hudson, New York: World Rook Company, I947), pp. 7-5 . 31Ibid., p. 579 lists the original board as including: Wm. H. Kilpatrick Chrm. Edmund De 8. Brunner, John L. Childs, Harold F. Clark, Donald P. Cottrell, George S. Counts, John Dewey, Harrison 3. Elliott, Mordecai Grossman, Paul R. Hanna, Haber Harper, Sidney Hook, H. Gordon Hullfish, Alvin Johnson, .F. Ernst Johnson, E. C. Lindeman, Lois H. Meek, Clyde R. .Mflller, Jesse H. Newlon, Harry A. Overstreet, Robert B. Raup, .Rollo Reynolds, Harold Rugg, Robert K. Speer, V. T. Thayer, GOOdwin Watson, and Norman Woelfel. Later members included James L. Hymes and Carleton Washbume. -66- and the John Dewey Society membership read like the Whos' Who in American Education, so prominent in educational lead- ership have these men become. When the Progressive Educa- tion Association undertook the publication of the journal the name was changed from The Social Frontier to Frontiers in Democrac , and under this name the journal survived until 19A}. The journal had served as the spearhead for the social liberals in American education, and as such the journal and its contributors absorbed much criticism for lvoicing radical beliefs of social reform. Individuals in the movement also wrote concerning the social reform. One of the best known was George S. Counts' Dare the Schools Build g New Social Order? published in 1932, and which added impetus to concerns arising from the economic crisis of the thirties. The swing away from the child-centered schools of the twenties toward the social- needs centered school of the thirties was well under way. Crucial questions about what to do with the jobless youth, how to prepare them for a life of work, what work experiences were most beneficial, equating the work experiences with high school credits toward graduation became the issues dis- cussed during the 1930fls. The Federal Government established the Civilian Conservation Corps and the National Youth Ad- ministration to absorb some of the jobless problem. Educa- ‘tors were troubled by other facets of preparation for work ion the part of youth people and the Department for Supervision -67- and Curriculum Development continued to write about this as late as the 1944 Yearbook.32 Effects of WOrld war II on the Discipline World war II has become one of the great demarcation lines of this century. A way of life suddenly changed: the Depression ended; farms and factories re-tooled to win a war; home life was disrupted; and schools became the focal points for all kinds of services, from issuing ration books to housing migrant farm workers during the harvest season and supplying platoons of children to assist with harvests.33 The war emergency emphasized expediency, but it was an ex- pediency with the real goal of victory, and it provided a sense of purpose, direction, and willingness to sacrifice what was lacking in the earlier era. From the war effort on the part of education, hot lunch programs, milk programs, the extended school day and extended school year concepts, as well as the nursery school developed at the elementary school level, while work experiences came out of this for the secondary school. The growing concern for completion of high school by more youth was also evident at this time. __ 32Department of Su ervision and Curriculum Develop- ment, Tow rd a New Curricu um (Washington, D. C.: De art- ment 0 upe s on an urr culum DevelOpment, NEA, 9AA), Pp. 56-75. 33Ibid., pp. 41-55. -68- However, a serious mistake made by many educators, prior to any evaluation of these functions in a vastly different postwar setting, was to attempt to institutionalize these innovations under a rationalization that the expedient measures of wartime were good education, and therefore would apply as well for peacetime. Growing out of the social setting of the thirties and the war effort of the early forties, educators, as . evidenced by the Teachers College Group, focused consider- able discussion on the society-centered problems of educa- tion. In a sense this became a problem-centered discussion, with the problems those of a social nature. Previously the problems had been drawn from a different source such as the psychological research relating to individual needs and dif- ferences. More problems now were from society and sociology. Inherent in this movement was the connotation of an expanded educational system to accommodate more children for longer periods of time, at least through high school. The Elmtown Ybuth studies are part of the concerns for educating all of the children as were the concerns expressed in Education for All American Youth.34 __ 34Educational Policies Commission, NEA, Education for All American Youth (washington, D. 0.: National Educa- tion Association and American Association of School Adminis- trators, l9hh), #21 pp. -69.. The diffuse social problems of the thirties gave way to rather specific educational problems in the early forties. As the problematic investigations continued, there was, in a sense, a narrowing of sights during the wartime years. The war's impact on education may never be truly assessed, but it is evident that many of the national weak- nesses in health and nutrition, literacy, mental health and others were assessed during the induction period for young men. These, too, became prime objectives of the schools immediately following the termination of the war. Immediate Postwar Circumstances in Education The postwar period reflected the movement of social needs growing out of the return of veterans and others to the classrooms. The National Society for the Study of Edu- cation Forty-fourth Yearbook stressed these problems. Tyler wrote: The Committee has considered two types of developments; one, the new groups which the school will be called upon to serve in the year ahead; and, two, the new em- phasis likely to be given to the curriculum program. Under the new groups, the Committee outlines deve10p- ments for pre-school children, veterans, and returning war workers, and the expansion in programs of adult education. Its treatment of new emphases deals with mental and physical health, work experience, consumer education, instruction in the conservation of natural resources, the deve10pment of the community school, and training for citizenship, both domestic and inter- national.35 35Ralph W. Tyler, "Introduction," Americ Education in the Postwar Er : Curriculum Reconstruct on, orty- ourt 'Yearhook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, l9h5). Po 3- -70- The Forty—fourth Yearbook emphasis was clearly upon the point- ing up of concerns and problems facing the schools from an operational standpoint immediately after the war. These problems again reflected social need and they tended to be expediential in nature. The goal direction was one of re- turing to a status-qua of sorts, a status-quo of peace time, whatever that might be. The movement entailed many short- range objectives founded upon immediate need, while at the. same time it mirrored the impact of the changing times. The educators were neither leading nor lagging in their efforts, but. they were hard-pressed to keep abreast of the events in a rapidly changing world. Changes had occurred rapidly in the social sphere. Institutions of higher education bulged with men and women at; tempting to complete academic training. The practical 31de of the education proved to have enough flexibility to ac commodate the influx physically. Those concerned with the theoretical side of education were involved with many °f the practical concerns of this period. Consumer educa- tion and conservation education became the by-words for ecamncation in the late forties and early fifties, along with However, few individuals penetrated to the ”‘9 htai health. Why does education need acre of the then-current emphases. to be concerned about growing mental health problems, or t he conservation of natural resources? Instead, there tended to develop an almost fanatical set of loyalties around -71- these concerns, and reaction was more emotional than logical. Theories and more empirical investigations had not evolved to keep pace with the mania for peace-time pursuits. Subject Matter: Pertinent Questions At the same time, the content of the curriculum was following a prewar course. Few peeple in education reckoned with the curricular reforms implicit in the outgrowth of a technological postwar society, and the reform in content based on new developments in knowledge per se. Taba36 was one who recognized the outdatedness of much that was taught terms of the impending developments in science and tech- in Yet even she, with almost a prophetic insight, did hology. not come to grips with the specific problems involved in c‘l-lJ:-ricular change of the pervasive nature as occurred within the next decade. It seemed that the NSSE Forty-fourth Year- b’<=D<>k Committee was of two minds concerning the course of 0‘rents in curriculum. Tyler spoke for the majority on the re arbook Committee when he said, The committee decided to concentrate its attention primarily on the new developments likely to follow the war and not to include phases of the curriculum likely to continue in the postwar period with only slight changes from the development that took place during the period preceding the war. Thus, nothing is said in this volume about the postwar program in \ 36Hilda Taba, "General Techniques of Curriculum Plan- Sing“: Americ Education in the Postw r Era: Curriculum Re- tfi‘fifo truction, Forty-fourth Yearbook of the NS§E86 Part I ~115. cago: niv. of Chicago Press, 191.5), pp. -72- science, mathematics, reading, language, literature, or in a number of other special fields except as they are related to the particular emphases selected for treatment which seemed to the committee to be the most significant developments likely to follow the war. This failure to treat some of the phases of the school curriculum does not indicate that any less importance is attached to them. In the case of science . . . forward-looking schools made marked improvements in the science programs just prior to the war. . . . A : similar condition exists in certain other fields.37 However, in the same yearbook, Taba38 pointed out thiaat there would be a demand for new content, among which was included: recognizing the impact of wartime technology 0:1. science and mathematics; the growing importance of inter- culilxtural education and the "forgotten nations"; new ideas concerning consumer education; a reinterpretation of history and geography, and all this was brought about by the wartime eltjs>erience. Despite the fact some educators saw the continuation or that which already existed in subject matter and other ac'i-‘Lilrsators saw the need for new content, they were nearly ut15—:t‘ied in their concern for the service role the schools "are to play in the immediate postwar period. According to Taba, curriculum revision would need to be a continuous. pro cess, not a periodic ten-year plan. Furthermore, increas- ingly local adaptations in both the methods of handling unique \ 37Tyler, op. cit., p. 3. 38Taba, op. cit., p. 80. -73- sirtuations and the content would be called for "if the present trend toward community orientation and individuali- zation of programs to serve the needs of given groups of learners continued.”39 Taba, discussing general assumptions about curriculum arzci curriculum planning, reviewed the society-learner-content trilogy in evidence since the Twenty-sixth Yearbook of the N5353E. Concerning the emphasis on society, she said, The problem is to keep this relationship (social values, social needs, social problems) valid, fresh, and up-to- date and to avoid serving needs that no longer exist or perpetuating values that have ceased to function. It is to this end that there is need for a continuous analysis of society and a continuous ap lication of what is so learned in program-building. 0 Concerning the learner and the effect of content, we educate people by changing them as individuals . . . involv[ing] the so-called academic learning, the social- izing of these individuals, and providing for their personal growth. . . . It is therefore, important in curriculum planning to use all available knowledge about the nature of the learners and the characteristics of the learning process. Finally, all learning experiences take place through some content or subject matter. . . . Each area of content, whether academic or otherwise, in- volves certain unique concepts, certain unique in- tellectual processes, and certain emotional ingre- dients useful to stimulate mental growth. . . . To use effectively what the content can offer, it is necessary to cut through the conglomerate detail and to uncover these essential values and unique con- tributions.h1 39Ibid., p. 81. -* LOIbid., p. 83. “11bid. -74- These basic concepts and unique intellectual tools, and not the details, represent the "essentials" of any subject area, a fact not recognized by the confused debates about the essentials in curriculum planning.“2 Taba's comments, viewed twenty years later, have a very current sound. This is what seems to be the crux of the present movement in the academic subjects, getting at 'the structure of the separate disciplines through the unique :intellectual skills and content offerings. It is interest- ing that these comments seemed to go for such a long period uunheeded. 0n the other hand, the stress on the balance be- t:vmeen.the social emphasis, the individual emphasis, and the content emphasis was also part of Taba's concern, as well £153 the concern of an earlier period, and one that continues 13C> occupy a major place in the thinking of many educators l1£> to and including the present. Taba went on to declare tihléit the difficulties in curriculum planning usually were CleaJrfii‘ved from two sources: the inadequate use of the avail- able research concerning society, the learner, and the con- tent, and "either in the absence of a philosophy of education (31‘ 'in.a divergence or inconsistency in basic philosOphic concepts which lead to differences in assumptions about the nature and role of the curriculum as well as to confusion 3111 interpreting research data."‘!*3 The unwillingness or the \ 421bid., pp. 89-90. 43Ibid., p. 84. -75- inability of curriculum planners to operate from a consistent Iplxilosophical base has been a great weakness in preparing programs. The impact of emergency conditions during and following the war further handicapped the movement by furn- ishing a convenient rationalization to curriculum planners for not specifying goals and assumptions philosophically derived. Additional approaches to curriculum that were de- veloped in the early forties included emphases on psycholog- ical factors, child development, readiness studies, adoles- cent and youth studies, field study research, and action research as contrasted to the heavy social emphaéis of the curriculum of the preceding decadeJfii Educators made vari- ous attempts to incorporate these several emphases into curriculum theories. The variety of writing and research indicated again the changing conditions surrounding Educgtion as Dis i line. A Change of Emphasis Regarding Curriculum and Instruction . There occurred by 1950 a significant shift in direc- tion concerning the act of teaching or instruction. Hereto- fox-e , instruction had been considered as an assign-study-recite- ekanline process, almost totally teacher directed. The \ M'Grim, OE. Cite, pp. 18"290 -76- Forty-ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education undertook to re-examine instruction and inter- preted this act as "now concerned to be essentially one of how to guide, direct, and evaluate the learning of children and youth so that the attainment of socially approved be- havior patterns is assured.“5 With regard to educational method, Anderson went on to say: Educational method must be written and practiced in terms of the child and how he learns. That is why we have said this yearbook should symbolize a newer con- c t of method as th recess of directin the chil- dren's learnin r ther th s the a lic tion of teCEnigues designed mere 1 to impart in ormationA6 Anderson reviewed the changes in method in earlier periods resulting from research in specific subject areas: arith- metic, reading, spelling, and the psychology of teaching the 39 subjects. He pointed out that little improvement had been made, however, in the general area of method. Notwithstanding these evidences of progress in selected areas, instruction as such, has been a neglected aspect or Merican education in the last quarter of a century. Except as it has been studied and improved within cer- tain of the teaching fields, little attention has been given to its general improvement. The time of the Students of educational theory has largely been occupied With the curriculum.l+7 \ ASG. Lester Anderson, "Introduction," In Learnin and W, Forty-ninth Yearbook of the National Socfety for e tudy of Education Part I (Chicago: University of Ch1¢ago Press, 1950), p. 2. 9 #62931.” Po 3. (Italics added.) [*7 ide, ppe 6-7e -77- _ Concerning the curriculum, as a means of identifying a term, Anderson cited publications by the American Youth Commission, the Progressive Education Association's Eight- year Study, reports from the Commission on Social Studies, and the Educational Policies Commission. These were concerned basically with the "who" and the "what" of education, or in other words, a content of education. While these were directed toward curriculum improvement, Anderson felt that the reported activities had significant implications for improved instructional procedures as well. In another section of the yearbook, Anderson, Whipple, and Gilchrist attempted to separate curriculum and instruc- t"1011 as, . . . the obverse and the reverse of a single educa- tional coin-~the means by which learning of pupils. is brought about. It is doubtful that the two can ever be separated in function. However, there seem to have been tendencies in these last years to neglect the interactions of curriculum and instruction. But prin- ciples are now emerging which are basically the same as those for improved instruction.“ The educational concerns which had emerged during the late 191.03 and the early 19503, and which were reflected in the Forty-ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, centered on the application of how children 8 k G. Lester Anderson, Gertrude Whipple, Robert Gil- Christ, "The School as a Learning Laboratory," Learni d Instruction, Forty-ninth Yearbook of the National Society 101‘ the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950), p. 3!.2. -73- learned to the methodology of instruction by means of guid- ing pupil behavior as contrasted to earlier concepts of instruction as solely those of imparting knowledge. As a developing discipline, education was commencing to evidence a central position which was fundamental to that discipline: the purpose of education as a field of study was to examine in a more detailed manner factors contributing to how in- dividuals learn in a formally contrived social situation known as the school. The newer and more revolutionary method of teaching was, therefore, based on the psychological prin- ciple of learning which stressed learning as the change in behavior caused by interaction with environment through ex- 96 rience. The selection and organization of content by the t"Beecher served to stimulate and involve the learner in the content. Furthermore, the new concept stressed the process 01: learning as involving the attitudes and appreciations tJiat. mark the behavior of an educated person.’*9 Anderson and Gates50 commented that the process of learning itself be comes established and provides ways of attacking new prob- lems, and this process is often more important than the Particular content learned. The recognition of a more complex ‘ 49G. Lester Anderson and Arthur I. Gates, "The General Nature of Learning," Learnin d Instruction, Forty-ninth Yearbook of the National Society for tha Study of Education, $21271 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950), pp. 5°Ibid., p. 27. -79- . involvement on the part of the learner cited here initiated the most recent emphasis concerning Education gs g Discipline. Consequently new concepts have developed with regard to transfer of learning, in which the learner uses the learning skills developed through the process of learning to attack new problems. The inference here is that, with the explosion of knowledge characteristic of the present era, educators and teachers are forced to pay greater attention to the development of learning skills than ever before. Educated individuals no longer can maintain an encyclopedic knowledge of all subjects due to the rapidity with which new knowledge develops. Factors Affecting Criticisms of Education During the 1950's Despite the clarity with which the NSSE Forty-ninth rearbook attempted to handle the definition of curriculum as separate from, though influencing, instruction, this distinction was not made apparent to many individuals outside of education. Within the educational discipline it was ass‘limed that those concerned differentiated between ”cur- 1Fictilum," "instruction," and "experience." Outside of ed“cation this was a different matter. An interesting dialogue was noted in the 1954-1955 years, of which two Sources are cited here. Norman Cousins, questioning the Professional jargon among teachers and educators, labeled this "the disease of specialized references and apparent -30- obecurantism . . ." and furthermore, "the tendency has gone much too far and should be arrested."51 Leon Mones, an assistant superintendent of schools in New Jersey, defended the "esoteric jargon" of educators by claiming a specialized vocabulary was "as much needed in education as in engineer- ing or theology." 52 It is further evident that many of the concerns ex- pressed by educational critics during the early 19503 re- garding the 3 R's and the general direction public education seemed to be going may have been derived, in part, from a lack of understanding of the terms used. There grew up a action within some educational circles of equating any experience with valid educational aims controlled by the 8011001. Some educators, as well, did not seem to clarify or distinguish those experiences in the curriculum with which t‘elley should be concerned from those which would occur anyway and which were of no direct concern to the work of the schools. While the attempt to interpret the expanded version or the school curriculum was a serious one, it was also P°Ssible to see how such attempts proved troublesome for edHeaters. The following excerpt, despite the caution, is 51Norman Cousins, "The Great Debate in American Eduiation," Sgtprdpy Review, XXXVII (September 11, 195).), P0 30 52Leon Hones, "The Implications of President Kirk," S hool d 80 iet , 11x11 (February 5, 1955), p. 1.2. -31- one example of the invitation to criticism that was certain to follow. Anderson, Whipple, and Gilchrist commented, The very nature of experiences in the school must be radical y chan ed both in terms of curriculum and instruction. n no sense should intellectual prob- lems be minimized. Pupils must continue to have experiences which bring understanding of the human- ities and sciences--the intellectual achievements of man which make our culture. But problems in the home, in the community, and at school must be included in the curriculum. A party, a weekend camping trip, driving a car, learning to swim--these are illustra- tive of the kinds of experiences which will be recog- nized as important for incorporation into the school curriculum. These experiences are problem-centered. It was statements of this type that became the red flags to the critics. If educators failed to declare a distinction 1>f education or the testing of the theories by educators laas not been adequately carried out even today. Another rather significant contribution to method of teaching in the discipline of education movement came ; from the field of social psychology. The emphasis on group process as a method of instruction gained importance from 1948 on. The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development” reported that at the 1948 convention in Cin- cinnati the group process technique was used in the dis- cussion groups, and after a poll of the membership concerning this technique, it was generally felt that the group favored this type of meeting. In instructional activities, group PPOcess emphasized the interaction between the students in the class as well as between the teacher and the students. \ IE 56Ernest R. Hilgard, Theories of Learning, Second dition (New York: Appleton-Century- rofts, Inc. , 1956), PP- 222 and 258. c e 57National Education Association, Addresses d Pro- NEedi s Clevel d Ohio 1 8, Vol. 86 (We ngton, . .: A. h ’ p. . . -34- Great importance was given to the social factors in class- room learning. Thelen and Tyler called this a "comprehensive methodology of instruction"58 which utilized both research on the processes of learning by individuals and research ‘that dealt with processes of group interaction. The factors «of interaction within a group were considered important as was the nature of problem solving. Content of instruction *wes determined by the group and derived from the needs of 'the group. The development of this approach tended to alter the traditional concept of teaching, and this was a direct (:omtributor to the concept that teaching was the guiding of learning behavior as stated in the earlier chapters of the NSSE Forty-ninth Yearbook. The emphasis was interpreted to read that subject matter meant the content of the experience, zacrt the content of the subject. Thelen and Tyler summarize the underlying importance of this emphasis in the following manner: A statement of educational objectives represents an analysis of the types of learning outcomes desired. If the objectives are wisely chosen, they represent changes which the school seeks to bring about in the behavior of its students, so that they will acquire_ behaviors that are important to society and that contribute to their individual happiness. The purpose \ 58Herbert A. Thelen and Ralph W. Tyler, "Implications for Improving Instruction in the High School," Learnin and ’1 titan tion, Forty-ninth Yearbook of the National Society 03f the Study of Education, Part I (Chicago: University of cago Press, 1950), pp. 304-307. -35- of instruction is to facilitate learning in these directions. The content of instruction is the set of problems whose processes of solution result in the desired learning. The starting point for con- sideration of methodology is apprOpriately the definition of the problems whose solution constitutes learning. Problems will be considered to be of different "sorts" to the extent that they must be dealt with by different procedures. Because problems exist at all levels of consciousness and awareness in the problem-solver, in any given situation some of the problems can be identified only through infer- ences from the learner's behavior. The kind of be- havior from which one infers that a problem exists is primarily experimentation.59 Ethile Thelen and Tyler were fundamentally sound in their interpretation, this was easily misinterpreted or mis- ciirected by those individuals not thoroughly skilled in the group process method of teaching. Furthermore, the tendency to over-react to the group process method on the part of teachers created some significant problems for educators 't<> "explain away." As important a contribution to teaching methodology as was the adaptation of social psychology's group process, the difficulties with interpreting how groups could do thinking, when only individuals think, became a trite rejoinder directed toward education during the fifties. The concern for methodology, regardless of the type f 01‘ the moment, was becoming a central focus in education, and especially with regard to the factors contributing to Ed c tion a D c line movement. This has led rather \\ 59Ibid., pp. 310-311. ~86- naturally into the recent investigations concerning the role of the teacher. Certainly the Forty-ninth Yearbook gave a different interpretation of the role of the teacher than had been described previously. This has been followed re- cently by a theoretical conception of teaching developed by Smith,60 and the publication of the weighty Hgdbook of of Rggearch on Teaching.“ The dimensions of teaching re- garding the act of teaching are greatly expanded in these sources. The focus on methodology of instruction appears to be an indication that Education as a Discipline is approaching some maturity, if only late adolescence. Chapter Summary and Generalizations To review the development of this theme, it has been pointed out that the initiation of a disciplinary move- ment was reviewed in the NSSE Twenty-sixth Yearbook. The guiding principles for curriculum development were important contributions in the early phases of the development of the discipline. The emphasis was still on the science of edu- cat ion, and this emphasis continued through the NSSE Thirty- 38Venth Yearbook which addressed itself to many of the same 603. Othanel Smith, "A Concept of Teaching," L a e Eéki Cppcgpts in Education, B. Othanel Smith and Robert . unis editors C icago: Rand McNally and Company, 1961), PP- 86-101. (,1? 61American Education Research Association, H dbook <3 e rch on Te chin N. L. Gage, editor (Chicago: Rand c a lyan ompany, 63), 1218 pp. -37- problems as the preceding yearbook on the subject. Then the current shifted, and the social concerns gained greater emphasis, in the forms of work experience, and curriculum development centered on social reform in some instances, and perpetuation of the status quo in others as educators attempted to justify the lack of vocational opportunity for youth. This was changed suddenly with the outbreak of World War II, with its attendent labor shortages on all fronts. The shift following the war centered on concerns for mental health of both students and teachers, the new emphasis on consumership, and conservation of natural resources. At about the same time, education was "borrowing" from the other disciplines of social psychology and psychology, as it had borrowed only a few years earlier from sociology. The attention was directed to group interaction, and conse- quently an emphasis on methods of teaching. This has led to additional theoretical development and research on the nature of the instructional act. In all of the various concerns involved in this move- mBnt, there has been a significant lack of emphasis on the 8thect matter content per se, with the exception of the reference to the subject matter as it relates to group pro- cess in education. The educators, in the attempt to develop a discipline of their own, had consistently neglected the Cont; ent of the subjects taught. Instead, the attention was diverted to various facets of the discipline movement which -33- did not include content material. In a sense, educators, as with the teachers, defaulted in this respect. The evolution of Education as a Discipline is a complex theme. The justification for disciplinary status resides in the methodology of teaching and the act of learn- ing. The recognition of this factor has been a major con- tribution made by the emerging educational discipline. The tracing of the movement leading to this recognition has comprised the theme Education as a Disciplin . CHAPTER IV THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE THEME, MANPOWER CONCEPT OF EDUCATION Introductory Statement The two previous themes (Teaching as a Profesaion and Education as a Discipline) were primarily oriented toward, and derived from, education as a social institution. Both of the ensuing themes have relevance for education and curriculum de- velopment and both spring from sources other than the schools Per se. The Manpower Concept of Education theme examines some Pertinent changes in American society since World War II as these relate to the utilization of the human resources of this nation. It is necessary at the outset to determine some arbitrary limits within which this discussion will be carried on. Concerns for school "drOp-outs"; vocational education as Such; education of gifted children; adult education; job re- training of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled workers; Fed- eral aid to education, cannot be explored in detail as these are beyond the interest of this discussion. Nrthemore, it is not within the scope of this project to explore all of the technological and intellectual developments which have occurred “tithin the last twenty years. It must be sufficient to recog- nize these factors to exist, and assume that there is a -39- -90- relationship to the present major pursuits undertaken here. Rather a survey will be taken to assess: the sources of con- cern for human resources; the conflict between concepts of man and concepts of manpower; and the effect the Manpower Conaept has had on the educational structure. In this latter respect, the Manppwer Concept relates directly to the next theme, the Pursuit of Excellence concept regarding increased academic emphasis in school subjects. The term "survey" is used advisedly, in that it im- plies an analysis of currents of thought and resulting action taken by various individuals and groups whose responsibili- ties within this society have made them aware of the complex Problems involved in dealing with change in society, avail- able human resources, and educational needs. The Emergence of the Concern for Manpower As it was reviewed in the preceding chapter, a major effort in education at the secondary school was to provide .5 Obs for young people during the 1930's. The problems of the Depression years were ones of a great imbalance of employ- ment with respect to the numbers of individuals seeking jobs. something like eight million adult workers were unemployed at. the onset of hostilities in 191.1, and nearly another eight million were working at unsatisfactory jobs because they c°\‘-lld find no others.)- 1'National Planning Association, Man wer: The Nation's 35 (a 5 TC— M Planning Pamphlets. NO. as ington, o o: 9 Nations lanning Association, July, 1953). P- 39. -91- The joblessness of the 1930s virtually disappeared over-night as the United States became involved in WOrld War II. Along with changing the tide of employment, WOrld War II provided shocking information for most thinking citizens and particularly for teachers and educators. Ginzberg stated :in the Opening sentence of his book on human resources: During WOrld War II almost two million young Americans of draft age were rejected for military service because of a mental or emotional defect, and another three- quarters of a million were discharged from the Armed Forces for these same reasons while the war was still underway.2 The accent on available manpower was made during the early days of the complete mobilization for the war effort. Ckinzberg went on to describe the situation concerning the apparent unlimited reserves of men for armed services, de- spite the high prOportion classed as unsuitable. It was not until the spring of 1943, two and a half years after the beginning of mobilization and a year and a half after our active entrance into the war, that top officials in Washington came to the start- ling realization that the nation did not possess unlimited manpower resources and that care would have to be taken in utilizing the available supply.3 1pwnsnty-some years hence it seems incredible that individuals could be so hampered by preconceived ideas of unlimited human JPesources. ‘ While the delay in recognition of the problem -_____5 N 2Eli Ginzberg, Hum Resources: The Wealth of a '~4§ES;;pp (New York: Simon and Schuster, I953). Po 9. 31b;d., pp. 28-29. -92- of unlimited sources of men for armed services is a question not related to this discussion, the military origin of the term "manpower" has a distinct relationship. The military interpretation given to the allocation of human resources by means of designation seems to have been as difficult to discard by those writing in this area as was the idea of unlimited numbers of men in the early 191.0 '3. An extensive treatment of population trends and demographic statistics will not be incorporated in this study. However, as an interesting background factor it is necessary to note the significance of immigration policy changes during the 1920's. Until 1920, foreign immigration had added millions of individuals to U. S. census roles. After this period the quota system was established, cutting immigration, and many of the Highly skilled artisans as well as the unskilled workers whose ability contributed substantially to industrial advance were immigrants. . . . The res- ervoir of ability they provided habituated Americans to thinking about manpower factors in terms which are no longer appropriate and validJr Therefore, from 1920 on population increases were based pri- marily on increased birth rate, which declined during the 1930's as drastically as it climbed during and following World War II. \ “Educational Policies Commission, W fiét‘ign. (Washington, D. 0.: Educational Polio es Commission, ational Education Association, 1956), p. 9. Consequently, many of the problems under the later -93- heading of ”shortages" evolved from a limited source of supply originating in the 1930's. The Educational Policies Commission predicted that the existing imbalance between numbers of individuals in the United States and those of peak productive ages (20-61.) would not be resolved until the 1970's. While this was an important consideration, the major concern regarding manpower was the great reserve of ability and talent not adequately trained nor fully utilized in an increasingly complicated American society which led, ulti- mately, to the shortages in critical areas.6 It has been this concern that has become the central one during the time span incorporated in this study. The major events and foci Of attention related to the problem of shortages have had an impact on secondary education. Manpower in a Democratic Society In our democratic society, there has never existed a national manpower policy as such. The two movements in ArneI‘ican history resembling most closely manpower policies were the encouragement of immigration prior to restrictive JPall-elation in 1920, and the encouragement of education both by public and private groups dating from the founding of Harvard 51bid., pp. 11-12. 6Ibid., p. 15. -94- College in 1636.7 Other significant governmentally derived educational aspects which promoted a manpower policy of wise use of human resources included the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and the Morrill Act of 1862.8 But specific manpower policy directing the use or allocation of work and talent has never been drafted nor would such a policy be consistent within the democratic ideals of a free society. World War II and Human Resources The national emergency of world war II created a need for some temporary measures to control human resources. The Armed Forces was then, and has since continued to be, the largest single controller of human resources. Further- more , during the war, the War Manpower Commission was estab- lished to develop stability and controls regarding industrial workers who tended to shift from job to job.9 These were reStrictive measures based on emergency situations. While such things as legislation concerning unemployment, Univer- 8a]. Military Training, Selective Service, and G. I. Bills relate to the manpower concept, for purposes of this study they are not explored here. These had their impact. It is 7Ginzberg op. cit. pp. 25-26: and Eli Ginzberg and Ihmglas W. Bray, The Uneducated (New York: Columbia Univer- sity Press, 1953)‘,“"'"“‘““""pp. 1-7. Ginzberg and Bray, op. cit., pp. 26-27. 9National Planning Association, 0p. cit., p. 39. -95- sufficient for the purpose of this chapter to acknowledge that impact, but not to examine it in detail. The investigation undertaken in the theme, Manppwer Conc t of Education, has been one of describing the perti- nent factors which led to concerns by the public-at-large, and the resultant attempts to resolve the problems, of (1) shortages of key personnel, and (2) provisions for minimal education for all citizens. It is these concerns that have had an important influence on education at the secondary school. Among the societal changes which occurred following world war II, and which emphasized the need for more highly trained personnel, Ginzberg listed the expansion of research programs in industry; the highly technical aspects of the new military program; the development of atomic energy in l9h5, and the competition with Russian nuclear weapons devel- opments as having, . . . alerted us that our security, in fact our sur- vival, might depend on our ability to stay ahead in the scientific—manpower race. . . . No single factor has contributed more to awakening the public to the importance of human resources than the threat of our losing the manpower race to the Communists.10 In short, progress and survival have become extremely im- portant considerations within the past two decades. In order to either progress or survive in the mid-twentieth century, Ll 10Ginzberg, op. cit., p. 32. -96- greater demands were placed on individual ability and talent, and the fact that these would need to be used to the utmost. Consequently, attention has turned to the formal aspects of education, the school systems and the curricula within these schools. The problem has become one of vast dimensions, ex- tremely complex and diverse. The Conservation of Human Resources Project WOrld war II military leaders, conditioned by the rejection rate of inductees during the war years, remained concerned with post-war manpower problems. As an example, General Dwight D. Eisenhower, impressed with the evidence of wastage of manpower during Wbrld war II, when he became President of Columbia University, initiated the Project to carry out basic research in human resources. The research was undertaken cooperatively by the University, the business community, trade unions, foundations and the Federal Govern- ment. The staff of the project consisted of representatives from the academic fields of economics, psychiatry, labor history, manpower and personnel, psychology, economic history, statistics, and journalism.11 There was no representative from education on this roster. Furthermore, it appears sig- nificant that the Conservation of Human Resources research project was established within the Graduate School of llIbid., pp. 173-17u. -97- Business. Philip YOung, Dean of this school, served as ad- ministrative head, and Eli Ginzberg, Professor of Economics in the Graduate School of Business became Director of the Project.12 Contributions from the Ford Foundation aided in financing the project. The project had a twofold objective: to expand existing knowledge of the fundamentals of human resources, and to use this knowledge in reducing wastage of this most valuable resource by permitting a sounder public policy to develop. The Project made studies of (l) the groups in society handicapped, educationally or otherwise, in such a way as to prevent truly effective performance by these individuals; (2) and at the other extreme, the Project was concerned with fundamental research of the talented in- dividuals who were able to perfOrm in a superior fashion. A third research approach was to attempt to assess fundamental changes in society since 1900 concerning the role of work, and to determine the effect of these changes on individual satisfaction, economic productivity, and welfare of the total society.13 One of the first completed research studies was reported by Ginzberg and Bray in a book entitled, The Unedu- papag.14 This dealt, for the most part, with a report of 2 Ginzberg and Bray, 0p. cit., p. vii. 13Ibid., pp. ix-x. 1“mid” 2A6 pp. -93- practices . . . followed during World War II in screening the population for military service and, in particular, to learn more about the numbers, characteristics, and residences of the young men who were rejected from service Egcause of an inability to pass the mental tests. Using military records, the researchers explored the possi- bility of incorporating uneducated men into service units; and what affect the Special Training Units had on developing literacy among these illiterates. While some men were able to learn to read well enough to remain in service, the mili- tary discovered that the concentration of these individuals with poorly developed literacy skills could not be too great in any one unit. If the ratio of uneducated to educated became imbalanced the military unit ceased to function smoothly.16 In the same study, industrialists were ques- tioned concerning employment of poorly educated individuals. Ginzberg and Bray reported: The experience of Southern industry and, even more particularly, the experience of Northern industry pointed to the fact that there were major barriers in the way of absorbing even a small number of illiter- ates into an industrial organization that has adjusted itself to a literate work force. We found that even though the illiterate person could frequentl learn to become a machine Operator without particu ar diffi— culty, industries would hestiate to employ him because he would be unable to meet the ancillary responsibilities l51bid., pp. xi-xii. 1611322.. p. 75. -99- of work in a large organization such as filling out blanks, reading work orders, and keeping records.17 These researchers further pointed out that the changes in agricultural operations, particularly in the South which had moved from a one-crop system to more scientific methods in- corporating larger land holdings, left little room for an illiterate person to operate satisfactorily. It was con- cluded that all sectors of the economy once absorbing in- dividuals lacking in education have changed sufficiently to afford little place for these workers. The limited financial support available for education in some parts of the country raised the cry for Federal aid to education. The plan pro- posed by Ginzberg and Bray was one of making . . . Federal funds available whenever a state has a tax rate on behalf of education in proportion to or above the national average and when the yield from these taxes provides considerably less per pupil than the national average.1 Under such a system states in the Southeast would have re- ceived considerable aid. Public Recognition of the Need for Education The study of the uneducated pointed up many concerns pertinent to education. While educators have long been worried about those individuals who did not do well in verbal skills, 17Ibid., p. 229. 18Ibid., p. 237. -100— . the larger community had tended to ignore these critical lacks. Perhaps the revelation brought about by the World war II rejection rate and the ensuing concern for uneducated people concentrated within certain geographic areas or within other economic brackets, provided a measure of public recog- nition of the problem faced solely by educators before this period. Hence, the need for at least a minimum of educational essentials for an individual in our society were recognized. While the solution to this problem has not yet been achieved, what is significant is that greater public recognition has been accorded this educational problem. Sectors of the American society outside of the education seemed to have been no better prepared to solve the problem than were the educa- tors. From this one may infer that a greater respect for the role of educational efforts was accorded than had happened previously. The National Council on Manpower While the Conservation of Human Resources Project was originated in 1950 to carry on basic research about human resources, a second force was set in motion which was directed at policy-making. Ginzberg19 pointed out that resulting from the outbreak of the Korean War, in 1950, the Ford Foundation, l9Eli Ginzberg, Human Resources: The Wealth of a Nation (New York: Simon and Schuster, I953), pp. 11-12. -101- in anticipating manpower stringencies brought about by the war, requested Columbia University to sponsor a National Council on Manpower. The Conservation Project staff was used, but the outcomes of the second approach were policy statements rather than the reporting of basic research in the behavioral sciences. The University accepted the offer and the National Manpower Council was formed in 1951 under the Chairmanship of James D. Zellerbach of San Francisco. The council was made up of distinguished citizens from differ- ent geographical areas and different sectors of national life. During the early years of operation the National Manpower Council published reports on student deferment and national manpower policy, on scientific and professional personnel, and on skilled manpower. A Ginzberg has emphasized the inter-disciplinary ap- proach to the work of the research team, stating, No one investigator, no matter how broadly trained, controls the range of theory and techniques required to plan and carry out large-scale investigations into economics and group behavior. The requisite knowl- edge and skills could be found only among a team of collaborators.20 The National Manpower Council said its essential purpose and primary concern, "is the training, skills, capacities, com- petence, and creativeness of the American peOple--that is, the gaalipy of our human resources."21 2°Ibid., p. 13. 21National Manpower Council, A Polic for Scientific P f 3 ion 1 ower (New York: Columbia University Press, 953 g p. 7. -102- The 1953 report of the National Manpower Council, A Policy for Sciantific and ProfessiOnalIManppwer,22 explored available manpower in three groups of professions: engineers, teachers, and physicians; and within one group of scientists, the physicists. It was reported that since 1900, the rate of growth of numbers of persons in the sciences and profes- sions was almost twice that of total population growth. Fur- thermore, the number of scientists engaged in fundamental research comprised one out of every h,200 persons in the working force.23 As the culture became more technologically oriented, need for more scientists developed accordingly. The Korean Conflict Influences Manpower The effect of world events on manpower shortages was felt most critically in 1950-1953, as a result of the outbreak of fighting in Korea. The partial mobilization to deter aggression created problems not encountered during the full mobilization of WOrld war II, in that during the Korean Conflict production of civilian goods was not curtailed as it had been in WOrld War II. The two fronts created an ex- tremely heavy demand for scientific and professional per- sonnel, especially since defense production for Korea came ”an” 257 pp. 23pm., p. 8. -103- at a time of high civilian employment.21+ In addition to a high demand for scientists and technically trained manpower for research and deve10pmental activities for defense, pri- vate industrial demand for chemists, physicists and other scientists had grown steadily. In a similar fashion the shortages of qualified teachers had expanded since the early 1940's.25 Federal and Privately Endowed Developments While not specifically labeled as "manpower" agencies, other significant large-scale developments were initiated in the early 19508 and were directly related to the crucial shortages in scientifically and professionally trained per- sonnel. The first of these was the National Science Founda- tion, created by Congress in 1950 for the purpose of provid- ing governmental assistance for advanced education and training in the physical, biological and medical sciences.26 The second source of assistance came from the private sector of the nation, the development of the Fund for the Advance- ment of Education on the part of the Ford Foundation, in April, 1951.27 Another agency developed during this period a‘ ulbido , p. 110 251bid., pp. 12-13. 26Ibid., p. 26. 27 The Fund for the Advancement of Education Dec de ' Id ance- of x ment 1 1-1 61 (New York: The Fund for the v ment 0 E ucat on, ), p. 15. -104- was the Commission on Human Resources and Advanced Training, established in 1950 by the Conference Board of Associated Research Councils.28 Significant in the work of such groups was the active participation of individuals and agencies from a wide range of backgrounds. Using the Fund for the Advancement of Education as one example of Foundation support, this agency set about to encourage new thinking, experimentation, and development of pilot programs that might provide partial solutions to problems "plaguing American schools and colleges." A few of the departures from traditional approaches to education included television teaching, the use of nonprofessional teacher aids, "fifth-year" teacher training programs for liberal arts graduates, team teaching, and other programs worked out with specific teacher preparation institutions.29 The range of investigations sponsored by the Fund has'been broad. Regardless of the immediate outcome of individual research projects, the Fund for the Advancement of Education has nudged educational development and.experimentation con- siderably. Significant as this is to the development of the Mappgger Concept, the several undertakings have a great if not greater relevance for the Pursuit of Excellence theme 28National Manpower Council, 0 . cit., p. 21. 29 Fund for the Advancement of Education, op. cit., pp. 15-16. -105- still to be discussed, for throughout the work done by the Fund, one finds an emphasis on Quality as well as guaptity. Regardless of the diversity of work undertaken in studying and reporting on manpower early in the decade of the fifties, concerns continued to be heard about the grow- ing shortages in many areas of the national economy. The National Planning Association reported in 1953, Major corporations, analyzing their experience over the last half century and estimating their expan- sion over the next ten years are forecasting faster rates of increase in the employment of engineers, scientists and managerial personnel than they for— see themselves able to meet. In the spring of 1953, for the first time, firms were making financial arrangements with promising college seniors, in the face of their liability for military service, solely to be sure of having a line on them for their staffs afterwards.30 This same report stressed the need for encouraging more in- dividuals to continue with college education in the following comment: . . . a serious loss of quality is still occurring in substantial numbers of the very able who do not get to college. . . . This country is not rich enough in high-potential people to warrant care- lessness in their use.31 Almost simultaneously, the National Manpower Council was publishing similar statements concerning the alleviation of shortages. 30National Planning Association, op. cit., pp. 9-11. 311b1do , p. 120 -106- Scientists and professional persons cannot be stock- piled like commodities against future shortages or hastily trained in response to sudden surges in demand. The problem of preventing future shortages, therefore, raises the question of what methods are available to a democratic society to insure a reasonable balance between supply and demand.32 Two courses of action were suggested by the National Manpower Council in this report: (1) altering the distribution of individuals among the various scientific or professional fields in which shortages are anticipated, and/or (2) ex- panding the size of the total college population to enable more individuals to become educated and trained for specific fields.33 In recognizing supply and demand relationships for scientific and professional personnel, the emphasis was made again and again that these individuals were drawn from a very small group in the total population "who are intel- lectually and financially able to graduate from college and motivated to do so."3h ‘ Many efforts have come into focus regarding the Manppwep Concept of Education since the 1940ts. Most of these had their origins in the 1950's. The rejection rate during WOrld War II gave a new importance to education, in that a high percent of the total armed forces reserve was unfit _ 32National Manpower Council, 0 cit., p. 18. 331bido , p. 180 3“Ibig., p. 152. -107- for service due to inability to pass mental tests. This led to the establishment of agencies, both public and private, to explore the human resources question and to attempt to formulate policy statements consistent with research findings and with a democratic society. Furthermore, the federal government established a program through the National Science Foundation to stimulate research and teaching in the natural sciences, and almost simultaneously the Ford Foundation es- tablished the Fund for the Advancement of Education directed at rather specific problems of education. In other words, the problems relating to the preparation of human resources and the wise use of these resources were dramatically heightened by many non—educators pointing out the need for improvements aimed at providing means for attaining a high level of performance in jobs. Educators as such had long recognized some of the deficiencies, but had seemingly been unable to motivate the larger community. The agencies created by sources outside the school prompted an acceptable concern on the part of the larger community for dealing with these educational problems. Complications in "Man" Versus "Manpower" The problem was not one to be easily solved. The Very military nature of the construct of "manpower" raised