A STUDY OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL
STUDENT’S PERCEPTIONS OF
VOCATIONAL‘AND TECHNICAL

EDUCATION PROGRAMS _

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY.
IOE KING. IR.

1973

 

 
  
 
   

LIBRARY

Michigan State
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IIIIIIIIIIIIII II

0343 8168

This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

A Study Of Black High School Students' Perceptions Of
Vocational and Technical Education Programs

presented by

JOE KING, JR.

has Been accepted towards fulfillment
' of the requirements for

 

13h , n, degree in Wduc .

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ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT'S
PERCEPTIONS OF VOCATIONAL AND
TECHNICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS

BY
Joe King, Jr.

Statement of the Problem

The primary concern of this study was to assess the
attitudes and perceptions of black high school students
toward vocational education. In addition, it sought to
discover differences between the students enrolled in a
vocational program and those who selected not to enroll in
a vocational program. The purposes of the study were
answered in the form of major findings. They are: (l)
descriptive analysis of students and parents, (2) specific
variables relating to students, and (3) hypotheses.

This study was conducted because of the limited
number of black students enrolled in vocational programs at
the high school level, and the felt need to assess the

reasons for rejection of these educational programs.

Joe King, Jr.

Methodology

The student population included in this study
consists of eleventh and twelfth grade black high school
students in four of lower Michigan's public high schools
located in the cities of Flint, Lansing, and Muskegon. The
survey involved a random stratified sample of 203 students.

The first phase in the study involved an extensive
review of the literature related to a theoretical framework
of the study, studies of socio-economic status, occupational
and educational aspirations of black students, and the
training received by black students in vocational education.

The second phase was concerned with the collection
of data. The following instruments were used to collect
the data: (1) a perception scale was used to assess the
perceptions of black high school students toward vocational
education, (2) an educational aspiration scale was used to
measure the students' educational levels, and (3) an
occupational aspiration scale was used to provide infor-
mation about the students career choice of jobs.

The third phase involved (1) processing and
classifying data, and (2) establishing relationships
between vocational and nonevocational students' per-
ceptions. The questionnaire was field tested prior to its
use. The chi-square test and univariate analysis of

variance were used for all statistical analyses.

Joe King, Jr.
Major Findings

Descriptive Analysis

The following are findings regarding the descriptive
analysis of vocational and non-vocational students: (1)
the non-vocational students had higher grade point averages;
(2) the educational achievement of most of the students'
parents did not go beyond high school completion; (3) the
non-vocational students had higher educational and occu-
pational aspirations; and (4) the students had a fairly

realistic attitude relative to job expectation.

Specific Variables

The following are findings regarding specific
variables relating to the perceptions of black students
toward vocational education: (1) vocational and non-
vocational students indicated that the black community
thinks that vocational education is a valuable and worth-
while educational program; (2) non—vocational students felt
that white collar jobs are better than blue collar jobs;

(3) vocational and non-vocational students did not consider
the working conditions to be bad for vocational jobs: (4)
vocational students felt that the merits of vocational
education should be made known to more black students; and
(5) non-vocational students felt that vocational training
was a device used by whites to keep blacks out of higher

status jobs.

Joe King, Jr.

Hypotheses

The following are findings regarding the hypotheses
of the perceptions of students toward vocational education:
(1) vocational students had a more favorable attitude
toward vocational programs than non-vocational students,
(2) the students did not differ in socio-economic status
and their perceptions of vocational education: (3) the
students' educational levels did not influence their
perceptions of vocational education; (4) the students'
occupational aspirations did not differ from their per-
ceptions of vocational education, and (5) both boys and
girls tended to have similar perceptions about vocational

education programs.

A STUDY OF BLACK HIGH SCHOOL STUDENT'S
PERCEPTIONS OF VOCATIONAL AND

TECHNICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS

BY

Joe King. Jr.

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1973

“Iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I?)

This study would not have reached its final stages
without the assistance and guidance of many persons.
Organizing and completing a dissertation is an individual
effort, but it cannot be accomplished without the cooper-
ation and the contributions of a number of people. The
author would like to acknowledge the varied efforts of the
persons who contributed.

Special appreciation and gratefulness are due to
Dr. Rex E. Ray, Chairman of the guidance committee and
thesis director, for his show of confidence in this author
and for his sound editorial and professional contributions.
This writer aspires to be the kind of teacher exemplified
by him.

In addition, I would like to thank the members of
the guidance committee, Dr. Frank Bobbitt, Dr. Troy Sterns,
and Dr. Sigmond Nosow, for their encouragement, under-
standing, and assistance. Their help was extended in
unstinted amounts, not only on the writing, but from the
beginning of my graduate program at Michigan State Uni-

versity.

ii

Thanks is extended to the generous cooperation of
the principals of the participating schools for allowing
student participation in this study.

Finally, recognition was earned by my wife Lula,
who kept the faith and acted as a buffer for my can-

tankerous spirit.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

LIST OF TABLES o o o o o o o o a o o o e Vii].-

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . 7
Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . 8
Contributions . . . . . . . . . . 9
Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . 12
Organization of the Presentation . . . . l4
smary O O O O O O O O O O O O 15
II. A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . 17
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . 17

Literature Providing a Theoretical
Framework for the Study . . . . . . 18
Socio-Economic Status Studies . . . . . 24
Studies of Occupational Aspirations . . . 31
Educational Aspiration . . . . . . . 38
Blacks and Vocational Education . . . . 48
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
III. METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURE USED IN THE STUDY . 55
Procedure for Data Collection . . . . . 55
The Population Used in the Study . . . 55
Selection of Sample. . . . . . . . 56
Instruments Used in the Study . . . . 57

iv

Chapter

Perception Instrument . . .
Educational Aspiration Scale. . . .
Occupational Aspiration Scale . . .

Data Collection. . . . . . . . .
Data Processing and Classification . . .

Educational Aspiration Levels
Occupational Aspiration Level
Socio-Economic Status. . .
Factor Analysis. . . . .

Factor l.--Genera1 Attitude Toward
Vocational Education. . . . . .
Factor 2.--Attitudes Toward Employment

Procedures for Analyzing and Interpreting
the Data . . . . . . . . . . .

Purposes to be Analyzed . . . . . .
Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . .
Statistical Analysis of the Hypotheses .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . .

IV. .ANALYSIS OF DATA AND PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

Descriptive Analysis of Variables Relating
to Vocational and Non-Vocational
Students . . . . . . . . . . .

Student and Family Characteristics . . .

Student Background. . . . . . . .
Family Background . . . . . . . .
Students' Aspirations. . . . . . .

Educational Aspirations . . . . .
Occupational Aspirations . . . . .

A Comparative Analysis of Aspiration and
Expectations . . . . . . . . .

Page

57
59
60
60
60
61
61

61
62

64
64
64
64
65
66
68
69

70
70

70
71
73
73
74

77

Chapter
Perceptions of Black Students Toward
Vocational Education . . . . . . . .
Tests of the Stated Hypotheses . . . .

Reliability of Instrument

Hypothesis 1. . . . . . . . . . .
Hypothesis 2. . . . . . . . . . .
Hypothesis 3. . . . . . . . . . .
Hypothesis 4. . . . . . . . . . .
Hypothesis 5. . . . . . . . . . .

Open-Ended Statements . . . . . . . .

The Things I Like About Vocational
Education . . . . . . . . . . .

My Strongest Objection to Vocational
Education . . . . . . . . . . .

smary O O O O O O O O I I O O 0
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . .
smary O O O O O O O O O O O O I
The Purpose of the Study. . . . . .
Procedures Used in the Conduct of the
Study 0 O O I O O O O O O O 0
Data Collection . . . . . . . . .
Procedure for Data Processing . .
Procedures for Analyzing and Interpreting
the Data. . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . .
Descriptive Analysis of Vocational and
Non-Vocational Students . . . . . .
Perceptions of Black Students Toward
Vocational Education . . . . . . .

Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . .

Hypothesis 1. . . . . . . . . . .
Hypothesis 2. . . . . . . . . . .
Hypothesis 3. . . . . . . . . . .
Hypothesis 4. . . . . . . . . . .
Hypothesis 5. . . . . . . . . . .

vi

Page
81
86
87
87
89
91
93
95

97

97

98
100
101
101
102
103

103
104

105
106

106
108
110

110
110
111
111
112

Chapter Page

Implications of the Study . . . . . . . 112
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . 117
Summary . . . . . . 119

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
APPENDICES
Appendix

A. Item Loadings on Each Perception Factor. . . 128

B. Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . 130

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1. The Average Age and Grade Point of
Respondents . . . . . . . . . . . 71

2. Father's and Mother's Educational Achievement
of Respondents Grouped According to
Vocational and Non-Vocational Students . . 72

3. Socio-Economic Status of Respondents'
Parents . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

4. Educational Aspiration of Vocational and
Non-Vocational Students . . . . . . . 75

5. Occupational Aspiration of Vocational and
Non-Vocational Students . . . . . . . 76

6. Vocational and Non-Vocational Students
Expectations. . . . . . . . . . .

7. Simple Correlation of Vocational and Non-
Vocational Students' Educational,
Occupational Aspiration, and Expectations
and Occupational Certainty . . . . . . 80

8. Item 7: Most of the People in My Community
Do Not Think Much of Vocational Education . 82

9. Item 8: White Collar Jobs Are Better Than
Blue COllar JObB O I O O O O O I O 83

10. Item 10: The Working Conditions Are Too Bad
for Vocational Students, Most of Them Work
in Unfavorable Weather and Wear Dirty-
Ragged Clothes . . . . . . . . . . 84

11. Item 26: I Would Like to See Vocational

Education Encouraged More Among Black High
School Students. . . . . . . . . . 84

viii

Table
12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

Item 42: My Parents Want Me to Go to
College . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Item 52: Teaching Blacks a Practical Trade
is Another Way for the White Man to Keep the
Blacks Down. . . . . . . . . . . .

Factor I General Attitude Toward Vocational
Education (Univariate Analysis of Variance
Comparing the Mean Scores of the Non-
VOcational and Vocational Groups of the
Respondents) . . . . . . . . . . .

Group Mean of Vocational and Non-Vocational
Student General Attitude Toward Vocational
Education I O O O O O O O O O O 0

Factor II Attitude Toward Employment in Voca-
tional Education (Univariate Analysis of
Variance Comparing the Mean Scores of the
Non-Vocational and Vocational Groups of the
Respondents) . . . . . . . . . . .

Factor I General Attitude Toward Vocational
Education (Univariate Analysis of Variance
Comparing the Mean Scores of the Socio-
Economic Status of the Respondents). . . .

Factor II Attitude Toward Employment in
Vocational Education (Univariate Analysis of
Variance Comparing the Mean Scores of the
Socio-Economic Status of the Respondent) . .

Factor I General Attitude Toward Vocational
Education (Univariate Analysis of Variance
Comparing the Mean Scores of the Educational
Aspiration of the Respondents) . . . . .

Factor II Attitude Toward Employment in Voca-
tional Education (Univariate Analysis of
Variance Comparing the Mean Scores of the
Educational Aspiration of the Respondents) .

Factor I General Attitude Toward Vocational
Education (Univariate Analysis of Variance
Comparing the Mean Scores of the Occupational
Aspiration of the Respondents) . . . . .

ix

Page

85

86

88

89

89

90

91

92

92

94

Table Page

22. Factor II Attitude Toward Employment in
Vocational Education (Univariate Analysis of
Variance Comparing the Mean Scores of the
Occupational Aspiration of the Respondents) . 94

23. Factor I General Attitude Toward Vocational
Education (Univariate Analysis of Variance
Comparing the Mean Scores of the Sex of the
Respondents) . . . . . . . . . . . 96

24. Factor II Attitude Toward Employment in
Vocational Education (Univariate Analysis of
Variance Comparing the Mean Scores of the
Sex of the Respondents). . . . . . . . 96

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Education continues to assume increasing importance
in today's technological society. It is for this reason
that the federal government has allocated large sums of
money for training and human development in vocational and
technical education programs. Congress allocated over
$800 million for vocational education in the 1972-73 fiscal
year.1 Existing programs are being expanded and new ones
are being initiated yearly, with additional resources
being directed toward vocational and public education
programs.

There is a growing concern on the part of educators
regarding the perceptions and attitudes of black students
toward education. Indeed, in order to enable public

education to initiate social, cultural, and economic

growth, educators should have a broad perspective of the

 

1Rupert N. Evans, Garth L. Mangum, and Otto Pragan,
Education for Em lo ent: The Background and Potential of
Efie I968 Vocational Edugation Amendment (Ann Arbor:
Institute 0I_Labor and Industrial ReIations, University of
Michigan and Wayne State University, May 1969), pp. 26-42.

 

perceptions of these students toward traditional education
programs.

Industry's increasing need for highly skilled
workers has generally left those without skills in a
difficult employment situation. The black student's
inability to meet the industrial requirements for greater
occupational and employability skills hinders him as a
worker and citizen. At the same time, the demand for
skilled workers is not always met, while large numbers of
blacks remain unemployed.

Many sociologists agree that the primary influences
on the high school student's attitudes and values come from
the family. Sewell stated that attitudes toward education
and occupation have been associated with the student's
family background.2 One might then assume that attitudes
toward training would be a function of race as well as
socio—economic background. It is expected that the
perceptions of black students toward vocational education
would also be significantly related to sex, socio-economic
background, education, and occupational aspirations.

Research results indicate a resistance on the part

of black students toward traditional vocational education.3

 

2William H. Sewell, "Social Status and Educational
and Occupational Aspirations," American Sociological Review,
V01. XXII (February, 1957), 67-73.

3Meyer Weinberg, W.E.B. DuBois: A Reader (New
York: Harper 5 Row Publisfiers, I970), pp.I57:6UL

Much of this resistance is attributed to: the tracking of
students: theories that Blacks are incapble of learning
academic subjects: alienation from certain occupations; the
advocacy of manual training for blacks by some educators;
and the inability to obtain a job after training.

Federal legislation continues to provide more funds
for vocational education which would help inner-city and
rural youth in developing necessary occupational abilities
in a changing social environment. However, if vocational
training is to be meaningful, black youths must derive
favorable outcomes from it.

Information about socio-economic status and its use
to predict perceptions held about vocational programs
should be helpful to educators. Insight into the relation-
ship between parents' perceptions about vocational programs
and the perception held by their children also should be
useful. If the student's perceptions of vocational edu-
cation can be predicted from the family background, then
school administrators and counselors can be more effective
in helping a student choose a career. Since the socio-
economic conditions among parents differ, their perceptions
toward vocational programs vary. It is important to
understand how economic conditions affect perceptions in
order to determine why some students enter vocational

programs and others do not.

Some of the complexities facing vocational edu-
cation today are: increasing enrollment; changes in
curricular offerings; and the need for career flexibility
to meet the needs of students. School authorities have
begun to recognize that the different approaches that are
emerging in the schools do not always meet the needs of
black students. These observations seem to indicate that
sociological factors will continue to influence and mold
the development of vocational education. It is clear that
a school administrator will need to consider far more than
educational theory and labor force statistics in deciding
what form, type, and degree of emphasis vocational edu-
cation should have in his community.

Many educators believe that Blacks are in the
professions to stay. Blacks are filling professional
positions such as teachers, lawyers, and doctors. However,
if one takes a careful look at the overall black popu-
lations, he will find mostly unskilled hands. The black
man is found in the professional and the unskilled jobs in
greater numbers than other minority groups, but there is a
"hole" or "vacuum” in the center. Where are the skilled
black Computer technicians, auto mechanics, electricians,
and machine operators? This is not to say that those who
are college material should not be pointed in that direction
for career development. However, black parents and other
adults need reeducation regarding the values of vocational

and on-the-job training programs so youths will be

encouraged in the home and community to prepare for blue
collar occupations as well as white collar jobs.

The black student's perception of vocational
education is very important today. There is no doubt that
vocational education is necessary for the non-college
bound student in order for him to obtain a job in a highly
technological society. But in general, few black students
have enrolled in vocational programs in many of the large
predominantly black communities.

Due to a scarcity of research and literature on
this subject it was necessary to survey a number of studies
closely associated with the problem under investigation.
One such study by Middleton revealed that Blacks are
alienated because "they tend to be treated the same
regardless of their education, occupation or reputation by

"4 It is believed that subordinate

the dominant group.
racial status and limited education are strongly associated
with the types of alienation to which Blacks have been
conditioned.

Smuts stated that vocational training available to
black students often takes place in schools where most of

the pupils are rejects from other parts of the school

system, where the capable student is held back by a

 

4Russell Middleton, “Alienation, Race, and Edu-

cation,” American Sociolo ical Review, XXVIII, No. 6
(December, I963), 975.

 

curriculum geared to the abilities of the majority, and in
the areas of work traditionally open only to Blacks. Smuts
feels that there has been a strong tendency among Blacks to
overemphasize the "prestige" occupations, the professions
and the white collar jobs.5
Brookover stated that in the South ”Negro education
has been based on the theory that the Negro is incapable of
being trained in the academic subjects, and should there-
fore be equipped with manual skills."6 Booker T. Washington
was one of the early advocates of industrial education for
blacks. He stated that black people should be educated for
jobs which were open to them.7 In contrast, W. E. B. Du
Bois demanded equality of education at the highest levels
as well as vocational training. He felt that the black
struggle for equality must come through higher education,
and not through training for inferior positions.8

The study by Evans suggested that occupational

education should not be designed primarily for minority

 

SRObert W. Smuts, "The Negro Community and the
Development of Negro Potential," Journal of Negro Education,
XXVI, No. 4 (Fall, 1957), 76-69.

6Wilbur B. Brookover, A Sociolo of Education
(New York: American Book Company, I955E, p. I23.
7

Booker T. Washington, U From Slave (New York:
Doubleday, 1901): Selected Speec es, E. Dav son, 1932,
p. 67.

8W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folks (16th
ed.: Chicago: McClurg, 19287, pp.41-59, 88-I09.

youth. The fact that students of lower ability and from
lower class homes are significantly over-represented in
vocational education is not necessarily bad if the choice
is made by the students and not by the school.9
Vocational education has opened many job oppor-
tunities to blacks which otherwise might not have existed.
On the other hand, its success has been used by the
dominant group to justify its claim that the Black was
unfit for professional jobs and leadership positions.
Black youths today understand the value of a good education
and are more likely to become dissatisfied with their own
position. It follows that the educated Black is much more
likely to demand higher status and equality than those who
do not appreciate American values. He is constantly aware
that many of the privileges of citizenship are denied him,
and he must find ways of resolving these conflicting

expectations.

The Problem

Statement of the Problem

This study is concerned with the perceptions of
black high school students toward vocational education.
It is generally acknowledged that there are many factors

involved in the perceptions of students of the general

 

9Rupert N. Evans, Foundations of Vocational Edu-

cation (New York: Merrill-Publishing Co., I9VII, p. 79.

environment. A number of attempts have been made to
describe attitudes of black students in terms of socio-
economic status and educational background and to relate
differences in achievement and motivation. But very few
studies have been conducted on the perception of black
students toward vocational and technical education programs.
Black students considered in this study are those enrolled
and those who elected not to enroll in a vocational and

technical education program.

Purpgse of the Study
The primary purpose of this study was to measure
and record the perceptions of the black student toward
vocational and technical education programs, and to compare
a selected group of vocational and non-vocational students
with respect to their perceptions of vocational education.

Specifically, the major purposes of this study are:

1. To determine if community acceptance influences the

student's perceptions.

2. To determine how the black student views vocational

education.

Secondary purposes of this study were to analyze
certain factors that may contribute to the perceptions of
black students toward vocational education. The secondary

purposes are:

3. To determine whether vocational and non-vocational
students differ in their perception of vocational

programs.

4. To determine if socio-economic status influences

the participant's perceptions.

5. To determine if educational aspirations affect the

student perceptions of vocational programs.

6. To determine if occupational aspirations affect the

student perceptions of vocational programs.

7. To determine if males and females differ in their

perceptions of vocational programs.

Contributions

It was felt that the finding of this study could
make a valuable contribution by: (1) providing a better
understanding of vocational education on the part of
blacks; (2) providing information about the differing
perceptions of students enrolled and those who elected not
to enroll in vocational education programs: (3) assisting
educators in a better understanding as to why black
students resist vocational education; (4) providing school

officials a broad perspective of the perceptions and

attitudes of black students toward vocational education;
and (5) providing information to educators about black

students to be utilized in planning and initiating new

vocational programs.

10

Assumptions

The assumptions of the study include:

The perception study is only one of the necessary
procedures in investigating the way black students

view vocational and technical education programs.

While the perception scale (of black students)
developed herein was designed for a particular
program, minor changes will make the procedure

applicable to any vocational program.

At the time the instrument was administered, the
perceptions of the participants toward their
vocational programs were accurately measured and
the content of the questions are reliable and

valid.

The questionnaire was administered at or about the
same time to all students in the testing program
and the instructions were followed in all cases

with regard to time and scoring directions.

Limitations
This study was limited to the perceptions of black
high school (eleventh and twelfth grade) students
in selected Michigan public high school education

programs.

11

There are certain inherent difficulties in any
study which attempts to measure, in more than one
high school, the degree of differences of the
intellectual and the non-intellectual climate as
perceived by a random sample of the population.
First of all, it is difficult to define symbols in
operational terms. This study analyzed perceptions
revealed in responses to the instruments used.
These responses were interpreted to be the per-

ceptions of those who made the responses.

The perception measurement is an indirect process.
Responses to questionnaire items are easily
influenced by uncontrolled circumstances: thus,

the data reflect only estimates of the participants'

true feelings.

There are many human variables connected with
perception which are extremely difficult to
compensate for in a study of this kind. Perceptions
seem to be readily influenced by one's total
environment and thus are or can undergo constant
change. However, an attempt was made to incorporate
the effect on the respondents' perceptions with
respect to variables such as sex, socio-economic
status, and educational and occupational aspi-

rations. Again, there is no guarantee that these

12

perceptions were not influenced by other more

discriminating variables.

5. The student's perceptions of vocational education
may be dependent upon what their knowledge and
understanding of vocational education is as it

relates to a specific field.

Definition of Terms

Black.--For the purpose of this study an American
born citizen of African descent, sometimes referred to as

"Negro" or "Afro American."

Perception.--The recognition of the significance
(or lack of significance) to man of what his material and
his non-material environment offer him. It includes not
only his perception of separate things and ideas but of

their relationships.10

It is the meaningful association
and assimilation of possible responses to stimuli in the

environment, as viewed by an individual.

Vocational Students.--Refers to regular status high
school students who have signed up for but who have not
yet attended a vocational-technical education course.
These students are enrollees of the eleventh and twelfth

grade.

 

10Elizabeth E. Hoyt, Choice and the Destiny of
Nations (New York: PhilosophIcaI Library,’I , PP.

 

13

Non-vocational.--All students who are considered
to be regular status students in a high school program, but
who have not enrolled in a vocational program nor intend to
do so. These students are enrollees of the eleventh and

twelfth grade.

Vocational education.--An educational program that
is organized to prepare students for entrance level
occupations or provide training for a specific occupational
area. Vocational education supplements and enhances

general education for those who want a skill.11

Socio-economic status.--The level indicative of
both the social and the economic achievement of an indi-
vidual. The ranking of a particular occupation with all
other occupations on the socio-economic index of all

occupations.12

Aspirations.--The degree to which individual
students desire to achieve the behavior specified by the

goals of the group. The maximum goal that a person (or a

 

11Jerry M. Rosenberg, New Conce tions of Vocational
and Technical Education (New YorE: TeacEers CoIIege Press,

CoIEfiEIa University, I965), pp. 8-9.

120. D. Duncan, "A Socio-economic Index for All
Occupations,” In Occu ations and Social Status, edited by
A. J. Reiss (Glencoe, III.: TEe Free Press, I961),

pp. 109-61.

14

group) desires or hopes to reach at any given moment in a

specified activity.13

Expectations.--The status that the person expects
he might achieve with respect to the motive if he does
choose a particular course of action among the various
alternatives. Consequently, there will be a different

expectation level for each alternative he considers.14

Qgggpational Aspirations and Expectation.--For this
particular study, occupational aspirations were defined as
the occupation or cluster of occupations the individual
would like to attain. Occupational expectation, however,
refers to the level or cluster of occupations an individual

actually believes he will attain.

Organization of the Presentation
This study is organized into five chapters.
Chapter I, has presented an introduction to the study, a
statement of the problem, the purpose of the study,
contribution, assumptions, limitation, definition of
terminology, and organization of the thesis.
In Chapter II, the related literature is reviewed.

The five part organization of this section will identify

 

13Carter V. Good, Dictiona of Education (New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., , p. 378.
14

Nelson N. Foote, Household Decision-making (New
York: University Press, l96II. PP. 254-96.

15

the major studies providing a theoretical framework for
dealing with studies of attitudes and aspirations, and
studies related to blacks, and vocational education.

Chapter III outlines the methodological procedure,
deals primarily with data collection, procedures for data
processing, and classification procedures for analyzing,
and interpretating the data.

Chapter IV presents the analysis of the data, and
findings of the study, and is organized in three major
sections: descriptive analysis of factors relating to
vocational and non-vocational students; the perceptions of
black students toward vocational education; test of the
stated hypotheses; and summary of findings.

Chapter V is a summary of the study. A review of
the study is given, implications of the findings are
discussed and recommendations are made for additional

research.

Summary

The first section of this chapter presented an
introduction to the problem being studied by identifying
some theories and developments that may have contributed
to the attitudes and perceptions of black students.

The second section of the Chapter identified the
problem being studied, presented a statement of the purpose
of the study, and the contribution it can make toward

vocational education. The assumptions underlying the

16

study, the delimitation, and the definition of the terms
used in the study were then presented.

The third section dealt with an overview of the
remaining chapters and the format followed in the presen—

tation.

CHAPTER II
A REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

There is a dearth of research devoted specifically
to the perception of vocational education by black students.
Consequently, it was necessary for this writer to rely
heavily on material relating to the over-all perception of
black students toward occupational education and social
determinants of society. Assuming that the student's
perception was greatly influenced by his life's experiences,
it was generalized that these same experiences were
instrumental in influencing his perception of vocational
education.

Only in recent years has there been any significant
amount of research conducted related to this area. In
1971, Feldman reported that no systematic studies had been
done relating to the perceptions of the black youth.1 None
. seem to have addressed themselves specifically to the
perceptions of black students toward vocational education

.«m
utilizing the theoretical framework as used in this sttu.

 

1Marvin Feldman, "The Schools and All of Us Fail the
Poor,” Opportunity, I, No. 9 (December, 1971), 32-34.

17

18

As in the case with the occupational and educational
aspiration studies of Blacks, results tend to show Blacks
as having lower aspirations than whites. However, some
studies have shown little difference. Nevertheless, the
research is so scant it serves to give indications and
possible direction for further research.

The review of literature serves two purposes in
this study. Its first function is to provide a background
of knowledge on which the study can build. This function
is traditional. The second function is to provide a basis
from.which questions related to student attitudes and
perceptions can emerge. For the purpose of this study,
primary emphasis was placed upon a review of the literature
where psychological and sociological approaches were
utilized.

To accomplish its twofold purpose, the review will
be organized into six sections as follows: (1) literature
providing a theoretical framework for the study, (2) a
review of the basic approaches for the study of socio-
economic background, (3) studies of occupational aspirations,
(4) studies relating to educational aspirations, (5)
development theories, and (6) a review study dealing with

Blacks and vocational education.

Literature Providing a Theoretical
Framework for the Study

The works.of a number of educational psychologists

and sociologists provided a theoretical basis for this

l9

investigation. It is believed that self perception was

born in social interaction. Beginning with an analysis of

a concept, Mead offers some insight into the phenomena of

perceptions when he stated:
. . . that the individual self is something which has
a development; it is not initially there, at birth,
but arises in the process of social experience and
activity, that is, develops in the given individual as
a result of his relations to that process as a whole
and to other individuals with that process.

Mead feels that an individual's perceptions of how others

view him and how he sees others is the foundation on which

perceptions of society are formed.3

It was also felt by
authorities that the individual's self concept is enhanced
by how others perceive him. Additional factors in the
development of perceptions are the prevailing attitudes and
values held by the social groups to which the individual
belongs or associates. The influence of the total social
environment on the development of the self was considered
by Mead to be the effect of the "generalized other." He
further felt that one's perception of school programs is
heavily influenced by the "generalized other" in society.
It is assumed that one's perceptions will change,
but there are dominant trends that remain somewhat constant

over many years. Change is caused primarily by the

fact that man's relationship with others does change as

 

2George Herbert Mead, Mind, Self and Societ
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1934), p. 1 5.

31bid., p. 154.

20

do his perceptions of himself and his place in society.
Mead has suggested that perceptions are multi-faceted and
that the many components of one's perceptions are derived
from the following: (1) perceived perceptions as to how
others perceive him, (2) actual perceptions that others
have of him, and (3) perceptions of others as to how he
perceives himself.4

It appears reasonable to assume, as Mead does, that
among the persons with whom one interacts, some persons and
groups will have greater influence on the individual than
others. As a result, the way these persons and groups
perceive him will be more important to him than to others.
The individual as an "object" becomes the perception the
person has of how others in his life perceive him.

While most sociologists and psychologists agree
that others influence the way one perceives things, the
"perceptual field" is determined by the manner in which a
person perceives things himself. This means that even if
"everyone" thinks you are a good person, if you perceive
yourself as not being a good person, this will be your
attitude. Combs and Snygg describe it this way.

People do not behave according to the facts as others
see them. They behave according to the facts as they

see them. What governs behavior from the point of
view of the individual himself are his unique

 

41bid., p. 138.

21

perceptions of himself, the world in which he lives,
and the meaning things have for him.5

Combs and Snygg are willing to accept the idea that
the individual is primarily the product of interaction.
They feel that one's view of himself can be explained
through individual isolation:

The self is essentially a social product arising out

of experience with people. Although some of the
individual's experience of self may be achieved in
isolation from other people, by far the greater portion
of his self arises out of his relationship with others.

Human personality is primarily a product of social
interaction.

Combs and Snygg take the position that each man is
always seeking adequacy through his behavior.‘7 The idea
that a man's behavior is directed toward adequacy is also
a major premise of such leading sociologists and psycho-
logists as the late Abraham Maslow,8 Carl Rogers,9 and
Arthur Jersild.lo

Vocational choices may be considered a complex

stimulus situation to which an individual responds. He

 

SArthur Combs and Donald Snygg, Individual
Behavior (New York: Harpers, 1959), P. 17.

6 7

Ibid., p. 134. Ibid., p. 136.

8Abraham H. Maslow, Motivation and Personality
(New York: Harper and Row, 1970).

9Carl R. Rogers, A There ist's View of Personal
Goals (Willingford, Pa.: PendIe HiII, I969}, p. 9.

10Arthur J. Jersild, Child Ps cholo (Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, I968I, p. 22.

22

reads about the occupation, sees men working at it,
encounters certain relationships with people and machinery,
hears people talking about it, discovers that the community
endows it with certain status, and gradually forms certain
attitudes and concepts relating to the occupation.

The period in one's life during which the individual
forms attitudes or concepts about an occupation or other

types of stimuli is described by Raylesberg as the stage of

perception, the way the person "sees" the stimulus.11 It

has been demonstrated that the psychological processes of

perception, judgment, attitude formation, and in fact, all

0 O O O O 12
cognitive processes occur within referential frameworks.

After summarizing a considerable amount of research data to
support this thesis of the selective nature of perception,
Sherif and Cantril conclude that:

A frame of reference is involved in perception and
judgmental activity . . . the term ”frame of reference"
is simply used to denote the functionally related
factors (present and past) which operate at the moment
to determine the particular proPerties of a psycho-
logical phenomenon, such as perception, judgment, and
affectivity.

The literature of social psychology is ripe with
data which support the formulation reached from our
survey of general psychology: that perception and
judgment are selective and occur within a referential
framework, that frames or points of reference are

 

11Daniel D. Raylesberg, "Personal Values in the
Perceptions of an Occupation," Published Thesis (New York
City: Teachers College, Columbia University, 1949), p. 4.

121bid., p. s.

23
inevitably established if an individual repeatedly
faces the same stimulus situation.13
The frames of reference in judgments about occu-

pations have been demonstrated in several studies. Osgood
and Stagner revealed that college students tend to establish
a prestigious frame of reference in making their judgments
of different occupations on a series of gradients.14 Kay
attempted to measure the effect of personal frames of
reference (liking for occupations and effective experiences
with occupations) on the ranking of several occupations on
a series of characteristics. She found some evidence for
the operation of personal frames of reference, although she
concluded that the social norm was more operative as a

reference frame than were personal ones.15

David and Lang16

found that student's perceptions
of their teacher's feeling toward them correlated positively
and significantly with the student's self perceptions.

Also, they found that the more positive the student's

 

13M. Sherif and H. Cantril, The Ps chology Ego-
Involvement (New York: Wiley, 1947), p. .

14C. E. Osgood and R. Stagner, "Analysis of a
Prestige Frame Reference by a Gradient Technique," Journal
of Applied Psychology, XXV (1941), 275-90.

15Lillian W. Ray, "The Relation of Personal Frames
of Reference to Social Judgments," Architectural Psychology,
No. 283 (1945), l9-23. '

16H. H. Davidson and G. Lang, "Children's Per—
ceptions of Their Teacher's Feeling Toward Them Related to
Self-Perceptions, School Achievement and Behavior," Journal
of Egperimental Education, XXIX (December, 1960), 107-I8.

24

perceptions of their teacher's feelings, the higher their

classroom achievement.

Socio-Economic Status Studies

The studies reviewed in this thesis would seem to
indicate that black students, in general, aspire to high
level occupations. There is often a wide discrepancy
between their aspirations and the employment patterns of
their parents. Smith indicated that this was due to a
desire to escape from the present status. He observed that
among his sample of black high school students, those from
families of the upper or middle social classes generally
chose definite professional jobs. Lower class youths were
more indefinite. They wanted just "good jobs."17

Many references in this study allude to work
written many years ago. It was necessary because this
writer believes that these materials greatly influenced
the present perceptions Blacks have of vocational education.
It is a basic tenet from which this work proceeds, there-
fore, the works of these men are as timely and significant
as the work of more recent authors who have endeavored to
explore the attitudes of Blacks toward vocational and

technical education.

 

17Benjamin F. Smith, "Wishes of Negro High School
Seniors and Social Class Status," Journal of Educational
Sociology, XXV (April, 1952), 466-75.

25

Frumkin conducted a study, utilizing 1950 data
which demonstrated how occupation is related to the social
class position of Blacks in New York City and suggested
some consequences of the problems faced by Blacks. His
findings verify that there are large differences in the
occupational status of the white and black worker. About
20 per cent of the employed male black workers held white-
collar positions as contrasted to 42 per cent of the white
male workers. Approximately 6 per cent of the black female
workers were employed in white-collar jobs as compared to
16 per cent white female workers. Frumkin indicated that
one of the most closely related factors affecting socio-
economic status is education. The more education an
individual has the better are his chances for occupying a
more favorable status in present day society.18

Blalock, in a similar study with 1950 data, found
that in metropolitan areas with a population of 100,000 or
more people, the percentage of Blacks and the black-white
income difference were positively, though moderately,
correlated, both in the South, North, and the West.19

Blalock also found positive associations between percentage

of non-white and white differences in several status

 

18Robert M. Frumkin, "Current Trends in Negro Edu-

cation," The Journal of Negro Education, XXVIII, No. 1
(1958), 62:69.

19Hubert M. Blalock, ”Economic Discrimination and
Negro Increase," American Sociological Review, XXI
(October, 1956), I§I=5§§.

26

variables, including education, income, and home ownership.
However, the occupational gap was not associated with the
percentage of non-whites.20
The United States Department of Labor reported that

the changing occupational structure of the economy will
work to the benefit of the non-white, since by and large
the occupations in which they are now concentrated will
grow more slowly than other occupations. The report
stated clearly that:

The non-white workers will have to gain access to the

rapidly growing skilled and white collar occupations

at a faster rate than in recent years if their

unemployment rate is to be brought down toward the

same level as that of white workers.21

An interesting sidelight of a study conducted by

Glenn was that the most important influence on the status
of the American black is the number of Blacks in a given
locality relative to the number of whites in the same area.
The survey provides little evidence to support the widely
held belief that a more nearly even distribution of the
black population in the United States in itself would
appreciably aid black advancement. Glenn felt that the

concentration of Blacks apparently is not high enough in

 

20Hubert M. Blalock, "Percent Non-White and Dis-
criminations in the South," American Sociological Review,
xxrr (December, 1957), 677-822

21Joe L. Russell, "Changing Patterns in Employment
of Nonwhite Workers,” Monthly Labor Review, LXXXIX (May,

27

most northern and western urbanized areas to impede black
progress, if the blacks are properly trained.22
Turner, in an analysis of the 1940 census data for
large non-southern cities, found that the difference
between black and white unemployment was generally greater
in cities with a small percentage of Blacks but that the
black-white occupational gap was generally smaller where
Blacks were a large proportion of the total population.23
Radin and Ramii did a study that appears to have
important implications for educators struggling to intervene
in the well known cycle of unemployment-deprivation, school
failure, school dropout and unemployment of black students.
The middle-class mother, who believes in exposing children
to challenging situations and supporting them in coping
with these challenges is compared to the lower-class mother
who believes in protecting her children from the problems
of society, which she views with suspicion. The middle-
class mother allows her youngsters to express their

thoughts and make decisions. The authors felt that this

kind of environment produces children who have a high

 

22Norval D. Glenn, "Negro Population Concentration
and Negro Status," Journal of Negro Education, XXXVI,
No. 4 (Fall, 1967), 67.

23Ralph H. Turner, "The Relative Position of the
Negro Male in the Labor Force of Large American Cities,"
American Sociological Review, XVI (August, 1951), 527-28.

28

probability of success in school and in the employment
world.24

Bernstein's study points out the relationship
between the family's power structure and the cognitive
development of children. If the family is authoritarian,
as in the Negro matriarchy, there is little incentive for
the child to develop verbal skills because there is no
discussion of issues nor opportunities to exert influence.
Whereas, in a democratic family, it pays to learn how to
communicate with others. The latter is the best environ-

ment for language development in the young.25

The conclusions drawn from this particular study
were that the concerns of black youths are acquired, and
result largely in social learnings. Ideals, hopes,
wishes, interests, and attitudes are picked up through
membership in a neighborhood, family, or social group.
They are environment teachings. Before teachers can
motivate students to learn, they must understand the
psychological teaching to which each has been exposed. It
was further suggested by Smith that those who are engaged

in the training of black students should commit themselves

 

24Norman Radin and Constance K. Kamii, "The Child-
Rearing Attitudes of Disadvantaged Negro Mothers and Some
Educational Implications,” The Journal of Negro Education,
XXXIV, No. 2 (Spring, 1965), 52.

25B. Bernstein, "Social Class and Linguistic

Development,” In Societ Econom and Education, edited by
A. Anderson, J. FIoud, and H. HaIsey (GIencoe, 111.: Free

Press, 1961), 121-130.

29

to developing a curriculum based upon the needs of the
individual students.26
Gribbans and Lohnes conducted an extensive study
of the impact of socio-economic factors upon the educational
aspirations of students. An analysis of the socio-economic
level of tenth and twelfth grade students shows that those
in the lower socio-economic group do not have high aspi-
rations. It appears that parents, schools, and other
forces in society are doing a good job of encouraging
bright students to take advantage of the opportunities
available to them. On the other hand, it appears that too
little time and attention is directed toward the less
academically able or non-college bound students.27
In the relationship between socio-economic factors
and aspiration level behavior, it is not difficult to
determine which is cause and which is effect. Gould
believed that: "It is whether the present is regarded as
a success or as a failure, and the reaction to it that

constitute one's attitude toward the future."28

 

26Benjamin F. Smith, "Wishes of Negro High School
Seniors and Social Class Status," Journal of Education
Sociology, XXV, No. 1 (April, 1952), 466-75.

27Warren D. Gribbons and Paul R. Lohnes, "A Five-
Year Study of Student's Education Aspirations," Vocational
Guidancegguarterly, XV, No. 1 (September, 1966), 66-69.

28Rosalind Gould, "Some Sociological Detriments of
Goal Strivings," Journal of Social Psychology, XIII (1941),
461.

30

Counts conducted a study with eleventh and twelfth
grade students on the status of forty-five different
occupations. He concluded that there are clear-cut differ-
ences in the social status of occupations. Some occupations
receive a much higher social rating than other occupations.
If an occupation carries great social prestige, it is

29 This

certain to attract students into its ranks.
investigation would suggest that high school students tend
to aspire to the professional occupations because they are
sensitive to social judgments and recognize the prestige
attached to these occupations.
In our society, in spite of what is said about the
dignity of labor, many occupations which are clearly
necessary to the promotion of the common good are
stamped as unworthy and are thus given an essentially
negative social standing.

In most of the literature studied, the level of
aspirations of the students were much higher than was
represented by the socio-economic status of their families.
According to Waters, the large size and the low economic
status of the families will place certain limitations upon
the fulfillment of these aspirations particularly where

further training is necessary.31

 

29George S. Counts, "The Social Status of Occu-
pations," School Review, XXXIII, No. l (1925), 16-27.

3°Ibid., p. 17.

31E. Worthington Waters, "Vocational Aspirations,
Intelligence Problems and Socio-economic Status of Rural
Negro High School Seniors on the Eastern Shore of Maryland,

31

Studies of Occppational Aspirations

A number of studies by sociologists and psycho-
logists in recent years have thrown considerable light on
some of the factors which influence occupational aspirations
of black youth. A brief review of the evidence taken from
selected studies follows.

Sewell and Orenstein suggest that a boy from a
family with a father who pursues a low status occupation
tends to aspire to a low status position because

. . . his intimate adult contacts are restricted to
those in lower-status occupation positions. Lower
status adults lack intimate and detailed knowledge of
the activities of high-status persons to pass on to
the lower status youth. They also have lower economic
aspirations for themselves and recommend lower status
occupations to others.32

Henderson has indicated, however, that lower class
black students aspire to higher occupational levels than
their parents. Social and ethnic characteristics should
not prevent lower class black students from aspiring to
higher occupational goals. Henderson argues that a

student's level of aspiration is formed around his social

situation. There are large numbers of Blacks from lower

 

Their Implications for Vocational Guidance," The Journal of
Negro Education, XXIII, No. 1 (1954), 502-05.

32William H. Sewell and Alam M. Orenstein, "Com-
munity of Residence and Occupational Choice,” American
Journal of Sociology, LXX, No. 5 (March, 1965), SET.

32

class families who aspire to higher and lower levels of
occupations depending upon their social conditioning.33
It is also believed that students will have higher

occupational aspirations when the community aspires to
higher goals and values. In such instances, students'
aspirations can be reinforced when parent, teacher, and
close friends encourage high goals and status for the
students within the community. For example, Hoyte conducted
a study among black students who had similar educational,
economic and social conditions in eight high schools in
Indiana and Kentucky to determine the occupational choices
and the factors affecting these choices. The findings and
conclusions were as follows:

(1) The agencies influencing the occupational choices

of the pupils were more important than their reasons

for choosing the occupations. The agencies most

frequently mentioned were: a. school activities, b.

parent's desires, c. teachers, and d. friends.

(2) The fact that the occupations of the fathers were

not chosen by the sons indicates that parental influ-

ence ranked low as an agency in forming the pupil's

occupational choices, and

(3) The number of black students who are entering the

professional fields and who continue to make choices in

the professional fields present a real challenge to the

schools.34

In a study involving thirty—eight Negro schools in

North Carolina, Mebane discovered that the most popular

 

33George Henderson, "Occupational Aspiration of
Poverty-Stricken Negro Students," Vocational Guidance

34Charles Hoyte, "Occupational Interests of Negro
High School Boys," The School Review, XLIV (January-
December, 1936), 34:70.

33

choices were on the professional level. The number of
choices of trades and business occupations were pro-
portionately small, and the clerical group of occupations

was the second choice of the girls.35

A study done by
Parks in the Louisville schools showed that these high
school students also made choices in the professional
fields. However, the level of student choice was out of
proportion to the opportunities available to them in these
fields.36
An analysis by Lawrence of the professional aspi-

rations of black students revealed the same picture that has
often been reported in educational circles: a majority of
youth seek careers in those areas which offer a maximum of

social prestige as well as adequate financial return.37

Uzell found in his study a significant relationship
between the level of aspiration of black male high school
students and parents' educational level. Lack of money and

inadequate preparation were mentioned most frequently as

 

35E. A. Mebane, “Vocational Choices of Secondary
Students in the Negro Accredited High Schools of North
Carolina" (Greensboro, N.C.: Agricultural and Technical
College, 1928-29), 21.

36M. Parks, "Occupational Survey of Negro High
School Students" (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University
of Kentucky, 1929), 53.

37Paul F. Lawrence, "Vocational Aspirations of
Negro Youth of California," Journal of Negro Education,
XIX, No. 1 (Winter, 1950), 47-56.

34

difficulties which respondents expected to encounter in
seeking preferred occupations.38
Reissman, looking at still another approach to
aspirations, investigated the effects of aspirations. The
study was concerned with adult aspirations as they relate
to social class. The population involved was a group of
policemen attending a technical school. It was concluded
that lower status individuals held lower levels of aspi-
ration than higher status individuals.39
Sociological and psychological characteristics tend
to produce the experience of success in occupationally
related areas of behavior found to be associated with
levels of aspiration. Gribbons and Lohnes disclosed
findings of longitudinal research over a five-year period
and reported that adolescents with slightly above average
intelligence tended to have a more realistic level of
aspirations. However, over half the youngsters classified
as having 108 below 105 persisted in their preferences for

40

the professions. Swinehart reported that in terms of

 

38O. Uzell, "Occupational Aspirations of Negro Male
High School Students," Sociology and Social Research, XLV,
No. 2 (1961), 202-04.

39Leonard Reissman, "Levels of Aspirations and
Social Class," American Sociological Review, XVIII, No. 3
(1953), 83.

40Warren D. Gribbons and Paul R. Lohnes, "Occu-
pational Preferences and Measured Intelligence," Vocational
Guidance gparterly, XIV (Spring, 1966), 211-14.

35

intellectual, socio-economical and educational levels,
students whose aspirations led them to enroll in post-high
school programs were on a level between those who terminated
their education at high school or before and the ones
attending colleges and universities.41 Farquhar and Payne
found that motivational elements common to academic
achievement function similarly in occupational aspi-
rations.42 The effects of fear of failure in social
organization of occupational aspirations were studied by
Burnstein. He believes that as fear of failure increased,
the prestige of the occupation to which the individual
aspired tended to decrease.43

In an earlier study, Clark focused on the social
and cultural restrictions on the occupational aspirations

44

process. He compared inner-city children in grades

three through six with a group from suburbia and concluded

 

41James W. Swinehart, "Socio-economic Level, Status
Aspiration, and Maternal Role," Journal of Negro Education,

42William W. Farquhar and David A. Payne, "Factors
in the Academic-Occupational Motivations of Eleventh Grade
Under- and Over-Achievers,“ Personnel and Guidance Journal
(November, 1963), 245-51.

43Eugene Burnstein, "Fear of Failure, Achievement
Motivation, and Aspiring to Prestigeful Occupations,"
Journal of Abnormal and Social ngchology, LXVII (August,

' 0

44Edward T. Clark, "Influence of Sex and Social
Class on Occupational Preference and Perception," Personnel
and Guidance Journal, XLV (January, 1967), 440-44.

36

that middle-class boys and lower-class girls express a
significantly greater preference for white collar and
professional occupations. Nevertheless, in their per-
ceptions of occupations, both lower-class boys and girls
were significantly less able to supply appropriate job
titles to stimulus figures; suggesting that some job models
lack relevance for young people who are economically
disadvantaged.

Fitchett, looking at another approach to occu-
pational aspirations, found that the black college student
restricts himself to too few vocations, concentrating
mostly in the teaching professions. Occupational prefer-
ences seem to be based largely upon or determined by the
occupational patterns of the community. The fields of work
in which the parents are engaged seem to have a minor
influence upon the occupational preferences of their
children.45

The influence of the father's occupation on the
occupational aspiration of their sons was the focus of

46

research by Kroger and Louttil. Their investigation

supports earlier studies that a very small number of boys,

 

45E. Horace Fitchett, "The Occupational Preferences
and Opportunities of Negro College Students," Journal of
Negro Education, VII, No. 4 (October, 1938), 498-513.

46Robert Kroger and C. M. Louttit, "The Influence
of Father's Occupation on the Vocational Choices of High
School Boys," Journal of Applied Psychology, XIX (1935),

37

while in high school, desire to follow their father's
occupation. In fact the larger percentage choose an
occupation at a higher level than that of their father.
Nearly 70 per cent of the boys wanted to engage in work
that is represented by only 35 per cent of the present
gainfully employed population. Grunes feels that this
factor is evidence of a lack of realistic thinking which
at the same time reveals some common misperceptions of high
school students.47 Welch reached this same conclusion when
he interviewed 500 high school students and found that
crystallized viewpoints exist toward occupations and clear
lines of demarcation are established with regard to
occupational social status. Occupations at the professional
level were ranked highest, while those at the semi-skilled
and unskilled levels were ranked lowest.48
Gardner feels that a person's level of aspiration

49 He insisted that there

is formed in a social situation.
is only one definition of the term "level of aspirations"

and states that, "It can only refer to a quantitative

 

47Willa F. Grunes, "On Perception of Occupations,"
Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXIV, No. 5 (1956),

48Mayron K. Welch, “The Ranking of Occupations on
the Basis of Social Status, Occupations, XXVII, No. 4
(1949), 237-40.

49John W. Gardner, "The Use of the Term 'Level of
Aspiration,'" The Psychological Review, XXXXVII, No. 1

38

indication which an individual makes concerning his future
performance in an activity."50

It is concluded from these reviews that the forces
operating in the development of occupational aspiration
among black students in the past have manifested some
differences both in kind and degree from those operating
for white students. As Smith and Abramson stated in their
study, "it seems highly probable that the two racial groups
in the United States are becoming psychologically and

51 These studies would

sociologically more integrated."
seem to imply that until such psychological differentiation
no longer exists, counseling programs must be adapted to
meet the specific needs of black students in a time of

expanding job opportunities.

Educational Aspiration
A review of these studies would suggest that the
level of one's educational aspirations is contingent upon
the availability of opportunities and experiences within
one's general environment.
A number of studies by sociologists and social
scientists in recent years have thrown considerable light

on some of the factors which influence the educational

 

501818., p. 58.

51Howard P. Smith and Marcia Abramson, "Racial and
Family Experiences: Correlates of Mobility Aspirations,"
Journal of Negro Education, XXXI (Spring, 1962), 119.

39

aspirations of black students. For example, Herriott
found that boys have higher educational aspirations than
girls, children from educated parents have higher aspi-
rations than children of less educated parents, and
students of high income parents have higher aspirations
than students of lower-income parents. Some of the
determinants of educational aspiration are variables such
as: sex, family education, family income, and significant
others. A significant factor in Herriott's study was that
a student's environment can have considerable influence
upon his educational aspirations. For example, the
perceived expectations of a best friend or a senior high
school counselor had the most influence upon educational
aspirations.52
In a study of the relationship between educational
aspirations and expectations of high school students,
Slocum reported that a substantial proportion of these
students tend to revise their expectations upward as

53 The same

compared with their educational aspirations.
phenomenon has been observed with respect to educational

expectations, although the downward revision tends to be

 

52Robert E. Herriott, "Some Social Determinants of
Educational Aspiration," Harvard Educational Review, XXXIII,
No. 2 (1963), 157.

53Walter L. Slocum, "Occupational and Educational

Plans of High School Seniors From Farm and Non-Farm Homes,"
Washington Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin,
No. 564, February, 1956.

40

less drastic. For example, a study in the State of
Washington revealed that 72 per cent of sophomore, junior,
and senior girls in thirty rural high schools aspired to
attend college and 65 per cent indicated that they expected
to attend. Comparable figures for boys were 77 per cent
and 75 per cent, respectively.54
It is interesting to note the discrepancy of
findings relative to educational aspirations, preferences,
and their relationship to the socio-economic status of
parents. Researchers have found positive correlation
between the level of aspirations and socio-economic status

55 Other studies, however, indicated no

56

of the parents.
relationship existed between these same two factors.
Antonovsky's study in 1958 was concerned with

questions relating to class and social aspirations of lower

 

54Walter L. Slocum, "Educational Aspirations and
Expectations of Students in Rural Washington High Schools"
(Washington State University: Department of Rural Sociology,
Research Center, College of Agriculture, October, 1967),
pp. 18-20.

55See Raymond A. Mulligan "Social-economic Back-
ground and College Enrollment," American Sociolo ical
Review, XVI (April, 1961), 188-96: cf. J. L. Lowe, "Edu-
cational and Occupational Aspirations of High School
Seniors” (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of
Missouri, 1962), p. 2614; cf. M. B. Smith, "Interpersonal
Influence on the Occupational and Educational Aspirations
and Expectations of Sixth Grade Students" (Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, 1961),
p. 71.

56See Max Weiner and Marion Graves, "A Study of the'

Educational and Vocational Aspirations of Junior High
School Pupils From Two Socio-Economic Levels" (White
Plains, N.Y.: Board of Education, 1961), p. 19.

41

and middle-class high school students. The findings
clearly showed that middle-class whites have higher level
aspirations and expectations than the black and Puerto
Rican groups tested. The lower class Puerto Ricans tended
to have a relatively low aspiration level. There is
substantial similarity in pattern responses of the three
groups; the Negro, the lower-class white, and the middle-
class Puerto Rican. Comparisons of Negro and white boys
only, holding class constant, does not change the picture.
The white middle-class boys had consistently higher
aspirations than the other two groups, which do not differ
from each other. However, according to Antonovsky, there
are marked similarities among middle- and lower-class
Negroes, middle-class Puerto Ricans, and lower-class

whites.57

However, in contrast to this, Cosby reported
that black high school students had a higher level of
aspiration in the majority of comparisons between groups
with similar socio-economic backgrounds. He stated that
there are at least three explanations that can account for
the differences between findings in this research and
prior studies:

(1) In some of the previous studies controls were not

applied, and the analysis did not advance beyond the
simple bivariate table: (2) several of the studies

 

S7Aaron Antonovsky, "Aspirations, Class, and
Racial Ethnic Membership,” Journal of Negro Education,
xxxvr, No. 4 (Fall, 1967), 585-755.

42

focused on rather limited segments of the youth popu-
lation rather than a broad cross section; and (3) there
may have been a change in the aspirations of black
students in the time interval between studies.58
For example, the Civil Rights movement, change in attitudes
toward black pride and consciousness may have had an
effect.

Sewell, Haller, and Straus, in their study of
educational aspiration, concluded that the apparent effects
of social status on levels of educational and occupational
aspiration are not due simply to the common relationship of
these variables to intelligence; although, intelligence is

related to both types of aspirations.59

However, this study
lends support to the sociological claim that values
specific to different status positions are important
influences on levels of educational and occupational
aspiration. Status was far more important than intelligence
in aspiration levels among both white and black students.

A survey of 1,000 ninth grade students in poor,
semi-industrial cities in New Jersey was conducted by
Stephenson. In each case, the position of the student

(sex, race, class) in the social environment was reflected

in his stated choice of future plans. This pattern is

 

58Arthur Cosby, "Black-White Differences in Aspi-
rations Among Deep South High School Students,” Journal of
Negro Education, XL, No. 1 (Winter, 1971), 17-21.

59William H. Sewell, Archie O. Haller, and Murray A.
Straus, ”Social Status and Educational and Occupational
Aspiration,” American Sociological Review, XXII, No. l
(1957), 67-73.

43

repeated when Blacks are compared with whites and appear to
be magnified by the fact that blacks at each group level
tend to plan lower and are less certain about their future
plans than whites. The pattern of choice strongly
suggests that these youths hold a relatively common per-
ception in the aspiration dimension of mobility orientation,
but that the expectation dimension is more sharply differ—
entiated by their general position in the social system in
which class is significant.60
Kohl stated that there was a general way of life
which identified the lower class and "common man boys"
class.61 Some were happy with that way of life, while
others were not. He felt that,
. . . parents who were discontented tended to train
their sons from the earliest years of grammar school
to take school seriously and use education as the means
to climb into the middle-class. Only sons who inter-
nalized such values were sufficiently motivated to
overcome the obstacles which faced the common man boys
in school: only they saw a reason for good school
performance and college aspirations.62
Miller, in a more recent investigation, made the

following statement that indicates improvements in black

education will depend upon a recognition of its inferior

 

60Richard M. Stephenson, "Mobility Orientation and
Stratification," American Sociological Review, XXII,
No. 2 (1957), 204=I2.

61Joseph A. Kohl, "Educational and Occupational
Aspirations of "Common Man" Boys,” The Harvard Educational
Review, XXIII (January-December, 1953i, I96-203.

62Ibid., p. 187.

44

quality and upon concerted efforts toward the elimination
of the deficiencies.

The whole nation feels the effects of the inferior
education provided to the Negro in the South, the
migration of Negroes into all sections of the country
have spread the problems of low education and the lack
of skilled training. The future of the country must
be identified with its ability to utilize the brains
and skills of its forgotten black child the major
portion of whom are found in the South.63

Civil Rights proponents point out that education in
segregated circumstances makes it impossible to provide
full or adequate educational opportunity. Many problems
resulting from segregation are apparent. Karon concludes

that:

Education seems to some Negro children to be unrelated
to any meaningful part of their environment, and
especially to their experiences at home. They become
totally uninterested in education and the school,
consequently, may be unable to reach them.64

Antonovsky and Lerner concluded that the black
student responses to their study may be due to the
following factors:

(1) Though the black youth do not have personally-
known models of high status with whom they can identify,
many of them have been subjected to an important
pressure; the traditional stress within the black
community, great men like George Washington Carver,

Paul L. Dunbar, and Ralph Bunche. Success to the

Black youth can only mean to achieve highest status.

(2) It is quite unrealistic for the black youth in
particular, to seek success through the skilled

 

63Carroll L. Miller, ”Educational Opportunities
and the Negro Child in the South," Harvard Educational
Review, XXX, No. 3 (Summer, 1960), I86}

64Bertram P. Karon, The Ne ro Personalit (New

York: Springer Publishing Co., , p. .

45
trades, small business outside the black community, or
corporate hierarchies.65
The black youth is well acquainted with discrimination in
these areas. If he is to succeed, then he must seek
success through education and the professions.

It would appear that a young person's level of
aspiration is contingent upon his frame of social refer-
ence.66 However, there are lower-class blacks who maintain
high or low levels of aspiration, depending upon their
social conditioning. The major differences between
middle- and lower-class blacks does not appear to be their
achievement motives but their structural opportunities to
achieve their goals.67

Blalock presented a speech on a possible course of
action for a ”vicious circle.” One important reason the
black students have not properly trained themselves to
qualify for skilled positions, is that:

They have few job incentives, they have followed the
path of least resistance in high school and have

enrolled in the easiest curriculum, and obtained
relatively poor grades. Only a handful take shop

 

65Aaron Antonovsky and Melvin Lerner, ”Occupational

Aspirations of Lower Class Negro and White Youth," Social
Problems, VII, No. 2 (Fall, 1959), 61.

66Regina M. Goff, "Some Educational Implications of
the Influence of Rejection on Aspiration Levels of Minority

Group Children," Journal of Egperimental Education, XXIII
(1954), 181-82.

67Rosalind Gould, "Some Sociological Determinants
of Goal Striving," Journal of Social Psychology, XIII
(1941), 461—73.

46
training or secretarial courses in spite of the great
demand for persons with such training.

Blalock pointed out that after several Blacks have
been placed in jobs of this vicious circle, these young
people may serve as models to motivate other Blacks who
may be encouraged by the fact that other groups have taken
similar positions.69

Young, in testimony before a Congressional Committee,
observed that:

People are moved by example, not exhortation. There-
fore, some Negroes now study political science because
of Ralph Bunche and some Negroes aspire to baseball
because of Jackie Robinson, and a Negro like Sidney
Poitier can win an Oscar once he's given the chance

to act.70

The future will undoubtedly see increasing numbers
of blacks providing examples of achievement in various
fields. Until then, helping the black youth become aware
of new opportunities that now exist and those that will be
opened to him by the time he completes his education, to a
large extent, will be the challenge of the school programs.

The studies mentioned would seem to indicate that until

such psychological differentiation no longer exists,

 

68Hubert M. Blalock, Jr., "Educational Achievement
and Job Opportunities," Journal of Negro Education, XXVII,
No. 4 (Fall, 1958), p. 32.

Gglbid.

7oWhitney M. Young, Executive Director, National
Urban League, "The Washington Post" (April 14, 1964), p. l

47

school programs must be adopted to meet the specific needs
of black youth in a time of expanding job opportunity.
Drucker stated that a two-pronged effort is
needed:
(1) Immediate mass production and craft jobs for
Blacks, and (2) a massive effort to find, identify,
develop, and place the largest number of black
”knowledge workers" as early as possible.71
This kind of effort would include working with both boys
and girls at the elementary grade levels, helping the
youngest explore careers and making plans for their careers
and exposing them to opportunities and acceptable models
within the communities. Kievit felt that,
In a society where employment opportunities and
vocational education for the widest range of occu-
pations has been preferentially granted to white males,
will these opportunities be extended to all, irre-
spective of sex, race, or ethnicity and with sufficient
ingenuity and perserverance to make equal opportunity
in fact prevail.72
According to Britts, all youth have problems of
growth and development. The challenge lies in channeling
their energy and enthusiasm toward things leading to
responsible citizenship. This can be done if counselors
and educators are willing to serve three basic needs:
(1) A general public change in certain modes of

thinking concerning minority youth in this day of
enlightenment,

 

71Peter F. Drucker, The A e of Discontinuity_(New
York: Harper and Row, 1968), p. 3.

72Mary Bach Kievit, "Social Issues Confronting

Vocational Education," American Vocational Journal,
XXXVI, No. 9 (1971), 15-I7.

48

(2) A stronger emphasis on vocational skills for those
who can benefit from them, and
(3) Some straight thinking concerning the social aspect
of our society, with appropriate changes.
Blacks and Vocational Education
There have been some very interesting discussions
about vocational education and the black race since the
Civil War, and especially the establishment of normal
schools for black students. Wirth pointed out that there
were very few vocational programs for blacks in the North
during this period, while in the South, there were some
vocational schools supported by philantropic groups. He
stated that the intention in the South was to discourage
'Blacks from seeking city or industrial jobs and to
encourage them to return to the farms. "This field was

74 The boys

free from competition and from face feeling."
were taught skills like blacksmithing, carpentry, and shoe
repair skills that were needed on the farm. The girls were
taught things useful for housekeeping: skills like laundry
work, cooking, and sewing.

The black normal or vocational school philosophy

was emphasized: with a strong emphasis on "uplift and

 

73Maurice W. Britts, "Minority Children: Forgotten
Youth in Counseling," The Clearing House, XXXVIII, No. 9
(May, 1964), 548-51.

74Arthur G. Wirth, Education in the Technological
Society (San Francisco, Calif.: Intext Educational
s ers, 1972), p. 62.

49

enlightenment."7S The Mitchell Committee Report stated

that schools were:
To train them to be intelligent, faithful, trustworthy;
to instill in them right moral principles, to teach
them dignity of labor; to encourage them to buy homes
and farms and to become good and desirable neighbors
and citizens.76
The idea was to make Blacks useful and dependable workers
who would be satisfied working on the farms and away from
city life. The Mitchell Report warned the schools that
such an idea was not viable, that technology was already
beginning to change agricultural practices and would
eliminate a large group of rural workers.

Many of the black normal schools were handicapped
by a lack of finances and were unable to teach the skills
necessary for most of the work that was available.
Tuskegee and Hampton Institute were forerunners in the
development of programs for black students in terms of
skills and trades. The institution's philosophy was:

While thus hampered they still must aim to give a good
training in industrial work, for in practically all
trades the regular apprenticeship is not open to the
Negro youth, so if a school starts a boy (or girl) in

a trade it must give sufficient training to enable him

to compete with the man who has served an apprentice-
ship.7

 

75These schools were developed to teach black
students trades, that would make them useful members in
the society.

760.8. Commission of Labor, Seventh Annual Re ort
(Washington, D.C.: Government Printing OffIce, I902I.
77

Wirth, gp, cit., p. 64.

50

After World War I, and during the depression era of
the early twenties, blacks had to give way to whites in
competition for jobs or run the risk of race riots. Dis-
crimination was experienced from the moment that black men
were freed from slavery. Wirth pointed out that "the
industrial workers of the North were confronted constantly
by new sources of cheap labor: children, women, immigrants,

and blacks."78

The black man had the special problem of
being visible in the struggle for survival.

Ovington points out that in the competitive urban
situation the status of the black man is the worse. Black
people are concentrated mostly in domestic services. But,
there are large numbers of blacks in the catering and
restaurant business within their own communities. Ovington
found that the unions, which were a boom for white workers,
had become an agency to force blacks out of work: he stated
that:

If they are the only available source of labor, colored
men can work by the side of white men; but where the
white man strongly dominates the labor situation, he
tries to push his black brother into the jobs for which
he does not care to compete.79

It was also pointed out in the Ovington findings,
that in the early 1900s blacks made tremendous gains in

certain occupations such as: physicians, dentists, lawyers,

 

781bid.

79Mary White Ovington, Half a Man: The Status of
the Negro in New York (New York: Longmans, 19III, p. I09.

51

actors, musicians, and ministers. In a poignant observation,
Ovington pointed out that blacks had been notably successful
in one business venture. "The Negroes of the city die in
great numbers, and the funeral is all too common a

function."80

The wealthiest Black in New York City was an
undertaker.

Blacks have made tremendous gains in vocational
education and the world of work since being freed from
slavery. Ovington in his conclusion stated that: "no
group of men in America have opposed his progress more
persistently than skilled mechanics, and should he graduate
from some school of technology, he would be refused in
office or workshop."81

Women do not want to do household chores anymore
because they are the most devalued jobs in the world of
work. Domestic work carries no status. The same is true
regarding the refusal of blacks to do domestic work. No
one wants to do it. Neither does the black man want to do
unskilled and low level jobs anymore. Low level jobs carry
no status, and the black man regards these jobs as demeaning
and low prestige within his communities. It appears
reasonable to assume, that black people have devalued

vocational education primarily because of past and present

experiences in the world of work.

 

80 81

Ibid., p. 113. Ibid., p. 112.

52

W

This chapter has presented a review of the related
literature pertinent to the problem being studied. Very
few studies were found involving the perception of black
high school students toward vocational education. However,
a review of related literature on occupational education of
Blacks and studies that apply to this research survey were
presented with specific content areas outlined. These are:
(1) literature providing a theoretical framework, (2)
studies of socio-economic background, (3) educational and
occupational aspiration of the students, and (4) an over-
view of Blacks and vocational education.

First, the literature providing a theoretical
framework was discussed. The literature revealed that the
individual's perception is enhanced by how others perceive
him: Additional factors in the development of perceptions
are the prevailing attitudes and values held by the social
groups to which the individual belongs or associates. It
was pointed out that among the persons with whom one
interacts, some persons and groups will have greater
influence on the individual than others. These studies
were important because they pointed out the individual's
relationship to his environment and how attitudes toward
society may have developed.

Second, studies relating to socio—economic status

were reviewed. It was discovered that black high school

53

students, particularly those from families of the upper or

middle social classes generally chose definite professional

jobs. Studies also indicate that one of the most closely
related factors affecting blacks socio-economic status is
education. The more education an individual has the better
are his chances for occupying a more favorable status in
present day society. It appears that parents, schools, and
other forces in society are doing a good job of encouraging
bright students to take advantage of the opportunities
available to them. In contrast, it appears that too little
time and attention is directed toward the less academically
able and non-college bound students.

Third, the educational and occupational aspiration
studies were discussed. It was revealed that a student's
level of aspirations is formed around his social environ-
ment. It was also revealed that students will have higher
aspirations when the community aspires to higher goals and
values. In many instances student's aspirations can be
reinforced when parents, teachers, and close friends
encourage high goals and status for the students within
the community. Also, the literature pointed out that the
level of student choice was out of proportion to the
opportunities available to them in certain fields. In
addition, significant relationship existed between the
level of aspiration of student's and parent's educational

level.

54

Finally, the literature to be reviewed and
discussed in this chapter was that which pertained to

Blacks and vocational education. It was noted that after

WOrld War I, black normal schools were established in the
South to teach black students vocational skills that were
useful to them on the farm. After agriculture became
mechanized, the black workers began to migrate to the North
to seek employment. It was revealed that because of the
unskilled hands among black people they were concentrated
mostly in domestic services and unskilled jobs. Also, when
they were trained for a skilled job, obtaining employment
was difficult because of segregation policies of the
unions.

In summarizing, a thorough review of the literature
disclosed no research that focused directly on the per-
ceptions of black high school students toward vocational
and technical education programs. There appears to be a
void in the literature relating to attitudes toward
vocational education except in some very specific and
specialized fields. The reviews included in this study
were felt to be important because they provided a basis
from which questions relating to student's attitudes and
perceptions were developed, and provided background

knowledge of variables used in the study.

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURE USED

IN THE STUDY

This chapter discusses the procedures followed in
the conduct of the study and were as follows: (1) data
collection, (2) data processing, and (3) analysis and

interpretation of the data.

Procedure for Data Collection
This section of the study described the data
collection procedures as follows: (1) the population used
in the study, (2) sample selection, (3) instruments used in

the study, and (4) data collection.

The Po ulation Used in
{He Study

The population for this study was limited to black
high school students enrolled in four selected Michigan
high schools who met the following criteria; (1) were
eleventh and twelfth grade students enrolled in a regular

high school program, (2) had not repeated grades or

55

I

56

withdrawn and reentered, and (3) were not enrolled in
special education classes.

The four schools selected for use in the study were
integrated high schools in the metropolitan areas of lower

Michigan (Flint, Lansing, and Muskegon).

Selection of Sampig

Involved in this research survey was the drawing of
a random stratified sample of 203 public high school
students from the four public high schools selected for the
study. The rationale for the random sample was derived from
Stephan and McCarthy1 and sample size by Mace.2 Each high
school in Michigan is classified by the Michigan Education
Association as either A, B, C, or D type, according to the

number of students enrolled.

All four schools were classified as Class A. The
students were then grouped into stratas in each school
under vocational and non-vocational. A random sample
representing 50 students from each school was then drawn
(25 vocational and 25 non-vocational). This design enabled
reliable descriptive statistical comparisons to be made for

each of the categories involved in the research.

 

1E. S. Stephan and P. J. McCarthy, Sam lin
Qpinions (New York: John Wiley, 1958), pp. ICE-I8.

2Arthur E. Mace, Sam lin -Size Determination (New
York: Reinhold Publishing Co., , pp. - .

57

Instruments Used in the Study

The following instruments were used in this study:

(1) perception scale, (2) educational aspiration scale,

and (3) occupational aspiration scale, and will be discussed

as follows.

Perception Instrument.--The principle measuring

instrument used in this study was the perception scale.

To determine questions that might be relevant to students'

perceptions, the following procedures were carried out in

developing the instrument:

1.

Major categories of questions were designed.

Questions were solicited through day-to-day contact

with the students, a discussion session (small group

and on a one-to-one basis) during an internship

with the Lansing, Michigan public schools.

These questions were grouped under the major
category (attitude, jobs, employment, and environ-

ment).

The guidance committee (as a group and individually)
provided constructive criticism and suggestions_
throughout the development and perfection of the

instrument.

Doctoral students in vocational and technical edu-

cation at Michigan State University (registered for

58

research writing during the Spring Term, 1972)
reviewed the instrument and provided suggestions

for refinement.

5. Professional staff of the College of Urban Develop-
ment at Michigan State University, and members of
the Lansing School District reviewed the instrument
and made suggestions from their respective vantage

points.

6. The instrument was administered to a pilot group of
forty students from the population (not used in the
sample).

The criteria which were summarized by Edwards,3
Carter,4 and Remmers,5 for the editing of statements to be
used in construction of attitudes scales were applied in
the development of these items.

A pre-test of the questionnaire including each of
the scales previously discussed, was conducted with a
related group of students from Lansing public schools
system, Lansing, Michigan. The objectives of the pre-test

were: (1) to determine if high school students, on a

 

3A. L. Edwards, Tschnigues of Attitude Scale
Construction (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, I957),

PP- 51'155-

4A. D. Carter, "Development of Vocational Atti-
tudes,” Journal of Consultant Psychology, V (1940), 185.

5H. H. Remmers, Introductiog to Opinion Attitude
Measurement (New York: Harper andBrothers,l9545, p. 52.

59

limited basis, understood the terminology and intent of each
statement presented in the questionnaire, (2) to determine
the clarity of wording, and (3) to obtain suggestions
relating to modifications, deletions, and additions needed
in the questionnaire.

The structured questions were dichotomous and
multiple choice. Some open-ended questions were used for
collecting information that forced answers might not
provide. The responses received from the pre-test resulted
in revisions being made and the instrument developed in the

final form.

Educational Aspiration Scale.-—The level of edu-

cational aspiration scale is one developed by Morse: two
items were designed to measure levels of educational
aspiration, one to measure "preference” levels, and one to
measure “expectation” levels.6 Responses to the latter
question provided the measure of level of educational
aspiration for this investigation.

The test-retest reliability of level of educational
aspiration was calculated for a random sample of fifty-
eight tenth-grade boys. The correlation was .68 for the

tests administered six months apart. In view of known

 

6Richard J. Morse, ”Socio-Economic Status and
Functioning in School: A Symbolic Interactionist Interpre-
tation” (Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State
University, 1966), p. 83.

60

fluctuation in level of educational aspiration, it was
concluded that the measure employed in this investigation

was reasonably consistent and adequate.

Qgggpational Aspiration Scale.--The occupational
aspiration scale used in this study was a modification of
a similar scale developed by Duncan. It is designed, not
as an absolute measure of level of occupational aspiration,
but only as a measure of differential level of occupational

aspiration.7

Data Collection

The data collection phase of the study was
conducted during the first week of school; Fall, 1972.
This was done to assure that no students had a chance to
attend any vocational courses before the instrument was
administered. The questionnaires were administered by the
researcher and the students were given detailed instructions
concerning its purpose and how to complete the instrument.
The written instruction sheet was read aloud and explained.
They all worked steadily until completion and then returned

their questionnaire forms to the researchers.

Data Processing_and Classification
This section of the chapter deals with procedures
for coding and classifying data that will provide the

basis for answering the questions presented for the study.

 

7Duncan, loc. cit

61

The data were classified by: (1) educational aspiration
levels, (2) occupational aspiration levels, (3) socio-

economic status, and (4) factor analysis.

Educational Aspiration Levels

The level of educational aspirations were determined
from responses to items 12 and 13 of the questionnaire.
The data obtained by the educational aspiration scale
were coded and prepared to facilitate transfer to punch
cards. Responses were coded from a high of 7 to a low of l
on the educational items. The educational level of both
parents was determined through responses to items 10 and
21 of the instrument. The parents data were coded similarly

to the students (Appendix B).

Occppational Aspiration Level

The levels of occupational aspirations and expec-
tations were scored and coded using the Duncan scale for
socio-economic index for all occupations. In addition,
each question was coded according to a nominal scale
corresponding to that used for data collected for edu-

cational aspirations (Appendix B).

Socio-Economic Status

The socio-economic status of the family was
measured on the basis of the father's (or head of house-
hold) occupation. The occupational levels of the parents

were determined from responses to items 8 and 9.

62

Occupations indicated by the subjects were assigned socio-
economic rating from the Duncan socio-economic index for
all occupations. However, if the occupations were not
clearly specified then the response to the second item was
used to determine the appropriate occupational title.
Occupations not included in the Duncan Index were assigned
ratings on the basis of their similarity to occupations
that were included. The Duncan Index is the most careful
and elaborate classification of occupation by socio-
economic rank known to this writer and therefore, was felt
to be most appropriate for this study. It makes possible
the converting of occupation into an index of socio-
economic status.

The occupations were broken down into socio-
economic status for all occupations. Then they were
grouped into five major categories, from high to low
socio-economic status; with an interval of twenty within
categories. On the basis of information stated, it was
concluded that the use of the scale in this investigation

was tenable.

Factor Analysis

The responses to the fifty-three perception items
were submdtted to a principal components analysis with
varimax rotation, using the Stat program CDC 6500 Computer.
This served to identify factors to be considered for

assessment in the main study and to select items to be

63

used in measuring each factor. The analysis was completed
on all 203 subjects as one group, because the derived
factors would be unreliable since the four schools had such
small numbers. Inspection of the results indicated that
there were two clearly identifiable factors, each with
several items with significant loading.

A scoring system for the perception factor was
established by inspecting the factor loading for the most
promising items in each and selecting items which had (1)
relatively high loading (.42 and above) on the factor in
question, and (2) those which had some commonality with
the factor. Items which best met these two conditions were
scored.

Factor scores were computed for each of these two
factor scales by assigning each item a value from one to
four. A score of 1 indicated strong disagreement with the
statement: 2, disagreement; 3, agreement; and 4, strong
agreement. The item values (the response marked by each
student) for each of the items to be scored for a specific
factor were summed to give a scale score and this procedure
was used for factor 1 and 2. Thus, the higher the score
the more the respondent agreed with the items reflected by
the factors. The factor items with significant loadings

were:

64

Factor l.--General attitude toward vocational
education. Following are examples of items related to
perceptions: "training for a career in vocational edu-
cation is not worth the time and effort required," "A
college education is more important than vocational edu-

cation."

Factor 2.--Attitudes toward employment. Following
are examples of items related to this factor: "Blacks can
easily get any job for which he is trained," "Jobs are
hard to get for Blacks who finish vocational programs."

The scale for these items is found in AppendixIA.

An intercorrelation matrix for all 203 subjects was
computed to identify significant interrelationships among
the variables. Mean, standard deviation, and K-R relia-

bilities were computed for each of the variables.

Procedures for Analyzing and
Interpret ES. e Data
This section of the chapter will discuss procedures
for analyzing and interpreting the data as follows: (1)

purposes to be analyzed, (2) hypotheses to be tested, and

(3) statistical analysis of the hypotheses.

Purposes to be Analyzed
The design of this study may be called descriptive
as well as theory testing. This study was primarily

concerned with the analysis of the relationships of various

65

construct measures drawn from the population. The primary

purposes are:

1.

To determine if community acceptance influences the

student's perceptions.

To determine how the black student views vocational

education.

The chi-square test was used to assess the sta-

tistical significance of the data. This is a test to

determine whether the results of the data differ signifi-

cantly from indifference or chance.

Hypotheses

The secondary purposes were to test the hypotheses.

The hypotheses to be tested were restated in the null form

to facilitate acceptance or rejection. The hypotheses are:

3.

There is no relationship between black high school
students enrolled in a vocational program and black
high school students not enrolled in a vocational
program as to their perceptions toward vocational

education.

There is no relationship between socio-economic
status and the perceptions of vocational education

held by black high school students.

There is no relationship between educational
aspiration and the perceptions of vocational

education held by black high school students.

66

6. There is no relationship between occupational
aspiration and the perception of vocational edu-

cation held by black high school students.

7. The perceptions of black high school students
toward vocational education will differ on the
basis of sex.
Statistical Analysis of
Mpotheses

The general program used for the analysis of per-
ception scores was a univariate analysis of variance. This
analysis is generally considered to include those sta-
tistical procedures concerned with analyzing measurements
which have been made on a number of individuals. Analysis
of univariate has the effect of adjusting the means for un-
controlled variables and making the necessary modification
in sampling error. This corrected sampling error is then
used to test for the significance of differences among
adjusted means. The assumptions to be met in univariate
analysis required that the observation be independently
drawn, from normal treatment populations each having the
same variance, and with error components independent across
all pairs of observations. The assumptions associated with
normal distribution and independence were met in terms of
the study design which included random assignment of
subjects to groups and random assignment of treatment to

groups. Test for homogeneous variances are extremely

67

sensitive to any departure from normality in this POPU-
lation, and modern opinion holds that analysis of the
nature can and should be carried on without a preliminary
test of variance.8

This particular computer program is the one

developed by Finn.9

The advantage of this type of program
is that it allows for the analysis of more than one
dependent variable at the same time, as well as incorpo-
ration of a univariable. In this study, the dependent
variables used were the perception scores derived from the
two major factor scales. The portion of the data analyzed
by content analysis was subjected to a test of significance
of the means of the raw scores obtained on the responses to

the factor scales of vocational versus non-vocational

students toward vocational education.

The hypotheses guiding this study are so stated
that actual tests of them will be made by univariate
analysis, done by appropriate programming and computations
by the Control Data Corporation 3600 Computer used by the
Michigan State University Computer Laboratory. The two
dependent variables in the perception test are the factor

scores 1 and 2; the factor scale score compared with the

 

8William L. Hays, Statistics (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, Inc., I963I, p. 381.
9

Jeremy D. Finn, Multivariance: Fortran Program
for Univariate and Multivariate AnaI sis of Variance and
Covariance (Buffan: Department 0 Educational PsycfioIogy,
State UnIversity of New York at Buffalo, 1967).

68

independent variables. Since the hypotheses used in this
study allows one to predict the direction of the relation-
ship, a univariance test of the significance of the
relationship may be applied. The "F" test of significance
is used in each case to test the null hypothesis of no
relationship between the variables. The .05 probability
level will be the criterion used for the acceptance or

rejection of the null hypotheses.

Summary

This chapter on methodological procedures used in
the study included data collection, data processing, and
data interpretation.

The first part of the chapter discussed four major
sections. They are: (1) population studied, (2) the
selection of the sample, (3) instruments used in the study,
and (4) data collection.

The second part of the chapter discussed the
following procedure for data processing: (1) analysis of
educational aspirations, (2) analysis of occupational
aspirations, (3) analysis of socio-economic status, and
(4) analysis through factor analysis.

Finally, the procedures for analyzing and interpret-
ing the data were described in detail. The chi-square test

and the univariate analysis of variance were described.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA AND PRESENTATION

OF FINDINGS

The major purpose of this study was to assess the

perceptions of black high school students of vocational

education. The preceding chapter described the procedures

for data collection, processing and analysis, and interpre-

tation of the data. This chapter will provide an analysis

and presentation of these data as follows:

1.

A descriptive analysis of variables relating to
the attitudes of vocational and non-vocational

students,

perceptions of Black students of vocational edu-

cation,
tests of stated hypotheses, and

a summary of the analysis.

69

70
Descriptive Analysis of VariableszelatingAto
Vocational and Non-Vocational Students

This section of the chapter provides a description
of vocational and non-vocational students. The data
collected and presented in this section were intended
to provide background information that would provide a
basis for a better understanding of the data presented
in the remainder of the chapter. This section discusses
(1) student and family characteristics, (2) student
educational and occupational aspirations, and (3) analysis

of aspirations and expectations.

Student and Family Characteristics
This section presents a description of the student
and his family. Selected variables peculiar to the
students, their homes, and their communities may influence

the perceptions of the students toward vocational education.

Student Background

The sampling techniques used for this study assured
a relatively equal distribution of students by sex and
number of students enrolled as vocational and non-vocational
students. There were only minor differences between the
mean ages for the two groups of students. However, there
were significant differences in the mean grade point
average between the vocational and non-vocational students

(Table l) .

71

Table l.--The Average Age and Grade Point of Respondents.

 

 

 

Group Age Grade Point Average*
Non-Vocational 16.57 3.59
Vocational 16.62 3.14

.2
*ch1= 21.07 D.F. 4 p < .01

It would appear from the Grade Point Average that
the non-vocational students were better prepared academi-
cally than the vocational students. Non-vocational
students appeared to have fewer difficulties in getting
into college or other professional schools than vocational
students. Non-vocational students may not enroll in

vocational education because of their academic record.

FamilygBackground

An examination of Table 2 will show that 77.4 per
cent of fathers of non-vocational students had high school
completion or less, as compared with 82.2 per cent of
fathers of vocational students. A further examination of
Table 2 will reveal that 78.4 per cent of the mothers on
non-vocational students had high school completion or less,
as compared with 88.0 per cent of mothers of vocational
students.

Other interesting information may be gathered from

a thorough analysis of these data. However, it was assumed

72

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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73

that the above data were of particular significance since
it shows a considerable difference between the educational
level of the parents and the educational aspirations of the

students as discussed in a later section of the study.

As can be seen in Table 3, there appeared to be no
significant differences between the vocational and non-
vocational students' parents regarding their socio-economic
status. Most of the students' parents fell into the lowest
two categories, with 51 per cent falling into category 1
as compared to 2.9 per cent of the total group in category
5. The non-vocational students' parents had a slightly
higher mean score than did the vocational students' parents.
This information was felt to be important because it reveals
a considerable difference between the parents' socio-
economic status and the student's educational and occu-

pational aspirations as discussed later in this section.

Students' Aspirations
This section will discuss the aspirations of both
groups of students as they relate to their educational and

occupational aspirations.

Educational aspirations.--Table 4 provides a

description of the educational aspirations for both groups
I
of students. A smaller percentage (5.9%) of the non-

vocational students aspired only to graduate from high

74

Table 3.--Socio-Economic Status of Respondents' Parents.

 

Socio-Economic Status

 

 

 

 

Levels Non-Vocational Vocational Total
No. % No. % No. %
Low 1 49 48.0 55 54.5 104 51.2
Low 2 28 27.5 26 25.7 54 26.6
Middle 3 17 16.7 10 9.9 27 13.3
High 4 7 6.9 5 4.9 12 5.9
High 5 l .9 5 4.9 6 2.9
Mean 1.85 1.80 1.83

 

school as compared with 19.8 per cent of the vocational
students.

A higher percentage of the non-vocational students
aspired to graduate from college (44.1%) and to do graduate
work (32.4%) than did vocational students, among whom only
28.7 per cent aspired to graduate from college and 20.8 per

cent wanted to do graduate work.

Occupational aspirations.--The results presented
in Table 5, shows occupational aspirations for both groups
of students. There was a smaller percentage of the non-
vocational students who selected skilled labor (.9%) and
personal services (9.8%) than did vocational students,
11.9 per cent of whom selected skilled labor jobs and

11.9 per cent personal services type work. Also, a smaller

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76

 

 

 

 

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77

percentage (11.8%) of the non-vocational students chose
clerical jobs as compared with 24.8 per cent of the
vocational students. There was a higher percentage
(63.7%) of the non-vocational students who selected
professional jobs when compared with 30.7 per cent of
the vocational students.

A Com arative Apalysis of

Aspiration and Expectations

The results presented in Table 6 were the mean and
standard deviations for vocational and non-vocational
students on the items dealing with vocational expectations
and aspirations. The educational aspiration level for
vocational students had a mean of 5.06, compared to a mean
of 5.93 for non-vocational students. The educational
expectation levels were indicated by a mean of 4.87 for
vocational students as compared to a mean score of 5.54 for
the non-vocational students. On the basis of the data it
would appear that non-vocational students had a higher
level of aspiration and expectations than vocational
students.

Vocational students had an occupational aspiration
mean score of 5.94 as compared to a mean score of 7.66 for
non-vocational students. Occupational expectation level
for vocational students had a mean score of 4.92 as compared
to non-vocational students with a mean score of 6.94. On

the basis of the data it would appear that non-vocational

78

Table 6.--Vocational and Non-VOcational Students Expectations.

 

 

 

 

Vocational Non-Vbcational
Name
Standard Standard

Freq. Mean* Deviation Freq. Mean* Deviation
Educational
Aspiration 102 5.059 1.547 101 5.931 1.089
Educational
Expectation 102 4.873 1.419 101 5.545 1.153
Occupational
Aspiration 102 5.941 2.556 101 7.663 2.001
Occupational
Freedom 101 5.782 2.540 101 7.604 2.000
Occupational
Expectation 101 4.921 2.440 100 6.940 2.373
Occupational
Certain 101 3.624 1.038 101 3.723 .873

 

*Mean scores relate to aspirations in Tables 4 and 5.

79

students had a higher level of aspiration and expectations
than vocational students.

Using nine major occupational categories, the
question was asked, "If you were free to select any occu-
pation, what job would you select?" Vocational students
had a mean score of 5.78 as compared to non-vocational
students with a mean score of 7.60. After the individual
student had responded to questions relating to occupational
expectations, he was asked “How certain are you that this
is the type of job you will have most of your life?” The
responses ranged from 1 through 5/very certain to very un-
certain: the mean score for vocational students was 3.62
while the mean score for non-vocational students was 3.72.
An examination of the mean scores will reveal that students
appear to have a fairly realistic attitude relative to job

expectations.

Table 7 presents a simple correlation matrix for
the five input variables (educational aspirations, edu-
cational expectation, occupational aspiration, occupational
expectations, and occupational certainty). A positive
correlation means that students obtaining high scores on
one variable tend to obtain high scores on a second vari-
able, or students scoring low on one variable tends to
score low on a second variable. A negative correlation
means that students scoring low on one variable tend to

score high on a second variable, or the reverse.

80

 

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81

Both groups of students had a high positive corre-
lation (vocational .856 and non-vocational .747) between
educational aspirations and expectations. The two groups
had a relatively high positive correlation (vocational .569
and non-vocational .495) between occupational aspirations
and expectations. The groups were not certain about the
occupations they aspired to. The vocational students
obtained a negative correlation of -.098 and non-vocational

students had a correlation of .020.

Perceptions of Black Students Toward
Vocational Education

The purpose of this section was to establish
relationships between vocational and non-vocational
students' perceptions of vocational education. The specific
purposes to be tested were stated earlier in Chapter III.
Briefly, the purposes are: (l) to determine if community
acceptance influences student perceptions of vocational edu-
cation, and (2) to determine how black students view
vocational education.

The chi-square test was used to determine whether
any significant differences existed between the perceptions
of vocational and non-vocational students toward vocational
education.

Purpose 1. To determine if community acceptance
influencing student perception of
vocational education.

No significant differences were found between the

vocational and non-vocational students on "what the

82

community thinks about vocational education." However, it
appears that both groups feel that the community has a
high opinion of vocational education (Table 8).

Table 8.--Item 7: Most of the People in My Community Do Not Think
Much of Vocational Education.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Strongly Strongly

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

(N) (%) (N) (%) (N) (%) (N) (%)

Non-VOcational 11 10.8 27 26.5 57 55.9 7 6.9
VOcational 11 11.0 21 21.0 50 50.0 18 18.0
Total 22 10.9 48 23.8 107 52.9 25 12.4

2
Chi= 2.72 D.F. l p > .05

Purpose II: To determine how black students view

vocational education.

This purpose examined several items about the
attitudes of black students toward vocation. Significant
differences were found between vocational and non-vocational
students on the importance of white and blue collar jobs.
Sixty-eight per cent of the non-vocational students agreed
that white collar jobs are better than blue collar jobs
as compared to 50 per cent of the vocational students.
Thirty-one per cent of the non-vocational students disagreed
as compared to 49 per cent of the vocational students.
Non-vocational students seem to support the theory that

white collar jobs are better than blue collar jobs.

83

It appears vocational students do not support this idea

(Table 9).

Table 9.--Item 8: White Collar Jobs Are Better Than Blue Collar Jobs.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Strongly Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
(N) (%) (N) (%) (N) (%I (N) (%)
Non-VOcational 26 25.7 43 42.6 25 24.8 7 6.9
Vbcational 18 17.8 33 32.7 37 36.6 13 12.9
Total 44 21.8 76 37.6 62 30.7 20 9.9
2
Chi= 6.70 D.F. 1 p < .05

No significant differences were found between
vocational and non-vocational students in their attitude
about the working conditions of vocational students.
However, it appears that neither group consider the working

conditions for vocational students to be bad (Table 10).

Significant differences were found between
vocational and non-vocational students on whether more
black students should be encouraged to enroll in vocational
programs in high school. Sixty-seven per cent of the non-
vocational students agreed with the statement while 81 per
cent of the vocational students agreed. Thirty-two per
cent of the non-vocational students disagreed while 19

per cent of the vocational students disagreed. Vocational

84

Table lO.--Item 10: The Working Conditions Are Too Bad for Vocational
Students, Most of Them Work in Unfavorable Weather and Wear
Dirty-Ragged Clothes.

 

 

 

 

 

Strongly Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
(N) (%) (N) (%) (N) (%) (N) (%)
Non-VOcational 6 5.9 14 13.9 67 66.3 14 13.9
Vocational 10 9.9 13 12.9 49 48.5 29 28.7
Total 16 7.9 27 13.4 116 57.4 43 21.3
2
Chi= 4.34 D.F. l p > .05

students were more willing to see vocational education

encouraged among black high school students than were non-

vocational students (Table 11).

Table ll.--Item 26: I Would Like to See Vocational Education
Encouraged More Among Black High School Students.

 

 

 

 

 

Strongly Strongly

Agree Agree Disagree Disagree

(N) (8) (N) (%) (N) (%) (N) (%)

Non-vocational 18 17.0 51 50.0 25 24.5 8 7.8
Vbcational 22 21.8 60 59.4 18 17.8 2 1.8
Total 40 19.7 111 54.7 43 21.2 10 4.4

 

Chi= 4.50 D.F. 1 p< .os

85

Significant differences were found between how the
parents of vocational and non-vocational students felt about
their children attending college. Eighty-six per cent of
the non-vocational students and 79 per cent of the
vocational students agreed that their parents wanted them
to attend college. Thirteen per cent of the non-vocational
students disagreed and 21 per cent of the vocational
students disagreed. The data would suggest that the non-
vocational students have a strong feeling that these
parents want them to attend college. The vocational
students also feel that their parents want them to attend
college but not to the same degree as the parents of non-

vocational students (Table 12).

Table 12.--Item 42: My Parents Want Me to Go to College.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Strongly . Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
(N) (%) (N) (%) (N) (%) (N) (%)
Non-Vbcational 53 51.9 35 34.3 10 9.8 4 3.9
VOcational 33 32.7 46 45.5 15 14.8 7 6.9
Total 86 42.4 81 39.9 25 12.3 11 5.4
2
Chi= 6.00 D.F. = l p < .02

Significant differences were found between
vocational and non-vocational students on whether teaching

blacks a practical trade is a device used by the white man

86

to keep Blacks down. Fifty-six per cent of the non-
vocational students agreed that vocational training is a
device to keep Blacks down compared to 41 per cent of the
vocational students who shared these feelings. On this
same issue, 42 per cent of the non-vocational students
disagreed compared to 58 per cent of the vocational
students. It would appear that the non-vocational students
felt that teaching black students a practical skill is a
way for the white man to lock blacks in certain jobs.
Vocational students do not appear to support this position

(Table 13) .

Table 13.--Item 52: Teaching Blacks a Practical Trade is Another Way
for the White Man to Keep the Blacks Down.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Strongly Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
(N) (‘3) (N) (‘3) (N) (’3) (N) ('3)
Non-Vbcational 25 24.5 33 32.4 33 32.4 11 10.8
Vbcational 12 11.9 30 29.7 43 42.6 16 15.8
Total 37 18.2 63 31.0 76 37.4 27 13.3
2
Chi= 4.50 D.F. = l p < .05

Tests of the Stated Hypotheses
The secondary purposes of the study were to test
for differences between five independent variables and the

dependent variable perceptions of vocational education of

87

the respondents. The perceptions of the respondents were
measured by two major factor scales 1 and 2 discussed
earlier in Chapter III. A univariate one-way analysis of
variance test for significance was done separately on each
factor scale. Factor I scale is Attitudes Toward Vocational

Education and Factor II scale is Attitude Toward Employment.

The hypotheses were restated below in the null form
for statistical testing. The univariate analysis of vari-
ance was used to test the hypotheses for significance at

the .05 level.

Reliability of Instrument

The reliability for these scales were determined
through a Hoyt analysis of variance of the attitudinal

instrument. .These scores are given as follows:

Factor I Items r = .53

Factor II Items r = .62

Hypothesis 1
H1: There is no relationship between the perceptions
of black high school students enrolled in a

vocational program and the non-enrollees of
vocational education.

A univariate analysis of variance comparing the
mean scores for the non-vocational group with the mean

scores of the vocational group on Factor I: Attitude

88

Toward Vocational Education. The analysis yielded an
F-Ratio of 9.336 with a probability less than 0.003.
On the basis of the findings presented in Table 14,
the null hypothesis was rejected.
Table l4.--Factor I General Attitude Toward Vocational
Education (Univariate Analysis of Variance

Comparing the Mean Scores of the Non-Vocational
and Vocational Groups of the Respondents).

 

 

Source of Degrees of Mean Univariate p Less

Variation Freedom Squares F Than
Between Groups 1 87.584 9.336 0.003
Within Groups 188 9.38

Total 189 96.964

 

D.F. change because of unequal cell size.

Since the null hypotheses was rejected, the data
were further analyzed by a comparison of mean scores. As
reported in Table 15, the higher mean score of the
vocational students suggests that they have a much more
favorable attitude toward vocational education, than the
non-vocational students.

A univariate analysis of variance comparing
the mean scores for the non-vocational group with the mean

scores of the vocational group on Factor II: Attitude

 

Toward Employment in Vocational Education. The analysis
yielded an F-Ratio of 0.012 and with a probability less
than 0.914.

89

Table 15.--Group Mean of Vocational and Non-Vocational
Student General Attitude Toward Vocational

 

 

 

Education.
Attitude Toward Vocational Education
Groups
Mean Scores
Vocational 25.905
Non-Vocational 24.547

 

On the basis of the findings presented in Table 16,

the null hypothesis was not rejected.

Table l6.--Factor II Attitude Toward Employment in Voca-
tional Education (Univariate Analysis of
Variance Comparing the Mean Scores of the Non-
Vocational and Vocational Groups of the
Respondents).

 

 

Source of Degrees of Mean Univariate p Less
Variation Freedom Squares F Than
Between Groups 1 0.084 0.012 0.914
Within Groups 188 7.237

Total 189 7.321

 

Hypothesis 2

: There is no relationship between socio-economic
status and the perceptions of vocational education
held by black high school students toward
vocational education.

H2

90

The univariate analysis of variance comparing the
mean scores for the five different levels of socio-economic
status on Factor I: Attitude Toward Vocational Education;
yield an F-Ratio of 2.228 with a probability less than
0.068.

On the basis of the findings presented in Table 17,
the null hypothesis was accepted.

Table l7.--Factor I General Attitude Toward Vocational
Education (Univariate Analysis of Variance

Comparing the Mean Scores of the Socio-Economic
Status of the Respondents).

 

 

Source of Degrees of Mean Univariate p Less

Variation Freedom Squares F Than
Between Groups 4 20.258 2.228 0.068
Within Groups 180 9.093

Total 184 29.351

 

The univariate analysis of variance comparing the
mean scores for the five different levels of socio-economic
status on Factor II: Attitude Toward Employment in
Vocational Education, yield an F-Ratio of 0.726 with a
probability less than 0.575.

On the basis of the findings presented in Table 18,
the null hypothesis was not rejected. '

The purpose of this hypothesis was to determine
whether any relationship existed between socio-economic

status and the student's perceptions of vocational education

91

Table 18.--Factor II Attitude Toward Employment in
Vocational Education (Univariate Analysis of
Variance Comparing the Mean Scores of the Socio-
Economic Status of the Respondent).

 

 

Source of Degrees of Mean Univariate p Less

Variation Freedom Squares F Than

Between Groups 4 5.249 0.726 0.575
Within Groups 180 7.229
Total 184 12.478

 

Although differences were postulated to exist for the

groups and not individuals as a whole, there were no

significant differences between mean perception scores and

mean socio-economic status scores.

Hypothesis 3

H3: There is no relationship between educational
aspirations and the perception of vocational
education held by black high school students
toward vocational education.

The univariate analysis of variance comparing the
mean scores for the seven different levels of educational
aspiration on Factor I: Attitude Toward Vocational Edu-
cation, yield an F-Ratio of 1.614 21th a probability less
than 0.146.

On the basis of the findings presented in Table 19,

the null hypothesis was accepted.

.. . r~'.«.s4_=' o0.

I
Mu..."

92

Table l9.--Factor I General Attitude Toward Vocational
Education (Univariate Analysis of Variance
Comparing the Mean Scores of the Educational
Aspiration of the Respondents).

 

 

Source of Degrees of Mean Univariate p Less

Variation Freedom Square F Than
Between Groups 6 14.825 1.614 0.146
Within Groups 178 9.183

Total 184 24.008

 

The univariate analysis of variance comparing the
mean scores for the seven different levels of educational
aspiration on Factor II: Attitude Toward Employment in
Vocational Education, yield an F-Ratio of 0.876 with a
probability less than 0.514.

On the basis of the findings presented in Table 20,

the null hypothesis was accepted.

Table 20.--Factor II Attitude Toward Employment in Voca-
tional Education (Univariate Analysis of
Variance Comparing the Mean Scores of the
Educational Aspiration of the Respondents).

 

 

Source of Degrees of Mean Univariate p Less

Variation Freedom Squares F Than
Between Groups 6 6.259 ' 0.876 0.514
Within Groups 178 7.144

Total 184 13.403

 

93

It was hypothesized that the students' perceptions
of vocational education would differ depending upon his
educational aspiration. However, the mean perception
scores did not differ significantly from the mean scores
for educational aspiration. The basic assumption was that
attitudes toward vocational education would differ,
because of the students' high educational aspiration. This

was not the case for the sample group.

Hypothesis 4
H4: There is no relationship between occupational
aspiration and the perceptions of vocational

education held by black high school students
toward vocational education.

The univariate analysis of variance of mean scores
on Factor I: Attitude Toward Vocational Education for the
nine levels of occupational aspirations, yield an F-Ratio
of 1.363 with a probability less than 0.216.

On the basis of the findings presented in Table 21,
the null hypothesis was accepted.

The univariate analysis of variance of mean scores
on Factor II: Attitudes Toward Employment in Vocational
Education for the nine levels of occupational aspirations,
yield an F-Ratio of 0.891 with a probability less than
0.526.

On the basis of the findings presented in Table 22,

the null hypothesis was accepted.

94

Table 21.--Factor I General Attitude Toward Vocational Edu-
cation (Univariate Analysis of Variance Comparing
the Mean Scores of the Occupational Aspiration
of the Respondents).

 

 

 

Source of Degrees of Mean Univariate p Less
Variation Freedom Squares F Than
I)
Between Groups 8 12.473 1.363 0.216 T'.
Within Groups 173 9.149 I
Total 181 21.722 3
a"

Table 22.--Factor II Attitude Toward Employment in
Vocational Education (Univariate Analysis of
Variance Comparing the Mean Scores of the
Occupational Aspiration of the Respondents).

 

 

Source of Degrees of Mean Univariate p Less
Variation Freedom Squares F Than
Between Groups 8 6.549 0.891 0.526
Within Groups 173 7.403

Total 181 13.952

95

The purpose of this hypothesis was to determine
whether students' perceptions of vocational education
differ depending upon their occupational aspiration.
There were no significant differences between mean
perceptions scores and the mean scores for occupational

aspirations.

Hypothesis 5
H5: The perceptions of black high school students
toward vocational education W111 differ on the
basis of sex.

The univarate fixed effects ANOVA model of vari-
ance comparing the mean scores for males and females on
Factor I: Attitudes Toward Vocational Education, yield an
F-Ratio of 0.439 with a probability less than 0.509.

On the basis of the findings presented in Table 23,
the null hypothesis was accepted.

The univariate fixed effects ANOVA model of vari-
ance comparing the mean scores for males and females on
Factor II: Attitudes Toward Employment in VOcational Edu-
cation, yield an F-Ratio of 1.228 with a probability less
than 0.269.

On the basis of the findings presented in Table 24,
the null hypothesis was accepted.

It was found that there is no significant relation-
ship between males and females in their perceptions of“
vocational education. Males and females tended to view

vocational education the same way.

A». L stn-.fi' ' A .1 .‘n ,I'
. - .\

.\ I
5'

. I...

 

96

Table 23.--Factor I General Attitude Toward Vocational
Education (Univariate Analysis of Variance
Comparing the Mean Scores of the Sex of the
Respondents).

 

 

Source of Degrees of Mean Univariate p Less
Variation Freedom Squares F Than
Between Groups 1 4.100 0.439 0.509
Within Groups 186 9.345

Total 187 13.445

 

Table 24.--Factor II Attitude Toward Employment in
Vocational Education (Univariate Analysis of
Variance Comparing the Mean Scores of the Sex
of the Respondents).

 

 

Source of Degrees of Mean Univariate p Less
Variation Freedom Squares F Than

Between Groups 1 8.911 1.228 0.269
Within Groups 186 7.253

Total 187 16.164

 

97
Open-Ended Statements
The Things 1 Like About
Vocational Education
The total group of students expressed what they
liked most about vocational education which can be
classified into one general category. For the most part,
vocational education can provide an opportunity to train
for a job. This classification can in turn be sub-

classified into two additional areas--training received

while in high school and can help the student advance.

The greatest number of student responses favoring
the program focuses on training while in high school. For
the most part, students regard this to be a boom for career
preparation for the future. It was also recognized that
vocational education can help one get a job without going
to college. It was pointed out that students can learn
more about the profession which they plan on entering.
Students stated that vocational education would aid blacks
in getting into the skilled trades and advance in an
occupation. It would also provide an opportunity for those

who cannot afford college but have good abilities.

The students also felt that a wife variety of
vocational courses could better meet the needs of all
students with varying abilities, including the slow and
exceptionally able, and help students understand others in

a working relationship.

98

 

gy Strongest Objection to
ocationa E ucation

Students' objections to vocational education were
less varied and in smaller volume than were their favorable
comments. Complaints centered around two primary areas:
(1) not enough black students enrolled in the program, and
(2) that it does not prepare one for college.

Some felt that the program makes no provision for
the large numbers of students who would like to take the
courses. The departments and skill centers can only enroll
a certain number of students. A number of students who
were interested were left out. Many felt that this was a
measure to prevent blacks from getting proper education
and learning something worthwhile.

Several responses were made which reflected
negatively about not being able to get a job after
graduation. It was felt that vocational education only
prepared students for one job. There were several students
who stated that they could not get the classes for which
they pre-enrolled. Sections of some vocational courses
were quickly filled and too often the study hall was the
only alternative. Finally, the number of students who
would like to take vocational courses cannot because there

are not enough departments and skill centers.

99

The Things I Like About Vocational Education are:

1.

10.
11.

The practical things one can learn.

It prepares you for a job faster than
college.

One can learn more about the job you
want while enrolled in high school.

It helps you to get a good job without
going to college.

One can learn more about the professions
which you can enter.

It can help black students advance
in a job.

One can earn money while he learns.
Good paying jobs.

It provides an opportunity for those
who cannot afford college but have a
good academic record.

It helps prepare one for the future.

One can learn to be a specialist.

MylStrongest Objection to Vocational Education is:

1.
2.

It does not prepare one for college.

It is used to prevent black students
from getting a better education.

It does not have the right teachers.

It does not have enough black students
enrolled.

There are no jobs available after
finishing.

Total

11

20

26

18

10

18

10

12

14

26

12

100

Total

6. Only a few students can attend skill
centers and departments. 21
7. It prepares you for only one job. 5

Summary

This chapter presented a description and analysis

of the variables related to the attitudes of vocational and

non-vocational students and to their background and family
characteristics. In addition, an analysis was made to
determine the educational and occupational aspirations
levels for both groups of students. An analysis was made
to determine whether differences exist between the
perceptions of vocational and non-vocational students
toward vocational education. Finally, five hypotheses
were tested to determine if differences between the
students' perceptions toward vocational education were
related to five variables: socio-economic status, edu-
cational aspiration, occupational aspiration, vocational
and non-vocational students, and sex. The chapter
concluded with the discussions and interpretations made

from the data.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The primary purpose of this chapter is to review
the nature of the study and present the findings, con-

clusions, and recommendations for additional research.

Summary

The enlargement of existing programs and the
initiation of new ones are taking place each year, with
additional resources being directed toward vocational
education programs. But, on the average, few black
students have enrolled in vocational and technical edu-
cation programs in our public schools. Technology's
increasing need for highly skilled workers has generally
left those without skills in a difficult employment situ-
ation. At the same time, the demand for skilled workers
is not always met, so jobs are unfilled, yet large numbers
of black workers remain unemployed. This study can provide
information about the differing perceptions and attitudes
of students enrolled and those not enrolled in vocational

education. Given the scarcity of research and literature

101

102

on this subject, it is hoped that this investigation will

provide new directions for additional research.

The Purpose of the Study

The primary purpose of this study was to measure
and assess the perceptions of the black student toward
vocational and technical education programs, and to
determine what influenced his attitudes toward these
educational programs. Specifically, the purposes of this
study were: (1) to determine if community acceptance
influences the student's perceptions, and (2) to determine
how the black student views vocational education.

Secondary purposes of this study were to analyze
certain factors that may contribute to the perceptions of
black students toward vocational education. These purposes
were: (3) to determine whether vocational and non-
vocational students differ in their perception toward
vocational programs; (4) to determine if socio-economic
status influences the participants' perceptions; (5) to
determine if educational aspirations affect the student's
perceptions of vocational programs: (6) to determine if
occupational aspirations affect the students' perceptions
of vocational education; and (7) to determine if males and
females differ in their perceptions toward vocational

programs.

103

Procedures Used in the

 

Conduct of the Study

 

The format used in Chapter III for presenting the

methods followed in the conduct of the study will be used

in this summary analysis as follows: (1) data collection

procedures, (2) procedures for data processing, and (3)

procedures for analyzing and interpreting the data.

Data Collection.--Each of the data collection

procedures used in the study will be presented in the

following paragraphs.

1.

This study was concerned with assessing the per-
ceptions of black high school students toward
vocational education. One of the important aspects
of the study was to first identify the purpose of
the instrument. The following instruments were
used in the study: (a) the perception scale which
was developed and field tested by the researcher
prior to its use, (b) educational aspiration scale
was developed by Morse and found to be reliable for
this study, and (c) the occupational aspiration

scale, a modified scale developed by Duncan.

Once the questionnaire was developed a pre-test
was conducted for the purpose of refining the

instrument before collecting the data.

104

The student population for this study consisted of
eleventh and twelfth grade black high school
students in four public high schools in mid-
Michigan (Flint, Lansing, and Muskegon). The
survey involved a random stratified sample of 203
students. The students were grouped into stratas
in each school under vocational and non-vocational

categories.

The questionnaires were administered to the
students in each of the selected schools during
the first week of school, fall 1972, before the

students had attended any vocational courses.

Procedure for Data Processing.--After completing the

data collection phase of the study, a procedure was

developed for processing the data. These procedures were

as follows:

1.

All data were collected by means of a three-part

73 item questionnaire printed in booklet form.
Groups of items were constructed to elicit responses
which could be scored by techniques appropriate to

the type of information desired.

The second stage involved the processing of data

obtained from the questionnaire. These data were

105

coded and transferred to punch cards. The socio-
economic status for the respondents was broken

down into five major categories. The Duncan Scale
was used for the rating of all occupations. On

the basis of information received, it was concluded
that the use of the Duncan rating was appropriate

for this investigation.

Procedures for Analyzingland Interpreting the

Data.--This phase of the study involved the specific

purposes of the study, and statistical testing of the

stated hypotheses. These analyses were carried out in

three stages:

1.

The first stage involved an analysis of personal
and family background data of the vocational and
non-vocational students. This section was
important because it provided a descriptive analy-
sis of the respondents' personal and family

background data.

The second stage of the study was to establish
relationships between vocational and non-vocational

students' perceptions.

The third stage was to test for differences
between five independent variables and the

respondents' perceptions of vocational education.

106

Conclusions

The conclusions are based on the findings as they
relate to each of the purposes posed for the study. A
discussion of the conclusions and the limitations which
have a bearing on them are presented in the following
paragraphs. Because of the exploratory nature of the study,
no attempt was made to generalize beyond this sample.
Descriptive Analysis of
Vocational and Non-

Vocational Students

In considering the academic achievement for both
groups of respondents, it appears that the non-vocational
students have significantly higher grade point averages
than vocational students. It can be assumed that academic
achievement may have had some influence on the non-
vocational students' perception of vocational education.
It is postulated that because of their higher academic
record they do not go into vocational education.

The educational achievement of most of the
students' parents did not go beyond high school completion.
However, the mothers' educational achievement was slightly
higher than the fathers'. In contrast, the students
tended to possess educational aspirations which exceeded
their parents. That is, most of the students expected to
enter a four-year college. The socio-economic status of

the students' parents were in the lower category.

107

The educational aspiration for the non-vocational
students appeared to be higher than for vocational students.
A higher percentage of the non-vocational students aspired
to graduate from college. The student's perception of
vocational education may be influenced by his aspiration
to attend college. Also, the student's academic achieve-
ment may influence his educational aspiration level.

The occupational aspirations for both groups of
students were higher among non-vocational students than
vocational students. A higher percentage of the non-
vocational students selected professional occupations.
Considering the non-vocational students' academic record,
one can assume that this may have influenced his occu-
pational aspiration.

The students appeared to have a fairly realistic
attitude regarding job expectations. When asked to
describe the occupation to which they aspired and the one
they expected to enter, almost all students selected the
same job for both choices. The consistency of their
expressed vocational choices may be explained in at least
two ways: (1) the students in the population feel they
have the means to attain their aspirations, or (2) the
students simply were unable to distinguish between their

occupational aspirations and expectations.

108
Perceptions of Black Students
Toward Vocational Education
Purpose I: To determine if community acceptance
influences students' perception of voca-
tional education.

No differences existed between the non-vocational
and vocational students on "What the community thinks about
vocational education." Analysis of the total group of
students collectively, indicates that the communities of
the majority of students think that vocational education
is a valuable and worthwhile educational program.

Purpose II: To determine how black students' view
vocational education programs.

Statistical tests revealed that significant differ-
ences were observed among vocational and non-vocational
students on the importance of white and blue collar jobs.
Non-vocational students agreed that white collar jobs were
better. Vocational students disagreed that white collar
jobs were better than blue collar jobs.

The majority of the students did not feel that the
working conditions were bad for students who selected
vocational jobs. No differences were revealed between the
two groups of students. Working conditions were not
considered bad for vocational jobs and the training for
these jobs should not be limited to non-college bound

students.

109

It appears that most of the students would like to
see vocational education encouraged more among black high
school students. It is reasonable to assume, however, that
vocational students were more willing to see vocational
education encouraged more among black high school students
than non-vocational students. Most of the students felt
that the merits of vocational education should be made
known to more black students.

Significant differences were found between how the
parents of vocational and non-vocational students felt
about having their children attend college. It appeared
that the non-vocational students' parents felt more
strongly about wanting them to attend college than did the
parents of vocational students. Academic achievement and
parental aspiration for students may have significant
influence on whether the students choose vocational edu-
cation or not.

Statistical tests revealed significant differences
between vocational and non-vocational students on whether
teaching Blacks a practical trade is a device used by the
white man to keep Blacks down. It would appear from the
data that non-vocational students seem to think that
vocational training is a device used by the white man to
keep Blacks out of higher status jobs. This attitude may
very well be the most relevant fact found in the study.

It is worth noting that even though the community had high

110

acceptance for vocational education and the students did
not give vocational jobs a low rating, very few Black

students enrolled in vocational education.

Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1

There is a relationship between the perception of

vocational education held by black high school students

enrolled and those not enrolled in vocational programs.

Analysis of the vocational and non-vocational

students' perceptions toward vocational education reveals
significant differences in their attitudes toward vocational
education. It appears from the results that the vocational
students had a much more favorable attitude toward
vocational programs than non-vocational students. This
hypothesis was the only one in which significant differ-
ences existed. The previous section dealt with some of the
specific items that reflected these differences. However,
there were no significant differences in their attitudes

‘toward employment in vocational education.

Hypothesis 2
There is a relationship between socio-economic status
and the perceptions of vocational education held by
black high school students toward vocational education.
Socio-economic status and general attitude toward

vocational education showed no significant relationship.

Therefore, regardless of the students' socio-economic level

111

he tends to feel the same way about vocational education.
No evidence was found to support the theories that students
from high or low socio-economic status differ in their
attitude toward vocational education. The same was true

of the general attitude toward employment.

Hypothesis 3

There is a relationship between educational aspiration

and the perception of vocational education held by

black high school students toward vocational education.

Analysis on the basis of educational aspiration and

perception of vocational education reveals no significant
differences. The results from this hypothesis would seem
to indicate that the students' educational aspiration level
has nothing to do with how he feels about vocational edu-
cation. There were no relationships between educational

aspiration and their attitudes toward employment.

Hypothesis 4
There is a relationship between occupational aspirations
and the perceptions of vocational education held by
black high school students toward vocational education.
There were no significant differences between
occupational aspiration, general attitude toward voca-
tional education and attitude toward employment. The
results from this analysis would seem to indicate that the
students' occupational aspiration level does not differ
from his general attitude toward vocational education and

his feeling toward obtaining employment.

112

Hypothesis 5
The perceptions of black high school students toward
vocational education will differ on the basis of sex.
Analysis on the basis of sex, and student's general
attitude toward vocational education and the student's
attitude toward employment, showed no significant differ-
ences. Therefore, both boys and girls tend to have

similar feelings about vocational education.

Implications of the Study

The practical implications which the results of
this investigation have for education, particularly at the
secondary level, are potentially significant. Researchers
conducting investigations concerning the perceptions of
students may observe a step in a new direction in under-
standing blacks and how they view vocational education.
This study has not only provided a new approach to the
assessment of perceptions of vocational education, but
also has based it upon a theoretical foundation which can
be used for further investigation of perceptions of

vocational education.

1. The perceptions of vocational education, as they
have been identified, offer a different outlook
for vocationally oriented educational programs.
Although perceptions are developed by the individual
through social interaction within the environment,

these perceptions do not appear to be dependent

113

upon the socio-economic status of parents nor upon
parental environment. Furthermore, the perception
of vocational education apparently is not dependent
upon the socio-economic status of a particular
occupation. Thus, this would suggest new approaches
to thinking about vocational education programs
particularly for people presently subsisting in

predominantly low socio-economic conditions.

One need only to review the characteristics of this
country's unemployment statistics to realize that
Blacks, and especially black teenagers, are in

dire need of the optimum in vocational education
and counseling services. This fact was made
graphically clear in the federal government's
Manpower Report to the President (1972). Cer-
tainly, it has been difficult for large numbers of
Blacks to gain entry into many professions and
occupations. Perhaps it is this situation which
prohibits black youngsters from identifying with
and aspiring to certain vocational jobs. It is
apparent from this investigation that black
students are willing to attend classes in vocational
education at the high school level. Most of them
felt that the merits of vocational education should

be made known to more black students. Educators

114

need to look at the barriers which prohibit
participation of these disadvantaged students in

vocational educational programs.

Students included in this study appeared to have
realistic aspirations and expectations in that they
expect to obtain employment in the type of jobs to
which they aspire. These students seem to want

good jobs, but they appear to lack a broad view of
the occupational opportunities available to them.
This demonstrates a need for teachers and counselors
to devote more time to occupational education
within these schools and to direct their efforts
most specifically to black and disadvantaged

students.

Disclosed in this investigation were data indi—
cating that the black community thinks vocational
education is a valuable educational program and
that working conditions were not bad for vocational
jobs. Educational administrators should consider
offering vocational courses to all students who
want them and provide facilities for expanding

enrollment.

The evidence indicates that black students are more
inclined to reject vocational education programs
as their level of academic achievement and their

parental aspirations increase. This category of

115

students also fears that whites use vocational
education to keep Blacks down. The study makes it
evident that there is a need for greater con-
sideration of student needs when planning edu-
cational programs. Thus, these findings should
alert educators to possible barriers to partici-
pation by black students in vocational education
programs. Educators should also realize that

black students are not a homogeneous group but have
varied problems that may inhibit participation in

vocational education.

The students appeared to have unrealistically high
educational and occupational aspirations (go to
college and enter professional fields) when one
considers the realities of the present day situation
in terms of the percentage of the total student
population who actually go to college and much less
complete a degree and enter professional fields.

In addition, the employment demands are much greater
in fields (skilled and semi professional) that do
not require the baccalaureate degree. Educators
will need to furnish much more information about

the facts of life, financial problems involved in
going to college, and awareness of occupations if
the students are going to be attracted to less than

professional careers.

116

7. The open-ended responses of black students cited
organizational deficiencies in vocational education
programs. The students expressed what they liked
most about vocational education. They felt that
vocational education provided an opportunity to
train for a job while in high school. It was
suggested that vocational education can help one
get a job without going to college. The students
also expressed their strongest objection to
vocational education. They felt that there were
not enough black students enrolled in vocational
education classes. In addition, many complained
that all those who wanted to could not attend the
area skill centers and/or enroll in the vocational
departments within their schools. Given the
accountability movement in educational programs
'today, one wonders if the area skill centers are
not inclined to select the best academic students
for placement purposes. The schools' vocational
department should open enrollment to all students
who show an interest in and have a need for

vocational education courses.

The potential contribution of the study may be
found in its application to the field of vocational edu-
cation and guidance and, thereby, to career development

of elementary and secondary students. Vocational education

117

and guidance experiences are most meaningful when they are
appropriate to the understandings and perceptions of the
individual who is involved in them. This study of per-
ceptions of vocational education may provide a foundation
for better identification and understanding of factors

interacting upon the total vocational developmental process.

Recommendations

As a result of this study, it is my opinion that
many more studies of this nature need to be encouraged.
More studies must be completed which can serve as building
blocks for the organization of meaningful research to be
conducted in the future. As a result of this research,
several challenging and valuable subjects are deserving of
future investigation. In this section seven of these

possibilities will be defined.

1. A study of this kind should be replicated with
students of different grades and age ranges. For
example, a study might be conducted in which the
perception of vocational education is compared with
freshmen and seniors. It is possible that develop-
mental differences and changing attitudes could

produce different results.

2. Additional research could be conducted to identify

those environmental factors which have the greatest

118

influence on the occupational and educational

aspirations of high school students.

This was an exploratory study concerned with the
perceptions of black students toward vocational
education. It implies a need for similar studies

of black and white students conducted on a

broader scale. This would not only continue the

investigations in the area of perceptions but

also investigate all the major fields in vocational

education programs.

The study should be replicated with a different
group of high school students who are more
heterogeneous with respect to socio-economic

background and educational experiences.

Further studies need to be undertaken to discover
ways to make vocational educational programs more

attractive so that students will want to partici-

pate in them.

Another area of research is that of studying the
attitudes and perceptions of teachers and counselors
toward changing roles of blacks in the society and
in the labor market. If, as suggested, there is

a lack of information and a continuation of

traditional stereotypes about socially desirable

119

roles for blacks and the limited number of
"appropriate" black occupations, then an effort

toward modifying such thinking would be warranted.

7. Research should be conducted to identify those
geographical factors which have the greatest
influence on black students' perceptions of

vocational education.

It is hoped that the modest success of the present
exploratory study will encourage others to investigate
educational programs designed to enhance the process of

understanding the attitudes of high school students.

Summary

The purpose of this study was presented and the
procedures used in the conduct of the study were summarized
in this chapter. The conclusions were presented in the
form of answers to the purposes stated in Chapter I. In
addition, implications for program development were
presented accompanied by recommendations for future

research.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

ITEM LOADINGS ON EACH

PERCEPTION FACTOR

APPENDIX A

Table A-l.--Item Loadings on Each Perception Factor.

 

Factor I: General Attitude Toward VOcational

 

Item Education Loading
12 Vocational education does not make enough students
useful members of society. .57
15 A graduate of a vocational education program is
generally suited only for unskilled work. . .49
27 For me, training for a career in vocational education
is not worth the time and effort required. .54
28 A college education is more important than
vocational education. .49
30 Most vocational education courses in my opinion
lead no where. .59
32 vocational education in high school is not as
necessary for most students as other worthwhile
programs. .47
35 In my opinion, vocational education in the high
school is highly overrated. ' .51
36 vocational education in high school does not
prepare a student for advancement in an occupation. .52
41 Vbcational education is a dumping ground. .46
49 In my opinion, taking vocational education

hinders students from further education after
high school. .54

128

129

 

 

 

Item Factor II: General Attitude Toward Employment Loading
13 A black man can easily get any job for which he is

trained. .44
14 In my opinion, it is too hard to get a promotion

after finishing a vocational program. .40
16 The white man tries to keep blacks out of white

collar jobs. .49
17 Jobs are hard to get for blacks who finish

vocational programs. .41
18 I like vocational education because you can get a

good job after finishing school. .60
19 Most jobs that require technical training are closed

to blacks.

 

APPENDIX B

QUESTIONNAIRE

APPENDI X B

QUESTIONNAIRE

1568F Spartan Village
East Lansing, Michigan
June 13, 1972

Q Exit“,

.“1

Dear Administrator:

I am interested in how black students feel about vocational
education programs. Since we are involved in the preparation of future
job holders, research regarding the perceptions of black high school
students is a primary concern.

_ baa-own"...

The high schools have received much attention in the current
literature about why black students resist vocational programs. There
appears, however, to be a need for more systematic study of how black
students feel about vocational programs. The perception study is one
means of analyzing positions and we propose a study utilizing a
modification of this technique. More precisely, we are concerned with
comparing perceptions, those enrolled and the ones not enrolled in a
vocational program.

Your participation is being requested to provide fifty
students for the study. A questionnaire form will be given to the
selected students, for about forty minutes, the questionnaires will be
given and collected by the researcher. You or your counselor will be
involved for only a short time on just one occasion.

The survey data being collected are expected to have direct
benefits for you and your school. When presented to boards of edu-
cation and superintendents, it may offer evidence that black students
need and deserve help to improve their performance and conditions for
employment.

Please be assured that your name and school will in no way
be identified with the study, if you so desire, and that all information
will be held in strict confidence.

sincerely Yours,

Joe King, Jr.

130

131

INSTRUCTIONS: The data you give here is CONFIDENTIAL and will be seen

10.

only by the investigator. Fill in the requested
information as completely and accurately as possible for
all of it will be needed for analyses.

Name of school 2. Age

 

Grade level 11 12

 

What is your sex? Male Female
How many brothers and sisters do you have? (number)

I make my regular home with: (check one)

 

1. My own parents

2. A parent and a step-parent
3. One parent only

4. My grandparents

5. An uncle or aunt

6. Other (specify)

 

 

What is the approximate average of your grades in high school?
(check one)

1. A- or A average

2. B average (B- to B+)
3. C average to C+

4. C- average or below
5. D average or below

 

What is your father's or head of household occupation?
(What does he do? Be specific. Describe the work he does.)

 

What is your mother's occupation?

 

How much formal schooling did your father have or (head of
household)? (Check one)

1. Less than grade school (8 grades)
Grade school completion (8 grades)

 

3. Partial high school (9-11 grades)
4. High school completion (12 grades)
5. Vbcational school

6. One to three years of college

7. College Graduate

8. Beyond four years of college (graduate work, law
school , etc.)
9. Don't know

 

11.

132

How'much fermal schooling did your mother have? (check one)

 

 

\OQQO‘UIDUNH
O

Less than grade school (8 grades)
Grade school completion (8 grades)
Partial high school (9-11 grades)
High school completion (12 grades)
Vocational school

One to three years of college
College graduate

Beyond four years of college
Don't know

Please circle the letter in front of the statement which best answers
each question.

12.

13.

If you were free to go as far as you wanted to go in school, how
far would you like to go?

a. I'd like
b. I'd like
c. I'd like
d. I'd like
e. I'd like
f. I'd like
9. I'd like

to
to
to
to
to
to
to

quit right now.

continue in high school for a while.
graduate from high school.

go to secretarial or trade school.
go to college for a while.

graduate from college.

do graduate work beyond college.

Sometimes what we would like to isn't the same as what we
How far in school do you expect you really will

expect to do.
go?

a. I think I
b. I think I
c. I think I
d. I think I
e. I think I
f. I think I
g. I think I

really will quit school as soon as I can.

really will continue in high school for a while.
really will graduate from high school.

really will go to secretarial or trade school.
really will go to college for a while.

really will graduate from college.

really will do graduate work beyond college.

133

Which of the following categories include your choice of a career or
vocation? (Choose only one number.) A few examples of each are given
in parentheses.

1. PROFESSIONALS: (Accountants, Architects, Dentists, Doctors,
Engineers, Lawyers, Teachers, Etc.)

2. TECHNICALS: (Aviators, Designers, Draftsman, X-Ray Tech-
nicians, T.V. and Radio Operators, Surveyors,
etc.)

3. MANAGERIAL: (All occupations titled "managers": Company,
Store, Business)

4. SALES: (Wholesale, Retail, Insurance, Real Estate)

5. CLERICAL: (Bookkeepers, Secretaries, Stenographers, Typists,
Office Machine Operators and Receptionists)

6. PERSONAL SERVICES: (Barbers, Beauticians, Models, Practical
Nurses, Watchmen, Firemen, Law Enforcement)

7. SKILLED LABOR: (Bakers, Carpenters, Electricians, Cabinet-
makers, Crane Operators, Brick Layers,
Plumbers)

8. SEMI-SKILLED LABOR: (Truck Drivers, Fork Lift Operators,
Service Station Attendants, Bull-dozer
Operator, Cleaners and Pressers, etc.)

9. UNSKILLED LABOR: (Laborer [any industry]. Warehousemen, Car
Cleaners, Helpers, Lumber Pilers, Farm
Workers)

1. If you were completely free to choose any job, what would you
desire most as a lifetime job? (In answering this question give
an exact jab. For example, do not say ”work on the railroad" but
tell us what railroad job you would like to have.) Write your
answer in the box below.

 

ANSWER:

 

 

 

2. (a) Sometime we are not always able to do what we want most. What
kind of job do you really aspect to have most of your life?
(Write your answer in the box below. Please given an exact job.)

 

ANSWER:

 

 

 

(b) How certain are you that this is the job you will have most
of your life? (Circle one number.)

I am: 5 4 3 2 1
very certain not uncertain very
certain certain uncertain

DIRECTIONS:

Example:

134

WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT VOCATIONAL EDUCATION?

You are to circle the response which corresponds most
closely to your feelings about each item on this page
and the next.

 

 

Some high school students are too undisciplined to
employ. SA A (:) SD

SA-gtrongly Agree AsAgree D- Disagree
SDegtrongly‘Qisagree

This person disagrees with the item to some extent
and has indicated this by a circle around ® (Disagree) .

 

Do not spend too much time on any particular item.
There are no right or wrong answers. Merely circle
the abbreviation which most nearly indicates your
true feeling. When your feeling falls between two
choices, select the closer one. Do what you can
and please answer every item.

 

fag Strongly Agree _A_ Agree 2 Disagree _S_D_ Strongly Disagree

1.

2.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

l6.

17.

18.

19.

135

I selected a vocational course because my friends
were registering for the course.

To get a good job, black students must finish
college.

I like the vocational teachers very much.

Teachers seem to be well prepared for their
classes in vocational courses.

It is too difficult for a black man to enter
the skill trades.

I like receiving a good grade out of vocational
education.

Most of the people in my community do not think
much of vocational education.

White collar jobs are better than blue collar
jobs.

VOcational education cannot possibly prepare
students for the range of job opportunities
available to them.

The working condition is too bad for vocational
students, most of them work in unfavorable
weather and wear dirty-ragged clothes.

A black carpenter must be twice as good as a
white one.

Vbcational education doesrzot make enough
students useful members of society.

A black man can easily get any job for which
he is trained.

In my opinion, it is too hard to get a
promotion after finishing a vocational program.

A graduate of a vocational education program is
generally suited only for unskilled work.

The white man tries to keep blacks out of
white collar jobs.

Jobs are hard to get for blacks who finish
vocational programs.

I like vocational education because you can get
a good job after finishing school.

Most jobs that require technical training are
closed to blacks

SA

SA
SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

SA

A

SD

SD
SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

136

Vbcational training is for students who are not
smart enough to go to college.

I am opposed to expanding vocational education
when so many students need the basic subjects.

In my opinion, there are not enough black
students in vocational education at the high
school level.

I like vocational training because of the money
you can make.

For many students there should be greater
emphasis on earning a living through a
vocational education program.

Most students who take vocational education in
high school lack many other scholastic skills.

I would like to see vocational education
encouraged.more among black high school students.

For me, training for a career in vocational
education is not worth the time and effort
required.

A college education is more important than
vocational education.

High schools should encourage bright students
to enter a vocational education program.

Most vocational education courses in my
opinion lead no where.

A high school graduate of a vocational
education program impresses me a great deal.

Vbcational education in high school is not as
necessary for most students as other worthwhile
programs.

I like vocational education because it is all
the education I want.

The people I know respect you more if you
graduate from college.

In my opinion, vocational education in the high
school is highly overrated.

VOcational education in high school does not
prepare a student for advancement in an
occupation.

In high school, boys receive more encouragement
to take vocational courses than do girls.

vocational training will allow me to make as
much money as I can.

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I would like to see the values of vocational
education made known to more black students than
is now the case.

Vocational education will help me to get the
job I want most.

Vocational education is a dumping ground.
My parents want me to go to college.

Schools should teach students to work with their
mind instead of their hands.

Vocational education will aid me in living in
the kind of place I like best.

Manual labor reminds me of slavery.

My parents want me to further my training in
vocational education.

With vocational training I can get the kind of
house, car, furniture, and other things like
this that I want.

White collar workers make more money than
blue collar workers.

In my opinion, taking vocational education
hinders students from further education after
high school.

With vocational training I can get married and
raise a family sooner.

Prestige and status are more important than
wages.

Teaching blacks a practical trade is another
way for the white man to keep the blacks down.

This community should provide a wide variety of
vocational programs to fit the abilities of most
students not going to college.

The thing I like most about vocational
education is:

My strongest objection to vocational education is:

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