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I 333333.333, ,n’I‘ Am 3} I-AAAA: AAjA IRAI AA :22‘ A‘AA‘I‘W I .3 4mm), :mi; j‘ 333“ ”3* 3,3l33333 3 33 “3A3 33 '33!3,I,.3 “AAA- 33333-03 I 3 II ' I.“ IIIIs-I I. AI“ ‘I .II 3 If ' I 331' r A ~ WIAWJVAA.&V%A‘ 3 3 ..,3.33,33:3 I I13. 3.3.333 . ”I! 13 .u~wI VMuufi‘h'”. i "'. AA , ”If JA..,I.IAI’A'A.1AAI . . l 3 l3, 3‘. ’fi)( 1IAIA AA- '7' Is. I33. :;~ LIBRARY Mlcl‘ii' an State 5 This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE EFFECT OF AN IN-SERVICE TRAINING PROGRAM IN SYSTEMIC MANAGEMENT ON THE DECISION MAKING SKILLS OF COUNSELOR SUPERVISORS IN THE DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS presented by Wanda Elizabeth Dean has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PM. D. degree in COUHSETIHQ: Personnel Services, and Educational Psychology (Urban Counseling) Date QWL 0-7639 THE EFFECT OF AN IN-SERVICE TRAINING PROGRAM IN SYSTEMIC MANAGEMENT ON THE DECISION MAKING SKILLS OF COUNSELOR SUPERVISORS IN THE DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS BY Wanda Elizabeth Dean A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Personnel Services and Educational Psychology 1978 ABSTRACT THE EFFECT OF AN IN-SERVICE TRAINING PROGRAM IN SYSTEMIC MANAGEMENT ON THE DECISION MAKING SKILLS OF COUNSELOR SUPERVISORS IN THE DETROIT PUBLIC SCHOOLS BY Wanda Elizabeth Dean The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an in-service training program in Systemic Management on the development of decision making skills of counselor supervisors in the Detroit Public Schools. The study focused upon the quality of decision making skills and three components which comprise the quality of decision making skills: the range of alternatives generated; the range of consequences generated; and the thoroughness of responses. The experimental population selected for this study consisted of counselor supervisors in the Detroit Public Schools. The counselor supervisors in the middle and senior high schools are in leadership roles within the school buildings. They supervise a staff of three or more counselors. In the school buildings, counselor super- visors are called department heads. The sample for this study consisted of thirty counselor supervisors in the Detroit Public Schools who Wanda_Elizabeth Dean were located at the middle and senior high schools. These counselor supervisors were available for pretest and post- test screening as well as the in-service program. There were ten counselor supervisors who participated in the in—service program who were deleted from the sample because they did not attend both the pretest and posttest screening sessions. The instrument used in this study was the Deci- sional Balance Instrument. The Decisional Balance Instru- ment measured the quality of decision making skills. The total score on the scale reflected a measure of the quality of decision making skills. The instrument also had three sub-scales. Scale A measured the range of alternatives. Scale B measured the range of logical consequences. Scale C measured the thoroughness of response. The pretest measure was administered prior to the beginning of the in-service program. It consisted of three vignettes randomly selected from six vignettes for each counselor supervisor. The posttest measure was administered three months later after the in-service pro- gram was completed. This assessment consisted of the remaining three vignettes for each counselor supervisor. The in—service program consisted of thirty-six hours of training in Systemic Management. The training included the following areas: management clarification; the establishment of effective guidance roles; the Wanda Elizabeth Dean identification of school based management problems and the implementation of strategies to alleviate school based management problems; and stress in management. The Systemic Approach to Management served as the training model. This approach emphasizes the development of prob— lem solving skills and techniques necessary for effective management. The t-test for the difference between means was used to test for statistical significance between pretest and posttest measures of the quality of decision making skills. All hypotheses were tested at the .05 level of significance. The results of this experiment can be summarized as follows: 1. The quality of decision making skills as indicated by the total scale of the Decisional Balance Instrument was signifi- cantly greater after the in-service program in Systemic Management. 2. The range of alternatives generated by counselor supervisors as indicated by Scale A of the Decisional Balance Instrument was significantly higher after the in-service program in Systemic Management. 3. The range of logical consequences generated by counselor supervisors as indicated by Scale B of the Decisional Balance Instrument was significantly higher after the in-service program in Systemic Management. 4. The thoroughness of response generated by counselor supervisors as indicated by Scale C of the Decisional Balance Instrument was significantly higher after the in-service program in Systemic Management. DEDICAT ION To my loving parents, Abel and Dorothy Dean for their love, faith, encouragement, patience, support, prayers and inspiration. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT S To Dr. Gloria S. Smith, Chairperson for my doctoral committee, I express my gratitude for her confidence that the task would be accomplished and her support and assistance in guiding the dissertation to completion. Special thanks is due to Dr. Thomas S. Gunnings for his continual support and efforts in the development and implementation of the in-service program in Systemic Manage- ment for this study. In addition, I am very grateful to him for his encouragement and support throughout my graduate study and his inspiring friendship and guidance. I am very grateful to Dr. Lawrence Lezotte for his valuable assistance and guidance during the development of the instrument, the design and the statistical analysis phases of this study and for his continuous inspiration and friendship. Gratitude is also expressed to Dr. Bob Winborn and Dr. Eileen Earhardt for their support and guidance as members of my doctoral committee. Further gratitude and appreciation are extended to Mr. Jeffrey Bootzin, Ms. Mitchelene Davenport, and Mr. Harry Wright for rating my instrument responses, to Miss Sandi Watts for assistance in the typing of the rough drafts, and iii to Ms. Sonya Gunnings and Mrs. Lee Katlein for typing of the responses to the instrument. Special thanks to the counselor supervisors and the Central Guidance Staff of the Detroit Public Schools for their participation and cooperation and all the professionals who participated in the in-service program. Lastly, to my family, loving friends and professional colleagues, heartfelt thanks for their support, understanding and inspiration. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . C O O O I O O O 0 LIST OF APPENDICES . O O O O O O O 0 CHAPTER I. II. III. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . Need for the Study . . . . . . Purpose of the Study . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . Theory . . . . . . . . Generalizability of the Study . Overview . . . . . . . . . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . Counselor Supervision . . . . . . The Organization of Guidance Services Supervision and Management . . . . Decision Making . . . . . . . . In-Service Training . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . The Setting . . . . . . . . . Population and Sample . . . . . . The In-Service Program . . . . . Research Procedures . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . Page vii viii ix @\O¢bb1>k‘ be 10 10 10 17 21 28 41 42 43 43 43 44 45 50 58 CHAPTER Page IV. ANALYSES AND RESULTS . . . . . . . . 59 The Quality of Decision Making . . . . . 59 The Range of Alternatives . . . . . . 60 The Range of Consequences . . . . . . 63 The Thoroughness of Response . . . . . 63 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 V. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . 68 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Discussion of Result . . . . . . . . 71 Implications and Recommendations . . . . 76 REFERENCES 0 O C O O O O O O O O O O O 8 2 vi LIST OF TABLES Page Clarity of Vignettes . . . . . . . . 52 Interrater Reliability . . . . . . . . 53 t-Test for Difference Between Correlated Means: Scale Total . . . . . . . . 61 Direct Difference Method for t-Test for Difference Between Means: Scale A . . . 62 t-Test for Difference Between Correlated Means: Scale B . . . . . . . . . 64 t-Test for Difference Between Correlated Means: Scale C . . . . . . . . . 66 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Design of Study . . . . . . . . . . 57 viii LIST OF APPENDICES APPENDIX A. A SYSTEMIC APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT . . . B. PROGRAM AREA II WORKSHEET . . . . . . C. A MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTABILITY MODEL . . . D. THE ACCOMPLISHMENT REVIEW PROCESS . . . E. STRESSORS . . . . . . . . . . . F. GROUP ACTIVITIES . . . . . . . . . G. PROBLEM SITUATIONS . . . . . . . . H. PROBLEMS GENERATED BY COUNSELOR SUPERVISORS I. VIGNETTE RATING SHEET . . . . . . . J. DEFINITION OF SCALES: DECISIONAL BALANCE INSTRUMENT . . . . . . . . . . K. DIRECTIONS AND BALANCE SHEET . . . . . L. ASSIGNMENT OF VIGNETTES TO COUNSELOR SUPERVISORS O O O O O O C O O 0 ix Page 90 92 95 100 104 106 109 112 115 117 119 123 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Need for the Study Education may be conceptualized as a system which consists of three major elements: instruction, service and administration (Ryan and Zeran, 1972). A system consists of a "bounded organization of inter- dependent and interrelated components maintained in a stable state of relatedness to each other, and to the total system and its environment, by standard modes of operation and feedback for the purpose of accomplishing stated goals" (Ryan and Zeran, 1972, p. 2). In order for an educational system to achieve optimum efficiency and effectiveness all parts of the system must work together to achieve the system's goals. Guidance and counseling may have the potential to be very valuable to the educational system. Thus, guidance services must relate to and function compatibly with the other elements of the school system. Ryan and Zeran (1972) state that the school counselor is the central part of the guidance services of any educational system. Gunnings and Tucker (1974) and Wrenn (1962) state that the school counselor is constantly being challenged in our rapidly changing world; thus, to be effective, the school counselor must strive to keep abreast of these changes. The creation of leadership positions within the guidance and counseling departments in individual schools may serve as a valuable catalyst in stimulating counselors to meet the many demands placed upon them. The abundance of works which discuss supervision by school administrators attests to the fact that supervision has received some degree of attention. The ever-increasing pressures placed upon counselors dictate than competent counseling and guidance skills be main- tained and refined. Appleton and Hansen (1968) main- tain that it is necessary for school personnel to pro- vide supervision for guidance and counseling workers to insure growth of the profession within the schools. The field of counselor supervision is a relatively new one. Cash and Munger (1966) pointed to a special need for research dealing with methods of supervision of counselors on-the-job. Appleton and Hansen (1968), in analyzing the status of supervision in guidance, con- cluded that supervisory relationships in guidance had received little if any attention, observing that most guidance departments had not instituted on-the-job supervision. Wrenn (1965) in taking a second look at the counseling situation pointed to coordination of counselor education and supervision as one of the major issues and challenges demanding immediate attention. Gladstein (1970) pointed out that very little attention has been given to the supervision of fulltime practicing counselors. Counselor educators have given relatively little attention to the preparation of supervisors of fulltime counselors. Riccio (1966) stated that there are only a few articles concerning the education of state and city-wide supervisors. In addition, there is little in the literature concerning the evaluation of counseling by supervisors (Dole, 1964) and conceptualizations for the in-service education of school counselors (Appleton and Hansen, 1968; O'Hara, 1968). Hill (1965) asserted that in order to develop and improve a guidance program in any school "there must be functional leadership in the hands of a person or persons" who clearly understand their role and "there must be an organized, continuing, professionally competent effort to gather facts needed to made decisions“ (p. 70). Decision making is one important aspect of the supervisor's role (Ficker, 1975; Herbert, 1976; Ryan and Zeran, 1972). There is no available research which considers the decision making skills of counselor supervisors. However, decision making is an integral part of the supervisory function. Therefore, research in this area is very much needed. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an in-service training program in Systemic Management on the development of decision making skills of counselor supervisors in the Detroit Public Schools. The quality of the decision making skills of counselor supervisors were analyzed. Hypotheses The author posited that the following statements would be supported by this study as a result of the in-service training in Systemic Management: The quality of decision making skills of counselor supervisors will be improved. Counselor supervisors will show an improve- ment in their skill to generate possible consequences of their alternative courses of action for given problem situations. Counselor supervisors will show an improve- ment in their thoroughness of responses to given problem situations. Theory Janis and Mann (1977) assert that there are several functions that a good decision maker ideally adheres to. These functions include thoroughly canvassing a wide range of alternatives, surveying the full range of objectives to be fulfilled and the values implicated by the choice, weighing negative and positive consequences, searching for new information relevant to the evaluation of the alternatives, and planning how alternatives may be implemented. A quality decision is one which a decision maker arrives at after completing the aforenamed tasks. Since the operationali- zation of such a model with objective raters available at all times to evaluate a person's decision making would be costly, Janis and Mann (1977) recommend the use of a decisional balance sheet. This process involves decision makers recording portions of their decision making process and allows raters to evaluate the alternatives, the conse- quences of the alternatives and the thoroughness of responses of each decision maker. Such a process was used in this study. Decision making is a very important function of supervisors. The Systemic Management Model is basically a decision making model which serves as a guide for decision makers to process information. This model was used as a teaching model for training in this study. The approach may be used by individual managers or by managers and employees together. Gunnings and Tucker (1971) briefly comment on the role of the systemic manager or counselor in assessing the cause of any diffi- culty. They assert that one must look at the basic under- lying causes of the problem rather than the symptoms. The problem must be carefully defined. Problem definition assumes that the manager is taking a global view of the situation. The manager then must assess some basic questions. "What forces in the system and/or society were the underlying causes of the difficulty? How do various persons' actions reinforce the problem?" (Gunnings and Tucker, 1974, p. 10). In order for the manager to utilize the Systemic Management Model one must have a complete understanding and acceptance of the following goals and assumptions (Gunnings, 1976): A. Goals 1. To enable managers and their staff members to identify the cause(s) of the symptom(s) through the recognition of influence of selected environmental variables on their psychological functioning as reflected in behavior. 2. To assist managers and their staff members in developing and implementing problem solving strategies and tech- niques that will eliminate or reduce the barriers to their achievement of desired results. 3. To raise the managers and staff members level of functioning, affectively and cognitively (p. l). B. Assumptions 1. Man's environment is a key factor in determining his attitudes, values and behavior. 2. The staff member's behavior is a symptom of the system(s) problem(s). 3. The cause of the staff member's symptom(s) can be traced to the negative effect of the system or subsystem(s) on the person's affective and cognitive functioning. 4. Systemic change is always possible; how- ever, it is often a long-term process. 5. Systems change is a continuous process because of the dynamic nature of systems. 6. The system(s) or subsystem(s) with the problem(s) must be changed in order for the problem to be eliminated. 7. If the problem has been correctly identified, elimination of the problem results in the elimination of the symptom. 8. Although persons are not responsible for the existence of the problem(s), they do have control over their response(s) to the problem(s) (p. 1). Gunnings (1976) presents seven progressive steps in the Systemic Approach to Management. (See Appendix A.) The seven steps are as follows: (1) the identification of symptoms; (2) the exploration of problem causation; (3) the discussion of problem solving strategies and techniques; (4) the selection of problem-solving strategies and techniques; (5) the implementation of selected strate- gies; (6) the evaluation of the effectiveness of the problem-solving process; and (7) the expansion of client (subordinate) use of the model. The manager and the worker begin by clearly identi- fying the symptoms and the problem and causation of the problem. During the discussion of the problem-solving strategies and techniques, the consequences of the various alternatives are assessed. The manager and the worker then together select the strategies and techniques to be used. Next, the agreed upon activities are implemented. During the evaluation the success of the activities are assessed. Finally, the manager prepares the worker to use the systemic model in other problem—solving situations. There are varied techniques employed by the systemic manager. At the symptom identification stage they include role playing, consultation and field obser- vation. Problem identification techniques include infor- mation sharing, consultation and systems monitoring. Advice-giving, manipulation, negotiation, confrontation, advocacy and consultation are problem-solving techniques used. Skill building techniques are used to teach workers to employ the Systemic Approach to Management in a variety of problem-solving situations. They include client monitoring of the system, client research on systems structure and Operations, and client monitoring of one's own behavior. The theoretical orientation of Systemic Manage- ment is utilized in the in-service training of the counselor supervisors. The assumptions, goals and steps serve as a guide for the presentation of information on supervision and management. Thus, the counselor super— visors are trained as systemic managers. Their role as decision makers is focused upon because of its great importance. Generalizability of the Study The results of this study can be generalized to other populations only to the extent that other popu- lations are similar in characteristics to the population used in the experiment and only in relation to the specific presentations used. This generalization aspect of the study is in agreement with commonly accepted research principles. Overview In Chapter Two, pertinent literature in the areas of counselor supervision, the organization of guidance services, supervision and management, decision making and in-service training is reviewed. In Chapter Three, the design of the study is described in detail with emphasis upon the setting, the population and sample, the in-service training program, and the research pro- cedures. The results of the study are presented in Chapter Four; Chapter Five contains the discussion of the results and recommendations. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction The area of counselor supervision has not been studied very closely. Most emphasis is placed upon the supervision of counseling practicum students. Recently, a move has begun to reorganize guidance services with Special attention given to the develOpment of counselor supervisory positions. Supervision and management are viewed as important functions of counselor supervisors. Decision making is one of the most important functions of a counselor supervisor. The review of the literature includes information on each of the following areas: counselor supervision, organization of guidance services, supervision and management, decision making and in-service training. Counselor Supervision The placement of counselor supervisors in the schools marks a move toward providing sound leadership for all counselors. Ryan (1969a) states that in the helping professions, supervision implements a protective function, as well as aiming to achieve operating efficiency. 10 11 McCully (1963, 1966) points out that a profession entails a basic core of knowledge and application of knowledge and techniques to affairs of others to meet a social need. Supervision in the helping professions is aimed at satisfying the obligation for accountability as well as achieving the goals of the helping professions (Ryan, 1969a). Ryan (1969a) states that counselor supervision seeks to increase counselor effectiveness. This will lead to an increase in students' educational, vocational, personal and social deveIOpment as well as protect the well-being of counselors. "Counselor supervision is conceptualized as a process of overseeing counselor trainees and counselors to improve their competencies and enhance their professional growth, thereby implementing intents or goals of counseling and satisfying professional obligation for accountability" (Ryan, 1969a, p. 6). Harris (1964) states that the purposes of super- vision may be implemented in tractive and dynamic consequences. Achievement of program continuity, main- tenance of desirable level of program operation, promotion of minor changes, and resistance to pressures for major change are examples of tractive outcomes. Experimentation to achieve improved counseling through new and modified techniques, content, material and activities is the way dynamic outcomes are implemented. 12 Altucher (1967) observed that counselors fre- quently need help in remaining open to their own experi- ences if they are to achieve professional growth. The supervisor is in the unique position of being able to give reinforcement for the counselor's behaviors. With- out such outside support, beginning counselors often tend to revert to teaching roles or imitate ongoing patterns of behavior in the school. Support from supervisors is especially critical in cases where counselors are assigned to inappropriate functions or their fellow counselors are reinforcing "non-counseling" behaviors and attitudes. One of the functions of counselor supervision is to help the counselor learn to live a counselor's role. In order to fulfill this expectation, supervised coun- seling experiences must be provided (Olsen, 1963). Olsen (1963) and Ohlsen (1967) view supervision as essential to the inexperienced counselor who is trying to cope with the implementation of a new professional role. Olsen (1963) suggests that counselors must be helped to recognize and learn to cope with reinforcers of old behaviors and attitudes. Clark (1965) asserts that supervision should lead to clarification and integration of principles and methods, achievement of a high degree of differentiation and inte- gration of processes, improvement of attitude and skills and an increase of knowledge of counseling. Such outcomes 13 can be attained as the supervisor implements responsibilities for instruction, consultation, evaluation, and management (Arnold, 1962; Patterson, 1964; Peters and Hansen, 1963). Very often counselors have learned about counseling, but not how to counsel. Thus, supervision can lead to the implementation of counselor responsibilities for appraisal, information, dissemination, placement, follow-up, evaluation and counseling. In addition, supervision can help coun- selors begin to work effectively with students, parents, and teachers (Appleton and Hansen, 1968). Ryan (1969a) suggests that counselor supervision contributes to the improvement of guidance and counseling programs. She suggests that as the supervisees grow profesionally they will become more competent in imple- menting their counseling roles. In turn, this will lead to more effective program planning with built in imple- mentation and evaluation procedures. "As supervisors fulfill consultative responsibilities, the total program can be expected to benefit through improved planning and organizing, setting goals and objectives, identifying procedures and materials, and relating guidance to instruc- tional goals of the school" (Ryan, 1969a, p. 9). Ryan (1969a) reports that ACES standards for super- vision are only directed toward supervision during formal years of training. There is no account taken of the desirability or of the kind of supervision or the amount 14 of supervision which should be implemented in on-the-job situations. It appears that the responsibility for on- the-job supervision has rested with local school district and state department personnel. There is little, if any, evidence of objectives and procedures of on-the-job supervision. Boyd and Walter (1975) submit that counselor supervision is a viable mode of assistance for school counselors in dealing with low career nutrition and lack of professional development opportunities. Boyd and Holthouse (1975) assert that counselor supervision can facilitate the counselor's personal and professional development and can promote counselor competencies and accountable counseling and guidance services and programs. School counselors can reach their potential and become master practitioners given the proper supervision. Boyd and Holthouse (1975) state that counselor supervision consists of several activities: consultation, counseling, training and instruction and evaluation. These activities facilitate professional growth and help the counselor to respond directly to institutional con- straints with professional assertion. Given on-going supervision, the school counselor can cope with the adverse elements of the environment in such a way that humanistic characteristics are not lost. 15 There is evidence in the literature that several persons are calling for supervision of practicing coun- selors (Hays, 1971; O'Hara, 1968; Pulvino and Perrone, 1973; Ryan, 1969a; Segrist and Nelson, 1972; Stiller, 1974). However, responsive action has not been forth- coming. Altucher (1967) asserts that as the need for trained counselors increases, the more important the process of supervision becomes. Andrew and Willey (1958) view the guidance coor- dinator as a leader and supervisor. The guidance coordinator/supervisor is a leader to the extent that one influences the activities and efforts of your staff toward the achievement of goals. "His accomplishment is entirely dependent upon the performance of others; hence, he is seldom an independent agent who can ignore the welfare of the staff. He becomes an authority only in as much as his staff defines the scope of action he has in making decisions, in carrying out responsibilities, and enlisting the cooperation of others" (Andrew and Willey, 1958, p. 69). "The authority of any single individual will be largely circumscribed and the degree of his authority will in part determine the authority of others" (Stogdill, 1950, p. 7). Andrew and Willey (1958) also assert that leadership is closely integrated with the decision making process. 16 Andrew and Willey (1958) present several super- visory functions of the counselor coordinator/supervisor. These functions include group experimentation and investi- gation, the establishment of a clearing-house for the suggestions and experiences of superior counselors and teachers, stimulation of school personnel to read guidance literature and friendly cooperation. The guidance super- visor creates satisfying and personal relationships with the staff to secure effectiveness and increased produc- tivity. In addition, the guidance supervisor must create satisfaction and increase the morale of his staff, solicit support from the school administrator, and solicit support from, as well as, provide information to the community (Andrew and Willey, 1958). The role of the supervisor is gradually changing to the direction of educational leadership. Andrew and Willey (1958) suggest that guidance supervisors meet the following qualifications: 1. He must be sensitive to the personal needs of his co—workers. 2. He must have empathy with his staff as well as with his counselors. 3. He must establish a feeling of friendship with all who are working on the same problems. 4. He must willingly yield leadership to anyone more competent that he to advance common purposes. 5. He must be skillful in developing group processes. 17 6. He must be able to work c00peratively with the administrators in solving problems of the guidance program. 7. He must establish confidence by evidencing an understanding not only of guidance tech- niques but also of the whole guidance process (pp. 70-71). The Detroit Public Schools (1974) discussed the use of counselor supervisors in the school system. The joint study committee called for the establishment of leadership positions in guidance and counseling in each of the junior (middle) and senior high schools. The counselor supervisor will provide leadership and directions to counselors and the total school guidance and counseling program. The committee recommended that the counselor supervisor be responsbile for making and implementing decisions that are necessary in order that one be able to carry out several functions. These functions include the supervision of counselors within the school in which one works; providing leadership in establishing sound guidance practices in classroom and other settings throughout the school; the development of guidance and counseling programs; the coordination of guidance projects; consultation with counselors; and coordination of the activities of clerical workers. The Organization of Guidance Services The institution of education is deeply embedded in the American way of life. Education is more than 18 reading, writing and arithmetic. The ultimate goal of the educative process is for all individuals of society to become fully functioning persons. Education has to be concerned with and implemented for human beings in a social context (Ryan and Zeran, 1972). This concern must be generated in every component of education. Guidance serves a supporting function in the educational process by directing and controlling activities to help each individual develop to his fullest potential. Thus, there must be a reconceptualization of guidance activities to meet the challenge of developing and operating person-oriented programs serving all learners (Ryan and Zeran, 1972). Ryan and Zeran (1972) assert that organization and administration are functions of management which encompasses executive responsibilities for planning, organizing, coor- dinating, directing, controlling and supervising with responsibility for results. Activities, projects and programs are the main areas of concern to the manager. "The essence of efficient management is to specify objec- tives, define ways to achieve these objectives, and pro- vide feedback that reports the extent to which each objec- tive has been realized" (Ryan and Zeran, 1972, p. 10). Thus, management is a decision making process, and managers are responsible for their decisions. Lessinger (1969) states that "modern management techniques require first and foremost, clear understanding of what the product is 19 to be. This understanding must . . . be output oriented" (p. 10). Ryan and Zeran (1972) suggest that the focus of management in guidance services must be on performance. The key question should be, "Are the learners in this school developing into the kinds of persons they are capable of becoming?" (Ryan and Zeran, 1972, p. 10). Barnard (1938) defines the entity of organization which results from the organizing process as a "conscious, coordinated, cooperative system" (p. 65). Ryan and Zeran (1972) define organization as "the process of organizing, that is, setting up an administrative and functional structure for a stated purpose, organizing for coordination of effort, making considered allocation of resources, and coordinating elements to establish relation- ships of personnel through lines of authority and responsi- bility with delegated and assigned duties" (p. 10). Ryan and Zeran (1972) define administration as "the process of administering, that is, performing execu- tive duties of planning, superintending, directing, invol- ving implementation of principles, practices, and tech- niques to achieve objectives of an organization" (p. 11). Thus, the act of administering includes planning, directing, controlling and supervising. Administrators are decision makers who may be held accountable for their decisions. Walter (1962) defines administration as "the act or process of administering the performance of the 20 executive duties of the institution, business, or the like; to manage or direct the execution, application or conduct" (p. 20). Kaufman (1971) conceptualizes the job of management and administration as an accountability function, involving planning, organizing, designing, implementing and evaluating situations and outcomes and making revisions to insure ongoing relevancy and practi- cality. Hatch and Stefflre (1958) assert that administration is the guidance, leadership and control of the efforts of a group of individuals toward a common goal. Newman (1951) suggests that there are five basic processes that may be viewed as functions of administration: planning; organizing; assembling resources; directing; and controlling. Hatch and Stefflre (1958) suggest that planning, organizing, staffing and directing are the functions of administration. Planning is the preparation to act upon some piece of work or problem. Plans include Goals and operating plans. goals are the framework in which planning is accom- plished. Operating plans denote the action aspect of planning which includes policies, procedures, schedules, and methods. Several factors constitute the planning process--the presence of a need, an analysis of the situ- ation, a review of possible alternatives, and finally the choice of a course of action (Hatch and Stefflre, (1958). 21 The process of organizing consists of the division of activities and the delegation of responsibility. Hatch and Stefflre (1958) state that the decision about the division of activities is one of the most profound faced by an administrator. One must address the following fac- tors: function, location, groups to be served, and per- sonnel available. The delegation of responsibility is critical if an administrator is to insure that the depart- ment runs smoothly. A well designed guidance service relates to and functions compatibly with the instructional and admini- strative elements within the school and school district. The coordinator functions as an administrator, supervisor and manager. In order to meet the challenges of today and tomorrow, a strong guidance program must be headed by a supervisor who is capable of implementing changes as changes occur in society (Ryan and Zeran, 1972). Thus, as the environment changes so must the organization of guidance services. Sppervision and Management Ficker (1975) asserts that the supervisor performs several functions which clearly identify with management: the direction of workers; decision making; community relations; effective communications; and staff development. The supervisor is responsible for establishing performance 22 goals for workers and insuring that these goals are ful- filled. Thus, the supervisor makes decisions concerning schedules and functions of workers. Of necessity, the supervisor must make decisions. Community relations is a key factor in the supervisor's role. Through structured and unstructured activities, the supervisor must speak out strongly and positively for the organization. A supervisor must learn to communicate well on all levels. In addition, the supervisor is expected to make careful plans to insure orderly growth of the staff (Ficker, 1975). Fulmer (1976) states that supervisors have several functions. Supervisors are creators of surroundings in which people will feel like working at their top potential. Supervisors are catalysts. The supervisor is the person in the middle as a representative of the organization yet not a part of top management. Fulmer (1976) outlines several supervisory skills. They include the supervisor as a historian, psychologist, sociologist, professional decision maker, forecaster and management scientist. A supervisor learns by studying successful supervisors' past experiences and other supervisors' failures, concentrating on why some projects went smoothly and others went wrong. The supervisor has to pay great attention to the personal characteristics of those around him, as well as understand what makes people behave as they do. A supervisor may more effectively 23 motivate workers by understanding their importance and the underlying causes of their behavior. The supervisor has to deal with various groups of people and, therefore, needs to understand something about group behavior. Supervisors are paid to make good decisions which will have a positive effect on the organization. In conjunction with the decision making function, the supervisor needs the ability to devise and test out new answers to old problems (Fulmer, 1976). Terry (1974) defines supervision as "the achieving of desired results by means of the intelligent utilization of human talents and facilitating resources in a manner that provides the greatest challenge and interests to the human talents" (p. 6). Although the definition seems simple, supervision is complex and commonly difficult to apply. Terry (1974) lists the major considerations of supervisory responsibility: 1. Knowing clearly what the goals are and how the unit's contributions fit into the overall picture. 2. Keeping superiors, peers and work group members fully informed. 3. Finding better ways to achieve desired results. 4. Improving each group member's knowledge and skill with special emphasis given to the ability to get along with people. 5. Developing a good team effort. 6. Preparing requested reports, interpreting policies and enforcing company regulations. 7. Allocating and scheduling the work fairly (p. 7). 24 Terry (1974) also states that there are several major considerations of supervisory authority. Super- visors should accept the need for making decisions and standing their ground. Mutual understanding with superiors regarding the extent of formal authority is important for all supervisors. Supervisors must correctly reorganize various factors about employees--their personal doctrines, previous training and experience. Supervisors then use these facts in all decision making. In attempting to foster group decision making, the supervisor encourages employee group interaction which provides a positive atmo- sphere and motivation to reach organizational goals. There are several styles of supervisory patterns. Terry (1974) emphasizes formal authority, power, partici- pation, management by objectives, accentuate the positive and process analysis. The making of decisions and their enforcement are centered in the supervisor who displays a formal authority pattern of supervisor behavior. "The supervisor is work-centered, and he sees to it that all efforts follow closely the formally prescribed manner in which work is to be done" (Terry, 1974, p. 21). The supervisor who portrays a power supervisory pattern simply manipulates his staff. The participation pattern of supervision features participation by the group members in decision making about matters that concern them. This pattern permits and 25 encourages staff contributions to decisions and goals. The concept of management by objectives emphasizes employee participation in the determination of one's objectives and means for achieving these objectives. The accentuate the positive pattern involves the use of encouraging remarks by the supervisor. This pattern is more demanding for the supervisor because it "necessi- tates complete confidence in the accomplishment of stated goals, proper analysis of feedback data, and decision making that includes personal considerations of the individual member performing the work" (Terry, 1974, p. 27). The process analysis pattern is employed when a supervisor operates in an environment emphasizing a total awareness of what is going on, and how the process involving him affects and is affected by other processes within the organization. Herbert (1976) suggests that supervision and management overlap. Ryan and Zeran (1972) concur with this idea. They suggest that anyone who supervises people is indeed a manager as well. What can one clearly say is management? There is no universally accepted meaning of management. Presented below are several definitions which are used by those in management. 26 Some authors view management in terms of the environment. Management is "the work of creating and maintaining environments in which people can accomplish goals effectively" (Albanese, 1975, p. 26). Koontz and O'Donnell (1972) state that management is "establishing an effective environment for people operating in formal organizational groups" (p. 42). Others in the literature speak to management as a coordination process. Massie and Douglas (1973) view management as "the process by which a cooperative group directs actions of others toward common goals" (p. 24). Kast and Rosenweig (1974) assert that management "involves the coordination of human and material resources toward objective accomplishment” (p. 6). Sisk (1974) states that management is "the coordination of all resources through the porcesses of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling in order to attain stated objectives" (p. 13). Management is "the process by which managers create, direct, maintain, and operate purposive organi- zations through systematic, coordinated, cooperative human effort" (McFarland, 1974, p. 6). Management is also described in terms of decision making. Forrester (1962) asserts that management is "the process we call decision making" (p. 37). Lundgren (1974) states that management if "a force that, through decision making based on knowledge and understanding, interrelates 27 and integrates, via appropriate linking processes, all the elements of the organizational system in a manner designed to achieve the organizational objectives" (p. 5). Ryan and Zeran (1972) assert than management is a decision making process. Herbert (1976) suggests that the overall function of a manager or supervisor is to see that desired results are obtained. The manager must ensure that organizational goals are reached by planning, organizing, directing, and controlling activities of organizational members. The manager or supervisor must carefully and rationally establish specific objectives, and establish policies to guide the staff. Organizing involves defining the tasks needed to reach goals and assigning duties to individual staff members. Directing entails offering leadership. Controlling makes the evaluation of how all objectives are met possible. Carter (1969) states that coordination is the manager's function. A good manager formulates policies, sets short and long range goals, develops an organizational structure, defines roles and assigns authority and responsibility, and monitors and evaluates activities. Planning is incorporated into these functions. The manager must address three areas in planning: what decisions have to be made; in what order should they be 28 made; and what information is necessary in order to make the decision. Thus, decision making is also an integral part of management (Carter, 1969). Decision Makipg Luthans (1973) defines decision making as choosing between alternatives. Terry (1974) views decision making as "the process of selecting a course of action designed to solve a given problem" (p. 105). Ofstad (1961) states: To say that a person has made a decision may mean (1) that he has started a series of behavioral reactions in favor of something, or it may mean that he has made up his mind to do a certain action, which he has no doubts that he ought to do. But perhaps the most common use of the term is this: to make a decision means (2) to make a judgement regarding what one ought to do in a certain situation after having deliberated on some alternative courses of action (p. 15). In their book on the organizational aspects of choice, Shull and his associates (1970) assert that the decision making process is a conscious, human process which involves individual and social phenomena. A decision process is based upon factual and value assump- tions and includes the selection of one activity from one or more alternatives with the intention of progressing toward some desired state of affairs (Shull, et al., 1970). Harrison (1975) describes a decision as an on-going process during which one evaluates alternatives related to some goal. He asserts that the expectations a person has about a certain course of action will motivate one 29 to make a selection or commitment to direct one's energies toward the purpose of reaching the goal (Harrison, 1975). Emory and Niland (1968) view a decision as only one step in an intellectual process of differentiating relevant alternatives. The decision is the point when the decision maker selects a preferred purpose which is the most probably alternative for the best course of action. Simon (1960) in his book on the science of manage- ment decision treats decision making as a process synony- mous with the whole process of management. He states that "decision making comprises three principal phases: finding occasions for making a decision; finding possible courses of action; and choosing among the courses of action" (Simon, 1960, p. 1). Simon (1960) also says that decision making is synonymous with managing. A decision can occur on several levels. The first and most basic level is that of an individual acting to satisfy his basic needs: (1) physiological; (2) safety; (3) social; (4) esteem; and (5) self-actualization (Maslow, 1954). Harrison (1975) asserts that this hier- archy of needs provides a framework for analyzing individual decisions. A great deal of individual decision making relates to the solutions of problems. Alexis and Wilson (1967) make the following statements about the decision making or problem solving approach of individuals: 30 1. Problem solving by individuals entails the use of strategies of searching for relevant alter- natives, especially when the slightest degree of complexity prevails. 2. Problem solving behavior is adaptive. Individ- uals start with a tentative solution, search for information, modify the initial solution, and continue until there is some balance between expected and realized results. 3. Even in the most restricted problem solving situation, the individual's personality and his aversion to or preferences for risk enter into his choice of strategies, his use for information, and his ultimate solution (p. 74). Decisions may also occur at the group level. Group decisions reflect more than a collection of desires or individuals. They represent a special synthesis of the compromised desires of individual members (Harrison, 1975). The scope of decision making does not stop at the level of the group. A group is simply a part of an organization (Harrison, 1975). Thus, decisions occur at the organizational level as well. Koontz and O'Donnell (1972) assert that decision making at the organizational level is expressed primarily through the basic functions of the manager. These functions are planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. Harrison (1975) asserts that decisions are made at two levels beyond the organizational level. Decisions are made at the level of the total society. Bernthal (1962) suggests that decisions at enterprise level tend 31 to be oriented toward consumer welfare, allocation of resources and production and distribution of goods and services. Bernthal (1962) suggests the following as the basis for decisions at the societal level: It is necessary to see the importance to a cul- ture and civilization of developing not only vigor in economic activity, but also of devoting man's energies to the civilizing process, once economic survival is assured. A surplus of goods . . . makes it possible for man to devote more energy and attention to the creation of works of literature, architecture, sculpture, music . . . to the establishment of orderly societies . . . just rules (p. 194). There are several views on the structure of decision making. Most theorists break the decision making process into sequential steps. Their logic traces back to the conceptualization of John Dewey. Dewey (1933) outlined three stages of judgement anala- gous to the decision process. He asserted that first there had to be some type of controversy concerning one situation. Next, the opposite claims of the con- troversy had to be defined and elaborated. Third, some decision is made which ends the controversy as well as serves for a guide in the future. Herbert Simon (1960) conceptualizes three major phases in the decision making process. They are intelli- gence activity, design activity, and choice activity. Intelligence activity consists of searching the environ- ment for conditions calling for decision. Design 32 activity involves inventing, developing and analyzing possible courses of action that take place. Choice activity is the actual choice, selecting a particular course of action from those available. Newman and associates (1967) have conceptualized four phases which are similar to Simon's design. The phases involve making the diagnosis, determining alter— native solutions, analyzing and comparing alternatives, and selecting the alternative or goal to follow. Terry (1974) asserts that in making a supervisory decision it is essential that the decision making process consist of four steps to be followed in their prescribed order. First, the decision maker must know the objectives of the decision. Second, the decision maker must deter- mine the alternatives from which to choose. Third, the alternatives must be evaluated. Fourth, the decision maker should implement and follow up on the results from the best alterntive. Eckles and associates (1974) outlined eight steps in the decision making process. These steps include recognition and analysis of the problem, determination of solutions, identification of key uncertainties, collection of data, estimation of the value of each solution, taking some action, and evaluation of the action. 33 Janis and Mann (1977) define five stages in the decision making process. Stage one is appraising the challenge. Challenging information produces a temporary personal crisis. Stage two consists of surveying the alternatives. Stage three involves the weighing of alternatives. Stage four is deliberating about commit- ment. The decision maker deliberates about the imple- mentation of the new plan of action. The final stage, stage five, involves adhering to the chosen plan of action despite any negative feedback. Janis and Mann (1977) postulate that the five stages are fully developed when the decision maker's dominant pattern is vigilance. One of the newer comprehensive approaches to decision making is through the use of a systems analysis. Elbing (1970) presents a systems model. Elbing (1970) asserts that the decision maker often experiences feelings of equilibrium by attempting to determine the underlying cause of the problem. His response involves a definition of the problem to be solved, a selection of method or solution, and implementation of his choice. Gunnings (1976) suggests seven progressive steps in the Systemic Approach to Management. The approach may be used by individual managers and by managers and staff members together. The seven steps are (1) the identification of symptoms, (2) the exploration of problem causation, (3) the discussion of problem-solving 34 strategies and techniques, (4) the selection of problem- solving strategies and techniques, (5) the implementation of selected strategies, (6) the evaluation of effective— ness of problem-solving process and (7) expansion of client use of the model. Phelps (1974) states that the process of decision making entails (1) establishing objectives, (2) classifying and ranking objectives, (3) evaluating alternatives against objectives, (4) choosing the best alternative, and (5) assessing and controlling the consequences of the choice. Boyd (1976) presents several phases of decision making. The decision making process begins with the alert. A management minded supervisor is alert to potential problems, has skill in problem analysis, and is willing to act decisively. Secondly, the supervisor analyzes the problem, gathering all the facts. Thirdly, the supervisor must take action on major decisions which involves five consideration: "(1) a well—planned pro- cedure for taking action; (2) the participation of those affected; (3) the communication of the decision to all concerned; (4) follow up during the implementation; (5) the evaluation of results" (Boyd, 1976, p. 332). Harrison (1975) asserts that decision making is a dynamic process. The process begins with the setting of objectives; continues through the search for alternatives, 35 comparison and evaluation of alternatives, choice of alternatives, and implementation of decision; and cul- minates in the follow up and control stage. Drucker (1972) asserts that objectives are very important to management. They are needed in every area where performance and results affect the effectiveness of the organization. Objectives enable managers to do the following: 1. To group and explain the whole range of organizational phenomena in a small number of general statements. 2. To test these statements in actual experience. 3. To predict behavior. 4. To appraise the soundness of decisions when they are still being made. 5. To analyze their own experience and, as a result, improve their performance (Drucker, 1972, p. 118). The decision making process is influenced directly and indirectly by many psychological factors. Katz and Kahn (1966) identify seven psychological principles which create barriers to good decision making. They may be summarized as determination of thought by position in social space; identification with outside reference groups; projection of attitudes and values; dichotomized thinking; cognitive nearsightedness; and oversimplified motives of causation (Katz and Kahn, 1966). 36 Elbing (1970) presents nine descriptive psycho- logically based tendencies that serve as barriers to effective decision making. First, most decision makers tend to evaluate rather than investigate when first con- fronted with a problem. Generally, the past experiences of a decision maker form the basis for his approach to a new problem. Decision makers tend to use readily avail- able alternatives. They tend to deal with problems at face value. The decision maker often directs decisions toward a single goal rather than realizing there are equally important goals. Symptoms are often confused as problems. Unsolvable problems or those perceived as being unsolvable may be overlooked. The decision maker may concentrate on just the evaluation rather than examine what relative variables went into the evaluation. Lastly, the decision maker often responds automatically. There are basically two types of decision models lased. They may be classified as normative or descriptive. idhen a decision maker faces a known set of alternatives sand selects a course of action by a rational selection Iprocess, operation involves the normative framework. The descriptive framework incorporates adaptive or learning features and the act of choice spans many dimensions of behavior, rational as well as nonrational. Tersine (1973) states that regardless of the framework at least six elements are common to all decisions: (1) reference to 37 the individual or group making a choice from available strategies; (2) goals to be met; (3) the preference of a value system; (4) the strategies of the decision maker; (5) the states of nature; and (6) the outcome. There are several strategies that a decision maker may use to choose among alternatives. Janis and Mann (1977) describe the optimizing strategy as having the goal of selecting the course of action with the highest payoff. Simon (1976) points out that people rarely adopt this decision making approach: people simply do not have the wits to maximize. As a result of personal restraints, persons may use a "suboptimizing solution, one that maximizes some of the utilities one is expected to gain at the expenses of losing other utilities" (Janis and Mann, 1977, p. 22). Simon (1976) hypothesizes that the decision maker "satisfices" rather than maximizes. The decision maker looks for a course of action that is good enough, that meets a minimal set of requirements. Simon (1976) asserts than man's limited ability to foresee future consequences and to obtain information about the variety of available alternatives inclines him to settle for barely acceptable courses of action. Schwartz (1970) describes the quasi-satisficing approach as a moral decision making process. Once a person realizes that someone needs assistance and that 38 there is an obvious way to help the person, the decision maker takes prompt action without deliberating about alternatives. Tversky (1972) describes a multiple rule variant called the elimination-by-aspects approach. It consists of a combination of simple decision rules, which can be applied to select rapidly from a number of salient alter- natives one that meets a set of minimal requirements. Miller and Starr (1967) speak about incremental improvements that sometimes come about as a result of a succession of satisfying policy choices, each small change presumably having been selected as good enough because it was seen as better than leaving things unchanged. Janis and Mann (1977) state that "incremental decision making is geared to alleviating concrete short- comings in a present policy--putting out fires--rather than selecting the superior course of action" (p. 33). Since there is no effort made to specify major goals and to find the best way for attaining them, "ends are chosen that are inappropriate to available means" (Hirschman and Lindbolm, 1962, p. 215). Etzioni (1967) describes the mixed scanning approach. Scanning refers to the search, collection, processing, evaluation and weighing of information in the process of making a choice. The two major components of the mixed scanning strategy are: 39 1. Some of the features of the optimizing strategy combined with essential features of the elimination by aspects approach are used for the fundamental policy decisions that set basic directions; and 2. an incremental process is followed for the minor or bit decisions that ensue after the basic policy direction is set, resulting in gradual revisions and some- times preparing the way for a new funda- mental decision (Janis and Mann, 1977, p. 36). Aguilar (1967) divides the scanning activity into four parts: (1) undirected viewing; (2) conditioned viewing; (3) informal search; and (4) formal search. Undirected viewing involves the general exposure to information where the viewer has no specific purpose in mind. Conditioned viewing is directed exposure, not involving active search, to a more or less clearly iden- tified area or type of information. An informal search is relatively limited and unstructured effort to obtain specific information for a specific purpose. A formal search is a deliberate effort--usually following a pre- established plan, procedure, or methodology--to secure specific information relating to a specific issue. Janis and Mann (1977) assert that it is feasible to examine the quality of the decision making process. They developed seven major criteria that may be used to determine whether decision making precedures are of a high quality. Janis and Mann (1977) assert that ”failure to meet any of these seven criteria when a 40 person is making a fundamental decision constitutes a defect in the decision making process" (p. 11). They state that when a decision maker meets all seven criteria his orientation is characterized as vigilant information processing. Janis (1959) utilized a decisional balance sheet of incentives in analyzing decision making processes. Janis and Mann (1977) state that the decision maker with the fewest errors in decisional balance sheet meets all seven criteria of vigilant information processing. Janis and Mann (1968) classify the four main categories of the balance sheet as: l. utilitarian goals and losses for self; 2. utilitarian goals and losses for significant others; 3. self-approval or disapproval; and 4. approval or disapproval from significant others (p. 137). The utilitarian goals and losses for self category includes all the expected instrumental effects of the decision with regard to personal utilitarian objectives. The category of utilitarian gains and losses for sig- nificant others pertains to the goals of persons and groups with which the decision maker is identified or affiliated. Internalized moral standards, ego ideals and components of self-image are included in the category of self-approval or disapproval. The potential approval or disapproval of reference groups and reference persons who are expected to evaluate either the decision itself 41 or the individual's competence to make a decision is included in the final category-~approval or disapproval by significant others (Janis and Mann, 1977). Janis and Mann (1977) assert that there are five general types of intervention that may be used to improve the quality of decision making: 1. Decision counseling to foster vigilant problem solving. 2. Systematic balance sheet procedure to stimulate more thorough examination of the pros and cons of each alternative course of action. 3. Outcome psychodrama to enhance vigilance and induce awareness of preconscious anticipations. 4. Emotional innoculation procedures to increase tolerance for the stresses of post decisional setbacks. 5. Standard operating procedures to prevent a collusive pattern of defense avoidance among the members of the decision making group (p. 367). In-Service Training Gladstein (1970) recommends in-service education for counseling supervisors. Andrew and Willey (1958) suggest that in-service training helps staff members to grow. Participation in in-service also leads to an improvement of the relationship between staff members. In order to structure an effective in-service training program, Burnes (1975) suggests that one employs the five principles of adult learning and change: "(1) clarity 42 of role expectations and needed competencies; (2) devel- oping an awareness of self; (3) gaining new knowledge, concepts and techniques; (4) commitment to learning and growth; and (5) experiencing and practicing new compe- tencies" (p. 75). Summary The literature on counselor supervision revealed that little research has been done in the area of super- vision of full-time practicing counselors. The majority of the literature was informational in nature describing the state and organization of guidance and counseling in the schools and the role and function of counselor supervisors. This literature pointed to a dire need for additional research in this area. The literature concerning supervision and manage- ment functions was also descriptive in nature. Decision making is described in the literature as an important function of management and supervision. The literature does describe the decision making processes and suggest what comprises a quality decision. This investigation was a unique attempt to provide generalizations specific to counselor supervisors' quality of decision making skills. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Introduction The primary purpose of this study was to investi- gate the effect of an in-service training program in the Systemic Management Approach on the decision making skills of counselor supervisors. In this chapter, the setting, the characteristics of the population and sample, the description of the in-service program and the description of the research procedures are presented. The Settipg The setting for this study was the Detroit Public Schools system. The Detroit school system is decentralized with eight relatively autonomous regions. Each region has its own superintendent, regional staff and regional school board. While there is decentralization, several supportive services are coordinated by the central staff of the Detroit Public Schools. Counseling and guidance services are coordinated by the central staff although there are counselors who work in all regions at the school building level. Counselor supervisors are located in 43 44 the central guidance office, the middle schools and the senior high schools of the Detroit Public Schools system. Population and Sample The experimental population selected for this study consisted of counselor supervisors in the Detroit Public Schools. The middle and senior high schools have implemented the Modified Counseling Program which calls for leadership roles in counseling at the building level. The counselor supervisors within the schools supervise a staff of three or more counselors. In the school buildings, counselor supervisors are called department heads. The sample for this study consisted of thirty counselor supervisors in the Detroit Public Schools who were located at the middle and senior high schools. These thirty counselors were available for pretest and posttest screening as well as the in-service program. There were ten counselor supervisors who participated in the in- service program who were deleted from the sample because they did not attend both the pretest and posttest screening sessions. The subjects for this study were not randomly selected because all counselor supervisors at the middle and senior high school levels were required to partici- pate in the in-service program by the Director of Pupil Personnel Services of the Detroit Public Schools. The 45 counselor supervisors at the central staff level were excluded from the sample because they were integrally involved in the planning and implementation of the in-service training. The average age of the subjects was forty-one years old. Forty—six percent of the subjects were female and fifty-four percent were male. All the subjects had worked as school counselors in the Detroit Public Schools prior to becoming counselor supervisors. Sixty-three percent of the subjects had been supervisors one year or less; twenty-seven percent had been counselor super- visors between one and three years; and ten percent of the subjects had been counselor supervisors for three years or more. None of the subjects had received any prior training in the supervision and management of full-time counselors and counseling students. All the subjects had at least master's degrees in counseling with thirty-seven percent of them having completed some hours beyond the master's degree and twenty-six of them having received specialist degrees in counseling. The In—Service Program The in-service program in this study consisted of thirty—six hours of training in systemic management. The training was conducted by Dr. Thomas S. Gunnings, the founder of the Systemic Approach to Management. Several 46 noted professionals participated. The training was divided into the areas described below: Program Area I: Purpose: Time: Program Area Purpose: Time: Program Area Purpose: Time: Program Area Purpose: Time: IIA: IIB: IIIA: Management Clarification To assist counselor supervisors in developing effective manage- ment skills Eight (8) hours Establishing Effective Guidance Roles for Middle School Coun- selors and Counselor Supervisors To assist middle school counselor supervisors in identifying salient objectives and programs to be developed and implemented during the year Four (4) hours Establishing Effective Guidance Roles for Senior High School Counselors and Counselor Super- visors To assist senior high school counselor supervisors in identi- fying salient objectives and programs to be developed and implemented during the year Four (4) hours Identifying Middle School Based Management Problems and Method- ologies for the Implementation of Objectives To assist middle school counselor supervisors in utilizing the systemic management model applied to their specific problems Five (5) hours 47 Program Area IIIB: Identifying Senior High School Based Management Problems and Methodologies for the Implemen- tation of Objectives Purpose: To assist senior high school counselor supervisors in utilizing the systemic management model applied to their specific problems Time: Five (5) hours Program Area IV: Stress Factors in Management Purpose: To assist counselor supervisors in developing skills to effec- tively manage and pursue objec- tives in crisis or stressful situations Time: Five (5) hours Program Area V: The counselor Supervisor in the Detroit Public Schools Purpose: To assist counselor supervisors in analyzing the role of super- visors in the Detroit Public Schools Time: Five (5) hours Program Area I served as an introduction to the Systemic Approach to Management. Dr. Thomas S. Gunnings, Professor of Psychiatry and Assistant Dean, College of Human Medicine, conducted the session. The modes used were lecture, slides and discussion. The core of the session involved the explanation of the Systemic Approach to Management. (See Appendix A.) The goals and assump- tions of the model were clearly presented. Next, Dr. Gunnings explained the systemic flow chart of steps involved in systemic management. Several problems from 48 the group were worked through the model. Program develop- ment was emphasized as an important management task. Thus, the group was charged with the task of developing an out- line of a conceptual framework for program development. Program Area II served as a work setting for counselor supervisors and their respective principals. The two groups worked together to establish clear objec- tives of guidance and counseling, programs to be developed to implement the objectives, and expected outcomes. The supervisors and principals worked in small groups first where worksheets were used. (See Appendix B.) The small groups then convened into a larger group to discuss the process and summarize the objectives. This program began to indirectly require supervisors to develop their decision making skills. In Program Area III actual methods for solving management problems were the focus. Dr. Gunnings gave a more detailed lecture on the problem solving aspects of the Systemic Management Model. Dr. Joseph McMillan, Assistant Vice President for Academic Affairs at the University of Louisville, presented a management accountability model. (See Appendix C.) Dr. Linda Johnson, an administrator with the Michigan State Department of Education, presented the Accomplishment Review Process. (See Appendix D.) 49 Dr. L. Wendell Rivers, a prominent neuropsycho- logist from St. Louis, Missouri, conducted Program Area IV. During his presentation Dr. Rivers pointed out the importance for supervisors to understand the stressors that affect their staff in order to better understand their staff's behaviors. Following a discussion of the various types of powers a counselor supervisor may use, the supervisors worked in small groups to identify the major stressors which affect counselors in the Detroit Public Schools. (See Appendix E.) Program Area V involved group work where counselor supervisors role played and analyzed a problem situation. The central administration staff served as facilitators of the group activities. After each group exercise, the larger group convened to discuss the implications of group results. This session allowed counselor super- visors to apply the various models and skills they had been exposed to during the previous sessions. The group activities served as excellent facilitative tools. (See Appendix F.) The entire schedule for the in-service training component was developed by the researcher and Dr. Thomas S. Gunnings and approved by the Director of Pupil Personnel Services. Meeting times were scheduled for weekday afternoons and Saturday mornings. Counselor supervisors were given released time for the afternoon 50 sessions and were paid for the Saturday sessions. This was all coordinated by the Director of Pupil Personnel Services. The training session spanned approximately thirteen weeks. Research Procedures There were several components included in the research procedures for this investigation. These included the development of the instrument, the admini- stration and scoring of the instrument, the hypotheses and the design and analysis of the data. The Instrument The instrument used in this study was the Decisional Balance Instrument adapted from Janis and Mann's (1977) decisional balance sheet. Each counselor supervisor was asked to respond to six situational prob- lems presented in the form of written vignettes. (See Appendix G.) Three were given during the pre-program assessment, and three were given during the post-program assessment. The instrument was set up so that the counselor supervisors responded to each problem vignette by completing decisional balance sheets for each of the vignettes. Each balance sheet represented an alternative to the problem. There were three major areas evaluated by the instrument: the range of alternatives; the range 51 of logical consequences; and the thoroughness of reSpcnse. The total instrument measured the quality of decision making skills. There were several steps in the development of the instrument. The researcher began by interviewing counselor supervisors who were to participate in the in-service training, asking them to meet with the researcher to briefly discuss the management and supervision problems that they were having in their schools. Approximately twenty supervisors participated in the interviews. These sessions were recorded and from these sessions several problem situations were extrapolated. (See Appendix H.) The problems generated by the counselor supervisors were then classified as to the type of the problem-- structural, functional, interpersonal or perceptual (on the part of the client). Frequencies indicated that the majority of the problems dealt with organizational struc- ture, job role and function, and ideological approaches of the counseling staff. Therefore, the researcher developed six written vignettes which centered around those three types of problems. (See Appendix G.) The researcher had each vignette evaluated for clarity by students and faculty at Michigan State Uni- versity. (See Appendix I.) The researcher utilized a five point Likert scale with one being the lowest score and five being the highest. Any vignette that did not 52 have an average score of at least four (4) would have to be re-written. However, the mean scores for the vignettes were high as is indicated in Table 1. TABLE l.--C1arity of Vignettes. Problem Mean I 4.6 II 4.4 III 4.8 IV 4.2 V 4.7 VI 4.9 The Decisional Balance Instrument was designed to be evaluated by raters. Therefore, the researcher's task was to train three raters to evaluate the instrument. The training was very basic. It included an explanation of the instrument and its directions and the purpose of the evaluation. Also, directions for the evaluation of the instrument were explained. (See Appendix J.) The researcher went through some sample evaluations with the raters. Training also included a question and answer period. At the conclusion of the training, the three raters were given four sets of balance sheets to evaluate. 53 This evaluation served as the data used to determine the interrater reliability reported. Before the actual ratings of the investigation protocols was undertaken, the inter— rater reliability was extremely high. Using the analysis of variance, the interrater reliabilities were computed with the actual protocols for Scale A, Scale B, Scale C, and Scale Total for the pretests and posttests. These reliabilities are reported in Table 2. TABLE 2.--Interrater Reliabilities. Scale Interrater Reliability Pretest Scale A 1.00 Pretest Scale B .91 Prettest Scale C .96 Prettest Scale Total . 95 Posttest Scale A .99 Posttest Scale B .97 Posttest Scale C .99 Posttest Scale Total .98 Operational Definitions In this study the quality of decision making skills of counselor supervisors was examined. The quality of decision making was evaluated in three major domains: 54 the range of alternative courses, the range of logical consequences, and the thoroughness of response. Operationally defined, the range of alternative courses was the score on Scale A of the Decisional Balance Instrument. Operationally defined, the range of logical consequences was the score on Scale B of the Decisional Balance Instrument. Operationally defined, the thoroughness of response was the score on Scale C of the Decisional Balance Instrument. Operationally defined, the quality of decision making skills was the total score on the Decisional Balance Instrument. Administration and Scoring of the Instrument The instrument was administered by the researcher for both pretest and posttest administrations of the instrument. The directions were explained verbally as well as available in writing. (See Appendix K.) Each counselor supervisor was administered three pretest vignettes and three posttest vignettes. The researcher randomly assigned three pretest vignettes to each counselor supervisor. The other three vignettes were assigned to each counselor supervisor as posttest vignettes. (See Appendix L.) Therefore, each counselor supervisor 55 had the Opportunity to respond to all six vignettes, three pretest and three posttest. The instruments were scored by trained raters. Each rater was randomly assigned twenty pretest measure and twenty posttest measures. It is important to note here that each pretest measure consisted of three vignettes and each posttest measure consisted of three posttest vignettes. Therefore, each rater evaluated sixty pretest vignettes and sixty posttest vignettes without knowledge of which were pre or post measures. Each vignette was evaluated by two raters. After all vignettes were rated, the researcher compiled all the data. Since each vignette was rated by two raters, the mean rating was the value used in the data analysis. As previously stated, each pretest and posttest measure consisted of three vignettes; therefore, the following operations were necessary to get pretest and posttest scores on the scales: Pretest Scale A The sum of the pretest scale A scores for the three pretest problems The sum of the pretest scale B scores for the three pretest problems Pretest Scale B The sum of the pretest scale C scores for the three pretest problems Pretest Scale C The sum of the pretest scale total scores for the three pretest problems Pretest Scale Total 56 Posttest Scale A = The sum of the posttest scale A scores for the three posttest problems Posttest Scale B = The sum of the posttest scale B scores for the three posttest problems Posttest Scale C = The sum of the posttest scale Posttest Scale Total C scores for the three posttest problems The sum of the posttest scale total scores for the three posttest problems Hypotheses The following hypotheses were generated and tested to determine if there was any indication of improvement in the decision making skills of counselor supervisors. 1. The quality of decision making skills of counselor supervisors will be improved as a result of the in-service training in systemic management. H0: Xpost - xpre = 0 HA: xpost - Xpre > 0 The range of alternative courses generated by counselor supervisor will be improved as a result of the in-service training in systemic management. Ho: xpost - xpre = 0 HA: xpost - xpre > 0 The range of logical consequences generated by counselor supervisors will be improved as a result of the in-service training in systemic management. H0: xpost - xpre = 0 H: Xpost - Xpre > 0 A 57 4. The thoroughness of responses generated by counselor supervisors will be improved as a result of the in-service training in systemic management. Ho: xpost - xpre = 0 HA: xpost - Xpre > 0 Design and Analysis of Data The one group pretest posttest design described by Campbell and Stanley (1963) was used in this study. Although the design has some limitations, it was chosen because the same was fixed. All the counselor supervisors in the middle and senior high schools were involved in the training. There was no comparable comparison group that could be used. Also, random sampling was not possible. Figure 1 shows the diagram of the design. FIGURE l.--Design of the Study. Pretest Posttest 3O The data were analyzed by using the t-test for the difference between correlated means for scales B, C, and total. Scale A was analyzed by using the direct difference 58 method for the t-test. This test is apprOpriate with small sample size (n530) and also when there is only one group. The statistical level of significance was set at the .05 level. Summary The population selected for this study consisted of counselor supervisors in the Detroit Public Schools. All counselor supervisors located in the middle and senior high schools in Detroit were required to partici- pate in the in-service program. Thus, the sample was fixed. Pretest and posttest measures were administered. These measures were evaluated by raters who were randomly assigned twenty pretest measures and twenty posttest measures to evaluate. The instrument was composed of three scales--scale A (range of alternatives); scale B (range of logical consequences); scale C (thoroughness of response)--and the total scale (quality of decision making). 4 Statistical analysis of data was conducted using the t-test. All hypotheses were tested at the .05 level of significance. CHAPTER IV ANALYSES AND RESULTS The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an in-service training program in systemic management on the decision making skills of counselor supervisors in middle and senior high schools in the Detroit Public Schools. The study focused upon the quality of decision making and three components which comprise the quality of decision making skills: the range of alternatives; the range of consequences; and the thoroughness of re5ponses. In this chapter, the results of four t-tests for the difference in the means performed on the dependent variables of this investigation are presented. The statistical analysis of each hypo- thesis is presented. The Quality of Decision Making Null_Hypothesis 1: There will be no significant difference between the pretest scores of counselor supervisors who participated in the systemic management in-service training program on the total scale of the Decisional Balance Instrument and their posttest scores on the total scale. 59 60 Alternate Hypothesis 1a: The posttest scores of counselor supervisors who participated in the systemic management in—service training program will be significantly higher on the total scale of the Decisional Balance Instru- ment than their pretest scores on the total scale. The obtained t value of 28.83 is statistically significant. (See Table 3.) Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected in favor of the alternate hypothesis. Table 3 shows the significant difference between the pretest and posttest scores. ‘The Range of Alternatives Null Hypothesis 2: There will be so significant difference between the pretest scores of counselor supervisors who participated in the systemic management in-service training program on scale A of the Decisional Balance Instrument and their posttest scores on scale A. Alternate Hypothesis 2a: The posttest scores of counselor supervisors who participated in the systemic management in- service training program on scale A of the Decisional Balance Instrument will be signifi- cantly higher than their pretest scores on scale A. As indicated in Table 4, the difference in the posttest mean and the pretest mean was found to be significant. The t value was 91.64 with 29 degrees of freedom which is significant at the .05 level.1 The 1The direct difference method for the t-test was used because there was no deviation in the pretest scores which may be due to inclarity of directions. This method is recommended by Hopkins and Glass (1978) in Basic Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences. 61 vvm.o mmmw.mm kuOB mamom umwumum ooo. mm mm.mm evo.m om Hmm.m seem.mm sauce mamom ummuumom muflaflnonoum oon> Houum cowumfl>oo momou mo emaemu N me u euaeamum eumeemum cam: nonesz msnmsum> .Houoe onom “mono: owuoaouuou comSuom monouommwo How umoeiull.m mqmda 62 ooo.m deuce mflmom ummuonm mm em.am ammo. om mmmo.m m madam ummuumom wsHm> nouns mommo no up u oumocwum coo: umoeoz odomenm> .< onom "unwary mom vogue: ooconowweoluomuwoii.v momma 63 null hypothesis was rejected in favor of the alternate hypothesis. The Range of Consequences Null Hypothesis 3: There will be no significant difference between the pretest scores of counselor supervisors who participated in the systemic management in-service training program on scale B of the Decisional Balance Instrument and their posttest scores on scale B. Alternate Hypothesis 3a: The posttest scores of counselor supervisors who participated in the systemic management in—service training program on scale B of the Decisional Balance Instrument will be significantly higher than their pretest scores on scale B. In Table 5, the comparison of pretest and posttest scores yielded a t value of 24.14 (df 29) which is signifi- cant at the .05 level is shown. The null hypothesis was, therefore, rejected in favor of the alternate hypothesis. In Table 5, it is clearly indicated that the mean for the posttest scores was higher than the mean for the pretest scores. The Thoroughness of Response Null Hypothesis 4: There will be no significant difference between the pretest scores of the counselor supervisors who participated in the systemic management in-service training program on scale C of the Decisional Balance Instrument and their posttest scores on scale C. Alternate Hypothesis 4a: The posttest scores of counselor supervisors who participated in the systemic management in-service 64 omm.m boom.wa m mamom umououm ooo. mm va.v~ ovo.m om Hmm.m mmm.mm m mamom umouumom mueawooooum oon> Honum c6eumw>oo momoo m0 833 m me u enaeemum euaecmum new: Honesz mangoes .m oamom ”memo: moumHoHHoo coo3uom mocouommeo Mom unwelull.m momma 65 training program on scale C of the Decisional Balance Instrument will be significantly higher than their pretest scores on scale C. As indicated in Table 6, the obtained t value of 19.08 (df 29) was statistically significant. The null hypothesis was, therefore, rejected in favor of the alternate hypothesis. In Table 6, it is shown that the posttest scores mean (i = 14.1333) was significantly higher than the pretest scores mean (i = 7.9000). Summary The data from the t-tests for difference in the mean for this investigation can be summarized as follows: 1. The posttest scores of counselor supervisors who participated in the systemic management in-service training program on the total scale of the Decisional Balance Instrument (which measured the quality of decision making) were significantly higher than their pretest scores on the total score. 2. The posttest scores of counselor supervisors who participated in the systemic management in-service training program on scale A of the Decisional Balance Instrument (which measures the range of alternatives) were significantly higher than their pretest scores on scale A. 66 mm~.H ooom.b H0908 mflmom ummuonm coo. mm mo.mH emm. om mmH.H mmma.ea o mHaom umouumom huwaeomoonm osHo> uouum seeumw>oo mommo mo modem» m me u euaecmum enmeamom cam: nonesz manafium> .U mamow "memo: omumamunoo coozuom mocmuommwo may you umoaluil.m momma 67 The posttest scores of counselor supervisors who participated in the systemic management in—service training program on scale B of the Decisional Balance Instrument (which measures the range of consequences) were significantly higher than their pretest scores on scale B. The posttest scores of counselor supervisors who participated in the systemic management in-service program on scale C of the Decisional Balance Instrument (which measures the thoroughness of response) were significantly higher than their pretest scores on scale C. CHAPTER V DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an in-service training program in systemic management on the decision making skills of counselor supervisors in the Detroit Public Schools. The in- service training proqram consisted of thirty-six hours of workshops that centered around the Systemic Approach to Management. (See Appendix A.) The tOpic areas included management clarification, the establishment of effective guidance roles, the identification of school based management problems, implementation of strategies to alleviate school based management problems, and stress in management. The Systemic Approach to Manage- ment served as the training model. This approach empha- sizes the development of problem solving skills and techniques necessary for effective management. Although there was no specific presentation on decision making skills, each session touched upon various aspects of decision making. The literature on the training of counselor supervisors is scanty with major focus on the training 68 69 of supervisors to work with counseling practicum students. There is only a small amount of information on the super- vision of full-time counselors. Although decision making is identified as a major function of any supervisor, there are few, if any, empirical findings concerning the evalu- ation of decision making skills of counselor supervisors and supervisors in general. Thus, this study was a step to fill the void in this area of research. The population for this study consisted of forty counselor supervisors in the Detroit Public Schools who work in middle and senior high schools. All persons in the population were to have been included in the study; however, ten persons were deleted because they were not available for both the pre-program and post-program assessment. Therefore, the sample utilized consisted of thirty counselor supervisors. The instrument used in this study was the Decisional Balance Instrument. The Decisional Balance Instrument measured the quality of decision making skills. The instrument also had three sub-scales. Scale A measured the range of alternatives. Scale B measured the range of logical consequences. Scale C measured the thoroughness of response. The pre-program assessment was administered prior to the beginning of the in-service training program. It consisted of three vignettes randomly selected from six vignettes for each 7O counselor supervisor. The post-program assessment was administered three months later after the in-service training program was completed. This assessment consisted of the remaining three vignettes for each counselor supervisor. The t-test for the difference between means was used to test for significant difference between the pre- test (pre-program) and posttest (post-program) scores of counselor supervisors. All hypotheses were tested at the .05 level of significance. Conclusions The results of this experiment can be summarized as follows: 1. The quality of decision making skills as indi- cated by the total scale of the Decisional Balance Instrument was significantly greater after the in-service training program in systemic management. 2. The range of alternatives generated by coun- selor supervisors as indicated by scale A of the Decisional Balance Instrument was significantly higher after in-service training in systemic management. 3. The range of logical consequences generated by counselor supervisors as indicated by scale B 71 of the Decisional Balance Instrument was sig- nificantly higher after the in-service training in systemic management. 4. The thoroughness of response generated by coun- selor supervisors as indicated by scale C of the Decisional Balance Instrument was significantly higher after the in-service training in systemic management. Discussion of Results This investigation supports the hypothesis that counselor supervisors who participate in an in-service training program in systemic management will significantly increase their quality of decision making skills. On the Decisional Balance Instrument, counselor supervisors had a total score posttest mean which was 58.9333 points higher than their pretest mean score. This fact seems to have practical significance considering that decision making has been identified as an important area of functioning of counselor supervisors and the training program could be packaged and marketed. In addition, the hypotheses that counselor supervisors who participate in an in-service training program in systemic management will significantly gene- rate a higher range of alternatives, a higher range of logical consequences, and a higher thoroughness of 72 response after training are supported. On scale A, which measures the range of logical consequences, and scale C, which measures the thoroughness of response, the posttest mean scores were significantly higher than the pretest mean scores. When one looks closely at the aforementioned results, they all have practical significance for coun- selor supervisors in the schools. An improvement in the decision making skills of counselor supervisors could have a very significant impact upon the educational atmosphere for students. School counselors are in the schools to provide students with counseling and supportive services that will enhance their academic and personal growth and development. Counselor supervisors who make more quality decisions about developing and improving counseling programs, coordinating counseling services and overseeing the function of counselors will most certainly add to the educational environment. Well thought through decisions usually tend to be better decisions. A counselor supervisor who pays closer attention to the consequences of any course of action for self and significant others will be able to better accept any problems that arise once a decision is implemented for the supervisor would have considered the possibility of such problems occurring. Also, the fact that counselor supervisors attempt to consider all the 73 major groups associated with the school in making decisions will probably lead to more acceptable as well as meaningful decisions. Therefore, it is practically significant that counselor supervisors improved their skills in the thorough- ness of response in decision making by indicating that they considered counselors, school administrators, teachers, students and parents in their decisions. Good decision making skills of counselor super- visors may affect the entire school. As leaders, coun- selor supervisors are hopefully in the position to have a significant impact upon the educational environment. The counselor supervisors in this study should be able to make better decisions that will affect their schools. These decisions will hopefully lead to a better education for the students and an improvement in counseling service delivery. At a time when schools are often the sites for destructive behaviors, good programming on the part of counselor supervisors could well lead to the salvation of urban schools and the discovery and nurturance Of the brilliant minds of urban youths. Therefore, this researcher asserts that all the findings in the investi- gation are quite significant for the Detroit Public Schools. Although the design has several limitations, the one group pretest-posttest design was used in this study. The dependent variable, decision making skills, 74 was viewed as relatively stable. Due to the structure of the Detroit Public Schools system, there was no comparable control group available. All counselor supervisors in the school system participated in the training program. While the use of this design does limit the generalizability of the study because of threats to external validity, the results may be generalized to any counselor supervisors with characteristics comparable to those described in this study. A closer look at the design discloses that the threats to internal validity include history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, and interaction of selection and maturation. The researcher attempted to strengthen this study by building in additional controls. Each subject received three of six vignettes randomly selected as a pretest measure and the remaining three as a posttest measure. Therefore, a type of alternate form measure was generated. Even though there were only six vignettes, it is unlikely that the counselor supervisors shared the content of the problems with one another after the pretest. Aside from the in-service sessions, there were few, if any, opportunities when more than a few counselor super- visors were together. The supervisors were all from different schools throughout the school system with not more than one counselor supervisor from any one school. They only met as one group for the in-service training 75 program. Also, there was a three month span between the pretest and posttest measures. These factors should add control to the testing threat. In an attempt to control for the threat of instrumentation, all measures, pretest and posttest, were rated at the same time, by the same raters. The raters were unaware of which measures were pretests and which were posttests. Each rater was given twenty pre- test and twenty posttest measures to evaluate. Matura- tion was somewhat controlled for in that decision making skills were viewed as rather stable. The sample used in the study was representative of the population of counselor supervisors with varied years of experience. Therefore, the selection-maturation interaction was not a major concern to the researcher. The researcher made several observations during the course of the training program. As training pro- gressed, the counselor supervisors appeared to become more comfortable and eager to learn. They appeared to develop more positive attitudes toward the in-service program as well as toward supervision and management. The interaction of the researcher and in-service staff with the counselor supervisors is viewed as a potential confounding variable since a very positive rapport developed during the course of the in-service. Also, 76 one is likely to get the best results when one designs and implements a training program oneself. However, the magnitude of the t-values suggest that the results would probably be significant for any other in-service program in Systemic Management replicated by other researchers. To conclude the discussion of the results of this investigation, the statistical findings suggest that the in-service training program in systemic management had a positive effect on the quality of decision making skills of counselor supervisors in the Detroit Public Schools. These findings may be generalized to other counselor supervisors from school systems similar to Detroit Public Schools and with similar characteristics as the counselor supervisors in this study. Implications and Recommendations This study has several implications for the coun- seling profession. The literature suggests that very little emphasis has been placed upon (1) the training of counselor supervisors; (2) the supervision of full- time counselors; and (3) the decision making skills of counselor supervisors. While only a few school systems have what they may call counselor supervisors at the building level, many school systems do employ head coun- selors at the building level. These head counselors may be responsible for programming, organization and 77 coordination of counseling and guidance services within the schools. The head counselors also may supervise coun- selors in the building whenever necessary. Basically, these head counselors perform supervisory and management functions, but they are not given such job titles. How- ever, few school counselors receive any supervisory or management training. From observations made during this study, it is apparent that counselor educators should begin to address the issue of training counselors in supervision and management. The supervision of full-time counselors is only briefly addressed in the literature. Observations made by the researcher suggest that in the new thrust for accountability in the schools, counselors will be on the firing line. The reorganization of counseling and guidance departments to insure quality services for students seems inevitable, yet such an effort will be ineffective if sound training programs are not developed to train coun- selor supervisors. The research strongly suggests the need for counselor supervisors and in turn programs to train them. Decision making is only one aspect of the super- visory function, but it is quite important. Any competent, effective counselor supervisor needs to possess good decision making skills. Since these persons will be in leadership positions,counselor supervisors can have a 78 great impact on the education of students. Thus, any training program should have some impact on the decision making skills of supervisors. This researcher strongly suggests that this study has implications for future training of counselors. As more emphasis is placed upon counselor accountability and counselor supervision from the state level, school systems will be developing counselor supervisory positions as the Detroit Public Schools have done. Yet few coun- selors will have been exposed to any training in the super- vision and management of full-time counselors. Although school systems may implement in-service programs such as the one described in this study, courses in supervision should be offered in the various counselor training pro- grams. Counselor training program administrators should consider adding this contingency because counselors do not know when they may be called upon to serve as super- visors or managers. Sound training in supervision will help counselors integrate management techniques with counseling techniques to enhance the counseling process and counseling delivery services in the schools. One can move a point beyond the institution of supervision courses into the counselor training programs' curriculum and examine the status of counseling in this state and nationwide. Dr. John Porter, State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction for Michigan, has expressed 79 concerns about counselor accountability and counselor supervision as well as counseling delivery services in the schools. At present, there is a state task force that is re-examining the status and focus of counseling in the state of Michigan. Throughout the country, pro- fessionals are raising questions about school counseling. This instability may force school systems to more fully address the counselor's role and function. If this occurs, sound supervision and management practices will have to be implemented at the individual school level. This means that more counselors will have to be trained in supervision and management and could possibly lead to the development of state counselor supervisor certification. Thus, the time for action is now. i In accord with these factors and in an effort to promote more effective counseling delivery services in the schools, the researcher recommends the following areas of possible future research: 1. This study should be replicated with populations of school counselor supervisors from school systems varying in size and structure to deter- mine the broader generalizability of the results of this investigation. 2. This study should be replicated with similar populations of counselor supervisors to determine 80 whether the in-service training program has any effect on the on the job performance of the coun- selor supervisors. This study should be replicated with similar popu- lations of counselor supervisors to determine whether the in-service training program in sys- temic management has any effect on the counselor supervisors' perception of their role and function. Replications of this study should consider the use of designs employing control groups. Research efforts should focus upon more clearly distinguishing the various factors of a quality decision and quality decision making. Experiments should be designed to determine the influence of in-service training programs in varied length on the decision making skills of counselor supervisors. Experiments should be designed to determine the influence of training in systemic management on the decision making skills of counselor educators. Experiments should be designed to determine the influence of training in systemic management on counseling students being trained in supervision. Research efforts should be developed to determine the influence of systemic management training 81 on the decision making skills of counselor super- visors at the school district and state levels. These suggested areas for future research are attempts to expand the present knowledge base in the area of counselor supervision as it relates to training and decision making skills. The availability of such infor- mation may help counselor educators restructure their programs to better meet the needs of the counselors in the field. Research could stimulate new training programs to prepare counselors for supervisory roles. Ultimately this line of research could insure better counseling services in the schools which will help make the educational experience an enriching one for all students. LIST OF REFERENCES 82 REFERENCES Aguilar, F. J. Scanning the business environment. New York: Macmillan Publishers, 1967. Albanese, R. Management: Toward accountability for per- formance. Homewood Illinois: Richard D. Irvin, Inc., 1975. Alexis, M. and Wilson, C. Z. Organizational decision making. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967. Altucher, N. Constructive use of a supervisory relationship. Journal of Counseling Psychology,l967, 14, 165-170. Andrew, D. C. and Willey, R. D. Administration and organi- zatign of the guidance preggam. 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APPENDICES 89 APPENDIX A 90 APPENDIX A A SYSTEMIC APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT mama unmflusaoo mwszzeo BZMZHU£Z¢S OB m0€0mmm¢ UHEMBmMm < .HHH mmwooum mcfi>aom Emanoum on» no muasmom mnemououum shoe uuonm m.m on» no one can :oHumcflsommeo ucoswmmcmz o.o mmsoflcsoma cowuosoom soumsam mo coHumucoEonsH H.H.m Home: on: usowau mo sawmcomxm o.> moemoumuum sums moon H.m osceucoo soums>m one annonm m.H.o mmflmmumuum ooumceswam omuooamm mo :oHumucosonsH soumshm «moonwucoo Ewanoum N.H.o mosoflcnooe one moemoumnum mcwmsom ocfl>aom swdnonm mo coauooaom Eoums>m “woumcwseam Emanoum H.H.o nonvecsooa pom mmwmmumuum pounceseam smaooum one soumsam H.o mcH>Hom swanoum mo :ofimmsomwo mmflmoumuum ose>aom seeummsoo smanoum mo sowumnonxm Emaooum mo mmoso>euoommm mo coHuMSHm>m 0.0 msoumswm mo sceumowmwucooH F F b 7 91 , ‘ V H.H.m J. l a: ti é - . . u. . 0.5 o.e . , o.m lliA-H—flvrli o.m o.m I o.H APPENDIX B 92 APPENDIX B PROGRAM AREA II WORKSHEET Establishing Effective Guidance Roles for Middle School Counselors Objective of Workshop: Task: To assist central office administrators, middle school counselor department heads, and principals in reaching agreement on the main objectives of guidance in the Detroit Public Schools through group processes which help them to identify the salient objectives to be implemented during the year. To agree upon goals and objectives of guidance and counseling for middle schools in Detroit Public Schools. Guidance as articulated by the Detroit Public Schools is the organized effort of the school to meet the needs of each student and to help each student reap optimum benefits from his/her educational experiences. More specifically, guidance is aimed at helping the individual to assess his/her strengths and limitations, to identify his/her interests; and to assist him/ her in planning for attaining realistic goals. Counseling as articulated by the Detroit Public Schools is the systematic process by which the individual student is helped through conferences with the school counselor--to make decisions which will be fulfilling to him/her and which will help him/her to become a productive member of society. 93 94 Please Complete the Following Exercises: A. Define five objectives of guidance and counseling that you deem important for your school. B. Having stated the above objectives, what programs should be developed to implement the objectives? (state briefly) C. If the above objectives and programs are implemented, what outcomes do you expect in your school? (i.e., teachers, students, counselors, etc.) APPENDIX C 95 APPENDIX C A MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTABILITY MODEL It is my understanding that in your last session that you identified the need for developing and implementing a management accountability model for counselor department heads in the Detroit Public Schools. Certainly such a model would be consonant with the "systemic" counseling model designed by Gunnings. Like the "systemic model" a good management accountability model should be rooted in the Systems approach whereby all con- stituent elements of a system are interdependent and inter- connecting. Ideally an accountability model must be one which involves all of the parts of the system. It follows then in a school system that any successful management account- ability model involve key personnel at each level. Given the nature of the Detroit Public School System which has pioneered in developing and implementing a plan of school decentralization and the commitment of personnel this task can be accomplished. A few years ago, in 1970, I served on a consultant team which worked in the elementary schools and developed a statement, "Priorities for the Seventies" which was essentially a position document with recommendations for changes in the elementary schools. This effort was a follow-up to the high school study which set priorities for the high schools in the newly decentralized district. In a decentralized school district "responsibility autonomy," a term coined by Cunningham and Candoli, should prevail. Essentially it means that each school should have the authority and autonomy to make decisions which affect the operation of that particular school. Although I have not followed the specific direction of that approach the seeds for accountability have been sown in this district. 96 97 Thus it seems reasonable to assume that a documen- tation of program understanding (a mission statement) for a management accountability model for the counseling program. Such a statement might be: "To design and implement an accountability management model which insures the involvement of professional staff in decision making for the Board of Education. This model will serve as a basis for the management ideology governing Board members, central administra- tion, school principals, middle managers, faculty, staff and pupils within the system. This model will also serve as a means of improving the overall effec- tiveness of a management system within the school district--" After setting the mission statement each counseling team should do a critical analysis of its situation (environ- ment). In this analysis the team must examine its delivery system to find out where it is or is not working. Following this analysis to determine problems the team should define "result areas". Through careful forecasting each counselor team can determine areas or problems from which they expect results. The establishment of result areas is a prerequisite to the setting of measurable objectives--a key element in any accountability plan. The tasks of making the critical analysis, forecasting establishing result areas and the setting of objectives can be significantly improved by good communication. Although it is now almost trite to talk about strained communication as a problem in most systems poor communication often results in poor management. A salient ingredient of good communication is feed- back. Feedback involves two way communication. If we are discussing issues and problems in setting up our management accountability it is necessary that the parties involved understand each other. Such understanding can only come through good communication. The following represents some salient features of a management accountability model: 1. Setting Objectives Performance objectives must describe what you actually expect as a result in a specified amount of time. They must flow naturally from the mission statement and goals of the organization and be endemic to your particular school setting. In discussing the 98 importance of stating performance objectives, Lessinger has stated, if I live in Detroit and have as my objective a visit by road to Los Angeles, it is not sufficient merely to be told that the direction is southwest. I need more specific instructions. Similarly in education, the general direction of faculty to teach children to understand and appreciate science, is insufficient. To be useful, the general direction must be supplemented with a set of operational steps. In setting objectives the need to be specific is paramount. Counselors, who deal with student behavior, must set specific objectives. A Statement of Job Descriptions A job description is a statement of the behaviors that constitute one's work activities. It is a record of the essential activities involved in the performance of a task that is abstracted from a job analysis and used in classifying and evalu- ating jobs and in the selection and placement of employees. Job descriptions are dynamic and changing; there- fore they must be updated at frequent intervals. As a manager, department heads should set down with each counselor to check out job descriptions. If we are to hold counselors responsible for results we should also equip them with an objec- tive description of the procedures they can use to obtain those results. Thus objective job descriptions are essential to a good management accountability model. Evaluation (Dr. Linda Johnson will discuss in detail the appraisal, another term for systematic evaluation so I will generally touch on key issues.) Evaluation is the assessment of the degree to which (1) job descriptions have been followed, and (2) performance objectives have been achieved. The Independent Accomplishment Audit, an evaluation procedure suggested by Lessinger consists of six stages of implementation: 99 In the pre-audit stage, program priorities in the form of specific performance objectives are agreed upon by those parties involved in the accountability system. The parties may consist of administration, teaching staff, students, and representatives of the community. In the translation stage, the parties involved in evaluation, along with those involved in teaching, determine the criteria that will indicate whether the objectives have been reached. In the instrumentation stage, evaluation devices which may consist of tests, behavior classifi- cation systems, questionnaires, and so on, will be selected or devised by the evaluators and the educational institution and its staff. In the fourth stage, a review calendar is con- structed in which the parties agree when the evaluations will occur, how they will be admini- stered, who will administer them, and how long they will take. In the fifth stage, the actual assessment process is carried out. In the last state, the evaluation agency provides a public report of the accomplishments of the program. This may be done via a special report, newspaper articles, or a public meeting. APPENDIX D 100 APPENDIX D THE ACCOMPLISHMENT REVIEW PROCESS Objectives 1. Recognize those who make significant contributions to the success of the organization. 2. Provide feedback and preview on the most important result areas and specific goals individuals focus on to achieve balanced attention to all goals. 3. Foster a climate which encourages individuals to make significant contributions to the organization's performance each year. 4. Provide basic data on which personnel decisions can be made (compensation, manpower reviews, staffing). What is Included in the Accomplishment Review Process? l. Accomplishment Report by the Individual A written statement by the individual describing major accomplishments of the past year. When possible, the accomplishments should be identified with the individual's goals. 2. Accomplishment Review (Manager/Individual) The individual and the manager discuss the Accomp- lishment Report to gain full understanding of all factors involved in accomplishments or lack or accomplishments. 3. Commentary pnganager A brief written statement which expands on the individual's report, giving information which is helpful in understanding the report and in making decisions which affect the individual in any way. 101 102 Personnel File The completed Accomplishment Report and Commentary becomes a part of the permanent personnel file of the individual. Relation to Existing Policy The policy of requiring a written manual performance appraisal discussed with each individual can be fulfilled with use of this Accomplishment Review Process. Implementation of the Process Step 1. Reviewing and Introducing Process. Review process with each senior executive of manager. Step 2. Use of the Process. Decisions on use of the process and implementation timing would be left with senior executive. Step 3. Department Orientation Sessions. The process shouldiflcascade dowfii (superior is knowledge- able before subordinate). Step 4. Consulting Services Support. Available on request to personnel. Preparing Accomplishment Reports (Subordinate) 1. Review whatever you have that defines your job responsibilities, duties, objectives, projects, programs, tasks, etc. Prepare a list of seven (7) to ten (10) major areas of accomplishment--resu1ts you are most proud of. Rank order the items on your list--beginning with the accomplishment you consider the most significant contribution to the success of the company. For each item on the list, prepare a brief statement describing the accomplishment. As far as possible, describe the result you have achieved compared to an objective previously agreed upon with your superior. Then add statements which help explain such things as: why you consider it a significant contribution to the company; 103 major obstacles which had to be overcome to achieve it; and factors which helped/hindered itSJaccomplish- ment, including evidence of your contribution to teamwork which may have been important. Optional: Add a statement of factors over which you had little or no control which significantly affected the results expected of you. Have your report typed. Edit your report as needed to fit on one or a maximum of two typewritten pages. Sign your report. Accomplishment Reviews (Superior-Subordinate) l. 4. Subordinate submits Accomplishment Report to superior, verbally enlarges on written report to be sure superior understands all factors involved in accom- plishments or lack of accomplishments. Superior probes as needed for full understanding of individual's accomplishments and evidence of contri- butions to teamwork. Optional: A joint analysis of reasons for successes and disappointments can assist the subordinate in learning from past experiences. Optional: The Accomplishment Review can lead into a discussion of new objectives for the coming year. Preparing Commentaries (Superior) 1. Write a brief statement indicating the extent to which you agree/disagree with the report of accom- plishments and explanations prepared by your subordinate. Add specific comments you feel would help higher levels of management understand your subordinate's report and evaluate the stated accomplishments as contributions to the success of the company. The Commentary should be attached to the Accomplish- ment Report. Once they are prepared, the two must be used together, never separately. Provide your subordinate with a copy of the Commentary and discuss as needed. APPENDIX E 104 APPENDIX E STRESSORS Stressors Which Affect Counselors in the Detroit Public Schools as Described py Counseling Depgrtment Heads and the Central Guidance Staff* Group I \lO‘U‘Iub WNH Competency Family conflicts Prolonged personal illness Isolation Lack of rewards Financial difficulties Target of racism Group III 1. Death 2. Illness 3. Family 4. Financial problems 5. Competency 6. Sexism Group II 1. Death of loved one 2. Family problems 3. Financial problems 4. Health 5. Competency 6. Academic 7. Social Group IV 1. Death 2. Illness 3. Social 4. Competence 5. Financial problems 6. Physical problems * Results of February, 1978 workshop with Dr. Wendell Rivers. 105 APPENDIX F 106 APPENDIX F GROUP ACTIVITIES Role Play Problem Mr. Bill Blue, a counselor at Cupps High School, is attempting to develop an innovative program for his school. But in the department head's discussion with Mr. Blue, it becomes apparent that he is ambivalent about how to structure the program. Needed for role play: One person to portray Mr. Blue and another to serve as the counseling department head in the school During the role play the counseling department head should show how he/she would help Mr. Blue clarify and structure his program. * Group Exercise #2 Ms. Clark is a very warm, sensitive individual who is well-liked by other counselors, teachers and administrators in the school. Ms. Clark has worked in the school for four years and is always talking about what an excellent job she is doing as a counselor. However, when she is pinned down to be specific, she becomes restless, trite and avoidant in substance. 1. As counseling department head in the school, you have been directed by the assistant superintendent to present a detailed program for Guidance and Counseling for your school in keeping with the district's and school's goals of counseling. The program should reflect some behavioral and structural changes in the school How would you proceed with the above? * Before attacking the problem the group should decide upon a problem solving approach that will be used in the process of addressing the issues raised. 107 108 If the department head is not able to rectify the situation, what should be the role of central staff supervisors in dealing with the department head? If the supervisors are not effective in bringing about a resolution, what should be the role of the director of guidance and counseling in rectifying the situation? APPENDIX G 109 APPENDIX G PROBLEM SITUATIONS Problem Situation 1: A misunderstanding has developed between a counselor and the school principal in regard to the role definition of the counselor. The principal insists that the counselor serve as a disciplinarian. The counselor asserts that a counselor should only be involved in counseling students. The counselor has appealed to you for direction and help in settling the matter. What will you do? Problem Situation II: Your counseling department is very fragmented. The older counselors are reluctant to work with younger counselors. This disruption on the staff has caused the counselors to be resistant to you as the supervisor. How will you alleviate this situation? Problem Situation III: As a counselor supervisor, there is a new program that you would like to implement in the school. However, when you meet with the school administrators to pre- sent the program, the program receives great opposition. How will you proceed from here? Problem Situation IV: In a required interview with the parent of a student who has recently been expelled, it is revealed that this occurence could have been prevented if a counselor 110 111 on your staff had been more sensitive to the needs of the student. On numerous occasions the student attempted to speak with the counselor about his problems involving a particular teacher. However, the counselor failed to give serious consideration to the student's concerns. As a result, the student chose to resolve the matter himself and consequently was expelled. What action will you take in view of the present situation? Problem Situation V: You have the responsibility to structure and schedule in-service workshops for the counseling staff at your school. Your first scheduled workshop of the year is not successful because of lack of cooperation on the part of the school administrator and your counseling staff. Neither the administrator nor the counselors Show much interest in having future in-service work- shops; however, you feel that the workshops are needed to help your staff develop their counseling skills. What will you do to insure that future workshops are more successful? Problem Situation VI: Your counseling staff has a large number of students to serve. Each counselor has been assigned approxi- mately 300 students as counselees. In addition, your staff handles group testing, academic scheduling and absenteeism. It is quite important that your staff structure their daily schedules in order to maximize their utilization of time. However, your counseling staff functions in a very haphazard manner and wastes a great deal of time on paper work and idle conver- sation. What will you do to alleviate this situation? APPENDIX H 112 APPENDIX H PROBLEMS GENERATED BY COUNSELOR SUPERVISORS Personality conflicts lead to disorganization within the department. This causes the counseling depart- ment to function in a haphazard manner. Everyone seems to be doing something different. The older counselors refuse to change their ways. There is a difficulty in structuring time during the day. Often a great deal of time is spent on duties that do not really lead to the direct delivery of services to the students and which encompasses very little counseling. There is a difficulty in developing and implementing new programs because we do not receive support from the building administrator. When the building admini- strator shows little interest in a project or resists a project we are unable to sell the project to the counselors and other school personnel. The teachers do not cooperate with me in attempting to implement programs such as career education and group counseling. This often leads to unnecessary delays as well as the termination of some efforts. The principals do not want to release persons for in-service training. They do all they can to block this. They do not attempt to help counselor super- visors to insure smoothness in function on in-service days which leads to work backlogs. The staff has to be forced to attend in-service training. They show little interest and motivation in regard to their job and lack of motivation for learning in the field. Principals still want counselors to handle the majority of discipline problems in the school. I am stifled because I spend so much time doing discipline and not enough time counseling. 113 10. 11. 114 The communications between the counselor supervisors and counselors, principals, and teachers are poor. This often impedes progress within the counseling department. Counselor supervisors and counselors are not willing to take risks in order to create changes within the department and the school. There is no clear definition of the role and function of the counselor or the counselor supervisor. I find it difficult to create new and innovative pro- grams for my counseling department which leads to stagnation in the department. Partially this is due to my own lack of knowledge and partially to my lack of understanding of my role. APPENDIX I 115 APPENDIX I VIGNETTE RATING SHEET Enclosed you will find six problem situations which will be analyzed by counselor supervisors in an urban school system. Your task is to rate each of the problem situations for clarity using a five point scale: 1 = Very unclear 2 = Unclear 3 = Okay, but could be clearer 4 = Clear 3: Very clear Please Circle Appropriate Response Problem Situation I Problem Situation II Problem Situation III Problem Situation IV Problem Situation V i- H h‘ +4 i- H k: i» b or Problem Situation VI 116 APPENDIX J 117 DEFINITION Scale A: Scale B: Scale C: Scale Total: APPENDIX J OF SCALES: DECISIONAL BALANCE INSTRUMENT §cale A represents the range or number of separate, distinct alternatives or alter- native courses of action generated for each individual problem (vignette). There is no maximum attainable score for this scale. Scale B represents the range or number of logical consequences generated for the alternatives for each problem (vignette). There is no maximum attainable score for this scale. Scale C represents the indication of the major groups that counselor supervisors must be concerned with. These groups are as follows: 1. students 2. parents 3. teachers 4. counselors 5. counselor superivisors 6. administrators The maximum attainable score on this scale is six. The scale total represents the total number of points earned over the three scales. 118 APPENDIX K 119 APPENDIX K DIRECTIONS AND BALANCE SHEET Directions: Decisional Balance Instrument Please open the letter-sized envelope that you received. Inside the envelope you will find a 3 x 5 card with a number on it. This will be your code number. Please use this number whenever your code number is required. Please open the large envelope. You will find three situational problems presented in the form of written vignettes. You will also find several decisional balance sheets. Place your code number in the approp- riate place on each of the balance sheets. Place the 3 x 5 card back into the lettersized envelope and seal. Write your last name and first initial on the envelope. The envelope will be collected and placed in a sealed box. Your task is to generate alternative solutions to the three problems presented. To facilitate this process, you will find decisional balance sheets to be used for each alternative for each problem. The balance sheets are divided into four categories. Each category has a positive and negative component. Please place your responses in the appropriate columns. You are not limited in the number of alternatives. There is also a space for your final judgement of each alternative. Please see proctor if you need additional balance sheets. Explanation of Categories of the Balance Sheet: a. Utilitarian Consequences for Self (Gains and Losses) This categoy includes all the expected instrumental effects of the decision with regard to personal utilitarian objectives. 120 121 Utilitarian Consequences for Significant Others (Gains and Losses) This category includes all the expected instrumental effects which pertain to the goals of persons and groups with which the decision maker is identified. Self-Approval or Disapproval This category involves evaluation of self-image if alternative is chosen. Approval or Disapproval py Significant Others This category involves the potential approval or disapproval of reference persons who are expected to evaluate the decision itself or the individual's competence as a decision maker. 122 "usoEomooh Assam i + i . + a I + I + mnosuo scum . maom Eouw mumnuo new «How new Hm>oummmmeo Hm>oummmmwo moocooommcou moocmooomoou \Hm>oumm< \Hm>oumo« omeumuwaeuo :oeumueawuo o>eumsuouad .oz mooo .oz anoonm Emmmm moz