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'IIIfI‘5 I .~ . f I .' ‘f‘$ \fi3;w.lg ‘.:| I- ‘I“II I'I {X}: l a; v I;'-p. :_-~.- ‘ ‘d' '1,“ .:'T 42450.] I 'u '4 I . \l’ I LW' I g; (5:: , - .. ~ "Id 3. .9 ’1 $14.; 'If ‘ "If? .- MMMM MMMM MMMMMMMM M M M MM MMM 3 1293 10346 2325 LIBRARY Michigan State _) UL‘iiVCI’Sle This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Comparative Study of the Self-Concepts and Aspirations of Three Groups of Pregnant Adolescents presented by Trellis Taylor Waxler has been accepted .to'wards fulfillment of the requirements for ~ , —Bh-.-D-r——— degree in was Major professor Date September 25, 1978 0-7 639 OVERDUE FINES ARE 25¢ PER DAY PER ITEM Return to book drop to remove this, checkout from your record. A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SELF-CONCEPTS AND ASPIRATIONS OF THREE GROUPS OF PREGNANT ADOLESCENTS By Trellis Taylor Waxler A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Family and Child Sciences 1978 ABSTRACT A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE SELF-CONCEPTS AND ASPIRATIONS OF THREE GROUPS OF PREGNANT ADOLESCENTS BY Trellis Taylor Waxler This study was designed to examine the development of the self-concepts of pregnant adolescents and to deter- mine the relationship between the self—concept and aspira- tions. The 39 students used in this study attended three schools that were established to provide educational services to pregnant adolescents who did not wish to remain in the regular classroom during their pregnancies. The first school was located in a small city. Nine students participated from that school. Thirteen adolescents who attended a large urban public school were in the second group. The third group was comprised of 17 students who attended a private school in the same large urban area as the second group. The design of the study used repeated measures and a homogeneous sample. The data were collected by the use of nine categories of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the Cantril Self Anchoring Scale. The nine categories of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale were Total Positive Score, Identity, Self-Satisfaction, Trellis Taylor Waxler Behavior, Physical Self, Moral-Ethical Self, Personal Self, Family Self, and Social Self. The Cantril Self Anchoring Scale has two major parts. The first part of the scale allows individuals to express their personal wishes and asPirations. The second part con- tains ladder rankings that are checked in order to represent the level of future aspirations in terms of past and present standings. The data were analyzed by analysis of variance (ANOVA), multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), matched pair t-test, Spearman rank correlation, and various descriptive statistics. The significant level was set at .01. Based upon the analysis of the data, the following conclusions were made: 1. There were no differences in the self-concepts of the three groups of pregnant adolescents. No signi- ficant differences were found in the self-concepts of the different age level pregnant adolescents. 2. The self-concepts of the pregnant adolescents did not change over a two month time period. 3. There were no differences in the levels of aspiration of the three groups of pregnant adolescents. There were no significant differences in the levels of asPiration based on age. 4. Aspirations of the pregnant adolescents did not change in a two month time period. 5. Trellis Taylor Waxler A moderate positive relationship was found between the self—concept scores and levels of aspiration of the pregnant adolescents. This relationship was significant at the .001 level. There was an indication that the younger adolescents differed from the older adolescents in the kinds of aspirations they expressed. The younger adolescents expressed more aspirations for their families. The older adolescents expressed more aspirations about their own personal improvement and development. DEDICATION To: Rosalie and Wendy Denise with love, ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Appreciation is expressed to Dr. Vera Borosage, my major advisor, for her assistance and generosity of time throughout my period of study at Michigan State University. Special thanks go to Dr. Beatrice Paolucci for her guidance, direction, and encouragement in planning and conducting the study. I also wish to thank my other committee members, Dr. Robert Boger and Dr. James McKee, for their support and assistance. My appreciation is extended to the directors, teachers, and students of the three schools for their parti- cipation in the study. I am especially grateful to the parents of the students for giving their permission to use their daughters in this study. I owe special thanks to Dorothy Thorne for her assistance in coding the data. Thanks are due the graduate students in Room 406 who shared this tremendously rewarding year with me. My profound thanks to my family for their support and love on this journey. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii LIST OF FIGURES. . . . . . . . . . . . . ix Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Statement of the Problem. . . . . . . 1 Need for the Study. . . . . . . . . 3 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . 4 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Statement of Objectives . . . . . . 4 Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . . 5 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Limitations of the Study. . . . . . 8 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . 10 Adolescent Development . . . . . . . 10 Theories of Adolescent Development. . . 10 Physical and Coqnitive DeveloPment in the Adolescent. . . . . . . . . 16 Adolescent Sexuality . . . . . . . 18 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Aspirations . . . . . . . . . . . 20 S mlultary O I O O O O O O O O f O O 2 5 Self-Concept. . . . . . . . . . . 25 Self-Concept Formation. . . . . . . 26 Self-Concept and Behavior. . . . . . 29 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Adolescent Pregnancy . . . . . . . . 34 iv Chapter Causes of Out of Wedlock Pregnancy. Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention of Early Pregnancy Summary. . . . . . . . Conclusion . . . . . . . III. METHODOLOGY. . . . . . . . Description of the Sample . . Subjects . . . . . . . Procedures . . . . . . . Phase 1. . . . . . . . Phase 2 O O O O O O O 0 Phase 3. . . . . . . . Instruments . . . . . . . Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. Definition of TSCS Subscales. Cantril Self Anchoring Scale. Coding of Data . . . . . Design of the Study . . . . Testable Hypotheses . . . . Analysis of Data . . . . . IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . . . . . Hypothesis 1. . Hypothesis 2. . Hypothesis 3. . Hypothesis 4. . Hypothesis 5. . Additional Data. Aspirations . . . . . . Fears . . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS Summary of Findings . . . . Discussion of Findings . . . Page 36 39 42 43 45 46 46 47 54 54 58 58 58 59 61 65 66 67 68 71 71 74 77 79 82 83 83 88 93 93 98 Chapter Page Self-Concept . . . . . . . . . . 98 Aspirations . . . . . . . . . . 99 Fears and Aspirations of Pregnant Adolescents. . . . . . . . 100 Relationship of Self- -Concept to Aspirations. . . . . . . . . 101 Effect of Pregnancy on Aspirations and Self— -Concepts . . . . . . . . . 101 Implications. . . . . . . . . . . 104 Implications for Future Research . . . 104 Implications for Action . . . . . . 106 APPENDICES Appendix A. Original Personal Data Questionnaire . . . 107 B. Revised Personal Data Questionnaire.. . . . 111 C. Example of Letter to Parents . . . . . . 113 D. Tennessee Self-Concept Scale . . . . . . 114 E. Cantril Self-Anchoring Scale . . . . . . 123 F. Coding Instructions for CSAS . . . . . . 125 REFERENCES 0 O O O O O O O I O O O O I 13 2 vi LIST OF TABLES Enrollment data for the three groups . . . Age of students . . . . . . . . . . Grade in school . . . . . . . . . . Ordinal position of students in their families Status of adolescents' parents . . . . . Living arrangements of the three groups . . Type of work done by fathers . . . . . . Employment status of mothers . . . . . . Design of study and cell size. . . . . . Methods used in analysis of data. . . . . Summary ANOVA for main effects and interaction Adjusted mean total positive self-concept scores for groups . . . . . . . . . Adjusted mean total positive self-concept scores for age . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of means of three groups with national norm . . . . . . . . . . Summary MANOVA for main effects and interactions for eight TSCS subsoales. . . . . . . Mean scores for TSCS subscales . . . . . Means for specific subscales on the Tennessee- Self-Concept Scale. . . . . . . . . Matched pair t-test . . . . . . . . . Mean self-concept score at two time periods . vii Page 49 50 50 51 52 52 53 54 67 70 72 72 73 73 75 76 76 77 77 Table 4.10 4.11 Summary analysis of variance for CSAS . . . . Future aspirations of the three groups of pregnant adolescents . . . . . . . . . Future aspirations of the different age levels Comparison of aspirations at two time periods . Spearman rank correlation of TSCS and CSAS . . Number of aspirations of pregnant adolescents . Mean number of aspirations of three groups of pregnant adolescents . . . . . . . . . Mean number of aspirations of different age pregnant adolescents . . . . . . . . . Mean number of aspirations of pregnant adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of most frequently mentioned aspirations of three groups of pregnant adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of most frequently mentioned aspirations of pregnant adolescents at different age levels . . . . . . . . . Number of fears of pregnant adolescents . . . Mean number of fears of three groups of pregnant adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean number of fears of different age pregnant adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . Mean number of fears of pregnant adolescents. . Percentage of most frequently mentioned fears of pregnant adolescents . . . . . . . . . Percentage of most frequently mentioned fears of different age pregnant adolescents viii Page 78 78 79 82 83 83 85 85 86 87 87 88 88 89 89 90 90 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 4.1 Level of aspiration of three groups of pregnant adolescents . . . . . . . . 80 4.2 Level of aspiration of different age pregnant adolescents . . . . . . . . 81 4.3 Computer printout of scattergram of Tennessee Self Concept Scale scores and Cantril Self Anchoring Scale future ratings . . . 84 4.4 Summary of hypotheses tested and decision rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 ix CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Statement of the Problem In 1975 approximately 600,000 of all live births were to mothers under the age of twenty. This is an increase of 2 percent over the preceding year (National Center for Health Statistics, 1977). Some of the reasons given for the increase in adolescent pregnancy include: (1) an increase in this age population (Nye, 1976), (2) a decrease in the age of menarche (Tanner, 1972), (3) peer group pressure or model imitation (Nye, 1976), (4) ignorance of birth control measures (Furstenberg, 1976), (5) lack of options (Hartley, 1975), (6) emotional problems (Young, 1954), (7) decline in adolescent marriage rates (Chilman 1976), and (8) changes in attitudes towards premarital sexual relations (Reiss, 1967). A great number of adoles— cent pregnancies seem unplanned or unintended (Furstenberg, 1976; Cobliner, 1974). Ladner's (1971) study in a low- income urban housing project revealed that many Black adolescents became pregnant because there are no strong stigmas against premarital pregnancy in that setting. Adolescent pregnancy has been described as problem- atic for the adolescent, her unborn child, and the society. Premature births, severely malnourished infants, birth defects, and poverty have all been cited as consequences of adolescent pregnancy (Sugar, 1976). One immediate problem for the pregnant adolescent is the question of continuing and completing her education. It has been found that girls have high aspirations but because of a lack of support by the school system and the community many pregnant adolescents are unable to complete their education and fulfill their aspirations (Braen and Forbush, 1975; Douvan and Adelson, 1966; and Furstenberg, 1976). Societal problems include increased welfare depen- dency and threats to the social order, particularly the nuclear family (Gordon, 1978). When women conceive without societal sanctions, it is often viewed as deviant behavior (Reiss, 1967). This negative attitude by the broader com- munity adds to the problems that the adolescent has to face as she approaches the birth of her child. Perhaps, however, the main threat of adolescent pregnancies is that such pregnancies force . . . a premature commitment for long-term responsibi- lities upon those who created this child. It is in this forced and premature commitment that the basic problem lies for the adolescent. Almost by definition, adolescence precludes any form of long-term commitment which might impose rigid restrictions upon one's emerging self-identity or life style. For a variety of important reasons, a premature commitment is a threat to the psychic structure of the adolescent (Maddock, 1973, p. 338). This study was designed to explore and describe some of the parameters of adolescent pregnancy by examining the self-concept and level of aspiration of three groups of pregnant adolescents. Need for the Study Although many research studies concerned with adolescent pregnancy have been conducted, few systematically explore psychological variables in any depth using stand- ardized instruments (Chilman, 1976). Few studies concerned with adolescent pregnancy control for age differences. Many studies have related the self-concept to behavior, however few studies have explored the relationship of aspirations to the self-concept of pregnant adolescents. Few studies have controlled for differences in ecological setting. This study was designed to correct some of these deficiencies. In addition to adding to our understanding of adolescent pregnancy this study could increase our scientific knowledge about personality theory. The information gained from the study should be particularly useful for those social service agencies, school systems, and parents that plan programs and provide services for adolescent parents and their children. Finally, the information may point to some possible pre- vention strategies. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to determine whether any differences existed in the self-concepts and aspirations of pregnant adolescents who attended school in three different settings. The self-concepts and aspirations of pregnant adolescents of different age levels were deter- mined. The study was designed to provide basic information about the impact of pregnancy on the self-concepts and aspirations of pregnant adolescents of different age levels who were attending schools in different ecological settings. Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypotheses There will be no difference in the self-concept scores of pregnant adolescents attending three different schools. There will be no difference in the self- concept scores of pregnant adolescents at two different time periods. There will be no difference in the future aspirations of pregnant adoles- cents attending three different schools. There will be no difference in the future aspirations of pregnant adoles- cents at two different time periods There will be no relationship between the self-concept scores and the future aspirations of pregnant adolescents. Statement of Objectives The overall objective of this study was to examine the development of self-concept of adolescent girls and explore the relationship of the self-concept with aspira- tions. The specific objectives of this study were: 1. To determine and compare the self-concepts, as measured by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, of three groups of pregnant adolescents. 2. To determine and compare the aspirations and fears, as measured by the Cantril Self Anchoring Scale, of three groups of pregnant adolescents. 3. To compare the self-concepts of pregnant adolescents of different ages. 4. To compare the aspirations and fears of pregnant adolescents of different ages. 5. To determine whether the self—concept of pregnant adolescents is stable over time. 6. To determine whether the level of aspiration of pregnant adolescents is stable over time. Conceptual Framework This study takes a developmental point of view because "while it is true that each phase (of development) has its own characteristics, the progress through successive phases of development is largely influenced by the child's environment" (Fralberg, 1959, p. 192). Adolescence is a particular stage of development that presents many problems that must be resolved. One of the major problems is the ability to accept and relate in a particular way to socially prescribed sexual restrictions. The adolescent is now capable of childbearing. However, the society demands that childbearing be delayed until the socially defined adult period is reached. Another developmental task of adolescence is the one of exploring and defining future work roles and goals. Erikson (1968) states that the society provides a moratorium between childhood and adulthood for just such a purpose. Maddock (1973) believes that an adolescent pregnancy prevents a girl from adequately using the moratorium to explore further goals. American society, as do all other societies, possesses standards that control the timing of all impor- tant life events. This scheduling has to correspond to biological deve10pment, but the culture dictates the rules and sets up constraints. The society sets the norms (Furstenberg, 1976). Sexual relations are regulated by every society. The sexual standard an individual holds is important in the sense that it relates to the social groups to which he belongs. . . . An individual's conception of the male and female role may well affect his choice of an appropriate occupation, his attitudes toward schoolwork, and his basic self-concept (Reiss, 1967, P- 5). The norms that are established are devised to protect the society itself and its individual members. All have a stake in the development of the members of the society. Nevertheless, each society has members that do not adhere to the practices and stated norms of the culture. Although the norms for sexual behavior are set by society, basically individuals have free choice and opportunity to behave as they desire. When a young adolescent becomes pregnant she is not following the prescribed norm. In order to adequately describe human development, the study must be valid ecologically. That is, there must be direct and indirect measures of the person's enduring environment that has social and psychological meaning. The near environment includes the home, school, neighborhood, and people in differing roles and relationships to the child. The far or supporting environment limits and shapes what can and does occur within the near environment (Brofenbrenner, 1974). For this study the school that the students attend is the near environment and the urban or rural setting is the supporting environment. The self—concept as a part of self-theory is believed to play a vital role in controlling behavior (Wylie, 1974; Coopersmith, 1968). Perhaps adolescents who fail to use the moratorium in a socially acceptable fashion have low self-esteem and low levels of aspiration con- cerning their future. In essence, adolescent pregnancy is a unique problem for that stage of development. A person in the childhood stages is incapable of childbirth, a person in adulthood is at the socially permissible childbearing stage. Only an adolescent is capable of a "too early" pregnancy. There— fore, it is necessary to study this developmental phase if we are to understand the problems of adolescent pregnancy. Assumptions 1. It is assumed that the self-concept of adolescents can be measured by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. 2. It is assumed that the Cantril Self Anchoring Scale can accurately measure aspirations of adolescents. Definitions Adolescence.--The period of growth from the onset of puberty to the stage of adult development. Self-Concept.-—An organized configuration of per- ceptions of self (wylie, 1974). Identity.--"An optimal sense of identity . . . is experienced merely as a sense of psychosocial well-being. Its most obvious concomitants are a feeling of being at home in one's body, a sense of 'knowing where one is going' and an inner assuredness of anticipated recognition from those who count" (Erikson, 1968, p. 165). Limitations of the Study This study is limited by the fact that the data were not gathered from a randomly selected sample. All of the adolescents who participated in the study volunteered. In addition, because of the nature of the problem investi- gated, the group is a very select one that may not be replicated in any other situation. The study is also limited by the use of the instru- ments chosen. Both of the instruments used in the study are "self-report" instruments, i.e., the individuals answering the questions are free to answer as they desire. There is no way of accurately determining the truth or falsity of their responses. Finally, can the self-concept be measured? The basic assumption of this study is that it is possible to measure the self-concept; however, in as much as there is always error in any measurement, the study is so limited. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE The literature pertinent to this study is reviewed in four areas: adolescent development, aspirations, the self- concept, and adolescent pregnancy. Adolescent Development Theories of Adolescent DevelOpment According to Phillipe Ariés (1962) adolescence was not recognized as a stage of development until the eighteenth century. G. Stanley Hall, who was one of the first to research this age of development, felt that this period was key: for those prophetic souls interested in the future of our race and desirous of advancing it, the field of adolescence is the quarry in which they must seek to find both goals and means. If such a higher stage is ever added to the race, it will not be by increments at any later plateau of adult life, but it will come by increased development of the adolescent stage, which is the bud of promise for the race (Hall, 1905, p. 50). Adolescence is the period between childhood and adulthood. More specifically it is defined ". . . as that span of a young person's life between the obvious onset of puberty and the completion of bone growth" (Konopka, 1973, p. 292). This is a biological definition of adolescence. 10 11 Sociologically, adolescence is the period in the life of the person when the society ceases to regard him/her as a child but does not assign him/her full adult status, roles, and functions (Hollingshead, 1975). KonOpka (1973) has defined the years from 12 to 15 as early adolescence, the years from 15 to 18 as middle adolescence, and the years from 18 to 22 as late adolescence. This latter age period is called youth by many writers such as Keniston (1977). Erikson (1968) calls this period ". . . a psychosocial moratorium during which the young adult through free role experimentation may find a niche in some section of his society . . ." (p. 156). There are many theories of adolescent development. Erik Erikson has theorized that adolescence is the period in which the human resolves the identity crises. He has identified eight stages of development and eight corre— sponding psychological crises. According to Erikson (1963) the stages of development are: (l) infancy, (2) early child- hood, (3) play age, (4) school age, (5) adolescence, (6) young adult, (7) adulthood, and (8) maturity. During the fifth stage, the individual attempts to resolve the identity/role confusion crisis. A final self-identity may not be obtained by the end of the adolescent period. Identity is a lifelong process which may become an acute problem during adolescence for a variety of reasons. ". . . in puberty and adolescence all sameness and con- tinuities relied on earlier are more or less questioned 12 again, because of a rapidity of body growth which equals that of early childhood and because of the new addition of genital maturity" (Erikson, 1963, p. 261). For the first time the individual is able to per- ceive a future as well as a past that is personally unique. Career plans are defined. Sexual identity is clarified. Failure to resolve the questions of self leaves the person confused as to his or her own identity. Erikson (1963) calls this "role confusion." Another problem that Erikson sees is that some adolescents define their identity too early without adequate experience or experimentation with various roles. On occasion the society forces or makes the commitment for the person. In attempting to use Erikson's model to study Kibbutz education, Bettelheim (1969) found that Kibbutz children do not experience the identity crisis. Indeed, no further psychosocial crises are necessary beyond Erikson's fourth, that of industry versus inferiority. Since the fifth struggle, the one for a personal identity, would almost have to take the adolescent caught up in it away from the kibbutz, it is not pertinent for those who will stay. Nor can this crisis really develop. Those who fit into kibbutz life have no need to struggle for identity of a personal nature, since the community so largely defines it for them. In this way, the kibbutz adoles- cent escapes the identity diffusion that afflicts so many of our middle-class adolescents . . . (p. 316). Jerome Kagan (1977) also contends that the identity problem is not universal. In American culture, there does appear to be the need for the adolescent to resolve the identity crisis. Studies by LaVoie (1976), Marcia (1976), 13 and Waterman and Waterman (1975) all point to this period as being important for the development of the self-concept and identity in adolescents in the American culture. The resolution of the identity crisis is not an easy process for all adolescents. Some writers have pointed to a major difficulty that the adolescent has in resolving the identity conflict-~the length of the period of adolescence. The length of adolescence has been increasing rapidly over the last century; however, researchers have pointed out that there is less association of adults with these young peOple now than in the past. Most of their socialization takes place in their peer groups (Bronfenbrenner, 1970; Coleman, 1961; Riesman, 1950). A study by Condry and Siman (1974) indicated that children who associated more with their peers than with their parents were prone to perform negative acts. The children who spent more time with their parents had more socially approved behavior. Both Coleman (1961) and Bronfenbrenner (1970) have pointed out the potential problem of age segregation of youth from adult influence. Bronfenbrenner states: "If children have contact only with their own age-mates, there is no possibility for learning culturally established patterns of c00peration and mutual concern" (1970, p. 117). These children are left to define for themselves what they will do and become. Gisela Konopka (1973) views adolescence from an eclectic point of view. 14 Basic to our view is the concept that adolescents are growing, developing persons in a particular age group-- not pre-adult, pre—parents, or pre-workers, but human beings participating in the activities of the world around them. In brief, we see adolescence not only as a passage to somewhere but also as an important stage in itself (PP. 297-298). Important concepts in her view of adolescence are sexual maturity, withdrawal from adult protection, experimentation, and the reevaluation of values. The cultural context in which adolescents live is very important to this conceptuali- zation of adolescence. In the book, Young Girls: A Portrait of Adolescence, Konopka (1976) listed societal attributes that would contribute to positive development of the female adolescent: (1) open and free government, (2) representative demoncracy, (3) rule by law, (4) egalitarian and non- discriminatory practices, and (5) pluralism. She agrees with Erikson that adolescents must have adequate time and experimentation to develOp their own identity. Further, she seems to be in agreement that a too early commitment to one role may be damaging to the emerging self-concept. Joyce Ladner (1971) takes a sociohistorical per- spective in describing lower socioeconomic status Black adolescents. Perhaps the most decisive factor that influences the child-rearing patterns of the Black lower class relates to the oppression that even its children must endure and learn to deal with. Unlike the white middle-class child, Black children must also be subjected to the second-class citizenship of their parents (PP. 44-45). Her particular emphasis was on the history of this minority group--slavery and also its African heritage. Other 15 researchers seem to be in agreement with her that growing up Black in America is qualitatively different from growing up White in America (Billingsley, 1968; Wilkinson, 1975). There are not many role models in these low income com- munities that fit the middle-class ideal. A disproportionate number of blacks are unemployed and poor even though there are many who are in the middle and working classes. Very few are in the upper classes. None is a member of the corporate rich (Wilkinson, 1975, p. 288). What affect prolonged poverty and limited prospects for the future have upon the develOpment of the adolescent is not clear. The tragic irony--not only for the hard-core poor themselves, but for the nation as a whole--is that while the majority of American youth are sharing an ever greater affluence and unparalleled job Oppor- tunities, the position of the poor, particularly the ethnically rejected poor, has tended to worsen. Millions of middle- and lower-class Americans, including millions of blacks, are making steady advances, but millions of others are falling ever further behind (Mussen, Conger, and Kagan, 1969, p. 726). Another theory of adolescent development is the psychosexual theory of Peter Blos (1962). Peter Blos and Erik Erikson developed their theories of development after having studied with Sigmund Freud (Biehler, 1976). Erikson interpreted adolescent development in terms of the cultural and social impact. Blos' (1962) interpretations more closely followed Freud's psychosexual development. He points out that in order to understand adolescence, it is necessary to under- stand the nature of earlier stages of psychosexual develOpment. He believes that peers give the elementary age child much of 16 his/her sense of satisfaction. With puberty emerges a great deal of sexual energy. Blos agrees with.Erikson that the final phase of adolescence is a time of crisis and that the young person experiences a need to consolidate and integrate feelings about self. He describes adolescence in these terms: Adolescence is . . . viewed as the sum total of all attempts at adjustment to the state of puberty, to the new set of inner and outer--endogenous and exogenous --conditions which confront the individual. The urgent necessity to cope with the novel condition of puberty evokes all the modes of excitation, tension, gratifi- cation, and defense that ever played a role in previous years--that is, during the psychosexual development of infancy and early childhood. This infantile admixture is responsible for the bizarreness and the regressive character of adolescent behavior; it is the typical expression of the adolescent struggle to regain or to retain a psychic equilibrium which has been jolted by the crisis of puberty (Blos, 1962, p. 11). Physical and Cognitive Development in the Adolescent Early adolescence is the second most rapid period of growth in the human (Erikson, 1968; Lipsitz, 1977; Tanner, 1972). After the period of early childhood, the rate and tempo of physical growth and development is steady. However, with the onset of puberty the rate of physical growth in- creases rapidly. This rapid change in physical development is also accompanied by increasing self-awareness. During the earlier period of growth, the child was basically unaware of the changes taking place within the body. The adolescent, as well as those around him/her, are very cognizant of the changes that are taking place. After the initial rapid rate 17 of growth, a gradual slowing down does occur until full adult height is reached at about eighteen for females and about twenty or twenty-one for males (Tanner, 1972). An important historical development is that in most modern societies, particularly the United States, the onset of puberty is occurring at an earlier age. The rate of maturation seems to be dependent upon a complex interaction of genetic and environmental factors (Hunt, 1976; Tanner, 1972). It should be emphasized that there is great vari— ability in the rate of change during this period. Not all children develop at the same rate. Much internal stress is caused by the fact that there are different rates of growth in physiological development and in the development of secondary sex characteristics. Being "different" causes many of the problems for this age group (Thomas, 1973). This period is important for its role in the process of cognitive development. By the time that most adolescents are sixteen, they are capable of most formal operations. This concept is based on cognitive theory of development (Biehler, 1977). Kohlberg (1972) has pointed out that some adults never reach full formal operational thought. He stated that being capable of formal operations implies that: . . . the adolescent can classify classifications, that he can combine combinations, that he can relate rela- tionships. ~It implies that he can think about thought, and can create thought systems or "hypothetico-deductive" theories. This involves the logical construction of all possibilities--that is, the awareness of the observed as only a subset of what may be logically 18 possible. In related fashion, it implies the hypothetico-deductive attitude, the notion that a belief or proposition is not an immediate truth but a hypothe- sis whose truth value consists in the truth of the concrete propositions derivable from it (p. 154). Adolescent Sexuality In addition to physical development, "The period from twelve to sixteen is the period of priority in develop- ing and integrating the sexual into general patterns of gender development in Western societies" (Gagnon, 1972, p. 255). Any discussion of human sexuality must recognize the degree to which modern thinking about sexuality has been dominated by the work of Sigmund Freud (Gagnon, 1972). Freud contends that a child becomes a sexual being during the adolescent stage of development (Biehler, 1976). Hetero- sexual desires become important at this stage of development. The work of Freud stimulated an interest in trying to understand the sexual nature of humans. Many studies have been conducted to understand this area of human development. One of the most scientifically valid studies using adolescents was conducted by Kantner and Zelnik (1972). They conducted a study of premarital coital behavior using a national probability sample of girls between the ages of 15 and 19. They found that 40 percent of the 19 year olds had had premarital intercourse: 40 percent of Whites and 80 percent of Blacks. Of those who were sexually active, 53 percent failed to use any kind of contraceptive; among 19 the youngest groups--those 15--the figures reaches 71 per- cent. This study did not find any regional differences in the sexual behavior of the adolescents who participated in their study. However, they did find that the rates for coital activity were higher for females who had moved from farm to urban areas, especially if they were poor, Black, and lived in the central city. Studies have consistently indicated that Black teen— agers begin coital activity earlier than Whites and have a higher rate of activity than Whites (Chilman, 1976; Jessor and Jessor, 1975). However, the Kantner and Zelnik (1972) study found that Black teenage girls who came from families in which the father had graduated from college had pre- marital coitus rates similar to White girls of analogous families. Other studies have indicated that the rate of pre- marital intercourse is increasing at all age levels and in all socioeconomic groups (Chilman, 1976; Furstenberg, 1976; Jessor and Jessor, 1975; Kantner and Zelnik, 1972; and Reiss, 1968). Summary Adolescence is the second most rapid period of growth in the human. In addition to physical development and maturation, sexual and cognitive maturity is reached during the adolescent period. Many researchers have postulated theories about this stage of development. One of the most widely researched 20 theories is the one proposed by Erik Erikson. His theory is based on the assumption that there are crises that must be resolved at each of eight develoPmental stages. Adolescence is the period in which the identity crisis must be resolved. Part of the identity crises is concerned with role definition and experimentation. The society allows the adolescent this period of time between childhood and adulthood as a moratorium period to experiment with different roles to determine ulti- mate aSpirations. Psychosexual, eclectic, and sociohistorical theories were discussed. One theorist, Gisela Konopka (1973) emphasized the developmental differences in the different age level adolescents. Changes in adolescent sexual behavior were discussed. Socioeconomic and racial differences were noted in sexual behavior. Aspirations Since individuals hold a number of aspirations simultaneously, it is probable that adolescents will be con- cerned about a number of future goals. They would, there- fore, hold a set of status goals, more or less integrated and differentially valued (Merton, 1957). This concept has especial relevance to the status attainment process, because in order to predict goal-oriented behavior, one must have knowledge about the individual's defined goals and any con- flicts between goals. 21 Sex role confusions may cause various problems for adolescents trying to develop a clear sense of identity, but according to Erikson (1968) occupational choice is perhaps the major decision leading to a sense of identity. The occupation one chooses influences other aspects of life such as the amount of money that can be earned and where and how the individual will live. A comprehensive study by Little (1967) found that lower socioeconomic status students have lower career aspirations than middle socioeconomic status students. Public and private high school graduating seniors were used in this study. The study included all the graduating seniors in one state. At the time of graduation each student was asked what occupation he/she hOped to enter. These choices were later compared to the jobs that were actually attained. The lower socioeconomic status students' later actual job attainments were quite close to their aspirations. Hoppe's (1930) concept about level of aspiration may help in interpreting these findings. He observed that people tended to set a level of aspiration in an effort to achieve a compromise between two conflicting tendencies--(l) the desire to succeed at the highest possible level, and (2) the desire to avoid disappointment accompanying failure. Douvan and Adelson (1966) found sexual differences in identity and level of aspiration of adolescents. They explained the adolescent experience in much the same terms as Erickson: "The normal adolescent holds, we think, two 22 conceptions of himself--what he is and what he will be--and the way in which he integrates the future image into his current life will indicate a good deal about his current adolescent integration" (p. 23). They found after lengthy interviews with many adolescents that there is a masculine and feminine identity and that in general identity for girls is much more vague than for boys. In addition, girls have a higher level of aspiration than boys. The measurement for boys' aspirations were related in terms of their career goals as opposed to current jobs held by their fathers. The investigators had to compare the girls' aspirations in terms of their hopes for their future husbands' job categories. They assume that the ability to integrate the future to present life situation and current self-concept is the best measure of overall integration in adolescents. Katheryn Thomas (1971) also examined the aSpirations of girls. Although her sample was restricted to rural Black and White girls, the findings were in basic agreement with the Douvan and Adelson study. She found that aspirations were higher than expectations and that this direction did not change over the two year period in which the girls were questioned. The girls were high school sophomores at the beginning of the study. The study focused on the integration of occupational and educational aspirations with expectations about marriage and future familial status-roles. Integration was considered in terms of how well job aspirations related to projections about marriage and motherhood. Aspirations 23 always remained high regardless of familial role—status expectations. That is, as the desire for education increased, the desire for children decreased. An explanation of why adolescents have high aspira- tion levels was offered by Murray and Kluckhohn (1959). They speculated that one of the functions of personality was to lower aspirations to realizable levels. They felt that through experience persons would come to realize that all needs could not be fully satisfied. Perhaps adolescents have not had enough experiences to cause them to lower their aspirations. A study by Schwab (1974) may also offer some explana— tions concerning the Thomas study. Schwab (1974) used 248 male eleventh grade high school students to examine the relationship between self-concept and vocational maturity, as independent variables, and the level of occupational choice, the dependent variable. The students were placed in four groups according to self-concept scores and vocational maturity scores: 1. high self-concept and high vocational maturity, 2. high self-concept and low vocational maturity, 3. low self-concept and high vocational maturity, and 4. low self-concept and low vocational maturity. He found that high school males who had high self-concepts and high vocational maturity had significantly lower dis- crepancy scores on the level of occupational choice than did the high vocational maturity and low self-concept group. 24 Furthermore, the low self-concept and low vocational maturity group had significantly smaller discrepancies than did the high vocational maturity and low self-concept group. This finding indicates that there must be congruence between self-concept and level of aspiration for integration to take place. Different instruments have been used to measure most psychological variables (Anastasi, 1968). Many of the studies concerned with aspirations have used various techniques of gathering data. Hadley Cantril (1963) developed a "self- anchoring" scale that could be used in different countries to measure individual attitudes about personal progress and future aspirations. The "self-anchoring" scale devised by Cantril solves two major problems in measuring aspirations: On the one hand, it is necessary to get people to voice their concerns and aspirations in their own terms; on the other, this information must be secured in such a form that the responses of different individuals and groups of individuals either within the same society or in different societies can be compared to one another in some meaningful way. . . . a present ladder rating of "6" for an upper-middle-class housewife in the New York suburbs is the psychological equivalent of a "6" rating for a sharescropper in the Southwest, even though the substance of their hopes and fears may differ ‘markedly (Cantril and Roll, 1971, p. 17). The Cantril Self Anchoring Scale has been used in a number of national and international surveys to determine what the future aspirations are for the various nations (Cantril and Roll, 1971). 25 Summary Murray and Kluckhohn (1959) have identified per- sonality as being important in controlling the level of aspiration. Cantril (1963) devised a measuring instrument that can be used cross-culturally to measure the level of asPiration. Aspirations are believed to be important in forming a sense of identity. Sexual and socioeconomic differences were noted in the level of aSpirations. Males have lower levels of aspirations than females. However, female identity is much more vague than male identity (Douvan and Adelson, 1966). There are also differences in the level of aspira- tions of different socioeconomic status students. Racial differences were also noted. It was speculated that in order for personality integration to take place, there must be congruence between self-concept and level of aspiration. Self-Concept The self is essentially an abstraction of what one believes or remembers (Rogers, 1977). The self-concept is one's conscious perceptions of self. One of the most criti- cal aSpects of the self-concept is that of self-esteem which refers to an individual's judgment of personal worth (Copper- smith, 1967). In fact, self-esteem and self-concept are often used synonymously in the literature. 26 Another term that is often used for self-concept is that of identity. Rogers (1977) however, states that "self- .concept embraces an individual's total picture of self, whereas identity refers to feelings of distinctiveness from others" (p. 123). In discussing the issue Erikson observed that: It would be obviously wrong to let some terms of per- sonology and of social psychology often identified with identity or identity confusion--terms such as self- concept, self-imagery, or self—esteem, on the one hand, and role ambiguity, role conflict, or role loss, in the other--take over the area to be studied, although team- work methods are, at the moment, the best approach in this general area. What these approaches as yet lack, however, is a theory of human development which attempts to come closer to something by finding out wherefrom and whereto it develops. For identity is never "established" as an "achievement" in the form of a personality armor, or anything static and unchangeable (Erikson, 1968, pp. 23-24). Carl Rogers (1951) defined self-concept "as an organized configuration of perceptions of the self which are admissible to awareness. It is composed of such elements as the perceptions of one's characteristics and attitudes, the percepts and concepts of the self in relation to other and to the environment; the value qualities which are perceived as associated with experience and objects; and goals, and ideals which are perceived as having positive or negative valences" (p. 136). Self-Concept Formation According to Dorothy Rogers (1977) the infant is born without any feeling that could be called a self-concept. The 27 first step towards a self-concept is the discovery of one's own body as being separate from that of all others. The family plays an important role because it is the first and most consistent "other" that the child experiences. Peers also are reported to have a major impact on the develop- ment of the self-concept. In a study examining the self- concept of adolescents and their feelings towards parents and friends, using 138 eight graders and 139 eleventh graders, it was found that feelings towards family were more related to self-concept; the relationship does decrease with age (O'Donnell, 1976). Self-concept was measured by the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Comer and Poussaint (1975) postulated that parental influence may be greater in early adolescence and peers may be more influential in later adolescence. A study by Schwartz and Baden (1973) indicated that the impact may not be that simple. The Schwartz and Baden study examined the signi— ficant others of low socioeconomic status and middle socio- economic status girls. It was found that the young low socioeconomic status girl's self-concept was more influenced by her mother and teachers. The older lower socioeconomic status girl is influenced by her mother and best friends. Middle socioeconomic status young girls are more influenced by their fathers, and teachers and peers, while the older girls are influenced by their mothers, fathers, teachers, and best friends. 28 In a study concerned with identity and self-concept development in middle adolescence, LaVoie (1976) found that self-concept increased with age. Boys had higher total self-concept scores than the girls. The subjects in this study were SOphomore, junior, and senior high school males and females. The students who scored high on identity had significantly higher total self-concept scores. This StUdY used the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Other researchers have found that self-concept may decrease in middle childhood and that there are sex differ- ences in self-concept. In a study using Korean-American and Black Americans elementary school children in the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades, Chang (1975) found that self-concept scores declined at the higher grade levels. She used the Pier-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, The Way I Feel About Myself. Bohan (1973) found in comparing fourth, sixth, eighth, and tenth grade girls and boys on the COOpersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, that tenth grade girls were signifi- cantly lower in self-esteem than all the other groups. All of the subjects in this study were from middle class white- collar and professional families. One explanation offered by the investigator for the findings was that the adolescent: girls were now cognitively aware that their status was not as highly valued by the society as was the male status. A similar explanation was offered by Ruth Lyell (1973) when she compared a group of working young adult males, with a 29 group of unemployed young adult women, and a group of adolescent females and a group of adolescent males. She found that the employed males had the most positive self- concept of the four groups. Self-Concept and Behavior There is evidence that children's behavior in any specific context is determined by the way they perceive themselves (Rogers, 1977). Self-concept about one's ade- quacy may be thought of as consisting of both highly situation specific performance expectations. According to Mischel (1976) specific expectancies refer to the indi- vidual's expectancies that a particular set of behaviors on his/her part will lead to particular outcomes in the specific situation to be confronted. In a study conducted to analyze the differences between highly competent adolescents, randomly selected adolescents, court referred adolescents, and institution- alized adolescents on the Tennessee Self Concept Scale, Light (1976) found that the highly competent girls received significantly higher scores than the other three groups. The randomly selected group and the court-referred group had similar scores. The institutionalized adolescents had the lowest scores on the test. All of the subjects in this study were female. The highly competent group had a mean total score of 342, the randomly selected had a score of 309.7, the court referred group had a score of 312.6, and the institutionalized delinquents had a mean total of 295.35. 30 COOpersmith (1968) also found behavioral differences in a group of middle-class urban boys aged 10 to 12 who had three levels of self—concept--high, medium, and low. This study was conducted over an eight year period and compared the boys' memories, perceptions, level of aspirations, con- formity, and responses to stress. The researcher examined the boys' levels of ability, personality traits, attitudes, and styles of response. The study included interviews with parents of the boys that examined factors of upbringing or experiences that might be related to each boy's self-concept. There was some indication that self-concept is self-defined and based on the individual's personal achievement and the treatment that the person receives in his/her own environment. An additional finding of this study was that the boys' self-estimations of their self-concepts matched that of their teachers and agreed with scores on other psychological tests in 80 percent of the cases. Other important findings from this major longitudinal study was that boys with high self-concepts were active, successful academically and socially, not overly sensitive to criticism, and they were not anxious. High self-concept was not related to physical attractiveness, size of family, social position, economic level, or mothers' employment status. The boys with medium self-concept were similar to high self-concepts boys in most characteristics. However, the medium self-concept boys showed the strongest tendency to support the middle class 31 value system.and compliance to its norms and demands. These boys were also the most uncertain in their self—ratings of their personal worth and tended to be particularly dependent on social acceptance. Low self-concept boys were discouraged and generally depressed. The level of aspiration was positively related to self—concept. The results showed that high self-concept boys had higher aspirations and were more successful in achieving their goals. "In tests designed to indicate the level of goals they set for themselves the high esteem boys had a mean score of 86.3; the medium esteem group, 76.7; the low- esteem group, only 70.1" (Coopersmith, 1968, p. 100). The relationship between the boys and their parents seemed to be important in fostering high self-concept. The parents of boys with high self-concept had high standards and were not permissive. The basic assumptions underlying research in the area of self-theory is that one can predict behavior from the self-concept (Fitts, 1972; wylie, 1974). It is also assumed that the trait is stable. However, some researchers have found that the self-concept does change. In a study of 25 unwed mothers who were residents of a special home for unwed mothers, it was found that: upon admission to the home, the subjects viewed them- selves as differing greatly in interpersonal behavior from their conception of what they and their parents would have liked them to be, and as differing especially from their conception of what most other teen-age girls are. A week after postparition, however, the subjects saw themselves as being significnatly more like other 32 teen-age girls and more like what they and their parents would like them to be (Kogan, Boe, and Valentine, 1965, p. 9). All of these girls gave up their babies for adoption. The mean age for the group was 16.5. The instrument was Logan's Revised Interpersonal Check List containing 64 items. Butler (1970) found that the college experience changed the self-concept of first term students. Both Black and White students experienced a decrease in self-concept. Urban Black freshmen students had an increase in concept of physical self. This study included 180 students and used the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Social climate or events can also influence the self- concept. Jeffrey Jacques (1976) found that southern Blacks had very high self—concepts. He credited his finding to the changes that have taken place in the American society, parti- cularly the increased interest in Black studies and history. William Fitts (1972), the developer of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale, has compiled a great deal of evidence indicating that the self-concept is positively related to be- havior. The 1972 monograph provides an overview of research activity he has been involved in from 1953 to 1972. He cites research studies on juvenile delinquency, vocational rehabilitation, and psychopathology as evidence that the self-concept is a significant variable in human behavior. Not all studies have found a consistent relationship between self-concept and behavior. For example, Jessor and Jessor (1975) found that there were no differences in 33 self-concept scores of high school females who were sexually active and those who were not sexually active. However, high school males who were sexually active had significantly higher self-concept scores than those males who were not sexually active. The sexually active high school females scored significantly lower in items concerned with future expectations and in a motivational variable the researchers called values on achievement. That is, the sexually active females placed little value on academic achievement. The Jessor and Jessor (1975) study was conducted over a four year period of time and used a fifty page questionnaire to gather the data. Data were collected in April and May of each year. Summary Self-esteem and self-concept are often used synony- mously in the literature. Many persons use the term identity for self-concept. However, Dorothy Rogers (1977) distin- guishes between the two concepts. She defines the self— concept as the individual's total picture of self. Identity is defined as feelings of distinctiveness from others. Erikson (1968) combines the two definitions to form his definition of identity. In addition he adds three other important concepts to his definition of identity: a sense of well-being, a sense of knowing where one is going, and assurance of recognition from important others. 34 The famuly and peers were identified as being impor- tant in the development of a positive self-concept. Age, race, socioeconomic status, and sexual differ- ences were noted in self-concept formation. Most personality theorist believe that there is a positive relationship between behavior and self-concept. However, a review of the literature in this area indicates some inconsistencies. Adolescent Pregnancy Although the overall birthrate in the United States has been declining, the number of children being born to mothers under 20 years of age has been increasing over the past few years (National Center for Health Statistics, 1977). A close examination of the data indicates that the greatest increase has occurred in the 15 to 17 age range. Betty Moore Plionis (1975), in a review of the literature concerned with adolescent pregnancy found great theoretical disarray. She described the various camps postulating causes of adolescent pregnancy: psychological views, sociological views, views concerned with pathology and stress, medical views, economic views, and the view of adolescent pregnancy as a social problem. Hartley (1975) has classified various theories that deal with the causes of illegitimacy: (1) physical features, including race and geography; (2) psychological explanations such as the personality problems of unwed mothers, unconscious 35 but purposive behavior, and unsocialized personalities; (3) structural explanations including poverty, living con- ditions, number of women in the work force, sex ratio, and social disorganization; (4) cultural explanations including cultural relativism, value stretch, religion, general edu- cation and sex education; and (5) single versus multiple causation. In 1971, Johnson noted that most research on adoles— cent pregnancy concentrated on the fact that the pregnancy occurred outside of marriage. She claims that ". . . the adverse effects of adolescent pregnancy have been shrouded by moral precepts" (Johnson, 1971, p. l). The problem for her is one of age regardless of whether the person is married or not. An additional problem in this area is that an accurate count of the number of pregnancies outside of marriage is difficult to secure (Krammerer, 1918; Pope, 1967; Vincent, 1961; Young, 1954). Over sixty years ago Kammerer (1918) observed that "A certain group of the population, . . . is possessed of a sufficient means to enable them to secure abortions which again prevent the registration of their illicit sex intercourse from the pages of the birth register" (p. 2). Clark Vincent (1961) indicated that the protective attitude towards middle-class illegitimacy may be changing. However, he did find that research in the area of pregnancy among unwed mothers tend to focus upon only certain groups of unwed mothers--the lower socioeconomic status mother. 36 It is easier to obtain information from public clinics and public hospitals than it is to get information from private physicians and hOSpitals. POpe (1967) found the same situation to be true when attempting to interview all the females in one state that had given birth out of wedlock. The investigator could not locate most of the white middle— class unwed mothers from the information given on the birth records. In recent years the National Center for Health Statistics has provided accurate statistics for adolescent pregnancy. Causes of Out of Wedlock Pregnancy Over the years many explanations have been given about the causes of out of wedlock pregnancy. In 1918 Kammerer listed eleven causative factors of unwed pregnancies. He studied the case records of 500 women ranging in age from 13 to over 30. According to his analysis, most of the unwed mothers came from bad home conditions. The next largest group was identified as having bad companions and bad environments. A more recent explanation of premarital pregnancy was offered by Young (1954). She described out of wedlock pregnancy as a deliberate compulsive act. Why does a girl have to bear a baby at such a cost to herself! The answer can only be sought in her past life, her home and her childhood. Like every human being she responds dynamically to her particular life situation. The question is what particular combinations of factors and circumstances produces that psychological development which finds its expression in an out-of- wedlock child (Young, 1954, p. 39). 37 Young's answer is that these girls are driven by one of their parents. "The great majority of unmarried mothers come from homes dominated by the mother" (Young, 1954, p. 41). Her observations were based on active case work with 350 unmarried mothers and approximately 1,000 other case records from social workers in public and private agencies. 'All age levels were represented in her sample. eFurstenberg (1976) seems to believe that many adoles- cent pregnancies are not "caused," they are simply unplanned. The adolescents are aware of birth control, but just did not use them. He cites two factors he believes contributes to the increase in teenage pregnancy: (1) the changing patterns of sexual behavior that expose a greater number of unmarried teenagers to the possibility of pregnancy, and (2) the ten- dency to delay marriage. One other researcher who believed that adolescent pregnancy is unplanned is Cobliner. He describes it as the "unanticipated consequence of their sexual activity" (Cobliner, 1974, p. 20). The study by Cobliner was concerned with the role of cognitive function in adolescent pregnancy. A sample of girls who had abortions was used to test the supposition that the adolescents who wanted to avoid pregnancy and were aware of birth control measures, were not capable of antici- pating all the possible outcomes of their behavior. In other words, these adolescents had not reached the level of formal Operation as far as cognitive development was concerned. 38 Many researchers have pointed to the fact that there is an apparent link between early sexual maturity, sexual permissiveness, increased premarital sexual experiences, increased age of first marriage, lack of accurate knowledge about contraceptives, and increased rate of adolescent pregnancy (Chilman, 1976; Furstenberg, 1976; Morris, 1974; Pope, 1967; Zelnik and Kantner, 1974). Some persons believe that women who become pregnant before they marry are deviants. Pope (1967) argues against the deviant model of adolescent pregnancy. He interviewed almost 1,000 unwed mothers of all age levels and found that by all normal standards most of the women could not be con- sidered deviant, nor were their sexual partners deviants. The majority of the couples were in long-term relationships when the women became pregnant. The study was concluded with this summary: That some courtships produce illegitimate births is not surprising in a period in which American youth exercise much control over their courtship activity, given a culture that emphasizes the importance of sexual attrac- tiveness. Many couples engage in premarital sexual rela— tions, and yet some unknown proportion of these avoid having children--either through contraception or abortion, or because they are not fertile. Others get married after a premarital pregnancy but before a premarital birth (Pope, 1967, p. 567). Nye (1976), in his analysis of the consequences of school-age parenthood, implies that one cause of teenage pregnancy is peer pressure to engage in premarital sexual intercourse. Joyce Ladner (1971) pointed to peer pressure as one of the major causes of adolescent pregnancy in the community she studied. 39 Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy Details concerning the consequences of adolecent pregnancy abound in the research and theoretical literature (Baizerman, Sheehan, Ellison, and Schlesinger, 1971). They emphasized that when adolescent pregnancy is conceptualized and studied as a medical problem, factors such as race, social class, familial relationships, peer relationships, and social living situations are not included. A number of adverse health outcomes for the pregnant adolescent have been reported in the literature. Sugar (1976) conducted a cross—cultural study dealing with the dangers to the mother and the child when the mother begins her childbearing at an early age. He defined early age as being under 20. He found that there was higher maternal mortality, severe anemia, complicated labor, and higher prematurity among the young mothers. In addition, among the population he studied there was higher parity among these young women. Rains (1971) points out that repeated pregnancies by teenagers are detrimental to the health of infants. In a study of the data on adolescent pregnancies, it was found that infants born to teenage mothers are more likely to die before their first birthday; birth defects are more prevalant among babies born to teenagers (Nye, 1976) A major health problem for pregnant teenagers is abortion. Zelnik and Kantner (1974) found that about 40 35 percent of pregnant White teenagers aborted, while approxi- mately 5 percent of the pregnant Black teenagers aborted. In 1969 the fifth leading cause of death among female teenagers 15 to 19 years of age was complications of pregnancy, childbirth, and the puerperium (National Center for Health Statistics, 1974). Osofsky, Osofsky, Kendall, and Rajan (1973) found that with good medical treatment there was a decrease in prematurity and perinatal mortality among 490 girls enrolled in a program for adolescent mothers. This study implies that medical problems are not necessarily the obvious outcome of an adolescent pregnancy. A number of other problems have been positively associated with adolescent pregnancy. Maddock (1973), using Erikson's concept of identity, speculated that an adolescent pregnancy might be damaging to the adolescent's psychic structure. He believes an adoles- cent pregnancy does not allow the adolescent adequate time to experiment with different roles before a final adult commitment is made. Johnson (1972), Furstenberg (1976), and Hunt (1976) found that one of the most detrimental social consequences of adolescent pregnancy was that education was interrupted and careers were also interrupted. Furstenberg (1976), conducted a longitudinal study that compared pregnant adolescents with their peers who did. not have an out of wedlock child. He found that early GI 1.} M1 |4Mu ; .‘M‘ loz¢ >m3n~ momma cmaoom com ummmucmoumm Am x my ¢>024E Am x m. a>oze mmzum museumu Hopped mamom mnemonooe waow flamenco we» so mmuoow moma co whoom ummOcOOImHmm m>fluwmom Hmuoa mmcaumu Hopped mamom mcwuoeoed mamm kuucmo co mouoom com muma co whoom uQOOCOOImamm m>fluwmom Hopoa museumu Hopped maoom mewuoeocd mamm HHHDOMO co mmuoom .mwwhommumo coflumuflmmm one mummmnlmamom mownosood mamm Hwnuooo oo monoom muma mo mmhoom loom pomwm we» so mwuoom Amomeo memom ummoaoo Imawm mommmoooe co ouoom ummonOImem o>fluflmom Hmuoa .OEHD mo coflumm ounce 039 m Hm>o mam>ma coaumuwmmo ow mmmoceo mo confluomsoo meu ea mucwom 039 um muewomwaoom ucmemmuo mo umwocooumaom ca mwocwummmao coauoufiomm mo Hw>ma com ummocoonmamm mo ooaumawuuou maooeom maficomuem mucoommaocma mom quQOMMHO mo muomommaocel mnemommaoom unmomoum mo mOOflumHHomm mo conflummEOO maooeom ucmummmwc mowcomuum muooommaoomu mHm>mH mom nomumwmwc mo muomommaocai muomommaoom unmcmoum mo ummOGOUIMHom mo conflummfioo coma oeumflumum mammamod ca coma memo mammamoe mo monomuom .mumc mo mammamcm cw ammo moonumz .oa.m canoe CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF RESULTS The results Of the data analyses are presented in this chapter. Each hypothesis will be presented separately, followed by the analysis. Hypothesis 1 There will be no difference in the self-concept scores of pregnant adolescents attending three different schools. The two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) reveals that there are no differences between the means Of the total positive self-concept scores of the three groups of pregnant adolescents; there are no differences between the five age levels of the adolescents; there are no interaction effects between the two independent variables--(l) school settings, and (2) age levels (Table 4.1). Table 4.2 indicates that the urban school group had the highest mean self-concept score of the three groups at 332.54. The lowest self-concept score was made by the students attending the small city school. The grand mean total positive self-concept score for the thirty-nine subjects in the study was 323.77. 71 72 Table 4.1. Summary ANOVA for main effects and interaction. Source of Sum Of Mean Variation Squares DF Squares F Probability Main Effects 4455.056 6 742.509 .503 .800 NS Group 1545.106 2 772.554 .524 .599 NS Age 2435.001 4 608.750 .413 .798 NS Two-Way Interaction 14221.117 7 2031.588 1.377 .258 NS Group-Age ‘ 14221.117 7 2031.588 1.377 .258 NS Table 4.2. Adjusted mean total positive self-concept scores for groups. Group Small City Urban Private 315.59 332.54 321.4 Grand Mean = 323.77 73 The adjusted means for the five different age levels are shown in Table 4.3. It can be seen that there are differences in the total positive self-concept scores Of the pregnant adolescents at different age levels. In comparing ages it can be seen that the sixteen year olds obtained the highest score and the fifteen year olds Obtained the lowest scores . Table 4.3. Adjusted mean total positive self-concept scores for age. Age 14 15 16 17 18 320.28 310.8 331.13 328.47 318.45 Table 4.4 indicates that all three groups scored well below the national norm Of 345.57. The grand mean of the three groups was 323.77, 21.8 points below the norm. Table 4.4. Comparison of means Of three groups with national norm. Group National Norm Small City Urban Private 345.57 315.59 .332.54 321.4 The multivariate analysis Of variance (MANOVA) reveals that there are no significant differences between 74 the three groups on any of the eight subscales on the Tennessee Self Concept Scale (Table 4.5). There are no age differences and there are no interaction effects on any Of the subscales. However, the subscale for family self does approach significance levelfor group differences. Table 4.6 indicates that the private school group is well below the other two groups on this subscale. Although there are differences on the subscales they are minor. The Detroit group is closest to the norm scores on all five of these sub- scales. Identity, self-satisfaction, and behavior are the three major subscales on the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Each of these scales is composed of 30 items of the 100 item test. As can be seen from Table 4.7, the urban group scores are the highest scores on the three subscales. With the exception of the score on the behavior category, the scores for Group 2 are close to the national norm scores. Hypothesis 2 There will be no difference in the selfficoncept scores of pregnant adolescents at two dafferent time periods. Results of the matched pair t-test indicate that the self-concept scores of the pregnant adolescents did not change (Table 4.8). This test used the 16 students who participated in both test periods. For the matched pair t-test these 16 students were treated as a single group. Table 4.5. Summary MANOVA for main effects and interaction for eight TSCS subscales. Sum of Mean Source Of Variance Squares DF Squares F probability Main Effects--(Identity) Group 186.65 2 93.22 .65 .53 Age 763.26 4 190.81 1.32 .28 Group/Age Interaction 1299.56 7 185.65 1.29 .29 Main Effects-- (Self-Satisfaction) Group 325.24 2 162.62 .62 .54 Age 428.31 4 107.07 .40 .80 Group/Age Interaction 2879.47 7 411.35 1.56 .19 Main Effects--(Behavior) Group 249.42 2 124.74 .55 .58 Age 115.87 4 28.96 .12 .97 Group/Age Interaction 1586.24 7 226.60 1.00 .44 Main Effects—-(Physical Self) Group 161.38 2 80.69 .58 .56 Age 90.35 4 22.68 .16 .95 Group/Age Interaction 979.22 7 139.88 1.02 .44 Main Effects--(Mora1 Ethical) Group 4.68 2 2.34 .04 .95 Age 272.82 4 68.20 1.21 .33 Group/Age Interaction 931.46 7 133.06 2.36 .05 Main Effects-~(Personal Self) Group 145.65 2 72.82 .98 .38 Age 81.47 4 20.36 .27 .89 Group/Age Interaction 721.09 7 103.01 1.38 .25 Main Effects--(Family Self) Group 929.16 2 464.68 4.19 .02 Age 507.90 4 126.97 1.14 .35 Group/Age Interaction 1176.122 7 168.02 1.51 .20 Main Effects--(Social Self) Group 28.70 2 14.35 .22 .79 Age 217.68 4 54.42 .86 .49 Group/Age Interaction 510.91 7 72.98 1.15 .36 76 Table 4.6. *Means scores for TSCS subscales. Group Physical- Moral- Personal- Family- Social- Self Ethical Self Self Self Norm Score 71.98 70.33 64.55 70.83 68.14 Small City 65.88 63.11 59.22 63.8 63.66 Urban- 70.9 63.99 63.15 70.2 65.30 Public Urban- 70.5 63.41 64.05 59 63.41 Private Table 4.7. Means for specific subscales of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Self Group Identity Satisfaction Behavior Norm Score 127.10 103.67 115.01 Small City 121 94.66 99.88 Urban- 124.76 102.69 106.15 Public Urban- 119.82 99.11 101.29 Private 77 Table 4.8. Matched pair t-test. Variable Number Of Cases Mean T Value Significance TSCS-l 16 319.12 .21 .839 NS TSCS-2 16 318.25 Table 4.9 compares the sixteen students by their group representation. There are minor differences in the individual group scores. The private school students had the lowest scores at both test time periods. The urban students (Group 2) had the highest score at the second test period. This score, 354.5, is above the national norm . Table 4.9. Mean self-concept score at two time periods. Test Periods Group First Second Small City 321.16 318.5 Urban-Public 319.12 354.5 Urban-Private 287 293.83 Grand Means = 319.12 318.25 Hypothesis 3 There will be no difference in the future aspirations Of pregnant adolescents attending three different schools. 78 The two—way analysis of variance (ANOVA) reveals that there are no significant differences for group, age or interaction for future aspirations (Table 4.10). Table 4.10. Summary analysis Of variance for CSAS. Sum of Mean Source of Variation Squares DF Square F Probability Main Effects 17.923 6 2.987 1.496 .220 NS Group 2.025 2 1.013 .507 .608 NS Age 14.796 4 3.699 1.853 .150 NS Two-Way Interaction 37.392 7 5.342 2.675 .033 NS Group-Age 37.392 7 5.342 2.675 .033 NS Tables 4.11 and 4.12 contain the means for the three groups and the five different age levels. As can be seen there are very minor differences between the three group ratings. The urban school group has the highest score on the future rating. Table 4.11. Future aspirations of the three groups of pregnant adolescents. Group Small City Urban Private 8.55 8.94 8.42 Grand Mean = 8.62 79 Table 4.12. Future aspirations of the different age levels. Ages 14 15 16 17 18 9.64 8.25 8.95 9.01 7.41 The 14 and 17 year olds have the highest future aspiration ratings. The 18 year olds have the lowest future aspirations of the different ages. Figures 4.1 and 4.2 reveal the differences on the present, past, and future ladder ratings for the three groups” and the different age levels. The present rating for the urban school group is the highest rating of the three groups. The past rating for the small city group is the highest rating for the three groups. The 14 year olds gave the highest rating for the present and the 18 year olds gave the lowest present rating. Seventeen year olds gave the highest past rating and again the 18 year olds gave the lowest past rating for the differ- ent age levels. The 18 year olds gave the lowest ratings for all three time periods. Hypothesis 4 There will be no difference in the future aSpirations of pregnant adolescents at two different time periods. Group 80 Present Small Past City Future Present Urban Past Public Future Present Urban Past Private Future 5.2] i 6.7} p 3.51 6.8] y 5% 3.9J 5.5] 5.4L 8.4 I l J L l l l J l 0 23456789 Figure 4.1 Level of aspiration Of three groups of pregnant adolescents. 1O 81 Age Present 715] 14 Past 6-5] » (n=2) Future 9°6j Present 6.1 ] 15 Past 6.[ (n=8) _ Future 8'2 J Present 6.3 l 16 Past 5'4 L ( =13) n Future 8.9] Present 53] 17 Past 7 ‘ (n=10) 6'9 l , Future 9.0 I Present 4.81 18 Past 5'0] (n=6) Future 7-4J J J l 1 l L l l 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Figure 4.2. Level Of aspiration of different age pregnant adolescents. 10 82 The level of aspiration for these pregnant adoles- cents did not change over the two time periods. Table 4.13 indicates that there is a .2 difference in the future aspiration rating at the two time periods. Table 4.13. Comparison of aspirations at two time periods. Test Period First Second Present 5.2 6.2 Past 6.1 5.9 Future 8.3 8.5 Although the future rating on the CSAS did not change from the first test period to the second test period, the present rating did change. There was a 1.0 positive change as indicated in Table 4.13. The past rating did not change over the two test sessions. Only .2 separated the two times. Hypothesis 5 There will be no relationship between the self-concept scores and the future aspirations of pregnant adoles- cents. The Spearman rank correlation (Table 4.14) reveals that there is a positive correlation of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale (TSCS) total positive score with the future aspiration rating on the Cantril Self Anchoring Scale (CSAS) of the 39 pregnant adolescents who participated in 83 Table 4.14. Spearman rank correlation of TSCS and CSAS. Variable Pair Number of Subjects r Significance TSCS with CSAS 39 .5834 .001 this study. The correlation is significant at the .001 level. The scattergram in Figure 4.3 shows this moderate positive correlation. Additional Data Some additional information generated by the Cantril Self Anchoring Scale not included in the hypotheses is included in this section. Aspirations The pregnant adolescents who participated in this study mentioned 183 aspirations (Table 4.15). Table 4.16 indicates the average number of aspirations that were given by each student in the three groups. Students in the urban school gave the largest number of aspirations. Table 4.15. Number of aspirations Of pregnant adolescents. Group Small City Urban Private Aspirations 43 67 73 844 .mocflumu OHOuOM mamom mcfiuonocd mamm Hfluucmu com mwuoom mamom emwocoo mHmm commences mo Emumuouumum mo usoucwum Monomsou .m.v encode oouhsstoo um hozzco hzuuoHuuuou c an ouhzuca mu noon-Io. o o mu34q> alumna: a umu34<> ouoaauxu on a mmaac> outhJu mnnemo I.c. onh¢Judcoo .ouuuhnnhuhm owe.“ eeoa 99.0 on.» no.0 aeom coo: coon ooo~ co.“ 9 O....§-...O...-O -I--6 ....é .. ..6 50-6-...6-...O--..O..-.O OI--.....O--..O.-.-¢...-0 0.0.1.... 6 0.-..OIIII6 O ecooo~ w w cocoon oe.cn~ w M o e-oonw H M oeouom m w m cooeo~ W 0 O H o u ecooow o n o o aa.ao~ D . -"n . --...--'... ..- w. . . 1 oa.o~n on o M . no.o~n M: N O w N O O O n 0 ocean» oo o m m .uoomn Wu 0 m H. o eo.oon m m . euooon ”H l' u '-'-'-..-.M 99.9«4 .o w M . ao.euc N W noouaa w W . cocoa; H u M w ca.u~4 m . oo.o~: m M ooooom « n o cocoon O I..-‘ .-.-O...-6 -I--. --..O .'..O .-.-O---.O---.O ----O---.6----0 ..-.O--..O...-O.-I-O.---O....O ..-.§--..O 0 once once on.» amoo omom om.o omen em.~ amou am. memo .mmoau.. . osxeaxxo - uemwmuomuumm . umrauwmaupwaww a weed coconwoou. cos) Mmam o~\:«\su t«¢uuwuptow.20n>¢am¢ou.1>oz‘ 85 Table 4.16. Mean number of aspirations Of three groups of pregnant adolescents. Group Small City Urban Private Aspirations 4.77 5.15 4.29 Table 4.17 indicates the number of aspirations stated by the various age levels of adolescents. The 15 and 16 year olds stated the largest number of aspirations of the various ages. The 14 and 18 year olds gave the fewest number of aspirations of the students. Table 4.17. Mean number of aspirations of different age pregnant adolescents. - Ages 14 15 l6 17 18 Aspirations 3 5.125 5.23 4.8 3.33 As can be seen in Table 4.18, four of the 11 aspiration categories were not mentioned by any of the pregnant adolescents. The most frequently mentioned cate- gories were: personal character, personal economic situ- ation and references to the family. Of the aspirations mentioned by the small city students, 32 percent of the aspirations were about 86 Table 4.18. Mean number of aspirations of pregnant adoles- cents. Personal Character 1.64 Personal Economic Situation .92 Job or Work Situation .35 Other References to Self .12 References to Family 1.50 Political .00 General Economic Situation .00 Social Condition .05 Religion, Morality and Public Service .00 International Situation ‘ .025 Miscellaneous .00 references to family, 28 percent were about personal character, and 21 percent were about personal economic situation. In order of preference, the urban students mentioned references to family (40 percent), personal character (27 percent), and personal economic situation (21 percent). The private school students mentioned personal character (47 percent), references to family (27 percent), and personal economic situation (16 percent) (Table 4.19)- Table 4.20 indicates that the 14 and 15 year olds mentioned references to family most frequently of all the aspirations. The 16, 17, and 18 year olds, mentioned per- sonal character most frequently. 87 Table 4.19. Percentage of most frequently mentioned aspirations of three groups of pregnant adolescents. Group Aspirations Small City Urban Private Personal Character 28 27 27 References to Family 32 40 29 Personal Economic Situation 21 21 16 Below are some of the personal aSpirations of the pregnant adolescents participating in this study. One of the 15 year olds had this wish: "I want to major in medicine . . ." A 17 year wrote: "I hope to finish high school and go straight to college . . ." Another 15 year old student gave this as her first aspira- tion: "I would like to become a lawyer . . ." Table 4.20. Percentage of most frequently mentioned aspirations of pregnant adolescents at differ— ent age levels. Ages Aspirations 14 15 16 17 18 Personal Character 17 34 35 33 45 References to Family 50 39 31 31 35 Personal Economic Situation 17 17 18 25 15 88 32%". The pregnant adolescents who participated in this study mentioned 125 fears or concerns about the future (Table 4.21). The average number of fears mentioned by each of the students in the three groups ranged from 3.0 to 3.29 (Table 4.22). Table 4.21. Number of fears of pregnant adolescents. Group Small City Urban Private Fears 27 42 56 Table 4.22. Mean number of fears of three groups of pregnant adolescents. Group Small City Urban Private Fears 3.0 3.23 3.29 Table 4.23 indicates that each age level mentioned approximately three fears. The students mentioned fears in all the fear cate- gories with the exception of three. The most frequently mentioned categories are: personal character and references to family (Table 4.24). 89 Table 4.23. Mean number of fears of different age pregnant adolescents. Ages 14 15 16 17 18 Fears 3.0 3.75 2.84 3.8 2.33 Table 4.24. Mean number of fears of pregnant adolescents. Personal Character 1.10 Personal Economic Situation .51 Job or Work Situation .17 Other References to Self .15 References to Family 1.05 Political .0 General Economic Situation .0 Social Condition .025 Religion, Morality and Public Service .0 International Situation .076 Miscellaneous .05 90 Table 4.25 indicates that of all the fears mentioned by small city group, most of them were about personal character. Most of the fears mentioned by urban group were references to family. Group 3 mentioned personal character most often of all the fears that they mentioned. Table 4.25. Percentage of most frequently mentioned fears of pregnant adolescents. Group Fears Small City Urban Private Personal Character 41 21 41 References to Family 26 40 32 Personal Economic Situation 22 16 14 Table 4.26 indicates that the 14, 15, and 16 year old pregnant adolescents made references to family their most frequently mentioned fear category. The 17 and 18 year olds made personal character their most frequently mentioned fear category. Table 4.26. Percentage of most frequently mentioned fears of different age pregnant adolescents. Ages Fears 14 15 16 17 18 Personal Character 17 33 32 39 36 References to Family 50 37 35 31 21 Personal Economic Situation 17 23 13 13 21 91 Examples of personal fears mentioned by the pregnant adolescents included: "I feel that college will be too hard for me." "I think that life would be all downhill for me." "If something should happen to prevent me from going to college." The summary for all the hypotheses tested are found in Figure 4.4. N .0 th- 0. 92 Hypotheses There will be no difference in the self-concept scores of pregnant adolescents attending three different schools. There will be no difference in the self-concept scores of pregnant adolescents at two different time periods. There will be no difference in the future aspirations of pregnant adolescents attending three different schools. There will be no difference in the future aspirations of pregnant adolescents at two different time periods. There will be no relationship between the self-concept scores and the future aspirations of pregnant adolescents. Figure 4.4, Summary of hypotheses tested and Decision Rule The Null Hypothesis Was: Not Rejected Not Rejected Not Rejected Not Rejected Rejected decision rules. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS Summary of Findings The data for this study were collected at two time periods using 39 subjects for the first test period, and 16 of the 39 subjects for the second test period. The subjects ranged in age from 14 to 18. Nine of the students attended public school in a small city. Thirteen students attended an urban public school, and 17 students attended a private school in a metropolitan area. The three schools were Specifically established to provide schooling for pregnant adolescents. As was stated earlier, 16 of the 39 students parti- cipated in both test periods. Six of these students were from a small city, 4 were from the urban public school, and 6 attended the private school in a metropolitan area. The purpose of the study was to examine the self- concept and aspirations of the three groups of pregnant adolescents. Data were obtained through the use of the Tennessee Self Concept Scale and the Cantril Self Anchoring Scale. A 93 94 short questionnaire was used to obtain demographic informa- tion about the students. The Tennessee Self Concept Scale (TSCS) was used to determine the self-concept scores of the students at the two test periods. The TSCS is a 100 item test composed of nine basic subscales and a total positive self-concept score. The total positive self-concept score utilizes all the items on the test, with the exception of the ten self- criticism items. These items convey three ideas: (1) iden- tity--what I am, (2) self-satisfaction--how I feel about myself, and (3) behavior--what I do. The other subscales are: physical self, moral-ethical self, personal self, family self, and social self. The Cantril Self Anchoring Scale has two parts with three sections. The first section requires that a person list all the aspirations she/he has for the future. In the second section,'the person is asked what are her/his worries or fears about the future. The data generated by the two sections of part one of the CSAS have to be coded before it can be analyzed. The data for this study were coded by two persons to determine intercoder agreement. The two coders reached an agreement rate of .75. The second part of the CSAS is concerned with the level of aspiration for the future. There are three ladders in this section of the test that must be rated by each 95 person. The first ladder represents the present. Using a zero to ten rating scale the individual is requested to state where she/he thinks she/he stands at the present time. The second ladder represents the past. Using the same rating system, the individual is requested to indicate where she/he stood at some specified time in the past. The third ladder, the future, is the most important one on this part of the test. This represents how hOpeful the person feels about her/his future. This is the level of aspiration. A two—way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to analyze the data for the self-concept scores and a multi- variate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to analyze the data for the self-concept subscales. This method of analysis allowed for testing for significant main effects and interactions among groups. Differences in the self-concept scores at the two time periods were determined by the use of a matched pair t-test. In this test each student's score from the first test period was matched with her score from the second test period. The Spearman rank correlation was used to compare the total positive self-concept scores of the TSCS with the future ratings on the CSAS. This statistic is used to determine relationships when at least one of the scores is an ordinal number. The rankings on the Cantril Self Anchoring Scale are ordinal in nature. 96 Descriptive statistics were used to analyze parts of the data that resulted from the Cantril Self Anchoring Scale. As a result of the data analysis it was found that there were no differences in the total positive self-concept scores of the three groups of pregnant adolescents. The data indicated that there were no main effects for age or groups. That is, when the different age pregnant adoles- cents were compared, there were no significant differences in their self-concept scores. There were no differences in self-concept scores whether the girls attended a small city public school, a large urban public school, or a large urban private school. There were no interaction effects for group or age on the total positive self-concept scores on the eight sub- scales. One of the subscales, family self, approached signi- ficance. The data indicated that girls attending the private school had a much lower score on this subscale than the other two groups. The highest score on that subscale was made by the urban public school students. In fact, this group had the highest total positive self-concept score, and the highest scores on all the subscales with the exception of one subscale--personal life. The private school group made the highest score on that subscale. Its total positive self-concept score was the second highest score. The small city group had the lowest total positive 97 self-concept.score. This group scored the lowest on all the scores with the exception of the identity, social self, and family self subscales. On one of the subscales less than one point separated the highest from the lowest score. This was the moral- ethical subscale. Less than two points separated the three groups on the social self subscale. Approximately 17 points separated the lowest and highest total positive self-concept scores for the three groups. The results of the matched pair t—test indicated that the total positive self-concept scores did not change over a two-month period of time. The 16 students who were participants in this part of the study were treated as a single group and their two sets of TSCS scores were used for the data analysis. There were no significant differences in the level of aspiration for the three groups of pregnant adolescents. There were no main effects for age and there were no inter- action effects. Less than .40 separated the three groups. About 2.2 points separated the groups on age differences. The data indicated that the future aspirations did not change in a two month period. The Spearman rank correlation revealed that there was a moderate positive correlation of the TSCS with the CSAS, significant at the .001 level. That is, as the 98 self-concept scores increased in magnitude, so did the future aspiration ratings. The students who participated in this study men- tioned 183 aSpirations and 126 fears. Each student mentioned approximately five aspirations and three fears. Most of the aspirations and fears of the three groups of pregnant adolescents centered around their own personal development; and references to their families, including concerns about their unborn children, future marriage possibilities, and health of the family. Discussion of Findings Self-Concept The data from this study indicated that there were no differences in the self-concepts of pregnant adolescents who attended school in three different settings. It was expected that there would be age differences. There were no differences according to age. It was expected that the self—concept would change over a period of time. This did not occur. The literature is fairly contradictory on these points. For example, Butler (1970) found that the self- concept, as measured by TSCS, did decrease in a three month period. Perhaps a two-month period was too short a time to detect changes in the adolescents' self-concept scores. wylie (1974), and Fitts (1972) stated that behavior could be predicted from the self-concept. However, Jessor 99 and Jessor (1975) found that there were no differences in the self-concept scores of high school females who were sexually active and those who were not sexually active. A study by Light (1976) reported significant differ- ences between four groups of girls on the TSCS. The highly competent girls had a mean score of 342, randomly selected group had a mean score of 309.7, a court-referred group had a mean score of 312.6, and a group of institutionalized delinquent girls had a mean score of 295.35. The norm score on the TSCS is 345.57. Although the grand mean of 323.77 for these pregnant adolescents is below the norm and the highly competent girls' score, it is above the other three groups in Light's study. Aspirations The pregnant adolescents had high aspirations when compared to the American national future rating of 7.8 that Cantril (1962) reported. The pregnant adolescents had a grand mean of 8.62. The 18 year olds were closest to the national average with a rating of 7.41. All the other ages were above the national average. The 14 year olds had the highest rating at 9.64. This study gives support to the Douvan and Adelson (1966) contention that female adolescents tend to have high aspirations. An explanation for the age level difference in level of aspiration is offered by the work of Thomas (1971) and 100 Murray and Kluckhohn (1959). Perhaps the 18 year olds had a decrease in aspiration because their aspirations were more integrated with the reality of the situation they were facing. That is, they were young, uneducated, unmarried, and about to give birth to their first child. Fears and Aspirations of Pregnant Adolescents The most frequently mentioned fears and aspirations of the three groups of pregnant adolescents were concerns about personal character, such as self-development or improvement; and concerns about the family such as happy family life, concerns for children, parents, or other relatives. The younger adolescents mentioned aspirations for their families more often than they mentioned personal character. The oldest group mentioned personal character aspirations more frequently. Younger adolescents had more fears or worries about their families. Again, the older students were more con- cerned about personal improvement than they were about family. This finding does add some support to those who believe that young adolescents are still closely tied to their families, particularly their parents, at this age level. It is assumed that the young adolescent is still in need of parental emotional support more so than the older adolescents. 101 Relationship of Self-Concept» to Aspirations This study found that there is a positive correla- tion of self-concept and level of future aSpiration. That is, if there is a high self-concept, the level of aspiration will also be high. It should be pointed out that this relationship held true although the self-concept scores were low for all the adolescents participating in this study. It is assumed that the relationship would have been even stronger if the self-concept scores had been higher. The finding does support the contention that self-concept is related to aspirations for the future and that most adolescents are hOpeful about their future prOSpects. Although these students were undergoing a poorly timed life event they were hopeful that their lives would improve. Effect of Pregnancy on Aspirations and Self-Concept The pregnant adolescents in this study had low self- concepts and high aspirations. There were no significant differences on either the self-concept or the level of aspiration for the different school groups or the differ- ent age levels. There was a positive correlation between the self- concept and the level of aspiration. Neither the self-concept or the level of aspiration changed during a two month time period. 102 It is not possible to determine from the data pre- sented in this study a causal relationship between pregnancy and the self-concept. Additional studies need to be con- ducted to determine whether the adolescents became pregnant because of low self-concepts or whether their self-concepts are lowered because of the pregnancy. Much of the literature implies that there is a single causal factor operating in adolescent pregnancy. Young (1954) and Chilman (1976) seem to believe that the self-concept may be low in girls who become pregnant. Maddock (1973) indicates that a low self-concept may be the result of pregnancy during adolescence. Other explanations may be needed to explain why the adolescents in this study had low self-concepts. One explanation may be the sexual identity of the students. LaVoie (1976), Bohan (1973), and Lyell (1973) found that females have lower self-concepts than males. In fact, even the highly competent girls in Light's study (1976) scored below the national norm on the Tennessee Self Concepts Scale. Coopersmith (1968) found that the self-concept increased with socioeconomic status. A close examination of the family data for the students in this study indicates that many of the girls are from families that Rubin (1977) describes as the "working poor." Regardless of where they lived, the majority of the fathers worked in factories. 103 This indicates that there are probably limited socioeconomic differences between the adolescents in this study. From this analysis it is possible to speculate that the subjects in.this study had low self-concepts before they became pregnant. This explanation implies that adolescent girls, particularly those from low and moderate income families, will tend to have low self-concept scores. Pregnancy during adolescence did not have a depressing effect on the level of aspiration for the students in this study. Although the adolescents were experiencing a poorly timed life event, they were optimis- tic about their futures. Even the 18 year olds were relatively Optimistic, though less so than the younger adolescents. The results of this study indicate that age and sexual identification may be the important factors in controlling aspirations. That is, young adolescent girls are relatively unrealistic about their aspirations. In summary, it can be stated that the self-concept scores and the levels of aspiration of the pregnant adolescents in this study are similar to the self-concept scores and levels of aspiration of other female adolescents. The question remains: how do some female adolescents avoid pregnancy? A single causal explanation about the influence of low-self concept on the chances of a "too early" pregnancy is not adequate. Multiple causal explana— tions are needed to explore adolescent pregnancy. As 104 Erikson (1968) states: ". . . anatomy, history, and per- sonality are our combined destiny" (p. 285). Implications Implications for Future Research The following suggestions for future research are proposed. 1. There were some indications in the literature that there are racial differences on self-concept and sexual behavior. Additional information could be gained from examining racial differences of pregnant adolescents' self-concepts and level of aspirations. 2. There were indications from the literature and this study that socioeconomic status may be important in the development of a positive self-concept. Differences of socioeconomic status on the aspira- tions of adolescents should also be determined. 3. The pregnant adolescents who participated in this study were still attending school. Much of the literature indicates that a major problem in adolescent pregnancy is that the girls drop out of school when they discover they are pregnant. Additional information could be gained by deter- mining the selféconcepts of pregnant adolescents who drop out of school during their pregnancies. 105 Many pregnant adolescents remain in the regular classroom during their pregnancies. These students should be studied. Many of the pregnant adolescents marry before they give birth to their babies. Married pregnant adolescents, at all age levels, should be studied. There is some indication from the literature that the length of time between the two test periods in this study were too short. Perhaps a study that controlled for time at various intervals in the pregnancy could be useful. Many theories about the causes and consequences of adolescent pregnancy have been offered. There does appear to be a need for longitudinal studies that could follow groups of adolescents before pregnancy occurred so that causative factors could be deter- mined. Any pregnancy involves at least two persons. The male partners of the adolescent girls should be studied. There are indications in the literature that ex- pectations about the future are more realistic than are one's aspirations and hopes for the future. This question should be studied for pregnant adolescents. 106 Implications for Action It does appear that the adolescents who participated in this study have very low self-concepts. There were no age or location differences in the groups. One immediate action seems to be necessary--help this group of young mothers to improve their self-concepts. This is particu- larly important as they move into the develogmental task of parenthood. Many of these adolescents are still in need of parental support for themselves. Nevertheless they are expected to rear and support their own children. With such low self-concepts it is difficult to imagine how any in this group will do a good job of parenting. A second implication for future action comes from the age differences on the Cantril fear and aspiration categories. This test demonstrated some age differences in the kinds of concerns that this group of adolescents experi- enced. Persons planning programs for pregnant adolescents should be aware that the younger girls may have needs that are different from the needs of the older adolescents. From this study it does appear that the older adolescents may be performing at an adult level of aspiration and have more concerns about personal fulfillment. The younger adoles- cents aged 14 and 15 are more tied to their families and have needs that are centered around their families. APPENDICES APPENDIX A ORIGINAL PERSONAL DATA QUESTIONNAIRE APPENDIX A ORIGINAL PERSONAL DATA QUESTIONNAIRE DATA SHEET Name: (Optional) Age: Birthdate: Month7 Day Year Grade in School: 1. Marital Status: (Check one) ____ Single Married Separated Divorced 2. Do you have any children? (Check one) None One Two ____ Three or more 3. If you have any brothers and sisters, give their ages. Ages of brothers: Ages of sisters: 107 108 Are your parents living? (Check one) ____ Both living Only mother living Only father living Neither living Are your parents divorced or separated? Yes No How old are your parents? Father Mother How old were your parents when their first child was born? Father Mother Do you live with . . . (Check one) ____ Mother and father Mother and stepfather Father and stepmother Mbther Father Grandparent Other. Write in: How much formal education did your father have? (Check one) Some grade school Finished grade school Some high school Finished high school 10. ll. 12. 13. 109 Some college Finished college Attended graduate school or professional school after college Don't know How much formal education did your mother have? (Check one) What as specific as you can. Some grade school Finished grade school Some high school Finished high school Some college Finished college Attended graduate school or professional school after college. Don't know. is your father's occupation; what does he do? Be (If he is dead, say what his occupation was.) In what place, business, or organization does he work? Does your mother have a job outside the home? Yes, full-time Yes, part-time No 14. 15. 110 If your mother is employed, what is her occupation; what does she do? Be as specific as you can. (If she is dead, say what her occupation was.) In what place, business, or organization does she work? APPENDIX B REVISED PERSONAL DATA QUESTIONNAIRE APPENDIX B REVISED PERSONAL DATA QUESTIONNAIRE DATA SHEET Name: (optional) Age: Birth Date Month Day Year Grade in School: 1. Do you have any children? (Check one) None One Two ____ Three or more 2. If you have any brothers and sisters, give their ages. Ages of brothers: Ages of sisters: 3. Are your parents living? (Check one) _____Both living Only mother living Only father living Neither living 111 112 Do you live with . . . (Check one) Mother and father What Mother and stepfather Father and stepmother Mother Father Grandparent Other. Write in: is your father's occupation; what does he do? Be as specific as you can. (If he is dead, say what his occupation was.) Does your mother have a job outside the home? Yes, fulltime Yes, parttime NO If your mother is employed, what is her occupation; what does she do? Be as specific as you can. (If she is dead, say what her occupation was.) APPENDIX C EXAMPLE OF LETTER TO PARENTS APPENDIX C EXAMPLE OF LETTER TO PARENTS Dear Parents: I am a graduate student attending Michigan State Uni- versity in East Lansing, Michigan. Under the direction of my major professor, Dr. Beatrice Paolucci, I am conducting a research project on the development of the self-concept in adolescents. It is important that educators find out how girls in this age group feel about themselves and what they want in the future in order that better programs can be planned and implemented for this age group. I am requesting that you allow your daughter to parti- cipate in the probject. The research project has received approval from the Research and Evaluation Department, Detroit Public Schools. Each student participating in the project will be required to complete the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS). The TSCS is not a test--there are no right.or wrong answers. It consists of 100 items to which an individual responds on a scale of l to 5 indicating the degree to which each statement applies personally. It should not take more than twenty minutes to complete. Every precaution will be taken to ensure that the students participating in this project will remain anonymous. I will not be given the names or addresses of the students. Of course, students will not be required to participate in the project. Summary data will be shared with parents and students at the end of the research period in June. I certainly hope that you will give persmission for your daughter to participate in the project. Thank you for your cooperation and assistance. Sincerely, Trellis Waxler (Mrs.) 113 APPENDIX D TENNESSES SELF-CONCEPT SCALE APPENDIX D TENNESSEE SELF CONCEPT SCALE DIRECTIONS: Fill in your name and other information on the separate answer sheet. The statements in this inventory are to help you describe yourself as you see yourself. Please answer them as if you were describing yourself tg_yourself. Read each item carefully: then select one of the five responses below and fill in the answer space on the separate answer sheet. Don't skip any items. Answer each one. Use a soft lead pencil. Pens won't work. If you change an answer, you must erase the old answer completely and enter the new one. RESPONSES Completely Mostly Partly False Mostly Completely False False and True True Partly True C M M C F F PF-PT T T l 2 3 4 5 l. I have a healthy body . . . . . . . . . . l 2. I am an attractive person. . . . . . . . . 2 3. I consider myself a sloppy person . . . . . . 3 4. I am a decent sort of person. . . . . . . . 4 5. I am an honest person . . . . . . . . . . 5 6. I am a bad person . . . . . . . . . . . 6 7. I am a cheerful person. . . . . . . . . . 7 8. I am a calm and easy going person . . . . . . 8 9. I am a nobody. . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 10. I have a family that would always help me in any . 10 kind of trouble 11. I am a member of a happy family. . . . . . . 11 12. My friends have no confidence in me . . . . . 12 13. I am_a friendly person. . . . . . . . . . 13 114 115 14. I am popular with men . . . . . . . . . 15. I am not interested in what other people do. . 16. I do not always tell the truth . . . . . . 17. I get angry sometimes . . . . . . . . 18. I like to look nice and neat all the time . . 19. I am full of aches and pains. . . . . . . 20. I am a sick person . . . . . . . . . . 21. I am a religious person . . . . . . . . 22. I am a moral failure . . . . . . . . . 23. I am a morally weak person . . . . . . . 24. I have a lot of self-control . . . . . . 25. I am a hateful person. . . . . . . . . 26. I am losing my mind . . . . . . . . . 27. I am an important person to my friends and. . family 28. I am not loved by my family. . . . . . 29. I feel that my family doesn't trust me . . . 30. I am popular with women . . . . . . . . 31. I am mad at the whole world. . . . . . . 32. I am hard to be friendly with . . . . . . 33. Once in a while I think of things too bad to . talk about 34. Sometimes when I am not feeling well, I am cross 35. I am neither too fat nor too thin. . . . . . 36. I like my looks just the way they are . . . . 37. I would like to change some parts of my body . . 38. I am satisfied with my moral behavior . . . . 39. I am satisfied with my relationship to God. . . 40. I ought to go to church more . . . . . . . 41. I am satisfied to be just what I am . . . . . 42. I am just as nice as I should be . . . . . . 43. I despise myself . . . . . . . . . . . 44. I am satisfied with my family relationships . . 45. I understand my family as well as I should. . . 46. I should trust my family more . . . . . . . 47. I am as sociable as I want to be . . . . . . 48. I try to please others, but I don't overdo it. . 49. I am no good at all from a social standpoint . . 50. I do not like everyone I know . . . . . . . 51. Once in a while, I laugh at a dirty joke . . . 52. I am neither too tall nor too short . . . . . 53. I don't feel as well as I should . . . . . . 54. I should have more sex appeal . . . . . . . 55. I am as religious as I want to be. . . . . . 56. I wish I could be more trustworthy . . . . . 57. I shouldn't tell so many lies . . . . . . 58. I am as smart as I want to be . . . . . . 59. I am not the person I would like to be . . . 60. I wish I didn't give up as easily as I do . 61. I treat my parents as well as I should (Use past. tense if parents are not living) 62. I am too sensitive to things my family say. . 63. I should love my family more . . . . . . 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 91. 92. 93. 94. 95. 96. 97. 98. 99. 100. 116 I am satisfied with the way I treat other people. I should be more polite to others. . . . I ought to get along better with other people. I gossip a little at times . . . . . . . At times I feel like swearing . . . . . I take good care of myself physically . . I try to be careful about my appearance. . I often act like I am "all thumbs" . . . . I am true to my religion in my everyday life. I try to change when I know I'm doing things that are wrong sometimes do very bad things . . . . do things without thinking about them first try to play fair with my friends and family take a real interest in my family. . . . give in to my parents. (Use past tense if parents are not living) I try to understand the other fellow's point of view get along well with other people . . do not forgive others easily . . . . would rather win than lose in a game. . feel good most of the time . . . . . HHHHHHH do poorly in sports and games . . . am a poor sleeper . . . . . . . do what is right most of the time. . . sometimes use unfair means to get ahead. solve my problems quite easily. . change my mind a lot . . . . . try to run away from my problems . do my share of work at home. . . quarrel with my family . . . . do not act like my family thinks I should see good points in all the people I meet do not feel at ease with other people . find it hard to talk with strangers . . Once in a while I put off until tomorrow wha ought to do today HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH h t have trouble doing the things that are rig t H can always take care of myself in any situation take the blame for things without getting mad. 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 Positive Item 117 TSCS SUBSCALES 13. 14. 15. 19. 20. 21. 25. 26. 27. 31. 32. 33. I I Negative Item Physical Self have a healthy body 4. am an attractive person 5. consider myself a leppy person 6. am a cheerful person 10. am a calm and easy going person 11. am a nobody 12. am a friendly person am popular with men 16. am not interested in what 17. other people do 18. I am a decent sort of person I am an honest person I am a bad person I have a family that would always help me in any kind of trouble I am a member of a happy family My friends have no confidence in me I do not always tell the truth I get angry sometimes I like to look nice and neat all the time Moral-Ethical Self I am full of aches and pains 22. I am a sick person 23. I am a religious person 24- I am a hateful person 28. I am losing my mind 29. I am an important person to my friends and family 30. I am.mad at the whole world 34. I am hard to be friendly with 35. Once in a while I think of things too bad to talk about 36. I am a moral failure I am a morally weak person I have a lot of self-control I am not loved by my family I feel that my family doesn't trust me I am popular with women Sometimes when I am not feeling well, I am cross I am neither too fat nor too thin I like my looks just the way they are Positive Item 118 37. 38. 39. 43. 44. 45. 49. 50. 51. 55. 56. 57. 61. 62. 63. 67. 68. 69. Negative Item Personal Self I would like to change some 40. parts of my body 41. I am satisfied with my moral behavior 42. I am satisfied with my rela- ship to God 46. I despise myself 47. I am satisfied with my family relationships 48. I understand my family as well as I should 52. I am no good at all from a social standpoint 53. I do not like everyone I know Once in a while, I laugh at a 54. dirty joke Family Self I am as religious as I want 58. to be 59. I wish I could be more trustworthy 60. I shouldn't tell so many lies I treat my parents as well as 64. I should (use past tense if parents are not living) 65. I am too sensitive to things my family say 66. I should love my family more I gossip a little at times 70. At times I feel like swearing 71. I take good of myself physically 72. I ought to go to church more I am satisfied to be just what I am I am just as nice as I should be I should trust my family more I am as sociable as I want to be I try to please others, but I don't overdo it I am neither too tall nor too short I don't feel as well as I should I should have more sex appeal I am as smart as I want to be I am not the person I would like to be I wish I didn't give up as easily as I do I am satisfied with the way I treat other people I should be more polite to others I ought to get along better with other people I try to be careful about my appearance I often act like I am "all thumbs" I am true to my religion in my everyday life Positive Item 73. 74. 75. 79. 80. 81. 85. 86. 87. 119 Negative Item I take the blame for things without getting mad I do things without thinking about them first I try to play fair with my friends and family I get along well with other people I do not forgive others easily I would rather win than lose in a game I do what is right most of the time I sometimes use unfair means to get ahead I have trouble doing the things that are right I am a decent sort of person Social Self I try to change when I know I'm 76. doing things that are wrong I sometimes do very bad things 77. I can always take care of myself in any situation 78. I take a real interest in my family 82. I give in to my parents (use past tense if parents are not 83. . living) 84. I try to understand the other fellow's point of view 88. I feel good most of the time I do poorly in sports and games 89. I am a poor sleeper 90. Identity I have a healthy body 4. I am an attractive person 5. 19. 20. 21. 37. 38. 39. I consider myself a sloppy person 6. I am full of aches and pains I am a sick person I am a religious person I would like to change some parts of my body I am satisfied with my moral behavior I am satisfied with my relation- ship to God 22. 23. 24. 40. 41. 42. I am an honest person I am a bad person I am,a moral failure I am a morally weak person I have a lot of self—control I ought to go to church more I am satisfied to be just what I am I am just as nice as I should be Positive Item 55. 56. 57. 73. 74. 75. 25. 26. 27. 43. 44. 45. 61. 120 Negative Item Identity I am as religious as I want to be I wish I could be more trust- worthy I shouldn't tell so many lies I try to change when I know I'm doing things that are wrong I sometimes do very bad things I can always take care of myself in any situation 58. 59. 60. 76. 78. I am as smart as I want to be I am not the person I would like to be I wish I didn't give up as easily as I do I take the blame for things without getting mad I do things without thinking about them first I try to play fair with my friends and family Self Satisfaction I am a cheerful person I am a calm and easy going person I am a nobody I am a hateful person I am losing my mind I am an important person to my friends and family I despise myself I am satisfied with my family relationships I understand my family as well as I should I treat my parents as well as I should (use past tense if parents are not living) 10. 11. 12. 28. 29. 30. 46. 47. 48. 64. I have a family that would always help me in any kind of trouble I am a member of a happy family My friends have no confidence in me I am not loved by my family I feel that my family doesn't trust me I am popular with women I should trust my family more I am as sociable as I want to be I try to please others, but I don't overdo it I am satisfied with the way I treat other people Positive Item 62. 63. 79. 80. 81. 13. 14. 15. 31. 32. 33. 49. 50. 51. 67. 68. 69. Self I am too sensitive to things my family say I should love my family more I take a real interest in my family I give in to my parents (use past tense if parents are not living) I try to understand the other fellow's point of view .121 Negative Item Satisfaction 65. 66. 82. 83. 84. Behavior I am a friendly person 16. I am popular with men 17. I am not interested in what other people do I am mad at the whole world I am hard to be friendly with Once in a while I think of things too bad to talk about I am no good at all from a social standpoint I do not like everyone I know Once in a while, I laugh at a dirty joke I gossip a little at times At times I feel like swearing I take good care of myself physically 18. 34. 35. 36. 52. 53. 54. 70. 71. I should be more polite to others I ought to get along better with other people I get along well with other people I do not forgive others easily I would rather win than lose in a game I do not always tell the truth I get angry sometimes I like to look nice and neat all the time Sometimes when I am not feeling well, I am cross I am neither too fat nor too thin I like my looks just the way they are I am neither too tall nor too short I don't feel as well as I should I should have more sex appeal I try to be careful about my appearance I often act like I am "all thumbs" 122 Positive Item Negative Item Behavior 85. I feel good most of the time 72. I am true to my religion in my everyday life 86. I do poorly in sports and games 88. I do what is right most of the time 87. I am a poor sleeper 89. I sometimes use unfair means to get ahead 90. I have trouble doing the things that are right APPENDIX E CANTRIL SELF-ANCHORING SCALE APPENDIX E CANTRIL SELF-ANCHORING SCALE (Modified) All of us want certain things out of life. When you think about what really matters in your own life, what are your wishes and hopes for the future? In other words, if you imagine your future in the best possible light, what would your life look like then, if you are to be happy? Take your time in writing your answer; such things aren't easy to put into words. You may write as many hOpes and wishes as you like. Now, taking the other side of the picture, what are your fears and worries about the future: In other words, if you imagine your future in the worst possible light, what would your life look like then? Again, take your time in writing your answer. You may write as many fears and worries as you feel would apply to you. 123 124 PRESENT PAST FUTURE }— 10 —— __ 10 ——J. —— 10 —. L—_ 9 —— r———— 9 _. 1——— 9 __k __ 3 —— ,_ 8 —. +——- e "‘1‘ 7 7 7 —— 6 —— —— 6 —. —— 6 —. L...— 5 __ __ 5 ___‘ ____ 5 ___J, ‘L——— 4 ———AL .____. 4 -———» .____. 4 ————» ___._ 3 —— ,_ 3 _, —— 3 —r __ 2 _. —_ 2 ___._, __ 2 __ __ 1 —— —— 1 —. ,_ 1 —— ,_ o —— ,_ o ———... .— o —, O . Here are three ladders that symbolize life - the present, the past, and the future. The top rung of each ladder represents the best possible life for you, and the bottom rung of each ladder represents the worst possible life. Using the first ladder put a check mark on the rung where you feel you stand at the present time. Take the second ladder and place a check mark on the rung where you feel you were one (1) year ago. On the third ladder put a check mark on the rung where you think you will be one (1) year from now. - APPENDIX F CODING INSTRUCTIONS FOR CSAS .Amlm .HOU Hmonn moon .AHIv .HOU .emewuues no hawsem ou oouofiuum Hmong oooo .omeflnues no mawsem Ion me nowunes muons "nowumooxev ou oeuoeuumon we monoueweu omens om>o~ no oouommmmu .oexHH on non unOAHQooxev oo>oa no ompooomeu “whenuo an mnueum as no nomumnmoomu oexaa on on «muenuo an mnueum as on I muenuo an ooumeooe on on uoz .v «0 noHanmoomH I Honuolxn eoneummood .v .mneoemn =.unu= on «momom no wonum uonuunm on humonmunfi n30 Inna onnmwoaInon non onwoeon «monum sues monounu onw3oHH0m now .nOAuoe Henuunm «umeueune n30 nae? nmnonnu one unmnonu mo eoneonmdmone Mom onesoHHOH MOM .n0fluoe one unmnonu humnnunoomo on u=unMF e nmImnHuuwm mo monmonmowmnw How huwnnunomoo I unoEe>oumEH Ho unofimo~o>oonHom oz .m I anose>onmsw Ho unosmoHe>eoImHom .m .eEeno ou oxen “Hewoomeune osooem .m .ono on unease: .mmma peano e mnwoeoa .nOmnom uneooo .Hesuon e om .N .anosuenmwo wo owed “.oue .muenuo mo mnwoneumumonn no Moss: .omea mSOAnosuen “.ouo .mhenuo mo omnom on nonflonaaos Ho nuaeon mo unwoneumueonn .Hosnn mo omnem HeuneEImo .onws mo ooemn mo xoea «mnflen Hams one apaeen HeunoE .onHE no I NannueEEw one aueawneunnfl Henofiuosm .H ooeeo I Nuennues one muwawneum Henofiuoem .H h .Hoo H .Hou nouoeuenu denomuem n30 .Nawsem nowone maem nuw3 oonuoonoo Amueom one meeuuoz Henomuomv NH 0» h mnsnaoo Amnofluenwmmd one memo: Henomuem. m on H mnEnHoo men mneem one meannos mnoeneaaoomnz .m .ouo .nemnnn .unez nommnm «munw>om “unmo «aaunoooo o>na on no neuumn m>aa on wonos unoaowmwom non «NHHEMM no «How now mnH>HH mo oneonepm onenmeoenn no nw noHuenownouea .H m .HOU conumsunm .nouoeneno denomnom n30 m.ono mnflonemon mnemm one mewnno3 mnomneaamomwz .h .neuoeneno unonues nOmnmmIe en 09 .m .emna nn emomnnm on e>en «mmoanunoz deem «omen nn oaon no nonuemnooo on me mnoHueneome o>mwnoe on wanenn “openoooenm madenOmnem Heom I nunoz aenomnom.mo omnmm oz .m .meno nounmn new no “neonem no unmanneme .emnon n30 o>em .m .EHflM G30 HO UGMH G30 0>Mm .v .mmennmnn mbmno onemxm no ememnonn on mundane «mmennmnn n30 o>em .m .oum .nemnnn .unez nmmmnm non “anno>om Eonm moaaon “poms none oxen «Homo Eonm Eoomenm “manneoeo e>na on no nonuon o>wa on xenon pnmonmmnm “Nansen no maom now mnn>na mo oneoneum uneomo no oe>onmEH .H N .Hou UHEOCOUW HMGOMHOQ .neuoeneno Henomnom n30 m.eno mnwonemen encauennmme mnooneaaoomez .m .mnnn emcnnmnomne m emmn on .s msoamonm Heofinno no Hennwnmmm mnowmwaen n30 m.eno mo noeunHOmom .m “.mnmnuo mm noHanmooen on oeumenunoo me maom an nofluanmooen ”onozv .omna Homomomnnm e oema “unosnmfiamaoooe mo mnnamom uncanoemmwuemlmaom I nuno3 Henomnemnmm an no emnem ebownon .m Ae.ucooc n .noo 127 .nOnnennnm xnoz no nom mnmmnem Ion mnemm one mennnos mnoeneaaoomnz .m .oaenm m.ono on mnnnuon no manned munnnnunoo “nonsen mansem nenuo no mmnomm .maem now xnoz m.ono nn onnanem .m .ome oHo no mmmnxoem mo omneoon xnos on manenn unon m enoe no cane on nunnnnmcn anensoe waweem nmnno no menomm .maom n0m anB moeonm on I nnefihoamseno .5 nunmsoone>oe now eoneno on uncenennnm xnoz no non mnnumonounnnn .nnemeeamnn «nonueonooo no monono nn monoonommonn on “nmnEeE wawsewnenuo no .omnoom .maom now xnos Hennemnoonn .QOnInoom .m Ae.ucouc m .noo .nonnennnm xnos no QOM mnnonemon n0nnennmme mnooneaaoomez .m .oHenm m.ono on n0nunnnnunoo e oxen .nenems aawsem nonuo no omnomm .maom now xn03.m.eno nn mmooonm .m .nonEmE mawsem nenno no omnoom .mamm now xnos moeonm I unosmoamem .m .nnoseone>oe mo moneno «nonuenunm xnoz no ooh mnnnmenounn .unemeoam “nonnemnooo mo monono nn ooneonoomonn «nonsos mwmsem nonno no omnomm .maom now xnoz Hennemwoo .QOn oooo .H m .Hou noenenunm xnoz no non .hanfiem no name no nOnnenunm onsonooo nuns oo on mnn>en mnoHuennmme mnooneaamomnz .m .nmns 03\H mnnnumne oo on hence I nuaeos o>em .h .onm .nOHmn> Imam» .0noen .mnnnoee mnnnmez me none moonenamme owned .menuoao ennm .mnnnnnnnw Ben no enwm .Eoonnuen .neo e we none .oonmnno>noo nnooos e>em .o 16.96661 N .nou 128 .Hnmmmooonmnn .hmoennn on .manoom oo mo>HomEonu nonoanno “AnoHueonoo unnonaonnv Bonn now monnnnnnnoomo ouenoooenn I nonoanno .m .mansem mo mnonEoE now AaeunoE no Heommmnov nnaeon noom oonan Inoo no nueoo .nnoonooe .nnaeon HHH .h .mnOnuenoomxo neonu on on o>nH on non «son» mo oneo oxen no anon on oane on on non no>nueaon nonno no mnnonem .nonoanno .omnomm Aha nnosnoonene nov Bonn nOnuenemom I mobnueaom .m .nnnsen on» aneunz o>oH on «once momennn «omemmnefi hmoennn I owed awnEeMINmmennn no 02 .m Ao.unoov m .Hoo hanfiem on =.maom: on moononomon nonno mnn>ao> Inn neon one monnnos mnooneaaooonz .m .mnonno no unoonomoo on 06 .m .omna >0nno on nnmnonum on “maom nom Aaeunoe no Heowmhnmv moonHHH oonnnn Inoo no numoe .ucoenoom .nunmon nnn .n m .Hoo =HHmm-u 0“. .Hnmmmooonm .momen on .Haos oo mo>aomsonu nonoanno “Anonueonoo mnnonaonnv swnn n0m monnnnnunommo onenoooe I mmmoannu .aansem mo mnoneos now AaeunoE no Heonmhnmv nnaeon oo>onosn no nnaeon ooom oonnnnnoo I Hansen «0 nuaeom .mn0nuenoomxo neonn on mn.o>na “Bonn mo oneo oxen no ado: anneme nonuomou Eon» now no nonnomou Eon» moox «Eon» on omoHo on «mo>wueaon nonuo no mononeo nonoanno .omnomw nom nnoonoo I mo>wueaom .hanseu nannns o>oH «oson pnemeoam «omennneE women I owed hansew women .v .m .N .H v .HOU moononomom nonuo =.maom: on moononomon nonno mnn>ao>nn mnonuennmme mnooneHHoomnz .ono .onnmeoam nom mnmoeon .mnnomm nosnu onnmwoa .Ho>enn .nonueonoom .ome oHo onnoom .uneoeoam .Hnmooeom «omna women one mnoa I ome oHo Nmmem .omna acnno on numnonnm «maon now Adennoe no Heonohnmv nuaeon oonwem Ion no oonnnunoo I nuaeon n30 m.ono .o .m .m .h Ao.#noov m .HOU moononomom nonuo 129 .manEem no “How on oonmmnnmon non oneom one monnnos onEonooo mnooneaaoomnz .m .mnonm no nOHDen nOWImnH>MH mo .5Hn8em no maom on oononnumon oneonenm onenoooenn no nn nonuenOAnouoo .m non onenuennmme oneonooo mnooneHHoomnz .N .moOHnm amen no nnemnn «nonueamnn .moonnm nnem unenueamnn Eonm Boo «Aaenonom nnv mundaneumnw onEonoom .5 Ioonm «Adenonom nnv annanneum onEonoom .H Ao.unoov ca .Hoo m .Hoo nOnnennem onEonoom Henonou .connmsnnm Hmonunnon man news 06 0» mnn>en mneom one mownnos mnooneHHoomnz .v .ouo .ne3 Hn>no “ooeom HennounHIMOINUeH «nOanwnoo .moeno «mundaneuonn Heonunaom .m .onnHunoo Han: unosnno>om nnomono neom “HCOECHOKwOm “Gmmmhm Gun UCOEO>OHQ¢HM 02 .N .COHHMH—UHm HMUHUHHOQ OSH shunt} CC on onn>en mnOAnennmme mnooneaaoomnz .m .ouo .unoEo>oE no .nOnuemnooo mo .nonnHon .ouo .unoEo>OE mo .n0nnemnooo no .noooom mo soooonm mo xoea mo .nOAmAHon mo .nooonw mo Eco aaaeonmnoomm mnnonaonn .Eoooonm mo xoen .H Ioonm aaaeonmwoomm mnwonaonn .Eoooonm .5 ca .Hou Ao.unoov q .Hou Heonnnaom nOnuez no annnssoo .oamoon nonno unone oonnoonou .mn0nnennnme mnooneHHoomHz .5 .xanfiem mnnonemon .nonoaano mneom one mownno3 mnooneaaoomnz .o o>en “omn3 no oneness e o>em .m .nnn56e .nonoanno no owns .onenmnn 02 .m unnoneoon noeuenwmme mnooneflaoomnz .m Ao.unoov m .Hou Ao.nnoov v .Hou 130 .mnnnenos no nonmnaon nuns no oon>now unannm nuns oo on mnn>en oneom no monnnos mnooneaaoomnz .m .NnowUOm mo unem onu no zonooeamnoo no “nomuenomnouoo “nOHnenmounmmHo moonmnaon no Hence oHeonnno .Hennnnnmm .m .oanos no .noHnen .zunnnssoo .oHoooo onn o>nom on non “mnonuo on Homomn on on noz .5 no.unoov Ha .Hou non .zansem no maom on oononnnoon on oononomon onn onon3 anaenOE no nonmnaon nuns no oon>nom cannon nuns oo on mnn>en mnonnennome mnooneaaoomnz .m .ooneeo onnnsm oaon on no noanos .nonnen .znnnnenoo .oaooom on» o>nom on mnmnnunommo one an nanne “mnonuo on annomn on on onnmoo .H 0 .H00 oon>nom onannm .mnnaenoz .nOnmnHom .nonnennno Heaven onu numz oo on mnn>en mneom one monnnos mnooneHHoomnz .v .Uuo .mowuwnnne on .mnOnmnom on «munnnooo HeAOOm oz .m .monnnnnunomoo on noncommonm omn03 no mnoommonm nonuon on I mnOHnenonom onnnnm .m .nuHeoz mo nOHunnnnnmno nnemnn mnnnnnnnoo “.ouo .nOAmnHon .nmeo .mmeao .noHoo .ooen no oomen nOnuennonxo no n0nuenne Innomno unenueanmoo on» mo mnnoE IoHo mnonne> ooonomme monnnnnnnommo one munmonon .unosueonu onn nm‘ znnaenoonn oonnnunoo noonumnhnn Henoom .H .HH .HOU ~ .nonuenunm Henoom one nuns oo on o>en nonuennmme mnooneaaoomnz .m .ouo .monnwnnne .mnowmnom mnwonaonn .munnnoom Henoom .5 .momnnnnunommo one uncommonm nouuon I noHuenonom onnnnm .m .nonueunonxo no nonnennsnnomno mo nannennsnao “nuaeos no nOnnnnnnumno nonnem nnOnnenoonnn n.0no .nOanHon .nmeo omeao .noHoo .ooen mo o>nuooomonnn .nOHneHnmom onn mo unoEoHo Hae ooonomme won unnnnnomoo one mnnMonon .nnosneonn on» nn munaenoo noneonm I oonumnfl Henoom .m nmnoom A©.DGOUV m .HOU 131 .monnomoeeo mnnoooonm one no zne noonn emu eon oo eene mneom one monnnos mnoonenaoomnz .monnnos no mneom mne mo ennne e.neo Ao.enoov NH .HOU .m .5 .monnomoeeo onnoooonm one no znm noonn ewe eon oo eene onOneennome mnooneaaoomnz .o .3on one zone me mmnene neHB women on nomnom «naenonoo nee coo mneeem nneennez .m no.enoov m .Hoo .nOneeneno oHnos no HenOneennoenn one nenz oo oe mnn>en mneom one oonnnoz onooneHHoownz .oewaaoeem emnnnesoo e oeooon «no3om emnnnEEoo noneo no ennno emHnnEEou .ewmonm an emononoo no nOneennEoo .nOnmmonmme .eeonna .meooe neoHonn Eonm meno anew «zmnono neoaonn mo omnmns "menosesne one Emnneenawz .ne3 mo neon nn mnn>nn “nes neoHonn Inez NH .v .m .N .H .HOU Henonoo .nOneenenm oHno3 no HenOHeennoenn one nem3 oo oe mnn>en mnOAeennmme mnooneaaoomnz .5 .enoenno>om oano3 “.z.D nomnonem «mnOHmnoe noweennoenn mo nOAeeeron «zenannnmnoomon one onwoneemnoonn HenoHeennoenn onOE «noneomoe unannos monnennoo «nemeenooooo HenOneennoenn once I oano3 noeeom .m .ne3 mo eeonnelon «ne3 on “no oonenoenneE I ooeom .m no.enoov o .Hou oanoz one noneenenm HenOneennoenH enone oonnoonoo REFERENCES REFERENCES Anastasi, A. 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