mes mm W“ 32M H LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled CCMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF THREE TIIlAGE METHODS ON SOIL MICROAKIHROPOD POPULATIONS presented by Steven Jefferson boring has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M. S. degree in Zoology Date February 121 1979 0-7639 OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this checkout from your record. COMPARATIVE EFFECTS OF THREE'TILLAGEIMEIHODS ON SOIL MICROARTHRDPOD POPULATIONS By Steven.JeffersonflLoring A.THESIS Submitted to Nfichigan State University in.partia1 fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of ‘MASTER.OF SCIENCE Department of Zoology 1979 ABSTRACT MARATIVEEFFECI‘SOF'HIREETEIACEWS ONSOEMCRDAKIHROPODPOPUIATIONS By Steven Jefferson loring No-till, I‘bldboard Plow, and Chisel Plow tillage systans were investigated for their effects upon canposition and vertical distri- bution of soil microarthropod populations. Soil samples were taken regularly during one growing season and the fauna extracted by Tullgren fmnels. Conventional tillage system stinulated microarthropod popu- lations levels . The No-till systan appeared to have little effect upon population levels. The herbicides Paraquat and Atrazine are iuplicated in having long range deleterious effects upon soil meroarthropod popu- lations . I would like to thank the miners ofmy guidance oamrlttee, Dr. Lynn S. Robertson, Departnent of Crop and Soil Sciences, Drs. '1‘. Wayne Porter and Ralph A. Fax, Department of Zoology, and especially Dr. Richard J. Snider, Chairman, for their aid in the preparation of this thesis. I would also like to express appreciation to Dr. Stanley J. Zarmch for his aid in statistical analysis of my data. Certain taconomic problans were encountered during the course of this study. I am indebted to Dr. Ernest Bernard, University of Tennessee, for identification of Protura, Dr. Eduard Piffl, University of Vienna, for determination of several oribatid mites, and Dr. W. Calvin Welbourn, Ohio State University Acarology laboratory , for identification of certain prostignatid mites . ii TABLE OF comm Page Acknowledgments .......................... ii List of Tables ........................... iv List of Figures .......................... v INIRODUCI'ION ............................ 1 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................... 3 General ............................. 3 Vertical Distribution ...................... 3 Cultivation Effects ....................... 4 Herbicide Effects ........................ 4 MATERIALS AND mums ..................... V. . 6 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ....................... 12 Extraction Efficiency ...................... 12 General Results ........ ' ................. 13 Vertical Distribution ...................... 17 Age Structure .......................... 24 No-Till vs . Moldboard Plow .................... 24 Herbicide Effects ........................ 27 Chisel Plow ........................... 28 CDNCIIJSICNS ............................ 29 REGIMENDATICNS FOR FUTURE STUDIES ................. 29 APPENDICES I. Inventory of Microarthropods from No-Till Plots ....... 31 II. Inventory of Microarthropods fran Moldboard Plow Plots. . . . 37 III . Inventory of Microarthropods from Chisel Plow Plots ..... 42 LI'IERATURE CITED .......................... 48 LISI‘OFTAEIES Table Page 1 Percent Extraction Using Tullgren meels , Determined by Flotation ...................... l3 2 Soil Temperatures (° Celsius) at Selected Depths ..... 18-19 3 Vertical Distribution of Pyenotidae in Inches ....... 21 4 Vertical Distribution of Tullbergia granulata in Inches. . 23 5 'I‘ullbergia gramflata, Matures and Inmates ........ 26 iv IISIOFFIGJRE‘S Figure Page 1 P‘hp of Sanple Plots ..................... 7 2 Diagram of Core Sanpling Device ............... 9 3 Daily Air Temperatures , National Weather Service ....... ll 4 Overall P0pu1ation levels of Tullbergia granulata ...... 15 5 Overall POpulation Levels of Pyamtidae ........... l6 6 Vertical Distribution of Pyamtidae ............. 20 7 Vertical Distribution of Tullbergia granulata ........ 22 8 Ratio of Mature/Immture Tullbergia grarmlata ...... l. . 25 INTROIIXII'ION Research involving meroarthropods of forest and grassland soils has been conducted for a long time. I-bwever, until recently little attention has been given to arable land. Approximtely twenty-five years ago, researchers began investigating effects of tillage and cultivation upon soil organisms (Tischler, 1955 a,b; Aleinikova & Utrobina, 1975; Singh 6: Pillai, 1975). The objective of this study was to determine effects of different tillage system upon composition and vertical distribution of soil microarthropod p0pulations. Consideration was also given to possible herbicidal effects upon those pOpulations because mdern farming oom- nnnly uses these chemicals. Sumerized are tillage system examined in this study: (1) No-till farming is planting a crop on unplowed soil and using herbicides to oontrolweeds. Anarrowslit ismade inthe soil by a fluted coulter. Seeds are then placed in the slit and covered. Further cultivation is not required . Advan- tages of No-till farming are virtually no disturbance of ground cover and soil structure, marked reduction of wind and water erosion, and increase in soil mistin'e retention. These advantages are oomterbalanced by an increased reliance upon chemicals to control weeds and animal pests. No single chemical is adequate to handle these probl-c , nor is all 1 land ideally suited for No-till farming. Greater unnagenent skill is required to effectively farm with No—till (Nelson et a1. , 1976) . (2) Conventional tillage using the uoldboard plow breaks soil mid turns it over. This tillagemethodhas theadvantage of reducing weed and pest larvae nurbers. Disadvantages include high vulnerability of soil to wind and water erosion, and increased susceptibility to drying out. Additional culti- vation is required following planting, involving investments of time, labor, and energy (Phillips & Young, 1973). (3) Tillage using the chisel plow breaks soil to a lesser extent than the uoldboard plow. In addition, soil is not overturned. The anount of disturbance to soil is intermediate betweei that of mldboard plow and No-till planters (L. S. Robertson, personal ooummication) . When soil is disturbed and exposed, as with conveitional tillage, many soil microarthropod populations can be severely affected. Aside from coupaction of soil due to weight of the tractor and tillage inple- ments, soil fauna can experience drastic and sudden changes in terpera- ture and relative hunidity. Many soil moroarthropods, especially the euedaphon ("true soil dwellers"), are very sensitive to changes in either of these factors . Mortality, fertility, and distribution of populations are greatly affected by soil disturbances (Kevan, 1962; Wallwork, 1976). If populatims are affected by amount of soil distur- bance, then one would expect that noldboard plow would affect popu- lations nost, No-till would affect populations least, and chisel plow would have intermediate effects. LITERATURE REVIEW area Prior to the 19505 virtually no research was conducted on micro- arthropods of agricultural land. Most investigations of soil animals of arable land were restricted to taxormic reviews of faunistic lists. Nearly all ecological investigations were conducted in old fields or forests (Dowdy, 1944; Pearse, 1946; Strickland, 1947; Hairston 6: Byers, 1954; Haarlov, 1967). Tischler (1955b) reported that tilling caused a terporary decrease in soil animal populations. Anglade (1975) stated that cultivation apparently affected vertical distribution and age class structure of Symphyla populations. Plant cover of agricultural land also affected relative dominance and structure of various arthropod populations (Aleinikova 6: Utrobina, 1975). Vertical Distribution Several studies of vertical distribution have been conducted. Usher (1970) sampled vertical distribution of 'Iullbergia calipygos Bornertoadepthof3cminatnmm-ironpodsol. Hereportedthat mean depth of '_I'_. calipgggs was closely associated with rainfall: the more precipitation, the deeper the animl was found. He also reported that this collerbolan has lage populations from July to Noverber, with a peak in August. Usher (1971) reported on vertical distribution of mesostignatid mites . His study sl'rmed that population depth deviation is usually large. Climatic conditions influeiced vertical migrations of mesostigmata. Cultivation Effects Edwards and lofty (1969) reported that cultivation reduced nun- bers of Pauropoda, Colleibola, » and cryptostignatid Acarina (= Sarcoptifornes). On the other hand, Protura, Symphyla, Diplopoda and other Acarina were little affected. Certain groups of arthropods, particularly cryptostigmatid Acarina and euedaphic Colleibola Which Ecbrards and lofty defined as Hypogastmridae and Onychim'idae), were significantly nore abundalt in unplowed soil treated with the herbicide Paraquat thai in conventionally tilled soil . Differeices in treatment effects were lessened within six nonths of initial cultivation. These results were partly contradicted by a report couparing wheat platted using conventional tillage with Slit-seeding (No-till) using Paraquat (Edwards 6: lofty, 1975) . The effect of plowing was to "decrease numbers of all major groups of soil annals significantly," especially cryptostigmtid Acarina aid henledaphic Colleibola (Isotomidae, Ehtarobryidae, Smintlnn'idae according to Bavards and lofty) but not euedaphic Collerbola as previously reported (Edwards 6: lofty, 1969). Euedaphic Collerbola were sham to be uore numerous in plowed soil than in No-till soil treated with Paraquat. Overall changes in populations due to No-till were snall, but most groups of soil arthropods were favored (exceptions being larger predatory mites , euedaphic Collerbola, and Diptera larvae). The soil type used for their studies was a silty clay loan. Herbicide Effects With increased use of chemicals to control weeds, investigations of possible effects of these compounds upon soil fauna were undertaker. Rapoport and Cangioli (1963) reported that no significait differences in animal population levels were detected bemeen soil treated with the herbicides MIPA, 2,4-D (buteylic ester), "Esso 10", Shell 40, and untreated soil. Fox (1964) tested five herbicides, including atrazine, for their effects on soil fauna. He found that, when applied to grassland soil, Atrazine caused a reduction in numbers of wireworne (Elateridae), earthworm, and Collerbola. Triazine herbicides, e.g., Sinazine which is chemically related to Atrazine, were reported by Edwards (1970) to reduce mnbers of Acarina and Collerbola. Fin-ther- nore, Atrazinehasbeeisl'ownto lowerthenmbers ofAcarina, Collerbola, Ehchytraeidae, Protozoa, and adult insect populations for as long as four nonths after its applicatim (Popovici et a1. , 1977) . Simn (1976) , however, stated that bacterial activity was stinulated rather than inhibited whei s-triazines were applied to soil in "prac- tical doses." Less work has been done with Paraquat that with Atrazine. Edwards (1970) stated that Paraquat had little effect upon soil invertebrate populations. Contrary to Echaards' report, CLn'ry (1970) suggested that application of Paraquat caused a decrease in populations of Colleibola and Acarina, altl'ough the decrease was only tenporary. Persistence of Atrazine has been shown to be up to sixteen nonths in Meadco silt loan, with microorganism probably responsible for nost of the breakdown and inactivation of this chemical (Talbert & Fletchall, 1964; Skipper & Volk, 1972) . Talbert and Fletchall (1965) stowed that organic naterials adsorb Atrazine mre than clays . Adsorption is reversible and probably regulated by tenperature and rainfall (Buchholtz, 1965) . Paraquat is reversibly adsorbed by clay particle in soil (Weber et a1. , 1965; Upchurch, 1966). Whether bound ions of this herbicide are accessible to microbial attack and degradation is not known (Williams, 1970; Klingnan et al., 1975). Little is known about how the herbicide lasso affects soil aninals. The Herbicide Handbook of the Weed Science Society of America (1970) states that lasso is adsorbed by colloidal particles in soil, that persistence in soil lasts fran six to tenweeks, and that it has no biological properties other than herbicidal. MATERIAIS AND MEITDDS Twelve 20x40 foot plots onwhichcornwasbeinggromwere sarpled (Figure 1). These plots were located in the northeast corner of the Soil Science Research Farm of Michigan State University. Plots were initiated in the Spring of 1975 and had been continuously culti- vated using the sane three tillage syst-I. Previous to this time the area had been in grass for at least fifteen years. Each tillage systen was replicated four times. Tillage for this project was done on April 28 and 29, 1977. an April 30 all plots were treated with Atrazine (2-chloro-4- (ethylamino) -6- (isopropylarrino) -s-triazine) and lasso (2-chloro-2' ,6'-diethyl-N- (methyl)-acetanilide) in anonmts of 1.75 lbs/A and 2 pt/A, respectively. In addition, No-till plots were treated with Paraquat (1,l'-dinethy1-4,4'-bipyridiniun ion), 1 pt/A. No pesticides were applied to any plots. On three occasions 1.5 inches of water were added to the plots by sprinkler irrigation (July 5, 21 and August 24) . 3on 3g no he: 4 «use: .0» 8: Honda .. u HHH due 3 .emm .3. SE change: - m _m wllbulw— H awe H dam 33.52 - < IV be a a Z The soil is classified Spinks loany sand (soil nanagenent group 49., Psamentic Hapludalf, sandy, mixed, mesic). This soil tends to be droughty. Each plot was sampled using a six-inch core device of two-inch diameter whose interior widened to relieve compression of soil (Figure 2). Base population levels were determined by sampling each plot before tillage. Two randcm soil cores were taken within old corn rows (inrow) andtworandom soil coreswere takenbetween oldcornrows (outrow) . Sites were located in the central part of each plot to avoid possible edge effects of intergradation. One inrow and outrow core from each plot were subdivided into two-inch segments so that vertical distribution of the microarthropods could be established. All soil cores were placed in plastic bags which were then sealed. Bags were placed in an expty ice chest to avoid overheating from direct sunlight. Soil cores were taken to the Pesticide Research Center on the canpus of Michigan State University and microarthropods were extracted by Tullgren funnels. The heat source for each funnel was a 25-watt light bulb connected to a rheostat. low settings were used so that arthro- pods would not be trapped inside of rapidly drying soil. Soil was left to dry for a mininum of three days. End:racted animals were collected and preserved in a solution of 95% ethanol - 1% glycerine. The sane procedure used to establish base population levels was followed on each date of sarpling with the following exceptions: three im'owcoresandonlyoneoutrowcoreweretakenfraneachplot. One inrow core was subdivided into two-inch segments. Only two inrow cores per plot were taken on the first two sanpling dates following tillage {<— 16 " .nlc. r 6" i k— z“——)l Figure 2. Diagram of Core Sampling Device 10 because use of the Tullgren fumnels was limited. Consequently, all other dates have had one randomly selected inrow samnple remved from statistical comparisons. The data presented in Appendices I , II , III reflect this deletion. The air and soil terperatures at depths of zero, two, four, and six inches were determined on each date by using a Yellow Springs Institute Telethermncmeter (YSI-4ZSC) . Macirrum and minimum air terpera- tures and precipitation amounts during the project were obtained from the National Weather Service South Farm Station , located one-half mile from the test plots (Figure 3). Following extraction, collected microarthropods were identified to Species (Collenbola, Protura) , Family (Acarina, Diptera , Coleoptera, Diplura, Hymenoptera), Order (Araneae, Opilliornes), or Class (Chilopoda, Diplopoda, Parropoda, Symphyla) (Appendices I , II, III) . Collenbola were identified according to Christiansen and Bellinger (1979) . Acarina were identified according to Krantz (1970) . The extraction efficiency of the Tullgren funnels used in this study was determined. After funnel extraction, soil from 36 subsampled cores taken on August 28 were subjected to flotation. The dried soil was reroistened with water and imnnersed in a saturated sugar-water solution. The relative density of the solution was greater than organic material remaining in the soil, forcing organic material to surface where it was collected and identified. Many soil arthropod populations do not exist as randomly distri- buted individuals, but in aggregations (Shaddy & Butcher, 1977). Data from the same treatments were combined to dampen the great variance 11 moEmm 5.383 Hmcowumz .mmflfimumfiwH H2 52mm .m 99me 00.00 .3290 coercion .322 :3. 25.. >01 :5 n. m m. p m- — n— p n— _ n— _ m— p n p h P b p P h p h b h .2 0.00 {Eon O ION wan now .On . v 18 .05 . .0. O .00 £35.55 o £2...qu o .00— (glo) "unending, 12 inherent in this sampling program. The data were highly skewed and required square root or logarithmic transformations before statistical tests could be performed. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Extraction Efficiency Certain biases inherent in the data should be considered. Core depthwas only six inches, altlough tillage depthwas eight inches. lbst microarthropods occur within two inches of the soil snmface (Sheals, 1957). Some artlm'opods are capable of penetratirng soil to depths of several feet (Michelbacher, 1938; Hairston 6: Byers, 1954; Edwards 8: lofty, 1969; Price, 1975; Price 8: Benhan, 1977). Thus, total animal species are probably not represented in the soil cores takenduringthecourseofthisstudy. A more significant bias in collection data develops from ineffi- ciency of Tullgren funnels in extracting small arthropods from soil. Haarlov (1962) reported that greatest losses in extraction occurred with small , slow moving species , presumably because their locomotory organs were poorly developed. The extraction efficiency of Tullgren funnels was investigated by Tamra (1976) and found to be very low when canpared with hand-sorted soil sarples . According to Tamra only 16.07. of all Collenbola were extracted by the funnels, the deficiency becoming more marked as the size of the organism decreased. Extraction efficiency of T‘ullgren fimels used in this study was determined by flotation (Table 1) . Groups not included in the table were collected in numbers too few for valid conclusions. Only 3.0% T_'. granulata were collected by the Tullgren funnels , while 95 . 7% Pyenotidae were collected. 13 TABLEl Percent Extraction Using Tullgren Funnels Determined by Flotation Animal ‘7. Extracted Tullbergia g_r_anulata 3 . 0 Isotomidae 81 . 9 Pyenotidae 95 . 7 Rhodacaridae 85 . 8 Total Acarina 61 . 3 Coleoptera larvae 6 . 4 Formicidae 26 . 7 lbwever, this is a standard extraction technique. Thus, the results of this study are comparable to other studies. General Results A checklist of collected animal species has been constructed (Appendices I, II, III). In the future this checklist will allow animal species diversity of agricultural land to be compared with the diversity of forest and old field soils. There was virtually no dif- ference in microarthropod diversity between differently tilled plots . Following tillage, population levels on all plots declined ch'anatically . Composition of soil samples indicated that changes in population densities occurred. Only two groups , Tullbergia granulata Mills (Collenbola) and Pyerotidae (Acarina) , were collected in suffi- cient numbers for valid testing by statistical methods. Because they were ubiquitous, these groups were used as indicator organisms. 14 Support for this rationale can be found in the literature. Dindal and Norton (1979) investigated the impact of DUI, street salting, and wastewater irrigation on old fields. They found Pyeiotidae to be good indicator organisms for stressed environments. Populations of I. Eanulata in moldboard and chisel plow plots exhibited similar patterns: a sharp drop following tillage with an increase in numbers toward the end of the sampling program (Figure 4). These populations showed no significant difference attributable to tillage techniques in a two-way analysis of variance (P 1 0.10). No-till populations of T. gganulata slowed no significant difference fran moldboard and chisel plow populations throughout the sampling program. ‘lhey differed significantly from other systems prior to tillage and at the end of the sampling program. Qualitatively, No-till populations differed from the others by continual fluctuatiorns in num- bers. Peaks in mnbers appea to correspond to the two-month intervals required by T. gganulata to complete its life cycle (Dwidj asatnoko , 1978) . Pyenotidae populations showed significant differences in a two-way analysis of variance (P i 0.05). These differences are attributed to system of tillage and date of sample. Qualitatively, Pyenotidae popu- lations fluctuated and increased in nurbers toward the end of the sarpling program, with exceptian of No-till populations (Figure 5) . No-till populations of Pyenotidae were less than chisel plow popula- tions. T‘hiswas cuntrary towhatwaspredictedatthebegirmningof this study and will be discussed below. The effects of weather have been considered in evaluating the above results. July and August were hot munths with 5.47 inches of 15 0-—--- No Till Moldboord Plow Chisel Plow p---- hQ—.- IIII| “‘ “‘ ‘|" I‘||II II ‘| ’-.—.-.-.. l50.. £25.; .0 22.832 50.. 7.3 7-24 8'9 8-28 9 -2l lO—lb 6-19 5-29 5-l5 4-30 444 Sample Dates Overall Population Levels of Tullbergia granulata Figure 4. l6 PYEMO TIDA 5 NOT”! How Chhclflow O / :II o// /.. / / // a / / / I // /.. I; /u / / 9" /I II /‘ /n /’ /s / e/a \ U I \ U \ d ./u ./s /s III /u ’l . O Q \ .nnn \\M 0“ o. olo/Jo +lloln // olol: I oll+ll / lol: afllwo lV / II: I: e/- llll /. lllll l/Lnl Illl /- llll /. |.l| / llll s/s .flHIl ./ III .- I’ll/It’ll, In/I I, [I’llll’ III I, I’ll IIII. / J! 000 Ga) ‘00 2Q -_--‘ C-“ “‘ ’0'! 6 97! 0‘28 5-29 6-] 9 7‘3 545 444 17 precipitation (Figure 3). Tenperatures as deep as six inches reached 22° C by August 28 (Table 2). The apparent reduction in nunbers in late July and August may be due to migration of animals deeper into soil to escape heat and dessication. The sampling depth was six inches; any animals that migrated deeper than this were not collected. Vertical Distribution Relatiornships of arthropods to depth were determined for a small number of soil cores. Because fewer soil cores were investigated, data for depth distribution were less reliable than for the overall popula- tion study. All populations of T. giganulata and Pyerotidae were con- centrated in the top four inches of soil. In Septenber and October, Pyenotidae populations in the top two inches of moldboard and chisel plowed plots exhibited a dramatic increase in numbers (Figure 6 and Table 3) . Populations of T. gganulata in moldboard and chisel plowed plots also increased in the top two inches for September and October (Figure 7 and Table 4). No-till populations of these animals did not show a camparable increase. Populations of Pyeiotidae and T. Eamlata at the same depth within the same tillage system appeared to increase anddecreaseinsynchrony (Figures4and5). Thereasonforthishas not yet been determined. The affinity of Pyenotidae for upper layers of soil can be seen in effects of the moldboard plow (Figure 6). The moldboard plow turns soil over. This is reflected in a sudden increase of Pyenotid mites in the bottom two inches of soil following tillage. Nnmbers in this level slowly declined and a corresponding increase in the middle two inches was detected, indicating upwad migration of Pyenotidae . 18 m D E E WE E 92 E D .. - gonzo w E n .E E E E E E S E - San .E SE e383“: m 03 E E mE. E E mE 9E - - Shae m 93 mE E OE E E E E E - Sufi :0 SE e331 we 93 E E 9E E E E E S - Shae we 03 E E E E 93 E E S E Sea :0 HHHHInz w E mE E 9E E E E E E - SSS w E E E E E E E E E - Sufi 2% HEIQA m E E 9E EE 3 E WE mg: E .. Shoo w 93 E E DE 2 E E 3 9E .. SHE 3N HHHHIQ me E E E E E E E E E - SSS m 2 WE E mE 9E 9E E mE E E Sam :0 HHHHIQA E E E a E m E E E on E fies. boo new m2 we 3. 3. 8n a: .8: he Ea. menace omuomamm on 33300 av engage :8 N mama l9 we 3 E E ca 3 E E 3 E : souuso a E E E E E WE E E WE .. Sufi :0 SE umfiso m E E E E E E E E E - Suuno m E E E E E E E WE WE - Sufi .e SE Ewen m E E E E E E E WE E - Sues w E E E E E E E E E .. Sufi E SE umfiuo Wm E E E E E E E E E - Suuso 2 WE E E E E E E WE E - Sufi . ...o SE $36 a E E E E E WE E WE u .. Sumac a E E E WE E WE E E E - Sufi :0 SE eumoueusa w E E E E E E E E .. .. Suuso m E WE E E E WE E WE E - Sufi .3 SE eumoueusa E E E m E m E E E E E flame to new we use Eu. Be Bu. .32 .az ua< he Aubcoov N manna. 3001 0-2 in. 200. tiling. Numbers at A nlmals 200.. 1 L '71 20 "mono“ I No rm D Moldboord Plow E Chisel Plow F P 4 463. ’31 . t A t. ......-... ......... 0 Q IOIDI Ctfillcvllluli lit-Q'.IOIIO 1 [111.11 Ll ‘AL‘JIII"l-'!." 1‘ 0 . 4-14 4-30 5.15 5.29 6-19 7-3 7-24 Sample Dates Figure 6. Vertical Distribution of Pyamtidae I 0-20 9-2 I 10-16 21 TABLE 3 vertical Distribution.of Pyemotidae in Inches Apr .Apr’ May 'Mhy' Jun. JUl JUl. Aug ‘Aug Sep Oct Depth 14 3O 15 29 19 3 24 9 28 21 16 Nb—Till 0-2 28 2 10 175 8 4 178 69 13 463 183 2-4 17 1 3 16 86 81 2 14 3 29 71 4P6 14 O 1 1 115 10 4 206 1 9 42 ‘Mbldboard.Plow 0-2 58 2 18 63 32 32 2 0 17 35 16 2-4 2 4 0 84 28 123 0 2 11 83 108 4-6 4 O 141 88 37 89 1 4 8 22 30 Chisel Plow 0-2 58 10 8 20 9 4 15 134 61 317 631 2-4 6 7 0 37 8 116 50 32 21 174 27 4-6 4 6 2 3 51 73 10 10 82 195 27 22 0‘2 in- W W - N0 Ti“ 0 Meldboatd Plow E] Chisel Plow 100‘ W tillage 1 2-4 in. § l SOT Numbets of Animals In .. __ I: It] [— 4-14 4-30 545 5‘29 649 7-3 7~24 8-9 0‘28 9'2] lO-lb Sample Dates Figure 7. Vertical Distribution of Tullbergia gganulata 23 'EAELE 4 vertical Distribution.of Thllbergia g;anulata.in.lnches Apr ‘Apr iMay’iMay' JUn. JUl Jul Aug Sep Oct Depth 14 30 15 29 19 3 24 9 28 21 16 w 0-2 16 3 5 12 2 0 37 14 2 49 15 2-4 27 1 15 - 2 18 12 2 l 0 22 15 4-6 7 4 10 O 7 2 l 6 l 4 O IMbldboard PloW' 0-2 72 4 4 6 27 5 l 2 1 17 58 2—4 41 19 l 9 2 l6 2 3 0 41 111 4-6 24 6 ll 6 5 13 2 3 6 7 5 Chisel Plow 0-2 6O 10 8 0 O 4 25 50 8 23 120 2-4 81 7 0 l 25 14 13 1 2 36 6 4-6 18 6 3 0 9 4 0 0 5 80 32 24 Age Structure The ratio of mature/immture individuals was determined for T. Emulate. Populations of T. garmlata from mldboard and chisel plow plots showed similar trends: mature individuals became more mnerous after July, with a rise in mnbers of immature animals after one unnth (Figure 8 and Table 5) . This is the approximate time required for eggs laid by mature individuals to hatch CDwidjasatnoko, 1978) . No-till populations did not increase at aid of season. In addition, No-till populations had lower mnbers before tillage than either the unldboard or chisel plow populations. Pyamtidae were not investigated for nattn'e/imnatm'e ratios because innature individuals could not be determined. The biology of these mites appears to be largely unknown. No-till vs. bbldboard Plow The previous investigations closely paralleled this study and are of particular interest. inheat planted at Rothansted Ehcperimental Station by conventional tillage was camared with No-till using Paraquat. Edwards and lofty (1969) found that populations of euedaphic Collabola were reduced by conventional tillage. However, Edwards and lofty (1975) reported that they were more nunerous in plowed than in No-till fields treated with Paraquat. Edwards and lofty (1969) used non-uniform soil cores and sampled "periodically." However, Edwards and lofty (1975) used uniform soil cores taken on a regular, if infre- quent, schedule. Data collected in soil biology research programs frequently exhibits a wide range of variance (Wallwork, 1976) . Cannon reasons for 25 No Till W -- Malure W O---- immo.“f. tillage too. 1 °\ a \\ ’ \ [I \“ 200 Moldboard Plow loo. 2 e . E c < 3-..- —- ——°’ - V ‘l T V O I b O .9 E a z .1 Chleel Plow l \ ‘ \ \ zoo. \ \ \ .. \ \ \ \ 100.4 \ / ,0 \ \ "I /’ \ \ ’0‘ / ‘ , \\ x d ‘ K\\ I ’0 ~~~~~ .0”, // ‘\~°,’ I» \_ :W 4-“ 4‘30 5'l5 5°29 6‘l9 7'3 7'24 8’? 8'28 9'2] lO-lb Sample Dates Figure 8. Ratio of Mature/Immature Tullbergia ggarmlata 26 TABLE 5 Tullbergia gramJlata , Matures and Imnatures Apr Apr May May Jun Jul Jul Aug Aug Sep Oct Depth 14 3O 15 29 19 3 24 9 28 21 16 will natures 17 2 3 l4 18 12 35 31 26 92 24 innatm‘es 75 21 67 102 70 3 24 14 3 20 21 Moldboard Plow matures 78 9 2 '3 15 11 4 10 14 39 177 innatures 197 36 20 14 33 29 10 4 12 29 157 Chisel Plow matures 102 2 1 O 12 6 44 53 42 134 156 inmtures 281 59 34 37 48 74 37 45 7 53 103 27 this incluie: non-random distribution of animals, poor sanpling and extraction techniques, and infrequent sanpling schedules. When my data was compared with those of Emmds and lofty (1969), euedaphic Collabola population trends were opposite of each other. Data from the 1975 study were supported by this investigation. I have confidence in the results of my investigation because the scledule of sanpling was frequent enough to accurately estimte population trends . Conventimal tillage may have only miniml inpact upon euedaphic animals while reducing populations of smface-dwelling and henfiedaphic fauna (Price 8: Benham, 1977). This is the case with Edwards and lofty (1975) and the present study, with exception of baniedaphic Collatbola. Proisotoma mirmta (Tullberg) and lsotone notabilis Schaffer have reduced ocellar and integuneital pigmmtation, and were distributed throughout the top six inches of soil. When 2. Mandi. notabilis were included with euedaphic rather than hemiedmhic Collenbola, there was no discrepancy between observed and previously reported results . Herbicide Effects No significant decline in nuubers was detected in No—till plots for euedaphic Acarina such as Pyexmtidae . Differences between euedaphic Oollarbola and Acarina have been found by examining feeding habits of the two groups. Much organic and mineral matter is mrnally ingested by Collenbola (Sharma & Kevan, 1963; McMillan, 1975). Marshall (1978) reported that as nuch as 39.87. of the gut contents of the Sufintlmrid Bourletiella hortensis (Fitch) consisted of mineral particles . Many herbicides , including Paraquat and Atrazine, bind to clay particles in soil (Weed Science Society of America, 1970). 28 Euedaphic Collenbola ingest clay-bound herbicides with soil substrate. Acarina ingest little soil substrate and accumlate less herbicides than Collembola. Hence, any herbicide effects would more likely be protounced in euedaphic Collembola than Acarina. low population levels of euedaphic Collaibola in No-till plots my be attributed to herbicide applications. midjasamoko (1978) damn- strated that Paraquat and Atrazine reduced fecundity and increased instar duration of the collabolans I. Eamlata and Folsomda candida (Willem). In his investigation, the herbicides caused effects only when ingested by the animals. Both in this study and in those of Edwards and lofty (1969, 1975) , only No-till plots received treatments of Paraquat. Results from this study, investigations of collarbolan feeding habits, and Dwidjasatmnko's experiments (1978) suggest that Paraquat has long range effects upon euedaphic collabolan populations . Chisel Plow _ Q1136]. plow tillage has not yet been discussed. Previous investi- gations did not use this tillage method. My data from chisel plow plots differed from both moldboard plow and No-till plots. Greatest mnbers of _'I_‘_. ganulata and Pyarotidae were collected fran chisel plow plots . Nearly all arthropod populations were increased or unaffected by this tillage system (Figures 4, 5 & Appendices I, II, III). The chisel plow did not overturn soil as did the moldboard plow. Some sur- face litter was left, improving the soil's insulation and ability to retain moisture in addition to increasing protection from wind and water erosion. Aeration and surface area were increased by breaking up the soil. Populations of soil animals may have been stimulated by 29 exposed substrate and increased nutrient availability in the soil (Wallwork, 1976) . (DNCLUSIONS Both conventional tillage system stimulated an increase of micro- arthropod populations. This was especially true for the chisel plow tillage method. Presumably, this was a response to favorable changes in nutrient availability, pore space, and other physical parameters of the soil. No-till plots had stable populations of microarthropods which behaved most like that of an "old field" system. In this study chemical effects of herbicides have been impossible to separate from physical processes. Data from this study support pre- vious investigations , indicating that Paraquat and Atrazine may have long range effects on soil microarthropod populations. The effects of these chemicals on soil organisms need further investigation. REOQ’MENDATIOIB FOR FUTURE STUDIES This investigation has treated the tillage methods as systems. In the future investigations of this nature should monitor individual components because of the following field observations: Simface litter ammmts differed among the plots after tillage. No-till plots had the greatest amount of sm'face litter, surface litter of chisel plow plots was partially buried, and surface litter of moldboard plow plots was completely buried. The amount of litter left on the surface of soil affected the heat and moisture retention of the soil . If the relative humidity of soil is inversely proportional to its temperature, then highest relative hunidities would be found in No-till soils, lowest in moldboard plow soils, and intermediate in chisel plow soils . 30 Based on the results of this study, the following recommendations are made for future studies: 1. Controlled application of selected herbicides to study speci- fic chemical effects. Control plots of Lmdistm'bed soil to measure disturbances caused by tillage. Pore outrow sampling to measure compaction from tillage imple- ments. Sample to batten of tillage zone because animals are redis- tributed througlout this zone. Pore cores should be subsampled for vertical distribution to recover sufficient mnbers of animals for valid statistical testing. Several questions involving these agricultural systems still require answers: 1. 2. 3. 4. What happens to herbicides when they are ingested by arthro- pods? Do arthropods metabolically degrade the herbicides? Are by-products of metabolic degradation toxic to other organisms? Wnat is the economic benefit to agricultural systems by detritivores and what is their contribution to the "health" of the soil? These questions require precise monitoring of the soil and animals for clarification. APPENDICES 31 c o o o o o o o o o o E «83> 808E E E e E o o E E E m o E 3388 SSE E m o E o o E o E o o E Smashed 8983mm E E E m E E E E e m E E made: meduoEoE E o o o o o o o o o E o Home 3288382 E o o o o o o o o o o E anaemofin waging mmeesuoE eE E E E E E E E EE E E E Begum EEEEE. . mmEBdebo e o o o o o o o o o m E as msmEE mwoagmmwoezm 459% ESE E E E a E m E E E E E 80 8m m5 we 3. 3. e2. .82 .3: fie. pee ASSESH BE“ 3&5 30E EESz Sh meaofigoafiz mo fiBfisfi Hun—“DEE 32 ma ON 3 ma l\O\l\i—lv-l MOOHOO NHOMOO HOOP-GHQ i—lOOOO OOOOO NOHOO v-lOi-IOOO Ov-lOi-li-l OONi-lr-lr-l Homoo OOOu—lON OOr-lOO OOOd'OO OlfiOOO HOOOOv-l HNOOO NOOO-O ONQHMN OHOOON OOOOO MOOQNO CHOOO message: 333338 do Egg—em 3mg Egg mnmwoao Egg magma/E. mmueaomfig E53 Nouns... gown: $3ng 383? «Emfimosdmm E58335 3503“ng 3% moo: when—9:33 mfiommfimhdfi anagram SEummEuqa mEEBE «EEEBE ESE em Han. ma mm AeLdBV H fiancee 33 E o o E o o o o o o o o 5 83358538 E o E o o o E o E o o E 33.3838 E o o o o o o o o o E E 3%er E o o o o o o o o o o E $3ng m m o o o o o o o o o o «Soggy E E E E E E E E EE E o E mmEummfiBaz EE E «E EE Es E E E Es E m E mmeflemEE . SmEfiumoE Es 3 E E E E E E E E m E «828893 E e E m o E E E E E o o dedEofl Begum; $932 58. E E E m E m E E .E E E “do dmm mg m3 E2. 3. 9:. .8: .32 he use 6Pud8v H E E o o o E E s E E o o o 35E EEEEEEEESE E E E E E E o o o o o o EEEEEE «831;qu EEEEEEB Es E E E E E E E E s E E EamhoEqu E85 EE E E E E o o E s o o o EEEEEEEBSE: E<>E$E $3EE$E s E E E E E E E E E E E 33$ $3$$E EE E E E E E E E E E E E $>$E $33EE$EE EE E E E E E E E s E E E 33$ EEEEEEESE EEEEEE EE EE E E E E E E EE EE E EE EEEHEEoEE $383 EE E E E E E E E E E E E ESEEEEBEEEEE E<>E$E $3EEEBE E309 EE EE EE E sE E EE EE EE EE 3 EEE 8E E3 E3. E2. E2, SE $2 .3: E8 EEE A6 .383 EH £892 42 E E E E E E E E E E E E gammafiua $5,855 E E E E E E E E E E E E B3U$3EE§ «finances E E E E E E E E E E E E EEE EEE$EE EEEEEQBEE EE E E Es E E E E S s E E 3338 $083 EE E E sE E E E E E E E E BqBUUEB EBEBEBE EEE EE EE EE EE EE Es EE EE EE EE EE 8&3 SBEEEBE $3.883 EEEE EEE EEE Es EE EE EE EE EE EE EE EEE SEEEEEE 3E$EEE5 _ $3§EEEEE8 E E E E E E E E E E E E .% E3332 ESEBBEEEQSE SEEEEEB ESoE. EE EE EE E sE E EE EE EE EE 3 EEE EEE Ens E3 E2, E2. 8E. .8: Eu: Has. ha< A3838“ 335 33.5 floEE EEE E936 ~83 Evacufihaouofi mo EEE HHH Vang 43 EE E E E E E E E E EE E E 3333 EEEEEEE..EU_8E E E E E E E E E E E E E .EE $355qu EE E E E E E E E E E E E EEE: gag E E E E E E E E E E E E 9:33.". ggufia E E E E E E E E E E E E .EE $31332 s E E E E E E E E E E E 955% $33934 E E E E E E E E E E E E EBEE $E§0E$§ $33535 E E E E E E E E E E E E 3833 333835 E E E E E E E E E E E E aagwfiE 355833 E E E E E E E E E E E E 33.5 $0833 E E E E E E E E E E E E 88233, 955833 E E E E E s E E E E E E SmebEQB «.3833 E30,... EE EE EE sE E EE EE EE EE 3 E8 EEE E3 E3. E2. E2, 5E. 3E Em: 3? EEE 3583 EEE 333% EE E E E s E E E E E E E $E3838E E E E E E E E E E E E E «8303 E E E E E E E E E E E E $38me E E E E E E E E E E E E $3.88m$E. sEs EE EE EE EE EE EE EE 3 E E EE $3E$€E9$z EEEE EsEE EEE EEE EEE EEE EEE EEE EEE EE E EEE $338EE SSEEEEBE E E E E E E E E E E E E $3E$E$$Ez EEs sE EE EE ss EE Es EEE E EE EE EE $3$$E£E E E E E E E E E E . E E E $3E$E9E$E EE EE E E EE E s E E E E E $3$E$E E E E E E E E E E E E E $3EEEE>E BSEEEquEmz g E33 EE EE EE E 3 E EE EE EE EE 3 30 8E Es< E3. EsE E2, E2. Em: Em: EEE E2 écbcoov EEE x3898 45 EE EE E E E E E E E E E EE EEEhoEoEE 35% E E E E E E E E E E E E EEEEEEEE E E E E E E E E E E E E ESEEEEBSEZ E333 EEE E E E E E E E E E E E E 838.8% EEE EE EE EE EE EE E E E E E E .% manmmosfima EEE EE EE EE EE EE E E E EE E E .% EBBEHBEEEE E E E E E E E E E E E E .EE 3 EE EE EE E E E E E E E E E .EE SEEEEE BEEEEEEBEE EEE EE EE EE EE EE EE E EE EE E EEE EEEEEEEBEEE EE E E EE E E E E E E E EE EEEEEEEEEEEE 83533 EE E E EE E E E E E E E E EEE EEEEEBSEBEBE E88. EE EE EE E EE E EE EE EE EE EE E8 EEE E3. EEE E3. E3. :2. 5E .32 Hz 34 EELEBE EEE £55 NN ma NH 3 NH HOOOOOv—l OOOOOOG O HHHOOOO OOOONOO O MNOOOOO O \TQ'OOOOO NNOOOOu—l OOONOOO OOOOOHO I—lI-lOOOOO 3883mm Egg msdfigg mHfioum EEEEoEanEE mm>HmH mnmumogama EEEEEZE EEEEE EEEEEE EEEEEEEEEE EEEEEEEEEEZ EEEEE EEEEEEEE mumEEE EEEEEEHEE EEEEEE EEEEEEHEE EE>EEE EEEEEEEEEEEEE EEEEEE EEEEEEEEEEEEE EEEEEEEEEE EEEEE 0H woo .EN H2. 3 mm ma EE EE< EE EE< E.E.EEooE EEE EEEEEEEE 47 E E E E E E E E E E E E mEEEdEEE E E E E E E E E E E E E EEEEZEEE E E E E E E E E E E E E EEEEEEEHEE E E E E E E E E E E E E 8833 E E E E E E E E E E E E 45% E88 EE EE EE EE E EE EE EE EE EE EEE EEE E3 E3. E2, E2. SE Em: Em: E .23 EELcBV EEE 5953‘ IIEERATURECIIED LI'EERA'IURE CITED Aleinikova, M. M. and N. M. Utrobina. 1975. Changes in the structure of animal populations in soil under the influence of farm crOps. 13: Progress in Soil Zoology. J. Varek (ed.). Academia, Prague. pp. 429-435 Anglade, P. 1967. Etude de populations de Symphyles en sol cultive et d'influence de traitanents du sol. in: Progress in Soil Biology. 0. Graff and J. E. Satchell (eds.). North Holland Publ. 00., Amsterdam. pp. 372-381. Buchholtz, K. P. 1965. Factors influencing oat injury from triazine residues in soil. Weeds. 13:362-363. Chase, R. W. and W. F. Meggitt. 1976. No—Till Corn: 4 - Weed Control. Michigm Coop. Ext. Serv. Bull. E-907. Christiansen, K. and P. Bellinger. 1979. Collabola of North America. Entomological Reprint Specialists. California. (In press.) Cary, J. P. 1970. The effects of different methods of new sward establishnent and the effects of the herbicides paraquat and dalapon on the soil fauna. Pedobiologia. 10:329-361. Dindal, D. L. and R. A. Norton. 1979. Influmce of hunan activities on canmnity structure of Prostigmta. g: Advances in Acarology. J. G. Rodriguez (ed.). Academic Press. NewYork. (In press.) Dowdy, W. W. 1944. The influence of taperature on vertical migration of invertebrates inhabiting different soil types . Ecology. 25 :449-460. Dwidjasatzmko, Jusup Subagja. 1978. Effects of herbicides Paraquat and Atrazine upon Collabola, Folsomia candita (Willem) and Tullbergia granulata Mills. M.S. fliesis. Michigan State Uhiversity. Edwards, C. A. 1965. Effects of pesticide residues on soil inverte- brates and plants. Fifth Symposium, British Ecol. Soc. (1964). pp. 239-261. 49 . 1970. Effects of herbicides on the soil fauna. Proc. 10th Weed Control Conf. 3:1052-1062. Edwards, C. A. and J. R. lofty. 1969. The influence of agricultural practice on soil microarthropod populations. _I_n_: The Soil Ecosystem. J. G. Sheals (ed.). The Systematics Assoc. Publication No. 8. London. pp. 237-247. . 1975. The influmce of cultivations on soil animal popula- tions. In. Progress in Soil Zoology. J. Vanek (ed. ). Academia. Prague. pp. 399-407. Fox, 0. J. s. 1964. The effects of five herbicides on the number of certain invertebrate animals in grassland soils. Can. J. Plant Sci. 44:405-409. Haarlov, N. 1962. A quantitative comparison of hand-sorting and extraction with a Mlgren funnel. In: Progress in Soil Zoology P. W. Mm'phy (ed.). Butterworths. london. pp. 156-157. . 1967. Microarthropods from Danish soils: ecology, pE'xology. Oikos. Suppl. 3. 176 pp. Hairston, N. G. and G. W. Byers. 1954. The soil arthropods of a field in southern Michigan: a study in comnunity ecology. Contrib. lab. Vert. Biol. Univ. Mich. 64:1-37. Kevan, D. K. McE. 1962. Soil animals. Philosophical Library. New York. 237 pp. Krantz, G. W. 1970. Amammal of Acarology. O.S.U. Bookstores. Corvallis, Oregon. 335 pp. Marshall, V. G. 1978. Gut contmt analysis of the Collembola Bourletiella hortensis (Fitch) from a forest nursery. Rev. Ecol. Biol. Sol. m. Mllan, J. H. 1975. Interspecific and seasonal analysis of the gut contents of three Collembola (Family Onychiuridae) . Rev. Ecol. Biol. Sol. 12:449-457. Michelbacher, A. E. 1938. The biology of the Garden Centipede, Scutiggrella immaculata. Hilgardia. 11:55-148. Nelson, L. V., L. S. Robertson, M. H. Erchann, R. G. White, and D. Quisenberry. 1976. No-Till Corn: 1 - Guidelines. Michigan Coop. Ext. Serv. Bull. E-904. Pearse, A. S. 1946. Observations on the microfauna of the Duke Forest. Ecol. Monogr. 16:127-150. 50 Phillips, S. H. and H. M. Young, Jr. 1973. No-tillage farming. Reimnan Associates, Milwaukee. 224 pp. Popovici, I., G. Stan, V. Stefan, R. Tomescu, A. DLmea, A. Tarta and F. Dan. 1977. The influence of Atrazine on soil fauna. Pedobiologia. 17 : 209-215 . Price, D. W. 1975. Vertical distribution of small arthropods in a California pine forest soil. Ann. Eht. Soc. Amer. 68:174-180. Price, D. W. and G. S. Benham, Jr. 1977. Vertical distribution of soil-inhabiting microarthmpods in an agricultural habitat in California. W. Eht. 6:575-580. Rapoport, E. H. and G. Cangioli. 1963. Herbicides and the soil fauna. Pedobiologia. 2:235-238. Robertson, L. S., D. L. Mnkma, D. L. Quisenberry, W. F. Meggitt and C. M. Hansen. 1976. No-Till Corn: 3 - Soils. Michigan Coop. Ebct. Serv. Bull. E-906. Schaller, F. 1968. Soil animals. University of Michigan Press. Ann Arbor. 144 pp. Shaddy, J. H. and J. W. Butcher. 1977. The distribution of some soil arthropods in a manipulated ecosystems. The Great lakes Eht. 10:131-144. Sharma, G. D. and D. K. McE. Kevan. 1963. Observations on Isotoma notabilis (Collarbola: Isotomidae) in Eastern Canada. My. 3: 34-47. Sheals. J. G. 1957. The Collenbola and Acarina of uncultivated soil. J. Anim. Ecol. 26:125-134. Simnn, L. 1976. The influence of herbicides on soil microo Acta Fac. Rerun Nat. Univ. Comenianae Microbiol. 5:83-93. Singh, J. and K. S. Pillai. 1975. A study of soil micro-arthropod oamunities in some fields. Rev. Ecol. Biol. Sol. 12:579-590. Skipper, H. D. and V. V. Volk. 1972. Biological and chemical degrada- tion in three Oregon soils. Weed Science. 20:344-347. Strickland, A. H. 1947. The soil fauna of two contrasted plots of land in Trinidad, British West Indies. J. Anim. Ecol. 16:1-10. Talbert, R. E. and 0. H. Fletchall. 1964. Irnactivation of Simazine and Atrazine in the field. Weeds. 12:33-38. . 1965. The adsorption of some s-Triazines in soils. Weeds. 13:46-52. 51 Tamara, H. 1976. Biases in attracting Collannbola through Tullgren funnel. Rev. Ecol. Biol. Sol. 13:21-34. Tischler, W. 1955a. Influence of soil types on the Epigeic fauna of agricultural land. _l_n_: Soil Zoology. D. Kevan (ed.). Butterworths. London. pp. 125-137 . . 1955b. Effects of agricultural practice on the soil fauna. 13: Soil Zoology. D. Kevan (ed.). Butterworths. london. pp. 215-230. Triplett, G. B., Jr. and D. M. Van Doren, Jr. 1977. Agriculture without tillage. Sci. Amner. 236(1):28-33. Upchurch, R. P. 1966. Behavior of herbicides in soil. Residue Reviews. 16:46-85. Usher, M. B. 1970. Seasonal and vertical distribution of a population of soil arthropods: Collanbola. Pedobiologia. 10:224-236. . 1971. Seasonal and vertical distribution of a p0pulation of soil arthropods: Mesostignata. Pedobiologia. 11:27-39. Vitosh, M. L. and D. D. Warncke. 1976. No-Till Corn: 2 - Fertilizer and liming practices. Michigan Coop. Ext. Serv. Bull. E-905. Wallwork, J. A. 1976. The distribution and diversity of soil fauna. Acadanic Press. New York. 355 pp. Weber, J. B., P. W. Perry, and R. P. Upchurch. 1965. The influence of tanperature and time of the adsorption of Paraquat, Diquat, 2,4-D and Prometone by clays, charcoal, and an anion-exchange resin. Proc. Soil. Soc. Amer. 29:678-688. Weed Science Society of America. 1970. Herbicide handbook of the Weed Science Society of America, (2nd. ed.). W. F. Hmplnrey Press. Geneva, New York. 368 pp. Williams, J. H. 1970. Herbicides - their fate and persistence in soils. NAASQuart. Rev. 87:119-131. HICH RN STATE UN V wu‘flflflfiflflnfl“ 16 ”ll!“ NI 1 3 2931