A STUDY or THE ROLES OF WOMEN TEACHERS IN THE ELEMENTARY scnomsi WITH EMPHASIS 0N TEACHERSWITH CHILDREN UNDER EIGHTEEN YEARS ' . » ' OF AGE Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D; . MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY OLIVIA IRENE LETIS 1975 I III III III III III III IIII II III III III IIIII II III II I , 2572 qudé P " i! 5 Mich igan Stat-c a University 3'; This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE ROLES OF WOMEN TEACHERS IN THE ELEMENTARY: SCHOOLS, WITH EMPHASIS 0N TEACHERS WITH CHILDREN UNDER EIGHTEEN YEARS OF AGE _ presented by OLIVIA IRENE LETTS has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. . Secondary Education degree 1n Mundanlum MEL, vi Major professor Date 7/21fl5 0-7 639 4' , * :7 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE ROLES OF WOMEN TEACHERS IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, WITH EMPHASIS 0N TEACHERS WITH CHILDREN UNDER EIGHTEEN YEARS OF AGE By Olivia Irene Letts The purpose of this study was to obtain female elementary teachers' perceptions of their roles as teachers, wives and mothers with particular emphasis on women elementary teachers with children under eighteen years of age. It noted the role conflict that may affect the women with high achievement aspirations in and beyond the classroom. The study was conducted by personal interviews with ninety- one women elementary teachers in an urban school district near a large university. A questionnaire was prepared as a basis for interviewing the teachers. Seven questions raised and answered, at least in part, by the study were: I. What are the problems and conflicts that face the mothers who teach in the elementary school; do they have more problems than other categories of women elementary teachers? 2. Are the aspirations of mothers with children under eighteen the same as those of other elementary women teachers, or do a greater percentage of them reject leadership roles? 3. Are there differences in the amount of time mothers with children under eighteen give to school-related Olivia Irene Letts activities compared to other groups of elementary women teachers? 00 these mothers feel they get adequate support from their principals and central office administrators to help)them succeed (accomplish what they hope to accomp- lish ? Do mothers perceive themselves as getting adequate sup- port from their families to help them succeed (accomplish what they hope to accomplish)? How can administrators, both principals and central office administrators, best effect change in the elementary schools among the staff, which is composed of 90 percent women? Are mothers' perceptions of their roles as teachers and the amount of stress they feel different from the role perceptions and stress experienced by other teachers? As a result of this study, the following conclusions may be suggested: l. Women with husbands and young children do have more prob- lems than other categories of women teachers. More women with children under eighteen have aspirations for leadership positions than other women teachers. Although more women with younger children leave the building as soon as they are free to do so, more of these women also work in the building longer each day than' other women. In all except one time span, women with young children spent less time than other women doing school work at home. There was little or no difference in the way all teachers felt about staff interaction. Olivia Irene Letts Eighty-seven percent of all teachers in the study felt that they received good or excellent support from school in fulfilling their job. Most wives and mothers felt their husbands had a favorable attitude toward their working and that work had a favor- able impact on their children. Fifty percent of the teachers felt they were getting the right amount of in-service training and approximately that number had not done any college work in the last two years. Married women with some or all children under eighteen felt less stress than other groups of women. A STUDY OF THE ROLES OF WOMEN TEACHERS IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, WITH EMPHASIS 0N TEACHERS WITH CHILDREN UNDER EIGHTEEN YEARS OF AGE By Olivia Irene Letts A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1975 This volume is dedicated to my husband, Richard, who supports me in every endeavor; our daughter, Eileen, an extrovert not hampered by mother's activities; and to my mother, Gertrude Davis, who liber- ated me by always being available when needed. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For their assistance, the writer would like to thank her committee members: Dr. Samuel Corl, chairman; Dr. Peggy Miller: Dr. Donald Nickerson; and Dr. Howard Hickey, who was kind enough to substitute for another member unable to serve. Appreciation is extended to the school district personnel who gave me all the help and encouragement I needed. To the teachers who participated in the study and gave me insight into their roles, my very special gratitude. 1°11 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ......................... STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ................ Introduction ..................... Need for the Study .................. Purpose of the Study ................. Questions to Be Explored in the Study ........ Limitations of the Study ............... Definition of Terms ................. Organization of the Dissertation ........... REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................ Introduction ..................... Impact of Working .................. Teaching Conditions ................. In-Service Training ................. Leadership Aspirations ................ The Impact of the Women's Liberation Movement on Attitudes .................... Summary ....................... DESIGN OF THE STUDY .................. The Population Sample ................ Instrument Design .................. The Interview .................... Summary ....................... ANALYSIS OF RESULTS .................. Introduction ..................... Marital Status of Women in the Study ......... Problems and Conflicts ................ Summary of Question l ............... Aspirations ..................... Summary of Question 2 ............... iv Page vi d NVO‘U‘IU'IN-J Chapter Page Time Allotted to School ............... 64 Summary of Question 3 ............... 67 Adequate Support at Work .............. 69 Summary of Question 4 ............... 77 Adequate Support From Family ............ 8l Summary of Question 5 ............... 85 How to Effect Change ................ 87 Summary of Question 6 ............... 9l Stress Felt ..................... 96 Summary of Question 7 ............... 102 V. CONCLUSIONS, SUMMARY, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....... lO4 Summary of the Findings ............... lO4 Problems and Conflicts .............. lO4 Aspirations .................... l05 Time Allotted to School Work ........... l05 Adequate Support at Work ............. lO6 Adequate Support From Family ........... lO7 How to Effect Change ............... l08 Stress Felt .................... l09 Conclusions ..................... l09 Recommendations for Further Study .......... lll APPENDICES .......................... llZ A. LETTER REQUESTING PARTICIPATION IN STUDY ....... ll3 B. INTERVIEW QUESTIONS ................. llS BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................... ll9 Table (”NOW-hook) 10. ll. 12. l3. I4. 15. 16. LIST OF TABLES Marital Status of Women in the Study .......... Ages of Teachers in the Study .............. Years of Teaching Experience of Women in the Study Major Problems Mentioned by Respondents ......... Amount of Conflict With Husband and Children ...... Kinds of Problems Concerning Teachers' Own Children . . . Nature of Conflicts With Husband and Children ...... Teachers' Responses to the Question, "Would You Like Another Position?" .................. Teachers' Responses to the Question, "What Kind of Position Would You Like?” ............... Factors That Make It Difficult to Pursue Another Position ....................... Teachers' Responses to the Question, "Would You Work If You Had the Alternative of Not Working?" ...... Minutes Beyond School Day Spent Working in Building by Mothers With Children Under Eighteen and Mothers With No Children Under Eighteen ............ Minutes Beyond School Day Spent Working in Building by All Subgroups ................... Minutes Spent Working at Home on School-Related Activities by Mothers With Children Under Eighteen and Mothers With No Children Under Eighteen ...... Minutes Spent Working at Home on School-Related Activities by All Subgroups .............. Adequate Interaction Between Teacher and Staff ..... vi Page SI 5l 52 54 55 56 57 6O 61 61 62 65 66 67 68 70 Table Page 17. Teachers' Perceptions of What Could Make Interaction Better ........................ 7l 18. Teachers' Perceptions of Support From School in Fulfilling Job .................... 72 l9. Teachers' Perceptions of What Can Be Done at Their School to Make It Easier to Succeed ............. 73 20. Teachers' Responses to the Question, "What Can Be Done in the School System to Make it Easier to Succeed?" ..................... 74 2l. Communication Between Teacher and School ........ 75 22. Teachers' Perceptions About Being a "Real" Part of the Decision-Making Process at School ....... 76 23. Teachers' Perceptions About Being a "Real" Part of the Decision-Making Process in the School System . . . 77 24. Ways Administrators Can Support a Teacher That Are Not Now Being Used ................ 78 25. Husband's Attitude Toward Teacher Working ........ 82 26. Support From Home in Fulfilling Job ...... 5 ..... 83 27. Support With Home Responsibilities ........... 84 28. Communication Between Teacher and Family ........ 85 29. Impact of Teacher's Working on Her Own Children ..... 86 30. In-Service on School Time in Last Two Years. by Children or No Children Under Eighteen ........ 89 3l. In-Service on School Time in Last Two Years. hy Years of Teaching Experience ............. 89 32. In-Service on Own Time in Last Two Years,'by Children or No Children Under Eighteen ............. 9O 33. In-Service on Own Time in Last Two Years. by Years of Teaching Experience ............. 9O 34. College Credits in Last Two Years, by Children Under and Over Eighteen ................... 92 vii Table Page 35. College Credits in Last Two Years by Years of Teaching Experience ................ 93 36. Amount of In-Service Meeting Individual Needs, by Children or No Chilcren Under Eighteen ........ 94 37. Amount of In-Service Meeting Needs, by Years of Teaching Experience ................ 94 38. Other Ways of Providing In-Service That Would Be Beneficial ..................... 95 39. Amount of Stress Caused by Way of Teaching ....... 97 40. Causes of Stress in Teaching .............. 99 41. Teachers' Perceptions of Success ............ lOO 42. Teachers' Perceptions of Whether Accountability Has Affected Teaching, by Marital Status ......... 101 43. Teachers' Perceptions of Whether Accountability Has Affected Teaching, by Children or No Children Under Eighteen .................... lOl 44. How Accountability Has Affected Teaching . -. ...... l02 viii CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction Teaching is the most human profession of all, according to 1 Teacher education must be deeply concerned about the develop- Combs. ing self. Adequate, effective, efficient, self-actualizing, well- adjusted citizens are persons whose self-concepts are highly positive. Professional growth, wrote Combs and Wass, is linked with human perception of that growth.2 Teachers bring with them their beliefs about what is good for youngsters as related to the roles of boys and girls. They also bring their beliefs about their own roles, as related to those with whom they work or live. In what formal ways have teachers with much teaching experience as well as less experienced ones been given opportunities through the school in-service educational program to increase their self-development? When women teachers look at their various roles, what do they see as aspirations for themselves? Have administrators helped to create for women teachers in the elemen- tary schools the motivation to see possibilities of continued growth for themselves and thus for the youngsters with whom they have contact? 1Arthur W. Combs, The Professional Education of Teachers (Boston, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, l963), pp. vi, 6-ll. 2Arthur W. Combs and Hannelere Wass, "Humanizing the Education of Teachers," Theory Into Practice 13 (April 1974): l23-129. This study examines women elementary teachers from the teachers' own perspective. It asks them about their views on their various roles and how they feel their needs are being met. Need for the Study The sheer numerical preponderance of female teachers makes it more likely that there is a richer pool of women than men from which to select people to fill elementary school leadership roles. But even in a profession in which women dominate, they have had difficulty rising to the top. Although there are a number of reasons for this phenomenon, female incompetence is not one of them. Female principals have been found to be more democratic and more concerned with educational objec- tives, participation, and evaluation than male principals.1 The sex of the elementary school principal is far more pre- dictable tOday than it was fifty years ago. In l928, 55 percent of elementary school principalships were held by women; by l968 the figure had dropped to 22 percent. In l966, there were 146 female merit scholarship finalists in elementary education in the United States. Only two men were finalists. These figures tend to indicate that having almost 80 percent male principals is not because they are brighter than women.2 According to Lippitt et al., Little in the past has been written that attempts to understand fully the dynamics of women in work organizations. Our experi- ence is that few individuals--even women themselves in organizations 1Myra Sadker and David Sadker, "Sexual Discrimination in the Elementary School," National Elementary Principal 52 (October l972): 41-45. 2 Ibid. are willing to look seriously or creatively at the problem. One of the emerging issues is whether the "identity search" of women is a legitimate responsibility of organizational training and educational programs. For women in the United States, this is an evolutionary period. For those with high achievement aspirations, there is likely to be profound role conflict touching not only behaviors but acceptable per- sonality traits. The feminine girl who is achievement oriented will have anxieties that the less ambitious girl does not have--fear that men may reject her for her intelligence, her competitiveness, or her success; anger over the dominance of men at work and anxiety about the place of women in the home; role conflicts between the demands of family and work upon her time and energy; ambivalence about when to marry or have children; some possible difficulty in accepting the gen- eral responsibilities of the female role; and possible difficulties in shifting from the interpersonal demand of her different roles as wife, mother, and professionally committed worker.2 In many instances, promotion is the exclusive measure of suc- cess for the individual. In teaching it is not possible to promote every qualified applicant. Women should, nevertheless, have all the opportunities necessary to qualify for openings that do occur. There is a need to study the reasons that have limited their entry into admin- istrative positions. 1Gordon L. Lippitt, Leslie E. This, and Robert G. Bidwell, Jr., thimizing_Human Resources: Readings in Individual and Organization Development (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, l97l7, p. 249. 2Judith M. Bardwick, Psychology of Women (New York: Harper and Row, l97l), pp. l47 and 152. Why are not more women developed into leaders? Is the role conflict between profession and family an obstacle to developing leadership potential? Put another way, does our social order put females in a "double bind" when they are expected to perform the requirements of "wife/mother" on one hand, and "teacher/professional" on the other? Are they getting enough help to be the very best teachers their abilities allow? How do they feel about the part administrators play in their growth? Some teachers may also be perpetuating stereotypic roles in their classrooms by their treatment of boys and girls. There is a need to investigate the perceptions of these women toward the changes required of them in continuing in-service, in dealing with students and their own children, and in school relationships, and to find ways to effect change in as fulfilling a manner as possible. Efforts toward change, noted Biddle and Ellena, require social 1 Oper- support as well as intellectual stimulation from one's peers. ating as the catalyst of mental health in any school is the classroom teacher. And it is the quality of her own emotional adjustment that, in large part, crowns the school's program with success or failure. To the extent that she has fought through to a satisfactory conclusion the many problems of self, she is better able to help her younger associates resolve their problems. Therefore, it is important to 1Bruce J. Biddle and William J. Ellena, Contemporary Research on Teacher Effectiveness (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., l964Tip. 230. understand teachers' views of a personal need for self-development, the time commitment necessary, and the effects of role perception on their continued relationships with students they teach in the 1970's and l980's. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to obtain female elementary teach- ers' perceptions of their roles as teachers, wives, and mothers, with particular emphasis on women elementary school teachers with children under eighteen years of age. / Questions to Be Explored in the Study The following questions will be explored in the study: I. What are the problems and conflicts that face the mothers who teach in the elementary school; do they have more problems than other categories of women elementary teachers? Are the aspirations of mothers with children under eighteen the same as those of other elementary women teachers, or do a greater percentage of them reject leadership roles? Are there differences in the amount of time mothers with children under eighteen give to school-related activities compared to other groups of elementary women teachers? Do these mothers feel they get adequate support from their principals and central office administrators to help them succeed (accomplish what they hope to accomplish)? 5. Do mothers perceive themselves as getting adequate support from their families to help them succeed (accomplish what they hope to accomplish)? 6. How can administrators, both principals and central office administrators, best effect change in the elementary schools among the staff, which is composed of 90 percent women? 7. Are mothers' perceptions of their roles as teachers and the amount of stress they feel different from the role perceptions and stress experienced by other teachers? Limitations of the Study The time of year during which the study was conducted might have affected the number of people who decided to participate and may also have colored some of their opinions. Because of a fall teacher strike, the school year was two weeks longer than usual. Teachers who would be away over the summer and others with the pressure of closing school may have put aside the letter requesting their participation and forgotten to return their permission slips, or may have felt they did not have the time to take part in the study. Participation was limited to those teachers who elected to take part after one initial letter of request. The samplewas self-selected. It had been hoped there would emerge an even sample of twenty single women, twenty women without children, and twenty women with children under eighteen. The volun- teers did not fall into such neat categories, and it seemed valuable to elicit as many points of view as possible. It can not be over empha- sized too strongly that this study was done by a single interviewer, who coded the responses based on the interpretation of the data given by the respondents. Basically, this study did not focus on objective criteria of leadership and role identity, but on the teachers' per- ceptions of their own roles. Of the forty-five schools to which letters were sent, eight schools did not have a single participant. Thirty-seven or 82 percent of the schools had teachers who did participate in the study. Definition of Terms The following terms are rather self-explanatory, but to omit any doubt about the way they are used in this study, they are defined as follows: Elementary school teachers--Those teachers housed in a regular kindergarten through sixth grade facility or some portion of the first six grades of school. Leadership roles--Positions beyond the classroom, which may include elementary principal, lead or helping teacher, coordinator, etc. Rglgr-A set of standards, norms, or concepts held by anyone for the behaviors of a person or a position. Role conflict--Inconsistent standards held for a person by herself or by others: feelings of unease resulting from assumption of inconsistent standards; a: struggle within an individual because of contending hopes and anxieties. Organization of the Dissertation This chapter presented the problem and the nature of the questions to be investigated. It also contained the limitations of the study as well as the method used to obtain the participants. Chapter II contains a review of the literature concerning the impact of working, teaching conditions, in4service training, leadership aspirations, and the impact of the Women's Liberation Movement on attitudes. The questions asked of the respondents and the details sur- rounding the gathering of the data are described in Chapter III. Chapter IV includes the analysis of the data gathered in the study. The conclusions, implications, and recommendations of the study are noted in Chapter V. n :'.'&-‘ V' c _. h: a CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE F‘Eh Introduction Since Betty Friedan wrote The Feminine Mystigue,1 much space in books, magazines, and newspapers has been devoted to women and their problems. Libraries have begun to include sections on "women" as a distinct category on the book shelves. In the last ten to twelve years, Friedan's book seems to have been the single most influential work to draw attention to women and the roles they play in our society.2 The review of the literature has been divided into five parts. The first section, The Impact of Working, presents a description of the concepts and research devoted to working women; The psychology of women that has influenced their choice of roles and the way in which they have chosen to deal with them is discussed. Thirty-five million women were in the labor force in l973--45 percent of all women sixteen years of age and over. Fifteen percent were professional and technical 1Betty Friedan, The Feminine Mystique (New York: Dell Pub- lishing Co., l963). 2Michigan State University Libraries, "Finding Women's Lib- eration Materials in the Michigan State University Libraries," How to Find Series, No. 3 (East Lansing: Michigan State University, I973). (Mimeographed.) 10 workers, including two million teachers.1 Almost 40 percent of the women workers had children under eighteen years of age. The second section, Teaching Conditions, is devoted to the role of women in the classroom and also their relationships with administrators. The third section, In-Service, deals with teacher training and in-service as regards the need for continuing to update women after they obtain their teaching certificates. The fourth section, Leadership Aspirations, deals with women and their motivation to seek new and/or more prestigious positions. The last section, Impact of Women's Liberation Movement on Attitudes, specifically examines trends as they appear to be forthcoming on the attitudes of and toward women. Impact of Working Child care experts usually wish to strengthen the family, assuming that a strong family helps the development of the child. Some women's groups push for child-care centers that will allow women more opportunity to have jobs and at the same time provide adequate care for their children. Callahan stated that what is needed is a better understanding of the importance of and the human need for work. Our generation can 1U.S., Department of Labor, Employment Standards Administration, Women's Bureau, Highlights of Women's Employment and Education (Rev. ed.; Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, June, l974). ll gain a new ideal of the extended family freely recreated; then we can restructure our society creatively rather than destructively. Social solutions can be created in which men, women, and children can be liberated together. "No one should pay a price for another's fulfill- ment, especially when it's our children," noted Callahan. The very qualities that make good workers are those that also make good mothers. The strong inner sensitivities, controls, and abilities to make deci- sions and direct activity to goals are qualities of a good worker. E .I These same qualities help a mother to expect and build up inner con- trols and independent inner activity in her child. Callahan went on to say, "An active, secure mother with her own goals can be the mother who gives security to her child and activates his goal-directed behavior. A good worker or good mother has the wherewithal to raise good children."1 Many things have to give if a woman works and has young chil- dren. Rossi questioned, "Who cares for these children when relatives and older siblings are not available? Are domestic helpers the best 2 She offered qualified persons to leave in charge of young children?" one solution to the problem--attempt to upgrade the status of child- care jobs similar to courses and certificates that have been devel0ped for practical nursing. A long—term solution would be to have child-care centers established under the auspices of major universities. Such an arrange- ment would help older women to complete or get advanced training, 1Sidney Cornelia Callahan, The Working_Woman (New York: Macmillan Co., l97l), pp. 16-17, 30. 2Alice S. Rossi, "Equality Between the Sexes: An Immodest Proposal," Daedalus 93 (Spring l964): 607-652. 12 forestall the dropout rate of younger married women with infants and young children to care for, and attract competent professional women to administrative, teaching, or research positions who would otherwise withdraw from their fields for the child-rearing years. Gould echoed Rossi's concerns, and stated that child-care - l s‘f‘l' "-01 centers are needed in all communities for children who may require day care, after-school care, or just intermittent care.1 Such cen- ters are essential for women in many circumstances, whether they work or not. A logical location for community child care centers may be e. the elementary schools that are distributed throughout a city, which could also facilitate supervision of older children after school.2 Kay, Detroit Edison's manager of public relations, noted that many myths about women in the work force have recently been proven false.3 One myth stated that women have a higher turnover rate and worse attendance at work than do men. It has been found that, at the same job levels, women have the same turnover rate and attendance as men. According to a second myth, women work only for luxuries. How- ever, in many households, a woman's salary pays for a large percentage of family expenses. Kay suggested that we distinguish between women who are career oriented and other women in the labor force. Her defi- nition of a career-oriented woman is one who will make an extra effort 1Eisie M. Gould, American Woman Today (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., l972), p. 28. 2Rossi, loc. cit 3M. Jane Kay, "Report on Conference Breakthrough," Theg[Lansing,_ MichiganJIState Journal, April 30, l974. 13 and is willing to take on added responsibilities connected with her job or position. Since the passage of the Civil Rights Act, women have lost ground, Kay continued. Discrimination based on sex is some- times more difficult to identify than that based on race or religion, and it also is disguised by change in job title.1 It}. In a $51 million settlement including the largest single " back-pay award in United States history, American Telephone and Tele- graph agreed to end sexism and racism in its recruiting, hiring, and promotions policies. Under the terms of the settlement, $15 million é+” went to 15,000 women and minority employees}2 Equal Employment Oppor- tunity Commissioner Walsh put it this way: "Discrimination against women has become expensive."3 It is unfair to call a pioneer a token. Someone has to be first; the alternative is never making a break- through. Johnson, of the Industrial Relations Department of the National Association of Manufacturers, argued that large companies should not be penalized for having few women employees, and that the government should consider the limited supply of professional women. He emphasized that if the detractors overact and oversell the fight against the system, there will be a backlash from business.4 1 2 Ibid. The [Lansing,gMichigan] State Journal, April 28, l974. 3Ethel Bent Walsh, "Report on Conference Breakthrough," Ihg_ [Lansing, MichiganJIState Journal, April 30, 1974. 4John Johnson, Gannett News Service Special Article, Ihg_ [Lansing,_Michigan]gState Journal, April 28, l974. 14 Myrdal and Klein suggested that the woman with a career is a creation of middle-class origin. The acceptance of this feminine role shows that it is possible for women to contemplate the idea of work outside the home as a career for life, without any feeling of self- denial or resignation, and to plan for it as a positive gain.1 mr-s Berman asked, "Does a woman, by limiting her progeny and going to work become less or more emancipated? Does she enjoy it and is it I best for her and her family?" In many cases the woman in the office I may be much like a slave under constant supervision, experts, and a J deadlines. She also has household duties before and after work. Berman went on to say that most of these unfortunates would gladly reverse their present status, trading back the typewriter and copier for the mop and duster.2 Blood and Wolfe agreed that when the wife is away most of the day, she faces the potential burden of two jobs--paid work plus house- work. The husband may come to her rescue sufficiently to cushion the physical strain on her and to minimize resentment against him.3 The personality systems of two people can fit together in various ways and have supportive or disruptive consequences on their 1Alva Myrdal and Viola Klein, Women's Two Roles: Home and Work (2nd rev.; London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd., l968), p. 8. 2Edgar Berman, "The Unchangin Woman," in The Emerging Woman, ed. Martha Stuart and William T. Liu IBoston: Little Brown & Co., 1970). pp. 60-62. 3Robert 0. Blood and Donald M. Wolfe, ”Division of Labor in American Families," in Role Theory--Concepts and Research, ed. Bruce J. Biddle and Edwin J. Thomas TNew York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., l966)., pp. 265-271. 15 1 The respective role performances, according to Rapoport and Rosow. effects of given personality fits will depend on the organization of their relationship. Bardwick stated that only in terms of freedom does the ado- lescent girl feel a measure of sex-linked restriction; little in her life prepares her for the restrictions she will encounter later as a mother, for the unending responsibility and the myriad unfinished details that accompany raising children. Bardwick went on to say that this is a peculiar situation. If the woman is barren, she is regarded and regards herself as a failure; on the other hand, having children does not bestow status.2 When we see women returning to work when their children are all in school, we see not so much a chance to express one- self as much as a reaction to the closed and inhibiting world of small children. Identification remains a problem; in a primary sense and as a reaction to guilt, the motive for returning to work is to increase the standard of living for the family. Gratz and Van Gelder agreed that a working mother is made to feel guilty because she might not be home when the baby takes his first step or says his first word. They noted comments like "women who do not want to raise their own children should not have them in the first place." The authors wrote this article especially for a popular thonda Rapoport and Irving Rosow, "An Approach to Family Relationships and Role Performance," in Role Theory:-Concepts and Research, ed. Bruce Biddle and Edwin J. Thomas (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1966), pp. 23l-236. 2Judith M. Bardwick, Psychology of Women (New York: Harper & Row, l97l), p. l45. 16 women's magazine because they felt this audience needed help in facing the problems of working mothers.1 Rossi noted that a girl is seldom told that her mother works because she enjoys it or finds it very important to her own satisfac- tion in life, but because of the need for money. The school perpetu- ates the image children bring from home. Some mothers have to work to help pay for the house, car, or cottage; but this is not the only reason for working. Rossi further stated, Only if a woman's self-esteem is rooted in an independent life outside her family as well as her roles within the home can she freely welcome her husband to share on an equal basis the most rewarding tasks involved in child-rearing and home maintenance. Greer wrote that more than 50 percent of the housewives of Great Britain work outside the home. A great number of female profes- sionals are teachers, but only one-third of them are still at work six years after their expensive, state-paid training. These women are treated very unfairly by the revenue officials. Considered as a whole, female employment in Britain and the United States displays the same basic character--that of an inert, unvalued though essential force. It is looked at as temporary labor, docile and unrealible, concluded Greer.3 1Roberta B. Gratz and Lindsey Van Gelder, "Double Jeopardy: The Working Motherhood Trap," Redbook Magazine l42 (July l974): 38-42. 2Alice S. Rossi, “Equality Between the Sexes," op. cit., pp. 607-652. 3Germaine Greer, The Female Eunuch (New York: McGraw-Hill Co., 1970). pp. 112-119. 17 The aim of Dahlstrom's work was to survey and discuss avail- able data about the position of women and men in the family, the labor market, and society as a whole. In Sweden, according to the author, the argument has been that excessive role differentiation can consti- tute a threat to family cohesion. When a woman is almost exclusively In“. responsible for the care and supervision of the child, it creates an l alienation, a gap, between the husband and wife. Dahlstrom distinguished three different levels in a debate between housewives and working women about sex roles: 1' l. The ideological debate which finds expression in publication and public talks of the feminist movement in which the parties articulate systematic and coherent assumptions and concepts. 2. The technical debate which focuses on particular aspects of the problem, i.e. the need for nurseries, principle of equal pay and the organizations of the various interest groups. 3. The third level--the personal as evidenced on the women's pages of newspapers, articles in stories and novels and popular songs. In the present system, Dahlstrom went on to say, motherhood and a woman's love of her child are exploited to restrict her freedom as an individual. The concept of the roles of women is untenable. Both men and women have one main role, that of a human being; for both sexes, this role would include child care. The aim should be to secure for every woman the right to draw the line freely between housework and career. The primary aim of family policy should be to remove the conflict between these two roles and give women the possibility of 1Edmund Dahlstrom, ed., "The Status of Women in Sweden: Report to the United Nations 1968," in Changing Roles of Men and Women (Boston: Beacon Press, l97l), pp. l70-205. 21bid. 18 choosing either or both of them, without their choice unfavorably affecting their performance in either role.1 In her study at Barnard College, Komarovsky found that 70 per- cent of her sample reported no strain in accepting intellectual quali- ties in women, and that male superiority appears to be giving way to the ideal of companionship between equals. She also found that only 7 percent of the men were willing to modify their own roles signifi- cantly to facilitate their future wives' careers. Komarovsky con- cluded: The right of an able woman to a career of her choice, the admir— ation for women who measure up in terms of the dominant values of our society, the lure, but also the threat that such women present, the low status attached to housewifery, but the con- viction that there is no substitute for the mother's care of young children, the deeply internalized norm of male occupational superiority pitted against the principle of equal opportunity irrespecIive of sex--these are some of the revealed inconsis- tencies. Goldberg compiled a report of how the working woman looks to five women psychiatrists: l. According to Dr. Natalie Shainess, whether a working wife has problems about her work depends on the kind of help she has at home, her attitude toward her job, whether or not her husband is sup- portive of her work, and how she allocates her time. Many of her professional women patients with small children say they have a sense 1 2Mirra Komarovsky, "Cultural Contradictions and Sex Roles: The Masculine Case," in ChangingAWomen in a Changing Society, ed. Joan Huber (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), p. ll9. Ibid. 19 of being pulled apart. They have a sense of guilt as they question whether they should be at work or with their child. 2. Dr. Ruth V. Berney stated that women in the working world are not so much feeling guilt, but rather resentment. The younger women, especially, are angling for a mutuality in the working World. 3. Dr. Alexandra Symonds said working mothers have special problems, but so does the working wife without children. A couple is more dependent on each other and they often fall into competition over earning capacity, getting ahead, and job importance. "A really good marriage requires that two people fulfill themselves, and some- times this causes friction." 4. According to Dr. Wanda Willig, a working mother has a definite conflict between her job and her family. In general, the more liberated woman has somewhat less guilt. It depends on the indi- vidual woman and her own ability to ignore guilt. "A girl who has not overcome her fear of her father might find the working world harder to cope with. It would be difficult for her to, say, supervise male employees and exert her authority over them." 5. Dr. Sheila Klebanow responded that child-care problems cause the major emotional problem for the working mother. "I quarrel‘ with Women's Lib because they have lost track of the fact children are not robots and because day-care centers are not automatically the proper parent surrogate." The grandmother is the preferable sitter and should be called upon more because she could be so valuable. A 20 woman's emotional need to work is as valid as an economic need, and a husband should not ignore this need or he is asking for an unhappy partner.1 In her review of research, Hoffman found that juvenile delin- quency seemed to relate to maternal employment in the middle class, although it did not in the lower class. Part-time maternal employment seemed to have a positive effect on adolescent children, although this was not equally true for full-time employment. The mother's attitude toward employment was seen as an important aspect of the situation, which would affect her child-rearing behavior and thus mediate the impact of her employment on the child. Because the mother is employed, she and possibly her husband provide a different model of behavior for their children.2 In general, the data seem to indicate that when employment is satisfying to the mother--either because it is more easily incorporated into her activities or because it is intrinsically gratifying--the effects on the child are positive. The mother of young children who likes her work might feel guilty and thus over- compensate, with adverse effects on the child. The importance of the mother's emotional state suggests that the working mother who obtains satisfaction from her work, has adequate arrangements so that her dual 1Lucianne Goldberg, "The Working Woman: How She Looks to Five Women Psychiatrists, The [Lansing, Michigan] State Journal, December l, l974. 2Lois Wladis Hoffman, "The Effects of Maternal Employment on the Child--A Review of the Research" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, l973). Microfiche # ED 086 340. 21 role does not involve undue strain, and does not feel so guilty that she overcompensates is likely to do quite well in positively affect- ing her child--under certain conditions, better than the nonworking mother. Theodore stated that, in all cases, the additional obliga- tions of the maternal role necessitate the allocation of time and 1 This necessity to allocate time has more energy among several roles. serious implications for the professional role itself than for any other role. Fully employed professional mothers tend to discard the more marginal professional tasks such as attendance at professional meetings and participation in the social arena outside the work organization, and concentrate on those tasks they consider most important. TeachinQIConditions In a study conducted by Biddle et al., concerning the shared inaccuracies about the role of the teacher, the authors noted that teachers and those with whom they interact have distorted ideas of one another's norms and those distortions precipitate problems for all concerned. Data were gathered from 927 respondents, including 98 teachers, 26l parents, 237 pupils, and 67 school officials, who were asked to give their own norms and then to attribute norms to three object positions: people in general, teachers, and school officials. Each respondent was given a set of ten situations in which a teacher performer was placed. Respondents generally attributed to teachers norms that were more self-indulgent than were norms held by teachers 1Athena Theodore, ed., The Professional Woman (Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman Publishing Co., Inc., 1971), pp. 2-35. 22 themselves. There were inaccuracies in norms concerning discipline and cheating. School officials and teachers must rely on hearsay for a description of other teachers' classroom performance, whereas parents depend upon the reports of their own children. Because of lack of information about actual public conceptions of teacher roles, the school official appears as an authoritarian in the eyes of teachers, parents, and pupils alike.1 In seeking the blocks that appear to limit a person from doing her best, Nielsen focused on two dimensions: what was inside an indi- vidual and what was outside her. Looking at the internal factors,. items that received high priority were: l. A feeling of lack of power, which is in a sense saying "I don't make a difference." 2. Lack of personal security—-the person who needs constant reassurances from outside herself that "I can make it." 3. A teacher's feeling that communication is one-way. Some teachers indicated they heard the principal's messages but felt he did not hear theirs. They further indicated they did not know where they stood with their principal. Nielsen found the most crucial external force was the principal who did not promote openness and who allowed or created a situation in which teachers felt powerless, insecure, and dependent upon him for approval. Successful teachers, on the other hand, felt personally 1Bruce J. Biddle et al., "Shared Inaccuracies in the Role of the Teacher," in Role Theory—-Concepts and Research, ed. Bruce J. Biddle and Edwin 31 Thomas (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1966), Selection 37. 23 secure. Knowing they had their principal's support, they were willing to take the risk of trying something new. They felt knowing where they stood freed them to be themselves and to apply full energies to their work.1 According to Zeigler, citizens who concern themselves with public education often are anxious about how teacher values may affect the nature of the curriculum, and, through personal contacts, the students as well. To educational sociologists, teachers appear to be conservative (personally reluctant to take risks, and inclined to and dependent upon the established order and patterns of behavior). Teachers become more conservative as their teaching experience continues. Even among teachers of the same age, those who have taught the longest tend to be the most conservative. Zeigler accepted the basic function of the principal as supporting the teacher, but being an agent of sup- port, the principal has a powerful sanction weapon: refusal to support a teacher in critical situations.2 Holt stated, "What the good teacher can do for children, the good administrator can do for his teachers--create and maintain an environment in the highest degree favorable to their learning and growth."3 1Wilhelmine R. Nielsen, "Helping Teachers Change," Childhood Education 49 (December l972): l34-l37. 2Harmon Zeigler, The Political Life of American Teachers (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967), pp. 2l-23. 3John Holt, Introduction to Our Children Are Dying, by Nat Hentoff (New York: Viking Press, l966). 24 One teacher described her principal in the following way: "He's a constant stimulus. Here we're free to initiate ideas and prac- tices. And if they don't work out, you're not made to feel stupid. I don't think anyone on the staff feels hampered. . . . Another thing is that he listens."1 The need in education, according to Inlow, is for teachers and administrators who are mature enough to help others mature, who are secure enough to be challenged without counter-challenging, and who are more comfortable when guiding than when ordering.2 Kimball's research study identified the rewards teachers per- ceived in use in "high-achieving schools" and in "low-achieving schools." Statistically significant differences were evident. Teach- ers in the high-achieving schools reported the use of intrinsic rewards more frequently than had been expected. These self-assigned rewards included a sense of personal achievement, increased self-confidence, and satisfaction in a job well done. On the other hand, teachers in low-achieving schools reported the use of formal, extrinsic rewards (job security, salary increases) more frequently than had been expected. Teachers in the low-achieving schools also indicated that cer- tain types of teacher behavior normally associated with effec- tive teaching are more frequently ignored or treated as unimpor- tant. Apparently administrative indifference to teacher performance, manifested by a failure to respond to this behavior 1Nat Hentoff, Our Children Are Dying (New York: Viking Press, 1966). p. 12. 2Gail M. Inlow, The Emergent in Curriculum (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 19667: p. lO4. 25 in any recognizable manner, occurs in low-achieving schools more often than it does in high-achieving schools.1 For all teachers, a sense of personal achievement and self- confidence was identified as the best incentive to improve teaching. Teachers need a work environment rich in opportunities for responsi- bility, initiative, and achievement, and characterized by feedback systems that continuously inform them of possibilities and accomp- lishments. Teachers must have "full shares" in the business of the school if an intrinsic reward system is to develop. Kimball did not .,J claim that intrinsic rewards produce more effective schools. But it can be said that the use of such rewards is more frequently asso- ciated with high-achieving schools and less frequently associated with low-achieving schools. "The processes of education have become concerned with non- human questions, and the system is dehumanizing the people in it," wrote Combs.2 Nobody is opposed to accountability. The difficulty is that behavioral objectives are useful devices for dealing with the simplest aspects of education; they do not serve us so well when we look for a creative approach to a problem because they do not deal with holistic goals. We are evaluating our schools on the basis of what we already know how to do best. The things that make us truly human-- the questions of feelings, understandings, and concerns--are not being dealt with by behavioral objectives. 1Roland B. Kimball, "A Study of Rewards and Incentives for Teachers," Phi Delta Kappan 55 (May l974): 637-638. 2Arthur W. Combs, "The Human Side of Learning," The National Elementary Principal 52 (January l973): 38-42. 26 Combs wrote that workers feel dehumanized by the assembly line and other systematic techniques, and that is precisely what is happening to our young people today. Information affects a person's behavior only to the degree that he has discovered its personal meaning for him. Combs found in his research at the University of Florida that objectivity correlated negatively with effectiveness in the helping professions he explored.1 Duhl agreed with this position, and noted that in the basic decision making that takes place, The values of Dr. [Carl] Rogers and I hold so dear have an extremely low priority. Indeed the old fashioned concerns with power, prestige, money and profit so far outdistance the concerns for human growth and love and concern that many people consider the latter extremely irrelevant in the basic decision makIng. Sadly, it is my feeling that they will continue to do so. In-Service Training Bargar took the position that a teacher's own development in understanding the nature of children's learning problems, her formula- tion of the teaching objectives that reflect these problems as she understands them, and her participation in the design of a resource to be used ““1 her classroom are all essential to the successful use of that resource. A teacher's professional and individual development in 11616. 2Leonard J. Duhl, cited in Gordon L. Lippitt, Leslie E. This, and Robert G. Bidwell, Jr., ed., Optimizing Human Resources: Readings _jn Individual and Organization Development (Reading, Mass.: Addison Wesley, 19717, p. 21. 1 27 this sense is critical to her ability to participate effectively in the development of children.1 Behavior modification can be a productive means for helping children and teachers break through self-defeating patterns of reaction, according to Sarason.2 Behavior modifiers are in the schools because the schools want them there for just that purpose. Sarason's findings led him to conclude that our schools, over time, will hardly bear the stamp of the principles and technology of behavior modification. To introduce and sustain an innovation requires a dispassionate under- standing of the culture of the setting one wishes to change. It is impbrtant to know the extent of change for which one aims, the time and personnel required, and the different groups through which the change can be introduced and sustained. Teachers are key decision makers influencing what actually happens in the classroom, and innovations can be employed successfully only when related realistically to teachers' awareness of their objectives and needs, continued Bargar.3 The incorporation of new methods and materials is then a function of successfully interfacing such innovations with teachers' attempts to improve their own effec- tiveness, with the final decision on trial or adoption being in the teacher's hands. The dissemination and implementation of these 1Robert Bargar, "Evaluation and Decision Making for the Classroom," Theory Into Practice 13 (February 1974): 58-64. - 2Seymour B. Sarason, "When Change Agents Collaborate," Child- hood Education 49 (October 1972): 15-18. 3Bargar, loc. cit. 28 corporate efforts will continually meet with frustration until the absolutely critical role of individual teachers and administrators is honored and supported. The single area in the local teachers' contract that gave the most problems, according to a central administrator,1 was the mandatory number of weeks in which teachers felt forced into in- service. The teachers had asked for in-service but did not wish it imposed on them, as stated in the agreement. Another central office administrator found in a survey that teacher-developed materials were considered the most favorable of all kinds of in-service.2 McGregor wrote: The acquisition of knowledge is a fairly straight forward pro- cess provided the individual wants the new knowledge. It can be made available to him in several ways. However, if he doesn't want the knowledge or if he doesnit know he needs it,3 we w111 have con51derable d1ff1cu1ty getting h1m to learn it. Parker and Rubin would agree that the wish to change must be common maall of the members of the enterprise: the administrators, teachers, students, parents, and the external "change agents" who sup- ply guidance and direction--a11 must feel a deep commitment to what is happening. The authors noted that if a realistic and active concern for process among the nation's teachers is to be developed, two essen- tial elements of the change process are crucial. First, a substantial effort must be made to enhance teachers' involvement and to shift 1Interview with central office personnel, May 1974. 21bid. 3Douglas McGregor, The Human Side of Enterprise (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960), p. 208. If“ 29 their perceptions, attitudes, and sense of motivation with respect to teaching. Second, a consistent and efficacious program of guidance and support must be provided as they attempt to put their value system into practice.1 Flanders suggested that teachers will cooperate with evalua- tion if they agree with the purposes of that evaluation. They will resist if they mistrust these purposes. The decision to cooperate rests on their perceptions, not those of the administrators or researchers.2 According to Fuller, concerns about self are the business of the whole instructional team, including teachers, administrators, cur- riculum specialists, counselors, and psychologists. One distinguishing characteristic of a mature personalized team is its frank recognition of feelings and its ability to get new ideas out into the open and feel good about doing so. Shared feelings and concerns develop a kind of team spirit, which reduces the apprehension that usually accompanies innovation. Fuller continued, when teachers do become concerned about pupil gain, they ask themselves, "How do things look to the youngsters? Do I need to change what I do? Do they need me to change what I am?"3 1J. Cecil Parker and Louis J. Rubin, Process as Content-- Curriculum Design and the Application of Knowledge (Chicago: Rand McNally & Co., 1966). Pp. 45-53. 2Ned A. Flanders, "Some Relationships Among Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitude and Achievement," in Contemporary Research on Teacher Effectiveness, ed. Bruce J. Biddle and William J. Ellena (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, Inc., 1964), chapter 7. 3Frances F. Fuller, "Conceptual Framework for a Personalized Teacher Education Program," Theory Into Practice 13 (April 1974): 112-122. 30 Research carried out by Combs and Wass on teachers, nurses, counselors, and Episcopal priests showed with great consistency that distinctions between "good" and "poor" helpers could be made on the basis of the perceptions they held about themselves, others, and their relationships with the world. Later studies concentrating especially on good and poor teachers all tended to confirm the original conclusion, that perceptual approaches to understanding professional workers may provide valuable clues for constructing more effective teacher edu- cation programs. From this basic research, Combs and Wass concluded that an effective teacher'Hscharacterized by the following attributes: 1. Knowledge of the world and of her subjects. 2. Sensitivity to people, the capacity for empathy. 3. Accurate and appropriate beliefs about people and their behavior. 4. Positive beliefs about self. 5. Appropriate and congruent beliefs about purposes, the goals of society, schools, the classroom, and the teacher's own goals in teaching. 6. The personal discovery of her own appropriate and authentic ways of teaching.1 1Arthur W. Combs and Hannelore Wass, "Humanizing the Education of Teachers," 10c. cit. 31 LeadershipyAspjrations In general, noted Bird, institutions do not like the reputa- tion for employing a lot of women, especially in top positions.1 If the number of individuals in any occupation is ranked on the basis of income, they fall into a pyramid, with many people at the lowest bracket on the bottom and fewer at every rise up to the top. The higher you go up the ladder, the lower the percentage of women you find on every rung. The observations and predilections, according to Gornick, have traditionally supported the idea that women do not have the con- stitution for competition; they do not have the inner need to succeed, which nourishes and sharpens intelligence. Thousands of girls who are positively brilliant in elementary school finally become mediocre by the time they are in college.2 In an interview with Dr. Matina Horner about her studies on motivation and achievement, Gornick asked how she had discovered that it was not the will to fail that was operating in girl students she had tested, but rather the desire to avoid success. Horner replied, The desire to fail comes from some deep psychological conviction that the consequences of failure will be satisfying. These girls at the University of Michigan were motivated by the opposite; they were positively anxiety-ridden over the prospect of success. They 1Caroline Bird, "The Sex Map of the Work World," reprinted from Born Female in Roles Women Play: Readings Toward Women's Liber- ation, ed. Michele H. Garskof (Belmont, Ca1if.: Brooks/Cole Publish- ing Co., 1971), pp. 39-57. 2Vivian Gornick, "Why Women Fear Success," in The First Ms. Reader, ed. Francine Klagsbrun (New York: Ms. Magazine Corp., 1973), pp. 26-35. 32 were not simply eager to fail and have done with it; they seemed to be in a state of anxious conflict over what would happen if they succeeded. It was almost as thoIgh this conflict was inhib- iting their capacity for achievement. Horner told Gornick that, if anything, our most recent data since the mid-sixties indicate something of a backlash phenomenon. The nega- tive attitudes expressed toward successful women have increased to a disproportionately greater extent than have positive ones, and this is true of both male and female subjects' attitudes.2 Horner's study of ninety women and eighty-eight men in nine I J 3 introductory psychology sections has been quoted widely. In her dis- sertation, Horner proposed that the motive to avoid success is a psy- chological barrier to women's achievement. When fear of success is aroused, it adversely affects performance. This fear exists because, for most women, the anticipation of success in competitive achievement activity, especially against men, produces anticipation of certain negative consequences, e.g., the threat of social rejection and loss of femininity. Horner stated that the motive to avoid success may be the factor chiefly responsible for the major unresolved sex differences in previous research on achievement and motivation. The findings of the data collected for men, which were meant to serve as a control for those of the women, were ambiguous, and the author felt a meaningful 1161d. 2 3Matina Souretis Horner, "Sex Differences in Achievement Motivation and Performance in Competitive and Non-Competitive Situa- tions" (Ph.D. dissertation, The University of Michigan, 1968). Ibid. 33 interpretation of the female data would thus be very difficult. In another statement Horner noted the difficulties encountered in 1 She noted that the trend making sense of the results for women. of the data tended to support the hypothesis even more strongly for women who are highly able, highly motivated to achieve, and competi- tively successful than for those less motivated to achieve and less successful. No significant relationship existed between fear of suc- cess imagery and strength of achievement motivation as it was assessed.2 The Sorrentino and Short study of 164 undergraduate women was designed to test hypotheses derived from Horner's theory concerning the effect of the sex-role orientation of the situation on the arousal of women's motivation to avoid success. Their results failed to support the hypotheses derived from the Horner theory. Women who were highly motivated to avoid success performed better in the male-oriented than in the female-oriented condition, and this difference was greater than for women with a low motivation to avoid success.3 Levine and Crumrine also underscored a need for very careful examination before concepts become conventional wisdom. In their study, seven hundred male and female college students wrote stories with ran- domly assigned cues concerning success. The majority of all stories contained "fear of success imagery," but a smaller proportion of women 1Ibid., p. 104. 2Ibid., p. 110. 3Richard M. Sorrentino and Judith Ann Short, "Performance in Women as a Function of Fear of Success and Sex-Role Orientation," ED 080 929, 1973. 1E I‘VE”? 17’ 34 than men respondents wrote stories high in such imagery. Although most respondents wrote stories having at least one negative sentence, a smaller proportion of women than men respondents wrote stories high in negative sentences, stories with denial themes, or stories judged pessimistic.1 In a study composed of married and noncareer, married and career, and nonmarried and career women, Jabury found no significant differ- ences among the three subsamples in regard to identification scores, anxiety scores, activity-passivity scores, or social desirability ; scores.2 Humphrey studied the period in women's lives she termed the post-parental period, marking "retirement" from child-rearing respon- sibilities. Data were analyzed to determine whether a relationship existed between the goal emphases of post-parental women, their major activities, their educational involvement and plans, and their satis- faction with 1ife in general. Post-parental women who were involved in educational activities possessed tendencies to develop potentials, master difficulties, experience accomplishment and leadership in public life, and have power and control significantly more than women who were not involved in educational activities.3 1Adeline Levine and Janice Crumrine, "Women and the Fear of Success: A Problem in Replication," paper presented at the American Sociological Association Meeting, New York, New York, August, 1973. 2Donald E. Jabury, "Identity Diffusion as a Function of Sex Roles in Adult Women" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1967). Microfilm # 4766. 3Lois Helmers Humphrey, "A Survey of Women's Goal-Emphases and Satisfactions During the Post-Parental Period" (Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1969). Microfilm # 6956. 35 Those professions in which entrance skills may be obtained at the undergraduate level, such as teaching and nursing, gain adherents among females even though they may not be their first choices of occu- pations. When an occupation is the second choice, it is highly likely to be more dissatisfying than the first choice, which affects both the motivation to practice and performance on the job, noted Theodore.1 According to Ginsberg et al., more and more young women grow up expecting that work will play a significant part in their lives. They seek to realize gratifications from work without reducing their desire for complementary gratifications from other facets in their lives. A woman will learn what she wants and what she is willing to pay only after she has had an opportunity actually to experience dif- ferent situations and to try out various approaches, the authors concluded.2 Freud's teachings about women having weak superegos, being prone to jealousy, and born innately passive affected the way young boys and girls were brought up in the past and have the same effect today, stated Brothers. Freud's teachings have left a legacy with which women executives and the men and women who work for them must still deal. In answer to the question, "What kind of women make the best bosses?" Brothers answered, "The same kind of people as the men who make the best bosses. It is the one who is willing to delegate responsibilities and share the decision making. The best boss does not take sides or 1Theodore, The Professional Woman, Op- Cit-9 PP- 15-15- 2Eli Ginzberg et al., Life Styles of Educated Women (New York: Columbia University Press, 1966), pp. 172-175. 36 play favorites. To get along with a woman boss, treat her as another human being, no more or no less, but one that you like and who likes you."1 0011 stated that leadership is conditioned by what people think of the leader and his work.2 Individuals differ markedly in their perceptions of the same leader. Part of this is a result of past experiences or lack of them. Another answer relates to whether the leader is perceived to be a threatening superior or a kind and helpful one. Certain conditions help form perceptions, and a leader is respon- e sible for recognizing perceptions in others as well as in himself. The satisfaction group members feel results in large part from the progress they perceive their group to be making toward its goals, from their perception that all members have leadership status, and from their own perceived freedom to participate in the work of their group. The Delta Kappa Gairma Society's Michigan Research Comittee undertook a study of the school districts of Michigan to determine the present status of professional women in the public schools. Each local chapter was assigned four school districts to survey, using an instru- ment prepared by the research committee. Completed surveys covering 200 school districts showed that: (l) Forty percent of the smaller districts have all male administrators, whereas only 10 percent of the larger districts have all male administrators; (2) Six percent of the 1Joyce Brothers, "The Woman as Boss," Mainliner, The United Air Lines Magazine, March 1974, pp. 32-35, 57. 2Ronald C. 0011, Leadership to Improve Schools (Worthington, Ohio: Charles A. Jones Publishing Co., 1972), p. 21. 37 smaller districts have female upper-level administrators, compared to 40 percent in the larger districts. Women make up 64 percent of the instructional staff and only 17.5 percent of the administrative staff. 1 The Committee's recommendations to the membership were: 1. Increase awareness of local practices for hiring admin- istrators. 2. Demand prompt posting of administrative vacancies. 3. Secure administrative job descriptions and promotion policies. 4. Encourage qualified women to apply for administrative positions. 5. Assist women in educational preparation for administration. 6. Encourage positive thought and expression about women administrators. 7. Frequently (on a regular basis) update information regard- ing needs and interests of women relative to acquisition of leadership roles in education. 8. Continue to be outstanding classroom teachers.2 The State of Michigan's highest civil service classification levels range from 16 to 21. This classification, as of December 1973, was compr percent. ised of 843 males or 93.05 percent, and 63 females or 6.95 In the State Department of Education, four women were in 1 Public Sc Gamma, Al 2 Report of the Research Committee on Professional Women in hools, Lillian Standen, chairperson (Michigan: Delta Kappa pha Iota State Chapter, May 1974), pp. 1-4. Ibid. ,7 38 these upper classifications. Out of a total of twenty-one departments or offices, the Education and the Public Health Departments tied for third place. There were forty-four women in the Mental Health Depart- ment, by far the highest number, and six in Social Services.1 In a recent publication, some of the questions asked by the If“ National Council of Administrative Women in Education were: "What does happen to women within the system who prepare themselves, have I talent and have the desire to attain top positions? What happens that A prevents them from attaining the rewards of their labors? What are 2 The the pressures which limit and restrict their advancement?" Council noted that the social system has powerful means of molding and socializing its employees to accept the decisions of the policy makers. If policy makers feel it is "natural" for men to occupy the important positions, they develop a rationale to justify their stance. The climate that surrounds the woman who is promoted may be different than the one that surrounds the male. A man may be introduced all around as a fine administrator and told, "We are all behind you." A newly appointed woman, however, usually has to make her own way. The impres- sion may be that "we'll let her try." Thus she may be more subject to complaints because personnel feel freer to complain. The Council proposed that the time is here to advance American education by 1Michigan, Legislative Service Bureau, Women in Michigan State Government (Michigan: Legislative Service Bureau, June 1974), pp. 9-10, 19. 2National Council of Administrative Women in Education, Where Are the Women Superintendents? (Arlington, Virginia: National Council of Administrative Women in Education, 1973), pp. 3-5. 39 enlivening the upper levels of the education establishment with a new flow of qualified women into administrative and policy-making posi- tions.1 The Impact of the Women's Liberation - Movement on Attitudes As noted earlier, the current women's liberation movement was given its start by the publication, in 1963, of Betty Friedan's book, The Feminine Mystique. It was not until late 1969 that the phrase "Women's Liberation" appeared for the first time in capital letters.2 "V; In November 1971, the Status of Women Committee of the National Council of Administrative Women in Education met to discuss the progress, or lack of it, of women aspiring to administrative posts in education. The consensus reached was that the administrative talents of women in this country are deplorably underutilized. Among the goals was a publication that would restate the necessity for infusing administrative teams with the feminine viewpoint, ability, and crea- tivity. The Committee's next publication on the subject reflected the new confidence and attitudes of women in general. It stated that women now accept their abilities as organizers and their capabilities as administrators and have begun to apply for administrative openings. As women continue to learn and to help support each other, as politi- cal action is increasingly accepted as women's work, and as female educators continue to prove themselves dedicated and competent, women lIbid. 2Michigan State University Libraries, "Finding Women's Liber- ation Materials," op. cit. 40 will ask with increasing insistence, "Where Are the Women Superin- tendents?"] Job requirements, with extremely rare exceptions, are unrelated to sex. Tradition rather than job content has led to labeling certain jobs as women's and others as men's. In measuring twenty-two inherent aptitudes and knowledge areas, a research laboratory found that there was in) sex difference in fourteen of the areas, women excel in six, and men excel in two.2 Rosenthal stated that the American woman of the 1970's is much more likely to attend college, work, live alone, marry late, be divorced or separated, and outlive her husband than she was at the 3 Sakol suggested that the time has come to beginning of the 1960's. grant the word spinster the same kind of praiseworthiness as the term bachelor. There should be a glorification of the name spinster to con- note a positive concept of the woman who chooses a life-style other than marriage. Today's spinster is perhaps the only fully liberated woman in contemporary society, Sakol noted.4 1National Council of Administrative Women in Education, op. cit., introduction. 2U.S., Department of Labor, Employment Standards Adminis- tration, Women's Bureau, U.S. Statistics: The Myth and the Reality (Rev. ed.; Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, May 1974). 3Jack Rosenthal, "For Women, A Decade of Widening Horizons," cited in Elsie M. Gould, American Woman Todgy (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1972). 4Jeannie Sakol, "The Case for Spinsterhood: Better Dead Than Wed?" in On Being Female, An Anthology, ed. Barbara Stanford (New York: Washington Square Press, 1974), pp. 83-93. 41 Howe suggested that although the women's movement has been a 1 Teachers are teaching movement, it has just begun to reach teachers. the significant people, the crucial agents for change, especially since most of them are both women and teachers, as well as members of various ethnic and racial groups. Despite continuing debate about a mother's role and importance in successful infant rearing and many company policies allowing up to one year for maternity leave, more and more women have willingly and in some cases eagerly opted to push their careers instead of baby carriages.2 Private, professional baby sitters may cost eighty dollars or more per week, but mothers say it is worth the price to keep up with their careers as well as ease any lingering anxieties about their baby's welfare. According to one mother at New York University, "When you've invested so much time in your schooling, it goes coUnter to every- thing, not to handle both worlds at once. I felt a responsibility to my students and my career. And now that I am back at work, I can oper- ate on the mental level I've been used to and still enjoy my baby."3 Keller emphasized that of all the revolutions of our time, the most fundamental and challenging is surely the one involving women.4 1Florence Howe, "Sexism, Racism and the Education of Women,” Today's Education 62 (May 1973): 47-48. 2Jurate Kzickas, "Infant Can't Keep Mom Home," TheLLansing, MichiganJState Journal, December 12, 1974, p. D-7. 31bid. 4Suzanne Keller, "The Future Role of Women," Annals of the Academyyof Political and Social Science 408 (July 1973): 1-12. 42 This revolution touches virtually all aspects of the priorities and projects of the social order it helps to shape. As we aim toward a four-day work week or gliding work hours, women will benefit in flexi- bility of combining home and job. Keller considered the chief trends affecting the future roles of women to be: 1. Increased labor force participation by women in all fields and at all levels, as legal and political barriers fall. 2. Growing demands for highly skilled, technically trained personnel regardless of gender. ‘ 3. Further feminine breakthroughs in unusual jobs like jockeys or astronauts, and at the top echelons of other jobs. 4. Less cultural emphasis on maternity, housewifery, and marriage.1 The earlier we start to develop new self-images among women, the more firmly will those images become anchored in the psyche and the more swiftly will new patterns occur, continued Keller. To help make the adjustments to change less painful, she suggested: 1. Reduce sex-typing of jobs. 2. Make housework an adjunct rather than a central purpose of life. 3. Let childhood years be a preparation for life--emotionally, morally, and intellectually. 4. Provide opportunities to learn at all stages of life. 1Ioiol. 43 5. Achieve more national recognition of the need for child care. 6. Adopt a more humane policy toward the aged.1 Summar The material reviewed in this chapter explored the questions asked in the study. It also included the attitudes the Women's Liberation Movement has had about changing viewpoints. The litera- ture has shown that the support for traditional differentiation in sex .3 roles is weakening, but emotional allegiance to the modified, tradi- tional pattern is still strong. Ibid. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY The purpose of the study was to obtain female elementary teachers' perceptions of their roles as teachers, wives, and mothers, with particular emphasis on those with children under eighteen years of age. Much material has been written recently about women and what they want or need as a resultcfl’the push for total equality of the sexes. It seemed appropriate to inquire of one group of women what they actually wanted for themselves as they pursued their careers, raised their families, and grew as individuals. Rather than giving them a check sheet or some formal questionnaire from which to select answers, the idea was to obtain their personal feelings about what they were doing and what would help them do it better. Certain questions to be answered, at least in part, by the study were: 1. What are the problems and conflicts that face the mothers who teach in the elementary school; do they have more problems than other categories of women elementary teachers? 2. Are the aspirations of mothers with children under eighteen the same as those of other elementary women teachers, or do a greater percentage of them reject leadership roles? 44 45 3. Are there differences in the amount of time mothers with children under eighteen give to school-related activities compared to other groups of elementary women teachers? 4. Do these mothers feel they get adequate support from their principals and central office administrators to help them succeed (accomplish what they hope to accomplish)? 5. 00 mothers perceive themselves as getting adeuqate support from their families to help them succeed (accomplish what they hope to accomplish)? 6. How can administrators, both principals and central office administrators, best effect change in the elementary schools among the staff, which is composed of 90 percent women? 7. Are mothers' perceptions of their roles as teachers and the amount of stress they feel different from the role perceptions and stress experienced by other teachers? The Population Sample Since it was hoped the study would have some benefit to the people involved, it was conducted in the writer's immediate area. The school district is urban, composed of forty-six elementary schools and two special facilities. There are five junior high and four senior high schools in the district. Approximately 575 elementary teachers were employed, including sixty men. The first week in June, 1974, a cover letter was sent to the principals of the forty-five elementary schools (the writer's school was omitted), with enough letters for each member of the teaching 46 staff. The principal was asked if a letter could be placed in each female teacher's mailbox. The teacher's letter stated that because of the writer's employment in the school system, no follow-up would be made after the initial request for participation. Each teacher was asked to call the writer at home or return the lower half of the letter if she was willing to be in the study. (For a copy of the letter, see Appendix A.) There were ninety-one responses to the letter; each teacher was personally contacted and a time set for the interview. Teachers were reminded by card or telephone when the appointment had to be made more than a month in advance. Because of a fall teachers' strike, school was extended for two weeks beyond the normal school year. Interviews were conducted the two weeks before school closed, the remainder of June, all of July, and into the first week of August. Instrument Design The instrument was a set of open-ended questions developed to obtain factual information and teachers' perceptions about their roles. Responses to the questions were obtained in an informal, personal interview setting conducted by the investigator. To determine the kinds of problems to include, the interviewer visited another school outside the district for a day to talk to its teachers. The interviews there took the form of a general discussion about the roles those teachers assumed in their own lives. Thirty-six questions were formulated in addition to those seeking factual information about marital status, years in teaching, .._"A‘*'D I. 47 age range of teacher, and ages and sexes of her children. The questions asked about the problems and conflicts the teacher faced, how she resolved conflicts, areas of competency, interaction and communication between the teacher and the staff of her school, and the kind of sup- port she felt she was getting at home and at school. Additional questions asked about the amount of time devoted to school-related activities, and whether the teacher felt she was a "real" part of the decision-making process at school and in the school system. The teachers were also asked about their aspirations for another position and the kind of in-service training they were receiv- ing. Questions also dealt with their perceptions about how adminis- trators could help them, and finally how they felt toward accounta- bility. Each teacher was also given the opportunity to make any general comments about anything she deemed appropriate to the study. (See Appendix B for a complete list of questions asked in the interviews.) The Interview Approximately twenty interviews were conducted in the school building before school, during the noon hour, or after school in the last two weeks of the school year. Another ten interviews were con- ducted after summer school teaching, in the school building. The other two-thirds of the interviews took place in the interviewees' homes, in restaurants, or in the writer's home. Each respondent was shown the questions she would be asked, and was given time to look them over if she desired. Each teacher was also asked if she wished her answers to be tape-recorded. When the slightest hesitation was shown, no recording was done. In a few 48 instances, the respondent asked to have the tape stopped before making a reply. About half of the interviews were taped, and no names appeared on the tapes. Interviews averaged forty minutes, but some lasted a half hour and one went on for over two hours. The data were compiled and coded according to the responses of the individual interviews. Judgments were made based on the strength of the answer, the detail of the answer and the apparent importance to the interviewee. The data were key-punched onto cards and pro- cessed using the Michigan State University computer. The Office of Research, College of Education was consulted about analysis proce- dures. The chi-square test was used on every table to show if the results might have some statistical significance. Summar The purpose of this study, which was conducted by means of ninety-one personal interviews, was to obtain female teachers' percep- tions of their roles as teachers, wives, and mothers, with particular emphasis on women elementary school teachers with children under eighteen years of age. The population was comprised of all the women teachers who volunteered to participate from forty-five elementary schools in one urban school district. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS Introduction The present study was undertaken to obtain female teachers' perceptions of their roles as teachers, wives, and mothers, with par- ticular emphasis on women elementary teachers with children under eighteen years of age. Presented in this chapter is an analysis of the teachers' perceptions about their roles, reported under the fol- lowing headings: Marital Status of Women in the Study, Problems and Conflicts, Aspirations, Time Allotted to School, Adequate Support at Work, Adequate Support From Family, How to Effect Change, and Stress Felt. Marital Status of Women in the Study The ninety-one respondents fell into nine categories: single, married with no children, married with all children under eighteen, married with all children eighteen or over, married with children both under and over eighteen, divorced with all children under eighteen, divorced with all children eighteen or over, divorced with children both under and over eighteen, and widowed with all children over eighteen. Because of the small sample and for the sake of anonymity, the divorced teachers with all children over eighteen and the widow 49 50 with all children over eighteen were grouped together and the divorced teacher with all children under eighteen was grouped with the divorced teacher with children both over and under eighteen. Ten percent of the women teachers were single and 20 percent of the teachers were married and had no children. Thirty-three percent of the teachers were married, and all their children were under eighteen. Another 12 percent had only adult children, and 18 percent had children both under and over eighteen. The above figures account for 93 percent of the teachers studied. The other seven teachers, who made up 7 per- cent of the sample, had been married but were not married at the time the study was conducted. These facts are presented in Table 1. There was a spread of teachers according to age, as indicated in Table 2. Forty-six percent were thirty-five or younger, and 30 per- cent were between thirty-six and forty-five. The remainder, 24 percent, were over forty-five years old. As shown in Table 3, respondents varied from the very new teachers to those with over twenty years' teaching experience. In the study 29 percent had six or less years of experience, and almost the same number (28 percent) had fifteen or more years of experience. The largest group of teachers sampled, eighteen (20 percent), had been teaching for seven or eight years. Problems and Conflicts It may be stated that women with husbands and young children have more problems than other categories of women. To determine whether this statement is true, certain questions were asked of the 51 Table l.--Marital status of women in the study. Marital Status Number Percent Single 9 10 Married--no children 18 20 Married--all children under 18 30 33 Married--all children 18 or over 11 12 Married--chi1dren both 18 and 16 18 over and under 18 Divorced--all children under 18 2 2 Divorced--all children 18 or over 3 3 Divorced--children both 18 and 1 1 over and under 18 Widow--all children 18 or over 1 1 Total 91 100 Table 2.--Ages of teachersirlthe study. Age Number Percent Below 25 1 1 25 - 30 ‘19 22 31 - 35 22 24 36 - 4O 14 15 41 - 45 13 14 Over 45 22 24 Total 91 100 52 Table 3.--Years of teaching experience of women in the study. Years of Teaching Experience Number Percent 1 - 2 years 3 3 3 - 4 years 14 15 5 - 6 years 10 11 E_ F 7 - 8 years 18 20 9 - 10 years 8 9 ll - 12 years 7 8 13 - 14 years 5 6 15 - 19 years 15 16 I 20 and over 11 12 Total 91 100 teachers in an attempt to understand the actual perceptions the teachers themselves had about difficulties connected with combining roles. Question 1 asked: What are the problems and conflicts that face the mothers who teach in the elementary school; do they have more prob- lems than other categories of women elementary teachers? point: The following questions in the interview focused on this What do you feel are the major problems you have in handling both your job and your home? Specifically, what kinds of problems do you have with your children because you work? What conflicts have you had with your husband and children concerning your effort to combine mothering and work, or general family life and work? 53 The major problem mentioned was a lack of time; the respondents were asked whether they felt the problem was of moderate importance, serious, or extremely serious. One teacher felt the lack of time was so serious that it had helped cause her divorce. 0n the other hand, 16 per- cent felt they had no major problems and 13 percent had no problems. F F; Other concerns mentioned besides a lack of time were: lack of help, i conflict with husband's schedule, and a lack of patience on the part of the teacher herself. Table 4 illustrates the major problems by per- centages. * Of the thirty teachers whose children were all under eighteen, sixteen (53 percent) felt a lack of time was a serious problem. This group also had the greatest amount of conflict with their husbands and children. Fourteen of the thirty teachers (47 percent) with all their children under eighteen felt they had a serious degree of conflict with their husbands and children. Another six (20 percent) felt they had moderate conflict. This represented two-thirds of the teachers with all children under eighteen, as indicated by Table 5. These figures contrasted with the five (39 percent) married teachers with no children, who had moderate to extremely serious con- flicts with their husbands. Twenty-five percent of the married teach- ers with children both under and over eighteen felt they had moderate to extremely serious problems. One divorced teacher said she had extremely serious problems with her children, but the other divorced or widowed teachers men- tioned no problems. 54 Po>o_ me. as“ ea Seao_eeemmm 1 a Na 1 Ce Nme.NN 1 oeaaem egg oo_ m, N_ N N _ mm NN F Papa» ea N _m NP m. N N _ Nm eN F Axoeoaeoeev _auoN Noo_ ANomV Amomv N_ eo>a eoee_eeo ”Fa e N N 1 1 1 1 1 1 11uozouwz Lo umugo>wo Nam ANNNV ANNNV ANNNV N_ Lone: N 1 1 1 1 1 _ _ _ eoee_weo eoez11eooee>eo Noo_ ANN_V ANeV ANev ANeaV ANmNV N. 26>6 eea Laue: e_ o m - F _ N a 1 eaoa eoee_eeo11eo_eeaz Nam ANNV ANNNV Lamev ANN—v eo>e to N, __ F m 1 1 1 m N 1 cmeu_w:o ——m11um_eemz Nam ANNV Aeo_v ANNE ANomv ANmmv NP Laue: om F m _ - 1 o e_ 1 eoee__eo p_a11eo_eeaz N_o_ ANNFV ANNNV ANNE ANomv ANev N_ N e 1 _ 1 a _ 1 eoee__eo 6e11eoeeeaz Noe, Lemmy AN_PV AN_FV ANNNV m m 1 _ 1 1 P N 1 o_oeem VI. 1.. N N .11 H3 .1 ”.1 5.1 3.1. 30 O 0 0 9 n0 9 OD. 39 X9 J1. 1.. 3 SU 3 p3 JD 1.3 CD. D. d w url ql: v4. and A...» Jud. SI. 1; J D. ell In 0 a S O E. 0 UL. O 90 "0 m0 d 1: 0. O 1: D13 1: .41: $4. an: a J I. J .11. a l w m m d N s 1.. w.” H H K .11... £53m 23.782 8 n S J 1. SO I. w w 5w U a O L. 3 d 8 a 33 1.. U 01 a H. J 3 1.. u a I: .A a 3 D. 0 w a n n S I. S a .macmvcoamme an umcowpcos mew—aoea Lonazt1.e opnmh 55 Table 5.--Amount of conflict with husband and children. . Conflict . . . . Marital Conflict Conflict Conflict No Status E§::$mely Serious Moderate Minor Conflict Total us Married--no l 3 1 3 10 18 children (6%) (17%) (6%) (17%) (56%) (102%)a 1. Ifigggfiga‘a" 0 14 6 3 7 30 ; under 18 (0%) (47%) (20%) (10%) (23%) (100%) 1 Married--all . . 0 1 3 4 3 ll . children 18 1 a 1 or over (0%) (9%) (27%) (36%) (27%) (99%) ~ Married-- children both 1 0 3 5 7 16 over and (6%) (0%) (19%) (31%) (44%) (100%) under 18 Divorced-- . . l O 0 0 2 3 IIgngII‘dre" (33%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (67%) (100%) aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 33.661 df = 16 p = significant at the .05 level In an attempt to determine the kinds of problems and conflicts they experienced, the married women were asked what they felt caused their problems. Tables 6 and 7 report their responses. Not enough time for family interaction, handling children's problems, and only a slight problem occasionally were mentioned by the divorced teachers as concerns with their own children. Concerning the nature of conflict, one mentioned too many school activities and another mentioned lack of cooperation at home. 56 Table 6.--Kinds of problems concerning teachers' own children. ‘- ““mh (:5: F” 3 +35 ”-0 OS 0) "-0- OP C '— 14-.0 011+) ,_ .0 mo 5° 11: e as. 1— 2 :géi CL=~ £3 S- 'U G) O “f— C _ cu m :44 0‘” gr— E rum Maritai is see 31:: 11-“. .92 2 a: Status 2,.- see as sea 5.2 e .se wr— LIJI— F'Uv— (D $- .20 r— ), -1-:: .1- .cn—n one u. U-C '0 .0 H60) HE O'F'O EU 16+) «H (U o>.: OM $.55. DU 0 a)!!! O on £<3wazfm mum mo g r—a: l— Married--all children 2 12 4 2 4 6 - 30 under 18 Married--all children 18 - 2 - - 2 6 1 11 or over Married-- children both under and - 4 1 l 4 5 1 16 over 18 Total 2 18 5 3 10 17 2 57 a (4%) (32%) (9%) (5%) (18%) (30%) (4%) (102%) aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = df = 12 p = not significant Not being available when needed, not having enough time for family interaction, and helping their youngsters to deal with their own problems were concerns for mothers with children under eighteen (Table 6). Four causes of conflicts were mentioned by over half (55 percent) of the seventy-five married teachers in the study. They were: 1. Too many school activities (19 percent) 2. Too tired for home activities (13 percent) 57 3. Lack of cooperation at home (12 percent) 4. Doing school work at home (11 percent) Table 7.--Nature of conflicts with husband and children. U) U, C C x .2 “E ‘- +-’ l— s. O m v— 16 O Q) 3 m 0 $- 044 3 $1.01- 0 cu : m '3 19:: a s- 33 2: Marital g BE ”.3 8 m3 “'1; Status mm LU E95 4— w E 2' 2.2 J E 'P< fU‘F OE l—i—o 1.... iv mo 1— 2> o 1,... ,_ :1 cu -1- x: 44-1-1 in 1—u 15 V“ CE 04-? 0 mm c 30) H 04-1 00 OD I‘D-H 30 O on. O on: l—I I—< .10 '72 2 UV) 1— Married-- no children 2 1 2 2 0 8 3 18 Married--all children 3 5 9 5 0 7 l 30 under 18 Married--all children 18 2 2 1 1 O 3 2 11 or over Married-- children both under and 1 2 2 l l 7 2 16 over 18 Total (Freq.) 8 10 14 9 1 25 8 75 Percent (11%) (13%) (19%) (12%) (1%) (33%) (11%) (100%) Chi square = 17.937 df = 18 p = not significant 58 Summary_of Question 1 Teachers whose children were all under eighteen did have the most serious problems and conflicts. One teacher felt a lack of time had helped cause her divorce. One-third of all the married teachers felt they had no conflicts, and eight teachers chose not 'I‘fl‘l ll. #11 ' a: to discuss whether they had any problems or what caused conflicts in their families. Some teachers were very verbal; a few of their comments are If listed below: "My husband and I need counseling to improve our communica- tion, but my husband is dead set against it." "Children's relation with father changes when there is a working mother.“ "Sometimes I feel a little guilty because two younger teachers would almost receive my one salary." "We could use a Mental Health Workshop for working mothers. It might improve the attitude that you can't be all things. Maybe the husbands need one too." "Women's Liberation has really raised people's perception of the problems." Aspirations Can it be said factually that mothers with children under eighteen aspire to other positions to the same extent as other cate- gories of women? The next questions were posed to find out the answer to this and related questions. 59 Question 2 asked: Are the aspirations of mothers with chil- dren under eighteen the same as those of other elementary women teachers, or do a greater percentage of them reject leadership roles? The following questions in the interview sought to elicit the teachers' aspirations: F' 1 1. Would you like to have another position in the school Y‘K'. system, and if so, what position would you like to have? 2. Are there factors that make it difficult for you to pursue this goal? - 3. Would you work if you had the alternative of not working? It was recognized that in the elementary schools, a great variety of positions seldom is available; but Question 2 did bring up the idea of teachers having other goals outside their classrooms. Table 8 indicates that twenty-eight (57 percent) of the teachers with children under eighteen had some interest in another position, compared with twenty-one (50 percent)<1fthose without children under eighteen expressing interest in another position. Twenty-one teachers with children under eighteen (almost 43 percent) and twenty-one (50 percent) with no younger children had no interest in another position or were unable to answer. Since only 24 percent of the teachers in the total study were over forty-five years old, age was not a deciding factor for a large number of respondents. Not one teacher mentioned age as a factor in her wanting or not wanting another position. 60 Table 8.--Teachers' responses to the question, "Would you like another position?" Yes Perhaps No nglgeuot Total Children 14 14 21 O 49 under 18 (29%) (29%) (43%) (0%) (101%)a r No children 8 13 19 2 42 under 18 (19%) (31%) (45%) (5%) (100%) Total (Frequency) 22 27 4O 2 91 aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 3.254 df 3 p = not significant For those who were interested in another job with the school system, the question "What kind of position would you like?" elicited the responses shown in Table 9. Twenty-eight teachers with children under eighteen responded to this question; of that number, seven were interested in administrative positions. Fourteen teachers with or without children under eighteen were interested in being a resource teacher for other teachers. Ten of the forty-nine teachers expressed an interest in becoming counselors. Table 10 shows factors that make it difficult for some teach- ers to pursue another position. Twenty teachers felt that the time to get additional training was difficult, and twelve teachers felt that the availability of positions was an inhibiting factor. Nine teachers saw no reason why they could not pursue another position. 61 Table 9.--Teachers' responses to the question, "What kind of position would you like?" L. 5— GJ Q) 0) > .C .C C w- U 0 rd +4 to to s. .,.. CO CD 034-1 Q) U 5- |'— H: 'U S- °I- C +4 96 '6 0.0 O +4 w- »‘ U) 0101 444-) Q) Q‘- P— Ul f0 ‘0. C: CF- ...I LG) a) o H w- '00. UV) E 00 C CD (D m E cut—- 3:: to into 3 co 0 «H '0 010) HO O) (DO) 0 'I- c O < can: mo 1— le— U D D 1— Children 7 2 2 ' O 7 4 5 28 under 18 (25%) (7%) (7%) (0%) (25%) (14%) (4%) (18%) (100%) No children 2 l 0 l 7 6 l 3 21 a a under 18 (10%) (5%) (0%) (5%) (33%) (29%) (5%) (14%) (101%) . aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. bResource teacher for curriculum development, learning dis- abilities, general helping teacher. Chi square = 7.325 df = 7 p = not significant Table 10.--Factors that make it difficult to pursue another position. 61 E ,3 #3 1’32 :3 ‘51 m 90— O—C 'l- O "" C O U'l Lil-3H CD CD 434-3 f_'l- '3 S. - 41-, 3 CO: 055 .D'I- 0mm Q) 000 {J'l—‘P U‘IO CUM 'F'> C GO. 5- fU=°P 4-1 C.“ row I— O Ht—‘r- :: T! '— l111L-r-‘5- Orr-w- S. "-0. 'r- 04-? 0 r— m it! .xu— EUCU 3>53 f6 v->-H (DH w- 0) +4 OIUW‘ ‘P'US- CLO) >H— 0:0) '0) £03 0 ZED F—(l— UF—Z < O QHG 2U) U< I— Children 6 10 O 7 2 1 2 28 under 18 (21%) (36%) (0%) (25%) (7%) (4%) (7%) (100%) No children 3 10 2 5 l O 0 21 a under 18 (14%) (48%) (10%) (24%) (5%) (0%) (0%) (101%) aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 5.182 df = 6 p = not significant 62 Another question designed to check whether the teachers were really committed to working at all, let alone aspiring to leader- ship positions, was phrased, "Would you work if you had the alterna- tive of not working?" There was little difference between the answers of teachers with children under eighteen and those with no children under eighteen. Table 11 indicates that thirty-seven (75.5 percent) of the teachers with young children would work full time and thirty-one (73.8 percent) of the teachers with no young children would continue working full time. The table does indicate, however, that some teachers (15 percent) would prefer a part-time or half-day assignment. Table ll.--Teachers' responses to the question, "Would you work if you had the alternative of not working?" 1s 5’ 3 x w- x O S- CU S. .0 CL -r-IU O .c .c < 30) D. 3 U U Q) 24m ‘60) 1‘60.) C +344 LU S- OJE OJE w-G O: O 00) l——-|- I-—°r- (D: 2: 3L on) e*‘ 13" tile 6'5 e2 e2 1.. l_f_ £44 QJU l—> P“ F”: (U a; 191‘s as a. as 3'; a 3L 20. :31— 30 3< 3> I'— Have children 37 8 4 O 0 O 49 under 18 (76%) (16%) (8%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (100%) No children 31 6 4 O O 1 42 under 18 (74%) (14%) (10%) (0%) (0%) (2%) (100%) Chi square = 1.284 df = 5 p = not significant 63 Eight teachers of the ninety-one studied had some reservations about teaching, and one teacher stated that if she did not have to work, she would rather be a volunteer. Summary of Question 2 The aspirations of the teachers with children under eighteen 1 were found to be the same as those of other women elementary teachers. In fact, a larger percentage of the mothers with young children sought leadership roles. They were more interested in obtaining an adminis- trative job (seven or 25 percent) than were other teachers who would seek such a position (two or 10 percent). Fourteen teachers (29 percent) with children under eighteen were certain they would like other positions; only eight (19 percent) of those teachers without younger children felt this way. The most inhibiting factor in pursuing another position was lack of time to obtain additional training; that concern was shared by both groups. Thirty-seven (76 percent) of the mothers of younger children would continue to teach full time, as compared with thirty-one (74 percent) of the women teachers with no children under eighteen. One respondent stated, "My children felt like mommy amounted to something by going to college and becoming a teacher." Other comments noted were: "It's hard to tell how the children would have turned out if I had had social activities. Being divorced and doing all the things I must do, I have never lived." "There are so few opportunities to progress." 64 "Men are moved up in administration ahead of some very talented women." "The strains in the classroom are getting so great, it has made me think about getting another position in the system." Time Allotted to School Mothers with young children may have to get home to allow a 1 baby sitter to leave or to pick up a child from a nursery or day-care center; or they may feel a need to be present when their school-age youngsters return from school. Question 3 asked, Are there differences in the amount of time mothers with children under eighteen give to school-related activities compared to other groups of elementary women teachers? This question looked at the time devoted to school-related activities by mothers of children under eighteen and those with no children under eighteen. Marital status was also divided further to see how much time each subgroup gave to school-related activities. The teachers' Master Agreement states that "Services to be rendered by teachers include their participation outside of regular teaching hours in, up to, and including six school functions per ."1 This time was not counted in the study. school year. . . The following two questions in the interview asked about time allotment: 1Master Agreement between local Education Association and the local school district Board of Education, Article VII--Teaching Hours, p. 20. 65 1. How many minutes do you spend beyond the school day work- in the building? 2. How many minutes per day do you spend at home on school- related work (marking papers, planning, etc.)? As indicated in Tables 12 and 13, nine (18 percent) of the forty-nine mothers with children under eighteen left school less than thirty minutes after they were free to leave. Twenty teachers (41 percent) with children under eighteen and twenty teachers (48 percent) without children under eighteen regularly spent over an hour after school working in the building. Table 12.--Minutes beyond school day spent working in building by mothers with children under eighteen and mothers with no children under eighteen. Less 30-45 45-60 60-90 M°re Total Than 30 Than 90 Children 9 8 12 17 3 49 a under 18 (18%) (16%) (24%) (35%) (6%) (99%) No children 2 12 8 13 7 42 a under 18 (5%) (29%) (19%) (31%) (17%) (101%) aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 7.695 df = 4 p = not significant 66 Table 13.--Minutes beyond school day spent working in building by all subgroups. Less 30-45 45-60 60-90 "°”e Total Than 30 Than 90 . o 3 0 4 2 9 ._a Single (0%) (33%) (0%) (44%) (22%) (99%)3 I_— Married-- 1 4 6 4 3 18 I no children (6%) (22%) (33%) (22%) (17%) (100%) Married-- . 6 6 7 11 0 30 SIIefihIIdre" (20%) (20%) (23%) (37%) (0%) (100%) Married-- . 1 3 2 3 2 11 iglofihglgte" (9%) (27%) (18%) (27%) (18%) (99%)a Married-- . 2 2 4 5 3 16 finélflrg"oeg§“18 (13%) (13%) (25%) (31%) (19%) (101%)a Divorced with children (35%) (3%) (35%) (357) (37) (93% a under 18 ° ° ° ) Divorced or . 0 2 0 2 0 4 "'d°"ed"a“ (0%) (50%) (0%) (50%) (0%) (100%) children over 18 aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 21.271 df = 24 p = not significant Thirteen or 27 percent of the teachers with younger children spent less than thirty minutes a day doing school-related work at home, compared to seven (17 percent) of those without younger children (see Tables 14 and 15). 67 Table l4.--Minutes spent working at home on school-related activities by mothers with children under eighteen and mothers with no children under eighteen. Less More Could Than 30-45 45-60 60-90 Than Not Total 30 90 Answer Children 13 6 13 10 5 2 49 under 18 (27%) (12%) (27%) (20%) (10%) (4%) (100%) No children 7 8 7 10 9 1 42 under 18 (17%) (19%) (17%) (24%) (21%) (2%) (100%) Chi square = 4.852 df = 5 p = not significant When looking at all ninety-one teachers in the study, only in the less-than—thirty-minutes column was there more than five percentage points difference in the amount of time spent working in the building. When looking at all ninety-one teachers spending time on school- related activities at home, Table 14 indicates that in the less-than- thirty-minutes and forty-five-to-sixty-minutes categories, the teachers with children under eighteen exceeded the other teachers by six per- centage points (14 to 8 percent). Summary of Question 3 It cannot be said that teachers with children differ greatly in overall time given to school-related activities. However, more teachers with children under eighteen spent less than thirty minutes either at school or at home on school-related work. Eighteen percent of the mothers with children under eighteen stayed after school less than thirty minutes, compared to 5 percent of those without children under eighteen. 68 Twenty-seven percent of the mothers with children under eighteen compared to 17 percent of those without children under eighteen spent less than thirty minutes at home on school-related activities. Table 15.--Minutes spent working at home on school-related activities by all subgroups. "TBM. Less More Could Than 30-45 45-60 60-90 Than Not Total 30 90 Answer - l l 3 3 1 0 9 S‘”9‘e (11%) (11%) (33%) (33%) (11%) (0%) (99%)a Married-- 5 5 2 4 2 0 18 no children (28%) (28%) (11%) (22%) (11%) (0%) (100%) Married-- . 8 3 11 4 3 1 30 3;;e5“;gdre" (27%) (10%) (37%) (13%) (10%) (3%) (100%) Married-- - 1 2 2 1 5 0 11 il'oihglg:e" (9%) (18%) (18%) (9%) (45%) (0%) (99%)a Married-- . 4 2 2 5 2 1 16 33;11;::u:g;:153 (25%) (13%) (13%) (31%) (13%) (6%) (101%)a Divorced . . 1 1 0 1 o o 3 3;§2,°?5‘dre" (33%) (33%) (0%) (33%) (0%) (0%) (99%)a Divorced or 0 0 0 2 1 1 4 "id°"9d"a“ (0%) (0%) (0%) (50%) (25%) (25%) (100%) children over 18 aDoes not equal Chi square = 32.798 100 because numbers were rounded off. df = 30 p = not significant 69 Adequate Support at Work If a mother is to do her best work at school, it would be helpful for her to feel she is getting adequate support when she needs it. The next question sought the mothers' perceptions of that support. Question 4 asked, Do these women feel they get adequate support from their principals and central office administrators to help them succeed (accomplish what they hope to accomplish)? This question focused on the teachers' perceptions of the support they were getting in fulfilling their jobs. The following questions in the interview asked about this support: 1. Do you feel there is adequate interaction between you and the staff, including teachers, principals, and others (aides, custodian)? 2. What could be done to make interaction better? 3. Do you feel you are getting poor, good, or excellent support in fulfilling your job (from the school)? 4. What are the things that could be done in the school that would make it easier for you to succeed? 5. What are the things that could be done in the school system that would make it easier for you to succeed? 6. How do you feel about communication between you and your school? 7. Do you feel you are a "real" part of the decision-making process at school? 7O 8. Do you feel you are a "real" part of the decision-making process in the school system? 9. Are there ways administrators can support a teacher that you feel are not now being used? Name them. Thirty-four teachers with children under eighteen (70 percent) felt interaction was extremely adequate or adequate, as shown in Table 16. The other fifteen (30 percent) felt interaction needed improvement. Thirty-five (76 percent) of the teachers with no chil- dren under eighteen felt interaction was at least adequate; ten (24 percent) felt it needed improvement. It may be noted that six teachers with younger children felt interaction needed much improve- ment, compared to two teachers with no young children who felt this way. Table l6.--Adequate interaction between teacher and staff. . Interaction 1:123:11; Interaction Interaction Improvement Imprgggment Children 14 20 , 9 6 49 under 18 (29%) (41%) ‘(l8%) (12%) (100%) No children 17 15 8 2 42 under 18 (40%) . (36%) (19%) (5%) (100%) II to Chi square = 2.540 df p = not significant 71 Fifty percent (twenty-one) of the teachers with no young children felt interaction could not be improved upon, as compared with 37 percent (eighteen) of the teachers with children under eighteen (see Table 17). Teachers with children under eighteen most often mentioned that openness on the part of the staff would improve F“* interaction. More time was the suggestion given most often by teach— ‘ ers with no children under eighteen. When more than one suggestion was given, the first one was included in the table. As shown in Table 18, over half of the teachers in the study (53 percent) felt they received very good to excellent support from school personnel in fulfilling their jobs. Adding the 34 percent who received good support, this represented 87 percent of the total number of teachers in the study. Nine percent of the teachers inter- viewed stated they received poor support. Table l7.--Teachers' perceptions of what could make interaction better. O. A r— '— Ul C 3 S. (U Q) C O 'U C 0.70 O) C 0. Il" ‘l"" 'U Q) 0 >2 3 0"" a)” N m‘o— !— E LW'I- O m U “CL 'l- (09- : 0) 3013-54 S": C U): Q)"- I— O) M O!— H'PU 0.03 < c-v- 5.0 cu :«H 3.9 0441:: s: 'I- L- U C '0- C U) Q) C 3°v- 5- Ho +3 qu_ OL- 0‘0- CIJI- w—Q' +9344 OLIJ Z L.) O 00- U) M O O I'— WH C H '5" Q) LH 'U ”U r- 0344 015 mm a)“ G) > mo ‘00 I— (U ‘5 1’6 ’5 E 2511- 55 1‘6 3'8 833 L8 3 ‘6’ (5 Zn- ZLL 2° :0- EU) ZOM- IV 0 5— Children 4 2 3 9 6 4 l8 3 49 a under 18 (8%) (4%) (6%) (18%) (12%) (8%) (37%) (6%) (99%) No children 4 O 2 5 7 2 21 1 42 under 18 (10%) (0%) (5%) (12%) (17%) (5%) (50%) (2%) (101%)a aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 4.807 df = 7 p = not significant 72 Table 18.--Teachers' perceptions of support from school in fulfilling Job. Very Good . Could Good Fair Poor to Excellent Not Total Support Support Support Support Answer Children 25 18 ~_ 5 1 o 49 f under 18 (51%) (37%) (10%) (2%) (0%) (100%) No children 23 13 4 l l 42 under 18 (55%) (31%) (10%) (2%) (2%) (100%) 3 ; Chi square = 1.471 df = 4 p = not significant E When asked, "What could be done to make it easier to succeed?" the answer given most often was to have more administrative support. Thirteen teachers (27 percent) with younger children and fifteen teachers (36 percent) with no children under eighteen mentioned this, as shown in Table 19. The table also indicates that nine (18 percent) of the teachers with younger children were satisfied with what was done to help them succeed, compared to four (10 percent) of the teachers with no children under eighteen. In the school system itself, as shown in Table 20, nine mothers (18 percent) were also satisfied with the system's efforts to make it easier to succeed, compared to seven (17 percent) of those without younger children. More paraprofessional help was mentioned by 27 and 26 percent of the two categories of teachers, respectively. This was highest in priority for more teachers than any other item. Released time (seven teachers) and more specialists (six teachers) were next in priority for the mothers with younger children. Smaller class size 73 u:mu...cmpm ac: u a m u mu oeo.m u mgmzam .go .mmo vwvcao. mew: mgmaszc mmamumn cop Peace Ho: mwoom NAN_o.. ANN. ANm. “No—v ANN. ANm. ANOPV ANN. AN... ANem. ANO_. N. .mucz N. _ N e . N e . N o m. . ca.u..;u oz NANmm. ANN. ANN. “No. AN.. ANO.. AN.. AN... ANN—v ANNN. ANN.. N. .muc: a. _ F o N m N N m N. m cm.u__;u I. 0 S .dN .1 ud D..I. do.” .dw nuuv S O 1. m D.O D. 3 UN PUO D.0 I..D. D. 1.. U. D. JJ J .I. pd JpJ JJ Am 1. D. a I. 8:. 5 3 J 1. a 93 BL. .L. ..I. J .l U a D. 30 S d U S a 1.9 J S .DA 0u.3 J Nl. 1: J D.U 3 na 1:90 0 05 L. [or 3 l. JO 1.. J1. a 3 I I. 1. dN 5.....d 8 SJ D. ..L U8 D. I: WD. 1U3 S D. D. A8 S w 81. DZDJ B. S”. $ MWM" fl 3 wk“ “”0““ 0 mwo A8 0 IL. “I? u d" S 3J 0 D. O D. OS n. m m m u N... NH 3 O a u n .4. I. p .ummuuzm o» .mwmmm um axes op _oo:um cwmcu “a mcou ma ago was: mo mcowuamugma .mgmcummhnn.m_ mpamp 74 p:mo...=m.m .0: u a m u mu eom.m u mgwacm wcu .m.o umucao. «gm: m.¢n&:: mmsmumn co. .macm uo: mmoam N.N.o.. .Nm. .NN. .Nm. .NN. .NN. .Nc.. .NN.V .NNN. .No.. .NN.V N. .muca N. N . N N . . N .. N N cm....;o oz N.NNN. .NN. .NN. .N.V .NN. .NN.. .N.. .NN. .NNN. .N... .NN.. N. .accz N. . N N N N N N N. N N ca....;. 1.. 0 1.00 1| .13 NW SUV S .d U S O 1. 03 a UU. n0 “D. m D. a D. 1. u. 1. S .9 SJ dw n. J I. 1. D. a N1. 5 SU [.3 dl. I. D. a l. .I. J 33 35 3 DU .1. .0 D. 5 MJ d J3 s S JL. 8 J S I: D. A d 1.5 J O a l. .03 d [.1. V9 1. I: 3 JO 3 3U. J3 J m a H... D. mm M 33 “4“. W... D. % w JL. 0 N I. O S L. a D.1. J D. Dal. J S 0 mm .4 u S S u 53 .p .01. ... S D. u D— . 5 IL. l 1. 1. 3 Z S O o lo a M U =~ummuu=m op .m.mmm a. mgwe op Emumxm NoosuN mg» :. mcou ma coo p.53: .cowummzc mg» op mmmcoamm. .m.m:um¢~-u.om wpnmh 75 (seven teachers) was second in priority for those with no children under eighteen. Seventeen (40 percent) of the teachers with no children under eighteen felt communication was excellent, compared to seventeen (35 percent) of those with children under eighteen (see Table 21). When one adds the category good to adequate, though, 70 percent of the teachers with children under eighteen, compared to 71 percent of those without younger children, had adequate to excellent commu- nication. Table 21.-~Communication between teacher and school. Very Good to Good or Excellent Adequate Fair Poor 70t31 Children 17 21 3 8 49 under 18 (35%) (43%) (6%) (16%) (100%) No children l7 l3 7 5 42 under 18 (40%) (31%) (17%) (12%) (100%) Chi square = 3.658 df = 3 p = not significant Eight (16 percent) of the mothers with younger children believed there was poor communication between themselves and their schools, compared to five (12 percent)cfl’those with no young children. Table 22 indicates that seventeen (35 percent) of the mothers with children under eighteen and twenty (48 percent) of those without children under eighteen felt they were a "real" part of the decision- making process in their buildings. Twenty-one (43 percent) of the 76 mothers of younger children compared to nine (21 percent) of the teachers without younger children felt they had some part in the decision-making process. Fewer mothers with younger children--nine (18 percent) compared to twelve (29 percent) without younger children-- believed they had no "real" part in the decision-making process in their schools. Table 22.--Teachers' perceptions about being a "real" part of the decision-making process at school. Yes, A Very Yes, Not Real Part Some Really NO Total Children 17 21 2 9 49 under 18 (35%) (43%) (4%) (l8%) (100%) No children 20 9 1 12 42 under 18 (48%) (21%) (2%) (29%) (100%) Chi square = 5.298 df = 3 p = not significant There was a difference between these findings and the teachers' perceptions of their involvement in the school system itself, as noted in Table 23. Either persona11y or through the teachers' organ- ization, 13 percent or thirteen of the ninety-one teachers felt they were a "real" part of the decision-making process in the school system. Sixty percent of all the teachers in the study felt they had no real part in the decision-making process in the school district. The percentage was larger for mothers of younger children (36 percent) than for those with no younger children (24 percent). 77 Table 23.--Teachers' perceptions about being a "real" part of the decision-making process in the school system. S. Q) ° 3 ~55” E E: (33'- OJ I2 C +4 (‘0'- LU‘) E r- -I- O ‘6 .CS- O 1‘5 fd 2 H: I—CIJ m a) +3 O .C a: S- U I— am “U a Q) P" ‘0 (DS- was (D +4 U 3 +3 mm 010) 0) O O C O C >—& >-|— >- Z Z 3 U 1— Children 5 2 4 5 33 0 0 49 a under 18 (10%) (4%) (8%) (10%) (67%) (0%) (0%) (99%) N0 chi1dren 4 2 5 7 22 1 1 42 under 18 (10%) (5%) (12%) (17%) (52%) (2%) (2%) (100%) aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 4.242 df = 6 p = not significant When asked about ways administrators could support a teacher that are not being used, fourteen or 29 percent of the teachers with children under eighteen and ten (24 percent) with no children under eighteen were satisfied (see Table 24). The category mentioned more frequently than any other by both groups of teachers as a way to improve this problem was for central office administrators to get into the classrooms more often than they do presently so they would know first hand what was happening. Summary of Question 4 There was not much difference in the two groups' perceptions of interaction, if adequate and extremely adequate interaction were grouped together—-37 percent of the teachers with children under .. 2 __ . _ .....r__..11Es pcmowmwcmwm .0: u a m u .u moN.m u m.m:cm Nsu .mgommu wco ummmp an an umcowucms--.m;pon .mmo vmucao. mLm: NLmaE=c mmamumn co. .macm no: mmoom 78 .Noo.. .NN.. .NN. .No. .NN. .NN. .NN.. .No.. .N.N. .NNN. N. .NNNN NN N . o N N N N N o. NN.N..:N oz NNNNN. .NN.. .NN. .NN. .NN. .NN. .NN. .NN. .NNN. .NNN. N. .NNNN NN N N N N . N N .. N. NN.N..NN 1. 0 M9 3139 0M9 OS I..0..n.J 0.4.9 3N3 S O 1. [1: U.U U.3 JUL. .0 U. UNA l. U0 I... , [33 D. 1. U. 1.A 91.0.1. 03A 30 5 A JA D.3U 1. m. 3 us momu_mua wm 2%3 MNa apn u 0. ON amifl alS 3|. UOoJ awd J49 1: [.0 S U3 MU." SJ pMa 30 OOI. l. SJ 1:0” 535 SN I..U QUS 0 a mg a a .1. s mwm win. www p .08 ”:00!“ am. a]? o D. XI)I.. 1w II." ”[1 V“ D. dnl. (VA I... 10 3|..U J3 U EU a IU U0 J30 30. p Jpg .0 UL. 30 Sl.” 93" EU 1.5 J 31. H 1.J0 1.3 01. I: u. l. 010 u 9 Dan. 0 UM.“ . M... u N. N. .umm: mcwmn so: go: «LN “an. .mgummp N pgogazm cmu mgoumgpmwcwsum m»m3-u.¢~ m.nm. 79 eighteen compared with 35 percent with no children under eighteen. More teachers with younger children were disappointed in the amount of interaction between the teachers and staff in their buildings. More openness on the part of the staff would be a way to help 18 per- cent of the teachers with younger children. More time would help solve the problem for 17 percent of the teachers with no children under eighteen. One may note that 37 percent of the teachers with younger children and 50 percent of those without younger children felt that staff interaction was good enough. Over half of all the teachers in the study expressed the opinion that they received very good to excellent support from those at school in fulfilling their jobs. Administrators giving more sup- port rated number one in what could be done to give further help; second was having more paraprofessionals to assist teachers. For both groups, more paraprofessional help rated as the single most important thing that could be done by the school system to make it easier to succeed. The emphasis on individualizing instruction has made it desirable to get more adults into the class- room on a daily basis to keep children from having to wait for help. Seventy-eight percent of the teachers with children under eighteen rated communication as at least good, compared to 71 percent of the other group. More teachers with children under eighteen than teachers with older children also felt communication was poor (16 per- cent compared to 12 percent). More teachers without younger children felt a very "real" part of the decision-making process at school (48 percent compared to 80 35 percent of those with younger children). The figures change when a "real" part in decision making is modified to "some" part. A total of 78 percent of the teachers with younger children felt at least some part in decision making, compared to 69 percent of those without younger children. More teachers without young children F-w (29 percent) felt no part in the decision-making process, compared 1 to 18 percent of those with younger children. When looking at the entire school system, there was no dif- ference between the two groups who felt some part in the decision- making process, but the figures were much smaller. Over half of the teachers in each group felt they had n9_part in the decision-making process. The figure was 12 percent larger for those with younger children who felt left out of decision making. Approximately one-fourth of both groups of teachers were satisfied with the kind of support received from administrators. Both groups of teachers felt that getting administrators into the classrooms was not done enough, but rated highest in what they thought should be done. More teachers with younger children felt a need for better interaction, more openness on the part of staff members, and expressed a need for better communication. More teachers without younger chil- dren felt no part in the decision-making process in their schools, but more teachers with younger children felt this way about the decision-making process in the entire school system. 81 Adequate Support From Family If a teacher is to do her best work at school, it must be helpful if she can leave home with the knowledge that things are going well there and not need to spend time at work worrying about problems at home. With this idea in mind, teachers were asked about home support. Question 5 asked, Do mothers perceive themselves as getting adequate support from their families to help them succeed (accomplish what they hope to accomplish)? Questions that focused on support at home were: 1. Does your husband have a favorable attitude toward your teaching? 2. Do you feel you are getting poor, good, or excellent support from your family in fulfilling your job? 3. Do you feel you are getting poor, good, or excellent support in fulfilling home responsibilities? 4. How is communication between you and your family? 5. What is the impact of your working on your own children? A large number of teachers felt their husbands had a favorable attitude toward their working. As indicated in Table 25, fourteen (47 percent) of the thirty teachers with all children under eighteen believed their husbands had very favorable attitudes toward their working. Twelve (40 percent) believed their husbands' attitudes to be favorable. No teacher in this category felt her husband's attitude to be unfavorable, although one was considered somewhat unfavorable. 82 Table 25.--Husband's attitude toward teacher working. co :5 L w 2 2 '— O (U .0 > I ‘1- - E 133:- :3 0» Marital o a, u, U, XA 3 Status 3 '5 1355 *«SE 81 ‘s‘.’ t 2 fig: -§1 0 on» as Q: Q).— m '3 3— > E-p— U EF' 0) q_ +3 9’ a! 03-:- on cu : o > L'- qu. m «61.1. 3 I— ffiiiéiig'a“ 14 12 3 1 30 under 18 (47%) (40%) (10%) (3%) (0%) (100%) Married--all children 18 (61%) (237 0 0 1 11 or over .) (0%) (0%) (9%) (100%) Married-- - 9 6 1 0 0 15 anggm 33:2 ,8 (56%) (38%) (6%) (0%) (0%) (100%) Chi square==7.098 df = 8 p = not significant Seven (64 percent) of the married teachers with all children over eighteen had husbands with very favorable attitudes, three (27 percent) had husbands with favorable attitudes, and one teacher's husband was not in favor of her working. Sixteen teachers in the study had children both under and over eighteen. Of this group, nine (56 percent) were very favorable, six (38 percent) were favorable, and one husband was somewhat favor- able, with qualifications. Tables 26 and 27 show that most teachers receive good to excellent support in fulfilling their job and home responsibilities. Two teachers felt they received poor support and three teachers could 83 not or chose not to answer the question about the quality of support received in fulfilling their job. One teacher with all adult chil- dren also chose not to answer. The quality of support was best in the families that had children both under and over eighteen. Three teachers felt they received poor support from their families in home responsibilities; all the others rated support at least good. The teachers with the best home support had no young children. Table 26.--Support from home in fulfilling job. . Very Good to Could Not gzgéfig] Excellent Sfioogrt Sfioogrt or Did Not Total Support pp pp Answer Married-- . l7 8 2 3 30 all children a a under 18 (57%) (27%) (7%) (10%) (101%) Married-- . 6 4 0 1 11 all ch11dren 18 or over (55%) (36%) (0%) (9%) (100%) Married-- . lO 6 O O 16 ch11dren both (63%) (38%) (0%) (0%) (101%) under and over 18 aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 3.945 df = 6 p = not significant 84 Table 27.--Support with home responsibilities. Very Good to . Good Could Not ' QEEEES' Egggggggt SuppOrt Sfigggrt orAgggegot Total gig:§:?;5ren (31%) (;g%) (13%) (3%) (133%) 33E::§§13r°" (73%) (21%) (3%) (3%) (135%) 5:11;:gn-both (;g%) (3g%) (8%) (3%) (151%)3 under and over 18 aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square == 3.247 df = 6 p = not significant Table 28 indicates that communication was rated usually good by 50 percent of those teachers with all children under eighteen, 64 percent of those with all children over eighteen, and 56 percent of those with children both under and over eighteen. Approximately one-third of each group rated communication excellent, but this was an area in which some teachers with all younger children had diffi- culty. Five teachers in this group felt communication needed improv- ing, whereas no one with all older children mentioned this and only one teacher with children both under and over eighteen felt communi- cation needed improvement. 85 Table 28.--Communication between teacher and family. Very Good Good Sometimes, Eiggfiigaren .13.) (13.) (1..) 1:.) (3%, (133.) - 1‘ $321311 (.2. 1.1.1 (3.) (3., 13., (111., Efigfiggéh’g” (33%) (52%) (25%) (8%) (3%) (1111311) Chi square = 3.312 df = 8 p = not significant Most teachers felt their working had a mostly favorable or very favorable impact on their children. Table 29 does indicate, however, that four teachers with all children under eighteen felt their working had a rather unfavorable or unfavorable effect on their children. Summary,of Question 5 Over 87 percent of all married teachers studied felt their husbands were favorable toward their working. Married teachers, in general, felt they had good to excellent support in fulfilling their jobs. Five teachers with all younger children and one with all children over eighteen had poor support or chose not to answer the question. Married teachers also generally felt they had good to excel- lent support with home responsibilities, but this quality was lowest 86 in families with all children under eighteen. This was also the only group that mentioned poor support with home responsibilities. Table 29.--Impact of teacher's working on her own children. >3 a) tn '2'; r— '— Q 0) 0) .D .Q < Marital § ".5 E E = +5 Status s. 3’23 33 2 2 E z - >50 +40 CM 16 C m M L) 40> 44%— Q. x 0’ 41-, GNU Ofd cu: : c o o >Ll. ELL “:3 D D D '— Married-- - 12 13 3 l l 0 3o 311.5“:gdre" (40%) (43%) (10%) (3%) (3%) (0%) (99%)a Married-- ‘ . 5 l O O O 5 ll zllrcig'd'e" (45%) (9%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (45%) (99%)a Marr1ed-- 10 5 0 0 1 0 16 2:513:32r018r (53%) (31%) (0%) (0%) (6%) (0%) (100%) aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 29.225 df = 10 P = significant Most mothers received good to excellent support no matter which criteria were used, but there was a lack of support in some families with younger children. This was evidenced in answers of poor support in fulfilling job and home responsibilities, and the unfavor- able attitude of the children of four teachers toward their mothers' working. Some comments made by the teachers were: 87 "I am a perfectionist as a housekeeper and I have had to com- promise on this." "My own children developed independence and are better able to relate to other people. They have learned to handle problems when I am not home and are more perceptive about relationships with others." "I feel I am a better teacher as a mother than I was as a single person. I have more understanding of parents' concerns-~even lost boots." The same teacher remarked, "I also have an understand- ing of why some youngsters get off in the morning in a bad mood." Another teacher said, “My strong husband doesn't feel working is a threat to him. He can understand my problems. I've also had good people to help me do the housework and I pay them well." A number of teachers mentioned how Parent Effectiveness Train- ing (P.E.T.), Teacher Effectiveness Training (T.E.T.), and Values Clarification had helped them overcome conflicts in the value systems of their pupils and their own children. How to Effect Change The amount of in-service training was looked at in two ways: by children or no children under eighteen and by years of experience. The three teachers with one or two years of experience were omitted from the analysis because it was assumed they had very recently com- pleted their training. Question 6 asked, How can administrators, both principals and central office administrators, best effect change in the elementary schools among the staff, which is composed of 90 percent women? 88 The following questions focused on effecting change in in- service training requirements: 1. What in-service training have you participated in during the last two years--on school time? On your own time? 2. Are you getting less, as much, or more in-service training than you would like? 3. How many college credits have you earned in the last two years? 4. Can you think of any other ways of providing in-service that would be beneficial to you? Schools with supplementary funds from the federal government or from the state may select to use a portion of this money for in- service training of teachers during school time. Thirteen teachers (27 percent) with younger children and sixteen teachers (38 percent) without younger children participated in one or two workshops on school time, as shown in Table 30. Including six workshops in the analysis accounted for 82 percent of those with younger children and 85 percent of those without younger children. Table 31 gives the same informa- tion by years of teaching experience. As shown in Tables 32 and 33, fewer teachers took part in workshops on their own time. The number drops to less than 70 per- cent who, on their own time, had taken six workshops. One may note that the same teachers could have been involved in this training on school time and on their own time. Table 32 indicates that 24 per- cent in each group had not gone to any workshops on their own time. 89 Table 30.--In-service on school time in last two years by children or no children under eighteen. Number of Workshops Total 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 l3-l4 Children l3 16 ll 5 1 2 l 49 under 18 (27%) (33%) (22%) (10%) (2%) (4%) (2%) (100%) No children l6 ll 9 3 l l l 42 a under 18 (38%) (26%) (21%) (7%) (2%) (2%) (2%) (98%) aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 1.741 df = 6 p = not significant Table 3l.--In-service on school time in last two years by years of teaching experience. Years Teaching Number of Workshops Experlence 1-2 3-4 5-6 7—8 9-10 11-12 13-14 T°t31 1 _ 2 1 1 1 o o o o 3 a (33%) (33%) (33%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (99%) 3 _ 6 8 5 5 4 1 o o 24 (33%) (25%) (21%) (17%) (4%) (0%) (0%) (100%) 7 -1o 7 7 7 3 1 1 o 26 a (27%) (27%) (27%) (12%) (4%) (4%) (0%) (101%) 13 13 7 1 O 2 2 38 1‘ 3"“ ab°Ve (34%) (34%) (18%) (3%) (0%) (5%) (5%) (99%)a aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 11.117 df = 18 p = not significant 90 Table 32.--In-service on own time in last two years by children or no children under eighteen. Number of Workshops 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 ll-12 13-14 None Total Children 20 8 6 0 1 1 1 12 49 a under 18 (41%) (16%) (12%) (0%) (2%) (2%) (2%) (24%) (99%) "° 19 6 . 3 1 0 3 0 10 42 h 1d 0 3,1933% (45%) (14%) (7%) (2%) (0%) (7%) (0%) (24%) (99%)“ aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 7.215 df = 7 p = not significant Table 33.--In-service on own time in last two years by years of teaching experience. TYeah§ Number of Workshops Exggfiiéflge 1-2 3-4 5-6 7-8 9-10 11-12 13-14 None T°ta‘ ]_ 2 2 1 o o o o o o 3 (67%) (33%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (100%) 3_ 6 12 3 1 o 1 1 o 6 24 (50%) (13%) (4%) (0%) (4%) (4%) (0%) (25%) (100%) 7_10 1o 4 3 o o 1 o 8 26 (38%) (15%) (12%) (0%) (0%) (4%) (0%) (31%) (100%) 11 and 15 6 5 1 0 2 1 8 38 above (39%) (16%) (13%) (3%) (0%) (5%) (3%) (21%) (100%) Chi square = 15.619 df = 21 p = not significant 91 As indicated in Table 34, 45 percent of the teachers (twenty-two) with younger children and 52 percent (twenty-two) of those without younger children have not taken any college courses. The more years of experience, the more likely it is that a teacher has not attended college in the past two years (see Table 35). The teachers with three to six years experience were the most likely to be involved with obtaining college credits. Answers to the question, "How much in-service is enough?" are presented in Tables 36 and 37. Fifty-five percent of those teachers with younger children and 52 percent of those with no children under eighteen felt they were getting the right amount of in-service training. This was especially evident in those teachers with over eleven years of experience. Sixty-six percent felt they were being in-serviced sufficiently, as shown in Table 37. This group also had the largest percentage who felt they were getting more in-service training than they needed and also the largest number with mixed feelings. Approximately twice as many teachers with younger children were satisfied with provisions made for in-service as were teachers without younger children, as indicated in Table 38. Twenty percent would prefer released time during the day. Summary of Questidn 6 If a school system wants every teacher to receive in-service training, time must be provided for it. Many teachers apparently would take advantage of what was offered, but approximately 25 percent might not get involved at all. 92 m1- u:mo...cm.m uo: u a m u we mmw.m u mgmzcm .50 ...o caucao. «No: m.ng=: mmamumn co. .macm No: mwoom o.NNN. .NNN. .NN.. .NN. .NN. .NN. .NN. .NN.. .No. .NN. N. .oooo NN NN N N N N . N o . zo.o..zo oz o.NNNV .NNN. .NN.. .NN. .NN. .NN. .NN. .NN. .No.. .NN. N. .oooo NN NN N N N N . N N . oo.o..zo .NNo. oooz .N .o>o .N-N. N.-N. N.-N. N.-o. N-N N-N N-. NNNumgo mam—.oo No .wnE:z .cmmggmNm .m>o new .mucz :w.u..:u an NNNma o3. “mm. :. muNUNNU mmm..oo-1.cm m.nm» 93 u:mu...:m.m we: u a NN u .o .oN.NN u NNNNNN .zN ...o umucao. mgmz mgmnsac wmzmumn co. .Nzcm no: mmoom .Noo.. .NNN. .N... .NN. .NNV .NN. .NN. .NN. .NN. .No. o>ooo NN NN N N . N . N N o ooo .. o.NNo.v .Nomv .NN.. .NNV .NN.. .NN. .Nov .NNV .NN. .NN. 0.- N NN N. N . N . o . N N o.N.o.. .NNN. .NN.. .NN.. .NN.. .NN. .NN. .NN.. .NN. .No. o - N NN o N N N N . N . o .Noo.v .NNNV .NNN. .Nov .Nov .No. .No. .Nov .Nov .No. N - . N . N o o o o o o o .NNo. oooz .N .ooo .N-N. N.-N. N.-N. N.-o. N-N N-N N-. oooo..oNxN NNNumNQ mom..ou .o .mne:z mcwgumm. mgmm> .mucm..maxw mcwnummp .o N.me an m.me oz» umm. :. mpwumgu mam..oo--.mm mpnmh 94 Table 36.--Amount of in-service meeting individual needs by children or no children under eighteen. Less More . . Mixed Want It In-SerVice S Than . . Total Than Wanted Much Wanted Feelings Different Children 16 27 1 4 l 49 under 18 (33%) (55%) (2%) (8%) (2%) (100%) No children 10 22 6 2 2 42 under 18 (24%) (52%) (14%) (5%) (5%) (100%) Chi square = 5.963 df = 4 p = not significant Table 37.--Amount of in-service meeting needs by years of teaching experience. Years Less More . Teaching In-Service Mezh Than Fgg112 s Diggzriht Total Experience Than Wanted Wanted 9 1 _ 2 l l l O O 3 a (33%) (33%) (33%) (0%) (0%) (99%) 3 _ 6 ll 10 l O 2 24 (46%) (42%) (4%) (0%) (8%) (100%) 7 _]0 ll 13 l l O 26 (42%) (50%) (4%) (4%) (0%) (100%) 11 and 3 25 4 5 l 38 a above (8%) (66%) (11%) (13%) (3%) (101%) aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 23.167 df = 12 p = not significant accuNNN2mNN no: u a m u mu NNo.m. u m.m:cm Nco .comgma.mmm an umcowucmsiu.m;uoa ...o vmcczo. mgmz N.mnsaz mmsmumn co. Nazca No: Nmoom 95 o.N.N.. .NN.. .NN.. .NN.V .NN. .NN. .No. .NN. .NN.V .NN.V N. .oooo NN N N N N N o N N N oo.o..No oz N.NNN. .NN. .NNN. .No.. .NN. .No. .NN. .NNV .NNN. .NNN. N. .oooo NN . o. N . N N . N. N. oo.o..go 1.. 0 [RUM 1.31.... 3“ 8M 38 1.8 0H. S 0 1. USO OHJ 35 30 [J UJ 03 D. .4 U. 3J S3 U3 J D..L. pl. J1. 1. D. 3 3px. N1.3 1. Nun. S U I..U [.3 1.. I.. J I. S 3D. Bl OS 55 A5 UD. S 0. D.0.U. MI..|. J3 JU. J .L. BS I... SNAO U3 D. 30 0.1. 0.1. 3 1.. S .0 03D. 33 0 CU "U 1.0. 3 Jud JPD 0U. SS W1. D.1. U. p 031. O U. U3 .0 SO 1.0 31.. owl. 5A3 DJ 33 L. mew JL.J a DD. 8 0w L8 955 d L.O n 93 u m.1 6+ ion 1. NA log 51': lol l U3 SO 3p D. 61.- J to 1. U 3 Ru J S ..N.U..mcmn ma v.30: “as. muN>LmN1c. m:.u.>o.a .o NAN; .mcuo--.mm m.nmk 96 With the proximity of a university to the study population, from 25 percent of those with six years or less experience to over 60 percent of the teachers with over eleven years experience might elect not to attend. Teachers with children under eighteen wanted in-service more than teachers without younger children and were twice as likely to be satisfied with the provisions made by the district for such training. Stress Felt Many demands are attached to the teaching profession. Have ——> the new plans for accountability, objectives, establishing instruc- tional management systems, or the behavior of children caused more stressful situations for teachers? The following question sought to determine perceptions of stress as felt by teachers. Question 7 asked, Are mothers' perceptions of their roles as teachers and the amount of stress they feel different from the role perceptions and stress experienced by other teachers? The following questions focused on stress: 1. Do you feel any stress caused by the way you teach as opposed to ways you would like to teach? 2. What is your perception of your success in meeting the needs of your class(es)? 3. Has accountability affected the way you teach? Single women, divorcees or widows with all adult children, those married with no children, and those with all children over eighteen felt the greatest amount of stress (see Table 39). In the category "feel great deal of stress," married women with some or all children under eighteen fared the best. In the category “feel no stress," married women with children both under and over eighteen and married women with no children scored the highest. Table 39.--Amount of stress caused by way of teaching. Feel Great Feel Feel Feel Marital Status Deal of Some Little No Total, Stress Stress Stress Stress 4 l l 3 9 5'”9‘e (44%) (11%) (11%) (33%) (99%)a Married-- 7 4 O 7 18 no children (39%) (22%) (0%) (39%) (100%) Married--all 9 9 3 9 30 children under 18 (30%) (30%) (10%) (30%) (100%) Married--all 4 5 l 1 11 a children 18 or over (36%) (45%) (9%) (9%) (99%) Married--children 2 4 3 7 16 a under and over 18 (13%) (25%) (19%) (44%) (101%) Divorced--with 1 1 0 1 3 children under a and over 18 (33%) (33%) (0%) (33%) (99%) Divorced or 2 2 0 0 4 "‘d0WEd"a" (50%) (50%) (0%) (0%) (100%) children over 18 aDoes not equal Chi square = 10.534 100 because numbers were rounded off. df = 18 p = not significant 98 Twenty-eight teachers or 31 percent of those in the study felt no stress, but'finnthe other 69 percent, the causes of the stress in teaching are shown in Table 40. Women, married or not, with all adult children felt discipline problems rated highest, as did married women with no children. Single women were concerned with class size 'F““ and inability to individualize. Other women had more concern for pressures like their time schedule being too crowded, and too much pressure on youngsters or on the teacher. Teachers' perceptions of their success in meeting the needs of their students are indicated in Table 41. All three of the divorced teachers with younger children felt at least 80 percent successful. Next were seven of the nine single teachers who felt this degree of success. Eight of the eleven married teachers with all children over eighteen felt they succeeded with 80 percent of their students. To indicate whether accountability had caused any stress, teachers were asked that question, as shown in Tables 42 and 43. Thirty-eight percent of the mothers with children both under and over eighteen felt accountability had affected their teaching a great deal. Thirty-eight percent of this group felt it had not affected their teaching. Single women were next, as 33 percent were affected a great deal and 44 percent of them stated that accountability had had no effect on their teaching. In all other categories, at least half felt their teaching had not been affected by accountability. As Table 44 indicates, single women and married women with all children over eighteen had the highest number feeling some pressure as a result of accountability. 99 'Table 40.--Causes of stress in teaching. 0) Q) Q) S- S— $- 05 I 3 3 O C I G) (D m U) z-l- >5 F- W L U) N F- Marita] g g m fig E§ g 8% Em 0.0) CU m S- : 3 3 w- 2 $- .53 3;" mg 1‘:>c-> 2%, 3: mg Fe; .m 0 (U C .E O O 0 CU Q) +9 5:: 5.2 :8 .2 s .9 5 £5. 32 .2 . o 3 o o 1 2 3 9 5‘"9‘e (0%) (33%) (0%) (0%) (11%) (22%) (33%) (99%)a Married--no 6 0 1 0 4 0 7 18 children (33%) (0%) (6%) (0%) (22%) (0%) (39%) (1007) Married-- . 1 4 3 2 5 o 9 30 3;;efihlgd’e" (37) (13%) (27%) (7%) (20%) (0%) (30%) (100%) Married-~all Chl‘dre" ‘8 (437) (87) (37) (237) (157) (87) ($7) ($77)3 or over ° ° ° ° ° Married-- 1 o 5 1 2 o 7 l6 $31332: finger (6%) (0%) (31%) (6%) (13%) (07,) (44%) (100%) Divorced-—with . o 1 o 1 o 1 3 $231353: ggder (0%) (0%) (33%) (0%) (33%) (0%) (33%) (99%)a Divorced or widowed--a11 2 0 0 2 O 0 O 4 children (507) (0%) (0%) (50%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (100%) over 18 aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 79.507 df = 36 p = not significant 100 Table 41.--Teachers' perceptions of success. 2% '8 Marital 3;; °\. 3., 3., g, m 2; Status 5'3 83 FT‘ 6"? 8' E 3% '76 m 00 N no LO no cc: 1— S," 19 1 6 1 o o o 1 9 9 (11%) (67%) (11%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (11%) (1007) Married—- 6 4 4 l 0 0 3 18 no children (33%) (22%) (22%) (6%) (0%) (0%) (17%) (100%) rfi:;;:g;-a11 11 7 10 o o o 2 30 under 18 (37%) (23%) (33%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (7%) (100%) Married--all Chl‘d'e" ‘8 (5E7) (157) ($7) (37) (87) ($7) ($7) (1557) or over ° ° Married-- . 4 5 3 1 o o 3 16 gflg‘gggflggde" (257) (317.) (197.) (57) (0%) (07) (197,) (1007) Divorced--with . 2 1 o o o o o 3 gng‘gzgfl $gde” (57%) (33%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (100%) Divorced or . o 2 1 1 o o o 4 2;??gfigg}:L;.18 (0%) (50%) (257) (25%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (100%) Chi square = 33.594 df = 36 p = not significant 101 Table 42.--Teachers' perceptions of whether accountability has affected teaching, by marital status. . Yes, Mar1tal Status A Great Deal Yes, Some No Total . 3 2 4 9 S‘"9‘e (33%) (22%) (44%) (99%)a Married--no 5 3 10 18 a children (28%) (17%) (56%) (101%) Married--all 5 10 15 30 children under 18 (17%) (33%) (50%) (100%) Married-~all 3 2 6 11 a children 18 or over (28%) (18%) (55%) (101%) Married--children 6 4 6 16 a under and over 18 (38%) (25%) (38%) (101%) Divorced--with . 0 0 3 3 ch11dren under a o and over 18 (0%) (0%) (100%) (100%) Divorced or widowed-- l l 2 4 all children over 18 (25%) (25%) (50%) (100%) aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 7.416 df = 12 p = not significant Table 43.-~Teachers' perceptions of whether accountability has affected teaching, by children or no children under eighteen. Yes, A Great Deal Yes, Some No Total Children 11 14 24 49 under 18 (22%) (29%) (49%) (100%) No children 12 8 22 42 under 18 (29%) (19%) (52%) (100%) Chi square = 1.236 = 2 p = not significant 102 Table 44.--How accountability has affected teaching. z 8 m M ‘U as em as §§§ 3 Marital Status 3 g g g .31; 13mm 3,93 3 a as see I: P (D!- QJS— O'U (D.C.: MO 0 LLO. LLO. (DLLJ I30 :2 I'— . 2 2 2 0 3 9 5‘”9‘e (22%) (22%) (22%) (0%) (33%) (99%)a Married-- 4 1 1 3 9 18 a no children (22%) (6%) (6%) (17%) (50%) (101%) Married--all 4 4 5 5 12 30 children under 18 (13%) (13%) (17%) (17%) (40%) (100%) Married--all 2 2 1 1 5 ll a children 18 or over (18%) (18%) (9%) (9%) (45%) (99%) Married--chi1dren 2 1 5 2 6 16 a under and over 18 (13%) (6%) (31%) (13%) (38%) (101%) Divorced-~with . 0 O 0 0 3 3 ch11dren under 0 o and over 18 (0%) (0%) (0%) (0%) (100%) (100%) Divorced or widowed-- l 0 l 0 2 4 all children over 18 (25%) (0%) (25%) (0%) (50%) (100%) aDoes not equal 100 because numbers were rounded off. Chi square = 15.145 df = 24 p = not significant Summary of Question 7 Mothers with some or all younger children had the lowest per- centage feeling a great amount of stress caused by the way they teach as opposed to ways they would like to teach. Mothers with all older children considered discipline problems to be stressful, whereas 103 mothers with some younger children were more concerned with their schedules being too crowded and with pressures on youngsters and them- selves. Divorced women with younger children and single women felt the most success at the 80 percent level. Accountability had affected married women with some younger and older children and single women more than the other groups. Half the teachers felt they had not been affected by accountability. Some of the teachers' comments were as follows: "Accountability hasn't affected me because I have to satisfy myself first and that is harder than satisfying others." "There is so much drill, children aren‘t enjoying school." “The Director of Elementary Education and the Reading Consul- tant are extremely good and open to ideas." "The fun things go by the wayside because objectives have to come first. The youngsters need the fun things, too." "I do feel stress, but it is hard to verbalize. I also feel pressure. Self-contained is easier, but not better." "We are to the point we are now testing, testing, testing. Even the children are saying this is all we seem to be doing." "I give myself an hour every day to gather my thoughts--I make sure I do this every day." CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, SUMMARY, AND RECOMMENDATIONS The purpose of the study was to obtain female elementary school teachers' perceptions of their roles as teachers, wives, and mothers, with particular emphasis on those with children under eighteen. Summary of the Findings As a result of this study, the following conclusions may be suggested: Problems and Conflicts 1. Women with husbands and young children had more problems than other categories of women teachers. Their most serious problem was a lack of time; but they also had the greatest amount of conflict with their husbands and children. (Two-thirds of the teachers with husbands and children under eighteen had a moderate or serious amount of conflict with their husbands and children.) 2. Not being available when needed caused mothers with chil- dren under eighteen the most concern. 3. Too many school activities caused the most conflict. Being too tired for home activities and a lack of cooperation at home added to the problems. However, one-third of all the married teachers felt they had no conflicts. 104 105 Aspirations l. Twenty-eight of the teachers with children under eighteen had some interest in another position in the school system. This com- pared with twenty-one of those without children under eighteen having an interest in another position. 2. More teachers with children under eighteen were inter- ested in administrative positions than were those without younger children. 3. Time needed to get additional training was the factor that made it the most difficult for teachers to pursue another position. 4. There was little difference between teachers with children under eighteen and those with no children under eighteen in response to the question, "Would you work if you had the alternative of not working?" Time Allotted to School Work 1. In the building: a. More teachers with children under eighteen spent less than thirty minutes after school working in the building, compared to teachers with no younger children. Fewer teachers with children under eighteen worked more than ninety minutes after school. b. In the category covering forty-five minutes through ninety minutes, a larger percentage of teachers with children under eighteen worked in the building longer than teachers without younger children. 106 2. Outside of the building: a. Thirteen teachers with younger children spent less than thirty minutes doing school-related work at home, compared to seven of those without younger children. b. Only in the category forty-five to sixty minutes did teachers with younger children outnumber the other teachers on time spent doing school-related work. Adequate Support at Work 1. Thirty-four teachers with children under eighteen felt that interaction between them and the staff was extremely adequate or adequate. Thirty-five teachers with no younger children felt this way, so there was little or no difference between the two groups. 2. The most frequently mentioned way to improve interaction by teachers with young children was "more openness" on the part of the staff. Those without young children felt that "more time" would be the best way to improve interaction. 3. Eighty-seven percent of the teachers in the study felt they received good to excellent support from the school in fulfilling their jobs. 4. More administrative support was the answer most frequently given by the teachers in the study to the question, "What could be done to make it easier to succeed in your school?" 5. To succeed in the school system, more paraprofessional help was the solution most frequently given. 107 6. Thirty-eight (78 percent) of the teachers with children under eighteen compared to thirty teachers (71 percent) without younger children felt they had adequate to excellent communication between themselves and the school. 7. More teachers without younger children felt either "a very real part" or "no part" in the decision-making process at school. 8. Sixty percent of all ninety—one teachers in the study felt they had "no real part" in the decision-making process in the school district. The percentage was larger for mothers with younger children than for those with older children. 9. Twenty-four teachers (26 percent) in the total study were satisfied, but the most frequently mentioned way to support a teacher better was for central office administrators to get into the class- rooms more often. Adequate Support From Family 1. Most teachers felt their husbands had a favorable atti- tude toward their working. 2. At least half of all teachers believed they had very good to excellent support from home in fulfilling their jobs. 3. Seventy-three percent of the teachers with all children over eighteen felt they had very good to excellent support with home responsibilities. Only three teachers, all with all of their children under eighteen, felt they received poor support with home responsi- bilities. 108 4. Approximately one-third of each group of teachers rated communication excellent, but this was an area in which some teachers with all younger children had difficulty. 5. Generally, teachers believed their working had a mostly favorable or very favorable impact on their children. Four teachers with all children under eighteen thought their working had a rather unfavorable impact on their children. How to Effect Change 1. All teachers had attended at least one or two workshops on school time. Including six workshops in the analysis accounted for 82 percent of the teachers with children under eighteen and 85 per- cent of those with no children under eighteen. Teachers with the most experience participated in the fewest workshops. 2. Forty-one percent of the teachers with younger children had attended one or two workshops on their own time. Twenty-four percent had attended none. Forty-five percent of the teachers with no chil- dren under eighteen had attended only one or two workshops on their own time. Twenty-four percent had attended none. 3. Approximately half of the teachers felt they were receiv- ing the right amount of in-service training. Two-thirds of the teachers with over eleven years experience believed they were being sufficiently in-serviced. This group also had the largest percentage who thought they were getting more in-service training than they needed. Teachers with younger children were more satisfied with provisions made for in-service than were teachers without younger children. 109 4. Forty-five percent of the teachers with younger children and 52 percent of those without younger children had not taken any college credits in the last two years. The more years of experience, the more likely it was that a teacher had not attended college in the last two years. Stress Felt 1. In the category "feel a great deal of stress," married women with some or all children under eighteen fared the best. The other groups of women felt "a great deal of stress" more often. 2. Almost all teachers felt they were successful with at least 70 percent of the children. Thirty teachers believed they were successful with at least 90 percent of the children; the number of teachers rose to fifty-seven with 80 percent of the children and to seventy-seven teachers at the 70 percent level. 3. Half of the teachers felt accountability had not affected their teaching. Conclusions Teachers, especially those with younger children, have a need for understanding. Overall there appeared to be more satisfac- tion with the school system than some people might have supposed. Teachers with younger children and with the most recent training did not resist even more in-service programs to the same extent as did teachers who had been in the system eleven or more years. To allow for in-service training on school time, while the children are in 110 school, requires a monetary outlay for substitute teachers. Funds for these teachers have not been readily available through local financing. 0n the whole, wives and mothers handle their jobs well and feel even less stress than some might think would be so. The school system needs to help administrators continue to see a need to be more "human" and have an understanding of the problems some indi- viduals face. Principals as well as others need to be open to being evaluated by their staffs. When there are areas that are lacking, they must learn to make improvements. Both teachers and the central administrative personnel desire to have the central office representatives come into class- rooms more often. Time for this would have to be taken from some other tasks. There is a need to make more teachers feel they are a real part of the decision-making process. Input through their local teachers' organization, curriculum committees, or within the build- ings has not been sufficient for some of the women elementary teach- ers. Providing better feedback to teachers may be one way to accomp- lish this need. To continue to individualize instruction and increase use of this instructional method, more time and more paraprofessionals in the classroom are necessary, according to the teachers. One must not overlook the number of teachers who felt they worked in a very good school system, which supported them when the need arose. These teachers were very happy in the schools in which 111 they were placed. Many teachers spoke very favorably about their relationships with other staff members, including their school administrator. It is hoped that this study will be of some use to the people in the school district and provide additional help on making the system work even better for the ultimate benefit of the school chil- dren. Recommendations for Further Study 1. A study might be conducted to determine if there are any differences in the perspectives of teachers working with high-school- age students. Do they spend more or less time on school-related work than do elementary school teachers? How much more or less? 2. A comparison of men and women and their perceptions might prove to be of some importance, especially in terms of men and women seeking administrative positions. ' 3. The study could be duplicated using a written question- naire mailed to two or three other school districts. I." ' ~. 1. air APPENDICES 112 APPENDIX A LETTER REQUESTING PARTICIPATION IN STUDY 113 APPENDIX A LETTER REQUESTING PARTICIPATION IN STUDY Dear Beginning this month, I shall be conducting a research study in partial fulfillment of a Doctoral degree at Michigan State Uni- versity. I am interested in the relationship between the demands of a job and the needs of a woman's family. Specifically, I am interested in the kinds of problems which teaching mothers face because of these two competing needs. I would especially like to include you in this project, and would like to have about an hour of your time, at your convenience, to talk with you about your feelings and thoughts with respect to this issue.‘ Only with your permission shall I use a tape recorder. I am also studying single teachers and married teachers with- out children to obtain their feelings. The data will only be reported in a manner that will in no way identify individuals. If you would be willing to be a part of this study, please let me know. Since I do not wish to appear to be pressuring anyone, I cannot call you to find out if you will participate. I do hope to hear from many of you within the next few days. Please call me at home or send me your acceptance by tearing off the bottom of this letter. Postage will be refunded. Thank you for your cooperation. Sincerely yours, Dear Olivia, I can participate in your study. The best time to interview me would be: lunch time immediately after school day evening other Signed School Name Home Telephone 114 APPENDIX B INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 115 APPENDIX B INTERVIEW QUESTIONS Name Marital Status Years teaching, including present year Age range of teacher: Below 25 25-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 Over 45 Ages of children Sex of children GDNOS 10. What do you feel are the major problems you have in handling both your job and your home? Specifically, what kinds of problems do you have concerning your children because you work? What areas do you feel most competent in dealing with at school? At home? What conflicts have you had with your husband and children concern- ing your effort to combine mothering and work, or general family life and work? How are you able to resolve these conflicts? Does your husband have a favorable attitude toward your teaching? Would you work if you had the alternative of not working? 00 you feel there is adequate interaction between you and the staff, including teachers, principals and others (aides, custodian)? What could be done to make the interaction better? Do you feel any stress caused by the way you teach as opposed to ways you would like to teach? 116 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 117 Do you feel you are getting poor, good, or excellent.supportir1 fulfilling your job? Do you feel you are getting poor, good, or excellent support in fulfilling home responsibilities? If you need help, where do you find it? What or who helps you acquire the energy you need to keep going? Are you encountering conflicts in your value system and those of your pupils? Own children? Did your mother work while you were growing up? Do you have concerns over your leisure time or lack of it? Do you try to compensate for working by providing special leisure time activities with your family? How many minutes do you spend after the school day working in the building? Less than 30___; 30-45___5 45-6O___5 60-90___5 more____ How many minutes per day do you spend at home on school-related work (marking papers, planning, etc.)? Less than 30___5 30-45___5 45-60___: 60-90___5 more____ Do you wish you could give more time to school work?____Less time? What are the things that could be done in the school system that would make it easier for you to succeed? What are the things that could be done in your school that would make it easier for you to succeed? Do you feel you generally lack energy for some of the things you must do or do you usually feel "pretty good?" How do you feel about communication between you and your school? How do you feel about communication between you and your family? 00 you feel you are a "real" part of the decision-making process at school? 00 you feel you are a "real" part of the decision-making process in the school system? Are there ways administrators can support a teacher that you feel are not now being used? Name them. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 118 What is your perception of your success in meeting the needs of your class(es)? I generally reach 90 ___ 100% of my students. 80 _ 89% II II II 70 —_ 79% II II II 60 — 69% II H II 50 —_ 59% II II II Below 50%____ What is the impact of your working on each of your children? Would you like to have another position in the school system? Yes____No____ If the answer is yes, what position would you like to have? Are there factors that make it difficult for you to pursue this goal? Yes___ No If yes, please name them. What in-service training have you participated in during the last two years? a. 0n school time (Name them, please) b. On your own time (Not being paid for them, except later as PGP) Workshops MSU (Just tell how many credits) Are you getting Agsfiuch in-service training as you would like? more Can you think of any other ways of providing in-service training that would be beneficial to you? Has accountability affected the way you teach? Add any comments about anything you wish. BIBLIOGRAPHY 119 BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Bardwick, Judith M. Psychology of Women. New York: Harper 8 Row, 1971. Berman, Edgar. "The Unchanging Woman." In The Emerging Woman. Edited by Martha Stuart and William T. Liu. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1970. Biddle, Bruce J., and Ellena, William J. Contemporary Research on Teacher Effectiveness. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1964. Biddle, Bruce J., et a1. "Shared Inaccuracies in the Role of the Teacher." In Role Theory--Concepts and Research. 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Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1971. Sakol, Jeannie. "The Case for Spinsterhood: Better Dead Than Wed?" In On Being Female, An Anthology. Edited by Barbara Stanford. New York: Washington Square Press, 1974. Theodore, Athena. The Professional Woman. Cambridge, Mass.: Schenkman Publishing Co., Inc., 1971. Zeigler, Harmon. The Political Life of American Teachers. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967. Journals and Magazines Bargar, Robert. "Evaluation and Decision Making for the Classroom." Theory Into Practice 13 (February 1974): 58-64. Brothers, Joyce. "The Woman As Boss." Mainliner, United Air Lines Magazine, March 1974, pp. 32-35, 57. Combs, Arthur W. "The Human Side of Learning." The National Elementary Principal 52 (January 1973): 38-42. , and Wass, Hannelore. "Humanizing the Education of Teachers." TheoryAInto Practice 13 (April 1974): 123-129. Fuller, Frances F. "Conceptual Framework for a Personalized Teacher Education Program." Theory_Into Practice 13 (April 1974): 112-122. Gratz, Roberta B., and Van Gelder, Lindsey. "Double Jeopardy: The Working Motherhood Trap.“ Redbook Magazine 142 (July 1974): 38-42. Howe, Florence. "Sexism, Racism and the Education of Women." Today's Education 62 (May 1973). Keller, Suzanne. "The Future Role of Women." American Academygof Political and Social Science (Annals) 408 (July 1973): 1-12. Kimball, Roland B. "A Study of Rewards and Incentives for Teachers." Phi Delta Kappan 55 (May 1974): 637-638. Nielsen, Wilhelmine R. "Helping Teachers Change." Childhood Educa- tion 49 (December 1972): 134-137. Rossi, Alice S. "Equality Between the Sexes: An Immodest Proposal." Daedalus 93 (Spring 1964): 607-652. 123 Sadker, Myra, and Sadker, David. "Sexual Discrimination in the Ele- mentary School.‘I National Elementary Principal 52 (October 1972): 41-45. Sarason, Seymour B. "When Change Agents Collaborate." Childhood Education 49 (October 1972): 15-18. 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