THE LYKE LIKENESS INVENTORY: A SI‘UDY OF IDEN'I'II'ECATION Thesis Io‘s- II“ Degree oI pI‘I. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Ifiranlfiohn Lyke 1963 This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE LYKE LIKENESS INVENTORY: A STUDY OF IDENTIFICATION presented by Hiram J. Lyke has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph D degree in_ES¥cholngy ) p/ (I / /Mai0rr0{=8Pf0 Date 740 {fl 5 LIBRARY Michigan State University ABSTRACT THE LYKE LIKENESS INVENTORY: A STUDY OF IDENTIFICATION by Hiram J. Lyke A pilot study was conducted in order to investigate the construct validity of the Lyke Likeness Inventory, a multiple~ choice object identification instrument which purports to measure Freud's concept of secondary identification, the pro- cess in which the child unconsciously incorporates into his own personality the parents' superego dictates, i.e. their ideals, standards and asPirations. In addition, the author investigated the concurrent validity of the Likeness Inven- tory by comparing it with an existing measure, the Chang- Block Adjective Check List. The rationale for the construction of the Likeness In- ventory was discussed, and it was compared and contrasted to the Adjective Check List; On both inventories, each §.described his mother's and his father's ideal self in addition to describing his self, ideal self, mother and father. Scores were derived from correspondence between various pairs of descriptions by each s, Identification was defined as the degree of similarity between one's ideal self and his mother's and father's ideal Hiram John Lyke selves. Using the Likeness Inventory, the major hypothesis of this study was supported, namely, that an inverse rela- tionship exists between manifest anxiety intensity and de- gree to which there is superego (ego ideal) similarity be- tween parent and child. No relationship was found using the Chang-Block Adjective Check List. A replication study was undertaken in order to further investigate the merits of the Likeness Inventory. The scope of the study was broadened to include a female as well as a male population. The relationships between identification, as measured by the Lyke Likeness Inventory, maladjustment, as measured by the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank, covert anxiety, as measured by the Rorschach Content Test, and manifest anxiety, as measured by the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, were studied. Two measures of identification were obtained. One was the degree of superego (ego ideal) similarity between §_and same-sexed parent. Another was the congruence between one's self perception and his perception of the same-sexed parent's ego ideal. The male sample findings partially supported those found in the pilot study. One exception was that, while the identification dimension similarity scores between the male §L§ perception of his ideal father and ideal self were related inversely to the shortened form of the Manifest Hiram John Lyke Anxiety Scale, the replication study was not significant in this respect. The discrepancy in the results was found to be due to the nature of the samples used rather than to the difference in length of the Manifest Anxiety Scale. Mother-self and father-self factors were obtained for the female and male samples, respectively, suggesting that identification may be a more complicated process than what Freud envisioned, involving several variables rather than only one relationship. These factors also indicate that it is important for fig to perceive both their mothers' and. their fathers' self concepts and ego ideals as congruent, since greater divergence, in combination with the identifi- cation variables, was associated with psychopathology. The female mother-self factor was found to be inversely related to maladjustment and involved an almost identical- combination of complementary and same-sexed variables with high loadings as did the comparable father-self factor for males. In the male sample, however, both manifest anxiety and maladjustment were inversely related to the father-self factor. Relationships between female and male self acceptance and identification and self acceptance and psychopathology were also studied. The existing discrepancies in the female and male samples were partially explained by Parson's instrumental Hiram.John Lyke and expressive role theory of action. The results were also discussed in view of the many cultural changes which have occurred since Freud's time. Suggestions for further study were made and discussed. Approved l. 4hflé; O ttee OyEirman Date /L/20/43 Copyright by IBIIUU! JOEHIILIKII 1964 THE LIKE LIKENESS INVENTORY: A STUDY or IDENTIFICATION By Hiram John Lyke A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Psychology 1963 DEDICATION To my son, Christopher John, for his patience and cheerful acceptance of his father's necessarily rigid study schedule and for his trust and willingness to follow me wherever I may go, and to my wife, Judy, who, with my son, makes it all worthwhile. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS It gives me pleasure to acknowledge certain persons who have been particularly inspiring in my work. My grat— itude first goes to my parents who provided me with a healthy environment and the intellectual stimulation for growth and whose sacrifices and emotional support made possible my advanced studies. Special thanks must be given to my mother who spent numerous hours making meticulous tabulations. To Clyde Crego, a personal friend, I offer.sincere thanks for his statistical advice and assistance. Our re— lationship, which has been one of mutual admiration and respect, continues to be a rich experience for me. To James Clark, a fellow student, whose willing as- sistance in processing the data through MISTIC saved me many hours of statistical computations, I express my deep gratitude. I would also like to thank the many undergraduate students of Michigan State University who served as sub- jects for this project. I am indebted to the following members of my doc- toral committee for their constructive criticism and guid- ance: Dr. Joseph Reyher, Chairman, whose enthusiastic sup- port and direction through the many phases of the research iii were of immeasurable help. Dr. Reyher showed extreme sensi- tivity towards my needs, both emotional and intellectual, and his unselfish devotion of his time, together with his keen sense of psychoanalytic theory, were the major factors in the success of the research. Through my many hours of association with Dr. Reyher, I feel a personal friendship has developed which extends beyond the confines of the project. Dr. Charles Hanley, who suggested that the results of the study be factor analyzed, leading to a much more worthwhile project. Dr. Bill L. Kell whose reassuring manner conveyed his conviction, albeit implicit, that I could do it. Dr. Robert McMichael whom I admire for the respect he has shown my views, despite my own doubts, and for his willingness to serve on my committee despite short notice. Of invaluable assistance in all phases of my work has been my wife, Judy, whose understanding and encourage- ment has made it possible to endure the many hardships of graduate school. Unquestionably, I wouldn't have been able to do it without her abundant help. To Judy I express lov- ing thanks. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . METHOD........................... Apilotstudy.................... Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Ideal Parents and Ideal Self .. . . Analysis of Self Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . Factor Analysis of the Lyke Likeness Inventory Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Replication and Extension Study . . . . . . . . . . . Hypotheses to be tested . . . . . . . . . . . . . Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Treatment of Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Replication - Hypothesis A . . . . . . . . . . Replication -1Hypothesis B . . . . . . . . . . Extension - Hypothesis A . . . . . . . . . . . Extension - Hypothesis B . . . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 0 . . . . . . . . . . . HypothesisD........... HypothesisE........... V Page NN‘QUIUIUJ 13 14 18 18 19 20 2O 2O 22 22 25 .27 30 3o Hypothesis F Hypothesis G DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . Replication - Hypothesis A Extension - Hypothesis A . Replication - Hypothesis B Extension - Hypothesis B . Hypothesis 0 . Hypothesis D . Hypothesis E . Hypothesis P . Hypothesis G . Suggestions for SUMMARY Further Research WEBEROES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 vi Page 30 3O 33 33 35 42 42 iidfi 45 47 50 56 TABLE 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. LIST OF TABLES Page ,Comparison of Pilot and Replication Study Utilizing the Shofitened versus the Lengthened Form of the Taylor anifest Anxiety Scale and Lyke Likeness In- ventory Intercorrelations on Self Acceptance and Various Identification Dim.n310n8 e e eee e e e e e 8 .Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and Chang-Block Adjec; tive Check List Intercorrelations on Self Acceptance and various Identification Dimensions . . . . . . . 9 Pilot and Replication Study Male Orthogonally Rota- ted Factor Loadings for a Two-factor Solution In- volving the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete Senteuce Blank, and Lyke, Likeness Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete Sentence Blank, and Lyke Likeness Inventory Intercorrelations on Self Acceptance and ' Various Identification Dimensions . . . . . . . . . 21 Female Orthogonally Rotated Factor Loadings for a Two-factor Solution Involving the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete' Sentence Blank and Lyke Likeness Inventory . . . . . 124 Male Orthogonally Rotated Factor Loadings for a Three-factor Solution InvOIVing the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete Sentence Blank and Lyke Likeness Inventory . . . . . 26 lMale Orthogonally Rotated Factor Loadings for a Four- factor Salution Involving the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete Sentence Blank and Lyke Likeness Inventory . . . . . . . . . ~29 Mean Score Comparisons of Male and Female Imlntifi- cation SCOICS e-e e e e e e e e e e a e e e e s e e 31 -Mean Score Comparisons of Male and Female Self Ac- oeptanee Scores ‘e-e e e e e e e e e e a e e e e o e 31 Female Orthogonally Rotated Factor Loadings for a Three-factor Solution Involving the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete Sentence Blank, and Lyke Likeness Inventory . . . . 32 vii Appendix A. B. C. D. E. F. G. H. I. J. LIST OF APPENDICES Pilot Study - Male Intercorrelation Matrix In- volving the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale and All Possible Combinations of Lyke Likeness Inven- tory Variables (Self, Mother, Father, Ideal Mother, Ideal Father, Ideal Self) . . . . . . . . Male Intercorrelation Matrix Involving the Tay- lor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete Sentence Blank, and All Possible Combinations of Lyke Likeness Inventory Variables (Self, Mother, Father, Ideal Mother, Ideal Father, IdCEI $.1f) O O O 0 ‘O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Female Intercorrelation Matrix Involving the Tay- lor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete Sentence Blank, and All Possible Combinations of Lyke Likeness Inventory Variables (Self, Mother, Father, Ideal Mother, Ideal Father, IdoalSelf)................... Reliabilityand Validity of the Incomplete Sen- tence Blank, Rorschach Content Test, and Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . Review of the Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . Incomplete Sentences Blank - College Form . . . . Chang-Block Adjective Check List . . . . . . . . Page 60 61 62 63 66 98 100 Lyk. LikIDOSS InVon‘bOI‘y e e e e e e e e e e e e e 107 Biographical Inventory (Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale - Shortened Form) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Biographical Inventor (Taylor Manifest Anxiety ScaIO-Standardl'orm eeeeeeeeeeeee viii 122 The Lyke Likeness Inventory: A Study of Identification Hiram J. Lyke Michigan State University Freud postulated two aspects of identification: Primary identification, which denotes the infant's initial, undiffer- entiated perception of external objects as part of the self, and secondary identification, which does not begin until the child has learned to discriminate a world of objects separate from himself. He described secondary identification essen- tially as an unconscious process in which the child incorpor- ates into his own personality the parents' superego dictates, i.e. their ideals, standards and aspirations. "....the super- ego of the child is not really built up on the model of the parents, but on that of the parents' superego." (1933, p. 91)* Because Freud believed that the child's identification with his parents is the basis of his superego formation and is induced by motives and anxieties arising from the Oedipal situation, he theorized that full superego development was dependent on the successful resolution of the Oedipal Complex. By identifying with the same-sexed parent, the child can vi- cariously experience the love he is seeking without having to fear hostility and rejection from the parent with whom he is *In this paper, the term "identification” will henceforth re- fer to Freud's concept of secondary identification, as de- scribed above. competing. Since Freud's original formulation, the concept, ”iden- tification“, has taken on new and varied meanings (Bronfen- brenner, 1960). In fact, because of its numerous uses and interpretations, some have suggested it be designated by a more precise and appropriate term (Martin, 1954; Mowrer, 1950; Sanford, 1955). Identification has been defined in many different ways, depending on the instrument employed (Beier and Ratzelling, 1953; Cava and Raush, 1952; Chang and Block, 1958; Helper, 1955; Lozowick, 1955; Payne and Mussen, 1956; Sopchak, 1952). Generally, the subject (S) is asked to fill out a scale for himself and his parents, describing their self concepts and ego ideals. It is assumed that iden- tification increases as the similarity between two specific dimensions increases. A variation is to have the parent and §,complete the identical scales, using the degree of simi- larity as the measure of identification. Perhaps it is not that the term needs replacing but that Freud's concept needs a clearer understanding. Although some investigators have suggested or implied that they are testing the analytic hypothesis, this is doubt- ful, since Freud states that the child introjects the paren- tal ideals and not necessarily their present behavior. Few studies consider the parents' ideals, and those that do deal with conscious factors which §§ can easily manipulate. For example, §§ who like their parents or who fear punishment may not describe their relationship accurately. The problem of response manipulation would be reduced by the use of inventor- ies which purport to measure unconscious processes and, hence, follow more closely Freud's concept of identification. Method The study is in two parts, consisting of a pilot and a replication and extension study. The pilot study was conduc- ted to investigate the construct validity of an inventory de- vised by the author which purports to measure Freud's concept of identification. In addition, the author was interested in investigating the concurrent validity of such an inventory by comparing it with an existing measure. Since some promising results were obtained in the pilot study, a replication and extension study was undertaken in order to further investigate the merits of the devised inven- tory. A Pilot Study One pepularly used measure of identification is the Chang-Block Adjective Check List (Chang and Block, 1960). Comparing the responses to this check list made by a group of homosexuals with those of a group of normal males, Chang and Block found that the homosexual males tended to be less iden- tified with the same-sexed parent and more identified with the Opposite-sexed parent. That is, when the homosexual §§_de- scribed themselves, their self-ideals (ego-ideals), their mothers and their fathers, less similarity existed between their ego-ideals and perceptions of father than between their ego-ideals and perceptions of mother. Even though Chang and Block used Freud's concept of identification as their model, they neglected to make any com- parisons between the parent's and SL5 ego-ideals. Instead, they compared SL5 ego-ideals with his perception of his par- ents. The former comparison should have been made for an accurate investigation of Freud's belief that it is the par- ents' superegos rather than their actual behavior after which the child models himself. Many of the adjectives in the 79-item check list are re- garded as socially undesirable, e.g. cruel, mean, lazy, ob- noxious, etc. Therefore, it is uncertain whether or not the results veridically describe §L§ concepts. Some §§ may over- react and avoid the unpleasant adjectives either by reaction formation or because of fear of punishment. Furthermore, be- cause of hostility or need for punishment, some §;§_may over- use such adjectives. In order to reduce superficial and false choices, there- by increasing the likelihood of obtaining an accurate measure of identification, the author has devised a Multiple-Choice Projective Inventory calling for a forced choice between am- biguous nouns. By using concrete rather than abstract terms, it was felt that §§,might be able to identify more completely with the objects in question, and a more accurate measure of identification might be obtained. If Freud's assumptions regarding identification are valid, one would then expect to find an inverse relationship between manifest anxiety intensity and the degree of superego similarity between parent and child. The purpose of this study was to investigate the rela- tionships between the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (MAS, 1953) and Freud's concept of identification as measured by the Lyke Likeness Inventory and the Chang-Block Adjective Check List. Procedure §§ were male students taken from an Introductory Psycho- logy course and an Effective Study Methods course at Michigan State University. An N of 49 was obtained on the Likeness Inventory and MAS, and an N of 46 was obtained on the Adjec- tive Check List. The Adjective Check List was administered in one sitting. The Likeness Inventory and Manifest Anxiety Scale were administered in another single sitting. In order to control for order effects, the administration of the tests were counterbalanced. §§,identified themselves only by home telephone number in an attempt to assure anonymity. Using the Likeness Inventory, consisting of 60 multiple- choice categories, the measure of identification with the parents was obtained. §§_were asked to select from each cate- gory one item out of four which best described the ego-ideals (self-ideals) and self concepts both for themselves and their parents. The Adjective Check List contained 79 adjectives. Simi- lar to the Likeness Inventory, each §_was instructed to use the adjectives listed to describe the ego-ideals and self con- cepts both for himself and for his parents. §.marked an X if he felt the adjective was characteristic of his ideal self and an 0 if it was uncharacteristic. §,was allowed to make only and exactly 30 X8 and 30 Os. Similarly, he made the other necessary descriptions. In both tests, mother and father identification scores were obtained for each S by comparing his description of his ego-ideal (What or How I Would Most Like To Be) with his de- scription of the ego-ideal he ascribes to each of his parents (What or How Mother or Father Would Most Like To Be). The greater the number of similarities existing between the de- scriptions of the parent and self-descriptions for the respec- tive dimensions, the greater the degree of identification. In addition, self-acceptance scores were obtained on both inventories by comparing §l§,ego-ideal with his present self- perception. The less similarity existing between these con- cepts, the less self-acceptance. For both measures, each self and parental description was made on separate pages of the respective booklets in an attempt to maximize their independence. Since a limited amount of time was available for testing each S, only a portion of Taylor's critical anxiety sentences were used in the design. The higher the numerical value a,§ scores on the MAS, the more anxiety was considered present. The relationships between the various measures were analyzed by the Pearson Product Moment Correlation and, in the case of the Likeness Inventory, by factor analysis. (See Appendix A for 16 x 16 intercorrelation matrix involving the Lyke Likeness Inventory and Manifest Anxiety Scale.) Results Analysis of Ideal Parents and Ideal Self. As indicated ianable 1, using the Likeness Inventory, the correlation be- tween the selected anxiety items of the MAS and the score re- presenting the similarity between the Ideal Father and Ideal Self was significant (p<:.05). That is, the more like items §_chooses for his father and for himself, the less anxiety he manifests. Using the Adjective Check List, a correlation was obtained in the same direction but was not significant. (See Table 2.) Analysis of Self Acceptance. Using the Likeness Inven- tory, a significant correlation (pnH,nueseM«A equ was oaeem hueannd aeeeaeeu season one no snow eooonemooq one neon.» e.g.»eenm one meaeaaaep henna eeaeeeaanoe.eee eeaam a. neeanennoe H eHan a... eoaaee1esn .Hoeea me. e. peeeaeaqmam. -.1 ea.1 .H.1 .om. mo. aa.1 heoauna «H.. e . nae. do... Mao. e ado. Heoea nae. Heoea e Mae. A...“ e uao. HeeeH a sense: senses a senses senses HeeeH unseen HeeeH ‘ esoausesan sofipeo«MHpsocH enoanep use eoseaaoood.uaom no nsoaaeaoanoonopaH wean scene opaeeonea aeoam1meene en. ea... heoauee p..mao.: neanua N ednda 10 having eigenvalues greater than one. These three factors were rotated using the quartimax method as outlined by Neuhaus and Wrigley (1954). Because the Kiel-Wrigley (1962) criterion could not be met when a three-factor solution was completed, further rotations were not performed. That is, whenever at least two variables could not be shown to have their highest loadings on a specific factor, the rotation was discontinued. The rotated factor matrix is shown in Table 3. The first factor to emerge accounts for 33% of the total variance and 58% of the common variance, and it may most appropriately be called a father-mother-self factor. It indicates that when §_sees himself as similar to the way he perceives his mother, either similar to the way he presently perceives her or to the way he perceives she would most like to be, he also sees his father as being similar to his mother in those attributes. The second factor accounts for 24% of the total variance and 42% of the common variance. It can be described as a fairly pure father-self factor which is inversely related to manifest anxiety. In other words, the more like items‘g chose to describe the ego-ideals and self-concepts both for himself and for his father, the less manifest anxiety was present. DIHEBEELEB Using the Likeness Inventory, the major hypothesis of this study was supported, namely, that an inverse relation- ship would be found between manifest anxiety intensity and 11 Table 3 Pilot and.Replieation Study Isle Orthogonally Rotated Factor Loadings for a Two-factor Solution Involving the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete Sentence Blank, and Lyke Likeness Inventory Eilgfi Scoring categories 1* II" 112 I‘ II" .2 I13: .10 -.41 .18 .13 -.47 .24 HOT —- -— - .09 -.14 .03 ISBZ - - - .15 -.51 .28 Self & ideal father -.17 .92 .88 .29 .71 .58 Ideal self & ideal father -.35 .54 .41 .22 .64 .46 Self & father -.21 .76 .62 .14 .85 .74 Self & ideal self -.18 .67 .48 .11 .39 .16 Self & ideal mother -.65 .24 .48 .81 .07 .66 Ideal self & ideal mother -.80 .00 .64 .86 .02 .74 Self & mother -.70 .14 .51 .83 .12 .70 Ideal self & father -.29 .76 .66 .04 .81 .66 Ideal 3.118 nother -.76 .01 .58 .88 .16 .80 Ibther & father -.83 .15 .72 .60 .47 .58 lbther & ideal father -.84 .19 .75 .86 .24 .80 Ihther & ideal nether -.27 .53 .35 .26 .51 .33 Ihther & ideal mother -.78 .24 .67 .59 .59 .70 Father &.ideal father -.08 .64 .42 .04 .76 .58 Ideal nether & ideal father -.82 .11 .68 .84 .21 .75 Factor variances 5.21 3.82 9.03 5.30 4.49 9.79 1'l'ather--nothes—self factor 1"Tether-self factor 12 the degree to which there is superego similarity between par- ent and child. When Freudian theory is considered, the finding of a re- lationship between the degree of self acceptance and anxiety is to be expected. Because Freud believed that the child's identification with his parents is the basis of his superego formation, it logically follows that the greater the discre- pancy between one's self-perception and ego ideal, the more anxiety will be manifested. The father-self factor which is inversely related to anxiety is consistent with Freudian theory. The finding of a father-mother-self factor is not particularly distressing, since Freud recognized that male identification takes place with both parents rather than solely with the father. Freud (1927) stated that identification is with both parents, since the child does not differentiate the sexes until he discovers the female's lack of a penis. He further states that identi- fication is with the father and object cathexis is established with the mother. The latter occurs after identification with both parents and prior to the phallic stage. Positive reso- lution of the Oedipus Complex occurs when an ambivalent rela- tionship no longer exists with the father and there is a stronger identification with him. Concurrently, the object cathexis with the mother is forsaken for an affectionate, de- sexualized relationship with her. 13 The Replication and Extension Study In contrast to the pilot study, the scope of the present problem was broadened. A female, as well as a male, sample was used. The relationship between the Lyke Likeness Inven- tory, maladjustment, and covert versus overt anxiety was studied. Freud views the continual presence of anxiety as sympto- matic of neurosis (maladjustment) and feels "normality" is dependent on the successful resolution of the Oedipal Complex. ”There is no doubt that persons whom we call neurotic....have not grown out of antiquated conditions for anxiety." (1933, p. 123.) Referring to the Oedipal Complex, he says, "It is in the libidinal cathexis of the mother as object which....is transformed into anxiety," (p. 119). If this is the case, one may expect a positive relationship to exist between maladjust- ment and covert or overt anxiety. As discussed earlier, Freud's concept of identification, including the formation of the superego and the resolution of the Oedipal Complex, leads one to anticipate an inverse rela- tionship between manifest and/or covert anxiety intensity and maladjustment, on the one hand, and the degree of superego similarity between parent and child. Freud (1933) assumes that, for the female, identification is primarily with the mother, although this process is more difficult and complicated for females than for males. The motivation for the resolution of the Oedipal Complex in females is more complex and uncertain than it is for males 14 and, since females lack the same motivation involved in the male's resolution, it is less likely to be complete among women. In discussing the Oedipal Complex in females, Fenichel says, "In girls, however, it is given up because of fear over loss of love, because of disappointment, shame, and also fear over physical injury. All of these forces are of a lesser dynamic value than castration fear; thus the passing of the Oedipus Complex in girls generally comes about in a more gradual and less complete way." (1945, p. 108.) Freud states, "The girl remains in the Oedipus situation for an in- definite period, she only abandons it late in life, and then incompletely. The formation of the superego must suffer in the circumstances." (1933, p. 177.) Regarding the origins of the feminine superego, since Freud suggests that its develOpment is handled less adequately in females than in males, the male superego is expected to be derived more decisively from the father than the female super- ego is derived from the mother. Hypotheses To Be Tested Consistent with Freudian theory, superego similarity is the degree of congruence between the ideal self and same- sexed parent's ego ideal. Due to the complexity of the iden- tification process, it is believed that it would be an over- simplification of an otherwise complex process if only the ideal-self comparisons were made as a measure of identifica- tion. Therefore, two measures of identification are obtained. 15 One is the degree of similarity between §l§.ideal self (super- ego) and his perception of his same-sexed parent's ideal self. The other is the congruence between §L§ self concept and his perception of his same-sexed parent's ego ideal. A. For both sexes, the Likeness Inventory is inversely related with the inventories measuring maladjustment and anxiety (either covert or overt), i.e. those who are highly identified with the same-sexed parent score lower in overt or covert anxiety and maladjustment than those who are not so identified. Similar to the pilot study, in the replication design a father-self factor is obtained which is inversely related with the inventories measuring psychopathology, i.e. vari- ables involving §L§ perception of himself and father's self concepts and ego ideals have high loadings on this factor and are inversely related to highly loaded anxiety (either covert or overt) and maladjustment variables. In addition, like the pilot investigation, the replication study has a father- mother-self factor which is highly loaded on variable combi— nations involving §L§,perceived own self and parental self concepts and parental ego ideals, i.e. when §_sees his self concept as similar to the way he perceives his mother's self concept or ego ideal, he also sees his father as being simi- lar to his mother in those attributes. In the extension portion, in the case of the female sample, a mother-self factor is obtained which is inversely related to the inventories measuring psychopathology, i.e. 16 variables involving,§Lg perception of herself and mother's self concepts and ego ideals have high loadings on this fac- tor and are inversely related to highly loaded anxiety (either covert or overt) and maladjustment variables. The female sample also has a mother-father-self factor which is highly loaded on variable combinations involving SL5 perceived own self and parental self concepts and parental ego ideals, i.e. when S’sees her self concept as similar to the way she perceives her father's self concept or ego ideal, she also sees her mother as being similar to her father in those attributes. . B. For both sexes, using the Likeness Inventory, the degree to which §_accepts himself (is satisfied with his pre- sent role) is inversely related to the anxiety and maladjust- ment measures, i.e. the greater the agreement between SL5 self concept and ego ideal, the less anxiety (either covert or overt) and maladjustment is evidenced. Regarding the factor analysis, a factor is present hav- ing high loadings on the self and ideal self dimension. This dimension is inversely related to the various high-loaded psy- chapathology measures, i.e. the more self acceptance, the less maladjustment and anxiety (either covert or overt) is evi- denced. C. For both sexes, using the Likeness Inventory, the degree to which §_accepts himself is correlated positively with the identification with the same-sexed parent, i.e. these highly identified with the same-sexed parent have 17 greater congruence between self concept and ego ideal than those not so identified. Considering the factor analysis, a factor is present having high loadings on the self and ideal self and identifi- cation dimensions, i.e. high loadings in the same direction are found among the self and ideal self dimension, superego similarity between‘S and same-sexed parent, and SL5 self con- cept and same-sexed parent's ego ideal. D. Men have a greater degree of identification with their fathers than women do with their mothers. E. The male superego is derived from the father to a greater extent than the female superego is derived from the mother. F. Self acceptance is greater when the degree of iden- tification is greater with the same-sexed parent and, there- fore, is less in females than in males (see D above). G. Inventories measuring maladjustment and anxiety (either covert or overt) are correlated positively with each other, i.e. the greater the maladjustment, the greater the anxiety present. The factor analysis demonstrates that a factor exists which has high loadings on the psychopathology dimensions, i.e. on this particular factor, inventories measuring mal- adjustment and anxiety (either covert or overt) have loadings which are high and which are in the same direction. IT? pi 01 Q". 18 W The experimental procedure was exactly like that of the pilot study, with the exception that additional measures were obtained. Materials. The specific instruments utilized were: 1. Lyke Likeness Inventory - measures degree of iden- tification. 2. Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank (ISB) - measures degree of maladjustment. 3. Rorschach Content Test (RCT) - measures degree of covert anxiety. 4. Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (MAS) - measures de- gree of overt anxiety. A superego score was obtained by comparing the degree of similarity existing between §L§ ego ideal (What I Would Most Like To Be) and his perception of his same-sexed parent's ego ideal (What Mother or Father Would Most Like To Be). Two measures of identification were obtained. One was the degree of superego similarity between §,and same-sexed parent; another was the congruence between one's self perception (Your Self As You See Yourself) and perception of same-sexed parent's ego ideal. Depending on the comparisons made, the greater the number of similarities existing between the vari- ous dimensions, the greater the degree of identification or superego similarity. In addition, a self-acceptance score was obtained by comparing the ideal self description with the present self 19 perception. The less similarity existing between these con- cepts, the less self acceptance. Those who have investigated the reliability and validity of the ISB (Rotter, Rafferty and Schachtitz, 1949; Churchill and Crandall, 1955), RCT (Elizur, 1949), and the MAS (Taylor, 1953), report such findings to be satisfactory. (See Appen- dix D for a fuller discussion.) Following the ISB manual, each sentence was scored according to the degree of conflict expressed in the response, varying from a score of zero (least conflict) to six (most conflict). Using Elizur's Rorschach Anxiety Index as a guide, an anxiety value was obtained for each S, The higher the overall numerical value for any S, the more covert anxiety . was indicated. Assigning a numerical value of one to each critical anxiety sentence marked "true", and utilizing Taylor's list of critical and neutral sentences, the higher the numer- ical value §_scores on the MAS, the more anxiety was considered present. Subjects: s; were students taken from Introductory Psy- chology courses at Michigan State University. An N of 77 males and 77 females was obtained. In all of the inventories, §§,were identified only by home telephone numbers, assuring anonymity. All of the instruments were group administered. The Likeness Inventory and RCT were administered in separate sittings. The ISB and MAS were administered in another sit- ting. Each description of parent and self was made on 20 separate pages of the booklet in an attempt to maximize their independence. Treatment of Data: In the case of both males and females, separate 18 x 18 intercorrelation matrices involving the co- vert and overt anxiety measures, the maladjustment inventory scores, plus all of the possible combinations of variable com- parisons utilizing the Lyke Likeness Inventory, entered into the matrices. (See Appendix B and C, respectively.) The Pearson product intercorrelation coefficients were obtained through the use of MISTIC (Michigan State Integral Computer). The matrices were then separately factor analyzed by the principle axes method. The modified highest method of esti- mating commonalities was used, and principle axes factors were extracted. The axes were orthogonally rotated by the Quartimax Method, as outlined by Neuhaus and Wrigley (1954). Rotation was stepped after it was determined that the Kiel- Hrigley (1962) criterion for choosing the number of factors to rotate was not met. Variables with loadings of .40 or more on a particular factor were included in the description of that factor. The t-test for the difference between means was applied wherever applicable. Results Replication. Hypothesis A: As indicated in Table 4, no significant correlation was found when S's perceived ego ideal similarity between his father and himself was correlated with the MAS. Hana Heed“ use “Hem e 8.3.91.5 .S.Vn 8 3.23125 .S.V.H . c.3812.» .mo.Va n 3.33125 .39. . 21 e... .8. as... .5... 8.1 .8... 2.1 e3... 8... an I eon. .31 3.1 5.1 n .1 2.1 2.1 3.1 Se ll ll bOel MHel bHel OHel HHel moo Heel m4- II II I one NNe 00. bNe @Ne bHe aH d m . v A w o o «modeseh «H. U.uae oonepaeood “How so usoavuaenaoonopsH knowse>nm unenoudq exhq use .quam eosewnem eveaasoosH .aeea essence neoconaom .eaeom hpeausd package. Medusa ¢ canon 22 The male rotated factor loadings for a two-factor solu- tion are presented in Table 3. The first factor to emerge accounts for 29% of the total variance and 54% of the common variance. It can be characterized as a father-mother-self factor and indicates that,when S sees himself as similar to the way he perceives his mother, and when he sees himself as similar to the way he feels his mother would most like to be, he also sees his father as being similar to his mother in these attributes. The second factor accounts for 25% of the total vari- ance and 46% of the common variance. It may be defined as a fairly pure father-self factor which is inversely related to the ISB and MAS. That is, the more like items §.chooses for his father and for himself, both in terms of his present self perceptions and ego ideals, the less manifest anxiety and maladjustment is present. Hypothesls B: Table 4 shows that self acceptance was not found to be related to the MAS in the male sample. Extension. Hypothesis A: Table 4 shows that no significant corre- lations were found for the males when §L§ perception of his self concept and his father's ego ideal was correlated with the RCT, MAS or 153.1 Considering the other identification dimension, no significance was found when §L§ ego ideal simi- larity between his father and himself was correlated with the HOT and the ISB. 23 For the females, as indicated in Table 4, significant negative correlations were found between the two identifica- tion dimensions and ISB (P<:.O1). This indicates that the greater the similarity between the way S perceived both the ego ideals of her mother and herself, and also, the more con- gruence between §L§ self concept and the way she perceived her mother's ego ideal, the less maladjustment was evident. Whereas a significant negative correlation was found between the way S'perceived herself and her mother's ego ideals, on the one hand, and the RCT, on the other, no significance was found when this identification dimension was compared with the MAS, (see Table 4). In other words, the greater the similarity between Slp,perception of herself and her mother's assumed ego ideal, the less covert anxiety was indicated (p<<.02). As may be noted in Table 4, no significant corre- lations were found when Sig and mother's ego ideals (as per- ceived by S) were compared with either the MAS or RCT. The female rotated factor loadings for a two-factor rotation are presented in Table 5. The first factor accounts for 28% of the total variance and 50% of the common variance. It may be defined as the mother-self factor which is inversely related to the ISB. In other words, the more like items S chooses for herself and mother, both in terms of self percep- tion and ego ideals, the less maladjustment seems to be evident. The second factor accounts for 28% of the total variance and 50% of the common variance and may be most clearly charac- terized as a mother-father-self factor. It indicates that, 24» Table 5 Female Orthogonally Rotated Factor Loadings for a Two-factor Solution Involving the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete Sentence Blank, and Lyke Likeness Inventory I II 112 Scoring_gategories IAS -.17 .08 .04 RCT -.25 .01 .06 ISB -.55 -.01 .30 Self & ideal father .23 -.78 .66 Ideal self & ideal father .14 -.82 .69 Self & father .20 -.81 .70 Self & ideal self .5- -.14 .37 Self & ideal mother .84 -.09 .72 Ideal self & ideal mother .73 -.16 .56 Self & mother .86 -.21 .78 Ideal self & father .21 -.85 .76 Ideal self & mother .82 -.19 .71 lother 81 father .35 -.58 .46 Mother 8 ideal father .37 -.6/. .55 Mother & ideal mother .78 -.17 .64 Father 8 ideal mother .31. -.'78 .73 Father & ideal father .61 -.34 .50 Ideal mother & ideal father .26 -.81 .73 Factor Variance 4.98 4.98 9.96 25 when §_sees herself as similar to the way she perceives her father, and when she sees herself as similar to the way she feels her father would most like to be, she also sees her mother as similar to her father in those attributes. Hypothesis B: As indicated in Table 4, in the case of both sexes, significant inverse relationships were found when §L§ perception of self and ideal self was correlated with.the ISB, (p<:.05 for males; p.<.02 for females). In other words, the greater §L§ self acceptance, the less maladjustment was indicated. Table 4 shows that self acceptance was not found to be related to the MAS in the female sample. However, covert anxiety was inversely related to self acceptance at the .10 level of confidence in the female sample, while no relation- ship was discovered in the male sample. The male rotated factor loadings for a three-factor solu- tion are presented in Table 6. The first factor accounts for 31% of the total variance and 51% of the common variance. It is very similar to the first factor of the two-factor solution and may be characterized as a father-mother-self factor. The second factor accounts for 17% of the total variance and 28% of the common variance and is most clearly described as the father-self factor which is even a purer factor than that which was described in the second factor of the two- factor solution. The third factor, which lends some support to hypothesis B, 26 Table 6 Halo Orthogonally Rotated Factor Loadings for a Three-factor Solution Involving the Taylor lanifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete Sentence Blank and Lyke Likeness Inventory I II ~III -h2 Soorigg_gateggries ILS .08 -.16 .57 .36 new -.11 .00 .21 .05 ISB .09 -.14 .66 .47 Self & ideal father .34 .59 .36 .60 Ideal self & ideal father .25 .32 .03 .73 3.1: a father .20 .79 -.36 .79 Self & ideal self .16 .Ol -.60 .39 Self'& ideal mother .82 -.09 -.12 .69 Ideal self &' ideal mother .86 .01 .10 .75 Self & mother .84 .03 -.05 .71 Ideal self &.father .09 .86 -.21 .79 Ideal self & mother .89 .06 -.05 .79 lother & father ~ ‘ .64 .28 -.32 .59 lather & ideal father .87 .12 -.11 .78 lather & ideal mother .32 .17 —.57 .45 Father & ideal mother .63 .49 -.25 .70 Father & ideal father .11 .53 -.55 .59 Ideal mother & ideal father .85 .24 .07 .78 Factor variance 5.60 3.14 2.27 11.01 27 accounts for 13% of the total variance and 21% of the common variance and is most appropriately defined as Sig and assumed parental self-acceptance factor. It is inversely related to the ISB and MAS. In other words, the greater the similarity between the way §,perceives himself and his ego ideal and his parents' self concepts and their ego ideals, the less mal- adjustment and manifest anxiety is present. No comparable factor was found in the female sample. Hypothesis C: Upon comparing the self acceptance scores of the male sample with their identification measures (see Table 4), a significant positive correlation was obtained when gig self acceptance score was correlated with.the way § perceived himself and his father's ego ideal (p<:.01). That is, the greater the congruence between the way §,perceived himself and his ego ideal, the more he tended to see his self concept and his father's ego ideal as being similar. Regard- ing the other identification dimension, no significance was found when §l§,perception of his own and his father's ego ideals were compared with his self acceptance. The male rotated factor loadings for a four-factor solu- tion are represented in Table 7. The first two factors of this solution correspond very closely to the first two factors of the three-factor solution. That is, they represent a father—mother-self factor and a.father-self factor respec- tively. The first factor of the four-factor solution accounts for 31% of the total variance and 47% of the common variance, 28 while the second factor accounts for 19% of the total vari- ance and 29% of the common variance. The third factor accounts for a little over 8% of the total variance and 13% of the common variance and can be de- scribed as the maladjustment-manifest anxiety factor. This simply means that these two variables are related and par- tially supports hypothesis G, which will be discussed later. The fourth factor accounts for only 7% of the total vari- ance and 11% of the common variance. This factor lends some support to hypothesis C and shows there is a relationship be- tween SL3 self acceptance, assumed mother's self acceptance, and identification (i.e. the existing similarity between §;§ perception of himself and the father's ego ideal). No com- parable complementary factor was discovered in the female sample. Because the\Kiel-Wrigley (1962) rotation criterion could not be met when a five-factor solution was rotated, the quar- timax rotation solution was terminated. In the female sample, as indicated in Table 4, a signi- ficant positive relationship was found between gig self accep- tance and the two identification dimensions. That is, the greater the congruence between §L§_perception of her self concept and ego ideal, the more similarity there was between the way she perceived her self concept and mother's ego ideal in addition to the way she perceived her mother's and her own ego ideals, (p< .01 and p< .02, respectively). 29 Table 7 Halo Orthogonally Rotated Factor Loadings for a Four-factor Solution Involving the Taylor Ianifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete Sentence Blank,and Lyke Likeness Inventory —A I II III IV 1:2 Scaring categories IIS .02 -.18 .72 -.01 .55 RB? '-.12 -.02 .21 -.08 .06 ISB .05 -.18 .73 -.14 .58 Self & ideal father .31 .67 .01 .43 .73 Ideal self’& ideal father .25 .80 .03 -.17 .73 Self'& father .20 .83 -.20 .15 .79 Self & ideal self ' .13 .13 -.20 .67 .53 3.1: & 1d..1 mother .80 -.05 .01. .23 .69 Ideal self & ideal mother .87 -.Ol .04 —.12 .77 Self &.nother .82 .06 .13 .21 .73 Ideal self &.fathar .10 .87 -.15 —.02 .79 Ideal self’& mother .89 .07 .00 .05 .79 lather & father' .66 .31 —.29 .08 .63 lather & ideal father .88 .14» -.05 .07 .79 lather & ideal mother .30 .26 -.25 .53 .50 Father & ideal mother .64 .51 -.23 .01 .72 Father & ideal father .10 .61 -.32 .36 .61 Ideal lather & ideal father .86 .22 .02 -.15 .81 Factor variance 5.56 3.49 1.50 1.25 11.80 30 Hypotheses D a E: Neither of the hypotheses that men identify more with their fathers than women do with their mothers nor that the male superego is derived from the father more than the female superego is derived from the mother were supported (see Table 8). Hypothesis P: The hypothesis that self acceptance is greater when the degree of identification is greater with the same-sexed parent and, therefore, will be less in females than in males, was not supported (see Table 9). W: As indicated in Table 4,"1n the,fema1e. sample, tests measuring maladjustment and anxiety (either covert or overt were correlated positively with each other, i.e. the greater the maladjustment, the more anxiety was present (p<.01...). The female rotated factor loadings for a three-factor solution are presented in Table 10. The first factor of this solution corresponds quite closely to the previously described mother-father-self factor, while the second factor is best characterized in the earlier described mother-self factor. This factor is also inversely related to maladjustment. The first two factors account for 30% and 24% of the total vari- ance, and 50%fand 40% of the common variance, respectively. The third factor accounts for 6% of the total variance and 10% of the common variance and may be described as the manifest-covert-anXiety and maladjustment factor. fThis fac- tor shows that these three variables are related and supports Hypothesis G. ) 31 Table 8 lean Score Comparisons of file and Female Identification Scores ham SD t-ratio (.1422 Iale: Self & ideal father 27.44 p 7.34 Female: V .06 (3.33.) Self & ideal mother 27.36 8.61 lale: Ideal self 8: ideal father 37.21 9.83 Female: 1.24 (1.3.) Ideal self & ideal mother 35.30 9.20 Table 9 lean Score Comparisons of file and Female Self Acceptance Scores lban 3n t-ratio (II-I2) lale: Self & ideal self 35.21 8.91 Female: ' 3 . .88 (3.3.) Self I: ideal self 33.91 9.33 32 Table 10 Female Orthogonally Rotated Factor Loadings for a Three-factor Solution Involving the Taylor lanifest Anxiety Scale, Rorschach Content Test, Incomplete Sentence Blank, and Lyke Likeness Inventory I II III h2 -.11 -.05 .61 .38 -.05, -.15 .50 .27 -.oé -.47 .48 .45 Self 8: ideal father .79 .16 .02 .65 Ideal self & ideal father .82 .10 .15 .70 Self 8: father .83 .12 -.04 .70 Self 8: ideal self .20 .54 -.23 .38 Self & ideal mother .17 .81 -.1'7 .72 Ideal self 8: ideal mother ' .22 .75 .15 .63 Self 8: mother .29 .83 -.ll .78 Ideal self &'father .86 .14 .02 .76 Ideal 3.1: &.mother- .26 .83 .08 .77 lather & father .62 .26 -.20 .49 lather & ideal father .67 .30 -.1O .54 lather a ideal mother .24 .79 .05 .68 Father & idealdlother .81 .25 -.09 .73 Father 8: ideal father .39 .57 -.08 .43 Ideal mother 8: ideal father .83 .18 -.O4 .72 Factor Variance 5.38 4.39 1. 06 10.83 33 ,Beoause the Kiel-Wrigley criterion could not be met when a four-factor solution was completed, the rotation was termi- nated. . Contrasted to the females, no relationship was found for the males when the RCT was correlated with the ISB or MAS. However, the ISB and MAS were found to be positively related (p<.o1). As indicated in Table 7, the third factor of the male rotated factor loadings for a four-factor solution shows a maladjustment-manifest anxiety factor which indicates that these two factors are related, thus partially supporting hypothesis G. .Discussion Replication Hypothesis A: The findings in the replication study par- tially supported those found in the pilot study, however there were some notable exceptions. Whereas the identification di- mension similarity scores.between the male §L§|perception of his ideal father and ideal self were related inversely to the shortened form of the MAS, the replication study showed a correlation in the predicted direction, but it was not signi- ficant. Since the complete form of the MAS also included the items used in the pilot study, one phase of the replication involved making all the necessary comparisons of anxiety versus identification and self acceptance, using only the relevant shortened-form.MAS items. The results of such an investigation are presented in Table 1. Considering the high 34 correlation of .96 between the shortened versus lengthened form of the MAS and the absence of a significant trend in the replication study, when the male §l§.perception of his ideal father and ideal self was compared to the shortened form of the MAS, the obtained difference between the two studies could not be explained in terms of the difference in length of the MAS. .One possible explanation for the dis- crepancy in the results may be the nature of the samples in- volved. 47% of §§ in the pilot study were taken from an Effective Study Methods course, while all g; in the replica- tion study were taken from Introductory Psychology classes. Comparing these samples, some of the pilot study §p, drawn partially from classes offered to slow learners, felt they had disappointed their parents in the past and, consequently, were more concerned about living up to their parental aspira- tions, standards and expectations, therefore displaying more heightened manifest anxiety to superego problems in the home. Of interest are the similar variables which have high loadings in both the pilot and replication studies when the father-self factor is compared with psychopathology. Also, it should be noted that extremely similar variables are highly loaded on the father-mother-self factor in both studies. This indicates that, as far as the male population is concerned, and as far as these two studies are considered, the two above- mentioned factors appear quite stable (see Table 3). 35 Extension Hypothesis A: For the males, no significant correlations were found when the two identification dimensions were corre- lated with the various psychopathology indices. However, with the exception of the RCT correlation, in each case the trend was in the expected direction. In order to understand fully the implications of these findings, it is necessary to discuss the related female results. In the female sample, although the correlations were in the expected direction, they were insignificant when either of the two identification dimensions were correlated with the MAS. Covert anxiety (RCT) appears to have a low but signifi- cant inverse correlation between the similarity in the way § perceives herself and her mother's ego ideal. No significant relationship was found when the other identification dimension was compared with the RCT. Also, the ISB was inversely corre- lated to the two identification dimensions as well as to the similarity between the way §_perceived herself and her mother's self concept. This would indicate that, as far as the ISB is concerned, the greater the similarity which exists in either the identification or self concept dimensions, the less mal- adjustment seems to be experienced. Considering Hypothesis A, the discrepancies in the re- sults between the male and female samples may be partially explained by Parsons' theory of action (Parsons and Shils, 1952; Parsons and Bales, 1955; Parsons, 1951). We are par- ticularly concerned with the distinction Parsons makes between 36 instrumental and expressive roles, as they apply to mother and father in the family situation. In expressive relation- ships, because of an individual's complex needs, he tends to direct his attention to the other person's covert attitudes and feelings rather than to his overt behavior. In instru- mental relationships, however, more stress is placed on the other person's overt behavior which is generally task-oriented, or problem-solving, in nature. We see that expressive roles take on latent qualities, while instrumental roles assume manifest qualities. The distinction between instrumental and expressive roles is relative rather than absolute, since all family mem- bers perform both functions. Nevertheless, the assessment of the relative emphasis given to one role at the expense of the other is a valid consideration. Parsons states that husbands and sons primarily concern themselves with instrumental tasks while wives' and daughters' tasks are more expressive. Freud believed that the child incorporates the parents' superego dictates and that the child's superego is not really built upon his parents' models, i.e. his present perception of his parents, but rather on their superegos. Because instrumental roles are externally focused and emphasis is given to the cognitive, overt performance kinds of behavior, they lend themselves more readily to present behavior, in contrast to expressive roles which involve more latent inner feelings, beliefs and attitudes. Since Parsons feels males primarily concern themselves with instrumental roles, one would expect 37 them to experience more difficulty in appraising and, conse- quently, in copying their fathers' ego ideals than they would in copying their present perceptions of their fathers. It is then not surprising that a significant inverse relationship was found between the MAS and ISB, on the one hand, and the male Sig present perceptions of his father and himself. That is, the greater the similarity between the two self concepts, the less manifest anxiety and maladjustment (see Table 4). Even though the ego ideal may be considered that compon~ ent of the superego which is conscious, this does not pre- clude the possibility that the males may experience diffi- culty in accurately appraising and cOpying their father's ego ideals because, in the traditional middle-class family, the father is usually absent much of the time, and there is less opportunity for the son to become exposed to his father's more covert feelings and attitudes. .Essentially, the mother's frame of reference is, of necessity, restricted to the family. As Parsons points out, the mother's early bearing and nursing experience predisposes her toward social-emotional, i.e. expressive, relationships, while the husband's influence extends further, to include the occupational setting. This is emphasized by Aberle and Naegele (1952) who assert that the father's relationship with his son, particularly in middle-class families, is mediated largely in terms of the son's eventual incorporation into an appropriate occupation. In other words, when the son does have an opportunity to interrelate with father, it is on a A 38 manifest, problem-solving, task-oriented level where communi- cation, both verbal and nonverbal, is limited to the task at hand. Daughters, on the other hand, have a much greater oppor- tunity to learn about the nature of their same-sexed parent's ego ideal. They are exposed to their mothers much more fre- quently than boys are to their fathers, and mothers are more prone to discuss their inner, covert beliefs and attitudes, thereby affording their daughters more understanding of what they would most like to be. Consequently, it is not surpris- ing that, in the female sample, an inverse relationship was found between the two measures of identification, on the one hand, and the ISB. Comparing the male and female factor analysis, some interesting results are noted. The mother-self factor, which hsinwersely related to the ISB, involves an almost identical combination of complementary and same-sex variables with high loadings as does the comparable father-self factor for males, with the noteworthy exception that, in the male sample, both the ISB and MAS are inversely related to the father-self fac- tor. However, in the female sample the MAS has a very low loading on the mother-self factor (see Tables 3 and 5, respec- tively). , A partial explanation for the lack of relationship be- tween the MAS and female identification (mother-self factor) may be afforded when the nature of the two papulations are considered. Since the male and female samples were drawn from a university population involving freshmen and sophomores, 39 there is some likelihood that, at this age, anxiety about not being like the same-sexed parent may be greater for males than for females. The results indicate that the basic conflict for many male college freshmen and sophomores is whether or not they are adequately able to assume the male role. Considering the university sample tested, at this age males are striving to compete with their peer groups as to who possesses the most cherished masculine attributes. Sexual identity is not questioned to the same degree with females as it is with males, and it is less of an issue as to who can be the most feminine. This is not to say that, in the female sample, no relationship exists between identification and psychOpathology, since the mother-self factor of the females, in addition to the father- self factor of the males, indicates that the more like items §p_choose for their same-sexed parents and for themselves, both in terms of their present self perceptions and ego ideals, the less maladjustment is experienced. What it does suggest is that anxiety about not being like the same-sexed parent is less for females than for males. The mother-self and father-self factors of the female and male populations,respectively, suggest that identifica- tion may be a much more complicated process than what Freud envisioned, involving several variables rather than simply one isolated variable. It appears that not only are the two measures of identification important in this process, i.e. the degree of similarity between‘gg ideal selves and their perceptions of their same-sexed parents' ego ideals and 4O congruence between their self concepts and their perceptions of their same-sexed parents' ego ideals, but various combina- tions of these variables are also pertinent. Much existing research pertaining to parent-child rela- tionships fails to take into account the interrelatedness of behavior patterns within the family. For example, studies may involve the father's behavior or personality structure, or the mother's, but seldom are they considered together in determining the child's personality. As Parsons (Parsons and Bales, 1955) points out, ”On the one hand, Freud and his fol- lowers, by concentrating on the single personality, have failed to consider adequately the individual's interaction with other personalities to form a system." (p. 638) Ackerman (1960) states, "While elaborating the theory of the Oedipus Complex, he (Freud) tended to isolate parent-child relations from the totality of family experience." (p .29) In the present study the father-self and mother-self factors suggest that, in order to facilitate the identification pro— cess, it is important for Sp to perceive both their mother's and father's self concepts and ego ideals as congruent, since greater divergence, in cmmbination with the identification variables, is associated with psychopathology. The variables which have high loadings on the father- mother-self factor of the male sample are quite complementary and similar to those having high loadings on the mother- father-self factor of the female sample (see Tables 3 and 5, respectively). This indicates that, when S sees himself (or 41 herself) as similar to the way he (or she) perceives the opposite-sexed parent, and when he sees himself as similar to his perception of how the opposite-sexed parent would most like to be, he also sees his same-sexed parent as similar to the other parent in these attributes. The above results sug- gest that identification takes place with both parents and that it is necessary to speak of "degree" of identification, since there is little evidence that there is a dramatic and "complete incorporation" of one parental figure at the exclu sion of the other. This does not mean that identification takes place equally with both parents. Freud (1927) recog- nized that a child's identification may be greater with one Parent than with another when he stated, "In both sexes, the relative strength of the masculine and feminine sexual dis- Positions is what determines whether the outcome of the in- dividual situation shall be an identification with father or nth mother." (p. 42) In his last major work, Freud (1949) continued to speak 9f the superego as the "heir of the Oedipus Complex." This 3388 to imply that conscience arises exclusively through identification with the same-sexed parent out of sexual com- Petitiveness and frustration involved in the Oedipus Complex. HOWever, in the same work he Speaks more broadly of the I“Whitvational determinants of acquiring a conscience, empha- S3-Zing the social relationship of dependency rather than frustration of lust and inhibition of aggression. Here he seems to imply that both parents play an important role in 42 the establishment of the superego. Replication Hypothesis B: In the pilot study there was a relation- ship between self acceptance and MAS. This disappeared when a larger sample was used; however, the trend was in the ex- pected direction. Because some §§.in the pilot study sample were taken from a class designed for slow learners, they may have experienced greater dissatisfactions in their self per- ceptions when compared to their ego ideals than did §g of the replication study who were, at least, not specifically desig- nated as slow learners. Therefore, it might be expected that the pilot sample would show greater manifest anxiety in con- nection with self acceptance than the replication sample whose self concepts could be presumed to be more congruent with their ego ideals. Extension. Hypothesis p: For males and females, significant in- verse relationships were found when §Lp_perception of self and ideal self was correlated with the ISB. In other words, the greater §L§ self acceptance, the less maladjustment was indicated. Of particular interest is the third factor of the male three-factor solution and the first factor of the female two-factor solution (see Tables 6 and 5, respectively). For the males, the highest loading is the self and ideal self dimension which shows an inverse relationship to the MAS and ISB. These findings indicate that not only is psychOpathology 43 related to the way §Daccepts himself but also to the way he perceives his mother's and father's own self acceptance. That is, the more self acceptance, the less manifest anxiety or maladjustment. Regarding the female sample, the self and ideal self dimension appears to have a fairly high loading and to be inversely related to the ISB, i.e. the greater the self acceptance, the less maladjustment. Hypothesis 0: Degree of identification was found to be related to self acceptance, that is, the greater the identi- fication with the same-sexed parent,the more self acceptance seemed to be indicated for both the male and female samples. However, one exception should be noted: Superego similarity between male §p_and fathers was not related to self acceptance. Of interest is Table 7 and the fourth factor of the male four- factor solution which shows that, with greater assumed par- ental and § self acceptance, there also exists greater iden- tification (existing similarity between §lp_perception of him- self and his father's ego ideal). Since the father's assumed self acceptance score has only a .356 loading with the fourth factor, it must be considered marginal in its ability to con- tribute much weight to the total loadings. Considering Table 5 and the self-mother factor of the female two-factor solution, self acceptance appears to be related to the general cluster of identification dimensions; the greater the identi- fication, the more self acceptance. 44 Hypotheses D 22$? Neither of the hypotheses that men have a greater degree of identification with their fathers than women do with their mothers nor that the male superego is derived from the father to a greater extent than the female superego is derived from the mother were supported by the results. This may be explained partially by the shift in middle-class families from the more "traditional family ideology" which existed during Freud's time, when emphasis was on discipline in child-rearing, sharp dichotomization of sex roles, etc., to a more democratic orientation which tends to decentralize authority within the family and to seek greater equality in husband-wife and parent-child relation- ships. Sociologists generally agree that American marriages have shifted toward greater husband-wife equality. Social and economic events have released the middle-class woman from the dominant control of husband and father. Before the law, women have achieved near equality with men; they may be gainfully employed, retain their earnings, they have rights with men to education and have all the freedoms necessary to live their own lives as they wish. One of the more universal aspects of the kind of authoritarianism which existed during Freud's time was the tendency toward rigid dichotomization of male and female sex roles. "Masculinity" and "femininity" were conceived as opposites, with no overlapping traits. These dichotomous conceptions served the function of main- taining male dominance and female subserviance. The father was depicted as a man of vigor and strength and was the 45 unchallenged leader and governor of his family. He exercised firm and nearly complete authority. From a sociological point of view, today's middle-class American family is in many reSpects matriarchal, and the traditional pattern of male dominance is subsiding, if not being reversed. According to Fenichel (1945), the superego is the intro- jection of parental authority, particularly the authority of the parent who is the source of the decisive frustrations. The findings that men do not necessarily have a greater de- gree of identification with their fathers than women do with their mothers and that the male superego is not necessarily derived from the father to a greater extent than the female superego is derived from the mother suggest that the mother may be as much a decisive frustrating agent for the girls as the father is for the boys, in spite of the learned cultural formula that the father is the one who is to be obeyed. Such findings may be explained by the cultural changes which have taken place since Freud's era. Hypothesis F: Considering the above discussion, it is not surprising that there is lack of support for the hypo- thesis that self acceptance is greater when the degree of identification is greater with the same-sexed parent and, therefore, will be less in females than in males. Hypothesis G: In the female sample, the ISB, HOT, and MAS were significantly correlated with each other; the greater the maladjustment, the more covert or overt anxiety 46 was experienced, thus supporting the hypothesis that the vari- ous psychopathology indices are positively related. Consider- ing the males, no relationship was found when the RCT was correlated with the ISB or MAS. However, a relationship was found between the ISB and MAS; the greater the maladjustment, the more manifest anxiety, thereby partially supporting hypo- thesis G. Consistent with the above findings, the third fac- tor of the female three-factor solution shows the three high- est loadings of that factor to be the MAS, HOT and ISB; while, in the male sample, the third factor of the male four-factor solution shows that the MAS and ISB are the only two variables which have loadings on that factor above .40. (See Tables 10 and 7, respectively.) Even though, in the female sample, a relationship exists among the RCT, MAS and ISB, both in terms of individual inter- correlations and factor analysis, with the exception of the RCT where it was found to be related to one identification dimension, no relationship was found between manifest or co- vert anxiety and the other identification dimension. The male sample showed no relatipnship between covert anxiety and identification, while an inverse relationship was found be- tween §;5,perception of himself and his father, on the one hand, and MAS and ISB, on the other. As indicated by Table 3, manifest anxiety and maladjustment also appeared to be in- versely related to the father-self identification factor. As mentioned earlier, these results may indicate that lack of same-sexed parent identification for males may be more crucial se m (I‘ 47 than for females, since inadequate identification for males seems to be more anxiety-producing as contrasted to females, where poor identification appears to be related to maladjust- ment but not to anxiety. The inability to find significant relationships in the male sample when the relevant variables are compared with the RCT indicate that this measure appears to be relatively in- sensitive to maladjustment and/or manifest anxiety and, there- fore, it is inadvisable to attribute much common variance be- tween the RCT and the other psychOpathology measures. Con- sistent with the male findings, Forsyth (1959) found no sig- nificant correlations between the MAS and RCT, when these measures were administered to 90 male undergraduates. The author concludes by cautioning experimenters not to equate the anxiety measures derived from the two tests. Suggestions for Further Study Because a child may identify with a grossly distorted concept of a model's attributes if he patterns himself after his fantasized concept of the parents rather than after their actual behavior, a distinction must be made between assumed and real similarity. This study was concerned with assumed similarity and investigated the degree to which § attributed to his parents the same reSponses he makes himself. Freud, on the other hand, concerned himself with real similarity-- the extent of correspondence between one's own responses and those actually made by others. A further refinement to this 48 study would be to compare the way the parent and offSpring fill out the same inventory and, in this fashion, determine if a difference exists between the assumed and real similar- ity. .It may be discovered that those children who show a need to distort highly their perceptions of the parental model's attributes exhibit much more psychopathology than those who don't show such a need. Of course, another advan- tage to having the parents as well as offspring fill out the inventory is that it would be more easily determined that what is being measured is not similarity with "people in general" but rather with a particular parental figure. It is frequently stated that it is quite likely that men and women who select each other as mates and live to- gether hold more interests and values in common than do ran- domly selected men and women; therefore, a boy or girl may identify with his or her same-sexed parent on a particular value and yet appear to be identifying with both parents equally if their Opposite-sexed parents also happen to hold a similar value. This point is well taken, since it is pos- sible to erroneously conclude that one tends to identify with both parents when, in fact, the child is identifying with but one parent. One possible way to avoid such difficulties is to study identification in families whose parents hold greatly divergent values, beliefs and attitudes. One must be cautious in not implying a causal relation: ship between two variables when only a correlational rela- tionship has been established. Frequently studies may be 49 criticized on the grounds that people who exhibit psycho- pathology simply tend to perceive their parents and them- selves as different, and that this perceived dissimilarity is more a product of mental disturbance than due to any in- herent identification process. A possible solution to the above two criticisms would be to study young children and measure identification in the process of development. This would permit the investigator to determine more accurately the causal connection between identification and psychopath- ology. Since it is recognized that the existing middle-class American culture of today is quite different from that which existed during Freud's time, in order to put his theory to the test a subculture should be found which correSponds more closely to the original Freudian subculture, namely, where there is rigid dichotomization of,sex roles and where the father is the dominant and unchallenged leader of the family. Perhaps a rural farm community may be more in keeping with such a requirement. Another area of investigation would be a comparison of the reaponses made by SE in a class for slow learners on various inventories measuring psychopathology and identifi- cation to those made by §§ from a more typical class situa- tion, hypothesizing that the slow learners would demonstrate less self acceptance and more superego problems than those drawn from more typical classes. 50 Summary A pilot study was conducted in order to investigate the construct validity of the Lyke Likeness Inventory, an instru- ment which purports to measure Freud's concept of identifi- cation. The kind of identification which was studied was the process whereby the child unconsciously incorporates into his own personality the parents' superego dictates, i.e. their ideals, standards and aSpirations. The major hypothesis of the pilot study was supported, i.e. an inverse relationship was found between manifest anxiety intensity and the degree to which there was superego (ego ideal) similarity between father and son. A replication study was undertaken in order to further investigate the merits of the Likeness Inventory. The SCOpe of the present investigation was broadened to include a female as well as a male population. The relationships between identification, as measured by the Lyke Likeness Inventory, maladjustment, as measured by the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank, covert anxiety, as measured by the Rorschach Content Test, and mani- fest anxiety, as measured by the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale were studied. Sixty multiple-choice categories of the Likeness Inven- tory served as a measure of identification. Seventy-seven males and seventy-seven females were asked to select from each category one item out of four which best described the ego ideal (ideal self) and present perceptions of both their 51 parents and themselves. A superego score was obtained by com- paring the degree of similarity between §L§ ego ideal and his perception of his same-sexed parent's ego ideal. Two measures of identification were obtained. One was the degree of super- ego (ego ideal) similarity between §_and same-sexed parent. Another was the congruence between one's self perception and his perception of the same-sexed parent's ego ideal. Depend- ing on the comparisons made, it was assumed that the greater the number of similarities existing between the various di- mensions, the greater the degree of identification or super- ego similarity existed. A self acceptance score was obtained by comparing the ideal self description with the present self perception. The greater the similarity between these dimensions, the more self acceptance was indicated. The male sample findings partially supported those found in the pilot study. However, there were some noteworthy ex- ceptions. While the identification dimension similarity scores between the male §L§ perception of his ideal father and ideal self were related inversely to the shortened form of the Manifest Anxiety Scale, the replication study was not significant in this respect. The discrepancy in the results was found not to be due to the difference in length of the MAS, since a correlation of .96 existed between the shortened versus the lengthened form of the MAS, but rather it was due to the nature of the samples used. 52 In the replication study, no significant relationship was found for the males when the other identification dimen- sion, i.e. similarity between‘ng perception of his father's and his own ideal self, was correlated with tests measuring anxiety (either covert or overt) and maladjustment. However, the similarity between the way §,perceived his father's and his own self concept.was inversely related to psychopathology. The greater the similarity, the less maladjustment and mani- fest anxiety was experienced. In the female sample, the maladjustment measure was in- versely correlated with the two identification dimensions as well as with the similarity between the way §_perceived her- self and her mother's self concept. In other words, the greater the existing similarity in either the identification or self concept dimensions, the less maladjustment was experi- enced. Parson's instrumental and expressive role theory of action partially explains the existing discrepancies in the male and female samples. Mother-self and father-self factors were obtained for the female and male samples, respectively. These factors suggest that identification may be a much more complicated process than what Freud envisioned, involving several vari- ables rather than only one relationship. Not only are the two identification dimensions related to psychOpathology, but various combinations of the variables composing these dimen- sions are also pertinent. These factors also indicate that 53 it is important for SE to perceive both their mother's and their father's self concepts and ego ideals as congruent, since greater divergence, in combination with the identifi- cation variables, is associated with psychopathology. The female mother-self factor was found to be inversely related to maladjustment. It involved an almost identical combination of complementary and same-sexed variables with high loadings as did the comparable father-self factor for males. An exception was that, for the males, both manifest anxiety and maladjustment were inversely related to the father-self factors, in contrast to the females, where mani- fest anxiety had a very low loading on the mother-self factor. It must be remembered that the sample was drawn from a university population involving freshmen and sephomores. At this age, lack of same-sexed parent identificatien for males .may be more crucial than for females, since inadequate iden- tification for males appears to be more anxiety-producing. For females, poor identification is related to maladjustment but not to anxiety. Similar variables having high loadings on the male father-self factor appear both in the pilot and replication studies. Extremely similar variables are highly loaded on the father-mother-self factor in both studies. This indicates that, as far as the male pOpulation is concerned and as far as these two studies are considered, the two above-mentioned factors appear quite stable. Variables having high loadings on a father-mother-self to tor him tic ex: th hi fa ma 54 factor of the male sample are quite complementary and similar to those having high loadings on the mother-father-self fac- tor of the female sample. This indicates that, when S sees himself or herself as similar to the way he or she perceives the opposite-sexed parent, and when he sees himself as simi- lar to his perception of what the opposite-sexed parent would most like to be, he also sees his same-sexed parent as similar to the other parent in those attributes. From these results there is little evidence for a drama- tic and complete incorporation of one parental figure at the exclusion of the other. For both the male and female samples, the greater SLg self acceptance, the less maladjustment was indicated. In the pilot study, an inverse relationship between self accep- tance and manifest anxiety was evident for the male sample. However, this relationship disappeared when a larger sample was used, although the trend was in the expected direction. In the replication study, another factor for males showed that psychopathology is related not only to the way §,accepts himself but also to the way he perceives his mother's and father's self acceptance. The more self acceptance, the less manifest anxiety or maladjustment was experienced. The greater the identification with the same-sexed par- ent, the more self acceptance seemed to be indicated for both the male and female samples. However, ego-ideal similarity between the male §§,and fathers was not related to self acceptance. 55 It was found that men do not necessarily have a greater degree of identification with their fathers than women do with their mothers and that the male superego (ego ideal) is not necessarily derived from the father to a greater extent than the female superego is derived from the mother. This implies that there have been many cultural changes since Freud's time and that the mother may be as much of a decisive frustrating agent for girls as the father is for boys. The hypothesis that self acceptance is greater when the degree of identification is greater with the same-sexed par- ent and, therefore, will be less in females than in males, was not supported. In the female sample, the psychOpathology measures were positively correlated with each other. That is, the greater the maladjustment, the more covert or overt anxiety was ex- perienced. For the males, a relationship was found between maladjustment and manifest anxiety. However, the covert anxiety measure was not found to be related to the other psychopathology instruments. These results were briefly dis- cussed. Suggestions for further study were made and discussed. 56 References Aberle, D. F. & Naegele, K. D. Middle-class fathers' occupa- tional role and attitudes toward children. Amer. J. OrthOpsychiat., 1952, 22, 366-378. Ackerman, N. W. The psychodynamics of family life. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1958. Beier, E. G. & Ratzelling, F. The parental identifications of male and female college students. J abnorm soc. Psychol., 1953, 48, 569-572. Cava, Esther L. & Raush, H. C. Identification and the adol- 7escent boy's perception of his father. J. abnorm soc. Psychol., 1952, 359-364. Chang, J. a Block, J. A study of identification in male homo- sexuals. J, consult, Psychol., 1958, 24, 125-128. Churchill, R. and Crandall, V. J. The reliability and valid- ity of the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank. J. consult. Psychol., 1955. 19. 345-350- Elizur, K. Rorschach content test. J, proj, Tech., 1949, 13, 4 247-284. Fenichel, O. The psychoanalytic theory of neurosis. New York: N. H. Norton, 1945. Forsyth, R. P. The influences of color, shading, and Welsh Anxiety Level on Elizur Rorschach Test analyses of anxiety and hostility. J. proj. Tech., 1959. 23, 207-213. 57 Freud, S. An outline of,psychoanaly§i§. New York: W. W. Norton, 1949. Freud, S. The ego and the id. London: Institute of Psycho- analysis and Hogarth Press, 1927. Freud, S. New introductory lectures in psychoanalysis. New York: W. W. Norton, 1933. Helper, M. M. Learning theory and the self concept. ‘1. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1955, 50, 184-194. Kiel, 0. & Wrigley, C. F. A criterion for the number of fac- tors to be extracted from a matrix. Unpublished research, Michigan State University, 1962. Lozowick, L. M. On the nature of identification. J abnorm. soc, Psychol., 1955, 51, 175-183. Martin, W. E. Learning theory and identification: III. The development of values in children. J. gen, Psychol., 1954, 84, 211-217. Mowrer, O. H. Learning theory and personality dynamics. New York: Ronald Press, 1950. Neuhaus, J. O. & Wrigley, C. T. The quartimax method: An analytic approach to orthogonal simple structure. §£$E- J, statist, Psychol., 1954, 7, 81-91. Parsons, T. The social system. Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 1951. Parsons, T. & Bales, R. F. Family, socialization and inter- action process. Glencoe, 111.: Free Press, 1955. 58 Parsons, T. & Shils, E. Z. Values, motives, and systems of action. In Parsons, T. & Shils, E. A. (Eds.), Toward a general theory of actipp. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1952. Payne, D. E. & Mussen, P. Parent-child relations and father identification among adolescent boys. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1956,.52, 358-362. Rotter, J. B., Rafferty, J. E. & Schachtitz, Eva. Validation of the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank for college screening. J, consult. Psychol., 1949, 13, 348-356. Sanford, N. The dynamics of identification. Psychol. Rev., 1955, 62, 106-118. Sopchak, A. L. Parental 'identification' and 'tendency toward disorders' as measured by the Minnesota Multiphasic Per- sonality Inventory. J, abnorm. soc, Psychol., 1952, 47, 159-165. Taylor, J. A. A personality scale of manifest anxiety. ,1. abnorm, soc. Psychol., 1953, 48, 285-290. 59 APPENDICES 60 S“... 3. .R. R. .3... mo. 3. on. em. 3. 2. cm. 3. R. R. Gav—nah 1 d... om. on. ma. om. 3. on. R. mm. on. 3. 3.. R. S... Rd aefi 1 1 2.. R. ma. R. 3. mm. mm. mm. .R. 3. R. R. 3... 35 as: 1 1 1 mm. 8... S. 3. 3. on. ma. 3. S. 5.. an. R... R: see 1 1 1 1 mm. 5. R. E. S. «a. S. «N. .3. mo. Rf and web 1 1 1 1 1 3. R. S. 3. S. «m. 3. .3. 3. NH... :3 ssfl 1 1 1 1 1 1 R. R. 3. R. R. mm. 2. mm. «m... 8: if: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 «N. R. Q. R. we. 8. mm. 2... 8V mes: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ca. 3. .3. R. up. em. R1 as memH 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2.4a. Rm. 3. 2.. S. E :93 1 1 1 1 1, 1 1 1 1 1 3. en. 2. 3. R... M3 memH 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3... R. S. 9.2. 3 use 1 1 1 1 1 .1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Q. 3. mm... 3 ms: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 R. 8.-.. Rvash 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .2. 33s.: 111111111111111_3m§ a: 33 a: as :5 a: E a: E 3v 3 3 5. E 3 23 :33 £3»...- HE; .852. H83 .82-um .25»... 5.3 sea-peaks» huoaeebsH emeqexa SEA no 2333.330 finance.“ Has use efidom haeg amend-cl noisy on» 95362:” Mauve: soapuaehooheasH e3 .33... soda 2 flasks 61 we. a. ma. am. pm. me. nu. ow. mm. «0. Ha. on. me“ on” com no.“ go.” away :H a pH 1 R. S. S. S. n. S. 3. S. S. 3.. a. S. .3. R.” m... mm: Mew “MM 1 1 en. 3. s. a. on. on. R. an. s... a. an S. 3. .. .. AMaw as: 1 1-1 3. .a. 8. a. .a. 3. S. mm. mm. 8. 8. a... B. S..- 1 1 1 1 me. as. S. 3. S. S. S. mm. mm. mm” 8... 8h 8:. mew seem -- .. .. .. .. no. on. am. as. He. am. sq. Asa. we. -.- $0.- ma. H as «H -- .. .. .. .. .. a”. as. ea. so. so. am. am. on. no... ~H.- .mm.- mew u s.mH 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 S. no. 3. S. as. .s. R a..- 8. . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 S. we. 3. ms. t. R. 8. 3... 8. 8.: m: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 «a. s. 2. .3. mm. 8. s- no. $3.2: 1 1 1 1 1 1 l 1 1 1 mm. 3. 2. a... 3... 8. 3 we: .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. mm. so.- me. mm.. «0. ea - ev m e mH I. .1 I: 1. 1. I: .1 I. I: I- I: I. we. mu. mm... «H.- Hm.- ow m a h .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. -- .. He. ~H.- mo. ea.- Am mH s MH 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ma... .3. 3... 3V menu -- .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. -- .. .. .. «a. so. any mmH .II II II II. II II II II .II. II II II II. 11. II I1 NHe ANV Hum .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. AHV max , 2.5 333335 R533 2.38.3 E 23 AS 3v “3 73 RV A8 A: 1 Ana-m Hu.eH .uos-ua HaoeH .soapoa asoeH .nossam .nenpoa .uHemv moansahsb hnovsebsu uneaexan exhq Mo escapendnsoo eanauaom HA4 use .mnsam eoneaaem eoeHmsoosH .paea vqeunoo noenoenom ..Haom a-.axaa smoaasu- sedate .2» maapaopsH nausea aoa».a.utoau.saH .Hs- «m Nannmmd 62 nm.1 oapuumom Had can .xauam oonopnom opoamaoqu .pmoa aqopaoo noanounom f mm. mp. mm. 0p. mm. pm. 0p. mm. 00. mm. mu. 00. up. 00. 00.1..pH.1 0H :H 0.0H H” mm. «on mm” me” «mm mm. «m. o§. pe. pq. oq. pm. mm. mm.1 ~H.1 no.1 “paw m a pH 1 1 N 3. p0. pm. «0. 9.. pm. pm. 00. 3. R. .3. 3.1 3.1 :1 M03 00.: 11 11 11 «q. 00. pp. pm. pm. 00. on. me. 00. Ha. mm. mm.1 00.1 00.1 0H0 : 0.:H 11 11 11 11 N0 00. p0. 00. 0.. mm. mm. 00. mm. pm. 0H.1 00.1 0H.1 aeav a 0 0H 1 1 1 H 1 00 a. 3. H0. pm. 00. mm. mm. 00. 2.1 00.1 3.1 Rd .1: 11 11 11 11 11 11 «m. mp. pp. «0. mm. an. «m. an. on.1 «H.1 0H.1 Away n_a an 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 «m. 0N. pm. 0m. 0p. 00. H0. 00.1 0H.1 00.1 AHHV m 0 0H 11 V1 11 11 11 11 11 no. pp. 00. mm. mm. mm. p«.1 mH.1 ma.1 Aoflv m 0.: 11 11 11 um 11 11 11 11 11 00. mm. mm. pm. mm. . .1 HH.1 m0. Amy ma 0.:H 11 11 A11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 00. mm. am. an. 04.1 «u.1 0H.1 A00 0 0.=H 1 .._1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 «0. pH. pm. pm... at 8.1 E 0.8 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 we. mm. no.1 po.1. ba.1 Mcv m w h 11 11 11 11 1 II II II II I... 11 9b. 8.1 no.1 HO.I My mehH 1 1 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 11 1 11 3... S1 $1 «w nah 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 em. «<. m mmH 11 11 11. 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 on. my sum Apflv Aoflv Ana «H 0 A V AMHV ANHV AHHV AOH0 A00 A00 Apv A00 Amy A00 A00 A00 AHV 11' Auflom H..0H .uonpom H..0H .u.000: H..0H .n.0».m .nonpo: .mHomv moapuundb hAopqobuH amazouaq oabg no uaowvunanioo .oadom hvoanud pmouaao: Hafihua one mnabao>nn Manna: acupafionuoonoqu oHuagm no Nanmmmd 63 APPENDIX D: Reliability and Validity of the Incomplete Sen- tence Blank, Rorschach Content Test, and Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale. Rotter, Rafferty and Schachtitz (1949) obtained test validity by determining the biserial coefficients between scores on the ISB and the classification of adjustment or maladjustment. The authors reported a satisfactory inter- scorer reliability and validation coefficient. In a later study, Churchill and Crandall (1955) investigated the valid- ity and reliability of the ISB by using a sample of college students from a small, liberal arts college and a sample of middle-class mothers. High interscorer agreement was found among scorers who had relatively little psychological train- ing but were trained exclusively on the ISB manual. In all cases, the interscorer reliabilities were above .90. Chur- chill and Crandall's overall findings did not differ sig- nificantly from the normative data presented in Rotter's manual. The authors conclude that the findings suggest that the ISB norms may be found to be applicable to a variety of college settings. In developing the RCT, Elizur (1949) compared Rorschach anxiety scores obtained from two groups of neurotios and non-neurotics. He utilized three different approaches as validating criteria: a) questionnaire, b) self rating, and c) interview material. He reported satisfactory reliability coefficients for both the criteria and the obtained 64 Rorschach content scores. As a measure of validity, he states that the Rorschach content scores correlated significantly (either .05 or .01 levels of confidence) with evidences of anxiety derived from the criteria. Taylor (1953) deveIOped a manifest anxiety scale consist- ing of items drawn from the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory Judged by clinicians to be indicative of manifest anxiety. In order to determine the stability of the anxiety scores, groups of individuals were retested on the scale after various time intervals. The test-retest coefficient was found to be .89 after a lapse of three weeks, .82 for over a five- months period, and .82 for nine- to seventeen-month period. To ascertain construct validity, Taylor obtained anxiety scores from 103 neurotic and psychotic individuals drawn from both in- and out-patient populations. The score distributions were markedly different in the expected direction, thus clearly differentiating the two sample populations. 0n the assumption that psychiatric patients will tend to exhibit more manifest anxiety symptoms (as determined by direct obser- vation) than do normals, the difference found between the two groups appears to indicate that there is some relationship be- tween anxiety-scale scores and clinical observation of mani- fest anxiety. References Churchill, R. and Crandall, V. J. The reliability and valid- ity of the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank. J. consult. ngggaép 1955. 19. 345-350. 65 Elizur, K. Rorschach content test. J. ro . Tech., 1949, 13, 247-284. .Rotter, J. B., Rafferty, J. E. & Schachtitz, Eva. Valida- tion of the Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank for college screening. J. consult._Psychgl., 1949, 13, 348-356. Taylor, J. A. A personality scale of manifest anxiety. g. abnorm, soc, Psychol., 1953, 48, 285-290. 66 APPENDIX E: Identification - A Review of the Literature Theoretical Considerations Since identification was first noted and named by Sigmund Freud, it would seem logical to first describe his concept and then review other theoretical and practical interpretations of this process. Freud presupposed two aspects of identification: Primary identification denotes the initial, undifferentiated percep- tion of the infant in which an external object is perceived as part of the self, while secondary identification does not be- gin until the child has learned to discriminate a world of ob- Jects separate from himself. The following comments will refer only to secondary identification, unless otherwise stated. In classical psychoanalysis, the concepts of introjection and identification are used almost synonymously. and the two terms are viewed as a process in which the individual takes into himself the psychological attributes of other people. When the desired parent's attitudes, emotions and/or behavior are incorporated or introjected by the child, secondary idene tification has taken place. However, introjection is be- lieved to occur at an earlier period of psychosexual deve10p- ment and is considered to be more primitive a process than identification. Identification could be considered a later, more sophisticated psychic process.. Because identification with the parents is the basis of superego formation, Freud theorizes that full superego 67 development is dependent on the successful resolution of the Oedipal Complex. Identification is induced by motives and anxieties rising from the Oedipal situation. During the Oedipal period, the child has incestuous desires for the parent of the opposite sex, and fear of punishment and/or loss of love from the same-sexed parent causes him to finally renounce the desired love object. This renunciation is facilitated by the child's introjection of the attitudes and emotions of the same-sexed parent (as they are perceived by the child). By thus identifying with the acceptable parent, the child can vicariously experience the love he is seeking without having to fear hostility and rejection from the par- ent with whom he is competing. In his book, Egg Introductory Lectures ip Psychoanalysis, Freud clearly describes identification as an unconscious fac- tn'in.the resolution of the Oedipal Complex. Since Freud's original formulation, the term "identification" has taken on new and varied meanings.v In fact, because of its numerous uses and interpretations, some have suggested it be replaced by a more precise and appropriate term. Tolman (Sanford, 1955) says that the term has lost whatever precision it had since it had been employed in so many different ways, and he proposed to give up the term. Sanford (1955) feels the word is neither explanatory nor descriptive and that it is too vague to be useful. Martin (1954) suggests that the concept of "imitation with reinforcement" be substituted for identi- fication because the latter is largely an unconscious process 68 and can't be defined Operationally. He feels that the term explains nothing and that, since it is a hypothetical con- struct, it is not amenable to experimental investigation. Martin does not feel it is necessary to accept instinctual incestual impulses in children or such emotional states as the Oedipal Complex, castration complex or penis envy in order to explain how identification takes place. Identifica- tion, he believes, is a process of taking on values, and these values are arrived at inductively aflg§,the desired behavior is acquired through imitation. This is in contrast to the Freudian view that the deve10pment of the child's values is achieved through the incorporation of values via the unconscious process of identification, at which time the behavior consistent with the values is adapted. Thus,iden- tity in behavior would be a result of the identity of acquired value. Martin, however, feels that his approach is more par- simonious and more amenable to experimentation. Mowrer (1950) distinguishes between what he terms "devel- cpmentalfi and "defensive" identification. The former is motivated by admiration and love of the parent and is accom- plished through imitation. The latter is synonymous with Anna Freud's notion of "identification with the aggressor" and is an unconscious attempt to reduce the anxiety occasioned by fear of castration or punishment. Mowrer takes issue with Freud's contention that sexual object choice precedes rather than follows identification. Because the infant's first ex- periences of care and affection are with the mother, Mowrer 59 believes there is initially a tendency of both sexes to iden- tify with the mother. Thus, the female's identification is strengthened, but the male must in some way shift his "loyal- ties and ambitions" to his father. Once their basic character structures are securely aligned with the same-sexed parent, then, when specific sexual needs arise, they are "handled along lines prescribed as correct and preper for members of their particular sex.” (p. 579) ’Sanford (1955) believes that it is not necessary to dif- ferentiate between deveIOpmental and defensive identification as Mowrer has done, for he feels that both processes are developmental and neither can be properly considered identi- fication. .He makes a distinction between "identification preper” which is a maladaptive attempt to handle parental con- flicts and "real" identification in which the child slowly adopts some of the parents' standards, etc., because they serve a useful purpose. "A child who really identifies with his parents tends not to exhibit signs of identification.... .Real identification is essentially an integration of parental standards and modes of behavior in a stable ego." (p. 110) x In ”identification preper”, the subject strives to be- have in a way that is exactly like that of the object. In this sense, Sanford feels that identification means to be identical with another. He considers it only adaptive in the short run, since it is essentially unrealistic. Although the person strives to be exactly like the model, either in cer- tain respects or altogether, it is rare that he can accomplish 70 this in any real sense. Because the person is actually not being himself, the behavior we observe is foreign to him, hence maladaptive. Sanford disagrees with Freud as to the usefulness of identification in explaining superego formation: "In sum, identification proper doesn't appear to be a very fruitful source of internalized structure in personality. To account for the superego and other internal agencies, we shall have to rely mainly upon introjection and other processes." (p. 114) Tolman (Sanford, 1955) mentions three different but re- lated identification processes in which an individual: 1) tries to cepy or model some older, envied or looked- up-to individual; 2) adheres to a group of which he feels himself a part; 3) accepts a cause by another person. Ballard and Miller (1941) view identification as a kind of imitative learning where the behavior is labelled either as "matched dependent" or "copying". They posit that imita- tive acts first occur by chance and that primary or secondary drive reduction is essential for the imitative response to be learned. They emphasize that environmental reward must occur in order to strengthen a person's tendency to imitate another. Using Osgood's mediational theory, Lozowick (1955) cone eludes that identification occurs when a person copies a model. .He feels that imitative behavior is at the root of the identification process and that a child copies the behav- ior of a parent without any understanding of its significance 71 or meaning. 1This imitative behavior or copying, if rewarded sufficiently, will generalize. It usually presupposes a complete change in personality structure. Since imitation refers to isolated skills and acts (specific S-R connections), Lozowick feels that it differs from identification. To this extent he agrees with Bronfenbrenner (1958) who criticizes many studies which try to prove or disprove the efficacy of Freud's view. Bronfenbrenner stresses the importance of re- alizing that Freud referred to identification as the tendency for a child to "take on" the 3233; pattern of a model and not merely its discrete elements. He comments on the great emo- tional intensity by which this pattern is acquired. Accord- ing to Stoke (1950), these two factors (total pattern and emotional intensity) cause learning theory to run amuck in its attempt to explain identification. Parsons (Bronfenbrenner, 1960) offers a sociological theory of identification whereby an object serves as a model in a generalized as well as a specific sense. He disagrees with Freud regarding what aspects are internalized: 1) He feels that not only the moral standards even- tually residing in the superego but also the cognitive andi expressive features of the parent and, through him, the cul- ture as a whole are internalized._ 2) He disagrees with Freud's exclusive constitutional basis for his theory of sexuality. 3) He feels Freud didn't link ”the determination of sex categorization directly with the role structure of the social 72 system." (p. 31) Sappenfield (1956) makes an important distinction be- tween developmental and perceptual identification. He uses develOpmental identification more broadly than does Mowrer. . The terms introjection and introception are used synonymously with developmental identification. In this respect it is closely akin to Freud's secondary identification, however it has a broader meaning since it also includes conscious attempts to become like another. Perceptual identification involves the perception of identity among non-identical stimuli such as persons, objects, symbols, events, etc. Freud (1933) doesn't deny the existence of other types of identification besides the primary or secondary ones he proposed, however he claims that the others make their appeal to the ego rather than to the superego and, therefore, are considered rela- tively inconsequential. Whether it be with other objects, parents, models such as peers or members of societal groups, identification is recognized by many as important in successfully dealing with the environment. Kagan (1958) suggests two major goals in- volved in identification: Love and affection, and mastery of environment. Kagan's main thesis is that to ”be similar to” a model is equivalent to possessing his desired attri- butes. Society continually reinforces these similarities. Since the perceptions of similarity, e.g. sex, anatomy, dress, etc., between the subject and model reinforce the identification response, the subject may imitate the model, 73 i.e. via overt behavior or affective state (joy, anger, fear, etc.), during the acquisition phase of identification. In this way he increases the degree of similarity. Because society rewards imitative behavior_with affection and praise, #9 these reinforcements strengthen the tendency to imitate adults. Since the child is unable to gratify all his needs and the parental model is more capable of dealing with his environ- ment, the child tends to identify with the more powerful par- ent and, therefore, will search for perceptions of similarity between himself and the model. Kagan does-not imply that these are the only reasons for identifying with another model but considers them the fundamental ones. Lawrence and Mary Frank (1949) stress the importance of "unconscious imitation" as a child's only way in which to learn to manage1the world. They state that children need to see clear masculine and feminine roles since they are so often -— confused about their own identities. The problem parents face is how they may favorably influence their child's efforts at identification.' ' 1 -'-n L I Russell (1949) says that identification within a group may be valuable for a child because mobility makes it impera- tive that he gain security through group membership. Alpen- fels (1949) suggests that it might be necessary to learn to identify with people before one can learn to identify with ideas and that, through identification, children learn to ac- cept their culture. Using Freud's theory, Bronfenbrenner (1958) gives two 74 reasons for identification during the Oedipal phase: 1) Anaclitic identification - motivated by loss of love. Because a dependency relationship between the mother or person who feeds and protects the child deveIOps, an emotional tie not based on the sexual impulse de- velOps. Fear of withdrawal of love is the primary reason for girls to identify with their mothers. 2) Identification with the aggressor - motivated by fear of the aggressor or same-sexed parent. Because of the fear of castration, Bronfenbrenner claims, Freud gives increasingly more emphasis to identification with the aggressor than to anaclitic identification as the reason for boys identifying with their fathers. In contradiction to Freud, Mowrer (1950) believes that identification with the father depends on a positive, affec- tionate relationship between father and son. If the father is an important source of nurturance, reward and satisfaction, his responses and characteristics will acquire secondary re- ward value; therefore, the boy will imitate his father's be- havior in order to "reproduce bits of the beloved and longed- for parent." (p. 615) ‘ Sears, Maccoby and Levin (1957) define identification or sex typing as the development of social behavior which is apprOpriate to the child's sex. They state it is the process which occurs when the child practices role playing. Although they admit that other kinds of learning may be involved in 75 the acquisition of complex social and emotional behavior, they consider role practice of paramount importance in the identification process. Role practice involves the discovery and learning of new actions by observation and then practice by "pretending" to be the other person. Apparently, most of the practice occurs as fantasy and is covert, occurring in daydreams. Sears et a1 make a distinction between role practice and simple imitation in that, in role practice, the event may not be manifested overtly but in imagined imitative behavior. Whereas simple imitation involves the imitation of single aSpects of the model's behavior, in role playing all of the feelings, atti- tudes, values and actions attributed to the model are taken a— on at least momentarily. Whether learning occurs through trial and error, direct in- tuition or role practice, Sears et al believe all three re- quire the same basic conditions - motivation, performance “ and reinforcement. Motives for role playing may be numerous, but of major importance is the child's desire to reproduce pleasant experiences. The child will enjoy playing the par- ental role in fantasy if the parental actions have been nur- turant, supportive and accepting. If the child worries about his parent's affection and approval, he can reassure himself by play-acting supportive behavior by his parents. (This is similar to anaclitic identification as discussed by Bronfen- brenner - see above.) According to Sears et al, the reasons for a boy shifting 76 from a female to a male identification are that: 1) He receives direct rewards from Eggh,parents and peers for behaving like a male; 2) He identifies with the aggressor; 3) He has a power advantage associated with being like father; 4) He has a greater number of Opportunities for be- having in a masculine way and getting rewarded for it° Stoke (1950) lists ten factors that influence the iden- tification process: 1) Biological sex differences and their predisposition to certain forms of behavior. 2) Social pressures to identify with own sex. 3) Degree of affection accorded to child by model with whom identification is desired. 4) Extent to which child's needs are gratified by iden- tification model. 5) Degree of acquaintance with the identification model. 6) Clarity of the role of the identification model. 7) Attitudes of significant people toward the identi- fication model. 8) Capacity of the child to be like the identification model. 9) Temperament of the child in relation to temperament of identification model. 10) Degree of conflict or coincidence of strong needs on 77 the part of the child with the requirements and pattern of the identification model. Stoke identifies the persistence of behavior from genera- tion to generation with identification primarily, though cer- tainly not exclusively, with parents. He also makes a dis- tinction between behavioral and emotional identification. ~ The former can occur without the latter, is usually more re- stricted in scope and appears to coincide with what is usually considered to be imitation. Representative Studies To review all of the studies done on identification would be a momentous task. Therefore, I have chosen some representative studies on deveIOpmental identification as con- ceived by Sappenfield (see above). Mussen and Distler (1959) illustrate that Mowrer and Freud's conceptions of identification may not be mutually ex- clusive but may, instead, function together to facilitate the boy's shift from a feminine to a masculine role. Using the IT Scale, a projective test for children, as a measure of sex typing, and using a structured doll play situation in order to measure the amount of nurturance, punishment and power (nurturance plus punishment) attributed to each of the par- ents individually and as units, they evaluated three hypo- thesized explanations of identification: 1. Deve10pmental, as conceived by Mowrer; 2. Defensive, as conceived by Anna Freud; and 78 3. Role playing (a combination of deveIOpmental and defensive identification). Although their results supported the above hypotheses, Mussen and Distler concluded that ”role theory with its ex- plicit emphasis on the importance of both reward and punish- ment in role learning best integrates all these data." (p. 17) In addition, they found that warm and affectionate fathers interacted more frequently with their sons and more often con- trolled their rewards and punishments, giving the boys more Opportunity to practice their appropriate sex roles. They also found that highly masculine boys appear to have experi- enced more permissive, easygoing family relationships and less punitive techniques of discipline than less masculine boys. The highly masculine boys tended to be less attention- 1 seeking and, by inference, less dependent than their less 1 masculine peers. The families of highly masculine boys were characterized by fewer specific "mother" and "father" tasks and by a greater tendency for each parent to help with all tasks. While this may seem to contradict the statement above that children need to see well-defined roles, it is not the actual task which is performed but the attitudes and emotions .. which are attached to the performance of any task which form the substance of the role with which the child identifies. In a followaup study (1960), Mussen and Distler consid- ered the relationship between parents' child-rearing practices and sex typing (as measured by the IT test). Although the developmental and role-playing hypotheses were again supported, 79 the defensive identification theory was not. Because inter- views were conducted only with mothers, data on fathers' attitudes and general family climates were possibly confounded. Also, the mothers may have been unwilling to acknowledge any of their husbands' punitive characteristics. Freud states, "In both sexes the relative strength of the masculine and feminine sexual dispositions is what deter- mines whether the outcome of the individual situation shall be an identification with father or with mother." (1927, p. 42) Beier and Ratzelburg (1953) attempted to verify this by having their subjects take the Minnesota Multiphasic Per- sonality Inventory for themselves and for each of their par- ents. The hypothesis that masculine and feminine subjects differ in parental identification was confirmed, but a second hypothesis, that masculine and feminine values and parental, identification were related, was not. In other words, ef- feminate males do not necessarily see themselves the way they see their mothers, nor does the reverse hold true for females. The credibility of this study is questionable because the discrepancy between the personal responses of the sub- jects and those they made as they believed their parents would have responded may not be due to any real difference but rather to a tendency for this particular sample to describe parents in favorable terms and to describe themselves unfav- orably, or vice versa. This constant error could account for the discrepancy in the findings. As part of a study on motives for identification, 80 Helper (1955) obtained a measure of each parent's approval of the other as a model for the child. He also obtained assumed similarity scores of highschool boys. (Assumed simi- larity refers to the degree to which the subject attributes to others the same responses he makes himself.) Helper found that the tendency of his subjects to assume similarity with their fathers was significantly related (.05 level) to their mother's approval of the father as a model for the child. There was some suggestion that the daughter's tendency to identify with the father was also related to the indicated reward for such behavior by the mother. This was significant at the .10 level of confidence. A comparison of child-parent descriptions was made, with parents and children describing themselves and each other, using a list of 42 pairs of polar- apposite adjectives. This comparison revealed that the child's ideal self-description was as similar to the parent's ideal for the child as it was to the parentYs ideal self de- scription. Freud believed that the child models himself after the parental superego rather than after the parent's actual be- havior. Parents supposedly follow their own superego dic- tates in bringing up their children, and the child attempts to copy their ideals, standards and aspirations. If Helper was essentially measuring the parents' ideals when he was measuring their aspirations, e.g. describing self as most and least like to be, then some part of Freud’s theory of superego may be involved. Because one of the questionnaires 81 involved checking 42 pairs of polar opposites, the validity of Helper's results would be questionable unless he con- trolled for the tendency of a reSponse set to Operate. Also, although a child may regard certain characteristics as desir- able, this doesn't imply that he wants specifically to be like the possessor of these characteristics. Therefore, the results of this study may reflect only cultural expectations rather than true desires. However, if Helper's study is credible, it demonstrates the importance of reward in the learning of identification and, from a learning theorist's view, supports Dollard and Miller's theory of identification. In order to prove Mowrer's claim that normal persons tend to identify with the same-sexed parent and that neur- otics show confused and divided sex identifications, Lozowick (1955) used Osgood's Semantic Differential Scale to measure the degree of similarity and Taylor's Anxiety Scale to meas- ure the degree of emotional disturbance. He found that low anxiety males showed greater semantic similarity with their fathers than did high anxiety males (significant at less than the 5% level of confidence). The semantic similarity between high and low anxiety females was not significant. These re- sults partially support Mowrer's position. Lozowick also discovered that the degree of semantic similarity between fathers and their own children were not significantly greater than that found between fathers and randomly-matched children. This finding has important impli- cations if identification does not involve modelling oneself 82 after a Specific parent but rather is a function of a cultural stereotype of what is "expected". Since he drew his sample from the University of Illinois students and his only measure of neurosis was Taylor's Manifest Anxiety Scale, the results of Lozowick's study should be accepted with some reservations. If a more severely neurotic p0pulation were available and more diagnostic tests were used, a generalization from the sample to the population could be made more safely. 80pchak's subjects (108 male and female university stu- dents) answered the MMPI for themselves and as they thought their parents and others would reapond (1952). The subjects tended to produce scores more similar to their parents than to others, indicating that their reaponses may have reflected true identification rather than simple projection. Whereas Sopchak dealt with assumed similarities, Lozowick's study dealt with real similarities. Real similarity is the degree of correspondence between one's own reSponses and those ac- tually made by others, while assumed similarity is the degree to which the subject attributes to others the same response he makes himself. Payne and Mussen (1956) found that the extent to which boys identify with their fathers is related to the degree to which they perceive him as rewarding (being kind, helpful and warm). These findings support Mowrer's position. In this same study, using the California Psychological Inventory Questionnaire, Payne and Mussen concluded that the 83 similarity of scores between each boy and his father was a measure of the degree of identification. The parent-child relations were measured by a projective incomplete-stories test. Since the California Psychological Inventory measures attitudes, orientations and preferences, the authors concluded that it is a valid measure of identification. This may be a dubious assumption, since the inventory may be describing how the parents and boys feel they should respond rather than how they actually feel. In studying the effect of father separation on pre- school children's doll play aggression, Sears et a1 (1946) found a decrease in boy's aggressive doll play when the father was absent but little evident effect on girls' play under the same circumstances. Using dolls representing par- ents and children, they found that boys showed more aggres- sion toward the boy-child doll when the father was present, suggesting that the father's presence contributes to an in- crease in conflict. This, combined with greater parental control, increases frustration; hence, the boy redirects some of his aggression toward himself. While these studies lend support to Sears, Maccoby and Levin's theoretical position, a study by Sears (1953), in which child-rearing factors were related to sex-typed role playing, offers greater substantiation. Subjects were 202 boys and 177 girls of kindergarten age. Antecedent factors were obtained from ratings of interviews with the mothers of these children. Boys are presumed to have identified 84 first with the mother and then, under a good deal of pressure, to have shifted to the father, while girls are presumed to have had little pressure to shift away from the mother. When compared to girls, boys were found to be more nearly equal in their two identifications as they showed a smaller difference in frequency of use of father and mother dolls. Positive choices for the same-sex role and avoidance of opposite-sex role were in general associated with the antecedent conditions of warmth, permissiveness and low restrictiveness. Net only do these findings support the author's theoretical frame of reference, but they are also in keeping witthowrer's posi- tion. However, whether or not the information gathered from interviews represented the true state of affairs is open to question, since some mothers may have had a need to distort the situation. On investigating doll play aggression in a further study (1951),Sears found that boys turned much more of their hos- tility toward the father doll than did girls. The differences noted at age 3 became more pronounced at age 4 and were sig- nificantly different at age 5. Conversely, the girls expressed more hostility toward their mothers than did boys at these ages; however, the differences were not significant. Con- sistent with the 1946 study, it was again found that boys whose fathers were absent from home showed less doll play_ag- gression than boys whose fathers were present. In our cul- ture, it is more permissable for boys to eXpress their hos- tility freely and overtly. Therefore, these results might 85 support the existence of the Oedipal Complex, however they can be only suggestive because of the small groups used in each sample. Cava and Raush (1952) found that highschool boys who showed less conflict in each of the dimensions relating to identification on the Blacky Test tended to perceive their fathers as more like themselves in interests, activities and traits than did boys who showed greater conflict on the Blacky dimensions. Differences were significant only for the eas- tration anxiety and total identification score, although dif- ferences for the Oedipal intensity and identification dimen- sions tended to approach significance (p<:.06 and .08, re- spectively). These results should be accepted with some reservations because the author, in an effort to measure the assumed simi- larities, had his subjects fill out the Strong Inventory for both their fathers and themselves, and we cannot be sure that the subjects with greater personality conflicts actually per- ceived a Eggg,difference between themselves and their fathers. To determine this, a comparable test should have been taken by the fathers. If there were a significant correlation be- tween the two, we could safely say they measured the same) thing and conclude that lack of similarity of interests, as perceived by the subject, was not symptomatic of neuroticism and, in fact, was a true rather than assumed dissimilarity. The classical Freudians postulate that, because of "penis envy", girls experience greater difficulty than boys 86 in develOping appropriate sex identification. However, Brown (1956) and Mowrer (1953) take the position that, because of the girl's early closeness to the same-sexed parent, she is given an initial advantage in progressing toward an apprOpri- ate identification. Brown thinks this initial advantage di- minishes because of later learning eXperiences in a masculine- oriented culture. Bieliauskas (1960) supports Brown's contention and con- cludes that sex identification is influenced by our culture which values more highly the male sex, since the develOpmen- tal pattern showed more stability for males than for females. Using the House-Tree-Person test, boys and girls between the ages of 5 and 14 made human figure drawings. The data sug- gested that sex identification was stronger for girls be- tween 5-10 years than for boys of the same age but was strong- er for boys than for girls between 10-14 years of age. A serious criticism of this study is that gggDexaminer labelled the sex identity of each drawing. Because the judgment of only one person is involved, this study is highly question- able. In a study by Brown (1957), girls in all age groups from 5%-11% years were significantly more variable in their sex- role preferences than boys of the same ages. Girls from the first through fourth grades showed stronger preference for the masculine rather than feminine role. Brown believes this was to be eXpected, since the IT scale was composed of 87 culturally-defined masculine and feminine alternatives. A critical question is how much the IT scale taps role prefer- ences in relation to how much it taps role identification as defined by Sears, Maccoby and Levin. In a similar study by Hartup and Zook (1960), the IT scale was used to test 150 children between the ages of 3-0 to 5-0. Supporting Freud's hypothesis, they conclude that the acquisition of sex role preferences by males is a less complicated develOpmental process than for females. Since the girls at four years made significantly more feminine reSponses than did the three-year olds, the results tend to contradict Brown and Mowrer's hypothesis that girls have an initial advantage in progressing towards an appropriate identification. Maccoby and Wilson (1957) report that grade-school sub- jects tend to significantly identify with like-sexed leading characters of a film containing both a strong male and fe- male lead. They also found that viewers will more likely choose a model whose social class corresponds with their own aspired social class rather than with their current objec- tive position. General Comments Regarding Identification Studies As has been indicated, it is truly a difficult task to get common agreement on an empirical definition of identifi- cation. As Lazowick points out, the confusion about iden- tification is due to a confusion about the term's exact mean- ing. Before research can be properly and accurately evaluated 88 the author's theoretical frame of reference should be known. Only in this way can we understand his particular definition of identification. Many times it is so vague and global that it is difficult to accurately appraise the particular study. I am inclined to agree with Tolman's suggestion that we give up using the term "identification" since it doesn't mean anything very precise (Sanford, 1955). Lynn (1959) makes an important distinction between sex role preference, adOption and identity: 1. Sex role preference refers to the desire to adopt the behavior associated with one sex or the other. 2. Sex role adoption refers to the actual adaption of behavior characteristics of one sex or the other without necessarily having a desire to adopt such behavior. 3. Sex role identity refers to the actual incorpora- tion of the role of given sex and is largely an unconscious process. In some situations, when the author professed to be validating Freud's notion of identification which would be similar to sex role identity, he was really gathering infor- mation concerning sex role adoption or preference. Since the three processes have some degree of independence, it is important for any theory under investigation to define more clearly the concepts it is actually measuring. As has been mentioned in some of the above studies, 89 authors often profess to be testing Freudian theory yet fail to test the motivation for identification. Implicit in Freud's theory of identification is the desire to be like one of the parental models. This is one of the influential factors in the resolution of the Oedipal Complex. If one accepts Freud's view that the Oedipal problem provides moti- vation for identification, it cannot be ignored when the problem of identification is considered. However, I agree with Bronfenbrenner (1958) when he says that conclusive proof or disproof of the existence of the Oedipal Complex is prob- ably impossible with the methods now at our command. The wish to appear in a good light colors most responses of an attitude questionnaire administered to parents. Per- haps one of the best techniques available is that of rating the behavior of parents and children by an experienced inter- viewer. However, it is often difficult to do because of lack of permission by subjects, distance and time limitations if the interview occurs in the home, etc. The subject's grade level is especially important to consider if an inventoried interest test is used, e.g. Strong Vocational Interest Test, since a stable interest pattern may not prevail in earlier grade levels (grade school and lower). When projective tests are used as one of the measuring instruments, e.g. Rorschach, Incomplete Sentence, etc., one of the problems is to have a common agreement on the criterion. Bronfenbrenner (1958) mentions several problems concern- ing the measurement of identification: 9O 1. Real vs. assumed similarity (for definition, see Sopchak's study, above) - Various investigators may agree that identification involves similarity in perception, yet they may not agree on the identity of the perceiver. Is it similarity as viewed by the subject, the model, or the inves- tigator? When dealing with similarity scores and parental identification, it is important to determine that what is being measured is not similarity with "people in general" but rather with a particular parental figure. Lazowick and Helper controlled for this factor (see above). 2. Controlling for response set - This is an age-old problem which may be acutely present in rating scales of all sorts. 3., "Modelling" vs. sex identity - If one is particu- larly interested in parental identification, as implied by research, it does not necessarily follow that all similarity between parent and child is a product of taking the parent as the model. The child may emulate other masculine figures, the similarity between parent and child may be a reflection of heredity, or the homogeneous effect of the environment may teach the child values and behavior which are appropriate to their age and sex. For example, boys may seldom.have access to dolls and dresses because of the manipulative and selec- tive aspects of their environment. Perhaps we are over- simplifying the problem of identification by measuring a child's similarity to a particular parent instead of measuring 91 his similarity to typical male or female adults in our culture. 4. Modelling and motivation - Modelling implies moti- vation because essentially it involves a motivated attempt to resemble a Specific person but, when similarity scores are used as a measure of modelling, they provide no real assurance that the child's similarity to a parent in fact represents a motivated attempt at modelling. 5. Correspondence in pattern vs. trait similarity - Identification is generally conceived of as involving corre- spondence not merely in discrete elements but in total pat- tern. Therefore, empirical work should not focus on the correspondence between isolated characteristics, i.e. Speci- fic traits, but rather on patterns of such characteristics involving the individual as a whole. If one were to take the position that identification is an unconscious process, then it is conceivable that the subject may model himself after another person without recognizing that he does so. His admission or denial of a conscious desire to emulate his parent may be irrelevant as an index of his actual endeavors. In this case, the inference which is made between the con- scious, i.e. verbal report, and unconscious may be misleading. 6. Kinds of models - It is necessary to determine what kind of model the child desires to emulate, e.g. actual par- ent, ideal parent, or parent's ideal for child. 92 anclusion I tend to accept the psychoanalytic interpretation of identification. Because Freud believed that the child's identification with his parents is the basis of his superego formation and is induced by motives and anxieties arising from the Oedipal situation, I feel that both.motivation and superego development must be explained before a full analysis of the identification process can be made. Granted, this is partly a problem of semantics, since other theoretical frames of reference can explain superego develOpment and/or motiva- tion. Imitation and/or learning theory would tend to explain superego formation in a manner similar to the following: The attitudes, values, ideals, are adopted by the child as the result of trial and error learning. For example, if a child behaves in a manner consistent with the expectations of his parent, he is rewarded by a smile, food, verbal approval, being held close, etc. If an act is not consistent with the parent's expectations, deprivation of supplies and/or physical punishment is evoked. Therefore, a child produces behavior which is rewarding and avoids behavior which is punished. After a period of time, autonomic responses (fear, anxiety) concomitant with the punished acts begin to precede the acts. These serve as cues to avoid acts which are punishable and act as the child's superego. Many non-learning theorists would take issue with this paradigm, since they believe that imitation and/or learning 93 cannot serve as the gale explanatory principle in identifica- tion because the process occurs quite suddenly and with great emotional intensity, involving the introjection of the 3232; psychic organization of another. In other words, it doesn't simply involve the establishment of specific S-R connections of discrete behavioral elements. ' On the other hand, to accept the psychoanalytic inter- pretation of identification and superego development does not preclude the possibility of the importance of imitation and/or learning in the pre-Oedipal period of develoPment. These two theoretical positions are not necessarily mutually exclusive, and one may be important at a different period. During the pre-Oedipal period, for example, as Kagan has pointed out, the child may desire to imitate the parent in an effort to receive praise and avoid punishment as well as to gain mastery over his environment. If Freud's explanation of superego formation is correct, I would not be able to accept imitation and/or learning as a totalanplanation for this process. However, by imitating the parent during the pre-Oedipal phase, resolution of the Oedipal complex and formation of the superego may be facili- tated. Role playing theory is not necessarily incompatible with Freudian theory, since it is similar to sex role identity (see Lynn, above). However, there are several inherent prob- lems in this concept. The fact that there is resemblance be- tween parent and child cannot be taken as sufficient evidence 94 of modelling. In addition there must be some indication of the motive or striving of the child to resemble the model. Another difficulty of modelling is in its appraisal. In a "free play" situation, adequate techniques for scoring are not easily available, nor is the meaning of a child's reSponse necessarily clear. I certainly agree with Lynn when he says it is important to distinguish between sex role identifica- tion and sex role preference, a point which is not always clear. From the above discussion, it can be seen that identi- fication is a complex, if not an unclear, process. However, it appears to be an important step in sex typing and in be- coming an adult. Adults bear the reaponsibility for setting patterns of identification which will help very young children manage their anxieties about themselves and their relationship to the external world. References Alpenfels, Ethel J. All children need to identify, in Childhood education, 1949, 25, 394-396. Beier, E. G. & Ratzelling, F. The parental identifications of male and female college students. J abnorm. soc. Psychol.,1953, 48, 569-572. Bieliauskas, U. J. Sexual identification in children's draw- ings of the human figure. J. clin, Psychol., 1960, 16, 42-440 95 Bronfenbrenner, U. Freudian theories of identification and their derivatives. Child Development, 1960, 31. Bronfenbrenner, U. The study of identificafion through inter— In E. , personal perception. In Tagiuri,33§w& Petrullo,.in (Eds.), Person,-perception and interpersonal relationship. Cali- t, fornia: Stanford University Press, 1958,T110-130. Brown, D. G. Masculinity-feminity development in children. J, consult, Psychol., 1957, 21, 197-202. Brown, D. G. Sex role preference in young children. Psychol. Monographs, 1956, 70. Cava, Esther L. & Raush, H. 0. Identification and the adol- escent boy's perception of his father. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1952, 47, 359-364. Frank, L. K. & Mary H. One way to personality. In Childhood Education, 1949, 25, 389-393. Freud, S. New introductory lectures in psychoanalysis. New York: W. W. Norton, 1933. Freud, S. gpppego and thg_ig. London: Institute of Psycho- analysis and Hogarth Press, 1927. Hartup, W. & Zook, Elsie. Sex role preferences in the three- and four-year old. J. consult, Psychol., 1960, 24, 420-426. ' Helper, M. M. Learning theory and the self concept. ,i. abnorm, soc. Psychol., 1955, 50, 184-194. Hagan, J. The concept of identification. Psychol. Rev., 1958, 65, 296-305. 96 Lozowick, L. M. On the nature of identification. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1955, 51, 175-183. Lynn, D. B. A note on sex differences in the development of the masculine and feminine identification. Psychol. Rev., 1959, 66, 126-135. Martin, W. E. Learning theory and identification: III. The development of values in children. J. gen. Psychol., 1954, 84, 211-217. Miller, N. E. & Dollard, J. Social Learning and imitation. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941. Moccoby, Eleanor E. & Wilson, W. C. Identification and obser- vational learning from films. J. abnorm. soc,,Psychol., 1957. 55. 76-87. Mowrer, O. H. Learningwtheory an; personality dynamics. New York: Ronald Press, 1950. Mowrer, O. H. Psychotherapy: Theory and_peseapgh. New York: Ronald Press, 1953. Mussen, P. & Luther Distler. Child-rearing antecedents of masculine identification in kindergarten boys. galli- hood deveIOpment, 1960, 31, 89-100. Mussen, P. & Luther Distler. Masculinity, identification and father-son relationships. J. abnorm, soc, Psychol., 1959. 59. 350-356. Payne, D. E. & Mussen, P. Parent-child relations and father identification among adolescent boys. J. abnorm, soc. Psychol., 1956, 52, 358-362. 97 Russel, D. H. Identification through literature. Childhood Education, 1949, 25, 397-401. . Sanford, N. The dynamics of identification. Psychol. Rev., 1955, 62, 106-118. Sappenfield, B. R. Personality dynamics: An integrative psychologx of adjustmen . New York: A. A. Knopf, 1956. Sears, Pauline. Child-rearing factors related to playing of sex-typed roles. Amer. Psychol., 1953, 18, 431. Sears, Pauline. Doll play aggression in normal young chil- dren: Influence of sex, age, sibling status, father's absence. Psychol, Monographs, 1951, 65, 1-41. Sears, R. B., Maccoby, E. E. & Levin, H. Patterns of child- rearing. Evanston, 111.: Row, Peterson & 00., 1957. Sears, R. B., Pintler, Margaret A. & Sears, Pauline. Effect of father separation on pre-school children's doll play aggression. ghildhood Development, 1946, 17, 219-243. Sopchak, A. L. Parental 'identification' and 'tendency toward disorders' as measured by the Minnesota Multiphasic Per- sonality Inventory. J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1952, 47, 159-165. Stoke, S. M. An inquiry into the concept of identification. J, gen. Psychol., 1950, 76, 163-189. 98 APPENDIX F:. Incomplete Sentences Blank - College Form Name Sex Age Marital status School Class Date Complete these sentences to express.yppr regl:fee1ipg§p Try to do every one. Be sure to make a complete sentence. 1. I like 2. The happiest tile 3. I want to know 4e 830k hon. 5. I regret 6. it bedtime 7. Boys 8e Th9 bCBt 9. Ihat annoys me 10. People 11. A mother 12. I feel 13. My greatest fear 14. In high school 15e I c‘n't 16. Sports 17. When I was a child 18. ly nerves 19. Other people 20. I suffer 21. I failed 22. 23. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 99 Reading My mind The future I need larriage I as best when Sometimes What pains me I hate This school I am very The only trouble I wish My father I secretly I Dancing Iy greatest worry is Most girls 10C) APPENDI11}: Chang-Block Adjective Check List . Highest grade Father's Number: Age: Sex: completed: Occupation: INSTRUCTIONS: First, identify the worksheets given you with all of the digits in your home telephone number. For example, if your number was ED 7-0649, write 70649. No names are to be recorded on these sheets, since numbers serve our purpose of cross-identification, and anonymity will be insured. This is £93 a test. The procedure with which you are requested to cooperate represents a preliminary attempt to gather some information on the question of just how people perceive or experience their personal ideals and their parents'. Necessarily, we must resort to roundabout, verbal means of col- lecting this information, and we haps that you will follow the instructions as sincerely and conscientiously as you can. Please do not be flippant or random in your performance, since you would be defeating a serious purpose. If you prefer, you need not fill out this form at all, and we would prefer that you not do so if you do not feel you can cooperate fully. At the topassured, poised, self-confident selfAcontrolled self-indulgent selfish self;pitying sense of humor sensible, level—headed sentimental shrewd, clever sincere slow in speech and movement snobbish sophisticated stubborn suspicious sympathetic tense timid, meek, submissive touchy, irritable tactless unconventional undecided, confused unhappy uninterested, indifferent unworthy, inadequate warm withdrawn, introverted worried, anxious 104- YOUR IOTHER (How she would most like to be) absent-minded affected ambitious assertive, dominant bossy calm cautious changeable conceited confident considerate cooperative cruel, mean defensive, selfLexcusing dependent determined disorderly dissatisfied dramatic dull easily embarrassed easily hurt energetic fair-minded, objective frank free with praise friendless friendly helpless hostile idealistic imaginative impulsive inhibited intelligent interests wide, versatile introspective, self-aware laay masculine obnoxious persevering personally charming precise psychologically secure reasonable rebellious relaxed resentful reserved, dignified restless sarcastic self;assured, poised, self—confident self-controlled selfeindulgent selfish self-pitying sense of humor sensible, level-headed sentimental shrewd, clever sincere slow in speech and movement snobbish sophisticated stubborn suspicious sympathetic tense timid, meek, submissive touchy, irritable tactless unconventional undecided, confused unhappy uninterested, indifferent unworthy, inadequate warm withdrawn, introverted worried, anxious 1055 YOUR FATHER (How he would most like to be) absent-minded affected ambitious assertive, dominant bossy calm cautious changeable conceited confident considerate cooperative cruel, mean defensive, self-excusing dependent determined disorderly dissatisfied dramatic dull easily embarrassed easily hurt energetic fair-minded, objective frank free with praise friendless friendly helpless hostile idealistic imaginative impulsive inhibited intelligent interests wide, versatile introspective, self>aware laay masculine obnoxious persevering personally charming precise psychologically secure reasonable rebellious relaxed resentful reserved, dignified restless sarcastic self-assured, poised, self-confident self-controlled self-indulgent selfish selfepitying sense of humor sensible, level-headed sentimental shrewd, clever sincere slow in speech and movement snobbish saphisticated stubborn suspicious sympathetic tense timid, meek, submissive touchy, irritable tactless unconventional undecided, confused unhappy uninterested, indifferent unworthy, inadequate warm withdrawn, introverted worried, anxious 1065 YOUR SELF (As you see yourself) absent-minded affected ambitious assertive, dominant bossy calm cautious changeable conceited confident considerate cooperative cruel, mean defensive, self-excusing dependent determined disorderly dissatisfied dramatic dull easily embarrassed easily hurt energetic fair—minded, objective frank free with praise friendless friendly helpless hostile idealistic imaginative impulsive inhibited intelligent interests wide, versatile introspective, self;aware lazy masculine obnoxious persevering personally charming precise psychologically secure reasonable . rebellious relaxed resentful reserved, dignified restless sarcastic self-assured, poised, self-confident self—controlled self-indulgent selfish self—pitying sense of humor sensible, level-headed sentimental shrewd, clever sincere slow in speech and movement snobbish sophisticated stubborn suspicious sympathetic tense timid, meek, submissive touchy, irritable tactless unconventional undecided, confused unhappy uninterested, indifferent unworthy, inadeqate warm withdrawn, introverted worried, anxious 107' APPENDIX E: Lyke Likeness Inventory Telephone No: Sex: Age: Father living or dead? If dead, how old were you? Mother living or dead? If dead, how old were you? INSTRUCTIONS: First, identify the several worksheets given you with all of the digits in your hgmg telephone number. For example, if your number was ED 7-0649, write 70649. No names are to be recorded on these sheets, since numbers serve our purpose of cross-identification, and anonymity will be insured. This is pgt a test. There are 22 right or wrong answers. The procedure with which you are being requested to cooperate represents a preliminary attempt to gather information on just what people perceive or experience as their personal ideals and their parents'. Necessarily we have to resort to roundabout, verbal means of collecting this information, and we hope that you will follow the instructions as sincerely and conscientiously as you can. Please do not be flippant or random in your performance, since you will be defeating a serious purpose. If you prefer, you need not fill out this form at all, and we would prefer that you do B23 do so if you feel that you cannot cooperate fully. Assuming that these animate and inanimate items took on human characteris- tics, select one item out of each of the categories which is most repre- sentative of the person you are asked to describe. For example, at the tap of the next page, in capital letters, is the phrase, "YOUR SELF (As You See Yourself)". For each one of the categories (groupings), select one item best describing you as you are. Please select only one item for each group- ing and only consider the items from the group for which you are making your selection. When you have completed one item per group for each of the groups listed under YOUR SELF, go on to describe, in the same fashion, the individual indicated at the top of each page through the rest of the booklet. Remember to make only one check for each category (grouping), and please don't skip any. Consider the item in question in comparison with the other possible choices within that particular group. PLEASE MAKE YOUR DESCRIPTION AS RAPIDLY AS POSSIBLE, USING YOUR FIRST INTUITIVE REACTION AS A BASIS FOR MARKING EACH RESPONSE. In closing, we would like to reemphasize that the worth of this research de- pends upon how well and conscientiously the participants carry out their tasks. What is requested of you is, in many respects, tedious. If, for some reason, you feel that you cannot or prefer not to carry through with this task, please do not turn in the booklet. As you can see, an analysis of responses which have not been properly offered would prove to be worthless. Thank you for your c00peration. H. John Lyke 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 9. 10. 1(38 YOUR SELF (As you see yourself) wool silk cotton velvet champagne coffee milk water tiger horse cow mouse granite marble sand pebble platinum copper steel iron hawk swan parrot chicken granite marble crystal limestone oak apple tree willow Christmas tree red green white gray orlcn wool canvas cotton 11. 12. 13. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. battleship destroyer passenger cruiser tug mountain plateau valley island ocean lake river swamp shark whale trout minnow flower weed grass vine church office bldg. theatre factory hospital school factory house rubber plastic cement paper rainbow rain storm sunshine letter mailbox parking meter coin 21. 22. 23. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. _____rowboat ____submarine .___ speedboat __ showboat butterfly ant bee fly crystal iron rubber wood hawk swan chicken crow bass viol cello violin harp tent log cabin house mansion truck bus car motorcycle Cadillac Buick Corvair Chevrolet butterfly bird bat fish flag flagpole star telescope 31. __ kitten ___.P”PPY _____baby chick ____ baby fox 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. kite tail string ball of string cat mouse bird insect kite lamp post chandelier socket light bulb atomic bomb medicine tombstone bomb shelter dog cat snake cow saddle spurs stirrups halter saint bernard cocker spaniel bulldog‘ chow mud turtle snapping turtle snail alligator telephone telephone pole telephone wire switchboard 41. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. YOUR SELF (As 1(39 you see yourself) lips fingers nose ear missile to moon moon telescope star sign on broadway sign on farmhouse sign in country sign in city precious gem semi-precious stone artificial stone stone cow horse p18 sheep coal oil gas wood eagle robin crow owl snow sleet rain fog symphony jazz opera march violin trumpet drum flute 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 57. 58. 59. dawn midday dusk night crystal glass clay rock hammer nail axe ' drill hammer nail bolt washer bat ball catcher's mask mitt 'I' III ape wow letter letter letter letter ring bowl stick cane fighter plane bomber commercial plane private plane racing horse snail camel panther 60..___ peninsula island river has 1. 2., 3.‘ 4e 5. 7. 8. 9. 10. ||||| llll |||| llll |||| llll MI! 110 YOUR HOTHER (As you see her) wool silk cotton velvet champagne coffee milk water tiger horse cow‘ mouse granite marble sand pebble platinum copper steel iron hawk swan parrot chicken granite marble crystal limestone oak apple tree willow Christmas tree red green white gray orlcn wool canvas cotton 11. 12. 13. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. battleship __ destroyer passenger cruiser tug mountain plateau valley island ocean lake river swamp shark whale trout minnow flower weed grass vine church office bldg. theatre factory hospital school factory house rubber plastic cement PEPCr rainbow rain storm sunshine letter mailbox parking meter coin 21. 22. 23. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. rowboat submarine speedboat showboat butterfly ant bee fly crystal iron rubber wood hawk swan chicken crow bass viol cello violin harp tent log cabin house mansion truck bms car motorcycle Cadillac Buick Corvair Chevrolet butterfly bird bat fish flag flagpole star telescope 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 111 YOUR MOTHER (As you see her) kitten __ puppy __ baby chick ____ baby fox cat mouse bird insect kite kite tail string ball of string lamp post chandelier socket light bulb atomic bomb medicine tombstone bomb shelter dog cat snake cow saddle spurs stirrups halter saint bernard cocker spaniel bulldog' chow mud turtle snapping turtle snail alligator telephone telephone pole telephone wire switchboard 41. 43. 45. 46. 47. 49. 50. lips 51. fingers nose ears missile to moon 52. moon telescope star sign on broadway 53. sign on farmhouse sign in country sign in city precious gem 54. semi-precious stone artificial stone stone (30' 55 e horse pig sheep coal 56. oil gas wood eagle 57. robin crow owl 8110' 58a sleet rain fog symphony 59. jazz opera march ViOlin 60e trumpet drum flute dawn midday dusk night crystal glass clay rock hammer nail axe drill hammer nail bolt washer bat ball catcher's mask mitt 'I‘ III are age letter letter letter letter ring bowl stick cane fighter plane bomber commercial plane private plane racing horse snail camel panther peninsula island river bay 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10. 112 YOUR FATHER (As you see him) wool silk cotton velvet champagne coffee milk water tiger horse cow mouse granite marble sand pebble platinum copper steel iron hawk swan parrot chicken granite marble crystal limestone oak apple tree willow Christmas tree red green white guy orlon wool canvas cotton 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. battleship destroyer llll passenger cruiser tug mountain plateau valley island ocean lake river swamp shark whale trout minnow flower weed grass vine church office bldg. theatre factory hospital school factory house rubber plastic cement paper rainbow rain storm sunshine letter mailbox parking meter coin 21. rowboat submarine speedboat showboat 22. butterfly ant bee fly iron rubber wood hawk swan chicken crow bass viol cello violin harp 25. 26. tent log cabin house mansion 27. truck bus car motorcycle 28. Cadillac Buick Corvair Chevrolet butterfly bird bat fish 29. 30e £188 flagpole star telescope 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 113 YOUR FATHER (As you see him) kitten puppy baby chick baby fox cat mouse bird insect kite kite tail string ball of string lamp post chandelier socket light bulb atomic bomb medicine tombstone bomb shelter dog cat snake cow saddle spurs stirrups halter saint bernard cocker spaniel bulldog' chow mud turtle snapping turtle snail alligator telephone telephone pole telephone wire switchboard 41. 43. 45. 46. 47. 49. lips fingers nose ears missile to moon moon telescope star sign on broadway sign on farmhouse sign in country sign in city precious gem 51. 52. 53. 54. semi-precious stone artificial stone stone cow horse pig sheep coal oil gas wood eagle robin crow owl snow sleet rain fog symphony jazz opera march 50c __ “Olin trumpet drum flute 55 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. dawn midday dusk night crystal glass clay rock hammer nail axe drill hammer nail bolt washer bat ball catcher's mask mitt 'I‘ III are won letter letter letter letter ring bowl stick cane fighter plane bomber , commercial plane private plane racing horse snail camel panther peninsula island river bay l. 3. 5. III! 7." 9. 10. 114- YOUR MOTHER (What she would most like to be) wool silk cotton velvet champagne coffee milk water tiger horse cow mouse granite marble sand pebble platinum copper steel iron hawk swan parrot chicken granite marble crystal limestone oak apple tree willow Christmas tree red green white gray orlcn wool canvas cotton ll. __ battleship ____dhstroyer ’ __ passenger cruiser ___. tug 12. mountain ___.plateau __ valley island 13. ocean lake river swamp shark whale trout minnow 15..___ flower _ weed ____grass .___ vine l6. church office bldg. theatre factory 17. hospital school factory house 18. rubber plastic ____cement P3P.r rainbow rain storm sunshine 19. 20. __ letter ____mailbox ____parking meter __ coin 21. 22. 23. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. rowboat submarine speedboat showboat butterfly ant bee fly crystal iron rubber wood hawk swan chicken crow bass viol cello violin harp tent log cabin house mansion truck bus car motorcycle Cadillac Buick Corvair Chevrolet butterfly bird bat fish flag flagpole star telescope 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 115 YOUR MOTHER (What she would most like to be) ____kitten .___.PuPPy __ baby chick ___ baby fox cat mouse bird insect kite kite tail string ball of string lamp p ost chandelier socket light bulb atomic bomb medicine tombstone bomb shelter dog cat snake cow saddle spurs stirrups halter saint bernard cocker spaniel bulldog chow mud turtle snapping turtle snail alligator telephone telephone pole telephone wire switchboard 41. 42. 43 45. 46. 47. 49. 50. NH |||l llll |||| 1H! NH llll llll' llll llll lips 510 fingers nose ears missile to moon 52. moon telescOpe star sign on broadway 53. sign on farmhouse sign in country sign in city precious gen 54. semi-precious stone artificial stone stone cow 55. horse pig sheep coal 56. oil gas wood eagle 57. robin crow owl snow 58. sleet rain fog symphony 59. jazz opera march violin 60. trumpet drum flute dawn midday dusk night crystal glass clay rock hammer nail axe drill hammer nail bolt washer bat ball catcher's mask mitt 'I‘ III ape now letter letter letter letter ring bowl stick cane fighter plane bomber commercial plane private plane racing horse snail camel panther ____peninsula ____island ____river ___bay l. 3. 4. 5. 7. 9. 10. YOUR FATHER (What he would most like to be) wool silk cotton velvet champagne coffee milk water tiger horse cow mouse granite marble sand pebble platinum copper steel iron hawk swan parrot chicken granite marble crystal limestone oak apple tree :::: willow __ Christmas tree red green white gray orlcn wool canvas cotton 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 116 battleship destroyer passenger cruiser tug mountain plateau valley island ocean lake river swamp shark whale trout minnow flower weed grass vine _ church office bldg. theatre factory hospital school factory house rubber plastic ____cement paper rainbow rain storm sunshine letter .____mailbox parking meter coin 21. 22. 23. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. llll llll |I|| llll |||| Illl llll MN I!!! rowboat submarine speedboat showboat butterfly ant bee fly crystal iron rubber wood hawk swan chicken crow bass viol cello violin harp tent log cabin house mansion truck bus car motorcycle Cadillac Buick Corvair Chevrolet butterfly bird bat fish flag flagpole star telescope 117 YOUR FATHER (What he would most like to be) 31. __ kitten 41. __ lips 51. __ dawn __ puppy __ fingers __ midday __ baby chick __ nose _ dusk __ baby fox __ ear __ night 32. __ cat 42. __ missile to moon 52. __ crystal _ mouse __ moon __ glass __ bird __ telescope __ clay __ insect __ star __ rock 33. __ kite 43. __ sign on broadway 53. _ hammer _ kite tail __ sign on farmhouse _ nail _ string _ sign in city __ axe __ ball of string __ sign in country __ drill 34. __ lamp post 44. __ precious gem 54. __ hammer __ chandelier __ semi-precious stone __ nail __ socket __ artificial stone __ bolt __ light bulb __ stone __ washer 35. _ atomic bomb 45. __ cow 55. __ bat __ medicine __ horse __ ball __ tombstone __ pig _ catcher's mask __ bomb shelter __ sheep __ mitt 36. __ dog 46. __ coal 56. _ letter ”M” __ cat __ oil __ letter "I" __ snake _ gas _ letter "F" _ cOw __ wood __ letter "O' 37. __ saddle 4'7. _ eagle 57. __ ring __ spurs __ robin __ bowl __ stirrups ._ __ crow __ stick __ halter " _ owl __ cane 38. __ saint bernard 1.8. __ snow 58. _ fighter plane __ cocker spaniel __ sleet _ bomber _‘ bulldog __ rain _ commercial plane __ chow __ fog __ private plane 39. __ mud turtle 49. __ symphony 59. __ racing horse __ snapping turtle _ jazz _ snail __ snail _ opera __ camel _ alligator __ march _ panther 40. __ telephone 50. __ Violin 60. peninsula _ telephone pole __ trumpet __ island __ telephone wire __ drum __ river _ switchboard __ flute __ bay l. 3. 4. 5. 7. 8. 9. 10. 118 YOUR IDEAL SELF (What I Would lost Like To Be) wool silk cotton velvet champagne coffee milk water tiger horse cow mouse granite marble sand pebble platinum copper steel iron hawk swan parrot chicken granite marble crystal limestone oak apple tree willow Christmas tree red green white grey orlcn wool canvas cotton 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. l7. 18. 19. 20. battleship ___ destroyer ____passenger cruiser ___. tug ____mountain ____plateau ___,valley ____island ocean lake river swamp shark whale trout minnow _ flower __ weed ,___ grass vine church theatre factory hospital school factory house ____rubber __ plastic cement paper rainbow rain storm sunshine ____ letter ___,mailbox parking meter coin office bldg. 21. 22. 23. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. rowboat submarine speedboat showboat butterfly ant bee fly crystal iron rubber wood hawk swan chicken crow bass viol cello violin harp tent log cabin house mansion truck bus car motorcycle Cadillac Buick Corvair Chevrolet butterfly bird bat fish flag flagpole star telescope 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 119 YOUR IDEAL SELF (What I Would‘lost Like To Be) __ kitten ___.PuPRY .___ baby chick ____baby’fox cat mouse bird insect ' kite kite tail string ball of string lamp post chandelier socket light bulb atomic bomb medicine tombstone bomb shelter dog cat snake cow saddle spurs stirrups halter ’ ‘: saint bernard cocker spaniel bulldog chow mud turtle. snapping turtle snail alligator telephone telephone pole telephone wire switchboard 41. 43. 45. 47. 48. 49. 50. lips 51 0 fingers nose ear missile to moon 52. moon telescope star sign on broadway 53. sign on farmhouse sign in city sign in country precious gen 54. semi-precious stone artificial stone stone cow 55. horse pie sheep coal 56. oil gas wood eagle robin crow owl 57. snow 58. sleet rain fog symphony 59. jazz opera march violin 60. trumpet drum flute dawn midday dusk night crystal glass clay rock hammer nail axe drill hammer nail bolt washer bat ball catcher's mask mitt 'I‘ III are won letter letter letter letter ring bowl stick cane fighter plane bomber commercial plane private plane racing horse snail camel panther ___.peninsula island river —-,-- bay 120 APPENDIX I: Biographical Inventory (Shortened Form) Home Telephone: Sex: INSTRUCTIONS: First, identify the several worksheets given you with all of the digits in your home telephone number. For example, if your number is ED 7-0649, write 7-0649. No names are to be recorded on these sheets, since numbers serve Eur purpose of cross-identification quite well, and anonymity is name. This is not a test. There are pg right or wrong answers. Please do not skip any of the questions. Mark a circle around the answer which seems to you to be most correct. T- true; F3 false. T F l. I am often sick to my stomach. T F 2. I am about as nervous as other people. T F 3. I work under a great deal of strain. T F 4. I blush as often as others. T F 5. I have diarrhea (“the runs") once a month or more. T F 6. I worry quite a bit over possible troubles. T F 7. When embarrassed, I often break out in a sweat which is very'annoying. T F 8. I do not often notice my heart pounding and I am seldom short of breath. T F 9. At times I lose sleep over worry T F 10. Often my bowels don't move for several days at a time. T F 11. my sleep is restless and disturbed. T F 12. I often dream about things I don't like to tell other people. T F 13. Hy feelings are hurt easier than most people's. T F 14. I often find myself worrying about something. T F 15. I wish I could be as happy as others. T F 16. I feel anxious about something or someone almost all of the time. HHHHHHHH ta vs ta is vs vs is '1 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 121 At times I am so restless that I cannot sit in a chair for very long. I have often felt that I faced so many difficulties I could not overcome them. At times I have been worried beyond reason about some— thing that did not really matter. I do not have as many fears as my friends. I am more self-conscious than most people. I am the kind of person who takes things hard. I am a very nervous person. Life is often a strain for me. I am not at all confident of myself. At times I feel that I am going to crack up. I don't like to face a difficulty or make an important deciSione I am very confident of myself. 1222 APPENDIX J.: Biographical Inventory Telephone No: Sex: INSTRUCTIONS: First, identify the worksheets given you with all of the digits in your .hgmetelephone number. For example, if your number was ED 7-0649, write 70649. No names are to be recorded on these sheets, since numbers serve out purpose of cross-identification quite well, and many individuals find it easier to respond when anonymity is assured. This is not a test. There are-pg right or wrong answers. Please do not skip any of the questions. Hark a circle around the answer which seems to you to be most correct. T = true; F - false. T F l. I am often the last one to give up trying to do a thing. T F 2. There is usually only one best way to solve most problems. T F 3. I dislike to change my plans in the midst of an undertaking. T F 4. I do not tire easily. T F 5. I am often sick to my stomach. T F 6. I would like a position which requires frequent changes from one kind of task to another. T F 7. I am about as nervous as other peOple. T F 8. I do not enjoy having to adapt myself to new and unusual situations. T F 9. fly interests tend to change quickly. T F 10. I am always on the lookout for different ways of doing something. T F 11. I have very few headaches. T F 12. I always finish tasks I start, even if they are not very important. T F 13. I work under a great deal of strain. T F 14. I cannot keep my mind on one thing. T F 15. lhen I have undertaken a task, I find it difficult to set it aside, even for a short time. Fit-i"! 0-! HHHHHHHHHH *3 Fit-33H) *3 we it is ts 'a vs vs 'e 's '1 is vs in 'm -e ts is 'e vs -e is l6. l7. l8. 19. 20. 21. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 123 I worry over money and business. I like to surprise my friends by unexpected actions. I frequently notice my hand shakes when I try to do something. I find it difficult to change my way of doing something even though it may not be successful. I never miss going to church. At times I hear so well it bothers me. I seldom worry about my health. I have a good appetite. I blush as often as others. I have diarrhea ("the runs") once a month or more. I worry quite a bit over possible troubles. I practically never blush. Often I cross the street in order not to meet someone I see. Sometimes some unimportant thought will run through my mind and bother me for days. I get mad easily and then get over it soon. Ihen I leave home, I do not worry about whether the door is locked and the windows closed. I have met problems so full of possibilities that I have been unable to make up my mind about them. I am often afraid that I am going to blush. I believe my sins are unpardonable. I have nightmares every few nights. ly hands and feet are usually warm enough. I sweat very easily even on cool days. lhen embarrassed I often break out in a sweat which is very annoying. I have had some very unusual religious experiences. HHHHHHHH HBO-3*! O-i is ~e is '1 'e ta is -e is vs is is 40. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 124- Everything is turning out just like the prophets of the Bible said it would. I do not often notice my heart pounding, and I am seldom short of breath. Christ performed miracles such as changing water into wine. I feel hungry almost all the time. Often my bowels don't move for several days at a time. Sometimes I enjoy hurting persons I love. I do not like to see women smoke. I like to talk about sex. I have a great deal of stomach trouble. I never attend a sexy show if I can avoid it. I am attracted by members of the opposite sex. At times I lose sleep over worry. I like to flirt. Some people are so bossy that I feel like doing the opposite of what they request, even though I know they are right. ly sleep is restless and disturbed. I can be friendly with people who do things which I con- sider wrong. I often dream about things I don't like to tell other people. Parts of my body often have feelings like burning, tingling, crawling, or like 'going to 31°.pw. ly skin seems to be unusually sensitive to touch. I have had no difficulty in keeping my balance in walking. At times I have fits of laughing and crying that I cannot control. lhen someone says silly or ignorant things about something I know, I try to set him right. I like to cook. #3 0-3 Fifi-388*! Pit-3888*! Pit-3888 0-3 "lfl'fl’d’d’d "d'fi'fl'fl'fl'fil "Ifl'fl'fl'fil’fl’lj’fl’fl is I1 *1 is is is 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 125 I like collecting flowers or growing house plants. If I were an artist, I would like to draw children. I am not afraid of fire. I am easily embarrassed. My feelings are more easily hurt than most people. I am made nervous by certain animals. Dirt frightens or disgusts me. I am afraid of finding myself in a closet or small closed Spa-G. e I have a cough most of the time. ly hands have not become clumsy or awkward. I feel weak all over much of the time. I have never had a fainting spell. I often find myself worrying about something. I feel sympathetic towards people who tend to hang onto their griefs and troubles. I brood a great deal. I wish I could be as happy as others. I am usually calm and not easily upset. I cry easily. I feel anxious about something or someone almost all of tho th'e I feel tired a good deal of the time. If I were an artist, I would like to draw flowers. I am happy most of the time. I like science. I very much like horseback riding. It makes me nervous to have to wait. '30-'88?! H 0-! in ta ta ta '1 vs W'd'fl'd'fl 88. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 100. 101. 102. 103. 104. 105. 106. 107. 108. 109. 126 At times I am so restless that I cannot sit in a chair for very long. Sometimes I become so excited that I find it hard to get to sleep. ‘ One or more members of my family is very nervous. I have often felt that szaced so many difficulties I could not overcome them. The man who had most to do with me when I was a child (such as father, stepfather, etc.) was very strict with me. I have often been frightened in the middle of the night. At times I have been worried beyond reason about something that really did not matter. I feel unable to tell anyone all about myself. I go to church almost every week. I pray several times every week. I do not have as many fears as my friends. I have been afraid of things or people that I know could not hurt me. I certainly feel useless at times. I am more self-conscious than most peOple. I am the kind of person who takes things hard. I have strange and peculiar thoughts. I have had blank spells in which my activities were inter- rupted and I did not know what was going on around me. when I am with people, I am bothered by hearing very queer things e I think Lincoln was greater than.lashington. my way of doing things is apt to be misunderstood by others. my plans have frequently seemed so full of difficulties that I have had to give them up. I am a very nervous person. Fir-30%"! H h! FED-i ~s 'm re is to 'e ts an ’lfl'd’dtll’d 110. 111. 112. 113. 114. 115. 116. 117. 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 127 Life is often a strain for me. At times I think I am no good at all. y _ During the past few years I have been well most of the time. I do many things which I regret afterwards (regret things more or more often than others seem to). I have had very peculiar and strange experiences. At times I feel that I am going to crack up. lhen I get bored, I like to stir up some excitement. I am not at all confident of myself. In my home we have always had the ordinary necessities (such as enough food, clothing, etc.) I am in just as good physical health as most of my friends. I find it hard to keep my mind on a task or job. I am easily downed in an argument. I would certainly enjoy beating a crook at his own game. I don't like to face a difficulty or make an important decision. I am very confident of myself.