MENTAL HEALTH OPINIONS OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS: AN EXPLORATION Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY DOROTHY LEE SMITH 1976 IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII . A zavwxy/ --4 CD ABSTRACT 'MENTAL HEALTH OPINIONS OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS: AN EXPLORATION BY Dorothy Lee Smith The problem of this investigation evolved through a critical review of the literature which assumes that the opinions and attitudes of young people are formed in early childhood and reinforced in later life. This study focuses on the opinions of high school students concerning psycholo- gically disordered behavior. Little research effort has been devoted to the important question of how this aSpect of one's totality of attitudes develOps. The present study highlights the Opinions of high school students and shows how they differ when compared to older persons in the population. The high school years are important in helping the student to develop a perspective of the larger world and their relation to it. The influence of the teacher is an important factor in shaping the attitudes and opinions of Students concerning various ideas and stereotypes, includ- ing those concerned with mental health. Dorothy Lee Smith The high school years of students are considered a transitional period. Prior to high school, it is reasonable to assume that the main lines of attitude and opinion develOpment are formed within the family, peer groups, and that the high school years are the years of expansion, growth, and preparation for adult socialization. Therefore, research on this developmental process is important. The problem of this investigation is centered around two basic questions: 1. How do grade levels affect knowledge about mental health? 2. Is knowledge about mental health concepts related to social characteristics of students and parents? The sample for the study consisted of 989 high school students from five high schools in Michigan. Infor- mation about the social characteristics of the students was obtained by use of a questionnaire. A 35-item mental health opinion questionnaire was also used for data collection. Mean responses to the 35 mental health Opinion statements are used in the analytical procedures. The t-test was used to determine statistical significance of differences between means. The major dependent variables are (l) a "knowledge— ability" score reflecting similarity of responses to pro- fessionals, (2) a measure of similarity to responses of the Dorothy Lee Smith "general public," and (3) a measure of similarity to responses of high school teachers. The major independent variables are: year in school (9-12), sex, college plans, parental education, father's occupation, experience with mental illness (friends and family), and grade point average (GPA). Several hypotheses were formulated in an effort to determine the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. The results are as follows: Variables Hypotheses Trend Conclusion Grade Level and similar- ity of responses to teachers Grade Level and similar- ity of responses to teachers Grade Level and similar- ity of responses to the "General Public" As grade levels . As Expected increase mental health opinions of students " will become increasingly similar to those of their teachers Senior responses As Expected will be more similar to those of their teachers than other class levels As grade levels As Expected increase mental health opinions of students will become increasingly similar to those of the "General Public" Hypothesis not supported in its entirety Hypothesis Supported Hypothesis not supported in its entirety Dorothy Lee Smith Variables Hypotheses Trend Conclusion Grade Level Seniors will be As Expected Hypothesis and similar- more similar Supported ity of responses to the "General Public" Grade Level Grade Level Sex GPA College Plans Parental Education: Mother Father Father's Occupation Mental Health Experience: Friends Family to those of the "General Public" than other class levels As grade levels increase there will be an increase in knowledge- ability Senior higher on K-Score No relationship Higher the GPA, Higher the K-Score College bound higher on K-Score Higher Educa-. tion, higher the K-Score Higher Educa- tion, higher K-Score Upper White Collar Higher on K-Score Yes--Higher on K-Score Yes--Higher on K-Score As Expected As Expected Females Higher As Expected As Expected None Indicated None Indicated As Expected As Expected As Expected Hypothesis not supported in its entirety Hypothesis Supported Data Contrary to Hypothesis Hypothesis Supported Hypothesis Supported Data Contrary to Hypothesis Data Contrary to Hypothesis Hypothesis not supported in its entirety Hypothesis Supported Hypothesis Supported Dorothy Lee Smith .Variables Hypotheses Trend Conclusion Combined Experience As Expected Hypothesis Experience-- higher on Supported Family, K-Score Friends, Visits Students vs. Teachers higher As Expected Hypothesis Teachers on K-Score Supported The results of this investigation led to three major conclusions: first, the opinions of high school seniors are more similar to their teachers and to the "Grand Rapids Citizens" than are the opinions of other class levels. Results for each school do not always show a monotonic increase in similarity of responses to high school teachers and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" with an increase in grade levels, however, when grade levels for all schools are com- bined the results show a steady monotonic increase frOm freshmen to senior. Second, seniors were found to be more knowledgeable about mental health concepts than freshmen, sophomores, and juniors. In individual schools, knowledge- ability does not increase at each grade level, although when schools are pooled, there is a steady increase in knowledgeability from freshmen, SOphomore, junior to senior. Third, knowledge about mental health opinions of high school students is clearly related in the expected manner to certain social variables, but not to others. Sex, grade point Dorothy Lee Smith average, college plans, and experience with mental health problems were found to be related to knowledgeability, but surprisingly, parental education was not, and the relation- ship between knowledgeability and father's occupation was equivocal. MENTAL HEALTH OPINIONS OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS: AN EXPLORATION BY Dorothy Lee Smith A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Sociology 1976 To My Mother Mary Brinson Smith ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am grateful to my advisor, Professor Donald W. Olmsted for his efforts extended on my behalf during the entire period of my doctoral program and especially to the completion of this endeavor. His counsel and guidance contributed tremendously to the completion of this work. His patience, sagacity, and understanding were vital factors during my graduate endeavor. I am indebted to Professor Olmsted for his extreme interest and most worthy suggestions he extended as Chairman of my Committee. In addition, I wish to express my gratitude to the other members of my committee for their helpful suggestions and constructive criticism: Professor James B. McKee of the Department of Sociology, Professor William Faunce of the Department of Sociology, and Professor Wilbur Brookover of the Department of Sociology. To my mother, father, and to the entire family, I extend my appreciation for their encouragement and inspira— tion during my graduate study at Michigan State University. To these and others I extend my sincere appreciation. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION O O O O O I O 0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . LIST OF LIST OF Chapter I. II. III. TABLES O O O O O O O MPENDICES O O O O O 0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . Problem . . . . . School Socialization . Theoretical Orientation RELEVANT LITERATURE . . . METHODOLOGY AND HYPOTHESES Contents of the Chapter Description of Samples Samples . . . . . Fowler High School (n = 215) Ovid-Elsie High School (n = St. Johns High School (n Williamston High School (n Grand Rapids Christian High School n = 162) . . . . Grand Rapids Citizens (n Instrumentation . . . Procedures . . . . Independent and Dependent Variables Statement of Hypotheses Summary . . . . . iv 180) = 205) 227) = 71) Page ii iii vi xii H \DUIN Chapter Page IV. ANAIJYSIS O O O O O O O O I O O O O 66 Contents of the Chapter . . . . . . . 66 Part I--Descriptive Analysis . . . . . 66 Part II . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Part II-A: Relationship Between Students and Teachers . . . . . . . 94 Part II-B: Relationship Between Students and "Grand Rapids Citizens" . . l19 Part III--Relationship Between Knowledgeability and Social Variables . . . . . . . . . 130 Recent Results from a Related Study . . . 149 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . 150 Limitations, Contributions, - Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . 155 BIBLIOGRAPIIY . O O O O O O C O O O O O O O 167 APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 181 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Summary of the Relationship Between Social Variables and Knowledgeability for the 1972 Research . . . . . . . . . . . 57 2. Sex of Students in Each High School, by Number and Percentage . . . . . . . . 67 3. Students' Plans for Attending College in Each High School, by Number and Percentage . . . 68 4. Reported Education of Fathers of Students in Each High School, by Number and Percentage . 7O 5. Reported Education of Mothers of Students in Each High School, by Number and Percentage . 72 6. Reported Parental Education in Each High School, by Percentage . . . . . . . . 74 7. Reported Occupation of Fathers of Students in Each High School, by Number and Percentage . 75 8. Distribution of Grade Point Average of Students for Each High School, by Number and Percentage . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 9. Community Type of Students While "Growing Up" for Each High School, by Number and Percentage . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 10. Community Size of Students While "Growing Up" for Each High School, by Number and Percentage . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 11" Reported Experience with Mental Health Problems for Each High School, by Number and Percentage . . . . . . . . 81 vi Table 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 18A. 19. 19A. 20. 20A. Reported Experience with Friends' Mbntal Disorder for Each High School, by Number and Percentage . . . . . . . Reported Experience with Family's Mental Disorder for Each High School, by Number and Percentage . . . . . . . Reported Visitation Experience with Mental Disorder for Each High School, by Number and Percentage . . . . . . . Combined Experience with Mental Health Problems for Each High School, by Number and Percentage . . . . . . . Reported Employment of Mothers of Students in Each High School, by Number and Percentage Mental Health Opinion Statements . . . . Comparison of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Statements for Students and Teachers (Fowler High School, n = 215) . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of Student Mean Responses Closest to Teacher Mean Responses, by Class Level (Fowler High School, n = 215) . . . . . Comparison of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Statements for Students and Teachers (Ovid-Elsie High School, n = 177) . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of Mean Responses Closest to Teacher Mean Responses, by Class Level (Ovid-' Elsie High School, n = 177) . . . . . Comparison of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Items for Students and Teachers (St. Johns High School, n = 205) . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of Student Mean Responses Closest to Teacher Mean Responses, by Class Level (St. Johns High School, n = 205) . . . . vii Page 83 86 88 89 91 94 97 100 101 104 105 108 Table Page 21. Comparisons of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Items for Students and Teachers (Williamston High School, n = 225) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 21A. Number of Mean Responses Closest to Teacher Mean Responses, by Class Level (William- ston High School, n = 225) . . . . . . . 112 22. Comparison of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Items for Students and Teachers (Grand Rapids Christian High School, n = 160) . . . . . . . . . . 113 22A. Number of Mean Responses Closest to Teacher Mean Responses, by Class Level (Grand Rapids Christian High School, n = 160) . . . 116 23. Summary: Number of Mental Health Opinion Statement Means Closest to Teacher Means, by School and Class Level . . . . . . - 117 24. Summary: Number of Statements with Means Significantly Different with p s .05, by t-test O O O O O O O O O O O O 118 25. Comparison of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Items for Students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (Fowler High School, n = 215) . . . . . . . . 119 26. Comparison of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Items for Students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (Ovid- Elsie High School, n = 177) . . . . . . 121 27. Comparison of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Items for Students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (St. Johns High School, n = 205) . . . . . . . . 123 28. Comparison of Mean Responses for 35 Mental Opinion Items for Students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (Williamston High School, n = 225) . . . . . . . . 125 29. Comparison of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Items for Students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (Grand Rapids Christian High School, n = 160) . . . 127 viii Table Page 30. Number of Mental Health Statement Means Closest to the Mean Responses of the "Grand Rapids Citizens," by Class Level and School . . . . . . . . . . 130 31. Relationship Between Knowledgeability and Year in School . . . . . . . . . . 131 32. Probability Value, t-tests of Differences Between Means for Each Class in Each SChOOl O O O O O O O O O O O O O 132 33. The Relationship Between Knowledgeability and sex 0 O O O O O O O O O I O O 134 34. Relationship Between Knowledgeability and Grade Point Average (GPA) . . . . . . . 135 35. Relationship Between Knowledgeability and College Plans . . . . . . . . . . . 137 36. Relationship Between Knowledgeability and Education of Father . . . . . . . . . 138 37. Probability Value, t-tests of Differences Between Means for Each Class in Each SChOOl O O O O I O O O O O O O O 138 38. Relationship Between Knowledgeability and . Education of Mother . . . . . . . . . 139 39. Probability Value, t-tests of Differences Between Means for Each Class in Each SChOOl I O O O O O O O I O O O O 139 40. Relationship Between Knowledgeability and Occupation of Father . . . . . . . . . 141 41. A Probability Value, t-tests of Differences Between Means for Each Class in Each School . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 42. Relationship Between Knowledgeability and Mental Health Experience . . . . . . . 144 43. Relationship Between Students and Teachers on Knowledgeability . . . . . . . . . 145 ix Table 44. E-60 E-7o F-l. F-Z. Summary of Results: Relationship Between Knowledgeability Score and Social Variables . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Knowledgeability Scores (Fowler High School Students) . . . . . Distribution of Knowledgeability Scores (Ovid-Elsie High School Students) . . . Distribution of Knowledgeability Scores (St. Johns High School Students) . . . . Distribution of Knowledgeability Scores (Williamston High School Students) . . . Distribution of Knowledgeability Scores (Grand Rapids Christian High School StudentS) O O O I O O I O O O 0 Combined Knowledgeability Scores for Each Class for All Schools (n = 977) . . . . Social Characteristics of Cities from which Samples were Chosen . . . . . . General Fund Expenditure Per Pupil by Function . . . . . . . . . . . . Selected Data for Michigan's 530 K-12 School Districts, Grouped by Membership for 1974-75 0 o o o o o o o o o o 0 General Fund Revenues Per Pupil by Source (530 DistrictS) O O O O I O O O 0 Michigan Public School Dropouts by County Dropout Rates by Group of School Districts Classified by Student Membership . . . . Location of High Schools Used in this Study by Michigan Counties . . . . . . . . Distribution of Social Characteristics of the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (n = 71) . . Listing of Civilian Occupations (Grand Rapids Citizens," n = 71) . . . . . . Page 146 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 197 198 199 200 204 205 206 208 Table 6-1. H'lo Page Item Means for Three High School Samples . . . 210 Student Means for Mental Health Opinion Items 0 O C O I O O O O O O O O O 212 Correlations of Means Among Eleven Samples on Mental Health Opinion Statements . . . . 214 xi LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix A. Mental Health Opinion Items . . . . . B. Demographic Data for High School Students C. Twenty Mental Health Opinion Items Used to Determine the Knowledgeability Score . D. Distribution of K-Scores for High School Students 0 O I O O O O O O O O E. City, School, County, and District Charac- teristics from which Samples were Chosen F. Distribution of Social Characteristics for the "Grand Rapids Citizens" and a Listing of Civilian Occupations . . . G. Mean Comparisons of Three High School Samples: Michigan High School Students (n = 989), Seattle High School Students (n = 728), and German High School Students (n = 522). . . . . . . . H. Student Mean Responses to Thirty-Five Mental Health Opinion Items . . . . I. Correlations of Means Among Eleven Samples on Mental Health Opinion Statements . . xii Page 181 185 187 189 195 206 210 212 214 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Recent decades have seen a pronounced increase in research interest in many sociological aspects of mental health and mental disorder. However, there has not been nearly as much relative research effort directed toward analysis of popular views of mental disorder. The amount of evidence showing change over past decades is small com- pared to the general assumption that it is true. There is not much available information in terms of content of mental health attitudes of high school students and how they differ when compared to experts. A considerable amount of information has been pub- lished concerning the attitudes and values of youth. Atti- tudes and values in general are not the concern of the present research. The primary focus of the present research is the development1 of opinions, values, and attitudes in the mental health domain from a sociological perspective. 1DevelOpment here does not refer to a longitudinal study of high school students, but refers to a study of high school students at different stages of an assumed process. The present study is not focused on the psychological behavior of youth, but on the social phenomena of a body of Opinions in society. The present study is not concerned with psychological functioning Of individuals which is related to individual adjustment. This research is concerned with the mental health attitudes and Opinions of high school students. Previous research studies have been primarily concerned with the attitudes of the general public; however, very little data are available concerning the development of mental health attitudes and Opinions of high school students. Problem The present study is concerned with exploring the development of attitudes and opinions of high school students concerning psychologically disordered behavior. Despite the very great amount of research in recent years on people of high school age by educators, psycholo- gists, sociologists, and others, there appears to have been little research effort devoted to the question of how this significant aspect of a person's totality of attitudes develops. The present study is designed to explore the develOp- ment of mental health attitudes of high school students and to show how these attitudes differ from those held by older persons. Prior to high school it seems reasonable to assume that these attitudes and opinions were influenced by the family, peer group, mass media, and the neighborhood in which the student resided. The high school years introduce the student to a new set Of socializing agents. These years are important in helping students to develop a perspective of the larger world and their relationship to it. The influ- ence of the teacher may be an important factor during the high school years in shaping the attitudes of students con- cerning various ideas, images, and stereotypes, including those having to do with mental health. Previous mental health research studies show sur- prisingly little change over time in popular trends concern- ing attitudes about mental health concepts. Some studies show slight tendencies toward relationships between attitudes about mental health concepts and specific socio-cultural variables. Generally, sociologists assume distinct relation- ships between most attitudes and socio-cultural variables; this may not hold true regarding mental health concepts, or the relationships may be much weaker in this domain. The high school years of students are considered a transitional period. Prior to high school, it seems reason- able to posit that the main lines of develOpment of their Opinions and attitudes are formed within the family, peer groups, neighborhoOd, and that the high school years are the Opening-up years--years of expansion, growth, and preparation for the adult life. Therefore, research on how these processes take place is important. Actually, this "model" probably applies across the board to all areas of psychological and sociological development Of high school youth, but I am concerned only with the mental health domain. Previous research by Nunnally (1961) and by Olmsted-Smith (1972) and by Olmsted—Durham (1972) indicates that adult mental health attitudes are not sharply different among peOple in various sectors of the societal structure. For example, mental health attitudes are apparently not strongly related to characteristics such as age, sex, educa- tion, and occupational level. If this is so, it is no doubt contrary to the assumptions of most sociologists concerning these relationships. In addition, if this is so, the struc- ture and processes associated with mental health attitudes may be quite different from those in such areas as politics and economics. Evidence from Nunnally also suggests that “high schOol students' attitudes regarding mental health are quite distinctive from prevailing adult attitudes. There is very little available information about this in the research literature. It would be highly desirable to determine whether Nunnally's evidence is an anomaly, or whether high school students' attitudes are indeed as different as his data suggest. In either case, there does not appear to be much information available in psychological, sociological, or educational research concerning the ways in which high school students' mental health attitudes develop during this critical period. School Socialization Socialization is a process by which children learn the ways of their society and the process by which various agencies or social institutions--the family, the school, mass media, the peer group, and others--teach the child and gradually mold him into a group member. The school Operates in conjunction with other social institutions in carrying out its socializing functions. One of the many functions of the school is to culti- vate socially approved attitudes and modes of behavior for learning to be an accepted member of the adult society. The school provides the student with attitudes toward various things as well as knowledge about them. Barry Sugarman notes that as students learn about the structure of the physical world, they also acquire different attitudes about the "facts" they are learning. Similarly, as they learn about the struc- ture of the social order and the existence of authority positions and status differences, they unavoidably develop attitudes of respect or disrespect for those who occupy these positions. During the school years, Sugarman adds that attitudes are being developed toward teachers, toward authority, toward adults in general. Attitudes toward peers, which had been developing before entering school and which continued to develop to some extent independently of school, are also affected by the pupil's experience with fellow—pupils. Attitudes towards the self are being molded in the student by early experiences, including those met in school. Atti- tudes concerning one's likeability, competence and basic worth will be of importance to his or her long-term develop- ment.2 I contend that mental health attitudes are not formed independently Of general attitudes about the social world. Due to the universal nature of education, the schools inform and shape popular attitudes about mental health. In a research study by Bentz, Edgerton, and Miller it was stressed that the school is represented by the teacher. The teacher plays an instrumental role in the socialization of children, influencing their cognitive and emotional development. Bentz, Edgerton, and Miller assert that the teachers are culture carriers. The teacher's attitudes and behavior concerning what is a behavior problem or mental illness are transmitted to the student which influences his beliefs and views of his social world.3 According to Wilson, Robeck, and Michael, attitudes are learned, although the school has avoided paying syste- matic attention to the attitudes it is continuously teaching. In the View of most parents, the function of the school is 2Barry Sugarman, Schools and Moral Development (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1973). 3W. K. Bentz, J. W. Edgerton, and F. T. Miller, ”Perceptions of Mental Illness Among Public School Teachers," Sociology of Education, 42 (1969). to teach certain subject-matter content or certain skills. The teachers have accepted this role expectation assigned to them by the community. Although little or no time or thought was supposed to be given to teaching attitudes, the eventual emergence Of young peOple with the "wrong" atti- tudes was and still is deplored. Teachers have been blamed for not having developed the "right" attitudes in their students, at the same time that any attention to the foster- ing of specific kinds of attitudes was being systematically attacked.4 Previous research in the area of school socialization as summarized in the presently proposed study has emphasized primarily the role of the teacher in the socialization of the student. Havighurst, Neugarten, and Falk analyze the school glass as a social system and relate its structure to the primary functions in the society as an agency of sociali- zation. The authors were primarily concerned with two major questions: (1) how the school class functions to internalize in its pupils both the commitments and capacities for successful performance of their future adult roles; (2) how the school class functions to allocate these resources within the role structure of the adult society. 4John A. Wilson, Mildred C. Robeck, and William B. Michael, Psychological Foundations of Learning and Teaching (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1969). The school class is viewed as an agency of social- ization. It is an agency through which individual personalities are trained to be motivationally and tech- nically adequate to the performance of adult roles. The school is not the only socializing agency; the family, informal "peer groups," churches, voluntary organizations all play a part. However, the period extending from entry into first grade until completion of high school, the school class is considered the focal socializing agency. The socializing function may be summed up as the development of individuals to the commitments and capacities which are essential prerequisites of their future role- performance. The authors note that commitments may be broken down into two components: (1) commitment to the implementation of the wider values of society; (2) commit- ment to the performance of a specific type of role within the structure of society. Capacities may be broken down into two components. The first being competence or the skill to perform the tasks involved in the individualls roles, and the second being "role-responsibility" or the capacity to live up to others' expectations of the interpersonal behavior appropriate to these roles. The authors further assert that while on the one hand, the school class may be regarded as a primary agency by which these different components of commitments and capacities are generated; on the other hand, it is, from the point of view of society, an agency of "manpower" allocation. Havighurst, Neugarten, and Falk conclude that the educational system has played an increasingly vital role in the processes of the American society. The school is considered by them to be a specialized agency which has increasingly become the principal channel Of occupational selection as well as an agency Of socialization.5 This viewpoint has of course been challenged by other analysts Of American society. Theoretical Orientation Reactions to deviant behavior is learned in early childhood and reinforced in later life. Attitudes and Opinions about mental disorder are learned through various means of socialization. Attitudes and Opinions concerning various phenomena are probably somewhat latent in early childhood experiences and become more developed and pronounced during the high school age years. For this reason, the school was chosen because of its accessibility for gathering these kinds of attitudes. Scheff,6 in his discussion of the role of the mentally ill, proposes that "stereotyped imagery of mental disorder is learned in early childhood." He concludes that ¥ 5Robert J. Havighurst, Bernice L. Neugarten, and Jacqueline M. Falk, Society_and Education: A Book of .Bgadings (Boston, Mass., 1971), pp. 65-143. 6Thomas J. Scheff, "The Role of the Mentally Ill gnd the Dynamics of Mental Disorder: A Research Framework," In Studies in the Sociology of Deviance by Stephan P. SPitzer and Norman K. Denzin (New York: McGraw-Hill Pub- lishing Co., 1968), PP. 8-21. 10 children learn a great deal of imagery concerning deviance very early, and much of the imagery comes from their peer group rather than from adults. He goes on to say that the literal meaning of the concept "crazy," used today in a wide variety of contexts, is probably grasped by children during the first years of elementary school. Scheff adds, however, that these conclusions are only speculative and need further investigation. Scheff poses the question of what effect does early learning have on the shared concep- tions of insanity held in the Community? A considerable amount of the material that is learned in early childhood is discarded when more appropriate information replaces it. Scheff's writing further emphasizes the notion that "the stereotypes Of insantiy are continually reinforced, inadvertently, in ordinary social interaction." Even after many adults have become acquainted with medical concepts of mental illness, the learned traditional stereotypes are not discarded, but continue to exist along with the medical con- ceptions. These stereotypes persist, says Scheff, because they receive continual support from the mass media and in ordinary social discourse. Newspapers and television emphasize mental disorder in a negative perspective and seldom give positive reports. In newspapers, it is a common practice to mention that a rapist or a murderer was once a mental patient. Because of the highly biased reporting, the reader is free to make the unwarranted inference that murder and rape occur 11 more frequently among ex—mental patients than among the population at large.7 Support and reaffirmation of the stereotype of mental dis- order occur not only in the mass media, asserts Scheff, but also is daily conversation through jokes and conventional phrases. Such phrases are "you are crazy," "it's driving me nuts." These phrases have become very useful parts of one's interaction. Through verbal usages the stereotypes of mental disorder are ingrained in the social structure. Stereotyping of mental disorder occurs early in one's childhood experiences and becomes reinforced as one inter- acts more meaningfully with various social structures. However, along with incorrect or stereotypic notions of mental disorder the student also learns the "correct" or medical conceptions of mental disorder. Scheff notes that the "correct" conceptions of mental disorder become more dominant with social maturity. Conceptions of mental illness are ingrained in the population because they are learned in early childhood and are continuously reinforced in the mass media, school, and daily interaction. Scheff8 asserts that pOpular stereotypes of mental disorders are primary determinants of symptomatology. Based 7Ibid., p. 16. 8Thomas J. Scheff, Being Mentally Ill: A Sociolggical_Theory (Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., I966): PP- 55‘101. 12 on Scheff's theory before and after public labeling, the popular conceptions of mental illness, learned and culturally reinforced after childhood govern the expectations of the rule-breaker. And of those around him and force his behavior into conformity with popular conceptions. The ultimate products of this process are the stereotyped roles of insanity. Scheff's theory proposes that a culture's conceptions of mental illness determines the process of defining someone as mentally ill. Scheff's theory of the develOpment of conceptions concerning mental disorders may be summarized as follows: Due to diverse causes (psychological, biolo- gical, sociological), various peOple will occasionally break societal rules. The identity of the rule breaker, the rule broken, the social context, the rule breaker may be publicly labeled as being 'mentally ill.‘ During this process--before and after public labeling the popular conceptions of mental illness, which have been learned and culturally reinforced since childhood, govern the expectations of the rule breaker and of those around him and force his behavior into ever-increasing conformity with the popular conceptions. The ultimate products of this process are the stereotyped roles of insanity.9 Two aspects of the theoretical position of Scheff and others can be distinguished: (a) the "labeling" aspect-- i.e., the process through which certain persons are "tagged" as being mentally ill or crazy; (b) the "societal reaction" aspect--i.e., the conventionalized ways that peOple respond 91bid. 13 to those who are socially defined as mentally ill or disordered. In this dissertation, our concern is primarily with the societal reaction aspect and in particular we are interested in learning more about the pOpular Opinions and attitudes which underlie the societal reaction. Of even ,greater interest, the data on high school students analyzed herein is seen as an effort to begin to trace the procedures of socialization into the adult belief systems (organized attitudes and Opinions) regarding mental health and mental disorder. CHAPTER II RELEVANT LITERATURE Perhaps, the most extensive research in the area of the public's attitude and opinion about mental health con- cepts is that of Nunnally (1961). Nunnally was interested in knowledge and feelings of the general public about mental illness and treatment. A sample of 400 respondents was designed to be nationally representative with respect to sex, age, education, income, and religion. Public knowledge was determined by using the means of 180 opinion statements answered by the respondents on a seven-point scale ranging from agree-disagree.1 In addition to knowledge, Nunnally also assessed attitudes about mental illness by use of semantic differ- ential scales including concepts referring to psychiatrists and mental patients. Nunnally found that "the mentally ill are regarded . "2 with fear, distrust, and dislike by the general public. lJum C. Nunnally, Popular Conceptions of Mental Health (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961). 21bid., p. 46. 14 15 He reported that the stigma associated with mental illness was found to be general, both across social groups and across attitude indicators, with little relation to demo- graphic variables such as age and education. "Old peOple and young people, highly educated people and people with little formal training regard the mentally ill as relatively dangerous, dirty, unpredictable, and worthless."3 Nunnally concluded that these negative attitudes were not held because of existing information or misinformation about mental illness by the public, but instead, because of "lack" of information. In an extensive study of social class and mental illness in New Haven, Hollingshed and Redlich4 investigated attitudes toward psychiatry and treatment for mental illness expressed by families of patients and by a stratified sample of the general public. Higher social status was found to be associated with more knowledge about psychiatrists and psychiatric treatment, greater willingness to seek such help, and greater competence in arranging for it. Lower social status was found related to lack of information, resistance, and sometimes Open antagonism to psychiatric prevention. It was found that members of the lower social class seldom sought psychiatric help for themselves or relatives. 3Ibid., p. 51. 4August B. Hollingshed and Frederick C. Redlich, §9cia1 Class ang Mental Illness (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1958. 16 Finally, it was found that the lower the class, the more likely that mental illness was seen as a feared somatic disease. Crocetti, Lemkau,5 and others conducted studies in the 19603 that were concerned with the public's attitude . and attitude change. Their 1960 Baltimore sample was statified for education, income, race, and age. The find- ings showed that responses to a questionnaire were interpreted as revealing "optimistic" attitudes concerning advanced knowledge about mental health concepts. The Lemkau-Crocetti 1960 Baltimore study was repli- cated by Meyer6 in another Maryland community of 6,000. Identical measures were used in addition to items about information and Opinions held by the public. Meyer's results were not different from the Lemkau-Crocetti study and he concluded also that the public has developed greater tolerance toward mental illness than had been found by previous studies. A study by Bentz and Edgerton7 compared attitudes of 1,400 "general public" respondents with the attitudes of 5G. Crocetti and P. Lemkau, "Public Opinion of Psy- chiatric Home Care in an Urban Area," American Journal of Public Health, 53 (1963), 409—17. 6J. Meyer, "Attitudes Toward Mental Illness in a Maryland Community," Public Health Repgrts, 79 (1964), 769-72. 7Kenneth Bentz and Wilbert Edgerton, "Consensus and Opinions Toward Mental Illness: Between Leaders and the General Public in a Rural Community," Archives of General Psychiatry, 22 (5) (1970), 468. 17 community leaders in the same geographical area, using a 157-item questionnaire. The two groups reflected similar attitudes about mental illness. The results of the study demonstrated that there was agreement between the two groups that mental patients can be helped and that “a lot can be done to prevent mental illness." It was concluded that the respondents had more favorable attitudes than had been demonstrated by earlier studies. Although various studies (cited previously) have demonstrated enlightened attitudes and opinions about the mentally ill, others have demonstrated less optimism about attitude change and public tolerance of the mentally ill. Sarbin and Mancuso8 in their 1972 study found that when people encounter any form of mental illness, they respond with a certain degree of fear and aversion that have traditionally been the major attitude for the American society. The Joint Commission of Mental Illness and Health reported a general rejection by society of the mentally ill. The report also cited "a major lack of recognition of mental illness as illness and a predominant tendency 8Theodore R. Sarbin and James C. Mancuso, "Paradigms and Moral Judgments: Improper Conduct is Not Disease," Journal Of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 39 (1) (1972), 6-8. 18 toward rejection of both the mental patient and those who treat them."9 Studies by Phillips,10 using social distance measures, demonstrate that deviant behavior labeled mental illness continues to be avoided and rejected by a majority of people. In his 1967 study, Phillips11 contends that the improved ability of the public to assign the label of mental illness to deviant behavior was associated with rejection of the peOple so labeled and was not considered an improvement. Using three of the "Shirley Star" descrip- tions of disturbed behavior, Phillips concluded that the ability to correctly identify behavior as mental illness is associated with rejection. Research studies show that various social character- istics influence the kinds of attitudes held by the general public. Whereas, various findings of these studies are consistent, others seem to be conflicting. Among the characteristics investigated are education, age, occupation, social class, and experience with mental illness. The general conclusion of these studies reveals that there is a 9"Joint Commission of Mental Illness and Health," eds., Action for Mental Health (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1961). 10D. L. Phillips, "Rejection: A Possible Consequence Of Seeking Help for Mental Disorders," The American Socio- lpgical Review, 28 (1963), 963-72. 11D. L. Phillips, "Identification of Mental Illness: Its Consequences for Rejection," Community_Mental Health Journal, 3 (1967), 262-66. 19 strong relationship between age and education concerning the degree of prejudice and rejection of the mentally .12'13 Further, the studies concluded that the older ill the individual, the more unsympathetic, intolerant, reject— ing, and distant are his attitudes about the mentally ill. Freeman Observed that possibly other socializing agents apart from formal education have had differential effects on the young and Old with respect to mental health attitudes. A study which Obtained data casting doubt on the foregoing relationships between mental health attitudes and 14 This social characteristics was conducted by Smith. study found that relationships between mental health atti- tudes and certain social characteristics were very weak and Often not statistically significant. Conflicting views in this area thus suggest the need for further research into the relationship between social variables and attitudes about mental health concepts. 12Josephine A. Bates, "Attitudes Toward Mental Ill- ness," Mental Hygiene, LII (1968), 250-53. 13H. B. Freeman, "Attitudes Toward Mental Illness Among Relatives of Former Patients," American Sociological Review, XXVI (1961), 56-66. 14Dorothy L. Smith, "College Students' Knowledge— ability and Opinions About Mental Health in 1962 and 1971" (unpublished M.A. Thesis, Sociology Department, Michigan State University, 1972). 20 A concluding note on the status of public attitudes toward mental illness suggested by Halpert15 is that the public seems to be better informed and disposed toward mental patients than it has been; however, a large percen- tage of the population continues to be repelled by mental illness. The Star studies16 suggest that recognition of the mentally ill is increasing; however, this recognition alone does not indicate more "enlightened" attitudes of mental health. In viewing the future of mental health in the com- 17 munity, Felix has devised a model encompassing several major areas of essential service to be included in a compre- hensive community mental health program--these areas may be seen as follows: --One area will be concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of mental and emotional disorders. 15H. P. Halpert, "Public Acceptance Of the Mentally Ill: An Explanation of Attitudes," reprint based on a paper presented at the 7th International Congress of Mental Health, London, August 12-17, 1968. 16Shirley A. Star, "The National Research Center Study," in Psychiatry, The Press, and The Public: Problems in Communicatign_(Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric ASSOCIation, 1956). See also, Shirley A. Star, "The Public's Ideas About Mental Illness," a paper presented at the annual meeting Of the National Association of Mental Health, Indianapolis, Indiana, November 1955. 17Robert Felix, Mental Illness: Progresgand Pros: ects (New York: Columbia University Press, 1967): pp. 83- 21 -—A second essential area of tomorrow's comprehensive mental health program will be the provision of con- sultant services to schools, courts, public, and private health and welfare agencies, and other gate- keepers of the community. --A third essential component will be public educa- tion. This includes public information and education programs which utilize the mass media as well as educational activities conducted in smaller groups. --A fourth component of a mental health program must be community research--research to find answers to those problems that are at the root of mental and emotional disorders, and to try out and evalute the effectiveness of new or unique mental health programs designed to meet the needs of the community. --A fifth essential component of a comprehensive com- munity mental health program will involve efforts to prevent mental illnesses. Prevention of mental illnesses implies not only the reduction of those factors which tend to produce mental and emotional disturbances, but also the provision of a climate in which each citizen has Optimum opportunity for sus— tained creativity and responsible participation in the life of the community, and for the development of his particular potentialities as a human being. 22 The develOpment of several new concepts has helped to point up the importance of energetic and interlocking community activity in order to promote mental health in the broadest possible sense. Definitions of what constitutes mental illness hinges in part on a culturally molded frame of reference. Tyhurst notes that once a set of behaviors has been cate- gorized as illness, there remain the most important ques- tions of comprehending the development of the ill state and taking steps to alleviate disordered patterns.18 Tyhurst asserts that mental disorder is a major problem of contemporary society and is likely to become even more critical in the future, regardless of the actual percentage of the population which becomes ill. The central question of the relationship between social variables and mental disorder has been a noteworthy consideration in mental health research. Three social variables were important in research by Tyhurst: rural living, urban living, and the significance of socioeconomic variables. A body of Opinion on urbanization as a basic variable in the etiology of mental illness has been summed up in the following paragraph: J. S. Tyhurst, "Paranoid Patterns," in Explora- tions in Social Psychiatry, A. H. Leighton, J. A. Clausen, ana R. Williamson (New York: Basic Books, 1957), p. 9. 23 The higher urban than rural rates of first admissions to mental hospitals challenges the attention of sociologists concerned with charting the impact of urbanization on our social life . . . . Despite the fact that rural and urban 'worlds' are merging, and that rural society presents wide variations, it can still be said that rural life partakes more of the characteristics of the familistic Gemeinschaft, and urban life Of the contractual Gesellschaft. This over-all comparison yields the following special hypotheses: the greater the precision and stability in social roles in rural society, less marked status- striving, more intimate and personal forms of authority, the greater security of primary groups ties, the specification of norms for all life situations, the relative homogeneity of the rural pOpulation which reduced the risk of value conflict, and the greater integration of religious groups, occupational groups etc.--which helps a person in unifying his roles.i However, the Tyhurst research does ngt_support the idea that urban living is more conducive to mental illness than rural living. Urban hospitalization rates were not found to be consistently higher than rural rates in different parts of the United States. It was Observed that the type of city and its relation to the countryside is more impor- tant to mental illness rates than the fact that it is a city. Although the studies of socioeconomic status and mental illness are not strictly comparable (some employ occupation, some income, some neighborhood or style of house as their criterion, depending upon the data available), the general trend seems to be consistent enough to be meaningful. It is reported by Tyhurst that rates of all illness increase 19Ibid., p. 311. 24 as one goes down the socioeconomic scale. Rates for schizo— phrenia, like rates for all mental illness, go up in situations associated with situational stress-—lower socio— economic status, living in disorganized urban areas--whereas rates for the manic depressive psychoses remain more constant and are relatively higher than rates for schizOphrenia in the upper socioeconomic strata and to some extent in rural areas. Tyhurst further notes that even where a correlation between higher rates for mental illness and a sociologically defined group can be established, it does not tell us much about etiological factors involved. For this reason, community oriented research is necessarily the most fruitful field for studying the relationship between social environ- ment and mental illness. It allows for the use of both broad epidemiological techniques and intensive depth inter- viewing of selected cases and Offers the possibility of evaluating findings against the background of a definable context. I The impact of mental illness extends beyond the jpeople who are ill. Such individuals interact with others and affect them in varying degrees. The nature and impor- ‘tance of the role played by the person who becomes mentally disordered affects the extent to which the illness is dis- ruptive to others. Probably all societies have experienced mental dis— Order in some form. However, it has been viewed by different 25 cultures in different ways. The naturalistic conception of these disorders, implied in the terms we use and which per- meates our thinking today, is a product of a long develop- ment. In addition to the mental health professionals, popular attitudes and practices exist which play a major part in the total social response to mental illness. Popular attitudes help to define who is a case in two ways: self-definition and social discription.20 We know that many individuals feel that they are mentally disturbed though they are not so considered by their inti- mate associates; conversely, persons have been regarded as "crazy" and "queer," though they do not share this view themselves. What relationship do each of these processes of definition bear to psychiatric and legal conceptions? Are the same kinds of symptoms and behavior defined as mental illness in all parts of the population? Are distinctions made Of types of illness which parallel the professional classifications? What causal and prognostic implications are imputed to these conceptions? Important changes have occurred in the interest, knowledge, attitudes, and practices with respect to mental .illness in the past two decades. The upsurge in interest 2°Ibid., p. 312. 26 is manifest in the popularity of psychological themes in the mass media, in the marketability of literature dispensing psychological advice on a wide variety of matters. It is reported that there is little knowledge about how this interest and knowledge is distributed through the population and the salience of the expressed interest. To what extent has this increase in currency of psychiatric concepts been accompanied by a shift in attitudes toward mental illness? The strong stigma attached to mental illness appears to have persisted for a vast majority of people. What are the sources Of this stigma and what effects the recent educational campaigns conducted by public agencies and voluntary lay mental health associations having on public attitudes. Perhaps mental health professionals differ consid- erably in viewing mental illness primarily as a disease, as a disturbance in the functioning Of the personality, or as a problem in living. Although these views overlap, emphasis may be put on one perspective or another. Those who view mental illness in disease terms are probably most likely to believe that constitutional factors are largely responsible for many disorders and that genetic and biological factors play an important if not prominent part in explaining the causes Of mental illness. Those who view mental illnesses as primarily disturbances of the personality conceive of such problems Of repertories of behavior and patterns of 27 feeling which have become deeply rooted as a result of the child's social development and which persist through time. Finally, some mental health professionals maintain that what is called "mental illness" results in no Specific sense from genetic or physical factors or from a deep-rooted psychological disorder. They argue rather that such diffi- culties are problems in living which develop because of confusion in communication, maintenance of particular social rules, and enforcement of certain moral standards. Such theorists maintain that persons are labeled mentally ill because they fail to conform to social standards either because of their own unique understandings and viewpoints or because Of their failure to develop certain social skills which others define as necessary. Some mental health professionals may view illness in terms of the failure of persons to adjust adequately to their social surroundings or to fit into a recognized social ,group. They frequently assume that such adjustment failures result from certain biological or psychological deficiencies in the person. The basic assumption that failure to con- form implies disorder leads some mental health professionals to regard all deviants as sick, and they attempt to explain such behavior by seeking its psychological or biological roots. In applying a psychiatric viewpoint of deviance in general, we Often fail to appreciate the extent to which non-conforming behavior is a consequence Of learning 28 processes whereby persons within particular subgroups and social settings normally develop attitudes, values, and behavior patterns which are illegal or disapproved of within the larger society. With so many conflicting views of mental illness, the conditions so labeled vary widely in character. For example, the lack of correspondence in the public‘s attitude toward physical and mental illness stems in part from the common tendency to equate all mental illness with acute psychoses. A large prOportion of the population conceives of the mental patient as being "crazy," and do not ordinarily think of the depressed person or the highly anxious or the withdrawn person as suffering from a psychiatric condition. The range of factors discussed in relation to the various responses to symptoms, fall into several categories according to Mechanic:2l 4-The visibility, recognizability, or perceptual salience of deviant signs and symptoms. --The extent to which the person perceives the symp- toms as serious (that is, the person's estimate of the present and future probabilities of danger). --The extent to which symptoms disrupt work, and other social activities. --The frequency of the appearance of deviant signs or symptoms, or their persistence. --The tolerance threshold at those who are exposed to and evaluate the deviant signs and symptoms. 210. Mechanic, Medical Sociology: A Selective Review (New York: The Free Press, 1968), pp. 73-75. 29 --The information available to the knowledge of, and the cultural assumptions and understanding of the evaluator. --The degree to which autistic psychological processes (i.e. perceptual processes that distort reality) are present. --The presence of needs that conflict with the recog- nition of illness or the assumption of the sick role. --The possibility that competing interpretations can be assigned to the symptoms once they are recognized. -—The availability of treatment resources, their physical proximity and the psychological and monetary costs of taking action--costs Of time, money, and effort as well as stigmatization. The extent to which mental illness is seen to exist. depends on the perspectives taken and the criteria used to identify its presence. It is noted that if mental illness is viewed as the presence of a clearly established disabling condition, then the estimate of its occurrence is conserva- tive. However, it is further noted that, if mental illness is also defined as the presence of psychosomatic conditions, anxiety, or any of a wide variety of problems in living, then we can characterize a large prOportion of the popula— tion as having some form of mental illness. Mechanic has grouped together factors affecting the recognition and the definition of both psychiatric and non- psychiatric disorders since we know that mental patients are often brought into care through different pathways from those followed by peOple who suffer from general medical conditions. Many psychiatric conditions are defined not by the person himself but by others in the community who note the 30 person'a bizarre behavior or failure to meet expected standards. Such labeling Of a particular person as mentally ill depends on various contingencies. In addition to the influences of different personal and social factors, the character of the symptoms themselves exert a considerable effect on whether a person is defined as mentally ill. Although the public's conception of mental illness has been changing to some extent;22 there seems to be reluc- tance to define a relative or friend as mentally ill and a strong tendency to normalize and to deny symptoms that become apparent. Scheff23 notes that popular conceptions of mental illness are often over—simplified to the point where it is difficult to communicate the importance of careful theore- tical formulations. The stereotype of mental illness as being virtually equivalent to the grossest and wildest insanity is still a significant component of public opinion even though the SOphistication of the public, at least in verbal expression, has probably been increasing. Nunnally24 notes that the mass media plays an impor- tant role in educating the public about mental health '22Ibid., p. 74. 23Thomas J. Scheff, Mental Illness and Sgcial Processes (New York: Harper—and Row, 1967), p. 3. 24Jum Nunnally, "Public Attitudes Toward Mental Health Professionals," American Psyphologist, Vol. 13, no. 10 (1958), 48. 31 concepts. He adds that the mass media of communication are commonly thought to exert a powerful influence on what the general public feels and believes. Nunnally studied mental health phenomena in the mass media and the impact of the media on public Opinion. Nunnally25 notes that a certain amount of informa- tion can be gathered from television and the daily newspapers concerning mental health. As a result, Nunnally has formu- lated two important propositions: Proposition I: Information concerning mental illness appears relatively infrequently in mass media presentations. It is noted that this proposition contradicts the assertion of the prevalence of mental health presentations in the mass media. Proposition II: The media Of mass communication generally present a distorted picture of mental health problems. Nunnally"26 further notes that although some mass— media presentations, eSpecially that specifically designed to convey information about mental health, provide a valid picture of mental illness, the number of such programs is very small in comparison to those which incidentally portray mental illness in a misleading light. Perhaps, an individual is more likely to see some aspect of neurotic 251bid., p. 57. 261bid., p. 60. II Iv1|.1l ‘1: ll .‘H‘l. . III. I I Ill-I.|I -Iul H; ' I'LIII. 'nfluu '- 32 behavior portrayed on television in an evening drama program than in a public—information program. It is noted that, in general, the causes, symptoms, methods of treatment, progno— sis, and social effects of mental illness portrayed by the media are far removed from what the experts advocate. Soddy and Ahrenfeldt27 cite that popular attitudes toward psychiatry, mental disorder, and deviant behavior in general have not been adequately studied and analyzed. Soddy and Ahrenfeldt suggest that in the course of social evolution and as a result of generally available education, pOpular attitudes and prejudices in this field have been appreciably modified among relatively large sec- tions of the population. The view has been expressed that in the past twelve years, there has been a greater acceptance of ordinary people of the mentally ill and mental health services. These trends suggest a much greater readiness to accept mental ill- ness as an illness and not as something to be ashamed of. Up to now public concern for health, including mental health, has been mainly with disease, its treatment and prevention. 28 The Cummings have noted the awareness of ignorance and fear Of mental illness. They stress that ignorance and 27Kenneth Soddy and Robert H. Ahrenfeldt, Mental Health in a Changing_World (London: Tavistock Publications, 1965), p. 5 . 28E. Cumming and J. Cumming, Closed Ranks (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Press, 1957), p. XI. 33 fear are not merely the result Of the lack of information about mental illness, but are derived from and maintained by personal and community needs. In some cases the intensity of the feelings and functions underlying public attitudes toward mental illness is often overlooked by researchers. Workers in the mental health movement, for several decades, have engaged in a moral crusade to induce the general public to adopt the proposition that "mental illness is the same as any other illness.” Mental health profes- sionals have worked diligently to convince the public to look at certain behaviors as manifestations of "illness," ‘with.the expectation that the sympathetic, nonrejecting Valuations usually declared on physical illness would then be automatically declared on conduct deviations. A review of studies by Sarbin and Mancuso29 concluded that the public's attitude toward mental illness and mental health demonstrate that the moral enterprise of promoting th£3 "mental illness" metaphor has failed (Cumming & Cumming, 1957; Nunnally, 1961; Philips, 1963). Sarbin and Mancuso n0130?: that the general public has not been persuaded that illness is an appropriate metaphor for deviant behavior. In Spite of extensive public relations and propaganda pro- grams, the man in the streets is not ready to use the label ¥ 23Theodore Sarbin and James Mancuso, "Failure of a Mora1_ Enterprise: Attitudes of the Public Toward Mental Illness," Journal of Consulting and Clinical PsyCh010£Db 35 (2) (1970), 159. 34 "mentally ill" to categorize peOple whose behavior would lead a professional diagnosis to apply a psychiatric label. Sarbin and Mancuso note that the authors of books and articles on the public's attitudes toward mental illness are professional mental health workers--psychiatrists, psy- chologists, and social workers. These professionals are considered authorities who declare that the public is "mis- informed," and the the public holds ”incorrect attitudes," and that the public has not acquired a "scientific orienta- tion." In some cases "public psychotherapy" is recommended by public health informers in the form of better public education about mental illness. There is the further consideration of what should the public be taught about deviant behavior. A further question is, could a sustained, Powerful prOpaganda effort succeed in validating the mental illness metaphor, so that the label "mental illness" would Produce the same neutral (nonstigmatizing) valuational response as are called forth by the labels pneumonia, Cardiac failure, indigestion, etc.? A number of studies of the public toward mental j131-ness summarize evidence to support the validity of three major prOpositions: (l) the ordinary citizen is Willing to tolerate and to accomodate extensive behavior deviartions; (2) the public is hesitant about using the mental illness label for behavior deviations and usual soh‘tions to life's problems which psychiatrically oriented 35 diagnosers would unhesitatingly label mental illness; (3) if the semantic tag, mental illness, is attached to a particular behavior, the public will tend to reject and to advocate isolation of the person whose behaviors are thus labeled (Sarbin and Mancuso). Investigations have been initiated on the attitudes of the public toward mental illness and health. These studies have been conducted with the expressed purpose, implicitly or explicitly, of assessing the success of the continuing effort to have the public develop constructs ‘which place deviant behavior within the mental illness paradigm. An analysis of existing studies concerning the Inflblic's attitude toward mental illness seems to fall under iflrree different approaches. The first approach is concerned Wiiflh the technique of inquiring about mental illness. A Second approach is concerned with asking the general public amxout deviant behaviors (considered by professionals to be manifestations of mental illness). A third and final approach is concerned with exploring the public view of mental health and illness through inquiring about how peOple construe their happiness--assumed to effect their own mental health status. Nunnaly's30 1961 study of the general public's conception of mental illness and health provide a pattern \ . . 3oNunnally, POpular Conceptions . . ., 1961. 36 which has been used by different investigators. It is this pattern that will be utilized in the present study. Nunnally asked his respondents to indicate the extent of their agreement with a variety Of statements which purportedly described the nature of mental illness. His questionnaire included items such as the following: Women have no more emotional problems than men do; mental illness can usually be helped by a vacation or change in scene; the insane laugh more than normal people do; most suicides occur because of rejection in love; physical exhaustion does not lead to a nervous breakdown. Nunnally subjected his data to a factor analysis. Ten.factors emerged that represent a set of generalized «attitudes toward mental illness. They are described as follows: --The mentally ill are characterized by identifiable actions and appearances. —-Wi11-power is the basis of one's personal adjustment. --Women are more prone to mental ill health than are men. '--If one can avoid morbid thoughts he can avoid mental illness. '--If one can obtain support and guidance from stronger persons he can avoid mental illness. ‘"-One who is mentally ill is in a hopeless condition. ‘-Mental disorders are caused by immediate environmental pressures. “‘Emotional difficulties are not a matter of % great concern . 37 --Old peOple are more susceptible to mental illness. --Mental illness is attributable to organic factors.31 The average person, in contrast to professional mental health professionals, respond more in the direction of agreeing with these ten general statements, though it was found that the average person's responses to mental health items were not drastically different from the average expert's responses. Nunnally further found that persons of higher education tend to show more agreement with the mental health experts, this being the case when higher educated persons are more youthful. Bentz and Edgerton32 feel that people are develOping more positive attitudes toward mental illness, the mentally ill, mental health, and allied psychiatric professions, according to the findings in their recent study in rural South Carolina. Other recent attitude surveys also suggest that the public's ideas and perceptions of mental illness have been changing positively over the past few decades. Bentz and Edgerton feel that the community leader- ship is playing a major role in the changing of the public's attitude toward mental illness and the mentally ill. They feel that leaders, by virtue of their positions, exert a 3lIbid., p. 17. 32Bentz and Edgerton, p. 468. 38 tremendous influence on social norms, and should be con— sidered as playing an important part in the process of attitude formation and change. The general public seems to follow social standards established and articulated by the community's leaders. It is felt that the leaders, through their innovations and examples, do influence the attitudes of the general public toward mental illness. Bentz and Edgerton found that community leaders and the general public were very similar in their attitudes about mental illness. A majority of both groups agreed that it is the most serious health problem in the United States, that at least 10 percent of the peOple need treatment for some form of mental or emotional illness, that mental ill- ness takes many forms with varying degrees of severity, and that all persons afflicted with mental illness do not exhibit the same behavioral manifestations. The authors also found that was Optimism in both groups regarding treatment outcome: 82 percent of the public and 91 percent of the leaders believed something effective could be done for the mentally ill person. With reference to attitudes regarding the etiology of mental illness, Bentz and Edgerton reported that a lack of moral strength and character was thought to be one of the main causes of mental illness by only 17 percent Of the leader group, as compared with 51 percent of the general public. 39 Further, it was found that belief in the will to "avoid bad thoughts" as a deterrent to becoming mentally ill was subscribed to by only 7 percent of the leader group as compared with 37 percent of the general public. With reference to attitudes toward mental hospitals, Bentz and Edgerton report that the leaders and the general public showed optimistic attitudes toward the treatment function of mental hospitals. It was reported that 92 percent of the leaders and 86 percent of the public rejected the statement that "little can be done for patients in a mental hospital except to see that they are comfortable and well fed." In addition, 85 percent of the leaders and 73 percent of the public disagree with the notion that "few people who enter mental hospitals ever leave." The teacher-student attitudes are similar, in some respects, to the Bentz and Edgerton study. Teachers may be viewed as leaders in the sense that they are considered culture carriers. By virtue of their position teachers influence the formation of attitudes and Opinions of their students. The Bentz and Edgerton study reveals that the hOpe- lessness toward prevention and treatment, and the stigma attached to associated institutions and personnel, seem to have changed drastically with the accelerated educational programs of recent years. The study also showed that a considerable proportion of the general public ascribed the 40 etiology of mental illness to deficits in moral strength or heredity. Within the past decade a variety of studies have found the general public to be understanding and sympathetic toward mental illness and the mentally ill, although conclu- sions made by early investigators seem to run counter to the above assertion. Earlier studies by Shirley Star, Elaine and John Cumming, John Clausen, and Jum Nunnally, Jr. found that the general public viewed mental illness as the stereotype of deviant behavior, as being different from physical illness, isolates the mentally ill by denying personal contact with them, wants the mentally ill to be institutionalized punitively or custodially.33 In many cases subjects do not admit knowing people who are mentally ill. Spiro, Siassi, and Crocetti found that 63 percent of a pOpulation of subjects admitted knowing someOne who had been hospitalized for mental illness.34 In the same study, one percent of the population identified themselves as the hospitalized patient; one percent were a member of the immediate family, 12 percent, a relative, 14 percent, a close friend, and 25 percent, an acquaintance. 33Herzl Spiro, Iradj Siassi, and Guido Crocetti, "Who's Kidding Whom," Mental Hygiene, 56 (2) (1972), 37. 34Ibido I p. 370 41 Weinstein and Brill,35 evaluated patients' and normals' attitudes toward the causes of mental illness. The authors devised various categories in which responses with reference to etiological factors may be placed. Economic problems referred to poverty and material deprivation, and various occupational problems. Social problems involved a number of different items concerned with patient's environ- ment circumstances and behavioral problems--loneliness, anti-social behavior, and social stigmas. The category, social problems, was used for a wide variety of difficul— ties patients were having, being of personal or psychological nature. Some of the problems dealt with personal inade- quacies and character flaws while others dealt with problems with other peOple. The Weinstein and Brill study also showed that many of the patient samples were categorized under emptional symp- toms because they listed subjective feelings (fear, worries) and psychiatric symptoms such as depression and anxiety as causes of their mental illness. Family problems consisted of responses concerning family relationships and difficulties. Somatic disorders dealt with such items as epilepsy, mental illness in family, overwork and other physical problems. Traumatic events consisted of shock situations, such as divorce or separation, death of a loved one, etc. Religious '35Raymond Weinstein and Norman Brill, "Conceptions of Mental Illness by Patients and Normals," Mental Hygiene: 55 (l) (1971), 101-108. 42 problems comprised answers such as too much religious training, religious conflict in the family, etc. These categories and others consist of some of the possible etiological factors in mental illness. Data seem to show that patients do not conceptualize mental illness in the same manner as normals. In general studies show that normals tend to view hereditary and organic factors, environmental factors and personality or emotional factors as causes of mental disorders, whereas mental patients mainly stressed environmental problems, personality or emotional disorders, and interpersonal and behavioral difficulties. Some studies show that the public is more inclined than patients to regard mental illness as a quality "deeply ingrained" in the person, a consequence Of some inborn predisposition or other organic abnormality, and less likely to relate illness to psychological stress.36 The most important findings of the Weinstein and Brill study may be summarized as follows: --Comparison of a patient Sample with samples of normal persons regarding attitudes toward the etiology of mental disorders revealed a consis- tent pattern of differences. This consistency lead the authors to conclude that patients and normals largely conceptualize mental illness in different terms. 361bid., p. 106. 43 —-Despite the overall differences in perception, both patients and normals assigned major importance to environmental problems and personality and emotional disorders as causes of mental illness. --The most striking differences between patients and normal persons regarding the mentally ill lay in the degree to which hereditary and organic factors were believed to be responsible for mental disorder. --Patients and normals also differed in the impor- tance placed on interpersonal and behavioral difficulties. Patients visualized these problems as prime causes of their mental illness While normal persons did not assign too much weight to them. Hospitalized mental patients tend to view their illness as something which merely "happened" to them due to their environment and personal experiences or the result of "nervousness"--regarding it as a cause instead of a symptom. Weinstein and Brill note that patients may differcin their conceptualization of etiology from the general public for a variety of reasons. One important reason may be the fact that they have been institutionalized. Patients may begin with popular conceptions of the causes of mental disorder, but their institutional experiences may lead to new 44 37 perspectives. Goffman's idea of a "moral career" of the mental patient, whereby the hospitalization process leads to a transformation of identity, is congruent with this interpretation. ~37E. Goffman, Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation Of Mental Patients and Other Inmates (Garden City, New York: Double Day Anchor, 1961), pp. 125-69. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY AND HYPOTHESES Contents of the Chapter This section is concerned with the methodological procedures used in the study. First, this section presents a description of the samples used in the study; second, it gives a description of the instruments used for data collection; third, it presents an explanation of the depen- dent and independent variables; fourth, research hypotheses are presented; this section concludes with a summary. Description of Samples The description of samples presented here gives the general characteristics of schools and communities relative to the data presented in Part I Of the analysis. The characteristics Of high school samples represent school districts (Kindergarten through 12th grade) rather than the school itself. Data pertaining to each school were not available (see Appendix E for additional school and community characteristics). 45 46 The present study utilizes five Michigan samples of high school students (n = 989) and one "adult" sample (n = 71). In the initial planning for the study, it was believed that an important variable to investigate is the distinction between rural and urban schools. However, as the study progressed it was discovered that it was difficult to gain access to urban high schools. The mental health tOpic is a very sensitive topic, and even more so in urban areas than in the more rural communities. In the urban high schools administrative anxiety about "mental health research" was met, even though assur- ances were given that we were not interested in making any assessments of anyone's psychological health. An urban school was secured for this study, but it is quite distinct in certain ways. The Grand Rapids Christian High School is a Parochial Christian Reform School. Two of the schools (Fowler and Ovid-Elsie) sampled for the purpose of this study are located in the open country and have a high percentage of rural and small town students. Two other schools sampled (St. Johns and Williamston) are located in small towns; in each case about half of the students come from the towns and half from surrounding rural areas. Four of the schools (Fowler, St. Johns, Williamston, and Ovid-Elsie) are located within 25 miles of the Lansing 47 urbanized area consisting of several hundred thousand people, and all four are within the 1970 Lansing Standard Metropoli- tan Statistical Area (SMSA). In both St. Johns and Williamston a considerable number of students' parents commute to work in Lansing. Williamston is located at the junction point of the expand- ing urbanized metropolises of Lansing and Detroit. Thus, while we did not acquire data from any central city schools from large urban areas, which would have been desirable, the foregoing information indicates that all of the schools from which we have data are subject to consid- erable urban-industrial influence. Samples Fowler High School (n e 215) Fowler High School is located in a small Michigan farm community. Over 90 percent of the students come in buses. The sample consisted of grades 9-12, comprising 47 percent males and 53 percent females. With reference to parental characteristics, 50 percent of the students' mothers received a high school education and the remainder are dis- tributed below or above the high school level. The sample consisted of a high percentage Of Offspring coming from homes where the father is employed as "middle blue collar" workers and farms. Eighty-two percent of the Fowler sample resided on the farm or in the Open country (83%) with 98 percent in communities less than 20,000. 48 The Fowler public school district occupies the 93rd percentile Of the total 530 school districts in Michigan according to size. There are 871 students in the district and it ranks number 440 in terms of the number of pupils. The average teacher salary is $12,606 and ranks number 222 when compared to the 530 districts. The Village of Fowler has a population of 1,020 (refer to Appendix E for additional school and community characteristics). Ovid-Elsie High School_(n = 180) This sample consisted of 180 students from grades 9-12. The sample consisted of 45 percent males and 55 percent females. Twenty seven percent of the students' fathers did not complete high school, whereas, 41 percent did complete high school. The remainder, 32 percent, went beyond high school. Fifty nine percent of the students' mothers completed high school, whereas, 25 percent did not complete high school. The remaining 16 percent received formal training beyond high school. A majority of the students come from "middle blue collar" or farm families (61%). Seventy two percent of the Ovid-Elsie students have resided on the farm or an open country and 97 percent lived in communities with a population less than 20,000 for most of their lives. The Ovid-Elsie Area School district is in the 53 percentile of the 530 school districts according to size. 49 There are 2,448 students in the Ovid-Elsie school district ranking number 222. The average teacher salary is $12,202 ranking number 278. The Village of Ovid has a population of 1,650 and the Village of Elsie has a population of 988 (refer to Appendix E for additional school and community characteristics). St. Johns High School (n = 205) The St. Johns High School consisted of students in grades 9-12. The sample consisted Of 46 percent males and 54 percent females. Thirty five percent of the student's fathers were high school graduates, whereas, 33 percent did not complete high school. The education of 32 percent exceeded high school. Fifty seven percent of the students' mothers graduated from high school, whereas, 19 percent did not complete high school. The remaining 24 percent of mothers went beyond high school. Forty percent of St. Johns students are from "middle blue collar" families and a much smaller percentage from farm families (8%) when compared . to Fowler and Ovid-Elsie. LFifty.percent of the respondents' fathers are employed in lower white, upper blue, and upper white collar occupations. Sixty two percent of the St. Johns students grew up on a farm or Open country and 36 percent grew up in non-suburban towns or cities. Ninety seven percent lived most of their lives in communities with a pOpulation less than 20,000. 50 St. Johns Public School District is in the 20th percentile among the 530 Michigan districts in terms of size. There are 4,510 pupils in the district which ranks number 108. The average teacher salary is $13,181, ranking number 169. The town of St. Johns has a pOpulation of 6,672 (refer to Appendix E for additional school and community characteristics). Williamston High School (n = 227) The Williamston High School students consisted of students in grades 9-12. There were 52 percent males and 48 percent females. Twenty four percent of the students' fathers completed high school. A majority Of the fathers had an education beyond high school, 57 percent. Forty two percent of the students' mothers received a high school education, whereas, 16 percent did not complete high school. Forty two percent received an education beyond high school. Forty six percent of the students came from families where the father was employed in "upper white collar" occupations. Forty five percent of the students lived on a farm or Open country for most Of their lives, whereas, 44 percent lived in nonsuburban towns or cities. Ninety percent Of the students have resided in communities with a population less than 20,000 for most Of their lives. 51 Williamston is in the 66th percentile of the 530 school districts in Michigan according to size. There are 1,897 pupils in the Williamston district ranking number 294. The average teacher salary is $12,002 with a rank of 312 among all 530 school districts. The town of Williamston has a population of 2,600 (refer to Appendix E for additional school and community characteristics). Grand Rapids Christian High School In = 162) The Grand Rapids sample consisted of 162 high school students in grades 10-12. Forty seven percent of the sample consisted of males and 53 percent females. Fifteen percent of the students' fathers were less than high school graduates, whereas, 29 percent were high school graduates. Fifty six percent of the fathers were educated beyond high school. Considering the education Of the mother, 8 percent were less than high school graduates, whereas, 45 percent were high school graduates. Forty seven percent received formal training beyond high school. A high percentage of the Grand Rapids students were from families whose fathers were employed in "upper white collar" professions (53%). Seventy percent of the sample resided in nonsuburban towns or cities and 83 percent lived in community size of 100,000- 499,000. 52 The City of Grand Rapids has a population Of 197,649 (see Appendix E for additional characteristics). Grand Rapids Citizens (n = 71) The "Grand Rapids Citizens" sample consisted of 71 military reservists of an Army hospital unit from the Grand Rapids area. The respondents were not confined to the City of Grand Rapids but resided throughout the entire county. The sample includes a wide variety of civilian occupations. The wide variety of civilian occupations suggests that this sample is probably more diverse than most military units (see Appendix F for social characteristics and distribution of occupations). These respondents are viewed as an "adult" sample that is believed to be somewhat more informed in the mental health area than citizens in general. They are com? parable to the hospital staff because of their experience with both physical and_psychological problems of health. For convenience, the sample is referred to as "Grand Rapids Citizens." Instrumentation Two instruments for data collection were used: (a) a "35-item" mental health opinion questionnaire (Appendix A). and (b) a brief personal information sheet (Appendix B). The opinion item questionnaire consisted of 35 .menta1.jhealth related statements with responses ranging 53 from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree" on a seven- point scale. This instrument was developed by Nunnally1 and associates and used in my M.A. thesis research. Nunnally performed a factor analysis on a 60-item version of his Opinion instrument, resulting in the emergence of 10 factors which he identified as follows: I. Look and act different II. Will power III. Sex distinction IV. Avoidance of morbid thoughts V. Guidance and support VI. Hopelessness VII. External causes vs. personality VIII. Nonseriousness IX. Age function X. Organic causes Procedures The instruments were administered to a sample of 989 high school students in Michigan. Information about the social characteristics of the students was obtained by use of a questionnaire. For the most part, mean responses to the 35 mental health items were used for analytical purposes. The instruments were administered in the class- room after acquiring the permission and cooperation of the 1Nunnally, 1961. 54 principal. Students were not systemically sampled, but efforts were made to acquire data from required courses which the principal felt would represent a cross-section of all students enrolled in the school. Responses from approxi- mately 50 students were Obtained in each class in each school. We administered the questionnaires to students our- selves, and offered to answer questions during the session in case there were difficulties in understanding the instruments. Independent and Dependent Variables The major dependent variables are (l) a measure of similarity to responses of the "general public," (2) a measure of similarity to responses of high school teachers, and (3) a "knowledgeability" score reflecting similarity of responses to those of professionals. The independent variables are: school year (grades 9-12), sex, college plans, father's education, mother's education, father's occupation, reported experience with friends institutionalized or treated, reported experience with family members institutionalized or treated, reported experience with visiting a mental illness unit, and high school grade point average (GPA). 55 Measure of Knowledgeability The knowledgeability2 score was develOped by using 20 Of the 35 mental health items used in the present study. The 20 items showing the greatest amount of consensus among professionals were chosen. Consensus by professionals on a given item indicates the correct response category. The closeness of a student's response to the "correct" response is taken as an indication of the student's "knowledge- ability" about the content of each item. 'Responses range along a scale from 1-7: Disagree Neutral Agree Response Category 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Scoring: "Disagree" Item: 5 5 4 3 2 1. 0 "Agree" Item: 0 1 2 3 4 5 5 The maximum score possible for an individual is 100; the minimum score 0. Consensus with experts is defined as the operational measure of knowledgeability (see Appendix C for items used to determine knowledgeability; see Appendix D for distribution of knowledgeability scores for high school students). 2"Knowledgeability" here is slightly different from “knowledgeability" used in my M.A. thesis, 1972. Knowledge- ability refers tO the extent of knowledge about mental health concepts and does not refer to one'a ability. 56 Statement Of Hypotheses The major purpose of the study was to investigate the patterns of development of mental health opinions of high school students and to determine how the opinions are related to those of older persons in the population, namely high school teachers and the "general public." The relationship between knowledgeability and several social variables was tested in a previous research study,3 although only weak relationships were found with the exception of age (see Table l). The 1972 study consisted of a sample of college students attending Michigan State University and the 1976 samples consisted of high school students in Michigan. Table 1 shows related variables for the 1972 research (Smith, M.A. thesis). Some of the same variables used in the present study with high school students were tested in the 1972 study with college students. Identical variables include:_ sex, year in school, community size, community type, and experience with mental health problems. 3Dorothy L. Smith, "College Students' Knowledge- ability and Opinions About Mental Health in 1962 and 1971" (unpublished M.A. Thesis, Department of Sociology, Michigan State University, 1972). 57 mammaaoams Oa mmamoamcw unmaacoo a0: mama . . . . mcoz mammaowamama oz Hhma mflmmsaoama Oa mmamoapaw maae mamaacoo aoa mama . . . . mcoz aaamsoaamama oz «mad mawcaeeou .m mammaaoama 0» pmamoapca mamuacoo aoc mama . . . . maoz magmaowamama oz Han mampapoasa on pmamoapca oa hamaasoo mama . . . . maoz awamaowamama oz Nmma Hmawamz .m mwmwaaoama mmamOHpaH magmas oa mamaasoo mama om. v a 0:02 :aOHamoama Huma mammsaoaaa mmamowmaw amamHm oa mamuaaoo mama . . . . 0:02 IGOHamosma mmma momma .v acmoamaamam pmumoapca aoa "mamas . . . . anz nonmamlmmmaw Hhma mmaaoaaam Hooaom mammaaoawm mo. v a mmaomaxm we amnmwmlmmmno mmma, ca Hmmw .m mammaaoama oa coaamowpaw hamaaaoo aoa mama 0H. v a xmmz magmaoflamama oz Hhma mammnaoama oa mmamoamafi mamaaaoo aoc mama . . . . maoz aHSmSOflamHOH oz mama xmm .N .pmaaoaaSm omlhv mammaaoamm Ho. v a mmaomaxm mm amamflmuammao Huma melme pmanoaaam Nelmm mammsaoahm No. v a mmaowaxm we Hmamwmlampao mmma mmlmm mod .H scamsaocoo Hm>wa mamaa mommaaoahm amm» mam OHOom .mam » . “Aflanmmmpmasoqs mmaamwam> ..aoupmwmm name we» “on hawawammmmmasocm mam madamfiam> Hmwoom ammsamm awamsoaamamm 03a mo hamaesmll.a mamas 58 .mama .aaaEm snapped .mammaa .<.z Home maasmmmg aamoamwamwm mmamoapaa NHHH aoc “mamas . . . . mcoz Hmnmwmlmmw Hhma adamaamz mamaEOz pmaaoaasm ozone on. v a mmaomaxm mm amsmwmlmmw mwma haaema .oa mmaaoaasw mammaaommm mo. v a mmaommxm we amsmamnmw» anma NHHH pmaaoaaam madmacmz mammaaoahm ca. v a mmaomaxm m4 Hammamummw mmma mmsmwam .m mammsaoaha oa GOflamOflmaH mumuacoo ac: mama ow. v a xmmz mesmCOHamHmH oz Huma mammsaoaha oa pmamoamafl mamaaaoo aoa mama on. v a maoz aflachHamama oz NmmH maaaasm .m mammaaoama oa coaamowpaa mamaaaoo aos mama oa. v a xmmz mammaowamama oz Huma mammaaoama oa pmamoatma muwm hamaaaoo aoa mama . . . . wcoz mammaoflamama oz NmmH maflasEEOU .5 cowmaaocou HO>Oa ozone mommaaoamm Hmm» mam maoom .mam saaaanpmmpmazocm madameam> .mmscaacoouu.a mamaa 59 The hypotheses below were formulated in an effort to demonstrate the above relationships: Hypothesis 1: As grade levels increase (9-12) the mental health opinions of high school students will become increasingly similar . to those of their teachers. 1A: The Opinions of high school seniors will be more similar to teacher opinions than the opinions of other class levels. The responses of teachers and students (grade levels) were tested for each Of 35 mental health Opinion items. The t-test for significance determined this relationship. The mean responses for each grade level for students (9-12) were compared to all teachers within a given school. This process was identical for each of the five high schools (Fowler, Ovid-Elsie, St. Johns, Williamston, Grand Rapids). This relationship was tested in two interrelated ways: (1) dFr-T > d Sr-T for each of 35 items; (2) number of dFr-T reaching significance > the number of d reaching Sr-T significance (p = .05, .01). [dFr=T = difference between .freshmen and teachers; dSr-T = difference between seniors and teachers.] Hypothesis 2: As grade levels increase (9-12) the mental health Opinions of high school students will become increasingly similar to those of the "general public." 2A: The Opinions Of seniors will be more similar to the opinions of the "Grand Rapids Citizens" than the opinions of other class levels. Hypotheses l-2A will be tested by using the mean responses to the 35 mental health opinion statements. 60 Mean response for each of the four grade levels for each Of the five schools will be compared to the mean responses of a sample chosen to be representative of the Grand Rapids general public. Hypothesis 3: As grade levels increase (9-12) there will be an increase in mental health knowledge of high school students. 3A: Seniors will have a higher knowledgeability score than other class levels. Knowledgeability will be measured by using 20 mental health opinion items with a high degree of consensus among professionals. High knowledgeability scores indicate similarity to the response of professionals defined as the "correctness" of a response. Low knowledgeability indicates the least desirable response to an item. If it is correct to assume that the opinions of seniors demonstrate more social maturity, it is safe to hypothesize that social maturity is positively related to knowledgeability. Social maturity denotes a higher degree Of socialization into the adult world. It is expected that seniors will be more socialized into the adult world than freshmen. The maturity assumption applies to hypo— theses 1-6. Hypothesis 4: Males and females will not differ on the knowledgeability score. 61 The t—statistic will be used to test responses to 20 mental health Opinion items for each of the five schools. Unlike many other attitudes, mental health attitudes are not "sexually specific" but are "general-cultural.“ Previous mental health research shows little difference between the male/female variable (Smith, M.A. thesis). Hypothesis 5: Grade point average will be positively related to knowledgeability. Hypothesis 5 will be tested by comparing levels of GPA with the knowledgeability index (t-statistic). A high GPA should represent more awareness of mental health concepts as well as a more enlightened perspec- tive on worldly perspective in general. If this is so, then learning about mental health attitudes and Opinions is parallel to learning about all such attitudes. Hypothesis 6: Students who indicate definite plans for attending college will score higher on knowledgeability. High school students who respond "probably yes" or "definitely yes" on the "cOllege plans" question are specu- lated to score higher on the knowledgeability index. Hypothesis 6 is synonymous with Hypothesis 5. Students who indicate definite plans for college may also have a high GPA. If this is so, then definite plans for attending college is also associated with more sophisticated Opinions of mental health concepts and a higher level of social maturity. 62 Hypothesis 7: There will be a positive relationship between knowledgeability and mother's education. Hypothesis 8: There will be a positive relationship between knowledgeability and father's education. Hypotheses 7 and 8 will be tested by comparing the knowledgeability index to the levels of parental education It is expected that students whose parents are college graduates and above will become aware of mental health concepts earlier than students whose parents are high school graduates or less. Hypothesis 9: Students whose fathers are employed in upper white collar professions will score higher on knowledgeability than students whose fathers are employed in upper blue collar pro- fessions and below. Hypothesis 10: Respondents who have experienced the mental disorder (institutionalization or treatment) of a friend will score higher on knowledgeability. Hypothesis ll: Respondents who have experienced the mental disorder (institutionalization or treatment) of a family member will score higher on knowledgeability. ' Hypothesis 12: Respondents who have visited a mental disorder init will score higher on knowledgeability. Hypotheses 10, 11 and 12 investigate the relationship between knowledgeability and experience with mental disorder. Experience with the mentally disturbed refers to friends, family members of the respondents and visitation to a mental illness unit. It is generally speculated that persons with 63 past experience with the mentally ill will be more know- ledgeable and have more "enlightened" attitudes about mental illness and the mentally ill. Students who have experienced mental illness with a friend or family member with respect to institutionaliza- tion or noninstitutionalization will be compared to students with no repOrted experience. In the Smith study (1972) it was found that respon- dents who reported having prior experience with friends mentally ill were more knowledgeable about mental illness than respondents reporting no experience with friends being mentally ill. On the other hand, respondents reporting experience with family members mentally ill were not found to be any more knowledgeable than respondents reporting no prior knowledge of the mentally ill. It is hOped that the present study will demonstrate more consistent findings concerning attitudes about mental health and experience with the mentally ill. Hypothesis 13: The knowledgeability score for teachers will be higher than the knowledge- ability score for students. Summary The above hypotheses are designed to investigate the mental health attitudes among high school students as well as to determine how closely related attitudes are to older people in the population. Research literature shows 64 a great amount of data concerning attitudes about mental health; however, very little research is concerned with the development of mental health attitudes of high school students and how these attitudes compare to those Of the general public. In the Nunnally study (1961) it was sug- gested that the mental health attitudes of high school students are quite different from those of the general public. The present study will proceed with the belief that the atti- tudes of high school students concerning mental health are not drastically different from those held by the "general public" or from those of Older persons in the population. It is hypothesized in this study thathith the increase of grade levels and grade point average there will also be an increase in the general mental health knowledge of the students. _The writer assumes that the high school years introduce the student to specific socializing agents which shape the attitudes of students across the whole range of their areas Of knowledge as well as in the specific area of mental health attitudes. Various studies have sought to delineate the rela- tionship between attitudes about mental health and specific social characteristics (Nunnally, 1961; Hollingshed and Redlich, 1958; Crocetti, Lemkau §E_21.; 1961; Meyer, 1964; Bates, 1968; Freeman, 1961; Smith, 1972). These studies have dealt primarily with social characteristics of respon- dents themselves whereas the present study focuses primarily on the characteristics Of students and parental social 65 characteristics. Some of the social characteristics investigated by these studies include education, occupation, age, sex, social class, rural-urban differences, among others. The findings from these studies present conflicting conclusions between social characteristics and attitudes about mental health concepts. Conflicting views in this area suggest the need for further research into the rela- tionship between social characteristics and attitudes toward mental health concepts. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS Contents of the Chapter This section contains analysis and findings of this investigation. This section is divided into three parts: Part I gives a descriptive analysis of the distribution of the social characteristics which are the major indepen- dent variables of the hypotheses; Part II provides data showing the similarity of student responses to their teachers and the general public; Part III provides statis- tical data and tests designed to determine the relationship between knowledgeability and social characteristics. The analysis section is concluded with a summary of research findings. Part I Descriptive Analysis Table 2 shows the sex distribution for all high school students for each school. The sex variables do not vary from 50 percent very much within schools as well as among schools. 66 67 TABLE 2.--Sex of Students in Each High School, by Number and Percentage. Male Female Total NA* Fowler N 98 111 209 6 % 46.9 53.1 100.0 2.8 Ovid-Elsie N 77 94 171 9 % 45.0 55.0 100.0 5.0 St. Johns N 95 110 205' 0 % 46.3 53.7 100.0 -- Williamston N 115 106 221 6 % 52.0 48.0 100.0 2.6 Grand Rapids N 76 85 161 l % 47.2 52.8 100.0 0.6 Total N - 461 506 967 22 % 47.7 52.3 100.0 2.2 *NA means that NO Response was given to the question. Table 3 shows the distribution of high school students based on their plans to attend college. It is hypothesized that students whose plans are to attend college after high school will be more knowledgeable about mental health concepts. It is assumed that the desire to achieve a higher education is associated with a higher level of awareness. ' As indicated, Fowler students reported 53 percent having plans for attending college and 47 percent reporting 68 4.H o.ooa k.m a.m~ ~.om 4.Hm w «a mum mm Hmm mmm mom 2 Hmaoa p. o.ooa m.m p.oH «.mm «.54 a H Hpa Ha 5H an ma 2 mmwamm mamaw H.m o.ooa m.m p.5a m.~m m.ea w a cam NH mm as mm 2 coamsmaaaaz In Ho.ooa m.m m.a~ o.oa n.~m w o mom NH 44 mm up 2 mason .am m.~ o.ooH m.aa 4.Hm o.~m a.a~ m m mad mm mm mm mm 2 . mHmHmlmufirO m. o.ooa N.HH m.mm a.oe p.~a w H vam an me am km 2 amazon az Hmaoa oz mamaacamwa oz manmnoum m0» unannoum m0» mamaacammo wmmflaoo co mcwaamaa .mmmacmoama pap amnesz an .Hooaum swam Home ca omoaaoo maapamaae mom pupae .macmpsumnu.m mamas 69 no present plans for attending college. Ovid students reported 54 percent attending college and 46 percent not attending college. St. Johns students reported 73 percent attending college and 27 percent not attending college. Williamston students reported 77 percent attending college and 23 percent not attending college and finally, Grand Rapids students reported 83 percent attending college and 17 percent not attending college. The highest percentage reporting plans for attending college was Grand Rapids (83%). The schools are arrayed along a continuum from least to most urban (Fowler-Grand Rapids). If it is accurate to view the five schools in this manner, as indicated, "plans to attend college" increases with increased urbanism (13%, 22%, 33%, 45% and 47%, respectively for , Fowler, Ovid-Elsie, St. Johns, Williamston and Grand Rapids). Further, if "plans to attend college" increases along an urbanism cOntinuum, then, increased urbanism.may be projected as being associated with increased knowledge- ability. Table 4 shows the distribution of father's education by school. Percentages show a higher percentage of the more rural schools with less than a high school education-- Fowler, 51 percent, Ovid-Elsie, 37 percent, and St. Johns, 33 percent. Williamston and Grand Rapids show a consider- ably lower percentage not completing high school, 19 percent and 16 percent respectively, and a higher combined percentage with some college, completing college, and professional or 70 ¢.~ o.OOH a.» v.pH o.m m.~ o.mm n.4H «.5H 4 mm mom op mmH he an mHm mmH pGH z . Hopes m.H H.o0H m.H~ m.H~ m.~H o. m.m~ a.a ~.o w a ooH an em cm H pa mH 0H 2 mmwamm mamao m.m o.o0H k.m ~.m~ m.mH ~.m a.a~ H.mH o.m H m mHm mH am an a an om HH 2 aoamaoHHHHa m.~ o.o0H o.m H.4H m.m m.a H.4m H.mH H.mH H o mmH oH mm HH mH mm pm on 2 mason .am m.m m.mm m.~ m.OH o.m H.H p.04 a.pH H.o~ a m HRH a mH 4H m Ha aw mm 2 OHmHmlUH>O m. m.mm a.H m.o k.m a. m.pm H.mH a.am w H «Hm . m 4H m m as an om z Hmaeom £2 HmaOB Hoonom .pmaw mmOHHOU Hooaom .mmaw mmmao mama Ho maooaom .pmpo omoHHoO oeom HoaoHopoo> Hooaom aoHHuaom oompo no amHm sum .uooa coflamoamm .mmmaamoama mam Honesz ha ~Hooaom mafia comm ma manomsam mo mumaamm mo cowamosmm mmaaoammll.v names 71 graduate school. Percentages in these categories are 53 percent for Williamston and 55 percent for Grand Rapids as compared with the more rural schools comprising 12 percent for Fowler, 21 percent for Ovid-Elsie, and 25 percent for St. Johns. Although fatherfis education for the more rural schools is lower in the higher education categories, there is a significant percentage in the completed high school category: Fowler 37 percent, Ovid-Elsie 41 percent, and St. Johns 35 percent. Williamston and Grand Rapids have 25 percent and 29 percent reSpectively. I Williamston and Grand Rapids also have higher percen- tages in the higher levels of father's occupation (see Table 7). The community characteristics of Williamston and Grand Rapids are somewhat different from those of Fowler, Ovid-Elsie and St. Johns. Differences such as parental education, father's occupation, and degree of urbanism or urban influence. Table 5 shows the distribution of mother's education by school. The overall distribution for this variable is basically the same as for father's education. However, percentages show that for the mother education variable, considerably more mothers have completed high school for all schools than fathers. Fowler 57 percent, Ovid-Elsie 59 percent, St. Johns 57 percent, Williamston 42 percent, and Grand Rapids 45 percent. When compared with father's education, Table 5 shows that fewer mothers are in the less 72 m.HH. m.H c.00H m.m H.OH H.m m.Hm m.~H m.h a mH «so an oHH mm om mom mmH H5 2 Hmaoa m. o.OOH m.0H m.mH m.mH m.H m.mv o.m H.m m H HmH 5H om mm n mu m m z mmHamm pamuo m.mm m.v N.mH o.mH m.¢ m.H¢ m.mH m.~ w n can 0H ow mm oH mm on m z coamEmHHHHB o.H o.o0H m.H m.HH m.h m.m >.mm m.NH m.m w m mom m mn mH m mHH mm NH 2 mason .am m.m m.mm H.H o.m >.m H.H m.mm «.mH >.m w m th m «H oH N MOH em OH 2 OHmHaImH>o II m.mm a. v.H m.m m.m h.mm c.mH H.mH w o mHm N m HH 5 NNH mm mm 2 amHeoa mz Hmaoe Hooaom .mmau ommHHOU Hoosom .pmao mpmaw mmOH Ho mHoonom .mmao mmOHHOU meow HmGOHamoo> Hooaom naHHlaam opmao no amHm sum .moaa aOHamoama .ommaamoaoa mam HOaEsz ma .Hooaom amHm nomm GH maampsam mo mnmaaoz_mo GOHamoama mmaHOQOMII.m mamae 73 than high school categories for all schools. This observa- tion is also true for the combined categories of some college, college graduate, and professional or graduate school. Table 6 shows a summary of Tables 4 and 5. The distribution shows that more fathers than mothers have less than a high school education for all schools: 51 percent and 31 percent (Fowler), 37 percent and 25 percent (Ovid- Elsie), 33 percent and 19 percent (St. Johns), 19 percent and 16 percent (Williamston), and 16 percent and 8 percent (Grand Rapids). As generally observed, more fathers than mothers have more than a high school education: 11 percent and 9 percent (Fowler), 21 percent and 15 percent (Ovid- Elsie), 25 percent and 21 percent (St. Johns), 53 percent and 38 percent (Williamston), and 55 percent and 45 percent (Grand Rapids). .Table 7 shows a distribution of father's occupation by school. "Upper white collar" refers to positions such as: executive, professional, business owner, merchant, manager, etc.; "sales" or "engineer" if college graduate. "Upper blue collar" refers to skilled trades: electrician, plumber, tool maker, carpenter, foreman, etc. "engineer" if not college graduate. "Lower white collar" refers to clerical, Office, secretarial, service, police; "sales" if not college graduate. "Middle blue collar" refers to factory, shop, mechanic, Operator, construction and driver. Farm refers to owner-operator and does not include farm 74 TABLE 6.-—Reported Parental Education in Each High School, by Percentage. Parental Level of Education High School Some Less than Graduate and College Schools High School Vocational and above Total Fowler Father % 51.0 38.0 11.0 100.0 Mother % 31.0 60.0 9.0 100.0 Ovid-Elsie Father % 37.0 42.0 21.0 100.0 Mother % 25.0 60.0 15.0 100.0 St. Johns Father % 33.0 42.0 25.0 100.0 Mother % 19.0 60.0 21.0 100.0 Williamston Father % 19.0 28.0 53.0 100.0 Mother % 16.0 46.0 38.0 100.0 Grand Rapids Father % 16.0 29.0 55.0 100.0 Mother % 8.0 47.0 45.0 100.0 75 m.m c.00H m.H H.~H e.om o.MH m.¢H m.h~ w em mum 5H NHH Hmm omH mMH hmm z Hmaoe h.m c.00H m.H m.~ «.mH m.~H m.hH «.mm m m mmH N v mH om mm mm z mpHamm pamaw e.m H.00H m.H a.~ «.mH m.mH m.hH «.mq m mH mom e m mm mm hm mm 2 soamEmHHHHS m.> o.o0H H.H m.h h.mm «.mH m.mH m.mH w mH . mmH N mH mm Hm mm hm z mason .am «.5 H.00H o.m «.5H m.¢v m.0H v.HH N.MH w mH heH m mm as mH mH mm 2 OHmHMIpH>o b.v c.00H o.~ m.m~ m.mm m.m ~.mH m.m w 0H mow e mm Hm mH mm mH z amH3oa «z Hmaoa amHHOU aoEamm amHHOU HmHHOU HmHHOU amHHOU mHoonom msHa msHm maHaz osHa maHaz 5.8on= goprHz= =uo3oH. .oooop. .uooop. aOHamaaooo, . .mmmaawoama mam Hmaaaz an .Hoonom amHm 50mm aH maampsam mo mumaama mo GOHamamooo mmauoammll.n Handy 76 hands. "Lower blue collar" refers to unskilled, manual custodian, farm hand, and maintenance. Table 7 shows that a majority of father occupations in any single category are concentrated in the "middle blue collar" category for the more rural areas. Father occupa- tions for Williamston and Grand Rapids are concentrated in the "Upper white collar" category and decrease consistently from "Upper white collar" to "Lower blue collar." Table 8 shows the distribution of grade point average by school. The highest percentage of students in any single category reported a GPA of B-, B. The majority of students reported a GPA between C-B. The percentage of students who report higher grade point averages varies con- siderably among schools. However, I have no idea of the implications associated with such variation. 1 Table 9 shows a distribution of community type. Community type refers to the type of community the respon— dents have lived for most of their lives. The percentages decrease for "farm or Open country" along the rural-urban continuum. Fowler 83 percent, Ovid-Elsie 72 percent, St. Johns 62 percent, Williamston 45 percent, and Grand Rapids 9.3 percent. The percentages are almost evenly distributed for Williamston on the variables "farm or Open country" and "nonsuburban town or city"--45 percent and 44 percent respectively. Along the rural-urban continuum, Grand Rapids is considered the most urban with 9 percent of the 77 0H.m c.00H o.e H.mm v.H¢ m.mH w.m w me Hem mm mmm can hmH cm 2 Hmaoa m.e c.00H m.v H.- «.me m.mH m.v w m va s cm on on n z mmHamm mamaw h.m H.o0H m.~ ~.mH m.hm b.mm m.vH m MH vHN m He Hm mm Hm z aoamEmHHHHS o.m H.o0H o.m v.m~ m.~v v.mH o.» m o How 0H mm mm hm «H z mason .am v.m o.ooH h.m v.¢m m.ov m.~H H.m w 5H mmH HH mm we on 0H 2 mHmHMImH>o m.~ c.00H m.H o.m~ «.mm m.H~ v.wH m o mom v we mm me cm 2 _ - . . amHsoa «z Hmaoe Ha.uov Hou+ov Hum.mv H+mv Hum.mv mHoonom mmOHIH.~ o.m4~.m .H.mlh.~ m.m|~.m Hm>ouh.m 4am .Hooaom amHa nomm How .mmmaaoonoa mam Hmaeaz an mammmaam no ommao>¢ acHoa momma mo cOHasaHHamHall.m aaame 78 TABLE 9.--Community Type Of Students While "Growing Up" for Each High School, by Number and Percentage. Community Type Non- Farm or Suburban Suburban Open Town or Town or Schools Country City City Total NA Fowler N 177 3 34 214 1 % 82.7 1.4 15.9 100.0 .5 Ovid-Elsie N 124 12 37 173 7' % 71.7 6.9 21.4 100.0 3.9 St. Johns N 125 6 72 203 2 % 61.6 3.0 35.5 100.1 1.0 Williamston N 98 25 96 219 8 % 44.7 11.4 43.8 99.9 3.5 Grand Rapids N 15 33 113 161 1 % 9.3 20.5 70.2 100.0 .6 Total N _ S39 79 352 970 19 % 55.6 8.1 36.3 100.0 1.9 students reporting a community type "farm or Open country" and 70 percent reporting "nonsuburban town or city." Table 10 gives a distribution of the size of community the respondents have resided for most of their lives. As indicated the vast majority of all respondents across schools have lived in communities with a population of less than 20,000. The majority of the Grand Rapids high 79 H.m o.o0H m.. v. m.vH H.N o.Nw w on mmm w v meH ON was 2 Hmaoa m.v a.mm II N.H H.mw N.H m.mH m m «mH o m mNH N HN z mpHamm pcmaw v.¢ H.00H m.N m. e.e m.N m.mm .w 0H hHN m H 0H m mmH z coamEmHHHHz o.H H.00H m. II o.H o.N w.om N N NON H o N v mmH z mason .am ¢.v c.00H II II N.H m.N m.mm w m NbH o o N v mmH z mHmHalpH>o m. H.00H II I: m. N.H b.5m N N mHN o o H v _NoN z MOHzoa «z Hmaoa :OHHHHE H cOHHHHE H ooo.mmv ooo.mm ooo.oN mHooaow Hm>o cooloom nooo.ooH loco.0N amaa mmma muHm .Hooaom amHm some How :aa maHsong OHHS3 .mmmacmonma mam Hmafiaz ha maoopsam mo oNHm NaHnsssoOuu.OH mHmaa 80 school students indicate a population of 100,000-499,000 for community size. Table 11 shows the number of "yes" responses to each of the separate mental health experience questions. Nine questions were used to measure mental health experience. A variety of questions were used because some individuals may have different experiences with mental health problems, and a wider range of questions increases the chance of acquiring a broader range of experiences. The following nine questions were used: Have any of your friends or members of your family ever been admitted to an institution for mental illness? Friends: Yes No Family: Yes No Have any of your friends or members Of your family ever been professionally treated for mental illness or mental disorder? Friends: Yes No Family: Yes _No Have any of your friends or members of your family ever been generally viewed by their acquaintances as mentally ill (whether or not they received professional care)? Friends: Yes No Family: Yes No Have you ever visited: (not as a client) A mental hospital? Yes No The psychiatric ward of a general hospital? Yes No A community mental health center or clinic? Yes No 81 omH NOH NVH wvH NmH vhH NhH hHH mNH . 2 Hence o.h~ m.OH p.m~ o.oH o.H~ m.- m.Hm o.pH «.mm a no 5H we on em Hm Hm on we 2 mmHamm mamau o.wN N.NH n.0N m.mH N.HH m.mH o.mH m.HH N.HH N mm an me me 5N me on oN hN z . aoamEmHHHHS w.mH N.OH m.m b.5H o.mH w.oH m.hH m.m h.NH N vm HN vH mN en em on 0N . mN z mason .am N.hH o.OH v.m h.oH m.hH N.hH m.mH N.HH v.¢H N Hm NH pH on Nm Hm mm HN wN z mHmHmlpH>o o.m m.m m.h m.m N.0H m.NH v.m N.HH m.m w HN «H SH mH NN SN NH VN «H z MOHsoa umaamo :2 pam3 HmaHamom HHH HHH mmammaa mmamoaa aoHaaaHamaH aOHasaHamcH mHoonom >chaEEoo OHMamHnowma Hmacmz hHHEma mmcmHHm mHHEmm mocOHum :H mHHEma CH mpaOHaa UmaHmH> UmaHmH> moaHmH> . . , . moamHumaxm mo paHM nomm ocHaaoaom oomacmoama mam amafidz .ommaamouoa mam amnesz an .Hooaom non somm How mEOHaoaa :aHmOm Hmaamz aaHz mocOHaoaxa moaaoammll.HH aaada 82 Some mentally ill people receive professional treat- ment without being hospitalized. Some people who are regarded as mentally ill or psychologically disordered by friends and family, may or may not receive professional care. This is why several questions were asked which may seem to be overlapping. Table 11 shows that Fowler High School students have the least amount of experience with the institutionalization of friends or family members (18%). Ovid-Elsie students reported 26 percent, St. Johns students reported 23 percent, Williamston students reported 23 percent and Grand Rapids students reported 44 percent. Fowler and Grand Rapids represent the two extremes. Fowler students have the least amount of experience and the Grand Rapids students have the greatest amount of experience with the institutionalization of friends or family members. The amount of mental health experience shown for the treatment of friends or family indicates 26 percent for OvidrElsie, 34 percent for St. Johns, and 35 percent for Williamston. Again Fowler and Grand Rapids represent the extremes with percentages 21 and 54 respectively. When asked the question of whether any friends or family members have ever been viewed as mentally ill by acquaintances, the number of "yes" responses were distributed as: 19 percent (Fowler), 35 percent (Ovid-Elsie), 36 percent (St. Johns), 31 percent (Williamston), and 37 percent (Grand Rapids). Consistent with the above analysis, Fowler TABLE 12.-—Reported Experience With Friends' Mental Disorder for Each High School, by Number and Percentage. Experience Number of "Yes" Responses Schools 0 l 2 3 Total NA Fowler N 186 15 6 8 215 -- % 86.5 7.0 2.8 3.7 100.0 -- Ovid-Elsie N 131 24 9 16 180 -- % 72.8 13.3 5.0 8.9 100.0 -- St. Johns N 150 26 15 14 205 -- % 73.2 12.7 7.3 6.8 100.0 -- Williamston N 180 15 21 10 226 l % 79.6 6.6 9.3 4.4 99.9 .4 Grand Rapids N. 102 19 16 25 162 -- % 63.0 11.7 9.9 15.4 100.0 -- Total N 749 99 67 73 988 l % 75.8 10.0 6.8 7.4 100.0 .1 84 students report the least experience and Grand Rapids students the most experience. Students who answered "yes" when asked if they had ever visited a mental health unit (mental hospital, psychia- tric ward of a general hospital, or a community mental health clinic), the responses in percentages were 24 percent (Fowler), 37 percent (Ovid-Elsie), 34 percent (St. Johns), 64 percent (Williamston), and 68 percent (Grand Rapids). Table 12 shows the index of experience with mental disorder with friends. The questions read as follows: (1) Have any of your friends ever been admitted to an institution for mental illness? (2) Have- any of your friends ever been profes- sionally treated for mental illness or mental disorder (without being hospitalized)? (3) Have any of your friends ever been generally viewed by their acquaintances as mentally ill (whether or not they received professional care)? It is hypothesized that high school students who have experienced mental illness with a friend will be more know- ledgeable about mental health concepts. Table 12 shows a majority of students reported no experience with friends being mentally ill. NO experience with friends being mentally ill includes Fowler 87 percent, Ovid-Elsie 73 85 percent, St. Johns 73 percent, Williamston 80 percent, and Grand Rapids 63 percent. Repsonses indicating experience with one or all three indexes include 14 percent Fowler, 27 percent Ovid-Elsie, 27 percent St. Johns, 20 percent Williamston, and 37 percent Grand Rapids. Fowler high school students reported least experience with friends being mentally ill (14 percent), whereas Grand Rapids students report the most experience for the "friends mentally ill" variable. Table 13 shows the combined family experience. More specifically, how Often one has experienced mental disorder in the family in terms of (l) admission to a mental insti- tution, (2) professionally treated for a mental disorder without being hospitalized, and (3) being viewed by their acquaintances as mentally ill whether they received profes- sional care. Results show that of the students sampled from Fowler high school, 84 percent reported no experience with the family variable. Students from Ovid-Elsie, St. Johns, Williamston, and Grand Rapids reported 74 percent, 78 per- cent, 72 percent, and 69 percent respectively on the "no experience with family" variable. I expect students with some experience with mental disorder of a family member will be more knowledgeable about mental health concepts than students with no experience. Assuming that the rural-urban continuum is a correct way to view the five schools, I would also expect an increase in TABLE 13.--Reported Experience with Family's Mental Disorder for Each High School, by Number and Percentage. Experience Number of "Yes" Responses Schools 0 l 2 3 Total NA Fowler N 181 10 12 12 215, -- % 84.2 407 5.6 507 10000 _- Ovid-Elsie N 133 22 15 10 180 -- % 73.9 12.2 8.3 5.6 100.0 -- St. Johns N 160 18 17 10 205 -- % 78.0 8.8 8.3 4.9 100.0 -- Williamston N 163 29 16 18 226 l % 72.1 12.8 7.1 8.0 100.0 .4 Grand Rapids N . 112 23 15 12 162 -- % 69.1 14.2 9.3 7.4 100.0 -- Total N 749 102 75 62 988 1 % 75.8 '10.3 7.6 ‘6.3 100.0 .1 knowledgeability from least to most urban. Table 13 indi- cates that more experience is somewhat associated with more urbanism; 16 percent (Fowler), 26 percent (Ovid-Elsie), 22 percent (St. Johns), 28 percent (Williamston), and 31 percent (Grand Rapids). 87 The visitation variable investigates the amount of experience a respondent has with (a) visiting a mental hospital, (2) visiting the psychiatric ward of a general hospital, and (3) visiting a community mental health center or clinic. Table 14 shows an increase in combined visitation along the rural-urban continuum with Fowler students having the least amount of visitation experience (17%), and Grand Rapids the greatest amount (41%). Twenty one percent of the Ovid-Elsie students reported experience with visiting one or all three of the psychiatric units. St. Johns students reported 23 percent and Williamston students reported 36 percent combined for this variable. Tables 11-14 demonstrate that the proportion of students showing no experience with mental health problems does not vary remarkably from school to school. This pattern may be inversely related to urbanism. Table 15 shows the combined reported experience with -mental disorder. The following questions were asked: 1. Have any of your friends or members of your family ever been admitted to an institution for mental illness? 2. Have any of your friends or family members ever been professionally treated for mental illness or mental disorder (without being hospitalized? TABLE l4.--Reported Visitation Experience with Mental 88 Disorder for Each High School, by Number and Percentage. Have you Visited a Mental Institution? Number of "Yes" Responses Schools 0 1 2 3 Total NA Fowler- N 186 13 8 8 215 -- % 86.5' 6.0 3.7 '3.7 99.9 -- Ovid-Elsie N 142 18 12 8 180 -- % 78.9 10.0 6.7 4.4 100.0 -- St. Johns N 157 33 9 6 205 -- % 76.6 16.1 4.4 2.9 100.0 -- Williamston N 144 39 28 15 226 l % 63.7 17.3 12.4 6.6 100.0 .4 Grand Rapids N 96 33 27 6 162 -- % 59.3 20.4 16.7 3.7 100.1 -- Total N 725 136 84 43 988 l % 73.4 13.8 8.5 4.3 100.0 '.1 89 o.o0H N.H o.m o.m v.NH H.NH N.NH o.Hm m mam H m m mH om av NNH ONH omH «cm 2 Hmaoa o.ooH o. m. N.H h.m m.m m.m N.vH m.hH N.vH h.Nm w NmH o H N w HH. .mH mN mN NN mm 2 mmHamm pamau o.OOH o. v. N.H N.H H.m m.m m.mH o.HH o.mH m.vv w hNN o H m e b mH hm mN um HOH z moamEmHHHHz c.00H m. o. o.H m. v.N a.¢ N.NH N.NH H.vH N.Nm w mON H o N H m 0H mN mN mN 50H 2 mason .am H.0OH o. >.H m. >.H h.H m.m N.NH N.NH o.mH «.mv m omH o m H m m h NN mN 5N mm mHmHMIUH>o H.o0H o. o. o. m.N m.H m. «.5 0.x o.m o.Hh N mHN o o o m v N wH NH 5H emH z MOHeoa Hmaoa m m b m m v m N H o mHooaom ‘I mocmHaoaxa mocHano .mmmacwoama cam ambasz an .Hooaom anm nomm How mEmHaOHa aaHmmm Hmaaoz naHs mommHuoaxa mosHanoll.mH aqmma 90 3. Have any Of your friends or members of your family ever been generally viewed by their acquaintances as mentally ill (whether or not they received professional care)? 4. Have you ever visited (a) a mental hospital, (b) a psychiatric ward of a general hospital, (c) a community mental health center or clinic? For the combined experience index, the students were asked a total of nine questions (above). The combined index is important because it accentuates the differences among schools. Results of Table 15 show that Fowler students indicate least experience with mental health problems, whereas, Grand Rapids students demonstrate the most experi- ence. As indicated, approximately 7 out of 10 Fowler students reported no experience; by contrast 7 out of 10 Grand Rapids students reported some experience. Table 16 shows a distribution of the number of mothers employed. The percentages for each school increase along the rural-urban continuum for Fowler (32%), Ovid- Elsie 47 percent, and St. Johns 64 percent. However, this pattern changes for Williamston (60%) and Grand Rapids (48%). The schools differ considerably on the employment of mother variable. The analysis of social characteristics shows some complex ways in which the characteristics of the students, 91 TABLE 16.--Reported Employment of Mothers of Students in Each High School, by Number and Percentage. Employed? Schools Yes NO Total NA Fowler- N 69 146 215 0 % 32.1 . 67.9 100.0 .0 Ovid-Elsie N 82 92 174 6 % 47.1 52.9 100.0 3.3 St. Johns N 129 73 202 3 % 63.9 36.1 100.1 1.5 Williamston N 131 88 219 8 % 59.8 40.2 100.0 3.5 Grand Rapids N 78 83 161 l % 48.4 51.6 100.0 .6 Total N 489 482 971 18 % 50(4 49.6 100.0 1.9 92 their school, and communities differ. One would probably think that the schools are very similar with reference to student characteristics, however, the schools are quite diverse in social characteristics, perhaps much more so than one would initially expect. Differences in school characteristics reflect the complexity of how social characteristics might affect mental health opinions. A simple sociological model may not be apprOpriate. Part II The following hypotheses were tested by comparing the mean responses to 35 mental health Opinions in an effort to determine the relationship between the responses of students and teachers, and students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens." Hypothesis 1: As grade levels increase (9-12) the mental health Opinions of high school students will become increasingly similar to those of their teachers. 1A: The opinions of high school seniors will be more similar to the opinions of their teachers than the opinions of other class levels. Hypothesis 2: As grade levels increase (9-12) the mental health opinions of high school students will become increasingly similar to those of the "general public." 2A: The Opinions of high school seniors will be more similar to the Opinions of the "Grand Rapids Citizens" than the opinions of other class levels. 93 Part II is divided into Part II-A and Part II-B. Part II-A shows the relationship between students and teachers, and addresses hypothesis 1 and 1A; Part II-B demonstrates the relationship between students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens," and focuses on hypothesis 2 and 2A. Table 17 shows the mental health opinion statements used throughout the research. The statements are grouped according to Townsend's factors.1 Townsend performed a factor analysis using responses to these statements by 728 Seattle, Washington high school students. Townsend's fac- ,tors were quite similar to Nunnally's factors. The items are grouped for convenience in assessing the content of the item. Since we are looking at mean responses of each grade on each of 35 opinion statements (Tables 18-23) in each school, the probability values associated with t-tests are not taken literally but are presented for informational pur- poses. We are not looking at the probability value for any single one of the statements but are rather looking at the trends for the entire set of 35 items, and asking whether those patterns (particularly seniors compared to other grades) depart from randomness. 1J. Marshall Townsend, "Cultural Conceptions, Mental Disorders, and Social Roles: A Comparison of Germany and America," American Sociological Review, 40:739-752 (1975). 94 Part II—A: Relationship Between Students and Teachers TABLE l7.--Menta1 Health Opinion Statements. A. Environmental Factors 12. People cannot maintain good mental health without the support of strong persons in their environment. 15. Mental illness can usually be helped by a vacation or change in scene. 4. Helping the mentally ill person with his financial and social problems often improves his condition. B. Physical Causes 20. Mental disorder is usually brought on by physical causes. 2. Nervous breakdowns seldom have a physical origin. 23. Almost any disease that attacks the nervous system is likely to bring on insanity. C. Negative Stereotypes fig 16. The insane laugh more than normal peOple. 26. Most of the people in mental hospitals speak in words that can be understood. 7. You can tell a person who is mentally ill from his appearance. 38. The eyes of the insane are glassy. *28. Most people can recognize the type of person who is likely to have a nervous breakdown. 95 TABLE l7.--Continued. D. Will Power 10. People sho keep themselves occupied with pleasant thoughts seldom become mentally ill. 13. Will power alone will not cure mental disorders. 25. Mental health is largely a matter of try to control the emotions. 24. If a person concentrates on happy memories he will not be bothered by unpleasant things in the present. 8. People who become mentally ill have little will power. 35. A person cannot rid himself of unpleasant memories by trying hard to forget them. E. Damage, Incurability, Seriousness 11. Few people who enter mental hospitals ever leave. 18. Mental disorder is not a hopeless condition. 19. Mental health is one of the most important national problems. 27.. There is not much that can be done for a person who develops a mental disorder. 1. Mental disorder is one of the most damaging illnesses that a person can have. 3. The seriousness of the mental health problem in this country has been exaggerated. 5. Mental patients usually make good adjustments to society when they are released. *30. Many of the people who go to mental hospitals are able to return to work in society again. 96 TABLE l7.--Continued. F. Miscellaneous 29. Most suicides occur because of rejection in love. *34. People who go from doctor to doctor with many com- plaints know that there is nothing really wrong with them. G. Age and Childhood Experiences 9. Most mental disturbances in adults can be traced to emotional experiences in childhood. *31. Disappointments do not affect children as much as “they do adults. *32. Most of the insanity cases are found in people over fifty years of age. H. Role of Psychiatrist 22. Psychiatrists try to teach the mental patient to hold in their strong emotions. 21. The main job of the psychiatrist is to recommend . hobbies and other ways for the mental patient to occupy his mind. 17. Psychiatrists try to show the mental patient where his ideas are incorrect. 6. The good psychiatrist acts like a father to his patients. I. Sex Differences 14. Women have no more emotional problems than men do. *Statements that are not included in Townsend's factor analysis but were placed in the groups according to item content closest to Townsend's factors. 0m we. No. vm. so.m 5N.v ov.v HN.¢ v~.v mN 97 am am. mH. mu. hm.m No.m mm.v HN.v Hm.v NH an em. om. No. mm.m NH.m mm.m mo.¢ Nh.m 0H am em. Ho. Ho. mv.N om.N Nm.m «N.m Nh.m NN am mo. Ho. No. m>.H h>.N Nm.m o¢.m mv.m mm am No. mooo. Ho. «H.H NH.N Nv.N mm.N mH.m N an mm. om. mm. hm.v HN.¢ Nh.e, NN.¢ HN.v NN Hm mo. H0. or. NN.H oo.m N¢.m Hm.m mH.m NH am 5N. HH. Ho. om.N Nv.N NH.N Hm.m NH.N mN a an. NN. He. H>.m NN.N vv.m om.m NN.N N am on. HH. NH. NN.N eo.m ¢¢.m vb.m mm.m oN am No. mN. Ho. om.m mH.v vm.v «N.¢ eo.m e an NN. NH. HH. HN.N oo.v n>.m No.v mN.m mH am mo. Ho. mp. m¢.m Nm.v mo.m mh.v o>.v NH mambomoe 91am 91am amine V 9 MN an Om am .02 oa ammmoHo EmaH mmmHo amoaua _ODHm> a .HmHN.u a .Hoonom amHm amHsoav mumaomoa mam macmmaam How maaoamamam :OHcHao aaHmom Hmacmz mmnfi.mmmaoamom cmmz mo aomHamaEOUII.NH mamas 98 am oH. HN. mm. oo.o om.m Hm.m NN.m mN.m N MN on. Ho. moo. oo.N Nm.N m>.m mm.m Hm.m om Hm No. Noo. Nm. oo.N No.o hh.v Ho.v No.o NN no Ho. Ho. NN. oo.N NN.o oh.o No.v om.o om am No. mm. oo. HN.o mm.m oh.m HN.m Nm.m N am mH. No. vN. oo.N mh.N mm.m om.m mH.N N am 5N. NH. oo. no.v 5H.o mo.v om.o Hm.o H am mo. Hoo. Ho. HN.H om.H oo.N mo.N oo.N 5N am no. Ho. mm. «H.o 5H.m No.m mm.o NN.o NH Hm NH. mo. om. hm.o Nm.m NN.m oo.N oo.N NH am No. Ho. mm. NN.H mN.m mm.N NN.N oo.N HH no no. NN. mm. oo.m om.o oh.o NH.o hm.o mm am mo. moo. No. vH.N No.m oo.N mo.o oo.N N am Ho. oH. NH. om.N mn.N No.m mm.m mN.m oN mamaomoa Elam alum amine 9 am an om um .02 oa amomoHU EmaH mmmHU ammala .maHm> a .pmscHaaOUI|.NH Handy 99 .Hmaomoa\HOHamm mam .Hmaomoa\aoenmmam .HOHcmm\cmE£mea maHHmano sons amoala an aGOHOMMHm aHaamOHMHcmHm mam mNINH mOHamB oa mcHaHmaHma momaoamma amoE maa mo HHm aoz« no Ho. Nm. mo. mm.m oo.v HN.m mm.o mo.o oH am Hoo. Ho. mo. mv.N oo.N No.o mm.o NN.o N am om. om. mN. NN.o om.m mm.o No.o om.o NH. am mH. Hoo. mo. om.N NH.m oo.o No.m mN.m HN am me. No. mo. Nm.N oo.N mN.m mN.m NN.m NN no om. NH. moo. HN.N oo.N mN.N NH.m NN.m Nm am oo. NH. mo. NN.N mN.N oN.N HN.m oo.N Hm «mamaomma slam Blah amine. B Hm no 0N am .02 0a amOmoHU Ewan mmmHU ammala maHm> a .mmsaHaaooll.NH Names 100 TABLE 18-A.--Number of Student Mean Responses Closest to Teacher Mean Responses, by Class Level (Fowler High School, n = 215). Class Level Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior Total 7 l 7 20 35 Number of Statements with Means Significantly Different, by t—test: p s .05 Fr-Sr 13 Fr-T 18 Sr-T All 101 Om Ho. Hoo. No. NN.N HN.m mH.o mo.m NH.o mN Hm mH. Ho. «H. HN.m mm.v om.o NN.N Nm.v mH Hm NN. Hoo. Ho. mo.N NN.N oo.m Nm.m om.m oH Hm mo. Ho. om. oo.N Nm.m om.m om.m oo.m NN Hm vH. Hoo. mo. NN.N HN.m Nm.m Nm.m om.m mm 0m vo. Hoo. Ho. NN.H NN.N oo.m NN.N oN.m N no mN. mm. oN. oN.o NH.o Nm.o oN.v NN.o oN Hm oN. No. No. NN.N NN.N oo.m Nm.m oo.m oH am mo. vooo. No. NH.N mm.N om.m NN.m oN.m mN an mm. mo. moo. oo.m oN.N mH.m om.m NN.m N 0m NH. mo. NN. mH.m oN.m HN.m NN.m HH.v oN am NN. NN. mN. mN.o HN.v oN.v mo.m oN.m e um mN. NH. NH. NN.m om.m oN.m Nm.m oN.m mH 0m we. mN. mow NN.N om.o mm.o mN.o Nm.m NH mamaomme BIHN Blah amlam 9 am no Om am .02 ca amOmoHU - anH mmmHo amoaua maHm> a .HNNH u c .HOObOm :NHN OHmHanoH>ov maosomoe mam macoosam . How macmemamam :OHcHao naHmON Hmaaoz mm oa mwmaoammm cmoz mo aomHamaaooul.mH aamaa 102 a Hoo. oo. HH. om.o Nm.m HN.m NH.m NH.N N om oH. mooo. Ho. oN.N oo.m oo.m mo.m No.v om a Ho. mH. Nm. mN.m NN.m mo.m Nm.m Ho.o NN « mo. Hoo. oH. om.m Hm.o HN.N oN.N NN.m om. om NN. mN. NN. NN.m HN.m oN.m NN.m NN.m N am om. moo. No. oN.N Nm.N NH.m NN.N om.m N am Nm. mm. mo. No.m oN.N oN.N oo.v oo.m H an «N. Ho. NH. NN.H NN.N oN.N NN.N NN.N NN Ho Noo. Noo. NN. NH.N NN.v NH.m mo.m oN.v NH om om. oo. NH. oo.m NN.m NN.m oN.N NH.m NH am Nm. oH. ov. mH.N Nm.N mo.m oo.N NN.N HH am NN. mo. oN. mo.v NN.N oN.m Nm.m NN.N mm ON No. Hoo. mH. Nm.N HN.m Nm.v NN.m NH.v N am oN. Hoo. Noo. HN.H oo.N NN.N NN.N oo.m oN mamaomoa Elam Elam Hmlam 9 am no om am .02 ca ammmoHU EmaH mmoHo amoaua msHm> a .UOSCHaGOUII.NH Quads 103 .mamaomma oa mmmcmmoHo How mcmoe HmOHaaopH pmsoam mommmHo aoHamm mam HoHaaoe Hm mH. No. Nm.. oN.v HN.m mN.m oN.m No.m oH am No. oooo. No. NN.N oN.m oN.o HN.N Ho.o o no mo. Ho. oN. om.m om.v .NN.m mo.o Nm.o NH Hm NN. ooo. mo. mN.N mm.m No.o oN.m NH.N HN Hm NN. om. HN. NN.N NN.N NN.N oo.m om.m NN am No. Ho. Ho. mH.N Nm.N oN.m HN.N HN.m Nm am oN. No. NH. oo.N oo.N NN.N HH.m mo.m Hm mamaomoe Biam Baum amlum 9 am no om am .02 oa ammmoHo EmaH mmmHU ammala osHm> a .mmsaHasoorl.NH,mHa¢B TABLE l9-A.-- 104 Number Of Mean Responses Closest to Teacher Mean Responses, by Class Level (Ovid-Elsie, High School, n = 177). Freshmen 2 Class Level Sophomore Junior Senior Total 8 5 19 ’ 34* Number of Statements with Means Significantly Different, by t-test p s .05 Fr-Sr 12 Fr-T 23 Sr-T 10 *See Item 30. 105 om om. «o. oo. om.m mo.m oo.¢ NN.H mH.a mm um mN. mm. HH. no.4 mo.m o4.v No.m Nm.¢ mH on «H. mm. mm. mo.m mH.m mo.m mm.m mm.m 0H am an. H00. H00. Nm.m em.~ mH.m mo.m mm.m mm. om mH. Hoo. mo. NN.N mH.m 4m.m mo.m ON.m mm om mo. Hoo. mo. NN.H mm.~ NN.N mo.~ HN.N a om mm. mm. mm. ~m.q mm.v om.m m4.a o~.¢ pm up so. moo. mm. Hm.~ mm.m NH.m HH.m mo.m pH um Hoo. Hoo. Nm. Nm.m mo.m mo.m HH.m om.m mmi. no HN. om. mN. o¢.m mm.m mm.m mH.m HH.m m om mm. mm. Nm. Nm.m Nm.m Hm.m mv.m mo.m om om ma. mH. mo. 4m.e mo.m mH.m mN.e mm.4 a pm mm. mm. as. om.m mN.m mN.m mo.m mo.m mH om mH. me. me. oo.¢ mm.4 NN.H mo.m Hm.4 NH MHOSOMOB Blhm Bth .Hmth .H Hm Hh. Om Hum .02 ca amOmoHU EmaH mmoHo ammo-» msHm> a .AmoN u c .Hooaom amHm mason .amo mammomma mam macmmsam . How mEOaH cOHcHao naHmOm Hmaamz mm oa momaoammm cmmz mo aOmHHmaEOUII.oN flames 106 am ooo. mm. Ho. HN.N NN.N mN.m mo.m oN.o N 0m moo. Hoo. om. NN.N om.m oo.m mo.m Nm.m om Hm Hoo. Hoo. NN. Nm.m oN.v mN.v NN.N mm.o NN Hm NN. Ho. No. NN.N oN.N oo.N NN.o Hm.N om Hm NN. No. mo. oo.N NN.m mN.m mm.m HN.m N am mo. mo. NN. oN.N NN.N NN.N NN.N NN.N N am mo. mN. mo. Nm.N mo.m Hm.N NN.N mo.v H Hm NN. Hoo. Noo. NN.H NH.N Nm.N Hm.N mN.N NN am om. Hoo. Noo. Nm.m NN.m NN.v Nm.m Nm.o NH Om NH. Hoo. No. mH.N oN.m Nm.m mN.m mH.m NH Om Ho. Hoo. No. Nm.N HH.m NN.N NN.N Hm.N HH am mm. NN. oN. mo.v NN.N mN.m NN.N NN.N mm Ha Hoo. Ho. Nm. oN.N mo.m mN.m NN.m Nm.m N am oN. mN. NN. NN.N Nm.N Nm.m NN.N NN.N «N muoaomma 81am 91am amuaa 9 am no om am .Oz oa amOmoHU anH mmmHo amoana msHm> a .posoHoooouu.o~ mHmaa 107 am mm. mm. NN. mN.m NN.m NN.N NH.N No.o NH am Hoo. Hooe NN. NN.N NN.m No.v oH.o Hm.N N am No. oo. mN. Nv.m NN.m NH.N No.o No.o NH am woo. Hoo. NH. NN.N mo.m mN.m NN.m oo.N HN am om. Hoo. voo. HN.N NN.N oo.m NH.m oN.m NN am No. Hoo. oH. NN.N NN.N NN.m NN.N mm.m Nm am NN. Hm. 0N. NN.N NN.N NH.m oH.m oo.m Hm mamaomma Elam Elam Hmlaa B am no Om um .02 0a amomoHU EmaH mmmHU ammala oaHm> a .poscHaooouu.om mHmHa 108 TABLE 20-A.--Number of Student Mean Responses Closest to Teacher Mean Responses, by Class Level (St. Johns High School, n = 205). Class Level Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior Total 11 8 l 15 35 Number of Statements with Means Significantly Different, by t—test p S .05 Fr-Sr 11 Fr-T 20 Sr—T 9 109 no Hoo. Hoo. ooo. om.m mo.m Nm.m mo.m mo.m mm no No. om. om. mm.m mm.m No.4 oo.m om.o mH no oH. Ho. No. om.m mm.m mm.m mm.m om.m oH no Hoo. Hoo. om. oo.H oo.m mo.m mm.m om.m mm no moo. moo. mo. NH.N mm.m mo.m om.m Hm.m mm no mo. moo. Hoo. mo.H mH.m om.m HN.m mm.m N om Hoo. mo. HH. om.m om.o oo.o om.o Ho.m om om mH. Ho. NH. om.m mm.m mo.m om.m oo.m oH no Hm. Ho. moo. oo.m mo.m mm.m mH.m mm.m mm no oo. om. mm. oo.m mH.m mm.m mo.m oo.m N no mo. om. om. om.m mm.m mm.m HH.m HN.m om om Hm. oH. mm. mm.m mm.m oo.m Ho.o om.m o no Ho. mm. Ho. om.m oo.m om.m mm.m mm.ov mH no Ho. mo. moo. om.m mH.o mm.m mm.m om.m mH mnoaopon aunm aunn nonnn a no no om no .02 0a aNONOHU EmaH mmmHo noonun OaHm> a .lmmm u : .Hooaom none nonmamHHano mnoaopoe poo mnooosnm now manH cOHaHao naHmOm Hmaamz mm oa mmmaoammm ammz mo chmHamaEOUII.HN mamma 110 no Ho. oo. oo. om.o .om.o om.m Nm.m mm.m o no Ho. Hoo. mo. oo.m mo.m oo.m oo.m mm.m om oo Hoo. Hoo. mo. om.m No.4 no.4 oo.m om.o om no oo. Hoo. mo. Ho.o mm.m oo.o om.m mo.m om oo oo. om. oo. oo.o oo.m oo.m om.m oo.m o no Hoo. Hoo. mo. om.H oo.m mo.m om.m Ho.m m oo mo. mo. Ho. oo.m om.o No.4 Ho.o mo.m H .no mH. Hoo. Hoo. oo.H oo.m ooHH oo.m mm.m mm no Ho. Hoo. om. Ho.o oo.o NN.o oo.o oo.m mH no Hm. Ho. mo. om.o oo.m mo.m om.m Hm.o oH no oo. Ho. Ho. mo.m mo.m mm.m mo.m om.m HH oo mm. mo. Ho. oo.o mH.m oo.o oo.o om.o om no mo. mo. oo. oa.m oo.m mo.m Ho.m mm.m o no om. mo. Hoo. mo.m mo.m mo.m om.m mo.m om mamzomwe Elam Elam amine 9 am no om am .02 oa ammmoHo EmaH oooHO noon-» maHm> a .vmdcmacOUII.HN mqmda 111 no mo. mm. mm. mH.o oN.m mm.o mo.o mH.o oH no mo. Hoo. No. mH.m mH.o. No.m oo.m oN.m o no moo. Hoo. Hm. mo.m mo.m mo.m NH.o om.o NH no Ho. Hoo. Ho. om.m mH.m mm.m Ho.m oo.m Hm no Ho. Hoo. mo. NH.m mm.m Nm.m mo.m mo.m mm no moo. oo. NH. oo.m Nm.m Nm.m HH.m mo.m mm 0o oH. mo. Nm. om.m mo.m mo.m Nm.m mm.m Hm mnmnomoa Elam Blah Hmlnm e am no om Hm .oz 0a amOmoHU anH ooMHO noon-» maHm> a .moscHaaoolu.HN.aHaNB 112 TABLE 21-A.-—Number of Mean Responses Closest to Teacher Mean Responses, by Class Level (Williamston High School, n = 225). Class Level Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior Total 2 8 19 6 35 Number of Statements with Means Significantly Different, by t-test p S .05 Fr-Sr 13 Fr-T 26 Sr-T 18 113 nm Ho. Ho. NN. NN.N Nm.m NN.m NN.m NN nm mH. moo. No. oN.m om.m No.m NN.N mH no No. NH. Ho. mo.m meN NN.N Nm.m OH nm Ho. Hoo. OH. Nm.N mH.m HN.m NN.m NN no Ho. Ho. NN. Hm.N oo.m NN.N NH.m mm nm mH. oH. mN. NN.H NN.N NN.N NN.N N nm ON. Hm. ON. NN.N oN.o Nm.N NN.N NN om «O. NH. oN. oo.N mH.m OH.m NN.N NH no Hoo. Hoo. mN. NN.H oo.m NN.N NN.N mN om moo. OH. NH. oo.N om.m NN.N NN.N N nm NN. NH. mH. Nm.m Nm.m ON.m NN.N ON nm NN. vv. HN. NN.N NN.v OH.m NN.N o nm mN. No. vo. No.m NH.m ON.m HN.m NH nm mm. mo. Nm. Nm.N NN.N NN.N No.m NH mnoaomma alnm atom nmlom 9 nm no cm .02 ca amwmoHU oomHo noonna maHm> a .AONH n a .Hoosom comm mmHamHnSU mpmamm Namnwv mnonomoe mam macmpaam now mamaH GOHcHao aaHmom Hmaamz mm oa mommoammm ammz mo aONHnmaEOUII.NN.mHa¢B 114 oo Ho. oo. mm. Ho.o om.m mo.m oo.m o no moo. oo. oo. Hm.m oN.m ooom Ho.m om no Hoo. Hoo. mo. NN.m oo.m oN.m mm.m mm oo mo. No. No. oo.m oo.m. mo.m mo.o om no mm. Ho. oo. Hm.o oo.m oo.m HH.m o no mo. mo. oH. mo.m oo.m Hm.m mo.m m no oN. om. mH. om.o NH.m oo.o oN.o H no om. mo. HH. No.H mo.H om.m mm.m Nm no mo. oo. oo. om.m oo.m oN.o mo.m oH no mo. ooo. oo. mo.o oo.o oN.m mm.m oH oo Hoo. Ho. mo. mN.H mN.m Hm.m mo.m HH oo oo. om. om. om.m oo.m HN.m NN.H om no oo. Ho. mm. Ho.m Hm.m mm.m oo.m o no mm. mm. Nm. oo.m mo.m mN.m oo.m om mnmaomma Blnm atom nmlom 9 nm no 0m .02 ca ammmoHU EmaH oooHo noonnn msHm> a .oooonnooouu.mm nHooa 115 no OH. NN. NN. mN.m HN.N mo.o Nm.N oH no Hoo. Hoo. oo. oo.m HH.H oo.m om.o o nm NH. Ho. ON. mH.m ON.m NN.N oo.N NH nm Ho. Hoo. mo. Nm.N mH.m NN.m Nm.m HN nm Noo. Hoo. No. NN.H NN.N mm.m NN.m NN Om No. OH. Nm. Hv.N oo.m HN.N NN.N Nm nm om. NO. oN. NN.N NN.N NN.N NH.m Hm mnoaomoe Bunm Blom nmlom 8 nm no cm .02 ca ammmOHU EmaH mmmHo ammala msHm> a .UOSGH#GOUII.NN mqmda 116 TABLE 22-A.--Number of Mean Responses Closest to Teacher Mean Responses, by Class Level (Grand Rapids Christian High School, n = 160). Class Level Sophomore Junior Senior Total 7 7 21 35 Number Of Statements with Means Significantly Different, by t-test p S .05 So-Sr 5 So-T l7 Sr-T 17 117 TABLE 23.--Summary: Number of Mental Health Opinion Statement Means Closest to Teacher Means, by School and Class Level. School Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior Total Fowler 7 1 7 19. 34 Ovid-Elsie 2 8 5 20 35 St. Johns ll 8 l 15 35 Williamston 2 8 l9 6 35 Grand Rapids --* 7 7 21 35 Total 22 32 39 81 275 Class 3? 5.5 6.4 7.8 16.2 *Grand Rapids Christian is a 3-year high school (grades 10-12). Table 23 shows a summary of results from Tables 18-22. Table 23 shows that a greater number of mean responses of seniors to the 35 opinion statements are closer to teacher mean responses than the means of other grades for all five schools except one. Results show that the mean responses of juniors for Williamston are more similar to teacher responses than the mean responses of other grades. However, an average for each class across schoOls explicitly reveals that there is a steady increase from the freshmen to the senior class: Freshmen, 5.5; Sophomore, 6.4; Junior 7.8; Senior, 16.2. The data demonstrate that 22 freshmen mean responses were more similar to their teachers, 32 sophomore mean responses, 39 junior mean responses and 81 senior mean responses. 118 Hypothesis 1A is supported by the data (Tables 18- 23). Data do not support hypothesis 1, however, when school classes for each school are pooled the expected trend is supported. Table 24 gives a summary of the number of statements with means significantly different by t-test. Table 24 also shows means tested for freshmen-teachers and senior- teachers. In each case there are fewer significantly different statements for senior/teachers than for freshmen/ teachers except for Grand Rapids, where the significantly different statement means are equal. However, the total number of significantly different means clearly demonstrates that responses of seniors are more similar to teacher responses than those of freshmen. In addition to presentations 18-23, Table 24 shows a second somewhat different way of testing hypotheses 1 and 1A; both support hypothesis 1A. TABLE 24.--Summary: Number of Statements with Means Signi- ficantly Different with p S .05, by t-test. - Schools Freshmen/Teachers Senior/Teachers Fowler 18 11 Ovid-Elsie 23 10 St. Johns 20 9 Williamston 26 18 Grand Rapids l7 17 Total 104 65 119 PartlII-B: Relationship Bgtween Students and "Grand Rapids Citizens" Hypothesis 2: As grade levels increase the mental health Opinions of high school students will become increasingly similar to those of the "Grand Rapids Citizens." 2A: The Opinions of high school seniors will be more similar to those of the "Grand Rapids Citizens" than the Opinions of other class levels. TABLE 25.--Comparison of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Items for Students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (Fowler High School, n = 215). Item Class Closest to No. "Grand Rapids Citizens" "Grand Rapids Citizens" 12 4.00 Sr 15 3.73 Jr 4 5.37 Fr 20 3.32 _ Jr 2‘ 3.31 Jr 23 2.32 Sr I¥16 2.65 Sr 26 4.35 So 7 2.48 Jr. 33 2.41 Sr 28 2.91 Sr 1 10 3.62 Fr 13 5.13 Sr 25 3.30 SO 24 2.68 Sr TABLE 25.--Continued. 120 Item Class Closest to NO. "Grand Rapids Citizens" "Grand Rapids Citizens" 8 3.10 Sr 35 4.69 Jr 11 2.08 Fr 18 6.15 Sr 19 5.31 Sr 27 1.73 Sr 1 4.66 Jr 3 2.28 Sr 5 3.80 So 30 5.14 Jr 29 3.62 Sr 34 2.82 Sr 9 4.52 Fr 31 2.89 Jr 32 2.35 Sr 22 2.75 Sr 21 3.07 Sr 17 4.06 Sr 6 3.20 Sr 14 4.11 So 121 TABLE 26.--Comparison of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Items for Students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (Ovid-Elsie High School, n = 177). Item Class Closest to No. "Grand Rapids Citizens" "Grand Rapids Citizens" 12 4.00 Fr 15 3.73 Jr 4 5.37 Fr 20 3.32 So 2 3.31 Jr 23 2.32 Sr 16 2.65 Sr 26 4.35 Jr 7 2.48 So 33 2.41 Sr 28 2.91 Sr 10 3.62 Jr 13 5.13 Sr 25 3.30 So 24 2.68 Jr 8 3.10 So 35 4.69 Sr 11 2.08 Sr 18 6.15 So 19 5.31 Jr 27 1.73 Jr 1 4.66 Fr TABLE 26.--Continued. 122 Item Class Closest to No. "Grand Rapids Citizens" "Grand Rapids Citizens" 3 2.28 Sr 5 3.80 Fr 30 5.14 Sr 29 3.62 Fr 34 2.82 So 9 4.52 Fr 31 2.89 Fr 32 2.35 Sr :: 22 2.75 Sr 21 3.07 Sr 17 4.06 Jr 6 3.20 Sr 14 4.11 Sr 123 TABLE 27.--Comparison of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Items for Students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (St. Johns High School, n = 205). Item Class Closest to No. "Grand Rapids Citizens" "Grand Rapids Citizens" 12 4.00 Fr 15 3.73 So 4 5.37 Jr 20 3.32 So 2 3.31 Fr 23 2.32 Sr 16 2.65 Jr 26 4.35 Fr 7 2.48 Sr 33 2.41 Jr 28 2.91 Sr 10 3.62 Jr 13 5.13 So 25 3.30 Sr 24 2.68 So 8 3.10 Fr 35 4.69 Sr 11 2.08 So 18 6.15 So 19 5.31 So 27 1.73 Sr 1 4.66 So - 3 2.28 SO TABLE 27.-—Continued. 124 Item Class Closest to NO. "Grand Rapids Citizens" "Grand Rapids Citizens" 5 3.80 Jr 30 5.14 Sr 29 3.62 Fr 34 2.82 So 9 4.52 Fr 31 2.89 Sr 32 2.35 Sr 22 2.75 Sr 21 3.07 Sr 17 4.06 So 6 3.20 Sr 14 4.11 Fr 125 TABLE 28.--Comparison of Mean Responses for 35 Mental Health Opinion Items for Students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (Williamston High School, n = 225). Item Class Closest to No. "Grand Rapids Citizens" "Grand Rapids Citizens" 12 4.55 Jr 15 3.73 So 4 5.37 So 20 3.32 SO 2 3.31 Sr 23 2.32 Jr 16 2.65 So 26 4.35 Sr 7 2.48 Jr 33 2.41 Jr 28 2.91 Jr 10 3.62 Fr 13’ 5.13 Fr 25' 3.30 Jr 24 2.68 Jr 8 3.10 Sr _35 4.69 Sr 11 2.08 Sr 18 ’ 6.15 Sr 19 5.31 Sr 27 1.73 Jr 1 4.66 Sr TABLE 28.--Continued. 126 Item Class Closest to No. "Grand Rapids Citizens" "Grand Rapids Citizens“ 3 2.28 Jr 5 3.80 So 30 5.14 Sr 29 3.62 So 34 2.82 Jr 9 4.52 Jr 31 2.89 So 32 2.35 Jr 22 2.75 Jr 21 3.07 Sr 17 4.06 Sr 6 3.20 ' Jr 14 4.11 Sr 127 TABLE 29.-~Comparison of Mean Responses to 35 Mental Health Opinion Items for Students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (Grand Rapids Christian High School, n = 160). Item Class Closest to No. "Grand Rapids Citizens" "Grand Rapids Citizens" 12 4.55 Sr 15 3.73 Jr 4 5.37 Jr 20 3.32 So 2 3.31 Sr 23 2.32 Jr 16 2.65 Jr 26 4.35 Jr 7 2.48 So 33 2.41 Jr 28 2.91 Sr 10 3.62 So 13 5.13 Jr 25 3.30 - Sr 24 2.68 Sr 8 3.10 Sr 35 4.69 Jr - 11 2.08 SO 18 6.15 Sr 19 5.31 Sr 27 1.73 Sr 1 4.66 So TABLE 29.--Continued. 128 Item Class Closest to No. "Grand Rapids Citizens" "Grand Rapids Citizens" 3 2.28 Sr 5 3.80 Jr 30 5.14 So 29 3.62 Jr 34 2.82 Sr 9 4.52 So 31 2.89 Jr 32 2.35 So 22 2.75 Sr 21 3.07 Sr 17 4.06 So 6 3.20 Jr 14 4.11 Jr Since the correlations Of means on the opinion statements between the "Grand Rapids Citizens" and each of the sets of teachers ranged from .93 to .97, t-tests between student means and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" means were not conducted because they would be largely redundant. 129 Table 30 shows the number Of mean responses of Opinion statements closest to the mean responses of the "Grand Rapids Citizens." Data show that hypothesis 2A is supported, thus, confirming the notion that the mean responses of seniors are more similar to the "general public" than other class levels. Results reveal that a total of 71 mean responses of seniors were closest to those of the "general public," whereas, 20 of the freshmen mean responses were closest. Sophomores and juniors were between the two extremes with 37 and 47, respectively. The class average demonstrates an increasing similarity of student mean responses to those of the "Grand Rapids Citizens." The class means across schools for each grade are: 5.0, 7.4, 8.4, and 14.2 for freshmen, sophomores, juniors and seniors respectively. As indicated, there is a steady increase from the freshmen to senior level. Hypothesis 2A is supported by results from presen- tations 25-29. Hypothesis 2 is not supported, however, when school classes for each class are pooled the expected trend is supported. 130 TABLE 30.--Number of Mental Health Statement Means Closest to the Mean Responses of the "Grand Rapids Citizens," by Class Level and School. School Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior .Total Fowler 4 4 7 20 35 Ovid-Elsie ‘ 7 6 8 14 35 St. Johns 7 ‘ ll 5 12 35 Williamston 2 7 14 12 35 Grand Rapids -- 9 , l3 ‘ 13 35 Total 20 37 47 71 175 Class E 5.0 7.4 ' 8.4 14.2 Part III Relationship Between Knowledgeability and Social Variables Hypothesis 3: As grade levels increase (9-12) there will be an increase in mental health knowledge of high school students. 3A: Seniors will have a higher knowledgeability score than other class levels. Data relevant to hypotheses 3 and 3A are presented in Tables 31 and 32. Table 31 shows the relationship between knowledgeability and year in school. Table 32 presents probability values for t-tests of differences between means for each class in each school. 131 NNN u a NNN ONN omN ONH z Nm.NN NH.NN NN.NN NN.NN m mmmHU NmH No NN No I: z Nm.NN NN.NN Nm.NN NN.HN NH.ON II .M mpHamm mamnu NNN Nm ON NN mo 2 Nm.NN H0.0N NO.NN ON.mN Nm.ON NO.NN m ooamEmHHHHz NON mN No NN om z NO.NN NN.NN ON.ON NN.NN NN.HN mN.NN M maaoo .am NNH mo Nm Nm Nm 2 NN.NN NN.NN NO.HN NN.NN NO.NN Nm.NN M OHmHmlmH>o HHN No mm Nm mm 2 NH.NN NN.NN No.mN mN.NN Nm.NN oo.NN m ansom M moanOHmsaa m Hoozom nOHcOm noHcdo onoaoaaom amenmmnm mHooaom .Hooaom GH nmw» mam NaHHHamomme3oaM cmoeawm aHSNGOHamHmmllon mHmfla 132 .NmmHmosaoawa mm aoa mononOHMHp mo QOHaoonHan mo. Ho. mm. I. I. u. v o mmmamm pamnw oH.. oH. mo. Hoo. Hoo. Hoo. v o SCH mEMHHH .25 mo. HH.. Ho.. mo. No.4 Ho. v o ooooo .no Ho. mm. oo.. Hoo. mH. ooo. v o OHmHWI©H>O Ho. Hoo. mo. ooo. oo. oo.. v o aneom noHcOm noHcmm noHcso nOHcom noHaso onOanaom Hoonom InoHaao Imnoanaom IonOanaom lameammnm lameammnm lamaammnm CH mmmHU 30mm now mama: ammzaom .Hooaoo.aoon mooamnmmuma no mammala .OsHm> NaHHHamaonalleHm maada 133 Results show that hypothesis 3A is supported by the data from three schools, however, when seniors are compared to freshmen, the hypothesis is supported by all five schools. The class mean further supports the hypothe- sis that seniors are higher on knowledgeability than other class levels. Data do not support the notion of a regular increase in knowledgeability score with grade levels (9-12). However, data support the hypothesis that seniors are higher in knowledgeability in each case than freshmen. For Fowler, freshmen have a knowledgeability mean of 67 and seniors have a mean Of 73; Ovid-Elsie freshmen have a score of 62 and seniors have a score of 71; St. Johns freshmen have a score of 67, whereas, seniors are 71; Williamston freshmen are 62 and seniors are 72. Hypothesis 3A is supported by the data. Although . hypOthesis 3 is not clearly supported in 21 out of 27 pairs of comparisons, the direction was as expected. The hypo- thesis is not altogether supported nor altogether repudiated. This is an area which suggests further investigation. Hypothesis 4: Males and females will not differ on the knowledgeability score. Data relevant to hypothesis 4 are presented in Table 33 which shows the relationship between knowledge- ability and sex. 134 TABLE 33.--The Relationship Between Knowledgeability and Sex. School Male Female Probability Fowler X 65.69 69.87 p < .004 N 95 109 Ovid-Elsie X 64.39 68.97 p < .01 N 77 92 St; Johns X 65.58 71.95 p < .001 N 95 109 Williamston X 68.31 71.84 p < .004 N 115 107 Grand Rapids ‘ X 70.68 73.79 p < .05 N ' 73 84 Total X 66.93 71.28 69.10 N 455 501 956 Table 33 shows that females are higher on know- ledgeability for each school. Females show an average Of 71 and males show an average of 67. Hypothesis 4 is not supported by the data. Hypothesis 5: Grade Point Average will be positively related to knowledgeability. Data relevant to hypothesis 5 are presented in Table 34. The above data support hypothesis 5 for all Schools except for Grand Rapids, where the results are significantly contrary. As indicated, students with GPA 135 of B+ and above have higher knowledgeability scores than students with GPA of B and below. Hypothesis 5 is supported. TABLE 34.--Relationship Between Knowledgeability and Grade Point Average (GPA). School B+ and Above B and Below Probability Fowler x 71.41 ' 66.02 p < .001 N 76 131 Ovid-Elsie X .70.07 66.31 p < .05 N 30 131 St; Johns X 74.75 69.35 p < .001 N 48 152 Williamston X 74.09 69.31 p < .001 N 86 129 Grand Rapids X 71.51 77.28 *p < .004 N - 35 115 ToEal X 72.37 69.65 71.01 N 275 658 933 *Direction of difference not as hypothesized. 136 Hypothesis 6: Students who indicate definite plans for attending college will score higher on knowledgeability. Data relevant to hypothesis 6 are presented in Table 35. Results show that students indicating plans for attending college are higher on the knowledgeability score than students who reported having no plans for attending college. Hypothesis 6 is supported by the data. Results support the claim that college bound students are more knowledgeable about mental health concepts than non-college bound students. The relationship holds between knowledge- ability and college plans, although notions of college plans vary considerably from school to school. Hypothesis 7: There will be a positive relationship between knowledgeability and father's education. Hypothesis 8: There will be a positive relationship between knowledgeability and mother's education. Data pertaining to hypotheses 7 and 8 are presented in Tables 36-39. Results show that knowledgeability is not related to parental education. .Socio-structural variables do not have very much influence on the mental health knowledge of the Offspring as revealed by these data. Hypotheses 7 and 8 are not supported by these data. 137 Nm omH oH oN z Hoo. v o mo.oo NH.mN mo. v oN.No mo.mN m moHamm mamnw Ho oNH mH om .z ooo. v o oN.oo oo.oN Ho. v oo.No mm.oN m coaoaoHHHHs mo ooH mH mo 2 Ho. v o oo.oo oo.oN Ho. v No.oo mN.HN m ooaoo .no mN oo om mm 2 Hoo. v o om.mo mN.oo Hoo. v mo.oo om.mN m oHonan>o om mHH om om z mmo. v o mm.oo Nm.oo moo. v mo.oo Hm.oN m nOHeom maHm>Ia oz .aona no» .nona maHm>Ia oz no» \02 .noo \oon .noo nHonHoHooo nHoaHoHnoo mcmHa oNOHHOU .mamHa OOOHHOU mam NaHHHammmmmHsoaM cmosama aHnmaomamHomll.mm mamma 138 TABLE 36.--Relationship Between Knowledgeability and Education of Father. Level of Education School Not H.S. Grad. H.S. Grad Beyond H.S. Fowler X 69.12 66.57 67.08 N 107 130 18 Ovid—Elsie X 66.31 66.23 68.61 N 62 104 26 St; Johns X 67.11 70.26 69.71 N 65 123 42 Williamston X 69.14 67.92 71.17 N 42 102 83 Grand Rapids X 69.04 73.91 72.48 N 24 74 71 TABLE 37.--PrObability Value, t-tests of Differences Between Means for Each Class in Each School. Father--Level of Education School A-B A-C B-C Fowler p < *.05 *.20 .41 Ovid-Elsie p < *.48 .18 .15 St. Johns p < .03 .10 *.38 Williamston p < *.27 .13 .02 Grand Rapids p < 004 .08 *022 *Direction of difference not as hypothesized. 139 TABLE 38.--Relationship Between Knowledgeability and Education of Mother. Level of Education School Not H.S. Grad. H.S. Grad. Beyond H.S. Fowler X 68.89 67.25 69.39 N 63 130 18 Ovid-Elsie X 65.17 67.87 65.38 N 43 104 26 St; Johns X 67.78 68.37 71.55 N 37 123 42 Williamston X 68.11 70.56 70.40 N 36 102 83 Grand Rapids X 72.00 71.57 73.21 N 12 74 71 TABLE 39.--Probability Value, t-tests of Differences Between Means for Each Class in Each School. Mother--Level of Education School A-B A-C B-C Fowler p < *.15 .43 .21 Ovid-Elsie p < .10 .47 *.17 St. Johns p< 033 006 .05 Williamston p < .10 .12 *.46 Grand Rapids p < *.45 .35 .06 *Direction Of difference not as hypothesized. 140 Hypothesis 9: Students whose fathers are employed in upper white collar profes- sions will score higher on knowledge- ability than students whose fathers are employed in upper blue collar professions and below. Findings relative to hypothesis 9 are presented in Tables 40 and_4l; Table 40 shows a tendency for students whose parents are employed in "upper white collar" profes- sions to have a higher K-score than students whose parents are employed in occupations categorized as "lower white collar" and below. The relationship between other occupa- tional levels and knowledgeability show only weak relation- ships. Results suggest that ordering Of occupational categories in relation to knowledgeability are more appli- cable to other communities than to the Grand Rapids community. Hypothesis 9 is not supported by the data. However, there is a trend for students of fathers employed in white collar occupations to have a higher knowledgeability score. Hypothesis 10: Respondents who have experienced the mental disorder (institutionalization or treatment) of a friend will score higher on knowledgeability. Hypothesis ll: Respondents who have experienced the mental disorder (institutionalization or treatment) of a family member will score higher on knowledgeability. Hypothesis 12: Respondents who have visited a mental disorder unit will score higher on knowledgeability. 141 NHN n a NNH NNm NmH NNN z Nm.NN Nv.NN NN.NN NN.ON m HmaOB NNH u a N Nm NN ON 2 mm.oN NN.NN Nm.NN ON.HN M mmHamm mamnw NON n a HH mN Nm NN z HN.ON NN.NN HN.NN NH.HN m coamEmHHHHz NNH u a HH NOH NN Nm 2 NH.NN NN.NN NN.NN NN.NN M maaoo .am mNH u a mm ON ON NN z NN.oN mN.NN NN.NN NN.NN m mHmHmlmH>o NON n : ON NN mN NH 2 Nm.NN mN.NN ON.NN NN.NN M nOHzom UNH\nmEnma UNS\UBH anHOU mon nwaaa anHOU mamaz noaaa Hooaom COHamaaooo .noaamm mo comamaaooo Nam NaHHHamomponocx ammsaom QHSNGOHamHOmll.oo mamda 142 .UONHmmfiflOmhfi mm #02 OUGOHOHMMU MO GOflUOOHflGk oH. om. Hoo. om.. oH. Ho.« v o mmHamm mamno mm.. mH.. oH.. oo. oH. Ho. v o oonoaoHHHHz om. om. mm. Hm. oo. oo.. v o ocaoo .no mH. oo.. oH.. oH. mm. oo. v o OHMHHIQN>O mH.. oo.4 Nm.. om. NH. mm. v o nOHeom omenuomz\ozH umH\nnomO om2\oznuomH omH\nuon omzxoznuozo omouozo Hooaoo aoHamaaooo m.nosama mmmHU .Hooaom coma aH nomm now mama: amosama nonconOMMHa mo mammala .osHm> aaHHHamnonall.Hv mummy 143 Results pertaining to hypotheses 10, 11, and 12 are presented in Table 42. Table 42 shows a trend for respon- dents with mental health experience to be more knowledge- able about mental health concepts. The knowledgeability score for the friends index is higher for all schools except St. Johns. The relation- ship between knowledgeability and the family index is clear for all five schools, however, the relationship is not very strong. The combined index (friends, family, visitation) also reveals a relationship between experience and knowledge— ability, again, the relationship is not very strong. Hypotheses 10, 11, and 12 are supported by the results. Hypothesis 13: The knowledgeability score for high school teachers will be higher than the knowledgeability score for high school students. Results presented in Table 43 are relevant to hypothesis 13. Table 43 shows that teachers have a higher knowledgeability score for all schools. Hypothesis 13 is supported. 144 NOH NN No OHH NN OOH 2 Ho. v a mN.mN NN.NN mo. v a NN.NN NN.HN vo. NH.NN NH.HN M mpHamm oamno NNH NOH vN oNH No HNH z oo. v a NO.HN NN.NN No. v a NN.HN Nm.NN NH. NN.HN NN.NN M soamEmHHHHS NN NOH vo ONH mm NvH 2 NO. v a NH.ON mN.NN OH. v a NN.ON NN.NN mm. NN.NN NH.NN M maaoo .am NN NN No omH No NNH z NH. v a NN.NN HN.NN Ho. v a NN.ON NN.NN oN. NN.NN Nm.NN M OHmHm1mH>o ON HNH om NNH NN oNH z vo. v a NN.NN NH.NN mH. v a NN.NN ON.NN NO. mN.ON mN.NN M nOH3om maHm>Ia no» 02 OsHm>Ia mow oz waHm>na mow oz Hooaom AmaHmH> NHHEmm mpammnm .oooonnn .NHHeono moaHaEOu moamHnoaxm aaHmom Hmacmz .oocmHnmaxm naHmmm Hmacoz mam waHHHammmpOH3oaM aomeamm aHamc0HamHOMII.No mamms 145 TABLE 43.--Relationship Between Students and Teachers on Knowledgeability. School Students Teachers Probability Fowler X 67.92 86.29 p < .001 N Ovid-Elsie X .66.74 80.71 p < .001 N StLIJohns X 68.98 77.73 p < .001 N Williamston X 70.01 83.30 p < .001 N Grand Rapids X . 72.27 81.95 p < .001 146 NamnHaCm maH CH moanoaasm aOC mHmmCaoamN moanoaaam onoCaoaNm haonHaCO maH CH moanoaaam aOC mHmonaoahm moanoaasm mHomCaoaNm waonHaCm maH CH poanoaasm aOC mHmmCaoaNm mnoomlx CO ammonOCH Cm on HHH3 mnosa ammonOCH poauoaxa mm mHm>mH mmmnm m< mHm>mH mmmHo nmaao CmCa =OHHaaa HmnmCmo= mCa mo moosa oa anHEHm mnOE moaomaxa mm HHH3 momsoamon nOHCON =OHHaCa HmnOCom= 03a m0 mooaa oa anHEHm NHOCH ImmmnOCH mEoooa HHH3 maCOmCam mo mCoHCHao naHmOC HmaCOe mmmonOCH poaomaxm we mHm>mH mmmnm mm mHO>OH mmmHo nmaao Cmaa mnmaomma nHOna NO mmosa Oa anHEHm once on moaomaxa mm HHH3 momaoamon nOHCom mnonomma nHOCa mo mooaa oa anHEHm NHNCH ImmmnOCH mEoooa HHH3 maaopaam mo mCoHCHao naHmoC HmaCOE ammonOCH pmaooaxm mm mHO>mH Opmnm mm HO>OH mpmnu =OHHaCa HmnmCmo= maa oa momCoammn no manoHHeHo mCm HO>OH momno :OHHaCa HmnOCO0= oaa oa mOmCoammn mo NaHanHEHm pCm HO>OH mmmnw mnoaomma oa momaoammn no NanoHHsHo mCm HO>OH mmmnw mnoComma oa noncoamon no NanoHHaHo mam Hm>mH mpmno ConCHOCOU mCm mnoom NaHHHamOmmmHsoCM Coosamm aHCmCOHamHmm mConB mommaaoaam mOHamHnm> III .mmHamHnm> Hmwoom “maHamom mo NnmEEsmll.vv NHNNH 147 moanoaasm mHmmCaoamm mamnHaCo maH CH Noanoaasm aOC mHmOCaoamm mHmoCaoaNC oa hnmnaCoo mama mHmoaaoama oa NnmnaCoo mama mmaomaxm mm moaomaxa mm moamOHmCH mCoz moamOHmCH mCoz mnOOmIM CO nOCmHallmOCmHnmaxa oncomlm Co nmsmHC .anH o maHC3 noaaa oncomlm mCa noamHC .COHamosom nwnNHm mnoomIM maa nOCmHC .COHamOCmo nOCNHN prCmHnm «OOCmHnwaxm CaHmmm HmaCoz COHamaCooo m.nmaama nmaaoz nmsamm "COHamOCpm HmaConma poanoaaam oncomlx Co nmnOHC ma mHmOCaoaNm moaooaxm mm HHH3 pCsoa ONOHHOU mCmHa ONOHHOU poanoaaam onoomlx 03a noCNHC mmmno>< mHmonaoamm poaomaxm mm .Nao mCa nOCmHm aCHoa mmmno mHmoaaoaha oa mnmnacoo mama noamHm NOHmEOm aHSNCOHamHmn oz xmm moanoaasm mnoomlm mHmoCaoamm mmaooaxm mm Co nOCmHC mnoHCwm HO>OH mpmno ConCHOCOU NCOnB mmmOCaoamm mmHamHnm> .posonnooouu.oo mqmon 148 moanoaasm mnoomlm mnonomma mHmOCaoamm moaooaxm mm CO nOCNHC mnoaomoa .m> maCopaam maHmH> . mHHaoo moanoaaam oncomlx Co .mmCOHnm mHmoaaoahm pmaooaxm we nOCNHC OOCOHnOaxm "UOCHQEOU moanoaasm mnoomlm Co mHmmCaoamm mwaomaxm mm nmCOHCIIOOCoHnmaxm NNHHEmm COHmCHOCOU pCmna mommnaoamm NOHamHnm> .UODCHaCOUII.vv mqmda 149 Recent Results from a Related'Study During the analysis stage of this investigation, an article was published by J. Marshall Townsend which utilized the same mental health opinion statements as those used in the present research. On our request, Professor Townsend sent data showing the mean responses to 30 of the 35 mental health statements used in this study (Appendix G). Correla- tions between means for the Townsend sample (Seattle, Washington High School Students, n = 728) and the present study was .96, which suggests that our data have relevance beyond the Michigan area. Mean responses indicate that belief patterns are widespread and, perhaps, opinions about mental disorder are about the same throughout the country. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The present study is concerned with an exploration of mental health opinions among high school students. A review of the literature suggests that very little research has been done toward answering the question Of how mental health Opinions develop. Research literature suggests that the school years are very critical in the shaping of Opinions and attitudes. A wide range of attitudes and opinions are develOped during this period. The writer con- tends that mental health opinions are formed along with all such attitudes and opinions concerning social phenomena. The sample for the investigation consisted of 989 high school students from five high schools in Michigan. Fowler High School, Ovid-Elsie High School, St. Johns High School, Williamston High School, and Grand Rapids Christian High School. The primary focus of the study was to determine how knowledgeable high school students are about mental health and if "knowledgeability" is related to certain sociolo- gical variables. 150 151 The primary dependent variables are: (l) a measure of similarity to the "general public," (2) a measure of similarity to high school teachers, and (3) a "knowledge- ability" score reflecting similarity Of responses to professionals. The major independent variables are: year in school (grades 9-12), sex, college plans, parental education, father's occupation, experience with mental illness (friends, family, visits to mental disorder units), and grade point average (GPA). The above dependent and independent variables were were used to determine the relationship for the following hypotheses: Hypothesis 1: As grade levels increase the mental health opinions of high school students will become increasingly similar to those of their teachers. 1A: The mental health opinions of high school seniors will be more similar to the Opinions of their teachers than the Opinions of other class levels. Data support hypothesis 1A but not hypothesis 1. Results from each school do not show a steady increase in the similarity of mental health notions to their teachers with an increase in grade levels. However, when grade levels are pooled, as grade levels increase (freshmen to senior) there is also an increase in similarity of student mean responses to teacher mean responses. During the process of assessing the evidence regarding hypothesis 1, it became apparent that this is a 152 "tough" or hard-to-confirm hypothesis, since it specifies the precise order of similarity to teachers of each class in each school. Hypotheses 2 and 3 are also "tough," and failure to confirm these hypotheses does not mean that there is no relationship between class level and the respective dependent variable. Hypothesis 2: As grade levels increase the mental health Opinions of high school students will become increasingly similar to those of the "Grand Rapids Citizens." 2A: The opinions of seniors will be more similar to the Opinions of the "Grand Rapids Citizens" than the Opinions Of other class levels. Hypothesis 2A is supported. Results do not support hypothesis 2. Results for individual schools do not show a steady increase in the similarity of mental health Opinions to those Of the "Grand Rapids Citizens" with an increase in grade levels. However, when grade levels for all schools are pooled, there is an increase in similarity of student mean responses to "adult" mean responses as grade levels increase. Hypothesis 3: As grade levels increase (9-12) there will be an increase in mental health knowledge of high school students. 3A: Seniors will have a higher knowledge- ability score than other class levels. Data support hypothesis 3A but not hypothesis 3. Results from individual schools do not show an increase 153 in mental health knowledge as grade levels increase. When grade levels for all schools are combined results show a steady increase in knowledgeability from freshmen to senior class. females related Hypothesis 4: Males and females will not differ on knowledgeability. Hypothesis 4 was rejected. Results revealed that were higher on knowledgeability. Hypothesis 5: Grade point average will be positively related to knowledgeability. Hypothesis 5 was supported by the data. Hypothesis 6: Students who indicate definite plans for attending college will score higher on knowledgeability. Results confirmed hypothesis 6. Hypothesis 7: There will be a positive relationship between knowledgeability and father's education. Hypothesis 8: There will be a positive relationship between knowledgeability and mother's education. Results indicated that parental education is not to the K-score. Hypotheses 7 and 8 are rejected. Hypothesis 9: Students whose fathers are employed in upper white collar profes- sions will score higher on knowledge- ability than students whose fathers are employed in upper blue collar profes- sions and below. 154 Hypothesis 9 was not viewed as being supported by the data, although in three of five cases, the upper white collar fathers had the highest K—score means. In the other two cases the upper blue collar fathers had the highest means. Hypothesis 10: Respondents who have experienced .the mental disorder (institutionalization or treatment) of a friend will score higher on knowledgeability. Hypothesis ll: Respondents who have experienced the mental disorder (institutionalization or treatment) of a family member will score higher on knowledgeability. Hypothesis 12: ReSpondents who have visited a mental disorder unit will score higher on knowledgeability. Results support hypothesis 10, 11, and 12. Respon- dents with mental health experience score higher on knowledgeability. Hypothesis 13: High school teachers will score higher on knowledgeability than high school students. Data support hypothesis l3. Hypotheses l and 2 were tested by comparing the mean responses to 35 mental health opinion items for students and teachers (hypotheses l and 1A) and students and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (hypotheses 2 and 2A). This comparison was made for each grade level and for all five schools. 155 Hypotheses 3-13 were tested by devising a K-score for each reSpondent and comparing the score to specific social variables. Results show a clear relationship between knowledge- ability and specific social variables. However, relation- ships were not strong. Limitationsy,Contributionsy_Recommendations The results of this study may be divided in two primary parts. The first part (hypotheses l and 2) is concerned with the closeness of student responses by grade, to those of their teachers and to the "Grand Rapids Citizens." This analysis utilizes all 35 mental health Opinion statements and is distinct from "knowledgeability." This comparison is important to this study because it pre- sents one way of determining to some extent, the "social maturity" of the high school students. "Social maturity" here refers to the extent of socialization into the adult world. I contend that mental health opinions are a part of our cultural belief system and as individuals mature they incorporate the cultural notions of their environment which are transmitted by various means. The school is only one transmission unit that the student encounters, however, its influence should not be understated. The school is considered an ideal setting for this study, because it is during the high school years in which students' opinions 156 are developing, not only mental health Opinions, but opinions and attitudes concerning politics, economics, authority and about worldly phenomena in general. My position is that mental health opinions and attitudes are not formed independently of other such atti- tudes about spcial phenomena. This should be a matter of considerable theoretical interest to the sociologist and sociological social psychologist: in the development of attitudes in young peOple who are soon to take on adult roles, are the mechanisms and processes essentially the same in different content areas? That is, do these processes, as part Of socialization, take place in about the same way with respect to such content areas as political, economic, religious, mental health, etc.? If mental health notions develop in the same manner as, say, political and economic attitudes, sociologically, one might expect a relationship between social-structural variables and knowledgeability. However, the present study does not support the expected relationship between social-structural variables and know- ledgeability (specifically, father's education and mother's education were not related to knowledgeability, and results for parental occupation were "muddy" rather than clear-cut). Findings consistent with hypotheses 1A and 2A support the notion of "social maturity." In all schools the opinions of seniors were closer to the high school teachers and to the "Grand Rapids Citizens" than the opinions 157 of other class levels. This finding suggests that high school seniors possess a higher level of SOphisticatiOn in the mental health opinion area than freshmen, sophomores, or juniors. Interaction with the cultural belief system is greater with seniors than with other classes and socializa- tion into the adult world is more prevalent with seniors than with other class levels. It should be emphasized that when individual schools are viewed, there is not always increasing similarity to "adult" (teachers and "Grand Rapids Citizens") responses at each succeeding grade leve1--i.e., freshmen are not always least similar in each school, with sophomores somewhat more similar, juniors still more, and seniors most similar. However, when responses for classes of the same level are combined for all schools, as levels increase there is also an increase in similarity of mean responses to "adult" respOnses from freshmen to senior (Table 23). The Opinions of high school students were compared to those of their teachers and the "Grand Rapids Citizens" because the two samples represent Older persons in the population. The teacher samples are important for the purpose of comparison because the school is concretely represented by the teachers. I am willing to assume that the teacher plays a vital part in the socialization of students by influencing their overall development, and that the teacher's.opinions and attitudes concerning what 158 is a psychological problem is transmitted to the students influencing their world view. The "Grand Rapids Citizens“ sample was used because it was an available adult sample, considered to approximate a "general public" sample. Future research efforts may be directed toward acquiring general public samples from each school community. In addition to comparing students to teachers and the general public, future research may sample the opinions of the students' parents. How similar or different are student and parental opinions? These comparisons could be helpful in determining who the significant adults are for high school students. The second stage Of the analysis was concerned with knowledgeability and social variables. One way of beginning to understand the processes that result in knowledgeability differences among students is to see whether, and how, these differences are related to other ways in which students differ. That is, certain social variables can be viewed as independent variables having an effect on knowledgeability as a dependent variable. The independent variables consisted of grade level, sex, GPA, plans for attending college, father's education, mother's education, father's occupation, mental health experience (friends, family, and visiting of a mental ill- .ness unit), and teachers vs. students. 159 It was hypothesized that as grade levels increase there would also be an increase in mental health knowledge of high school students; seniors will be higher on knowledge- ability than other grade levels. This hypothesis was formu- lated in an effort to determine a kind of developmental process. If the high school years are important for overall development, how crucial is this period? Results did not indicate that knowledge about mental health increased with saga grade level for aaga school; however, when grade levels for all schools were pooled, results were clear and undeniable, and showed a steady increase from freshmen to senior. A clear developmental process for each school was not reflected, although in each school seniors were higher on knowledgeability than freshmen and in three out of five schools seniors were higher than all other classes. Knowledgeability can be viewed as an indication of how well young peOple are socialized into the community belief system. It is also concerned with how soon one is socialized into the belief system. Therefore, results cOn- sistent with grade level suggest that seniors are more socialized into the belief system than other classes. When students and teachers are compared on knowledgeability, teacher means are higher in each school. Future research efforts may be directed usefully toward studying mental health opinions at lower school class levels. Each school class performs an important role 160 in the socialization process. Since the earlier school years are considered impressionable for young people in shaping Opinions, the intermediate grade levels in compari- son to the high school levels may yield significant con- tributions. Knowledgeability was further tested with the variables sex, grade point average, and plans for attending college. Along with class level, these variables when tested, appear to reflect social maturity. Results showed that females are higher than males on knowledgeability for each school. This is an interesting finding since no rela- tionship was expected. The notion that during this period of young peOple's development, females mature sooner than males may be a determining factor. Future research efforts should address the question Of why females are more know- ledgeable during the high school years than males. What factOrs contribute to this increased knowledgeability? Would other measures of knowledgeability show the same relationship? Students with a high GPA were expected to be higher on knowledgeability. This hypothesis was supported for each school except one. Results support the contrary hypothesis for the Grand Rapids Christian students. The f strong persons in their environment. Will power alone will not cure mental disorders. The insane laugh more than normal people. 1mental disorder is not a hopeless condition. Mental health is one of the most important national problems. Mental disorder is usually brought on by physical causes. The main job of the psychiatrist is to recomend hobbies. and other ways for the mental patient to occupy his mind. Almost any disease that attacks the nervous system is likely 0 bring on insanity. Mental health is largely a matter of trying hard to control he emotions. Most of the people in mental hospitals speak in words that can be understood. There is not much that can be done for a person who develops a mental disorder. Most people can recognize the type of person who is likely 0 have a nervous breakdown. 187 188 Many of the people who go to mental hospitals are able to return to work in society again. The eyes of the insane are glassy. A person cannot rid himself of unpleasant memories by trying hard to forget them. APPENDIX D DISTRIBUTION OF K-SCORES FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS DISTRIBUTION OF K-SCORES FOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS D-l.--Distribution of Knowledgeability Scores (Fowler High School Students).- K- Score Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior Total Teachers 30-34 35-39 410-44 0 1 o o 1 45-49 3 1 1 1 6 so-54 2 9 3 2 16 55-59 5 6 6 4 21 60-64 9 11 12 4 36 65- 69 13 12 14 4 43 7o— 74 11 7 4 7 29 1 '75-'79 4 8 6 12 3o 2 80-84 4 1 6 4 15 3 85—89 1 1 2 5 9 2 90-94 1 o 1 3 5 4 95-99 o o o o o 2 To tal 53 57 55 46 211 14 \ 189 190 D-2.--Distribution of Knowledgeability Scores (Ovid-Elsie High School Students). Score Freshmen SOphomore Junior Senior Total Teachers 30-34 0 0 1 0 1 35-39 0 0 O 0 0 40-44 2 0 2 1 5 45-49 0 1 2 2 5 50-54 5 2 4 3 14 55-59 9 6 7 4 26 60-64 8 4 12 2 26 1 65-69 7 5 10 1 23 2 70-74 3 _4 10 13 30 4 75-79 2 8 4 8 22 1 80-84 1 5 3 4 13 5 85-89 0 1 2 2 5 2 90-94 1 1 1 2 5 5 95-99 0 O O 1 1 1 Total 38 37 58 43 176 21 191 I1-3.--Distribution of Knowledgeability Scores (St. Johns High School Students. 2Score Freshmen SOphomore Junior Senior Total Teachers 30-34 0 o o o o 1 35-39 0 o o 1 1 0 40-44 0 o o o o 0 45-49 1 o 2 2 5 0 50-54 2 o 2 3 7 1 55-59 6 3 6 7 22 1 6 o-64 13 3 9 13 38 3 65-69 10 6 12 6 34 4 7o-74 13 5 6 12 36 10 75-79 5 7 6 12 3o 11 80- 84 3 5 3 5 16 11 85- 89 1 o 2 4 7 11 90-94 0 o o 7 ' 7 5 95-99 o o o 1 1 2 To ta1 54 29 48 73 204 60 ¥ 192 D-4.--Distribution of Knowledgeability Scores (Williamston High School Students). K— Score Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior Total Teachers 30-34 35-39 4o-44 o o o 3 0 45-49 1 o o s o so-54 2 o 1 3 0 55-59 10 8 2 4 24 o 6 o-64 11 11 8 7 37 1 65-69 8 10 11 12 41 o 70— 74 3 9 8 1o 30 1 '75- 79 4 7 14 13 38 5 80—84 2 11 12 6 31 5 85-89 o 4 4 1 9 5 90-94 o 2 1 4 7 4 95—99 o o o o o 2 Tote-:1 45 65 6o 58 228 23 g 193 r>—5.--Distribution of Knowledgeability Scores (Grand Rapids Christian High School Students). K— Score Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior Total Teachers 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 - o 2 1 3 o so-54 - 1 2 o 3 0 55—59 — 7 3 o 10 1 60-64 - 7 13 2 22 1 65-69 - 6 12 10 28 5 '70—74 - 7 7 10 24 4 75- 79 - 6 8 11 25 2 80-84 - 4 15 4 23 7 85-89 - 1 4 5 1o 7 90—94 - 3 3 4 10 7 95—99 - o o o o 3 Tota1 - 42 69 47 158 37 \ 194 I>-6.--Combined Knowledgeability Scores for Each Class for All Schools (n = 977). ISccore Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior Total Teachers 30-34 1 1 1 35-39 1 1 0 410-44 5 1 2 1 9 0 45-49 8 3 6 24 o so-54 9 14 11 9 43 1 55—59 30 3o 24 19 103 2 60-64 41 36 54 28 159 6 65-69 38 39 59 33 169 11 '70—74 30 32 35 52 149 20 '75- 79 15 36 38 56 145 21 80-84 10 26 39 23 98 31 85—89 2 7 14 17 4o 27 90—94 2 6 6 20 34 25 95—100 o o o 2 2 10 Total 190 230 290 267 977 155 \ APPENDIX E CITY, SCHOOL, COUNTY, AND DISTRICT CHARACTERISTICS FROM WHICH SAMPLES WERE CHOSEN £195 .mMAussoo mm m0 xcmm chad; mN.m m.mq ppm m.m «.mm M.AM H.o N.MH o.m~ eco.HH¢ paws 4m oH.m m.mv Ham «.6 o.oo m.~m v.6 m.m~ N.NN mmo.au~ smsmcH.cw mm.m m.mv mme m.o 4.Hm o.Hq v.o a.n~ A.H~ ~me.u¢ concede .oN mofiucsoo mm.m 1m.oqe n- H.HH m.hv «.H4 m.o «.ma m.m~ omo.H amazon - m.m v.~ mam mange mm.m 1H.qu nu m.HH H.Hm H.SM ~.o o.a n.o omo.a oa>o oo.m o.mv hum N.NH 0.4m a.mm o.~a m.HH m.o meo.ema museum cacao NH.m m.m¢ «mm m.HH m.om m.>m «.0 v.5H a.» com.” couusmwaanz o~.m «.64 vac h.oa m.cm n.mm m.o m.mH o.ma «no.6 mason .um h~.m m.nv mam m.m o.¢m 6.6m S.HH «.ma mmo.mnm.m cmmnnofiz caonwmsom um>o a oflumm Hm>o munch uh ma ouwnz onlom omlom GOHDMHDQOQ umd «Humans aueaauumm cam vmnwa amen: Icoz mcomumm was: a mm a a a « mmcmno w .cmmono mums mmamecm nownz seam mmauflu mo mowumwumuomumno.Hmwoomnl.alm .ahma .hmz .v .02 .moaosum muoHowuom Hausa .cmmwsowz .mcwmcma umcm .muwmuo>wco mumum savanna: .mmOHOwoom mo ucoeuummon .cowumum usoefiummxm Housuasowum< .cmmwnowz cw mmomam UmuouomuoocH can mowuscou mo mmmcono cofiumasmom .mhma .Hflum4 .momcoo 0:» mo smousm .cowumoflansm monoEEoo mo “coauummmo moumum nouacn .EOAuMHomom msmcoo onma «mofiumwuwuomumno oweosoom com HMAUOm Hmuocmo "mouaom 1196 H.NH N.vm m.v v.v h.HN oumum one N.Nm m.mm N.NH n.0m o.v m.~ o.va yawn m.mm n.~v v.~H o.mm H.m o.m v.HH EmnmcH h.~m m.mm H.NH m.hm N.H w.o~ n.5m coucwao oucmowmwm mono: .mua Hoocom Hoocom cw cuom Show summacoz umwusdoo «o .oo cw 05mm smflooz a .mum cmfimuom Hausa Hmnnm ooxuo: 0:3 mood ca um>o a mN nanva w a w mumxuos a cocooflmom mcomuom m.H~ m.m th.HH H.oa 0.5 o.mv m.mm «.ma N.~ soumEMAHsz H.v~ m.v nmm.HH m.Hm h.m H.0v v.5m N.NH H.H mason .um ~.m~ w.» m~>.oa m.om m.m H.vv m.~m H.NH o.m mcwmmm cacao once so Hm>mq oEoocH mowuumsocfl cmmoam mouom muoz no cmumHmEoo suom ooo.maw >uuo>om cowomz .mscmz laws: uonmq .omuo on» Hoosow cwwmu0h 3oHom cw w w cw w .m.m a cowomz .mGOmHmm um>o a ma mowHHEmm .mem a mmamsom novao a mu .Umssfluc0011.HIu 197 .muuebma .maoa naumaasm .mnmo Hmeocmcflm omuomamm an wuowuumwa Hoonom cow: Deanne mo mcwxcmm .cofiumoscm mo usmsunmmon somflnowz “monsom «an 5mm.a «Hm «oo.ma «mm mm.mmm omm mm.mmn maoosom hywcsEEou coumEMAHHH3 ”Nunsoo EmnmcH moa 0Hm4v mmH amatma mum mo.mnm HNN oo.mms mHoonow owansm mason .um NNN m¢¢.N mhm NON.NH mNN NH.mmm mvm mm.mmn mHoosom mwud mHmHmI©H>O ovv Hum NNN mom.ma mum mh.nmm mmm Hm.mmm maooaom ceansm Hma3om “mucsou coucwau xcmm Honesz xcmm uc505¢ xcmm Hausa xcmm Hfimsm uoanuwwn Hoocom mom mawmsm mumamm mowumamm musufiocmmxm Honomoa cowuosuumcH coausuflumcH mmmum>4 Hmuoa .coauonsm ha Hanan me muzuwcsmmxm ossm Hmnmcmoll.mlm 198 .c0fiumoscm mo ucmEuHmmmo cmmwnowz "condom av.mmo.va hm.HmH.H bwm.mma.m mm~.¢~ omm mumum How Hmuoa mm.NNN.HH ov.mHH.H mmm.aa mmo.am hm oom soawm AH0H3omv mm.mmm4HH mm.mmo.a ~vm.mm hem4mm up mam loom hH.hMb.HH mm.¢oo.a mam.mm mmm.ma om mm¢.H Iooo.~ AcoumEMflHHHSV mm.mmo.ma mm.mmo.a mmn.mHH mmv.am hm mmmwawloom.a Amflmamncfl>ov Nm.mwo.ma mm.mmo4H mmv.HmH mNm.o~ hm mm¢.~ Iooo.~ mm.mmm.ma HN.mm04H mmv.¢m www.mm Hm mmm.~ Ioom.~ m~.vmm.ma mm.mHH.H Nom.ooa oma.m~ Hm mm¢.m Iooo.m ma.ovm.ma oo.mmo.a Hmh.hh mmo.¢~ Hm mmm.m Ioom.m hm.oav.ma vm.oma.a mmm.moa mvH.HN mm mmv.v Iooo.¢ Amazon .umv mo.o~a.va N¢.NmH.H www.mm bmm.¢m «a mmm.v loom.¢ mv.vhm.va ov.mom.H omm.~mv «am4vm no mmm.m Iooo.m mm.mmm.ma ma.mvm.a mom.mm~ mom.om Hm mmm.malooo.oa mm.mmo.ma mo.mmN.H www.mmm avo.vm oa mmm.mwlooo.om om.mom.ma o¢.Hs~.H mom.omm mma.m~ H um>o a ooo.om mumamm mmusuwccwmxm mflcmumnfioz Honamz uownumwa moonw o.HmcomoB mcflumummo m>wuo¢ ode mumum mo HmnEdz magnumnfioz ommum>4 Hanna Mom mom coauwsHm> omNflHmnom mumum .mp1 «had How manmnonEmz an oomsouu .muoauuman Hoonom ~HIM omm m .cmmacodz How sumo cmuomammll.mlm 199 .c0wumoocm mo ucmEuummoa savanna: ”mousow mm mum m~.vom mm and mo.mah maoonom muwssafioo coumEmaaaflz “Mussoo EmnmcH mm mmH oa.omm we mmm mm.vmm mHoonom ceandm mason .um mm omH om.mom mm mam H¢.mmm maoonom mmud mmemnoH>o Ha hm mv.mmm ms .vav mm.mvv maoocom Deanna H0H3om ”mucsoo coucflao muofluumflo xcmm meom maneuumfln xcmm Hamsm uownumflo m0 a mom NC a Mom mcoflumaumoumm< uomuflo mmousom mumum moonsom Hmooq o AmUUflhflmHQ ommv OOHfiom %m Hunnmflm Hmm m0530>0m 05h HMHOGQUIloVIW 200 v oa up vs H N m5 mm mHoocom auflcsssoo coumsmflfiafiz «Nucsoo EmcmcH m ma ema oma m m th mom mHoosom oaansm mGEOH .um v m mm hm m m mm boa maoonom moH« mflmHMIow>o H 0 cm mm o 0 mm mm maoonom owansm Hoa3om "wucsoo coucflau mHmEmm mam: mHmEmm mam: mHmEmm mam: mamamh mam: mucsoo mm . unfiuumflo Hoocom unomoun mflcmnmnEoz usomouo mflnmuonawz nmumsncm cmumsnoa gum .ehlmbma .uofluumwa Hoosom mm can mucsou an musomoun Hoosom owansm :mmw50H211.mlm 201 h N «h vs m 5 am on mHoonom specsasoo coumsmflaaflz "mucsou EmnmcH e h mma ova m NH «ma mom mHoonom Deansm mason .um m m nm em m w om hm mHoosom cone mHmHMIUH>0 o 0 mm av N 0 mm Hm mHoonom owansm umHBOm uwwssoo GODCwHU mamamm mam: mHmEmm cams onEmm mam: mHmEmm was: Manson mm uowuumflo Hoonom usomouc mflcmHmnEmz psomona mwcmuonawz omumsmcd omumnno< sums spoa .cmscflu20011.mlm 202 .mwma .umsmo< whooe cwpmaasm HMOfiumwumuw cmmflnowz .uofluumwo Hoonom cowlwucsou an muoomonn Hoocom swam Deanna 4cowumosom mo ucmfiuummma :mmfi30flz ”mousom mv.m mm Hmm mHoosom huflGSEEOU coumewHHflz "NMdsoo EmsmcH mh.q so oas.~ maoosom oflansm mason .um mm.m he mmh mHoocom comm omemch>o mH.H V m omm maoonom owansm uma3om ”Nucsoo coucflao mumm usomoua usomoua mflsmumnsoz omumsnom mucsoo um powuumfia Hoocom Hmuoa .mmscwucoouu.mum 203 Table E—6 presents the drOpout statistics for three school years including the period of 1971-72 through 1973-74 by the membership size of school districts in Michigan. The data indicate that dropouts occur in general, more frequently in large school districts than in small dis- districts. During the past three school years, the state- wide dropout rates increased gradually. The pattern of changes in dropout rates was, however, inconsistent among different groups of school districts; of the fourteen cate— gories, the dropout rates for eight increased gradually during this period; the rates for five fluctuated; and the rates for one group of school districts (20,000 to 49,999) decreased gradually. 2()4 can mozcm>mm Hoonom Deanna comwcofiz mo mwmwamcd .ooaufiucm sawumowansm 0:» ca com: ones» on 06mm on» cum mmwuoooumo one .mama .umnmz¢ .nooq cflumaaam Monaumauoum savanna: .uowuumflo Hoocum com Nassau an wu50m0uo Hoocom so“: Udanzm .sowuoosom mo ucmfiuummmo camasowz "wouoom .GOADMUDcm mo acmeuummmo cmmficuflz .aaoa cwuoaasm .mousuaocmmxm a .ma.o «64.6 .ve.m www.mv «mm.av mvv.oe Hm~.hmm ohs.mmo New.smm «mm omm awm Hmuoa .mo.m «mm.m «Hm.N and ~MH mm ~hm.m ~mv.m mam.m mm on on com 3oaom H0 30 aao.v .na.v oam.m mmm ~mk mam www.mH mmo.ma mmv.ea an on an mma A3H8.“v .em.. .qo.m .mm.v mmm.H qem.a GGN.H Hmv.>~ hom.m~ «mm.a~ as on we mae.a o» ooo.a .coumsaflflflnzv .en.m .mo.m amp.c omm.H asa.~ bom.H ~m~.mm mha.vm omm.am mm mm Ne ama.H ou oom.~ Amnmflmuuw>oc ¢v~.m «om.m .omm.¢ wom.~ amm.~ mmH.~ Ama.mq mmm.mv mam.mv no no as mme.~ 0» ooo.~ .oh.m som.m «mo.m evs.a om~.H mm~.H vvm.m~ osv.q~ mma.m~ Hm Hm mm mmm.~ on oom.~ .vm.m .mm.m «mm.m ven.a ovv.d m-.a mmo.¢~ meo.v~ Hmm.H~ mm ma ma mmv.m on ooo.m .Hn.w sov.o «NN.m Hoo.~ mmo.~ HHV.H mvo.~m mam.~m mmo.h~ on on ow maa.m on oom.m amw.m .mw.m .mw.m mom Nmm HOH.H hmo.ha HH¢.GH hmfl.o~ «a «a AH amv.v 0» ooo.v mg _. .mo.m .hm.m .H~.m ma~.~ amm.a mam nom.- mmo.m~ mom.ka 8H ma ma «mam. 2mm owmwe .oo.u .mm.m .mo.m «oo.m hem." Hmm.o mmv.a¢~ mma.~va Hma.mMH so 88 mm mam.m ou ooo.m sflm.o aqa.o .me.m mHA.m «om.m mam.m www.5m mmw.mm Haw.sm om om MN mam.aa o» ooo.oa .uv.m .mm.m .vm.o vam.m Ans.m Ham.m mom.nm mom.hm wma.wm Ha as as amm.av on ooo.o~ .sh..d 3mm.HH .m~.vd mmm.m Hmm.m mmv.OH mmfl.ho H8H.6a mmo.ma H H a um>o 8:6 ooo.om «hunamn neu~nan «nuanma «sumama me-~ama mauaamd. vhumamd ma-~kma Nanzaafl vanmama m>-~amz Nanaamd gazebo comm ca muoflnumao Hoonom mo muHan manmuonEmz ucwcoum mflcmumnEoz Hoonom woumsflem mana 666690 ovum usomoun amazed muzomouo mo umnEdz moauuomom muoanumflo no umnEdz .vanmamfl Hosanna mkuaama .manuumafiuz ucocsum an cofimwmmmao muowuumflo Hoonom mo msouo >9 mouwm uoomoun Hoonom oflandm cmownoflzul.wnm mqmde 205 E-7.--Location of High Schools Used in this Study by Michigan Counties. 0" U 03 a» ourovucou 1r: IAAAGA DC int-00404" "'°" “.6:- o-cumson non-NIL It L. ’3. uonfwhbucv M '“ SiifiASuA cnknvono oscool ‘L‘°”‘ um-svu wt-tono mssAunu ncscouuou oat-um I‘vosco “‘50“ L“! osuous CL Ant cuowm "(M-C ”N IAV _J—d octnu va00 areas“ IsAuLu MIDLAND ruscou 5““ l--Grand Rapids Christian High ‘ , ——J”“ nous-(£6004 nooucuu 9“”: School 2--Fow1er High School u“ unv 3--Ovid-Elsie High 1 “““‘ nu“ SChOOl ovum uonu CLINYON ’""“"'”“ 4--St. Johns High School 2 5"Williamst0n High 3 OAKLAND ”ACO“. SCh001 MIR-AN 0AM" (AVON 4 ”00““ "V'M'SYON raw *” mm but» “LA-“200 “mom: 14105004 ”‘9‘” you.“ CASS 37,0513” ORANCN mLLSDALE LU“ '- APPENDIX F DISTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS FOR THE "GRAND RAPIDS CITIZENS" AND A LISTING OF CIVILIAN OCCUPATIONS DISTRIBUTION OF SOCIAL CHARACTERISTICS FOR THE "GRAND RAPIDS CITIZENS" AND A LISTING OF CIVILIAN OCCUPATIONS F-1.--Distribution of Social Characteristics of the "Grand Rapids Citizens" (n = 71). N 8 Sex: Male 59 83.10 Female 9 12.68 NA 3 4.23 Age: 25 or less 27 38.03 26-33 26 36.62 34-41 8 11.27 42—49 6 8.45 50 & over 1 1.41 NA 3 4.23 Education: 8th grade 1 1.41 9-11 1 1.41 H.S. Grad. 16 22.54 Vocational School 1 1.41 Some College 24 33.80 College Grad. 13 18.31 Prof. or Grad. School 12 16.90 NA 3 4.23 Community Type: Farm 13 18.31 Suburban 19 26.76 Non-Suburban 32 45.07 NA 7 9.86 206 207 F-l.--Continued. N % CommunityrSize: Less than 20,000 30 42.25 20,000-99,000 7 9.86 100,000-499,000 23 32.39 500,000-1 million 4 5.63 Over 1 million 1 1.41 NA 6 8.46 Mental Health Experience: Institutionalized: Friend--yes 21 29.58 Family--yes 14 19.72 Treated: Friend--yes 19 26.76 Family--yes 19 26.76 Viewed as Mentally Ill: Friends--yes 17 23.94 Family--yes 14 19.72 Visited: Mental Hospital--yes 33 46.48 Psychiatric Ward--yes 24 33.80 Mental Health Clinic--yes 18 25.35 Friends-~No Experience 0 44 61.97 No. of "Yes" 1 5 7.04 ReSponses 2 11 15.49 3 11 15.49 Family-~No Experience 0 48 67.61 No. of "yes" 1 4 5.63 Responses 2 11 15.49 3 8 11.27 Visit--No Experience 0 31 43.66 No. of "Yes" 1 16 22.54 Responses 2 13 18.31 3 11 15.49 Combined Experience--No Experience 0 20 28.17 1 6 8.45 No. of "Yes” 2 14 19.72 Responses 3 6 8.45 4 10 14.08 5 6 8.45 6 3 4.23 7 3 4.23 8 l 1.41 9 2 2.82 208 F-2.--Listing of Civilian Occupations (Grand Rapids Citizens," n = 71). Secretary RN Administrative Assistant Student Assistant Jewelry Store Manager Construction Manager Construction Teacher Police Officer Salesman Machine Repair & Design Assembly Line Worker Service Repair Mechanic Deisel Mechanic Electronic Technician Truck Driver Accountant Foreman LPN Waitress Bank Supervisor Chiropractor Shipping Clerk Legal Secretary Fruit & Vegetable Inspector Acquisition of Right of Way Radiologic Technologist Surgeon Hospital Food Service Director Printing Plant Manager Heating, Cooling & Steelmetal. Repair 209 F—2.--Continued. Lab Tester--Industria1 Adhesive Factory Minister Machine Builder Industrial Management Consulting Engineer Urban Planner APPENDIX G MEAN COMPARISONS OF THREE HIGH SCHOOL SAMPLES: MICHIGAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS (n = 989), SEATTLE HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS (n = 728),* AND GERMAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS (n = 522).* *Townsend Articles, 1975 and 1976; data also provided by Professor Townsend in personal communication. G-1.--Item Means for Three High School Samples. Townsend's Townsend's Mich. American German Item No. H.S. Stu. Students Students 1 4.68 4.60 5.40 2 3.38 3.60 4.60 3 3.02 2.70 2.30 4 4.82 4.70 3.10 5 3.71 4.10 3.90 6 4.18 4.60 5.10 7 2.69 2.70 3.10 8 3.58 3.50 3.10 9 5.29 4.90 4.40 10 3.37 2.90 2.70 11 2.88 2.60 3.00 12 4.66 4.20 3.20 13 4.82 4.70 5.00 14 4.10 4.00 4.00 15 3.71 3.60 2.10 16 3.24 2.80 3.20 17 4.14 4.30 4.60 18 5.68 6.00 5.60 19 4.87 5.50 5.00 20 3.60 3.30 2.80 21 3.63 3.40 3.80 22 3.06 2.90 4.00 23 3.13 3.20 3.10 24 2.92 2.80 3.10 251 3.95 3.90 3.10 26 4.37 4.80 4.70 27 2.37 2.00 1.90 28 3.43 29 4.77 4.50 3.90 30 4.55 31 2.94 210 211 Townsend's Townsend's Mich. American German Item No. H.S. Stu. Students Students 32 2.98 33 3.26 2.90 2.80 34 3.47. ‘ 35 4.66 4.80 5.70 n = 35 n = 30 n = 30 Correlations: AeB: .96; A-C: .70; B-C: APPENDIX H STUDENT MEAN RESPONSES TO THIRTY-FIVE MENTAL HEALTH OPINION ITEMS H—1.--Student Means for Mental Health Opinion Items. Item St. Ovid- Grand ‘_ .No.. Johns Elsie Fowler Williamston Rapids X 1 4.91 4.55 4.67 4.62 4.65 4.68 2 3.50 3.30 3.66 3.34 3.08 3.38 3 2.89 3.01 3.22 3.16 2.81 3.02 4 4.85 4.95 4.70 4.76 4.82 4.82 5 3.72 3.80 3.73 3.63 3.69 3.71 6 4.10 4.29 4.51 4.02 3.96 4.18 7 2.58 2.99 2.68 2.58 2.61 2.69 8 3.63 3.86 3.68 3.37 3.37 3.58 9 5.18 5.43 5.37 5.33 5.15 5.29 10 3.48 3.38 3.57 3.34 3.09 3.37 11 3.08 2.71 2.97 2.84 2.84 2.88 12 4.61 4.54 4.78 4.49 4.87 4.66 13 4.77 4.74 4.75 4.76 5.06 4.82 14 4.02 3.74 4.27 4.20 4.27 4.10 15 3.74 3.64 3.75 3.79 3.63 3.71 16 3.38 3.36 3.28 3.10 3.08 3.24 17 4.05 4.23 4.30 4.11 4.01 4.14 18 . 5.59 5.51 5.82 5.61 5.86 5.68 19 4.97 5.01 4.84 4.73 4.98 4.87 20 3.64 3.65 3.46 3.54 3.73 3.60 21 3.81 3.81 3.68 3.46 3.37 3.63 22 3.25 2.98 3.60 2.35 3.14 3.06 23 3.27 3.38 3.13 2.95 2.94 3.13 24 2.91 2.94 3.25 2.81 2.68 2.92 25 3.97 3.99 4.28 3.91 3.59 3.95 26 4.26 4.27 4.36 4.48 4.49 4.37 27 2.45 2.34 2.53 2.34 2.20 2.37 28 3.20 3.64 3.53 3.30 3.50 3.43 29 4.65 5.01 4.61 4.62 4.97 4.77 30 4.59 4.33 4.53 4.60 4.68 4.55 212 213 H-l.--Continued. Item St. Ovid- Grand '_ No. Johns Elsie Fowler Williamston . Rapids X 31 3.03 2.77 2.97 3.08 2.87 2.94 32 3.13 2.93 2.92 2.95 2.96 2.98 33 3.38 3.56 3.26 3.07 3.02 3.26 34 3.37 3.65 3.34 3.61 3.40 3.47 35 4.52 4.94 4.50 4.70 4.64 4.66 APPENDIX I CORRELATIONS OF MEANS AMONG ELEVEN SAMPLES ON MENTAL HEALTH OPINION STATEMENTS 214 .amaH can vmaH cwm3umn nmumcumm 6L6: muse onus» uHGmH .RHHmccsz "m cmzounu H moHasmm Lou mousom mama .Ho>ma aH on» an ouou Eouu DGOHOMMHU xHDGCOHuwcmHm mum onEdm ucooaum Hoocom ch: onu mcH>Ho>cH omonu umooxo mcoHucHouuoo HH< .mmmosucmumm CH :3onm muwmm umzmu HO OH co comma mcoHumHouuoo .voumHooamu DH cofiuwaouuou nown3 co memos mo mudmm wo Hoassz "Accommwv soaom .Hmcomch o>onm mcmos mo mcoHumawuuoo Guacamumomc wm mm wm mm Hoav Aoav on on cm on ov chad .mxumHm OOOHHOU .HH Hm. mm mm mm mm HQHV AOHV cm on cm on 4 mm whoa .uxomHm away: mmoauooncoz .oH hm. mm. mm mm mm HoHl HoHV ow on cm on AH msaH .HHmuOHC uuummxm .m no. mm. vm. mm mm AOHV HoHv cm on cm on om Numa .mucmoaum nuammm Amado: omeHOU .m Ha. mm. mm. hm. 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