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'AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF STRATEGIES AND TACTICS
USED TO INTRODUCE PLANNED INNOVATIONS IN SELECTED
COMMUNITY SERVICES PROGRAMS

presented by

Robert E. Balster

has been accepted towards fulfillment
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ABSTRACT

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF STRATEGIES AND
TACTICS USED TO INTRODUCE PLANNED
INNOVATIONS IN SELECTED COMMUNITY

SERVICES PROGRAMS

BY

Robert Eden Balster

This exploratory study emerges from the confluence
of two major streams of interest in contemporary higher
education. One is the expanding community services
function of community colleges which is often based on a
concern for better meeting the needs of the poor, the
unemployed, or the racial minority in the urban community.
The second is the interest in the application of change
and innovation theory to the Operation of colleges to make
these institutions more responsive to human needs.

The purpose of this study is fourfold: (l) to
compile strategies and tactics used by community college
community services practitioners in selected social action
programs; (2) to develop a classification system for these
strategies and tactics; (3) to make a comparative analysis
of field-generated and literature-generated strategies and
tactics; and (4) to make suggestions for graduate school

<:ourse work for practitioners.

Robert Eden Balster

Criteria for successful community services social
action programs were developed and eight programs meeting
the criteria were studied. A purposive selection was
based on a list of nominations made by Dr. J. Kenneth
Cummiskey, Director, Community Services Project, American
Association of Junior Colleges, and the identification of
programs in Michigan meeting the criteria. Colleges
studied included four in Michigan, two in California, and
one each in Ohio and Massachusetts. An interview schedule
was develOped. Practitioners responsible for the programs
were interviewed and a tape recording made. A total of
140 strategies and tactics were induced from a content
analysis of the interview recordings. These strategies
and tactics were then classified. A comparative analysis
of field-generated and literature-generated strategies and
tactics was made and implications for graduate training
of community services practitioners were presented.

Conclusions of the study are limited to the eight
programs studied and include:

1. Strategies and tactics used by community
service practitioners can be identified through a content
analysis of tape recorded interviews made with the practi-
tioners when the interviews are conducted about a specific
set of experiences related to a program and are recalled

in chronological order.

Robert Eden Balster

2. .Community service practitioners, in conducting
successful social action programs, do not progress through
clearly defined stages in an order common to all. Rather,
they move to complete areas of developmental conditions.
Each moves in a highly individual and unique pattern in
response to local conditions.

3. Community service practitioners utilize a wide
range of strategies and tactics in administering a social
action program. Identified strategies are fewer in number
than identified tactics. Specific strategies are some-
times employed by a number of practitioners. Tactics are
more unique to a specific program or practitioner.

4. The strategic orientation of practitioners does
not coincide with any of the four strategic orientations
identified in the literature by Havelock but is instead
an eclectic combination of elements of each of the four
orientations.

5. Community service practitioners administering
social action programs are not generally familiar with
change and innovation theory, or strategies and tactics
identified in the literature. They do not regard their
programs as "planned innovations" and they do not use
strategies and tactics in a planned, systematic sequence.

6. A classification of strategies and tactics
.induced from a content analysis of recorded interviews

‘flith community services practitioners conducting social

Robert Eden Balster

action programs can be constructed using areas of
deve10pmental conditions as the structuring device. Such
a classification is useful in compiling and codifying
strategies and tactics and in relating them to primary and
secondary clients of the practitioner.

7. The concept of areas of developmental conditions
is more appropriate to an explanation of the process of
introducing an innovation than are the concepts of stages,
phases, or steps.

8. The community services practitioner administer-
ing a social action program deals with a multi-level
category of clients which includes a primary client system
and a number of secondary client systems.

Ten suggestions were made for further research.

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF STRATEGIES AND
TACTICS USED TO INTRODUCE PLANNED
INNOVATIONS IN SELECTED COMMUNITY

SERVICES PROGRAMS

BY
J
v. I .:./
Robert EETBalster

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration
and Higher Education

1971

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

A great many peOple made contributions of various
kinds to the completion of this dissertation. Large and
small, these helping actions were each of great signifi-
cance.

Foremost was the contribution of my doctoral com-
mittee chairman, Max R. Raines, who was consistently
encouraging, optimistic, a contributor of fresh ideas, and
most significantly, patient.

Of great help were each of my committee members,
Gunder A. Myran, Van Johnson, and W. Cameron Meyers.

My special thanks go to the 10 community services

practitioners who took time from busy schedules to

discuss their programs.

The unique relationships which came about during
a time of concentrated effort require special thanks: I
am indebted to Louis W. Norris, now of the National
Endowment for the Humanities, for his personal encourage-
.ment; to Willard B. Frick, now at Oxford, for his friend-
sflmip; to James Lantz, now of North Dakota State for his
(mounsel and helpful criticism; to numerous faculty and
graduate students of the College of Education at Michigan

State University; to Mrs. Virginia Wiseman and Joan Mauer

ii

of Erickson Hall; to Mrs. Ann Brown who typed and produced
the dissertation; and to many, many more.

My deepest appreciation goes to my wife, Margaret
Anne, typist, proofreader, and intellectual stimulation,
and to my daughter, Carolyn Eden. Both were understanding

and interested throughout the course of my graduate work.

Robert Eden Balster

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter

I THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . .

II

III

IV

Introduction . . . . . . . . . .
Need for the Study . . . . . . . .
The Purpose . . . . . . . . . .
Limitations of the Study . . . . . .
Definition of Terms. . . . . . . .
Organization of the Study. . . . . .

REVIEW OF THEORY AND RELATED LITERATURE. .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . .
The Community College and Community
Services. . . . . . . . . . .

Social Action Programs. . . . . . .
Theories of Change and Innovation . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . .

DESIGN or THE STUDY . . . . . . . .
The Sample. . . . . . . . . . .
Administration of the Interview. . . .

Organization of the Data . . . . . .

PRESENTATION OF THE DATA. . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . .
Program Information. . . . . . . .
Presentation of the Data . . . . .

Classification of Strategies and Tactics.
Strategies and Tactics Used in Eight
Major Social Action Programs By
Community Services Practitioners. . .
Implications for Graduate School Training
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . .

iv

Page
ii

vi

H

OONU'Iibwl-d

12

12
18
22
6O

62

62
70
70

72

72
74
74
154

155
174
179

Chapter I Page

V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS
FOR FURTHER RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . 180

Summary of the Problem. . . . . . . . 180
Summary of the Literature. . . . . . . 181
Summary of the Data. . . . . . . 182
Discussion of Implications of the Study . . 183
Developmental Guideline . . . . . . . 185
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . 192
Suggestions for Further Research . . . . 194

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
1. Supplemental data relative to interviews . . 71
2. Background information (from Part II of

Interview Schedule). . . . . . . . . 75
3. Five models of chaflge and/or innovation. . . 140
4. Relationship of Clients and Areas of

Developmental Conditions . . . . . . . 147

5. Assignment of strategies and tactics to
areas of developmental conditions . . . . 153

vi

Appendix

A.

E.

F.

G.

LIST OF APPENDICES

Statement of Objectives of a Community

College. . .

Raines' Community Services Taxonomy

Kleis's Listing of

Involvement in Continuing Education

Havelock's Model of the Linkage Process

Miles' Typology of
Interview Schedule

Letter from Author
Cummiskey . .

Letter from Author
Cummiskey . .

Background Data on

Techniques Related to Stages of the
Process of Innovation by Four Com-
munity Services Practitioners and

Institutional

Change Strategies .

to Dr. J. Kenneth

to Dr. J. Kenneth

Each Interview

Ronald G. Havelock . . . .

vii

Page

207

210

214
216
218
220

229

231
233

242

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Introduction

 

This study emerges from the confluence of two
major streams of interest in contemporary higher education.
One is the expanding community services function of com-
munity colleges which is often based on a concern for
better meeting the needs of the poor, the unemployed, or
the racial minority in the urban community. The second is
the interest in the application of change and innovation
theory to the operation of colleges and universities to
make these institutions more responsive to human needs.

The community services function, according to
Harlacher, is responsible for acting "as a catalyst in
community development and self-improvement and acting as
a locus for the cultural, intellectual, and social develop-
ment of the district community" (36:14). Community services
is regarded in the literature as one of the major functional
areas of the community college in addition to the transfer,
vocational, general education and counseling function.
Various authors have described the major sub-systems of
the community college and all have included the community
services function as a major sub-system. These authors are

l

Blocker, et al., (13:201-267), Bogue (14:45-76), Gleazer
(31:43-99), and Thornton (94:58-70).
The social problems of the urban areas relating
to racial conflict, poverty, and unemployment which drew
national attention in the 1960's created a broader concept
of the mission of the community college relative to the
local community than had existed before. One community
services practitioner described this shift of attention
in this way:
A combination of pressures upon the college--
including student activists, faculty wanting to
relate to here-and-now social issues, Title I
of the Higher Education Act, and the insistent
voices of community residents--force it to
reexamine its function vis-a-vis the community
(92:30).

As a result, community service practitioners today are

searching for ways to inaugurate and expand social action

programs. A community services spokesman has said:
"Community service" and "community development"
are becoming academically legitimatized tasks to
be undertaken by universities and colleges in
general and by community colleges in particular
(69:4).

Interest in the application of change and innova-
tion theory to higher education stems in part from the
observation that "A central challenge of the new decade
is to discover (and rediscover) methods for humanizing

our institutions and our communities" (78:41). These

same authors say:

The singular theme undergirding current social
revolution is summarized in the phrase "institu-
tions were created to serve man, man was not
created to serve institutions." Whether it be

a church, a governmental agency, a corporation,

a college, or a university--failure to respond

to basic human needs in a direct and humane
manner is the central focus of the attack (78:41).

One educator has said:

There is a growing concern about change everywhere.
Changing, the change process, implementation of
research findings, dissemination of information,
the diffusion and adoption of innovations-~however
one wished to term this interest, it is present
and ever increasing. . . . Moreover, the school
has long been considered the one agency in our
society charged with the responsibility of
effecting change for the good of citizens and
government alike (66:1-2).

Another has said, "Educational innovation is currently

riding a wave of concern unequaled in the history of

American education" (63:81). Another tells us:
Change--inevitable and universal-~15 an element in
every human situation, and social scientists and
educators are today showing an increasing amount
of interest in theories of change and the use of
these theories to influence society (53:v).

Through the community services function the com-
munity college is able to move towards a deeper response
to the needs of its community. Through the application
of change and innovation theory, the community services
function may be able to become more efficient in its

.reSponse.

Need for the Study

 

Community services practitioners are undertaking

EXLanned innovations in their communities and their

colleges when they introduce social action programs. A
review of the literature reveals that little is known about
the techniques which are used to introduce and establish
these innovations. Havelock states:

There is a need for educators to spell out in

detail their "innovative" plans and activities

in terms of overall strategies and in terms of

the explicit sequences of action steps (tactics)

that make up these strategies (41:1).

The need to which this study is a response is the

need to identify and clarify the nature of potentially

helpful strategies and tactics used in the establishment

of successful community services social action programs.

The Purpose

 

A review of the literature reveals that little
or no research has been conducted to determine what
strategies and tactics are used by community college
community services practitioners or other social action
workers to bring about planned innovations. Havelock
states:

Thousands of innovative efforts are made by
change agents across the country each week,
yet virtually none are documented and reported
to others- Millions of man years experience
in change process go down the drain each year

because these strategies are not articulated,
compared, and shared (41:22).

The purpose of this study is fourfold:

l.

to compile strategies* and tactics* used by
community college community services
practitioners in selected social action
programs;

to develop a classification system for these
strategies and tactics;

to make a comparative analysis of field-
generated and literature-generated strategies
and tactics; and

to make suggestions for graduate school course

work for practitioners.

Limitations of the Study

This study is based on recall of events and actions

by practitioners. It was conducted on a post-hoc basis
and no attempt was made to verify or document what was
recalled by the practitioners.

Further, it is not the purpose of this study to
either provide a complete description of the social action
programs examined or to evaluate the programs in any way
since the focus of interest of the study is not on what

‘was done but on how it was done.

 

*
These terms are defined on pages 6 and 7.

A more serious limitation is that criteria have not
yet been developed by which a given strategy and the related
tactics can be evaluated as to their ultimate contribution

to a successful program.

Definition of Terms
The terms "change," "innovation," and "planned
innovation" have somewhat different meanings for different
authors. Miles states:

Change is very nearly an undefined, primitive
term. It generally implies that between time
1 and time 2 some noticeable alteration has
taken place (64:13).

Richardson states:

Change is something that occurs naturally as a
result of changing conditions and the improved
ability of the institution to relate to these
conditions (83:23).

Change

For the purposes of this study, change will mean
those noticeable alterations which have occurred
naturally in a system over time as a result of
chainging conditions.

'The term "innovation" is variously defined. Miles
states:

Innovation is a species of the genus change.
Generally speaking, it seems useful to define

an innovation as a deliberate, novel specific
change, which is thought to be more efficacious
in accomplishing the goals of a system. . . . It
seems useful to consider innovations as being
willed and planned for, rather than occurring
haphazardly (64:14).

Richardson states:
Innovation, on the other hand, frequently implies
a change that is new and which may be a result,
not of a change in environment, but of someone's
idea as to how a certain response ought to be
implemented, as opposed to the way in which it
is being implemented (83:23).

Rogers states: O

An innovation is an idea perceived as new by the
individual (88:18).

The "planned innovation" is defined by Havelock as:

An innovation based on realistic diagnosis of

educational needs and systematic planning,

development, and evaluation (41:1).
Lippitt, et al., define "planned change" as:

Change which derives from a purposeful decision

to effect improvements in a personality system

or social system and which is achieved with the

help of professional guidance (53:v).
Innovation and Planned Innovation

For the purposes of this study these terms will
be used interchangeably and will mean those noticeable
alterations which are new to the system, which are intro-
duced in a purposive way based on a diagnosis of the needs
of the system, systematic planning, development, and evalua-
tion, and which are introduced to the system with the
rnotivation of helping the system better achieve its goals.
"Strategies" and "tactics" have been defined as

liollows. "Strategy" is defined by Miles as:

Essentially that of a general set of policies

underlying specific action steps (tactics)

expected to be useful in achieving the durable
installation of aaparticular innovation (64:648).

Havelock states:

Strategies are used to predispose their receivers
to accept the innovations being presented (40:5-19).

In speaking of planned innovation, Havelock says:
"Strategy" is a key aspect of this new concept of
innovation because it is now becoming recognized
that change will only lead to real progress if it
is brought about in an orderly sequence of goal-

setting, planning, and systematic execution
(41:1).

Strategy

For the purposes of this study strategy will mean a
general set of policies arrived at through an orderly
sequence of goal-setting, planning, and systematic
execution which guide the use of action steps (tactics)

in achieving the installation of an innovation.

Tactic

For the purpose of this study tactic will mean a

specific action step or procedure to carry out a strategy.

Strategic Orientation

 

For the purpose of this study strategic orientation
will mean a set of inter-related assumptions about the
nature of the process of chahge, usually based on research,
and from which strategies are derived and with which

tactics are associated.

Technique

 

For the purposes of this study technique will be
defined to include a strategy, a tactic, a helping action,

or a means to install an innovation in a system.

Change Agent

 

a change agent is a professional person who
attempts to influence adoption decisions in a direction

that he feels is desireable (88:254).

Client
Client for the purposes of this study will mean
the persons or group whose needs will be met or partially

met by the installation of the innovation.

Client System

 

Client system is equivalent to client but indi-
cates the fact that the glient is usually a group of
people who are interrelated and at least partly inter-
dependent (39:3).

It is important to note that in the area covered
by this study, social action programs undertaken by com-
munity services divisions of community colleges, it is
possible to fill the needs of more than one group through
the introduction of a single innovation. In such cases,

there will be a primary client and secondary clients.

 

10

Social Action Program

Social action program for the purpose of this

study is defined as:

1. A program involving primarily Black people
or other minority people, or the poor, or
the unemployed, or underemployed;

2. A planned innovation, not a change that
occurred naturally;

3. A program with goals which included producing
observable behavioral changes in skills or
attitudes or values;

4. A program having impact on the community,
involving at least 100 persons or more on a
voluntary basis in the community college
district during a period of one year;

5. A program in Operation at least one year and
having taken place within the past five years;

6. A program judged successful by the practi-

tioner.

Organization of the Study

 

Chapter II is devoted to a review of the applicable
literature and theory on change and innovation and the com-
Inunity services division of the community college.

Chapter III is devoted to an account of how the

(data were collected and analyzed.

11

Chapter IV is a presentation of the data: a
classifiCation of strategies and tactics associated with
community services social action programs; a comparative
analysis of field-generated and literature-generated
strategies and tactics; and suggestions for graduate school
training of community services practitioners.

Chapter V contains a summary, conclusions drawn
from the interpretation of the data, recommendations, and

suggestions for further research.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THEORY AND RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to review the theory

and related literature of two areas: (1) the community

services function of the two-year, public, community
college, and (2) change and innovation. Strategies and

tactics identified as useful in educational institutions

are also set forth.

The Community College and
Community Services

An underlying premise of this study is that the
contemporary community college, as compared to the tra-
ditional two-year junior college or the four-year college
or university, has a specific and unique purpose, that is,
to be "community centered" and "community serving" as

specified by the 1947 President's Commission on Higher

Imiucation (31:28). At this point the implications of
tflnis premise will be examined as they exist in the

ZLiterature of the community college movement.

12

l3

Bogue comments on the Commission's intended
meanings:

What, then, is a community college and what did
the President's Commission on Higher Education
have in mind when the term was used? The first
qualification is service primarily to the people
of the community. The community institution goes
to the people who live and work where it is
located, makes a careful study of the needs of
these people for education not being offered by
any other institution of learning, analyzes these
needs, and builds its educational program in
response to the analysis (14:21).

Gleazer provides an ideal concept of the community

college:

A good community college will be honestly, gladly,
and clearly a community institution. It is in and
of the community. The community is used as an
extension of classroom and laboratory. Drawing
upon the history, traditions, personnel, problems,
assets and liabilities of the community, it
declares its role and finds this accepted and
understood by faculty, administration, students
and the citizenry (29:1).

Blocker, et al., say it more directly:

The community college is a functioning segment of
the community, and its mission centers around the
education of the young, the continuing education
of older citizens, and general improvement of the
community through beneficial and appropriate
educational and cultural services (13:34).

Harlacher provides a somewhat different emphasis:

The program of the community college may be thought
of as twofold: formal education and informal
education. Through its formal dimension, sometimes
characterized as schooling, the community college
provides transfer, occupational, general education,
and guidance and counseling programs for youth and
adults enrolled in regularly scheduled day and
evening classes on the campus. But it is through
its informal, community dimension that the junior
college truly becomes a community college. . . .

14

Since the community college aims at the whole

person in a whole community, it sees no one as
being unworthy because of his present level of
development, his ideas, or his current status

within the culture (37:3-4).

How are these general statements made operational
by specific community colleges? The general philosophical
positions and specific goals and objectives of a repre-
sentative, comprehensive community college is provided in
Appendix A. This is Lake Michigan College, Benton Harbor,
Michigan.

The specific goals and/or objectives of Lake
Michigan include mention of five sub-systems within the
college through which the general objectives are reached.
These five areas are:

1. Transfer or pre-professional education which

parallels the freshman and sophomore years
at a four-year institution; awarding of the
Associate of Arts degree;

2. Technical or vocational training program
which offers terminal certification;
retraining and upgrading programs;

3. General education courses for all citizens
on a credit and non-credit basis during
regular class hours and at special times;

4. Guidance services to students to assist them

in choosing appropriate courses of study in

which they can attain their maximum potential;

15

5. Community services designed to meet the
educational, cultural and recreational
needs of the community college district.

Various authors have described the functions per-
formed by each of these operational divisions or sub-
systems of the comprehensive community college. These
authors are Thornton (94:58-70), Blocker, §t_al. (13:201-
267), Gleazer (31:43-99), Myran (72:1-2), and Bogue
(14:45-76). It is not necessary to discuss each func-
tional area in detail: the point is that the community '
services function is generally accepted as an area of
importance equal to the transfer, technical-vocational,
general education, and guidance areas.

Community services is historically the last of the
functional areas of the community college to take shape.
The exact structure of this division varies from college
to college and reflects the needs of the community which
the college serves. Several years ago Harlacher noted
that the community college has two primary responsibilities
to the community:

1. As a catalyst in community development and
self-improvement (providing) leadership,
coordination, and cooperation to stimulate
action programs.

2. As a locus for the cultural, intellectual,

and social development of its district
community (36:15).

16

Myran notes that there is no general agreement
among practitioners as to the exact programs, courses and
activities which fall within the community services con-
cept but he does offer a general description and emphasizes
the community-centered orientation of this division:

Those efforts of the community college, often
undertaken in cooperation with other community
groups or agencies, which are directed toward
serving personal and community educational
needs not met by formal collegiate degree or
certificate programs (70:12).

In determining whether or not a program, course,
or activity will be considered a community service, the
orientation of the offering is most important: that is,
the degree to which it is viewed as bieng community-
centered.

In tracing the origins of community service, Myran
notes that service to the community beyond degree and
certificate programs has long been a major objective of
the community college. Called variously adult education,
continuing education, public service, community education
or community service, the thrust has been to provide a
wide range of educational activities and services directed
to specific personal or community needs. He states that
"it is in the decade of the 1960's that community services

has emerged as an identifiable component of the community

college" (70:10).

17

Raines has prepared a taxonomy of community services
functions which describes the scope of community services.
It provides a more detailed definitioncf’community services
and one which is adaptable to changing concepts of community
service through the addition, deletion or change of taxons.
The taxonomy is divided into three categories, the functions
of individual-development, community-development, and
program development (77:4, 6, 8).

1. Individual-development functions:

Personal counseling
Educational extension
Educational expansion
Social outreach
Cultural development
,Leisure-time activity
2. Community-development functions:
Community analysis
Interagency cooperation
Advisory liaison
Public forum
Civic action
Staff consultation
3. Program development functions:
Public information
Professional development
Program management
Conference planning
Facility utilization
Program evaluation.
A Complete taxonomy with full descriptions of functions is
PrOVided in Appendix B.

One important point in the relationship between

the<mollege and the community remains to be covered: this

18

is the concept of linkage. Linkage is defined as: "The
process by which various parts of a social system such

as a community college, learn to act as a single unit in
order to achieve specific purposes" (70:40). Various
authors have noted that the community college has a special
obligation to respond to the educational needs of its
community. Since the college is part of the community,

it operates in an interorganizational environment: it is
one system in a system of systems with "the community" as
the supersystem. Working relationships must be formed with
other organizations so that the college can involve itself
with them, identify with them, and serve them. These
working relationships are linkages.

Kleis has develOped a listing of 34 generic types
of organizations which may be involved in continuing
education in any community. Linkages between the community
college and these types of organizations would be expected.

This listing is included as Appendix C.

Social Action Programs

 

In his 1970 American Association of Junior
Colleges national convention address, AAJC executive
director Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr., said:

I doubt that we will see physical growth as rapid
in the next several years. And in winning the
battle for public interest there are now other
powerful social needs to be recognized--needs,
incidentally, which can either be competitors or
allies depending on how we move into what I
believe is a new arena of action. Public interest

19

in our institutions during this next decade will

not be captured by dramatic growth but by ways

in which our institutions relate to man's most

compelling problems. . . . The mission before us

now is . . . to discover how our resources can

be utilized as the young people and adults in

the areas we serve discover their own identities

(28:3-5).
Gleazer's call for community colleges to "relate to man's
most compelling problems," points to an area served more
by word than by deed, as is born out by a review of the
literature. Many authors have pointed to the potential
for service in the social action area by community colleges.
Raines and Myran state that "the community college, with
its unique resources and its localized service area, can
be a vital force for improving the quality of life in a
community" (78:49).

Social action programs which involve Black people
or other minority people, or the poor, or the unemployed
or the underemployed, and which have as a goal the pro-
duction of an observable behavioral change in skills,
attitudes, or values, are only beginning to emerge in
community service programs of some community colleges.
Victor Lauter has described social action programs at New
York City Community College but he has said:

Progress has been slower than we would like. The
needs of degree-seeking youth must, of necessity,
be satisfied before turning to the waiting needs

of large, ever-increasing segments of the pOpu-
lation (50:35).

20

Richard Ricca has described the Inner City program of
Peralta Junior College District in California (83:73) and
George Traicoff, Jr., has described programs at Cleveland's
Cuyahoga Community College (23:4-10). According to Dr. J.
Kenneth Cummiskey, director of the AAJC's Community
Services Project, social action programs involving any
substantial number of persons (more than 100 in one year)
exist in a relatively few number of community colleges.*
'Authors who have written about these "cutting

edge" social action programs have often noted the need for
community colleges to be more adaptive and open to change.
Lauter says "Rigidity is our greatest enemy . . . we must
remain flexible-~ever alert to new opportunities, new
approaches, new techniques, new strengths, and new
resources" (50:40). Gleazer tells us "radical change is
required in many of our present concepts, definitions,
structures" (28:5). Spiegel, in arguing for a "non-campus"
community college in the urban ghetto says:

Merely adding new "community-relevant" courses to

the curriculum is not going to fundamentally alter

existing relationships which appear to me as

essentially paternalistic or at least superficial.

The basic nature of the relationship must be

changed (92:34).

Miller, in speaking of the need for a greater

knowledge of the process of change in education says:

 

Dr. Cummiskey made this statement to the author in
a telephone conversation on June 1, 1971.

21

Many educators realize that adOption of desireable
innovations has not and is not keeping pace with
innovations, invention, or the acquisition of new
knowledge. There is a great need to learn more
about the change advocate, the change agent, and
how he or it can be used effectively in helping

to improve the quality of education (66:5).

The changes which are taking place in our society
and the changes which probably will take place as major
cosial problems are dealt with produce new and more complex
community concerns to which the community college must
respond if it is to remain true to its purpose. As has

been pointed out, the community college above all must

remain responsive to human concerns:

 

The singular theme undergirding current social
revolution is summarized in the phrase "institutions
were created to serve man, man was not created to
serve institutions." Whether it be a church, a
governmental agency, a corporation, a college, or
a university--failure to respond to basic human
needs in a direct and humane manner is the central
focus of the attack. There is little doubt that

a central challenge of the new decade is to dis-
cover (and rediscover) methods for humanizing our
institutions and our communities (78:41).

In its short tradition, the function of community
services has taken form in a wide variety of ways. Although
there is common agreement that "community services in the
community college is legitimate only to the extent that it
is an extension or expansion of educational resources," as
noted by Myran (70:19), the interpretation of what falls
within "educational“ has been on the conservative side at
nmny colleges. A college must engage in a process of

examining its performance and evaluating this performance

22

in the light of its stated goals; also, the community college,
as an organization, must examine its goals in light of the
needs which are evident in the community it serves.

Blocker, e£_al., ask this question about the two-
year college:

Can the two-year college continue its adaptation

to changing societal conditions and needs, or will
it become a traditional and static institution
with fixed and limited educational objectives?

The history of American higher education is replete
with examples of colleges originally organized for
specific purposes and later transformed into more
traditional institutions conforming rigidly to the
accepted patterns of the university. . . . The two-
year college confronts the same issue: Will it
continue as an experimental college or will it,
like many of its predecessors, adOpt a more
traditional pattern? (13:15)

It is to this question that a concern for the
application of theories of change and innovation is

directed.

Theories of Change and Innovation

 

Havelock in Planning for Innovation, a major study

 

on the dissemination and utilization of knowledge, offers
a classification scheme for cnange theories. He divides
them in three perspectives or schools: (1) the social-

interaction_per§pective (SI), (2) the research, development

 

 

and diffusion perspective (RD&D), and (3) the problem-

 

§91verppep§pective (PS) (40:10-29).

 

23

Social Interaction Perspective

 

The social interaction perspective includes studies

 

in which an innovation in the form of knowledge of a
product or practice is brought to the attention of a
potential receiver pOpulation with the receiver as the unit
of analysis. The focus is on the receiver's perception of
and response to this knowledge coming from outside. The SI
perspective is concerned with the stages through which the
receiver passes in reaching a decision to adOpt or reject.
Also of concern is the related issue of the mechanisms by
which the innovation diffuses through the adOpting group.
Studies in this area have shown that the most effective
means of spreading information about an innovation is through
personal contact. In the SI perspective, the key to
adOption is social interaction.

Katz and Kahn comment on the influence of social
interaction with emphasis on the peer group in producing
individual change. They say:

1. The behavior of associates does exert tremendous
power over the individual.

2. Changing several people at the same status level
in the organization introduces the possibility
of continuing reinforcement of the behavioral
changes.

3. The possibility of discovering an acceptable
solution calling for change is greater in groups
not inhibited by authority figures (45:395).

24

The peer group is a useful vehicle for intragroup
processes of influence because equal status and power
encourage full discussion, free decision—making, and the
internalization of the decisions which result. Katz and
Kahn state:

Research evidence clearly establishes the

effectiveness of such group discussion and

decision-making in changing behavior and

attitudes where the individual is the target

of the attempts to produce change (45:396).

It appears that the major factor in the success of group
discussion and group decision in changing group norms and
individual behavior is the significance of the decisions for
the peOple involved. They work out problems of importance
to themselves and make decisions about their own fate. Katz
and Kahn note other factors which are of importance:
"Discussion and decision about problems of importance invoke
powerful individual forces of self-expression and self-
determination" (45:401). Several other points are impor-
tant:

1. Group interaction . . . makes salient the group
norm or consensus. . . . After discussion has
finally reached consensus the group norms are
abundantly clear and psychologically real to the
members.

2. Since the group has to come up with a decision,
if it is to be successful, members have to
reach a point of crystallization in their own
thinking and hence self-commitment.

3. The self-commitment embodying the group decision
is a public commitment. . . . This public

visibility of their individual positions helps
to freeze the outcome of the group process.

25

Group discussion and decision is more powerful
when its decision outcome is clearly stated in
terms of a course of action. The changed beliefs
are removed from the area of good intentions to
the realities of everyday behavior (45:402).

Kurt Lewin and his followers were the first to

demonstrate the usefulness of the group method to modify

individual behavior. Other research, and the conclusions

offered by Katz and Kahn, are based on two assumptions by

Lewin which must be kept in mind:

1.

school.

The peer group is made up of peOple who come
together as equals with respect to formal
authority and formal status.

PeOple come into the group because of common
interests of their own and not as formal
representatives of other groups. They can
disagree or even leave the group, without
consequences (45:405).

Rogers is perhaps the best known theorist in the SI

In his book, Diffusion of Innovations, he prOposes

 

a five-stage process model as follows:

At the awareness stage the individual is exposed
to the innovatidn but lacks complete information
about it. He then becomes interested in it and

seeks information in the interest stage. At the
evaluation stage the individuaI mentally applies

 

 

the innovation to his present and anticipated
future situation, and then decides whether or not
to try it. The individual uses the innovation on
a small scale in order to determine its utility
in his own situation at the trial stage. At the
ado tion stage the individuaI decides to continue

fuII use of the innovation (88:119).

Rogers describes the initial stage of awareness as

 

that at which:

26

. . . the individual is eXposed to the innovation
but lacks complete information about it. The
individual is aware of the innovation, but is not
yet motivated to seek further information. The
primary function of the awareness stage is to
initiate the sequence of later stages that lead to
eventual adOption or rejection of the innovation
(88:81-82).

This stage is a relatively passive one on the part of the
receiver, as described by Rogers; he feels that awareness
of an innovation does not generally come about as a result
of need, but instead, awareness of a new idea creates a
need for that innovation.

At the second or interest stage, the individual is

 

active in seeking information about the innovation. Rogers
'says:

The individual favors the innovation in a general

way, but he has not yet judged its utility in

terms of his own situation. The function of the

'interest stage is mainly to increase the indi-

vidual's information about the innovation (88:82).
Rogers tells us that it is at this stage that positive or

negative attitudes toward an innovation begin.

Rogers describes the third stage, evaluation, as a

 

period of "mental trial" which is a necessary step prior to
the trial stage. He tells us that:

At the evaluation stage the individual mentally

applies the innovation to his present and

anticipated future situation, and then decides

whether or not to try it (88:83).
Rogers and others have noted that it is the evaluation

stage which we know least about since it is the most

27

difficult stage about which to obtain information. Rogers
tells us:

Different types of evaluation occur at each stage

in the adoption process . . . but the decision to

try the new idea occurs, by definition, only at

the evaluation stage (88:83).

The individual is ready to enter the trial stage
only if the results of the "mental trial" are favorable.
Rogers describes this stage as follows:

At the trial stage the individual uses the innovation
on a small scale in order to determine its utility in
his own situation. The main function of the trial
stage is to demonstrate its usefulness for possible
complete adoption (88:84).

The last stage postulated by Rogers is that of
adoption. Here, the results of the trial are considered
and based on this evaluation, the decision to adopt or
reject the innovation is made. Rogers says "Adoption
implies continued use of the innovation in the future"
(88:86).

About the social interaction perspective, Havelock
notes that the bulk of the research to support this per-
spective comes from rural sociology. He identifies five
generalizations about the process of innovation diffusion
as seen from this perSpective. These are:

(1) the individual user or adopter belongs to a
network of social relationships which largely
influences his adOption behavior; (2) that his
place in the network (centrality, peripherality,
isolation) is a good predictor of his rate of

acceptance of new ideas; (3) that informal
personal contact is a vital part of the influence

28

and adOption process; (4) that group membership

and reference group identifications are major

predictors of individual adOption; (5) that the

rate of diffusion through a social system follows

a predictabls S-curve pattern (41:7).
Havelock notes that there is a remarkably wide range of
situations in every field of knowledge in which these five
generalizations have been demonstrated to be operative.

The SI perSpective often views the innovation as
something relatively fixed and concrete. Often the innova-
tion studied is something such as a fertilizer, a new kind
of seed, a new drug, or a new curriculum package which makes
the observation of the diffusion of the innovation very
susceptible to quantitative empirical analysis.

Havelock has develOped four strategies and five

tactics which derived from the social interaction perspec-

 

tive. He notes that:

Because of the strong empiricists orientation of
the SI approach, it has generated relatively few
explicit strategies or action alternatives. SI
theorists generally prefer to sit back and ponder
the "natural" process without meddling in it
(41:8).

The following four strategies are associated with
the SI school by Havelock:

Natural diffusion. "Diffusion," in the social
context, refers to the spread of the adoption of
an innovation; . . . after 10% to 20% have adopted,
the vast majority of potential adopters will
shortly follow . . . (39:Appendix A, 6).

 

29

Natural communication network utilization. Such a
strategy would inélude identification of’Opinion
leadership and circles of influence within the
social system, and channeling of information to
such key points (41:9).

Network building. A complex strategy which results
from the use and enhancement of informal social
relationships in a client system by a change agent.
Through informal personal contact the support of
Opinion leaders in the system is enlisted in the
first phase of network building. Demonstrations
and other forms of group meetings are emphasized

in the diffusion program . . . (39:Appendix A, 8).

Multiple media approaches. Effective innovation
strategies, as well as effective advertising
campaigns, employ a variety of media to reach
potential users (e.g., newspapers, pamphlets, TV,
radio, demonstrations, free samples, etc.).
Researchers have verified that different kinds
of media are Optimally effective at different
stages in the adOption process (i.e., awareness,
interest, trial, evaluation, adOption). A
successful strategy of media use would synchro-
nize different media with the progressive stages
of user involvement (39:Appendix A, 7).

The following five tactics are associated with the

SI school by Havelock. Although tactics are normally held
to be specific action steps associated with a specific
strategy, and are employed to carry out the strategy,
Havelock does not provide any suggested relationship
between the five SI tactics and the four SI strategies.
The tactics are as follows:

Mass media dissemination. The dissemination of

new ideas through teIevision, radio, and the pOpular

press. It is usually most effective (a) for reaching

Opinion leaders who are media-oriented, (b) for

creating awareness of new ideas, (c) for conveying

simple ideas, and (d) for disseminating in crisis

situations. Effective utilization usually requires

that mass media be combined with other approaches
(39:Appendix A, 7).

 

30

The "counpy agent." Locally based full-time
eXperts on innovation (for which the "county agent"
of agricultural extension is a commonly cited
model) are crucial adjuncts to the "natural dif-
fusion process" because they serve as the feeding
points and personal contacts for the earliest
adopters and Opinion leaders . . . (41:9-10).

 

The salesman. The county agent typically does not
haveifhe Eime or resources to reach every member

of the social system but the salesman can. Driven
by profit motivation, both personal and corporate,
the salesman utilizes personal and informal contact
to the maximum. Moreover, he may be more effective
than the "exPert" county agent in reaching the less
progressive and more isolated sectors of the
community (41:10).

 

Prestige suggestion. Identifying use of the innovation
witH Ieaders_§hd other well-known personalities on the
assumption that these individuals have true Opinion
leadership . . . (39:Appendix A, 8).

Opinion leadership utilization. . . . if Opinion
leaders can be influenced, Ehen the rest of the
social system will follow ... . (39:Appendix A, 8).

 

Rogers presents five strategies which he says
"should apply to a broad range of change agent-client
relationships." These are:

1. A program of change should be tailored to fit
cultural values and past experiences.

2. A change agent's clients must perceive a need
for an innovation before it can be successfully
introduced.

3. Change agents should be more concerned with
improving their client‘s competence in evaluat-
ing new ideas and less with simply promoting
innovations per se.

4. Change agents should concentrate their efforts
upon Opinion leaders in the early stages of
the diffusion of an innovation.

31

5. The social consequences of innovations should
be anticipated and prevented if undesirable
(88:278-282).

Research, Develgpment, and
DiffusiOn Perspective

 

 

The research, development and diffusion perspective

 

(RD&D) looks at the process of change from the point of View
Of the originator of an innovation and presumes a receiver
need, which the SI perspective does not but both see the
sender as the determiner of the receiver's state. RD&D
models depict the process of change as an orderly sequence
which begins with the identification of a problem, procedes
through activities which result in finding a solution to
lthe problem, and ends with diffusion of the solution to a
target group.

The RD&D perspective is based on the concept that
there is a rational sequence in the development and applica-
tion of the innovation. This sequence includes research,
development, and packaging and takes place before the
innovation is disseminated. Planning is seen as taking
place on a massive scale and usually over a period of time.
A rational division of labor is seen as important to success.
The innovation or product is seen as having had all of the
"bugs" removed as a result of this rational approach. The
receiver or consumer of the innovation is seen as passive
but rational. He will accept and adopt the innovation if it

is offered to him in the right form, at the right time, and

32

in the right way. High develOpmental costs, incurred
before dissemination, is acceptable in this perspective
because of the anticipated long-run benefits and because
the innovation usually has a broad, mass-audience applica-
tion.

The RD&D school views the change process from an
earlier point in time than does the SI school. As a result,
it considers a wider range of roles and activities which
are apprOpriate to different stages. In general, the RD&D
concepts are more complex than either the SI or PS schools
and there is a wide range of conceptualizations on the part
of different authors to represent it. The SI theorists
generally assume some sort of diffusion activity to be
taking place but focus on the adoption activity. The RD&D
theorists generally note all four of the stages of research,
develoPment, diffusion, and adoption, to some degree, but
focus on that section or stage which is most directly
related to their field of inquiry.

The major emphasis of RD&D theorists is on large
scale planning of change and innovation. This involves
detailed development of a program, based on scientific
knowledge, and a rigorous testing and evaluation to produce
an innovation "package" which is as complete and geared to
fill the-need as research can make it. Also involved are

mechanisms for distributing the innovation and installing

33

it in.target systems. Havelock notes that to the RD&D

change agent:

The planning of change is conceptualized in terms
of a theoretical framework which describes the
change process as a continuum of activities from
research to practice, and a rational division of
labor is specified for carrying out these
activities (40:10-53).

The RD&D school does not have a "generally accepted"
model. For the purposes of this study Miles will be
examined since his change strategy focuses on education.

It is described in his book, Innovation in Education. Miles

 

states that all comprehensive strategies for change include
the chronological stages of design of innovation, local
awareness and interest, local evaluation, and local trial.
Miles states that the change process may be initiated
either by the target system itself or by systems in the
environment of the target system using either existing
structures or new structures (64:631).

Miles and Lake suggest a model which employs an
external change agent team whose purpose is to "formulate,
apply, evaluate, and disseminate some variations of a
basic strategy of planned change in collaboration with
several school systems" (63:81). An important point
involves the purpose of the team: it does not attempt to
install specific innovations in the school but rather to
assist the school to understand the change process and to

.become "self-renewing."

34

The strategic ten steps of the model are as follows:

1. Establish a temporary system or focal group of
superintendent and his cabinet, the board and change
agent(s). Clarify expectations of the parties involved.
(Purposes, time schedule, cost, role relations, data
collection methods and data dissemination plans.)

2. Collect information from system members.
(Interviews and questionnaires.)

3. Formulate statements of how goals, attitudes,
and beliefs in different groups in the system agree with
or are discrepant from one another and what problems most
urgently need solution.

4. Using the data from step three, examine current
operations, work on problems shown in the data and improve
problem-solving effectiveness of the focal group as a team.
(Problem sensing or identification; diagnosis; setting
change objectives or targets; locate or invent alternative
solutions to focal group problems; weigh cost and gains of
each solution to focal group problems; decide alternative
to try for solving focal group problems; plan implementa-
tion of solution to focal group problems; and plan how to
check diagnosis and change targets with other organizational
levels both above and below focal group.)

5. Carry out plans from previous step with other
relevant groups. Repeat steps One, two and three with

other groups under guidance of focal group.

35

6. Set up structures and procedures to institu-
tionalize and support continuing self-renewal process.

(May include regular meetings of existing groups; creation
of new roles, new procedures and/or new groups.)

7. Phase out active participation by external
change agent staff.

8. Complete an assessment of the change program to
date. (Has the school system become self-renewing, con-
tinuing to improve and develop under its own initiative?)

9. Feed the findings back into the school system.

10. Disseminate accounts of the methods and results
of the change program (63:83-84).

The objective of this model is substantial. The
authors say:

We intend to help these school systems become
self-renewing. A self-renewing school system
would have the ability to continuously sense
and adapt to its changing external and internal
environment in such a manner as to strengthen

itself and Optimally fulfill its goal of pro-
viding quality education for children (63:82).

 

Miles and Lake note the following "climate" factors
of importance to the success of the implementation of the
model: (1) a self-study emphasis; (2) an increase in
motivation for change; (3) a problem-solving focus;

(4) increased collaboration; (5) a change-supportive
climate; and (6) change supportive structures. They
emphasize also that the kind of change sought through the

model is growth in the capacity for adaption and change

36

by the institution. Also, their focus is on the school
as a total sociotechnical system (63:85-86).

Since Miles and Lake view the objective of any
strategy as the adoption of an innovation by the target
system, they focus on the activities of the receiver(s)
during the final pahses rather than on the activities of
the sender.

Havelock says that, in broad terms, "RD&D is
itself a grand strategy for planned innovation." He
suggests these strategies as being derived from the RD&D
perspective:

Development of high performance products. . . .
In this process, most of the adaptation and
translation problems of the user are anticipated
and adjusted for. The final outcome is there-
fore "user-proof," guaranteed to work for the

most fumbling and incompetent receiver . . .
(41:11).

 

Informationgsystem building. Sometimes the
TIEproductw of development will itself be a
system for diffusion and innovation . . . (41:11).

 

Engineered diffusion projects and programs. . . .
(l) careful advance planning, (2) innovation
packaging. (3) careful identification, selection,
and preparation of the target audience, (4)
multimedia presentation (written and oral
material, group discussion, demonstration, etc.),
(5) some sort of active user involvement,

(6) systematic follow-up, and (7) experimental
evaluation and documentation . . . (41:11-12).

 

Experimental social innovation. . . . innovative
social science projects can be designed as field
experiments which include many of the features
of laboratory experimentation so as to insure
valid and readily interpretable results . . .
(41:12).

 

37

Administered and legislated change. A change
strategy which assumes that an innovation can

be effectively diffused through legislative

or administrative fiat; . . . (39:Appendix A, 7).

Fait accompli. This strategy of change consists
of installing an innovation without consulting
users or without informing them in advance
(39:Appendix A, 6).

Systems analysis. . . . a systematic strategy

of innovation which begins with the careful
construction of an Optimum but detailed ideal
model of the problem area. Comparison of this
ideal model with current operational reality
highlights various shortcomings and focal points
for change effort . . . (39:Appendix A, 10).

In addition to the seven strategies noted above and
derived from the RD&D perspective by Havelock, six tactics
have been identified. As Havelock notes, RD&D tactics are
essentially the tactics of research itself, that is,
hypothesis building and operationalizing, design, sampling,
instrumentation, measurement, statistical analysis and
inference,_and derivation of implications. The tactics
provided by Havelock are related to development and
diffusion as follows:

Experimental demonstration. In the hands of a
skilled demonstrator, and under ideal circumstances,
a demonstration of an innovation can be quite
powerful for adoption. . . . To be effective a
demonstration must look convincing. First it must
show clearly and dramatically that the innovation
makes a difference, that it changes things for the
better. Second, it must look natural, something

that the client can really use in his own setting
with his resources (39:Appendix A, 6).

38

Research evaluation. In lieu of using an
"experimental demonstration" with its potential
bias one may perform a careful documentation and
evaluation over time to measure the success or
failure of the innovation . . . (Appendix A, 9).

 

User need surveys. Systematic collection of
information on the needs of the client system

on the assumption that such "diagnostic" data
will be used in problem solving or in the design
and development of useful innovations (39:
Appendix A, 10).

 

Successive approximation. Through a series of
evaluations and contingent redesigns an innova-
tion can gradually be shaped into a more
useable product (39:Appendix A, 10).

 

Translation. In order that potential users under-
stand fully the innovation and its theoretical
basis, the change agent may often be required to
translate such information into language familiar
to his client (39:Appendix A, 10).

 

Packaging for diffusion. Clear, attractive and
effective labelling, printing and formating of
the innovation Cal add a richness and a potential
power for furute adoption (39:Appendix A, 8).

 

The Problem-Solver Perspective

 

In the problem-solver perspective (PS) the receiver,
which is seen as an individual or a group, initiates the
process by identifying an area of concern or by sensing
a need for change. Once the problem area is identified,
the receiver participates fully in the whole process to
bring change about. This may be through his or their
group effort or it may involve outside assistance. This
outside assistance generally takes the form of a change
agent. Whereas the receiver in the SI and RD&D models is

passive, the receiver in this model is actively involved

39

in finding an innovation to solve locally identified
problems. The change process may be initiated either
by the receiver or by the change agent. The relation-
ship between sender and receiver is one of collaboration
but generally the receiver determines what the new input
will be. The receiver in the PS school is known as the
"client system" whereas in the SI and RD&D approaches the
receiver is the "target system."

The PS perspective is strongly oriented to the
user or receiver of the innovation, as noted above. There
is a sequence of activities which is initiated with the

sensing and articulation of a need by the user. The user

 

need is the primary consideration and the only acceptable
"value-stance" for the change agent. The need is

translated into a pgoblem statement and diagnosis follows

 

 

 

as an integral part of the total process. The user,
assisted by a nondirective change agent, conducts a

search and retrieval of possible solutions from various

 

 

forms of resources. The solution or innovation is user-

 

 

selected and user-applied. The user concerns himself with
adapting the innovation to his situation, with trying out

and evaluatipg the effectiveness of the innovation in

 

meeting his need. If the innovation appears to meet the
user need, the user must develop an internal capacity to
maintain the innovation. The role of the outside helper,

the change agent is consultative and collaborative during

40

the whole process, but at this stage of the sequence,
even this help is withdrawn and those within the user
system who have worked with the change agent now take on

the role of internal change agent so that a self-renewal

 

 

capacity begins to grow.

There are two PS orientation change models which
will be reviewed because of their application to this
study. The first is that of Lippitt, Watson, and Westley
and the second is that of Watson. Basic to these and other
PS models is Lewin's concept of the phases of change which

are made up of "unfreezing," "moving,' and "freezing"
(51:472). Lewin saw broad social change as a series of
action steps followed by reconnaisance of results and
decisions which lead to the next action step series. This
iterative, or repeated recycling procedure is basic to a
concept of self-renewal for the organization which is of
interest to theorists in the PS school.

First we will look at the model of Lippitt, et al.,

as set forth in The Qynamics of Planned Change which is

 

typical of the PS perspective:

1. Development of a need for change ("unfreezing").
2. Establishment of a change relationship.
3. Working toward change ("moving").

a. Diagnosis of client problems.

b. Examination of alternative routes and goals
and establishment of goals and intentions
of action.

c. Transformation of intentions into change
efforts.

4. Generalization and stabilization of change

("freezing").

5. Achieving a terminal relationship (53:130, 136).

41

This model is oriented to the introduction of a
change agent which, in terms of the general description of
the problem-solving school, is an optional course and is
determined by the system desiring change.

In discussing the "unfreezing" as it applies to an
organization, Lippitt, ep_al., note that "problem aware—
ness" is necessary. It is usual that "the total system
lacks concerted sensitivity to the problems" (53:131). In
addition to "problem awareness" in the entire system, it
is important to have a desire for change or at least "some
confidence in the possibility of a more desirable state of
affairs" (53:131). Also, the syStem, or some influential
subpart, must believe tnat external help is relevant and
available. The authors note that resistance to help from
the outside is often based on a disinclination to expose
problems in the belief that this will be interpreted by
someas an admission of failure to manage effectively.
Lippitt, e£_gl., note that the change process "is
likely to raise important organizational or procedural
questions within the client system“ (53:135). The authors
focus this concern primarily on the client system relation-
ship with the change agent. It is also important to note
that various sub—systems of an organization may be less
ready for change than others, and may attempt to engage the

sympathy of other subparts in resisting change whether or

not an outside change agent is involved.

several

1.

model are part of the "freezirg

42

In discussing the "moving" phase, the authors note
areas of possible problems:

Information about the system is needed. How
shall it be obtained? The obtaining of
information can create a serious work load in
the client system.

The problem may broaden and become more
complex as information is gathered and
analyzed. At this point vested interests
become aware of threats posed by change and
defensive reactions surface.

Cognitive and motivational problems arise in
considering alternatives for action. The
cause of the problem may be isolated but
remedial steps may not follow either because
they cannot be conceived of or the persons
involved refuse to consider use of them.

The transformation of intentions into actual
change is in the hands of the client. This

is the keystone of the whole effort. The day-
to-day implementation must usually be done
without the presence of the change agent to
guide it. Hostile sub-systems may thwart change.
Ways to implement change may have to be created
and this may take time.

Feedback on the consequences of the change
effort may be difficult to obtain. Without
feedback the system cannot evaluate the efforts
and does not have guidance in whether to con-
tinue, modify or cease* (53:136-140).

The final two steps in the Lippitt, et al.,

concept of Lewin's. On

this point Lewin said:

A change toward a higher level of group per-
formance is frequently short lived: after a
'shot in the arm,’ group life soon returns to the
previous level. This indicates that it does not
suffice to define the objective of a planned

 

*
Paraphrased by the author.

43

change in group performance as the reaching of
a different level. Permanency of the new level,
or permanency for a desired period, should be
included in the objective (53:472-473).

Lippitt, e£_el., state that the stabilization Of a
procedural change may come about because it is supported
by a structural change. Also, a critical factor is the
spread or non-spread of change to neighboring systems or
to subparts of the system. They note that many systems
possess an inherent momentum which tends to perpetuate a
change once it has attained a certain state of equilibrium
in the system's normal Operations. It is probable that
such a system's progressive element is a stronger force
than any of its retrogressive elements.

The authors note that usually more direct kinds of
positive evaluation and reward are felt to be necessary.
They say, "Confirmation, in other words, must come in the
form of objectively significant data" (53:141). However,
if the nature of the change does not lead itself to
objective evaluation, a useful change may be abandoned
because of the belief that no evaluation means a poor
evaluation.

For Lippitt, et al., the final step is the with-
drawal of the change agent from the dependency relation-
ship with the client system. Since their model of change

is heavily oriented to use of an external change agent,

they note that "the relationship between the change agent

44

and the client system . . . is the most important single
aspect of the change process" (53:143). They also note:

Our sequential order of phrases is too logical
to represent the change process as it usually
unfolds. In any given case one is likely to
see that the phases overlap and repeat them-
selves. Yet the seven phases, as we have
derived them from our case materials, actually
do seem to fit almost all of the examples we
have examined, and we believe that they are
useful not only for the purposes of systematic
analysis but also for the purposes of pro-
fessional change agents (53:143).

The second PS perspective model we wish to look
at is that of Watson. He presents a model for intro-
ducing innovations into the public school. This model
follows closely the general model prOposed earlier for

all social systems in his book Social Psychology: Issues

 

and Insights (96).

 

Watson's ten steps are as follows:*

1. Sensing. Everyone in the school system should
be involved in the sensing of problems and of new possi-
bilities which are openly expressed, shared, and considered.
A general climate of Openness and interpersonal trust is
essential. A structural implication is the need for
mechanisms for registering internal concerns and external
trends and resources.

2. Screening. Some order of importance and

priority for innovations must be established. The

 

*
Paraphrased by the author (97:110-115).

45

structural implication is the need to create a mechanism
for setting problem priorities.

3. Diagnosing. It is important to be sure about
what the problem is and where it lies before change is
undertaken. The structural implication is the need to
establish a research and development unit.

4. Inventing. After problems have been sensed,
screened and diagnosed, remedial plans must be generated.
The structural implication is the need for mechanisms to
allow wide participation in the production of solution
proposals. Watson suggests use of "brainstorming"
sessions involving persons of diverse ages and backgrounds.

5. Weighing. The ideas must be screened and
appraised. The structural mechanism needed is a device
for screening. Watson suggests an administrative council
or a Research-Development Bureau.

6. Deciding. The structural mechanism must pro-
vide that those who have to implement the decisions
should be involved in making them. A true consensus is
the ideal, Watson notes.

7. Introducing. The structural mechanism
required is a procedure for strategy planning. The
"where and how and with whom" of the introduction of a
change must be mapped out.

8. Operating. Watson suggests a moratorium on
revision or rejection until the projeer Las had a fair

trial.

46

9. Evaluating. Evaluation should be built in at
the time the innovation is designed and it should be both
continuous and periodic. The structural mechanism needed
is a procedure for objective evaluation.

10. Revising. The structural implication is for a
mechanism for re-appraisal and revision of the system, its
processes, and specific innovations. Watson notes that
the self-renewal process itself needs periodic review,
appraisal and revision (97:110-115).

Watson is concerned with sensing on the part of
everyone in the school system as his first step which
implies a climate of openness and a belief that innova-
tions can be made and will come about when problems are
sensed. Watson, like Lippitt, et al., is reflective of
the PS orientation in this aspect in which the user group
initiates and identifies the area of concern. In contrast,
the Miles and Lake plan, described with the RD&D orienta-
tion, was formed for an external change agent team whose
purpose was "to formulate, apply,* evaluate, and dissemi-
nate some variations of a basic strategy of planned change
in collaboration with several school systems" (63:81). As
are many RD&D projects, the Miles and Lake model was for
use by a major project with significant funding, in this
case the New York Region COOperative Project for Educa-

tional Development, called COPED.

 

*
Italics by the author.

47

Lippitt, et al., noted that the stabilization of a
procedural change may come about because it is supported by
a structural change. Watson makes provision for a
supporting structural mechanism for each of his ten
points. They may or may not be structural changes in a
given system depending on what structures exist, but
Watson stresses that in addition to a climate of Openness
to encourage the bringing out of sensed difficulties,
there must be structural provision for support. He says,
"The discussion of each step will close with a summary
statement of the structural implication of that step for
the self-renewing school" (97:110).

Havelock provides six strategies and nine related

tactics derived from the problem-solver perspective:

 

System self-renewal. . . . the development of an
atmosphere favorable to continuing innovation and
an internal capacity for problem-solving through
the collaboration of an "inside-outside" team in
the training of various "process" skills (39:
Appendix A, 10).

 

Action research. An approach which involves the
collaboration of the university social scientists

and the school personnel in diagnosing and

evaluating existing problems . . . (39:Appendix A, 5).

 

Collaborative action inquiry. Similar to "action
research"i(see abovei, but the collaboration
between social scientists outside and school
personnel inside is more emphasized than in
action research, and a true team effort results
(39:Appendix A, 5).

 

Human relation laboratogy. A "temporary system"

for improving problem-solving skills which can be
adapted for use by individuals, groups, organizations
or communities . . . (39:Appendix A, 7).

 

48

Consultation. A widely used and variously
defined change strategy, based on the assistance
of an outside expert(s) in helping a system work
through its own problems and define its own
needs, primarily through the use of reflection
and authentic feedback (39:Appendix A, 6).

 

Sharing of practice innovations. Because the

PS viewpoint stresses the user and user-
involvement it places special value on user-
originated innovations. Lippett and his
colleagues, for example, have developed
elaborate strategies by which teachers can

share new classroom teaching practices with

each other. The program includes systematic
screening and evaluation by teachers, themselves
(41:5).

 

Havelock provides nine tactics derived from the
PS vieWpoint. He says, "As we have said previously
(these tactics) have no necessary or logical connection
to particular strategies" (41:5).

Sensitivity training group ("T-group"). Most
variants of human relations training include an
extended series of more-or-less unstructured
group sessions which give members a chance to
examine group dynamics in the "here-and-now."
Such groups are designed to build sensitivity
to others and to the way others react to one-
self. Members learn how to establish norms of
trust and openness to giving and receiving new
ideas . . . (39:Appendix A, 9).

 

Reflection. . . . restating the client's
problems. By listening to his own words and
actions "reflected" back to him by the change
agent, the client can begin to move toward
serious self-examination and self-diagnosis

. . . (39:Appendix A, 9).

 

Authentic feedback. A non-evaluative perception
and interpretatiOn of an individual's behavior
as it affects the person who receives it . . .
(39:Appendix A, 5).

 

49

Role playing. Acting out roles of other members
of a system in "simulations" of real situations
. . . (39:Appendix A, 9).

 

Group observation and process analysis. Self-.
conscious examination by a group of its own on-
going interaction processes in order to understand
group processes and to enhance group trust and
Openness . . . (39:Appendix A, 6).

Derivation conference. Usually comprised of
resource persons and client system representatives
meeting on a temporary basis to collaborate on
problem definition, information retrieval, deriva-
tion of implications for action and planning for
implementation . . . (39:Appendix A, 6).

 

Survey feedback. Involves a systematic collection
of data from members of an organization on such
questions as job satisfaction, supervisory
behavior, work motivations, etc. This data is
summarized and fed back to administrators and
their subordinates as a means of confronting

real perceptions and performance . . . (39:
Appendix A, 10).

 

Brainstorming. A group retrieval technique in
which members suggest innovative problem solutions
while they deliberately restrain critical judge-
ment . . . (39:Appendix A, 4).

 

Synectics. . . . brainstorming can be systematized
and combined with experiment and other problem
solving steps to produce a systematic invention

and innovation technique . . . (41:7).

 

Linkage Perspective

 

'Havelock's efforts to organize change and innova-
tion theory into three perspectives, namely social inter-

action (SI), research, development and diffusion (RD&D),

 

and problem-solver (PS), leads him to suggest a fourth

 

perspective, which he calls linkage (40:11-15).

50

The linkagegprocess involves a user system and a
resource system. The internal problem solving cycle Of
the user system includes six steps: (1) awareness of
need, (2) problem diagnosis, (3) search, (4) retrieval,
(5) fabrication of solution, and (6) application.

In the solution of a problem, the user system can,
if the situation permits, send problem messages to a
resource system. This would begin at the third, or
search, step.

The resource system also has six steps: (1) diag-
nosis (which receives the problem message from the user
system), (2) search (from which problem messages go out
to more remote resource systems), (3) retrieval, (4) fab-
rication of solution (which receives input from the more
remote resources), (5) dissemination and test (which
sends solution messages out to the user system), and
(6) evaluation.

Problem messages and feedback on solution effec-
tiveness continue to pass out of the user system and into
the resource system. Solution messages and feedback on
simulation adequacy continue to pass out from the
resource system back into the user system.

The user system links in this way with many
resource systems and each resource system links with
other resource systems. Havelock provides a graphic
illustration of his linkage model and this is included

as Appendix D.

51

The concept of linkage starts with a focus on the
user as a problem-solver. The user enters into a recipro-
cal relationship with a resource system. The resource
system then must simulate or recapitulate the need-
reduction cycle of the user. This is the heart of
Havelock's concept. He says:

(The resource system) should be able to (l)
simulate the user's need; (2) simulate the
search activity that the user has gone through;
and (3) simulate the solution application pro-
cedure that the user has gone through or will
go through. It is only in this way that the
resource person can come to have a meaningful
exchange with the user (40:11-15).

Havelock believes that the development of recipro-
cating relationships can go beyond the point of improving
individual problem-solving processes and develop into a
stable and long-lasting social influence network. He
says:

This collaboration will not only make a solution
more effective, but, equally important, it will
build a more effective relationship-~a relationship
of trust and a perception by the user that the
resource is truly concerned, that the resource
will listen, and will have a quantity of useful
information to pass on. . . . It builds a channel
for resource to user (40:11-17).

Related to, and supportive of Havelock's concept,

is systemic linkage. Loomis and Beegle, working in the

area of rural sociology, first used the term systemic

 

linkage. Loomis defines this as:

52

The process whereby the elements of at least
two social systems come to be articulated so
that in some ways they function as a unitary
system. Systemic linkage is based upon a model
which may be conceived as two or more social
systems as going concerns which come to be
related in such a way that the two eventually,
in some ways and on occasion, function as one.
This obviously requires the convergence of some
e1ements--in some cases, ends, in others norms,
status-roles, or others (55:55-56).

Systemic as used in biology means "pertaining to the

 

general system or body as whole" (98:2562). For instance,
material injected into or absorbed by one leaf of a plant,
will be carried to all parts of the plant through its
systemic processes. Systemic linkage then is a very
pervasive, totally-inter-related, totally "using" and
"giving" kind of relationship.

Havelock's model of change through linkage
incorporates important features from the perspectives of
the social interaction, research, development and dif—
fusion and the problem-solver models. From the SI
perspective he utilizes:

l. The importance of the social relations
network.

2. The user's position in the network.

3. The importance of personal contact.

4. The individual's group identity and group
loyalty.

5. The essential irrelevance of the size of
the adOpting unit.

6. The significance of stages of adoption of

strategies.

From the RD&D perspective:

53

Rational sequence.

Planning.

Division of labor.

Defined audience.

High investment for maximum pay-off or
productivity.

Ul-bUJNl-J
O

From the PS perspective:

The user is the starting place.

Diagnosis precedes solution identification.
The outside helping role is non-directive.
The importance of internal resources.
User-initiated change is the strongest.

(fink-LUMP
O

Havelock sees linkage as a series of two-way
interaction processes which connect user systems with
various resource systems, including basic and applied
research, deveIOpment, and practice. According to this
model, senders and receivers can achieve successful
linkage only if they exchange messages in two-way inter-
action and continuously make the effort to simulate each
other's problem-solving behavior. The resource systems
must therefore appreciate the user's internal needs and
problem-solving patterns, and the user, in turn, must be
able to appreciate the invention-solution-formulation and
evaluation processes of the resource systems. Conversely,
the user system will come to understand the needs, the
problem-solving patterns and the possible blockages or
"hang-ups" existing within the resource system which can
prevent or impede a more Open relationship. It is
believed by Havelock that this type of collaborative
interaction will not only make solutions more relevant

and effective, but will also build relationships of trust.

54

These trust relationships become channels for the rapid,
effective and efficient transfer of information over time,
according to Havelock.

Although Havelock's linkage model has not been
empirically tested, his linkage perspective has been
corroborated by a nationwide experiment funded by the
United States Office of Education. This experiment
involves 19 secondary school systems in 18 different
states and has as its general purpose the evaluation of
a systems analysis approach to bring about changes in
secondary education. The project is called ES '70, the
Educational Systems for the Seventies project. The project,
as planned, is to run at least five years. No evaluation
is available as yet, but an "in progress" report says,
"The consequences of ES '70 appear to be evolving as a
process for initiating and managing institutional change
in the direction of desired objectives, i.e., self-renewal"
(82:204).

Rhodes says "There is evidence in ES '70 that
linkage concepts also play a major role in the full
employment of 'systems' techniques" (82:206).

The importance of a systems approach to changing
an organization has been noted by Watson, also (97:106).

For ES '70, use of a systems approach has meant:

55

The use of systematic management approaches
provides a capability for continuous assessment
of present actions in light of overall objectives
and needs. It becomes possible, therefore, to
gauge the relative progress that current status
represents at any point, to isolate factors
apparently contributing to that progress or
impeding it, and to project possible implica-
tions--in other words, to view the process

under way (82:204).

The linkage perspective has as its basic principle

 

the concept that the internal problem-solving process of
the user is the essential starting point for the change-
agent and the innovation process. Through linkages with
other systems, the user system has access to great many

resources and to more and more remote expert resources as
resource retrieval is undertaken. A systems approach is

important in the linkage perspective just as it is to

 

Watson and the ES '70 project. As Havelock notes, "Each
separate role-holder must have some idea Of how other
roles are performed and some idea of what the linkage
system as a whole is trying to do" (41:16).

Havelock does not suggest strategies and tactics

derived from the linkage perspective. He says:

 

It is too early to say whether this linkage concept
can be the generator of uniquely different
strategies and tactics. Certainly simulation,
role-playing, and feedback all appear to be very
relevant as do the various mechanisms which
facilitate social interaction (41:19).

However, Havelock does provide a six-stage model
of the process of introducing a planned innovation. His

model is oriented to education in that he notes a

56

"pre-stage" or "Education the way it is now," and a "post-
stage" of "Education the way we would like it to be in the
future" (39:10). On the basis of examples he gives of
change agents in action, it is obvious that his primary
concern is with the secondary school system and preSumably
his model is oriented to this area, although not restricted
to it.

The Havelock model is perhaps closest to the model
suggested by Lippitt, ep_gl. (53:130, 136) presented
earlier in this chapter. The six stages are as follows:

Stage I: Relationship. This is where the change

 

agent builds a relationship between himself and the people
he is trying to help. The change agent may or may not
already have accomplished this when he begins to be con-
cerned with introducing an innovation.

Stage II: Diagnosis. This is where the change

 

agent helps people articulate their needs and state them
in a defined problem so that both the change agent and
the client can work on solutions.

Stage III: Resource retrieval. This is where the

 

change agent helps obtain resources of all kinds to be
used in generating possible solutions.

Stage IV: Solution. This is where the change

 

agent and the client system consider alternatives and

settle upon a potential solution.

57

Stage V: Gaining acceptance. At this point the

 

solution or the innovation is put into practice and the
change agent helps acceptance of it.

Stage VI: Stabilization and self-renewal. This

 

is where the innovation is stabilized and the change agent
withdraws having established the capacity within the

client system to be self-renewing, that is to continuously
modify and adopt innovations to remain vital and responsive
to needs.

Disgussion of Previous Research
on Strategies and Tactics

 

 

A broadly ranging review of the literature on
change and innovation reveals that only Havelock has to
date placed a special emphasis on strategies and tactics

as a key aspect of planned innovation. This Observation

 

does not imply that a concern for strategies and tactics
is therefore of minor importance in this body of theory
and literature. Rather, the implication is clear that
this is an emerging interest and will probably be dealt
with by researchers in an increasing degree. This
observation is based on the fact that Havelock's Planning
for Innovation Through Dissemination and Utilization of

Knowledge is the most comprehensive review of the litera-

 

ture on change and innovation to date and attempts, far
more than other texts, to synthesize what research has
produced and what constitutes our knowledge of change and

innovation. Planning for Innovation is based on a review

58

of more than 4,000 studies and in its final form was
reviewed by Ronald Lippitt, Kenneth Benne, Everett Rogers
and other leading researchers in this field.

‘Prior to Havelock's work, Matthew Miles identified

the importance of strategies in Innovations in Education.

 

His concern was with a classification system for strategies
rather than with the identification of specific strategies.
He said, "The range of strategies now being proposed and
carried out in America is very wide . . ." (64:19). Miles'
typology Of change strategies is concerned with (l) identi-
fying the stage in the adOption of the innovation in which
the strategy is used, (2) with identifying the initiator
of the strategy—-the user (or target) system versus a
source outside of the user system, and (3) determining if
a new or an existing structure is used. The result is a
l6-position grid. Miles' typology is included in Appendix
E.

Other authors have noted strategies. In 1968
Miller reviewed the literature on change and innovation
and generated seven general strategies as a preliminary
step in a study of a Regional Educational Laboratory.
Included were:

1. The change agent should identify the

characteristics and needs of the client
system and base plans upon them.

59

2. The change agent should seek, and play a

major role in, the establishment of rapport

and the building of mutual trust and respect

between the client system and himself.
Theseffirst two and the following four are all concerned
with the early or "relationship" stage in which the
external change agent and the user system get to know and
trust each other. The seventh strategy deals with the
"stabilization" stage in which the external change agent
withdraws from interaction with the user system:

7. The change agent should teach the clients to be
their own change agents, to understand the

process of change, to deve10p self renewing

behavior (66:56).

Many authors refer to strategies but are not
explicit about them. For instance, Benne, Bennis and Chin
say "The change agent must know and use differing strategies
of management and resolution of problems" (7:258). Morphet
and Ryan state ". . . the strategies and processes of
change must include at least as much attention to the
development of professional and human competence as they
do to other . . . aspects . . ." (67:68), and "An important
general strategy is to approach change in such a way that
there results a climate hospitable to continuous adaptation
and change" (67:72).

Four points relative to strategies and tactics are

clear from a review of the literature on change and

innovation:

 

4' I . . n u c T . .
I ll I‘ll-If 1 Ii'l/ d I r 4' ..l I .I I ’
A. , .‘II 1| I 5-. lvll‘lll «‘sllll'l‘ll J u. -1
P O ‘ 1'

60

1. There has been a casual use of the term
"strategy" by authors in this area;

2. A great diversity of strategies and tactics
exists and are in use to bring about change
and'innovation;

3. It is important to identify and study
strategies and tactics used to bring about
a planned innovation in specific kinds of
educational undertakings, and;

4. Strategies and tactics can be related to the

stages in the process of the adoption of a
planned innovation.

Summary

Social action programs, undertaken by the community
services division of two-year, public, community colleges
as a response to basic human needs in the college's local
community, are described in the literature as being both
an appropriate and a necessary response by the community
college. Various authors have noted the importance of a
knowledge of change and innovation in the successful under-
taking of such programs.

As a context for the focus on social action pro-
grams undertaken by community services divisions of
community colleges, the philosophical develOpment of the
community services function was reviewed. The importance
of linkages for the community services practitioner was
traced as it has appeared in the literature.

Theories of change and innovation were reviewed
in light of the classification scheme advanced by Havelock.

The distinctive approaches of the social-interaction

 

61

perspective, the research, development and diffusion per—
spective, and the problem-solver perspective were reviewed
as they are exemplified by various authors. Models of the
stages of the process of the adoption of an innovation
were examined for each perspective. Strategies and tactics
derived by Havelock from each of the perspectives were

presented, as was Havelock's linkage perspective. Finally,

 

a discussion of the previous research on strategies and

tactics was set forth and four summary points were made.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

The Sample

 

In this exploratory study the strategies and
tactics used by community college community services
practitioners to introduce and establish a planned inno-
vation, that is, successful social action programs, will
be compiled, codified, and analyzed.

Develgpment of the Interview
Schedule

 

As a preliminary step to development of the
interview schedule, the author felt it would be useful to
determine the degree to which community services practi-
tioners were familiar with strategies and tactics used by
change agents to introduce innovations. Forty-four such
strategies and tactics are identified by Havelock as
having been described in the literature on change and
innovations (39:Appendix A, 5-10). For this purpose a
visit was made to Montcalm Community College, Sidney,
Michigan, by the author and a member of his committee,
Dr. Gunder Myran. The community services director,
Howard Bernson, and his assistant, John Bean, were inter-
viewed.

62

63

As an additional step in development of the inter-
view schedule, the author visited Dr. Ronald G. Havelock,
on the staff of the Center for Research on Utilization of
Scientific Knowledge, Institute for Social Research, the
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. The author had devised
shortened and simplified descriptions of the 44 strategies
and tactics for use with practitioners. These were
reviewed by Dr. Havelock and after additions, deletions,
and modifications were ready for use in one section of the
interview schedule. Permission was also obtained from
Dr. Havelock to reproduce copyrighted material.

During the process of developing the final inter-
view schedule, several interim versions were prepared.
These and the final version were discussed with Dr. Howard
S. Teitelbaum and others of the staff of the Office Of
Research Consultation, College of Education, Michigan
State University. In additicr, an Opinion on a procedural
point involving recall by the interviewees was sought from
Dr. Lee S. Shulman, Professor, Department of Counseling,
Personnel Services, and Educational Psychology, College
of Education, Michigan State University.

After the interview schedule was developed and
reviewed by doctoral committee chairman, Dr. Max R. Raines,
the instrument was pge-tested and criticism was solicited
from three practitioners in fields related to community

services. These were Adelbert Jones, assistant director,

64

community development, Center for Urban Affairs, Michigan
State University; Jerry Wilson, director, Center for
Community Advancement, Albion College, Albion, Michigan;
and Edmond W. Alchin, Community Development Specialist,
Institute for Community Development, Michigan State
UniverSity.

Two full-scale field-test interviews were conducted
in which the author went through all of the steps planned
for the regular interviews including tape recording of
the practitioner's remarks. These interviews were con-
ducted with practitioners who had administered programs
which met the established criteria on all counts except
number of persons involved. That is, each of the two
field-test programs involved only about 20 persons rather
than the 100 called for in the criteria. The two practi-
tioners were not aware that these were field-tests of the
interview instrument rather than interviews for data
collection.

The first of these interviews was conducted with
Donald Krischak, community services director, Porterville
Community College, Porterville, California, who is currently
on leave and is a doctoral student at Michigan State
University. The second interview was with Wesley L. Muth,
community services director, Soathwestern Michigan College,
Dowagiac, Michigan. The Porterville interview was con-

ducted at the International Center on the Michigan State

65

University campus and the Southwestern interview was con-
ducted in Mr. Muth's office on the Southwestern campus.

Suggestions received from those persons contacted
prior to the final develOpment of the interview instrument,
as well as those interviewed to pre-test and to field-test
the instrument, were incorporated into the final version of
the instrument. A copy of the Interview Schedule is
included as Appendix F.

Development of Criteria
for Programs

 

 

Early in the planning of the study, the question
arose as to the best means to igentifymtechniques used by
practitioners to introduce an innovation. Dr. Shulman
suggested that practitioners would best be able to recall
techniques they had used by associating the techniques with
a specific program and reporting them in chronological
order. For this reason, programs undertaken by community
colleges were examined as a basis for collecting techniques.

It was decided to limit the study to social action

V

 

programs, involving Blacks or other minorities, the poor,
and the unemployed, because such programs are planned
innovations, not changes which occur naturally, and because
it is indicated in the literature that there is a need to
know more about techniques used by practitioners to intro-

duce and establish such programs.

66

The criteria established for defining social action

 

programs was noted in Chapter I IS follows:

 

1. A program involving primarily Black people,
or other minority people, or the poor, or
the unemployed or underemployed;

2. A planned innovation. not a change that
occurred naturally;

3. A program with goals which included producing
observable behavioral changes in skills or
attitudes or values;

4. A program having impact on the community
involving at least 100 persons or more on
a voluntary basis in the community college
district during a period of one year;

p/S. A program in Operation at least one year and
having taken place within the past five years;

/

V6. A program judged successful by the practitioner.

Selection of Communipy
Colleges to Visit

 

 

The 29 community colleges in Michigan were reviewed
with professors in the Department of Administration and
Higher Education, College of Education, Michigan State
University, who were familiar with the programs of each
college. It was determined that 12 colleges had active
community services programs with full-time directors and
should be examined for programs which would meet the
criteria. These colleges were Delta, Genessee, Jackson,
Lake Michigan, Macomb, Monroe, Montcalm, Oakland, St.
Clair, Southwestern, Washtenaw, and West Shore Community
College. Following additional examination of their

programs and telephone calls to Obtain data against which

67

to compare the criteria, four social action programs
meeting the criteria were located. These were at Lake
Michigan, Genessee, Delta, and Washtenaw. Interviews
were sought and obtained at these four colleges.

Because a broader base from which to identify
techniques was sought, a letter was written to Dr. J.
Kenneth Cummiskey, director, Community Services Project,
American Association of Junior Colleges, Washington, D.C.
(see Appendix G) asking him to nominate six to eight
programs which, in his Opinion, best met the criteria.

In reply, Dr. Cummiskey noted that there were few programs
on the national scene meeting the criteria. He noted that
most community services social action programs involve

less than 100 people because of the cost of this type of
program and that most programs of 100 or more probably
would have been Federally funded. Dr. Cummiskey nominated
(by telephone) the following seven colleges as having
programs to investigate (see confirming letter, Appendix H):

l. Peralta Junior College District,
Oakland, California

2. New York City Community College,
Brooklyn, New York

3. Cuyahoga Community College,
Cleveland, Ohio

4. San Mateo Junior College District,
College of San Mateo, San Mateo, California

5. Staten Island Community College,
Staten Island, New York

68
6. Malcolm X Community College,
Chicago, Illinois

7. Quinsigamond Community College,
Worcester, Massachusetts

The author was able to locate practitioners in
Michigan who had administered social action programs
meeting the criteria at four of the colleges nominated by
Dr. Cummiskey. These were Peralta, Cuyahoga, San Mateo,
and Quinsigamond. Three of the four practitioners are
now doctoral students at Michigan State University and
the fourth is now president of Ferris State College, Big
Rapids, Michigan. Interviews were sought and obtained
relative to programs at these four colleges.

Telephone interv1ews were planned at the time
national nominations were sought. In light of the
development that personal interviews were available for
four of the seven programs, the decision was made to £25
mix personal and telephone interviews and to limit the
study to the eight programs just described.

In total, eight interviews were obtained on as
many programs. Colleges represented included four in
Michigan, two in California, and one each in Ohio and
Massachusetts. Interviews were obtained on all of the
programs located in Michigan which met the criteria and
interviews were obtained on four of the seven programs
nominated by Dr. Cummiskey of the American Association of

Junior Colleges.

69

Arrangements of Visits

 

The initial contact with each college in Michigan
was made by the author with the director of community
services by telephone. Program criteria were presented.
In each case, after the program meeting the criteria had
been identified, the community services director gave per-
mission to pursue the study at his institution and referred
the author to the practitioner who had had primary responsi-
bility for establishing the program. In each case, the
practitioner was contacted by telephone, the purpose of
the interview explained, and an appointment was made for
the interview which was convenient to the practitioner.

Practitioners who had administered programs at
colleges outside of Michigan, but who now reside in the
state, were telephoned directly. After establishing that
their programs met the criteria, an appointment for the
interview was made, again, at a time and place convenient
to the practitioner.

Interviews on all in-state programs took place on
or near the college campus involved at places chosen by
the practitioner and at a time mutually agreed upon.
Interviews on all out-Of-state programs took place on the
Michigan State University campus with the exception of the
interview on the San Mateo College program which took
place in the office of the president at the Ferris State

College campus, Big Rapids, Michigan.

70

Administration of the Interview

Administration of the interviews followed the
InterView Schedule. Explanations, instructions, and
questions in the Interview Introduction, sections I, and
in sections II, III, IV, and V were read or repeated to
the interviewee exactly as shown in the schedule. Non-
directive questioning was employed in section III, when
necessary, to move the interviewee's_description of his
program into areas not previously covered or covered too
briefly. All interviews were taped with the stated per-
mission of the practitioner. Each interviewee was asked
if he preferred that the identity of the program be con-
cealed. In no case was this requested. A table pro-
viding a brief description of details on each interview

is provided (see Table 1).

Organization of the Data

The organization, presentation, and analysis of
the data as set forth in Chapter IV follows this order:
(1) program information, (2) presentation of the data,
(3) areas of developmental conditions, (4) classification
of strategies and tactics, (5) a comparative analysis of
field-generated and literature-generated strategies and
tactics, (6) implications for graduate school training of

community services practitioners, and (7) a summary.

71

 

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.mbH>uwucH ou O>Huofiwu pump Hmucmfimammsmll.a mqm<a

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION OF THE DATA

Introduction

 

The purpose of this study is fourfold: (l) to com-
pile strategies and tactics used by community college
community services practitioners in selected social action
programs; (2) to develop a classification system for these
strategies and tactics; (3) to make a comparative analysis
of field-generated and literature-generated strategies and
tactics; and (4) to make suggestions for graduate school
course work for practitioners.

This chapter is divided into the following sections:

Program Information. Background information on

 

each of the social action programs selected is included
here in Table 2. Included are name of group served, date
project began and ended, number of peOple helped by the
program, funding source, and evidence of success.

Presentation of the Data. This section contains

 

140 strategies and tactics induced from the content
analysis of the tape-recorded interviews with the eight
practitioners. The social action programs examined are
presented in the order in which the interviews were con-
ducted.

72

73

‘\

Areas of Developmental Conditions. Here five
models of change and/or innovation are reviewed and pre-
sented in Table 3. Similarities and differences are
discussed. Based on these models, five areas of develop-
mental conditions are generated. These areas serve as a
framework for the classification of strategies and tactics.
Table 4 presents the relationship of clients and areas of
developmental conditions. Table 5 presents the assignment
of strategies and tactics to areas of developmental con-
ditions for the purpose of determining if a pattern of
movement through the developmental conditions exists.

Classification of Strategies and Tactics. Here,
the 140 strategies and tactics are related to the areas of
developmental conditions.

A Comparative Analysis of Field-Generated and

Literature-Generated Strategies and Tactics. Here, the

 

strategies and tactics generated from two sources are
discussed as are strategic orientations of the practitioners
and the possibility of a "composite social action practi-
tioner orientation" is discussed.

Implications for Graduate School Training.
Implications are drawn from the data for the graduate
school training of community services practitioners.

The chapter is concluded with a Summary.

74

Program Information

 

In Table l in Chapter III the details relative to
conducting the eight interviews were presented. Here in
Table 2, background information is presented on each of
the eight social action programs undertaken. This material
is drawn from Part II of the Interview Schedule. The com-
plete forms as filled in during the interviews is included

in Appendix I.

Presentation of the Data

 

Following collection of descriptive background
data on each program, the practitioner was asked to "start
at the beginning of your program and describe the step-by-

step development of the program emphasizing the techniques

 

or helping methods you used to initiate and maintain the
program." The interviewer asked non-directive questions
as necessary to move the interviewee to describe a
technique more fully or to touch on an area bypassed.

Following is a presentation of the strategies and
tactics identified by the author from a content analysis of
the interviews by means of playback of the tape recording
made of each practitioner's remarks.

The presentation of the data is made in the same
order as the interviews were conducted and as is shown in
Table 1. However, no significance is attached to this

order.

75

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new» pom umww umH :
wousom cmpcm pom cmmwm

mmmoonm mo mosmpe>m

OH

mafipcsm anemone ma pmmamm
mamoom mo umnssz
m h

nommonm mama

@

pm>umm maouo

msoz mmoaaoo

 

.Amasemnom 3ma>umucH mo HH

puma Somme :Owumauomce ocsoumxommlu.m mamas

76

Since each practitioner was asked to "start at the
beginning" in describing the techniques he used, care has
been taken to present the strategies and tactics in the
same order as provided by the practitioner. This was done
so that the chronological progression could be charted
later. Towards the end of each of the eight interviews,
it was noted that the practitioner recalled some techniques
which he had used earlier in the program but had failed to
mention. These have been placed by the author in the
chronological position felt to be appropriate. However,
the repositioning of items is noted.

The method of recovery of the strategies and tactics
was to play and replay the tape as necessary and to take
down the exact words of the practitioner as he described
the technique. Strategies were differentiated from
tactics through use of the definitions presented in Chapter
I. Each quotation containing a strategy or a tactic is
identified with a code letter and a number. The code
letter indicates the college with whom the practitioner
was identified during the program and the number repre-
sents the chronological order in which the strategy or
tactic was described in the interview.' These letters and
numbers also serve to identify the original quote which
contained the strategy or tactic and are used to cite the
source Of items which make up the classification strate-

gies and tactics presented later in this chapter.

77

In addition to the quotation and the reference
number, the strategy or tactic is stated in a simple
descriptive form. Each item is identified as a strategy
or a tactic. In some cases, discussion of the tactic or
strategy is undertaken to clarify it or to connect it to
other areas of the study.

Following is an example of how the data will be

presented on each of the eight programs:

 

Example Explanation
Cl C is Cuyahoga Community College
1 is the first item presented
"We did a feasibility This is the quotation as
study . . ." transcribed from the tape

recording of the interview.

Strategy: Conducting This is the strategy identified
collaborative action in the transcribed material.
inquiry and diagnosis.

The data resulting from each interview is pre-

sented below, beginning with Cuyahoga Community College.

Interviegfll: Cuyehoga Community
College Program: New Careers

Cl

We did a feasibility study to determine which
programs to focus on--where the biggest gap existed
between the professional and the paraprofessional
or where there was no paraprofessional . . . We
went into the community to try to find specific
job needs . . . We had to find out from the staff
(a hospital) "Is it possible to train a person in
6 to 9 months?" . . . "Would the pay be adequate
for a person to go through the training?" . . .
"Would there be employment available?" . . . The
study was done jointly with AIM:JOBS (a Cleveland
social agency).

78

Strategy: Conducting collaborative action inquiry and

diagnosis. A local, social agency collaborates

 

with the community services division of the college
to determine areas of employer needs which, when
met, will fill client needs (the unemployed in the
community college district). This will be
accomplished through course work offered by the
college. The goals of both the college and AIM:
JOBS will have been met. It should be noted that
this strategy is similar to one identified by
Havelock in which the social scientist outside the
public school system collaborates with personnel
inside the system to undertake joint inquiry to
meet mutual goals. Havelock identifies this
strategy with the PS perspective. Herbert Thelen
(93) elaborated on this strategy emphasizing the
value of a true team effort for long-range benefits.
This joint effort also illustrates the linkage
concept described by Myran and fits the third or
highest level of "Program cooperation: Establishing
working relationships between organizations to deal
with a mutually agreed upon need" (70:46).

C2

The hospitals and agencies seem to have accepted us.

They were willing to give us a commitment that they

had a turnover need of 5 or 6 persons a year . . .

they were willing to give us a letter of commitment

for at least 3 of these slots . . . It required a
formal letter of commitment that they would hire

79
those persons over a period of time (after the
college had trained them).
Tactic: Obtained formal commitment relative to relation-
ship between primaryiand secondary clients

(employers). The formal letter of commitment was

 

in effect a contract. This letter served to place
the relationship between the college, the trainees
(clients) and the hospital employer on a formal or

business—like basis.

C3

During the training period it was necessary to get
the users with the raw material to give them a
chance to get some idea of what they were like . . .
we called it an orientation meeting . . . at times
we tried to avoid . . . especially during the
initial stages because it is very hard to look at
the raw material and see a finished product. Many
times our trainees were right Off the street.

They needed grooming, they lacked work habits . . .
we held them (employers) off long enough until
they (trainees) were becoming polished.. . . We
brought them out when we thought they were ready.

Strategy: Building a positive relationship between primary
and secondary clients. This strategy illustrates
the complexity dealt with by the community services
practitioner as change agent in that he must be
concerned not only with his own relationships to
multi-clients but also the relations between
clients.

C4
We did not run any kind of campaign in the paper,
radio, or television . . . With the unemployment

rate as high as it was in Cleveland it just wasn't
necessary. We turned down at least 100 persons for

80

every slot we had . . . We were able to get the
word out (about the program) through employment
agencies . . . through mouth-to-mouth, a friend
telling a friend.

Strategy: Conducting limited publicity on programs when
resources are limited. It appears that the
numbers of inner-city clients of the community
college who wish to participate in this kind of
program are so great as to make publicizing of
the program unwise. The use of word-of-mouth
communication is effective, however. Beal and
Rogers found that word-of-mouth was more important
than any other type of information source in con-
vincing Iowa homemakers to purchase new fabrics of
Orlon, Dacron, and nylon (88:219).

C5

We requested services (from community agencies)

. . . for instance, legal aid. We wanted to make
sure our participants had a knowledge of the legal
aspects once they became employed. We also had
agencies on drugs, alcoholism . . . consumers'
protection . . . We did not want them to fall back
into the same pitfalls.

Tactic: Utilized agencies as resources. The general
purpose here would be to establish linkage with

agencies so as to utilize existing programs and

services.

81

C6

We wanted to make sure that they had a great deal
of pride of being in the program . . . We initiated
some competition between the groups . . . "grades"
. . . attendance . . . It develOped into quite a
homogeneous group, a protective kind of thing.

Very much like a family. Those who were weak; the
group protected them. Those who lacked ability;
others pushed them forward.

Strategy: Building client group pride and interdependence.
The building of group pride is a broadly used and
ancient strategy. In this case, the practitioner
provided a strategy and the related tactics
(following) in an unusually clear relationship.

C7

We initiated a newspaper which they wrote. They
did all of the typing and getting it out. We
tried not to edit it at all . . . an internal
paper for the group called "New Career Happenings."

Tactic: Established a newspaper. (Related to strategy C6.)

C8

We had a little party where they could bring
their family . . . a family day. We had a

Black Santa . . . we tried to develop as much as
possible a lot of spirit.

Tactic: Involved client's families. (Related to
strategy C6.)

C9

We had members in the group who had tremendous
talent in singing, in playing musical instruments

. . . art was displayed . . . those who could sing,
we put them on the program . . . we had sports
competition and the gals were cheerleaders.

Tactic: Provided for recognition of individual talents

among group members. (Related to strategy C6.)

82

C10

Plus we formed a student government where they
elected a president, secretary, so they could plan
their own activity. They had complete use of
paper, reproduction, to get out what they wanted
. . . We felt "This program is for them and they
really do have some input into it."

Tactic: Encouraged client self-governance. (Related to
strategy C6.)
C11
We started doing a lot of things to let them know
"Hey, we're with you!" . . . You had to go as far
as being available 24-hours a day--to extend
yourself . . . This is how you get it together.

Strategy: Building positive trust among clients and

practitioners. In C3 we noted the complex or

 

multi-level relationships with which the practi-
tioner must deal. C3 involved the relationship
between the primary and the secondary clients.
Here it is the relationship between the practi-
tioner and the client, the traditional one noted
in the literature. The practitioner at this point
identified a number of tactics associated with
this strategy.

C12

We had weekly staff meetings . . . the officers

(of the client self-government) sat in on our

staff meetings to assist us to make sure we were

going in the right direction.

Tactic: Included clients in program planning and decision

 

making. (Related to strategy C11.)

83

C13

We had to expect to he lied to; to be "conned"
and We almost had to take the attitude "you can
use me but don't mis-use me!" We had to realize
that just because we were staff we were not God
and they were going to "run game" on us . . .
You had to accept the fact that a grandmother or
a wife had died 5 or 6 times in a month, but at
least letting them know, "Hey, I know where you
were. That's the third time she's died, man!"
You have to build an honest relationship in it;
let them know they have your complete support.

Tactic: Responded to underlying_message of surface

behavior of clients. (Related to strategy C11.)

C14

We found it was necessary to call. We had students
who could not get out of bed . . . Every staff
member had two or three persons he called personally
before he left for work to remind them "Hey, you
going to make it today?" . . . a warm kind of thing.
Going as far as getting a humidifier from my house
and taking it to a gal whose child had a tremendous
amount of cold . . . we had to find baby-sitting
services.

Tactic: Accepting responsibility of environmental

intervention.

C15

We found it was necessary several times to go and
get somebody out of jail . . . We had to provide
emergency money and transportation constantly . . .
We even had to intercede in family problems.

Tactic: Became involved with client welfare. (Related to

strategy C14.)

C16

We had a very diversified staff . . . We wanted
persons who were indiginous to the area; who could
speak the language . . . I got persons who very
close to them (clients) as far as their background
. . . Indiginous . . . similar background . . .
communication is extremely vital.

 

84

Strategy: Employing indiginous staff members. Since this
is not always possible, the PS orientation tactic(s)

identified by Havelock, Role Playing and Rotation

 

of Roles (41:6) should be noted. These are both
methods for substituting for authentic or indiginous
backgrounds in the practitioner-client relationship.
(Role Playing and Rotation of Roles have other
applications, of course.) It is common practice

to select salesmen and county agents based on their

ability to relate to their client groups.

C17

I found it was a good deal easier to get our trainees
ready for the job than getting the employers ready
for our trainees (clients). It's impossible for us
to go in and do any sensitizing of the (employer)
staff. That's the crucial point . . . we cannot go
into an agency and say "Alright, your supervisors
hold prejudiced attitudes." We did find in some
cases we were able to go in and have some encounter
sessions . . . to help them accept that something
good is going to come out of this.

Tactic: Created a better understandingyof minority groups
mores and needs on the part of employer work force.

This is a tactic related to strategy C3.

C18

Sometime during the program, especially at the
initial stages, it required some selling. We had
to sell the college on the idea it was serving a
community need . . . We had to sell the agencies-
that the person coming in would provide them with
entry-level skills they could get nowhere else.
We had to Show the participant that he would be
employed and exposed to an education . . . We had
to make each sector feel that they were getting a
piece of the pie.

85

Tactic: Explained benefits of involvement to all clients.

As was C17,

this is also a tactic related to the

strategy C3 and further traces the linkage network

which the practitioner must build and maintain in

order to operate a successful program.

Following is a listing of the strategies and tactics

induced from a content analysis of the interview with the

Cuyahoga practitioner.

described by the practitioner except as noted by number

and asterisk.

They are presented in the order

In these cases the author determined that

the practitioner had recalled and added these techniques

later in the interview as they came to mind.

1.

2.

6.

7.

Strategy: Conducting collaborative
action inquiry and diagnosis.

Tactic: Obtained formal commitment
relative to relationship between
primary and secondary clients
(employers).

Strategy: Employing indiginous staff
members.

Strategy: Building a positive
relationship between primary and
secondary clients.

Tactic: Created a better under-
standing of minority group mores
and needs on the part of employer
work force.

Tactic: Explained benefits of
infolvement to all clients.

Strategy: Conducting limited
publicity on programs when resources
are limited.

C1

C2

C16*

C3

C17*

C18*

C4

86
8. Tactic: Utilized agencies as
resources.

9. Strategy: Building client group
pride and interdependence.

lO. Tactic: Established a newspaper.
ll. Tactic: Involved client's family.
12. Tactic: Provided for recognition of

individual talents among group members.

13. Tactic: Encouraged client self-
governance.

14. Strategy: Building a positive trust
among clients and practitioners.

15. Tactic: Included clients in program
planning and decision-making.

l6. Tactic: Responded to underlying
message of surface behavior of
clients.

17. Tactic: Accepted responsibility of
environmental intervention.

18. Tactic: Became involved with client
welfare.

Interview II: Peralta Junior
College District (Laney College
and Merritt College). Program:
Inner City Project

 

 

 

 

P1

Our district has over 50% Blacks . . . a need was
felt that the people in the inner city had come to

C5

C6
C7

C8

C9

C10

C11

C12

C13

C14

C15

view themselves as victims of the college . . . this

was from letters, complaints, talking with people
. . . the community looked upon the college as an
ivory tower and they were afraid to go there. The

administration wanted to find some way to bring

these peOple in; to better serve the constituency.
So a prOposal was written. We had a skeleton idea
of what we wanted to do. Not too much detail . .

So we submitted that to the O.E.O. and we got X

87

amount of money. I think it was about $340,000
the first year, to start this program and it was
called the Research and Demonstration Project

. . . on a 80-20% basis.

£3trategy: Procuring necessary resources for program
Development. Havelock notes that "regardless of
their potential long-term benefits most significant
innovations are perceived as being initially
costly" (39:Appendix A, 6). Few authors deal
with the obtaining of financial support in
describing the phases of stages of change and
innovation.

P2

When we got word our funding was to be approved,
we went to the community with an outline of what
we wanted to do--a framework--we got an advisory
committee together and they laid out what the
students will do . . . The agencies who request
the students must provide supervision; they must
keep time cards; they must provide an evaluation
. . . this kind of thing.

Eflzrategy: Establishing a community-wide advisory committee.

Havelock identifies this strategy as Temporary

 

systems and says "this general descriptor can be
applied to any number of non-permanent designs

which are employed to introduce an innovation to
participants" (39:Appendix A, 10). In this case,
actual formation of the program was an important

function of the advisory group.

88

P3

The advisory committee set up a personnel screening
committee; representatives from the community, from
each college, the faculty, students; and this

committee interviewed and brough staff in to administer
the program . . .

Tactic: Provided for ad hoc committees to do Special

projects for advisory committee. This tactic is

related to the strategy P2.

P4

We started off with a coordinator on each campus

. . . responsible for all four parts of the program
on that campus . . . but that didn't work out too

well so we moved to another kind of administrative
structure.

fractic: Maintained sufficient flexibility in the

administrative structure to address new needs.

P5

We went to a lot of community groups. We were out
speaking to different community groups every night
for about two weeks . . . We might talk to 2 or 3
groups a night . . . We'd say, "We want you to
identify to us peOple who didn't get to go to
college for one reason or another. You tell us
who they are." We wanted 30 and we got 300 names.

Twactic: Used nominative_procedures from constituences to
to identi§y_potential clients. This is a form of

the RD&D tactic identified by Havelock as User need

 

survey (39:Appendix A, 10).

P6

We said, in seesnce, that we will select 30 community
people who meet O.E.O. low income criteria and will
pay them $125 a month to come to college, major in

a social service area, get an AA degree, and go

back to work in the community.

89

Strategy: Developinggand_packagrng a visably_practical

'prggram for clients.

 

P7

we met with the community agencies as a group so
that we could explain our program, our purpose,
our goals.

Tactic: Opened communication with local agencies through

 

a conference. This tactic is illustrative of the

 

first, or lowest, level of the relationship between
the community services division and community
agencies, noted by Myran (70:46).

P8

We invited the sewing groups and neighborhood clubs

to our Friday seminars (credit courses for students

participating in the program) and we would explain

what we were trying to do and get reaction from

them . . . how were the students doing? . . . we

invited community peOple to make presentations . . .

Strategy: Providing feedback for the larger constituency.

In this case the "larger constituency" would be
the Black community served by the college. Two

tactics are also included.

Tactic: Invited client groups to seminars at the college

 

(P8A).
Tactic: Invited client grogp leaders to makegpresentations

at the college (P83).

 

P9

Sometimes we would close a street off and have
festivals . . . We had arts and crafts, drama
groups; festivals; we called this our enrighment
program . . . We wanted to build group identity
and pride.

90

 

Tactic: Held street fairs and festivals to buildygroup_

identiry.

 

P10

'Yes, on staffing we had the emphasis on "third
world" people and the emphasis was on Black and
Chicano . . . as much as we could we found inner
city pe0ple who had lived there before or did
then . . . we wanted as many indiginous peOple
in as high a level as possible (to administer
the program).

Strategy: Employing indiginous staff members.

Pll

It was a big program . . . we went to capacity
immediately . . . We had four community develOpment
centers, two for each campus (Laney and Merritt)
and each one served up to 2,000 peOple each month
--there would be some duplication--and this was
because we had good publicity. The newspapers
covered our activities . . . this was through the
community services director . . . the peOple knew
about our program . . . we had TV coverage of our
street fairs.

Strategy: Adgpting a multi-media approach to attract

 

large numbers of clients. This is the SI per-

 

spective strategy identified by Havelock as

Multiple medre approach. He also notes that

 

different media are effective at different
stages in the adOption process and that to have
a successful program, this should be taken into
account (41:9). The SI strategy of Natural

diffusion states that after 10 to 20% of a target

 

group have accepted an innovation, the forces Of
social interaction are such that the vast majority

of the rest fellow (41:9).

91

P12

In reference to the student services corps, we
sent letters out to all the indiginous groups in
the Oakland target area. We got the list from the
Anti-Poverty Program, OADCI, . . .

Tactic: Used direct-mail to reach specific_gropps. This

 

tactic is related to the strategy P11.

P13

We had journalism students working on indiginous
neWSpapers--mostly small papers, weekly, small
daily . . . and we got valuable coverage in that
way, you know, in the right place . . . to explain
the program.

Tactic: Assignedjournalism students as work-study interns

 

on local papers. This tactic is related to the

 

strategy P11.

P14

I'd recommend for anyone going to run a program
like this that they keep their advisory committees
really informed on what is going on. The typical
college mailing list doesn't have inner city
peOple on it so you could be sending out a mailing
with news of your program--say a newsletter on
community services activities--and your advisory
committee wouldn't even get it. The advisory
committee is a key to a program like this.

Tactic: Established a specific means to keep advisory

 

committees informed. This tactic would appear to

 

be of special importance in a multi-campus, major
program involving great numbers of people. This
practitioner expressed the opinion that their
program would have been stronger had they had more
input from the advisory committee and that the
quality level of such input is directly related

to good communications. (Related to P2.)

92

P15

At the end of 2 years the O.E.O. money was going
to run out. At first we thought there would be

an orderly transition to a college program . . .
Then it became evident that this was not going to
happen. we called a series of meetings to work
out what mechanisms were needed to blend the program
into the college . . . Finally we called a meeting
and had a knock-down, drag-out session with the
college administration . . . the president and the
deans were there . . .

Strategy: Accepting confrontation as an essential element

 

of the changewprocess when other means fail.

 

Confrontation is identified as a tactic, a "direct

 

challenge to the leadership of the client system
by those who wish to bring about change" (39: 1
Appendix A, 5). In this case the confrontation
was not with a client system but with another part
of the change agency, the community college. This
is illustrative of the multi-dimensional relation-
ships a practitioner must maintain; with a primary
client system (those to be helped); and secondary
client systems such as employers, local social
agencies, funding agency offices, and other divi-
sions of the college.

P16

If I were to do the program again, I'd want to see

someone at each campus be responsible so that there

would be continuity when the funding source switched.

Strategy: Establishing an internal change egent. Lippett,

 

et al., and Havelock note the crucial importance

93

of establishing an "insider" who will act to

continue the program (39:57).

Following is the listing of strategies and tactics

induced from a content analysis of the interview with the

Peralta practitioner. They are presented in the order

described by the practitioner except as indicated.
(*Repositioned by the author.)

1. Strategy: Procuring necessary resources
for program development.

2. Strategy: Establishing a community-
wide advisory committee.

3. Tactic: Provided for ad hoc
committees to do special projects
for advisory committee.

4. Tactic: Established a specific means
to keep advisory committee informed.

5. Strategy: Employing indiginous staff
members.

6. Strategy: Developing and packaging a
visably practical program for clients.

7. Tactic: Maintained sufficient flexi-
bility in administrative structure
to address new needs.

8. Tactic: Used nominative procedures
from constituences to identify
potential clients.

9. Tactic: Opened communication with
local agencies through a conference.

10. Strategy: Providing feedback for the
larger constituency.

11. Tactic: Invited client groups to
seminars at the college.

P1

P2

P3

P14*

P10*

P6*

P4

P5

P7

P8

P8A

94

12. Tactic: Invited client group leaders

to make presentations at the college. P8B
13. Tactic: Held street fairs and festivals

to build group identity. P9

14. Strategy: AdOpting a multi-media
approach to attract large numbers of

clients. P11
15. Tactic: Used direct-mail to reach
specific groups. P12
16. Tactic: Assigned journalism students

as work-study interns on local papers. P13

17. Strategy: Accepting confrontation as
an essential element of the change
process when other means fail. P15

18. Strategy: Establishing an internal
change agent. P16

lnterview III: Lake Michigen
C61Iege. Program:—Ihstitute
far Professiopel anthara-
professionél Studies

 

Ll

Members of our staff (community services) realized
that there were peOple in our community that were
doing jobs they were not specifically prepared

for (in social agencies) . . . We undertook a
great deal of investigation, collecting research
materials, and talking to persons in the agencies.

Tactic: Conducted a survey of client needs. Havelock
identifies this tactic and associates it with the

RD&D perspective.

95

L2

After we had done the research, we realized that
what was needed was beyond the resources of the
college to offer. We thought about a consortium
of institutions--meaning Lake Michigan College,
Western University, Andrews University, and
Michigan State University . . . We got representa-
tives of each institution together to work on the
project . . . You see, the reason for establishing
the consortium was that we did not have the
expertese at our college.

Strategy: Establishing a consortium, a linkage with

 

other colleges, to broaden the institution's

 

capabilities. In Chapter II, linkage was defined

 

as "The process by which various parts of a social
system, such as a community college, learn to act
as a single unit in order to achieve specific
purposes" (70:40). Myran and other authors have
suggested that the community college's greatest
strength in making an impact on social problems is
to work OOOperatively (linked) with other com-
munity agencies. He also notes that the college
is likely to have its closest linkage with other
educational agencies (70:46). Program cooperation,
such as that noted in L2, is the deepest level of
linkage, according to Myran (70:46). This kind of
inter-institutional cooperation is also an example

of the linkage perspective on change and innova-

 

tion suggested by Havelock. In this situation,
Lake Michigan College is the user system. The
problem-solving process was initiated by them and

the other universities serve as resource systems.

96

L3

At this point it was important for us to consider
the question of funding. We applied for Title I
funding but were turned down on a technicality

. . . we would have had to wait for a year . . .
we decided to keep looking and applied to Model
Cities . . . They took a look and decided it was
the kind of thing they could fund . . . We sup-
plemented this with contributions from the
Kellogg Foundation and contributions in kind from
the three universities.

Strategy: Procuring_necessary_resources for the program.

Tactic: Sought funding from alternate sources (L3A). This
tactic is related to the strategy L3. Funding is
an important strategic consideration in the pro—
grams here under study. As noted earlier, funding
strategies and tactics are not mentioned in the
literature, in spite of their importance, except

by Havelock.

L4

Model Cities had already identified the seven
large or major problem areas in the community.
We used this as the basis of our program.

Tactic: Used data already assembled by agencies.

L5

We just went out to each agency individually. We
spoke to the director first . . . Then we spoke to
the people in the next level, and so on, until we
got to the participants (clients) . . . A number
of things they wanted were similar . . . It fell
into a pattern . . .

Tactic: Conducted additional client need surveys as
necessary for specific purposes. This tactic is a

repeat of tactic Ll but it was conducted in greater

97

depth at a later date when additional input on
client needs was needed. It is an excellent example
of the suggestion made by several authors that
planned innovation does not proceed in an orderly
sequence through clearly defined stages. Lippett,
ep_al., say "Most change processes probably proceed
by a kind of cyclic motion . . ." (53:130). This

is demonstrated in tactic L5.

L6

The next step was building the curriculum . . .
The Model Cities survey of needs was my mandate

. . . I said this is what they want done . . .
For instance here is a course here, "Available
Community Resources." The next step was to
translate that into a curriculum . . . We also
used what we had learned in our careful interview
coverage at the agencies. The first course was
entitled temporarily "Sensitivity and Listening
Techniques." This came from talking to people in
the agency. They told us what kind of experience
they wanted us to offer.

Strategy: Relating the innovation or solution to data
collected from local agencies. This is probably
the educational counterpart Of the RD&D tactic

identified by Havelock as Product develgpment in

 

which the "product" or innovation has been so
carefully constructed that user problems have been

anticipated (39:Appendix A, 8).

98

L7

We had to find somebody, someplace in this big
community to teach that course. That meant
working with a number of educators. We couldn't
find one man to teach the whole course. It was
too diverse. I went to Dr. X at Michigan State
who pulled the whole thing together. His job was
not to teach the course but to find the people
who can do this . . . He suggested a number of
experts from diverse fields.

Tactic: Employed a consultant to provide expert help.

 

Havelock provides the PS strategy Consultation

 

which has a special meaning derived from "mental
health consultation," that is, a technique of
helping a client system to define its own role and

work through its own problems by means of reflection

 

and authentic feedback. Both of these are identi-

 

fied as PS tactics (41:4). Consultation in L7

Obviously has a different meaning.

L8

We selected students on the basis that they were
working at a certain agency (community social
agency)--professiona1 or paraprofessional--and each
agency had a certain number of slots . . . The
Model Cities funds were used to cover tuition.
Students did not pay . . . One of the things that
is necessary also is released time for participants.
Each agency agreed to release participants one-and-
one-half—hours early twice a week.

Strategy: Developing and packagingra visably practical

prpgram for clients.

 

Tactic: Arranged for released time for clients to attend

 

prpgram (8A).

99

L9

We were not interested in general publicity. We
were shooting directly into the agencies in which
we were interested in and concern with . . . Of
course we did make a statement to the papers,

"LMC is doing such and such," but we made it clear
that it was a closed course.

Strategy: Conducting limited publicity onrprograms when

resources are limited.

 

L10

We did a simple sheet with course descriptions,
stated times and places and other mechanical
detail and we delivered these to the agencies
and said "This is what we are going to do." We
provided "sign-up" cards to each agency.

Tactic: Prepared simple descriptive literature and
materials to known client groups. This tactic is

related to strategy L9.

L11

After one year of operation we have raised some
eyebrows--but the apprehension has disappeared . . .
we build good relationships with the agencies by
speaking to them individually, by keeping them
informed, and up with what was going on; and showing
them how it will be evaluated . . . and we listened
for feedback . . . they all felt they were making
some input into the development of the program.

Strategy: Establishing mechanisms for continuing_inter-

 

action and feedback with agencies.

 

L12

We get feedback from every class through an evalua-
tion form. A typical form will have 4 or 5 areas

. . . We use it every evening, that is, we have an
evaluation of each class . . . We get "that" (form)
back from 172 people every meeting and you can tell
if they like what is going on . . . For example,
session number four, 85.9% of the participants
thought that the lecture was excellent or superior.

100

Tactic: Obtained feedback on therprogram from clients

through regular use of evaluation forms.

 

Following is a listing of strategies and tactics
induced from a content analysis of the interview with the
Lake Michigan College practitioner. They are presented
in the order described by the practitioner.

l. Tactic: Conducted a survey of client
needs. L1

2. Strategy: Establishing a consortium, a
linkage with other colleges, to broaden
the institution's capabilities. L2

3. Strategy: Procuring necessary resources

for program development. L3

4. Tactic: Sought funding from

alternate sources. L3A
5. Tactic: Used data already assembled

by agencies. L4
6. Tactic: Conducted additional client

need surveys as necessary for

specific purposes. L5

7. Strategy: Relating the innovation or
solution to data collected from local

agencies. L6
8. Tactic: Employed a consultant to
provide expert help. L7
9. Strategy: DevelOping and packaging a
visably practical program for clients. L8
10. Tactic: Arranged for released time
for clients to attend program. L8A
11. Strategy: Conducting limited publicity
on programs when resources are limited. L9
12. Tactic: Prepared simple descriptive

literature and materials for known
client groups. L10

101

13. Strategy: Establishing mechanisms for
conducting interaction and feedback

with agencies. L12
l4. Tactic: Obtained feedback on program
from clients through regular use of
evaluation forms. L12

Interview IV: Genessee County
Community_College. Project:
Community Counseling for
Mature Women

 

 

 

 

G1

The dean of students had interviewed every woman
of a certain age (in the student body) about a
year before we started . . . She was horrified
to find that a lot of them had needs we could
have met if we'd known about it at the time they
were attending college.

Tactic: Conducted a survey of client needs. Havelock has

 

identified User need surveys as an RD&D tactic

 

(41:13).

62

The Opportunity to do something--to start a program
providing this service we knew was needed--came
along. We had to write the proposal in a hurry,
though . . . For Title I. We found out one week
and we had to get the project in in two weeks.

Strategy: Procuring necessary resources for program

development.

 

G3

Our original plan was that we would help mature
women attending college. As we got into the program
(after funding) we found many other women with great
needs and we adjusted our program to help them

. . . You see, you need an innovative 6 months to
get the thing going. If you have to declare what
all you're going to do the first minute you hand it
in, you get locked into all kinds of things you

102

don't want to do . . . Private funding sources like
Ford, Kellogg, and so on, allow a planning period.
They presume the first 6 months are going to be
spent in planning.

Strategy: Maintaining maximum flexibility in early

 

prcgrammipg. The Specific steps to carry this out

 

as the RD&D tactic Successive epproximation.

 

Involved is a movement from an ideal model, con-
structed from the best information availab,e
towards a sueful product which will work in the
particular setting in which you are involved
(41:13—14).

G4

We held a day-long conference at the "Y" and

invited everyone who was interested in the program.

Tactic: Held a workshop‘of all interested parties to

 

remiliarize them with the_program and to get their

input. Havelock notes the use of a Temporary eyetem

 

to bring together a mix of new and familiar people
in order to introduce a program to them. The
setting is often "distinct from the normal daily
environment" as it was in this example. He notes
that lasting associations may spring from such
temporary systems (39:Appendix A, 10).

G5

You can't just talk to the people you know like

the YMCA, the League of Women Voters . . . the

usual middle-class groups . . . you are getting

the same message over and over . . . You must move

out and spend time with inner-city groups, like
church groups . . . The help I had that gave me

103

glimmer (of the need) was that I knew some women
in the North End, right in the Ghetto, from another
project I had been involved in.

Strategy: Involving clients in program planning.

 

G6

I decided to go out speaking to the women's
groups and clubs I could find (in the Ghetto) to
get word of our program out and to find out what
kind of services they needed.

Tactic: Sought out meetings with client gronps to tell of

 

program and learn their needs. This tactic is

 

connected with strategy G5.

G7

In determining the needs of clients you have to
learn to listen to all kinds of voices in every
group and to actively seek out Opinions . . .
Each administrator has their "honchos" who they
rely on for finding out how Blacks or Chicanos

or poor or whatever feel about an issue . . . but
you can't just rely on the vocal or the one with
influence to "sell." . . . Some of the quiet

ones will say "Why don't you ever ask us?"

Tactic: Sought out personal conversations with clients--

 

both the ones who come forward and the ones who

 

don't. This tactic is connected with strategy G5.

G8

We sent out a mailing to all the women at the
community college above a certain age to find out
what kinds of things they wanted . . .

Tactic: Solicited client input through letters. This

 

tactic is connected with strategy G5.

G9
We started a series of interviews with women
students to find out more exactly "What can we do?"

104

Tactic: Conducted interviews to get client input. This

tactic is connected with strategy G5.

G10

We found there are so many women who are house-
bound . . . we got a tremendous response in
passing our telephone number out—-just the
usual kind of business cards. I was amazed!

Tactic: Solicited client input through their telephoning
you. This tactic is connected with strategy G5.
Gll
We did some limited publicity in the newspaper . . .
trying to be a little vague about what we do and
de-emphasizing anything to do with therapy . . .
we knew there were needs we could not meet.

Strategy: Conducting limited publicity when the

resources are limited.

 

612

We very rapidly had to set up a system for referrals--
for jobs, for treatment . . . One of the first groups
seeking help were the mentally ill, who we could

not help and needed to refer . . . The people who
were first to answer the public response were the
peOple who were either desperate for a job or who
needed psychiatric treatment.

Tactic: Established working relationships with egencies

for client referrals. The need for the community

 

college community service division to establish
linkages to accomplish things which could not
alone do, as noted by Myran (70:45), is evidenced

in this tactic.

105

G13

We learned as we went along how you really com-
municate . . . you have to learn who in the
community talks to whom. You use them to
communicate to others.

(tactic: Used informal channels Of_person-to:person

 

communication. Havelock notes the importance,

 

in the relationship stage, of identifying both
the formal and the informal channels in the
client system--the Official leaders and the
"influencials" (39:40). A great deal of theory
exists in this and related areas, that is, on the
questions of how individuals and groups accept
innovations and how the change agent can utilize
this knowledge. Rogers notes the origin of the
now well-known "two-step hypothesis" of communica-
tions which emerged from the Lazarsfeldq ernel.,
study of the 1940 presidential election. This
hypothesis suggests that innovations spread from
sources of new ideas via relevant channels to
opinion leaders and from them by way of personal
communication channels to their followers (88:213).
These and related matters are areas useful to
change agents.

G14

A program like this is all personal interaction;

one to one, personal, direct, specific attention

. . . You follow up with specific people . . .

you call them on the phone, send a note, see them

someplace; really letting them know you cared.
Saying "Let me know how it turns out."

106

Strategy: Building a positive trust among clients and

practitioners.

 

615

Don't try to organize the clients or put them into
a separate group. They told me "Don't tell us to
bring our husbands and come to a damn pot-luck
supper."

Tactic: Did not isolate clients by calling attention to

their difference. This tactic is related to

 

strategy G14.

G16

We set up a separate home base for them--a place
where they could come in and have coffee and

study with their friends . . . to talk about their
problems.

Inactic: Provided a physical "retreat" or room for client

use. This tactic is related to strategy G14.

G17

They (the clients) socialized together--studied--
ate. There were tables in the cafeteria where they
went every noon. I met and talked and found out
what was going on. They would say, "Oh, I've been
looking for you," and then we'd talk about the
problem right there. This was how I got feedback.

Ta<=tic: Songht out clients on an informal basis for
feedback on the program. This tactic is related

to strategy G14.

G18

We started having evening hours . . . It suited
the women to come then . . . They wanted to come
on Saturdays; so we opened. You can't set up 9
to 5 hours if you want to help them. You must
say "When do you want to see me?"

107

Tactic: Arranged program hours to suit clients. This

 

tactic is related to strategy G14.

G19

We utilized academic counseling to get at personal
counseling. When a woman came in to talk about her
English class she started talking about her personal
problems, like, "I'm getting a divorce. Where do

I get legal aid?" We found the academic end of it

a convenient and safe handle.

Tactic: Utilized the success/acceptance of one program to

 

developrother programs.

 

Following is a listing of strategies and tactics
:induced from a content analysis of the interview with the
Genessee practitioner .

l. Tactic: Conducted a survey of
client needs. G1

2. Strategy: Procuring necessary resources
for program develOpment. - G2

3. Strategy: Planning on a period of adjust-
ment to shape your program (the
innovation or solution) into a more
useful state. G3

4. Tactic: Held a workshOp of all
interested parties to familiarize
them with your program and to get

their input. G4
5. Strategy: Involving clients in program
planning. G5
6. Tactic: Sought out meetings with
client groups to tell of program
and learn their needs. G6
7. Tactic: Sought out personal conver-

sations with clients--both the ones
who came forward and the ones who
don't. G7

10..

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

108

Tactic: Solicited client input
through letters.

Tactic: Conducted interviews to
get client input.

Tactic: Solicited client input through
their telephoning you.

Strategy: Conducting limited publicity
when the resources are limited.

Tactic: Established working relation-
ships with agencies for client
referrals.

Tactic: Used informal channels of
person-to-person communication.

Strategy: Building a positive trust
among clients and practitioners.

Tactic: Did not isolate clients by
calling attention to their differences.

Tactic: Provided a physical "retreat"
or room for client use.

Tactic: Sought out clients on an
informal basis for feedback on the
program.

Tactic: Arranged program hours to
suit clients.

Tactic: Utilized the success/
acceptance of one program to develOp
other programs.

G8

G9

G10

G11

G12

G13

G14

GlS

G16

G17

618

G19

109

lnterview V: Washtenaw Community
ColIege. Preject: Steprgp»

 

 

W1

There was a decision to get businesses together
under the leadership of the Chamber of Commerce,
the Human Relations DevelOpment Council and the
College to do something about job Opportunities
for minorities and those whites who were in the
very low socio-economic strata. About 33 local
businesses got involved--of many descriptions--
banks, factories, small businesses, large ones.
There were a series of meetings with high
echelon people, you know, presidents, vice
presidents, managers, of the various enterprizes.

Strategy: Establishing a network of influencial peOple as

 

a first step in approaching a problem. Havelock

 

identifies the SI strategy Network building and

 

notes that once established, a network may provide
an effective medium for the diffusion of other,
related, innovations (41:9).
W2
The outcome was that they (the network) agreed to
sponsor and fund the program--that each participant
would contribute a certain amount to make available

a working fund.

Strategy: Procuring necessary resources for_program

 

development.

 

W3

A survey of community agencies was conducted through
use of a questionnaire to determine how many people
would likely require such a service (job training
for employment).

T§i<=tic: Conducted a survey of client needs.

 

110

W4

The understanding was that I (practitioner) was
reSponsible for coordinating the training efforts
at the College; the Chamber was responsible for

job placement; and the recruitment (for the program,
i.e. the clients) was to be handled by the Council.
. . . I found that our plans had to be changed.

I found that I was doing the placement since the
Chamber man had left and the recruitment too since
the Council was doing very little.

Tactic: Maintained sufficient flexibility in administrative

structure to address new needs.

W5

The survey had identified about 200 potential
trainees but a lot of time had elapsed between the
survey and our initiation of the program . . . I
had to go out into the community and seek these
people out. To do this I contacted many agencies
such as the Department of Social Services, the
Employment Security Commission, the Housing
Commission, and churches-~through personal visits.
This served to identify me and to let them know
the program was finally underway.

Eitrategy: Establishing working relationships (linkages)
with community agencies. As in other cases noted
in this study, this illustrates the point made by
Myran that "The college's greatest strength . . .
lies in its ability to work COOperatively . . .
with other community organizations" (70:45).

W6

we had a series of meetings with the Chamber and
the representatives of the participating companies
to inform all involved that the program was under-
'way and how it was working . . . to build their
support.

StI‘ategy: Establishing mechanisms for continuing inter-

action and feedback with agencies.

lll

W7

I was always getting publicity about the program--
both local papers, radio, sometimes TV--to let
peOple know about the existence of the program

and what it was about. Whenever we graduated a
class we publicized the number trained to date

and information about the next program. The
businesses like this, Of course.

Strategy: Adopting a multi-media approach to attract

large numbers of clients.

 

Tactic: Emphasized funding sources in publiciny to

encourage continued support (W7AO.

 

W8

As part of the program we conducted tours for
trainees to job sites, to plants, and to places
Of business. The personnel managers wanted this
too. The purpose was to give employers an
Opportunity to look at the peOple . . . take
applications . . . mostly it was a question of
letting them (employers) meet some of the peOple
(trainees/clients) to learn that they were not
"other world monsters" that we have categorically
called "disadvantaged" but that they are real
human beings that need an Opportunity.

Stzrategy: Building a positive relationship between

primary and secondary clients.

 

W9

Our program was basically a job orientation . . .
to give them (clients) the social skills to get a
job and to hold it . . . most had had negative
experiences in the work world. They were paid
$1.60 per hour to attend--an incentive. We ran

it as a work simulation. They Operated as if they
tvere in a work situation. They were expected to be
there on time. If they showed up they would be
paid; if not they were docked.

Strategy: DevelOping andjackaging a visab;y_practical

program for clients.

 

Tactic: Created a work-like situation in training (W9A).

112

W10

As the majority of these persons (clients) were
Black, we had some discrimination . . . we had
anticipated doing some sensitivity training with
the employer staffs, like personnel men and
foremen--but we were unable to do this . . .

We should have done it. I was constantly writing
letters and on the phone to point out artificial
blockages that some employers put up which were
racially motivated . . . I protested these things
. . . Others, seeing what was happening tried to
compensate for this.

Tactic: Created a better understanding of minority group
mores and needs on the_part of employer work
force.

Wll

There were not contracts that these peOple (clients)
would be employed. But there were promises which
were tantamount to a contract.

Thactic: Obtained clear understanding of postrprogram

relationship:petween_primary and secondary

clients (employers).

 

W12

After the economic situation got so bad last year,
we decided we should turn to another source of
funding. The local companies did not have the
funds to continue and they didn't have the need
for the workers . . . We decided we would go after
funds from the National Alliance of Businessmen.

. . . To do this we put together a consortium
largely of the same companies but we also made a
Special effort to recruit small companies who
could hire 1 or 2 persons--we felt there were many
(of them . . . The University of Michigan joined,
Ibut as one of the largest employers in the area.

Strwategy: Establishing a consortium, a linkage with
employers in the area, to undertake continuance

of the program.

113
Tactic: Sought funding from alternate sources (W12A).

W13

The consortium is a group of employers who enter
into a contract with the Department of Labor who
provided training funds . . . The College works
on a sub-contract with the consortium to provide
the training.

Tactic: Utilized contracts to set forth the relationshrp
between the consortium and a funding source and
between the consortium and the college as sub-

contractor. This tactic is related to strategy W12.

 

W14

I had to build a relationship with the people

I was trying to help (clients); also the
employers and the agencies; and the college
people . . . I was unknown to the college peOple
and they didn't seem to understand . . . I had to
go around to each division chairman a number of
times--the instructors too. Some of them come in
and do their job and take off. They seem to say,
"What do I care about what's going on at the
college?"

Stzrategy: Establishing working relationshrps (linkage)
with clients! employers, agenciesy and other
divisions of the college. This strategy is
illustrative of the multi-dimensional concerns
the practitioner must have. The value of
linkages between the college and community
organizations has been noted earlier. Myran also
notes that "There is general agreement that, in
reality, community services is the responsibility

of the total institution rather than of the com-

munity services staff only" (70:41). As

114

illustrated here, this "general agreement" some-

times does not permeate throughout the college.

W15

We branched out from our "Step-Up" program to do
special programs for agencies . . . I sold programs
to other agencies like the Ypsilanti State HOSpital,
for example. We ran a number of groups for them--
things like food service training--but "Step-Up"

was the start of it . . . We used the "Step-Up"
orientation package in a program we did for the
State Department of Education; to train 40 men

for retail tire dealer service mechanics.

'Tactic: Utilized the success/acceptance of one program to

deve10p other programs.

W16
The key point in making it go was that I made a

determination that the program was going to be

successful in spite of all the problems and all

the Opposition and the changes . . . I felt it

was really worthwhile . . . I worked night and

day; but I thought, "Nobody else is going to do

this. It's up to me."

Stzrategy: Placing the responsibility for the develepment

of a successful program where there are diffi-
cultires with one person who is personally com-

mitted to make it work.

Following is a list of strategies and tactics from
a Chantent analysis of the interview with the Washtenaw
practitioner. They are presented in the order described

by 'the practitioner except where noted by an asterisk.

10.

11.

12.

13.

115

Strategy: Establishing a network of
influencial people as a first step in
approaching a problem.

Strategy: Procuring necessary resources
for program develOpment.

Tactic: Conducted a survey of
client needs.

Tactic: Maintained sufficient
flexibility in administrative
structure to address new needs.

Strategy: Establishing working rela-
tionships (linkages) with community
agencies.

Strategy: Establishing working rela-
tionships (linkages) with clients,
employers, agencies, and other
divisions of the college.

Strategy: Establishing mechanisms for
continuing interaction and feedback
with agencies.

Strategy: AdOpting a multi-media
approach to attract large numbers of
clients.

Tactic: Emphasized funding sources
in publicity to encourage continued
support.

Strategy: Building a positive rela-
tionship between primary and secondary
clients.

Tactic: Obtained a clear understanding
of post-program relationship between
primary and secondary clients
(employers).

Strategy: DevelOping and packaging
visably practical program for clients.

Tactic: Created a work-like situa-
tion in training.

W1

W2

W3

W4

W5

W14*

W6

W7

W7A

W8

W11*

W9

W9A

116

14. Tactic: Created a better under-
standing of minority group mores and
needs on the part of employer work
force.

15. Strategy: Establishing a consortium, a
linkage with employers in the area, to
undertake continuance of program.

16. Tactic: Sought funding from
alternate sources.

17. Tactic: Utilized contracts to set
forth the relationship between the
consortium and a funding source and
between the consortium and the college
as sub-contractor.

l8. Tactic: Utilized the success/
acceptance of one program to deve10p
other programs.

19. Strategy: Placing the responsibility
for the develOpment of a successful
program where there are difficulties
with one person who is personally
committed to make it work.

Interview VI: Delta College.
yoject: Women's Opportunity
EkprksHOpg

 

Dl

We talked to peOple who Operate job training pro-
grams and in most cases these programs were long,
quite long, and therefore threatening to these
women. The Department of Social Services told us

these women simply will not come if they think they

are going to have their children baby-sat for long
periods. And they are not used to getting out of
the house.

Taflrtic: Conducted an investigation of client needs

 

W10

W12

W12A

W13

W16.

throngh contact with local agencies. This is a

 

version of the RD&D tactic identified by Havelock

as User need survey (41:13).

 

117

D2

We decided on 4 weeks in which we could get in
counseling and enough skill training so they
could achieve . . . the aim was the creation of

a successful experience . . . This is a job

entry program and this is what makes it different
from a WIN program. We are not saying "You are
going to have a job at the end of this program."
We are building self—confidence, image, and in a
non-threatening situation.

Strategy: Developing and packeging a visually_practical

 

program for clients.

 

D3
Our initial support for the program was from the
College.

Eitrategy: Procuring necessary resources for program

 

development.

 

D4

We ran a pilot program in Bay City (one of three
cities served by the college), in order to
establish a way to select students and to
establish priorities. We were having a hard time
selling the program to the case workers . . . they
thought it was "just another program." . . . we
took anything but the cream of the crop for our
case study; they were mostly women who couldn't
get anything else--they were drOp-outs from their
own programs. '

tréicrtic: Conducted an experimental demonstration or pilot
program to convince others of the value of your

program and to test your assumptions. Experimental

 

demonstration is an RD&D tactic identified by

 

Havelock. He notes that the purpose is to show
clearly and dramatically that the innovation does

make a difference. Also, the demonstration must be

118

in a natural setting (41:13). This example is
not "pure RD&D" because the Delta practitioner
was testing out some of her assumptions for full-
scale program use.

D5

We used a survey of the cities as far as job

Opening available to arrive at what courses we

intended to offer. We picked course or job areas

where we had some hOpe Of placing our clients.

Tactic: Obtained or made a survey of secondary client

needs (employers).

 

D6

We used a counseling staff of five psychologists.
A lot of peOple say "Why test disadvantaged?"
And granted there are no good tests for dis-
advantages . . . But we needed something to go
by. We had hour-long interviews with each
individual after we gave them the testing

battery.
d?aa<:tic: Used the best tests available to determine

developmental status of the clients as a basis for

curriculumsplanning.

D7

One of the keys in this thing is to tie in with
the Department of Social Services so that they
follow up with the gals in channeling them into
local jobs, or part-time job, or education, or
‘vocational training.

Tachic: Established a working relationship (linkage)
with a specific agency to complete a specific

part of the program.

119

D8

If you can start out in a quiet manner and find out
how to do it . . . that's the whole secret--don't
make too much noise at first . . . You can over—sell
something, that was Head Start's problem . . .

We got the word out about the program (at the start)
through the social services, the Chamber, O.E.O. . . .

Ektrategy: Conducting limited publicitykon thesprogram

until the success of it is certain.

 

D9

We built in criteria for evaluation of the program
before the program began . . . We set it up, not on
grades, but on attendance, listening ability,
attitudes--the things that count . . . We've com-
pleted the evaluation . . . We have an outcome above
that of the level of the regular college student.

We found that the degree of commitment is higher.

We had a lower drOp-out rate. The degree of
achievement was higher.

£3t:rategy: Setting np an evaluation procedure and criteria

before the program begins so that_you have

 

objective evidence of success.

 

D10

The Department of Social Services selected the
participants. We had no responsibility as to who
would participate. We drew no criteria except that
they had to be literate.

TaCtic: Arranged for a social agency to select the
perticipants especially where the need is greater

than the ability of the program to meet it.

D11

We got into publicity on the program because we are
a credit society. The Department of Social Services
‘wants credit; SO does D.V.R.; and the college. We
‘were careful on how we handled it . . . only with
permission of the client. We took no pictures in
class. The publicity rarely mentioned that they
‘were receiving A.D.C. ’

120

Tactic: Providedspublicity to meet needs of the agencies

 

(secondary clients) involved but respected

 

client's concerns.

 

D12

We began to have real success when we began to

get across to them that we respected them as
individuals--we liked them for what they were

and that we felt they could achieve . . .

Building their self-image is very important . . .

If there is one thing a welfare person has it is
their failure syndrome . . . We must devise success-
ful eXperiences for them.

Eytrategy: Building individual client self-image.

 

D13

It's important to get them on a college campus.
People say "go into the inner city and rent space
and do your program there." That's not the idea.
We have a graduation at the end. We give them a
certificate. It's probably the only graduation
many of them will ever have. They are uniquely
proud of the fact that they came to the campus

. . . They went to college.

frenetic: Utilized the college campus and certificates to

 

build client self-image.

 

D14

It's a major problem when you have the distance
range . . . Bay City is 7 miles; Midland is 20;
Saginaw is 15; and no public tranSportation.

. . . We found out who had cars--pin-pointed it

on a map. The driver was reimbursed . . . It
worked out as an advantage. It became a peer
group situation. The girls had formed a relation-
ship . . . one could not say "I'm sick" and not go
in the morning because they had to explain. It
worked out beautifully to keep attendance up.

Ta<‘-=t.ic: Utilized peer gronp_pressure to improve client

performance. This tactic is similar to the PS

 

121

tactic identified by Havelock, Group observation

and process analysis (88A:6). This kind of

 

activity helps facilitate adjustment to changes.

D15

The clients are very verbal. They will tell you
what they like and don't like-—much more so than
regular college students. At the end we had a
3-page evaluation form. This will be useful in
the program.

Thactic: Obtained feedback on the program through regular

use of evaluation forms.

 

D16

We are just getting into our second year. We have
requested funding from the Department of Vocational
Education in Lansing. We plan to expand the program.

treactic: Sought funding from new source to eXpend the

program.

Following is a listing of the strategies and
1:61ctics induced from a content analysis of the interview
ijuth the Delta practitioner. They are presented in the
(Drkier described by the practitioner except where noted by
an asterisk.

l. Tactic: Conducted an investigation

of client needs through contact

with local agencies. D1

2. Strategy: Developing and packaging a
specific program for clients. D2

3. Strategy: Setting up an evaluation
procedure and criteria before the
program begins so that you have
objective evidence of success. D9*

4.

5.

10.
11.
12.
13.

14.

15.

16.

122

Strategy: Procuring necessary resources
for program development.

Tactic: Conducted an eXperimental
demonstration or pilot program to
convince others of the value of your
program and to test your assumptions.

Tactic: Arranged for a social agency
to select the participants especially
where the need is greater than the
ability of the program to meet them.

Tactic: Obtained or made a survey
of secondary client needs (employers).

Tactic: Used the best available tests
to determine develOpmental status of
the clients as a basis for curriculum
planning.

Tactic: Established a working rela-
tionship (linkage) with a specific
agency to complete a specific part
of the program.

Strategy: Conducting limited publicity
on the program until the success of it
is certain.

Tactic: Provided publicity to meet

the needs Of the agencies (secondary
clients) involved but respect client's
concerns.

Strategy: Building individual client
self-image.

Tactic: Utilized the college campus
and certificates to build client
self-image.

Tactic: Utilized peer group pressure
to improve client performance.

Tactic: Obtained feedback on the
program through regular use of
evaluation forms.

Tactic: Sought funding from new
source to eXpand the program.

D3

D4

DlO*

D5

D6

D7

D8

D11

D12

D13

D14

D15

D16

123

Interview VII: Quinsigamond
(CommunitngOllege.
ZProject: QUEST

 

 

 

01

My own orientation, my own disposition,
determined pretty much what I wanted to do.

I raised the question in an academic council,
"What are we doing about community needs? We
seem to be serving only the middle class in
spite of the poor on our doorstep."

EVtrategy: Establishing an internal change agent. Here

 

the practitioner, in his role as faculty member,
began to act as a catalyst to deve10p an awareness
of an unmet need and the formation of an innovation
to meet that need. Havelock notes two other roles

played by the change agent: that of solution giver

 

and that of process helper. He notes that the

 

roles are not mutually exclusive (39:9).

02

I read about a program that sounded like what I
wanted to do so I visited that college (Harlacher
at Oakland Community College).

Strategy: gbserving innovations in action at another

 

location before trylng them. At the end of his

 

book, Diffusion of Innovations, Rogers notes 52

 

"Generalizations" as the major conclusion of what
is known about the diffusion of innovations. Two
of these apply to 02. "Earlier adOpters are more
cosmOpolite than later adOpters," and "Earlier

adOpters utilize information sources that are in

124

closer contact with the origin of new ideas than
later adopters" (46:313). Havelock identifies
Inter-organizational visiting as a PS strategy
(41:5).

Q3

I had some experience in writing prOposals so I

was asked to write a grant proposal for Title I

support. I delivered the proposal in person and

later went to the State Office several times . . .

I had to rewrite it.

Eltrategy: Procuring necessary resources for program

development.

 

ilactic: Persisted in funding efforts through repeated

visits, rewriting proposals, etc. (Q3A).

Q4

There were two other grant prOposals being submitted
to Title I from Worcester so representatives from
the three colleges met to coordinate our prOposals.

Ertrategy: Determining what other institutions in your

area are or might be submitting to the same

potential funding source you seek funds from.

OS

Quinsigamond is part of the state system and the
State of Massachusetts at first refused to accept
the grant . . . So I got in touch with the local
press . . . I called them deliberately to put on

a little squeeze . . . I proceeded on an individual
campaign . . . People aren't interested in change,
so my orientation is to pressure . . . I sought

out and met with a representative of the Governor's
office.

Strategy: When seeking funds and snpport in a political

context, utilizing the kinds of_pressure politicians

125

reSpond to. Both Rogers, who reviewed 506 studies

 

for his 1962 book (88:55-56), and Havelock, whose
team reviewed 3,931 studies for his 1971 book
(40:1-16), found little or no diffusion research
in political science. The author was unable to
find any collection and codification of strategies
and tactics used by politicians or by persons in
"political" situations.

Q6

We held a major conference and invited community

development and social work peOple from all over

the state to the college--they used our facilities.

Strategy: Hosting a workshop or a conference to generate

interest in the area of your preposed innovation.

 

This is the Temporary system noted by Havelock

 

(39:Appendix A, 10). Bennis and Slater have
dealt with the implications of the growing use of
temporary systems for major projects in The

Temporary Society_(7). Participation in a temporary

 

system often produces new insights into old problems.

Q7

I started to generate--to seek out--relationships
with agencies in the community . . . By this time
I had "three rings" going--working on the State
to release the money; seeking out agency contacts;
and I had already begun some Of my programs which
the Title I grant would fund.

Strategy: Establishingrworking relationshlps (linkages)

with community agencies. This statement describes

 

126

the multi-dimensional nature of the role of the
community services practitioner undertaking a

social action program.

Q8

I had a Black student in several of my classes . . .
I met with him several times and we were able to
set up a Black identity club as we later called it

. . . I attended a local block meeting several
times; the area was mixed . . . I guess I was
aggressive in these matters, seeking out a meeting
such as this, because I recognized the need for
involvement of community people.

Strategy: Establishing contacts or links with persons

 

indiginous to the community or group you wish to

 

help. "Linkages" are often looked upon as existing
between groups, organizations, and institutions.
Person-to-person linkages are also utilized in
many situations. However, since a person may be
seen as representing an institution--as occupying
a role in the institution--true person-to-person
linkages may be difficult to establish wne
purposive action (seeking out of persons) is being
undertaken versus unplanned, casual encounter.

Q9

I set up with a staff member, the director of

continuing education, a faculty-administration-

student community services committee to begin

investigating the question "What are our responsi-

bilities to the community?

Strategy: Organizingran internal committee (in your

 

organization) to study and make recommendations

in the area of your concern.

 

127

Q10

In fact, I avoided a confrontation (over the
question of obtaining the Federal grant). The
time was just not right.

Strategy: Withholding use of confrontation until_you are

 

certain of the outcome from its use. Havelock

 

notes confrontation as a "high risk" tactic used

 

either when it is known the leadership will change
its position when shown how serious the need is
and how strongly peOple feel about it, or, when

the leadership can be overcome (39:Appendix A, 5).

Q11

I got in touch with a couple Of State senators to
get the grant . . . We had to resubmit it . . . We
played the whole political game. I had seen it all
done before, on a previous job . . . I indicated to
the State that there were terrific local expectations
which existed because word of the grant had been in
the local papers. It was a matter of keeping the
pressure on . . . I just kept after it . . . It was
probably all of the things combined which finally
got the grant approved . .-.

Strategy: Placing the responsibility for the development

 

of a successful program where there are diffi-

 

culties with one person who is personally

 

committed to make it work.

 

Q12
I started to get some commitment to the program from
the college. They reduced my teaching load.

fractic: Obtained reduction of other duties for_persons

 

working on communiny service social action

programs as a form of commitment by the colleges.

128

013

I contacted the national office of AAJC (American
Association of Junior Colleges) in Washington
during the writing of the proposal so that they
would be involved in evaluation as part of the
in-kind contribution. '

Strategy: Building evaluation_plans into the program

from the start.

 

Tactic: Involved the national association with "juris-
diction" in the evaluation process to both
legitimatize and add weight to a successful
outcome (Q13A).

Q14
I tried to get the program (Remedial-Tutorial for
Black Students) funded by local industries . . .
I was attempting to get some financial commitment
from the consortium.
(tactic: Sought funding from additional sources.
015
I met with the Model Cities task force as part
of the legitimatization process with the
community.
ERtrategy: Establishing working relationships (linkages)
with local offices of Federal agencies.
Q16
I saw the faculty-administration-student ad hOC
committee as a necessity in soliciting support
from the rest of the faculty.
Strategy: Establishing understanding of and support for
thesprogram my the faculty of the college, through

their involvement.

017

We (ad hoc committee) identified the problem
very easily. There were Blacks in the immediate
area . . . in the College district . . . It was
obvious. Clearly there were not Blacks in the
College.

Tactic: Defined the problem preparatory to seeking a

 

solution.

Q18

I set up a task force of college and community
representatives. I tried to get broad input . . .
from faculty and from different parts of the
community . . . from other colleges in the city

. . . from the school system . . . from agencies
and the consortium. We tried to plug into all the
groups to give us guidance in our program.

EStrategy: Organizing a communiry-wide committee to

 

study and make recommendations in your area of

 

concern 0

Q19

I had seen a newspaper work in another community

. . . to focus on problems and bring people into
it. The local problem seemed to be a communication
problem. The peOple who needed help lived in
different places . . . pockets. I decided a riori
this is what was needed here. We paid for the
first edition of the paper from the publications
budget of the grant . . . The paper is still going.

Strategy: Installinga solution "fait accompli" if

 

certain it will work. This is an RD&D strategy

 

identified by Havelock. The change agent
immediately installs an innovation without con-
sultation with the client or the building of
awareness in the belief that the user benefits

will be so apparent and so great that the long-run

130

good of the client will be served. Often this
is done when initial resistance is expected

to be great, according to Havelock, and it is
done with some risk (41:12). It appears that

this tactic of Fait accompli is used with little

 

risk and without client consultation when the
client needs are enormous and a great many dif-
ferent solutions or innovations could all be
used with success. As Havelock notes, "The
ethical problems inherent in this approach are

Obvious" (41:12).

Following is a listing of strategies and tactics
induced from a content analysis of the interview with the
practitioner from Quinsigamond. They are presented in the
order described by the practitioner except where noted by
an asterisk.

1. Strategy: Establishing an internal
change agent.

2. Strategy: Observing innovations in
action at another location before

trying them out. Q2
3. Strategy: Procuring necessary resources
for program development. Q3
4. Tactic: Persisted in funding efforts
through repeated visits, rewriting
prOposals, etc. Q3A

5. Strategy: Building evaluation plans
into the program from the start. Ql3*

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

131

Tactic: Involved the national
association with "jurisdiction" in
the evaluation process to both
legitamize and add weight to a
successful outcome.

Strategy: Determining what other
institutions in your area are or might
be submitting to the same funding
source you seek funds from.

Strategy: Hosting a workshop or a
conference to generate interest in
the area of your proposed innovation.

Strategy: When seeking funds and

support in a political context, utilizing
the kinds of pressures politicians
respond to.

Strategy: Establishing working
relationships (linkages) with com-
munity agencies.

Strategy: Establishing contacts or
links with persons indiginous to the
community or group you wish to help.

Strategy: Organizing an internal
committee (in your organization) to
study and make recommendations in the
area of your concern.

Strategy: Withholding use of con-
frontation until you are certain of
the outcome from its use.

Strategy: Placing the responsibility
for the develOpment of a successful
program where there are difficulties
with one person who is personally
committed to make it work.

Tactic: Obtained reduction of other
duties for persons working on com-
munity service social action programs
as a form of commitment by the
college.

Tactic: Sought funding from
additional sources.

Ql3A*

Q4

06*

Q5

Q7

Q8

Q9

Q10

Q11

Q12

014

132

17. Strategy: Establishing working
relationships (linkages) with local
offices of Federal agencies.

18. Strategy: Establishing understanding
of and support for the program by the
faculty of the college through their
involvement.

19. Tactic: Defined the problem
preparatory to seeking a solution.

20. Strategy: Organizing a community-wide
committee to study and make recom-
mendations in your area of concern.

21. Strategy: Installing a solution
"fait accompli" if certain it will
work.

Interview VIII: San Mateo College.
groject: Communiny DeveIOpment

Program

81

The "significant others" . . . I learned that
lesson early and well. You find out who the
”significant others" are. They aren't necessarily
who you think they are at first. You have to
develop a skill to sense who the key people are
who are going to ultimately make a decision. You
must reach them and gain acceptance of your plan.

Strategy: Determining who the persons are who will
ultimately make the decisions related to

acceptance of the program(s).

82

You have to go back and study a past situation--
this is what I do--find a similar situation. To
find out who has the power in a community you
have to have some sort of an issue . . . you have
to watch them in Operation . . . or get someone
to relate it to you. People with power don't
"put it on" every day--they only "wear it" when
they have to.

015

Q16

017

018

019

In . u

133

Tactic: Studied_past situationsy_similar to the one_you
are contemplating, to find out who has the power.

This tactic is related to strategy 81.

SB

What we wanted to get at, to solve--the innovation--
was kind of an economic thing. To get it spelled
out we organized community councils; lay groups

put together to define the problems of their
neighborhood and the community.

Strategy: Establishing a communiry-wide advisory committee.

S4

A program, to be successful, if it's going to be
of lasting value, has to be seen by the members

of the college community as part of that community.
This means doing something of enough substance
that the college community will accept it . . .

If you are going to Operate from a college setting
your innovation has to be seen as being part of
what they see as their philosophical commitment

to excellence.

Strategy: Organizing the solution to a defined problem
in such a way that the college community can and

will support it.

SS

First you gain support . . . I didn't want to go
off riding a bandwagon all by myself . . .

I enlisted the support of key faculty peOple . . .
through person-to-person contact . . . I sought
out people who had in the past taken part in
public service.

Tactic: Recruited faculty who will support_your prggram
through personal contact withlpersons with a
record of previous service in the area of your

interest. This tactic is related to strategy S4.

u _._-.4
o

 

v.17 . J?!

134

S6

To sell your program to the faculty, you must get
to some of the "Old Buffalo Heads." They are the
elders. When they finally make a decision they
all shake their heads in unison. If you get some
of the key old timers behind something, the rest
fall in line.

Tactic: Recruited key persons whose decisions others

respect and follow. This tactic is related to

 

strategy 84.

S7

From the very beginning, I tried to find some way
that, if we got the grant, the program would become
a part of the mainstream of the college's existence
. . . In essence I was trying to build an
institutional commitment . . . You must find some
way to build it into the institutional fabric.

 

Strategy: Considering those steps which could be taken
to assure continuance. This is the "freezing"
noted by Lewin as necessary to retain the new
level of performance. Lippitt, ep_al., note, "Too
often change which has been produced by painstaking
and costly efforts tends to disappear after the
change effort ceases, and the system, which wanted
to change, slips back instead into its Old ways"
(53:140). However, through evaluation, a decision
must be made as to the desirability of retaining
the innovation and presumably, continuing assess-
ment is desirable less the preservation of the new
innovation be pursued at the cost of still newer

and better innovations to meet cha: ed conditions.

135

88

I've seen too many programs falter because it
didn't have some one person to look after it when
the project director who had started it decided
to go elsewhere.

Tactic: Established a permanent office or role as a
focus for the innovation to assure continuance of

the innovation. This tactic is related to

 

strategy S7.

S9

We had a little warfare . . . about where this new
position would report (community services) . . .
He ended up reporting directly to the president so
that the president would be involved directly in
this new program--the interest of his Office would
help to stabilize it. It made the point that
outreach--external affairs--is as important as
internal affairs.

Tactic: Considered the location of the office or role
in the hierarcny of the administrative structure

to assure continuance. This tactic is related to

 

strategy S7.

810

It's easy to get money--I went to Washington and
made sure I saw the right people; agencies;
congressmen . . . and at the State level, the same
thing--and State level representatives of Federal
agencies . . . I made them see the importance of
our region to the State . . . and have them inter-
cede with the people who were going to cut the pie,
to see that we got our share.

Strategy: Procuring necessaryrresources for program

development.

 

'Tactic: Visited and convinced the Federal agency in
Washington who will make the grant of the program's

value (810A).

136

811

In coming into a new situation, you seek out and
get tips on who the influencials are and you store
them away . . . When your issue comes up, you can
probably predict quite successfully where the

shot is going to be called.

Tactic: Gathered and stored information on who the
influencials are in different situations. This

tactic is related to strategy 51.

$12

I would try not to do anything with him (the
influencial person) in a formal setting until I've
had the Opportunity to meet him informally--have a
drink with him--where he can get to know me and I
to know him a little bit.

Tactic: Sought an informal meeting with the influencial
person prior to a formal meeting. This tactic is

related to strategy 81.

513

If you're going to Operate with peOple at the com-
munity leve1--this is the key really--you have got
to have someone who Operates at their level--not
an expert really, but someone who is knowledgeable;
not phony, someone they can trust.

Strategy: Selecting staff who can relate to clients.

514

Sometimes we would use the money to hire consultants--
we would go to the State University or someone
privately. For the most part we were able to get
local peOple . . . peOple with expert knowledge we
needed.

Tactic: Employed a consultant to provide expert help.

AHA—“.1

Ir“
4

r3;

137

815

I don't place a great deal of weight on using all
the various media to publicize a program. Word of
mouth is the most effective. If you do an
effective job of selecting your advisory committee
they will lead you to your clients . . . As with
the Chicano group, you plug right into them.

Tactic: Used informal channels of person-to-person com-

 

munication to gain acceptance of an innovation.

 

This statement illustrates Roger's 4th "Generaliza-
tion," that is, "Impersonal information sources are
most important at the awareness stage, and personal

sources are most important at the evaluation stage

in the adoption process” (88:312).

‘1"

w-n m

Following is a listing of the strategies and tactics

induced from a content analysis Of the interview with the

San Mateo practitioner. They are presented in the order

described by the practitioner except where noted by an
asterisk.

1. Strategy: Determining who the persons
are who will ultimately make the
decisions related to acceptance of
the program.

2. Tactic: Studied past situations,
similar to the one you are contem-
plating, to find out who has the
power.

3. Tactic: Gathered and stored informa-
tion on who the influencials are in
different situations.

4. Tactic: Sought an informal meeting
with the influencial person prior to
a formal meeting.

81

$2

511*

512*

138

5. Strategy: Establishing a community-wide
advisory committee. 83

6. Strategy: Organizing the solution to a
defined problem in such a way that the
college community can and will support
it. S4

7. Tactic: Recruited faculty who will
support your program through personal
contact with persons with a record of
previous service in the area of your

interest. 85
8. Tactic: Recruited key persons whose
decisions others respect and follow. S6

9. Strategy: Considering those steps
which could be taken to assure
continuance.. S7

10. Tactic: Established a permanent
office or role as a focus for the
innovation to assure continuance of
the innovation. - 58

ll. Tactic: Considered the location of
the office or role in the hierarchy
of the administrative structure to
assure continuance. S9

12. Strategy: Procuring necessary resources
for program development. 810

13. Tactic: Visited and convinced the
Federal agency in Washington who will
make the grant of the program's value. 810A

14. Tactic: Visited and convinced the

local offices of the Federal agencies

of the program's value. 5103
15. Strategy: Selecting a staff who can

relate to clients. 513

16. Tactic: Employed a consultant to

provide expert help, 814
17. Tactic: Used information channels of

person-to-person communication to gain
acceptance of an innovation. SlS

139

Areas Of DevelOpmental Conditions

 

In Chapter II, five models were presented which

represented different author's conceptualizations of the

process of change and/or innovation. These were:

1. Rogers, representative of the social inter-

 

action perspective;

 

2. Miles and Lake, representatives of the

research, development, and diffusion

 

perSpective;

 

3. Lippitt, et al., representative of the

problem solver perspective;

 

4. Watson, also representative of the as

perspective; and

 

5. Havelock, representative of the linkage

perspective.

 

Table 3 provides a review of the key stages, phases or

steps of each of these five models of the process of

change and/or innovation.

Two observations apply to all of these models. The

first is that there is some degree of surface similarity

to all of the models but at the same time there

are some

sharp differences. The second observation is that all

but one of the authors caution against a direct
of the model to specific, real situations; that
models are representative of a general movement

specific cases. On this second point, Lippitt,

application
is, the
Of many

et al.,

140

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141

state "Our sequential order of phases is too logical to
represent the change process as it usually unfolds. In

any given case one is likely to see that the phases overlap
and repeat themselves" (53:143). Watson notes that the
procedure he suggests may be unduly formal and that
experienced persons use short cuts which work better under
given conditions. He says "The full-scale ten-step
Operation can be held in mind as a model, to be used when
the innovation is truly momentous; approximations will be
sufficient for many lesser problems" (97:115).

An examination of the similarities and differences
is also of interest and will be useful in the postulation
of areas Of developmental conditions which a community
services social action program typically moves through.

These models are similar in that each covers the
same process and "stages, steps or phases" are discernible
across all five. All are concerned with the process of

innovation rather than change in the sense that an inno-

 

vation is planned and change comes about naturally. The
differences are perhaps greater. Two of the models, those
of Rogers and Lippett, 231213! apply to innovations

of all kinds and in all sorts of settings. The others,
Miles and Lake, Watson, and Havelock, are all concerned
with the public schools. Rogers presents five simple
stages which repeated observations have born out to be

correct. This model represents, however, passive

142 l

Observation. It says, "This is how it happens." Lippitt,
en_al., on the other hand, Offer a model which says "This
is how to make it happen." The first words in their book
indicate this, saying, "The subject of this book is planned
change--that is, change which derives from a purposeful
decision to effect improvements in a . . . system" (53:vi).
It should be noted that Lippitt, en_al., use "change" in
the way Rogers used "innovation" and as this paper defines
"planned innovation."

As noted earlier, all but one of the models are .

I‘_:___11fie:refl

Offered on general, rather than specific, terms. Miles
and Lake are the exception. They label their model as

"A Strategy for Planned Change" (63:81). It is a step-by-
step procedure which requires major financing and is
estimated by the authors as requiring three years to
progress through. This model is under test as the
Cooperative Project for Educational Development (COPED) in
New York state. The purpose of the Miles and Lake model
is to implant the ability to be self-renewing, that is,

to possess an effective problem-solving structure and to
implant in the process a developed capacity for continuous
adaptation and change. Again, change here means "planned
change or innovation." Miles and Lake provide eight
tactics to implement the strategy which is set forth as

a model.

143

The Lippitt, en_al., model and the Havelock model

are the most alike. Lippitt, ep_al., are concerned with a
first stage of "problem awareness" in which there must be
developed "a desire to change and a desire to seek help
from outside the system" (53:131). Havelock approaches
the process more from the external change agent's view-
point which dictates that first a relationship must be
formed between change agent and client so that these same
issues can be taken up. Havelock includes the concern
"find out if the client is aware of his own needs" in
diagnosis (39:12). Beyond this, each calls for relation-
ship; diagnosis; examination of alternate actions (and
for Havelock, resource retrieval); selection of a possible
solution or innovation; implanting and acceptance of the
solution; and the stabilization period when the change
agent withdraws, and (for Havelock) leaving the client
with skills to continue the implanting of planned innova-
tions, that is, in a condition of being self-renewing.
Lippitt, en_al., do not take up self-renewal but they do
discuss the problem, saying:

Very few of the change agents whose reports we

have studied Offered helpful observations about

the process of terminating a change relationship

. . . the end of the relationship can be made

easier for the client system by the develOpment

within the system of specific mechanisms to

substitute for the role of the outside change
agent (53:244-245).

144

We have noted that each author examined has broken
the process of change or innovation into various stages,
phases or steps in order to observe and discuss the con-
stituent elements of the process. Rogers cites two major
investigations of the validity of stages in the adoption
of innovations (88:95). These studies seem to provide
evidence that the mental processes of individuals who
adopt an innovation move through awareness, interest,
evaluation, and trial, to adoption. Our interest here is
in "how it happens" but it is also in "how does one make
it happen?" Lewin described the process of changing from
one level of performance to another as containing three
aspects: unfreezing, moving, and freezing (64:129).
Lippitt, es_al., in warning that planned change does not
necessarily progress in an orderly, sequential way through
phases, say that "Nevertheless, we have found it helpful
to review descriptions of change . . . in terms of this
sequence of phases" (53:130). Havelock discusses the
process from a rational, problem-solving vieWpoint, tracing
the process from an initial disturbance through a feeling
Of need to take action, into diagnosis, search, applica-
tion of a solution, the solving of the problem, and
absence of the initial disturbance.

An additional vieWpoint is suggested here for
viewing the process. This vieWpoint is one which is

perhaps better constituted to provide a framework for

145

examining strategies and tactics used by community
services practitioners in bringing about the successful
completion of social action programs. In this vieWpoint

various developmental conditions must be satisfactorily

 

met or filled. For example, satisfactory relationship

conditions must exist and continue to exist between the

 

practitioner change agent and his clients during the
entire process. Likewise, the condition of Offering a
satisfactory solution through diagnosis, and the retrieval
of pertinent resources, must be reached and maintained
(through adaptation to changed conditions) throughout the
entire process. Adequate funding is a third condition
which must be established and maintained during the entire
process. Likewise, acceptance of the proposed and tested
solution represents a condition which must be attended to
throughout the process. Finally, the condition of

stabilization is entered. All of these conditions, except

 

funding, are suggested as phases by Lippitt, e£_al., and
as stages by Havelock. Viewing strategies and tactics as
used to bring about satisfactory developmental conditions
for the process of planned innovation to take place is a
useful conceptual approach and will be utilized here.

One other conceptual approach to the community
service practitioner's place in bringing about planned
social action innovations must be considered. As one

examines the use of strategies and tactics described by

146

practitioners, it becomes clear that the practitioner as
change agent has multi-level client concerns. If the
person or group to receive the help is the client or
client system, then there are secondary clients present
also in the form of employers, agencies, funding sources,
and other parts of the college constituency, all of whom
have needs and concerns relative to the innovation being
introduced. For that reason, each of the areas of
develOpmental conditions may involve some or all of the
secondary clients. This approach is set forth graphically

in Table 4.

Havelock's book, A Guide to Innovation in

 

Education (39), is Offered as a manual or handbook to the

 

change agent practitioner in all fields but especially in
education. The bulk of the book is given over to an
analysis of each of the areas (developmental conditions)
noted on Table 3, except funding, which is not covered by
Havelock. A brief description of each of these conditions
(called stages by Havelock) follows:

Relationshlp. A satisfactory fulfillment of this

 

condition is crucial to the success of the installation of
the innovation. As Havelock notes, "A strong, creative
relationship can carry a change program through the most
difficult obstacles" (39:39). For each client system,

the practitioner should either know or get to know the

norms, the leaders, the influencials, and the gatekeepers.

147

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148

The advantages of an indiginous background are obvious when
working with "culturally different" people, i.e., different
from the background of the majority, as is the case with.
clients in all social action programs, as have been
defined.

Diagnosis and resource retrieval leading_to a

solution. This is one condition, the development of a

solution to a defined problem. Diagnosis is a first stage

 

in which the problems of the multiple clients are

analyzed in a systematic fashion through (1) identifying

the problems, (2) identifying the Opportunities, (3) under-
standing the client as a system, and (4) making a diagnostic
inventory which includes goals, structure, communication,

capacity, and reward system. Resource retrieval is the

 

acquiring of information in a wide variety of forms which
are necessary or useful in arriving at a solution for
client problems. The solution (the innovation) is arrived
at, as suggested by Havelock, through a sequential process
of (l) deriving implications from research, (2) generating
a range of solution ideas, (3) feasibility testing, and

(4) adaption of the solution to the special conditions of
'the client (39:105). Havelock presents these as three
sseparate stages. The multi-client complexities encountered
lay the community services practitioner in these first two

aireas of developmental conditions are obvious.

149

Funding is not considered by Havelock, as noted
earlier. The completion Of a satisfactory condition in
this area, however, is Obviously of great importance. As
indicated in the literature and as Observed in the field,
no very satisfactory way of funding social action programs
exists. Presumably the small number of major social
action programs (involving 100 persons or more) is
accounted for by the difficulty in funding them. Federal
and/or State tax-supported, special programs are most Often
the funding source for social action programs, although a
consortium of businesses and educational institutions,
and private foundations, were noted as being involved. The
California community services programs receive support from
the State for non-credit courses, which is contrary to the
pattern in most other states. In the cases studied, the
primary clients did not contribute to funding, but on the
contrary, were often subsidized to participate. To some
degree, funding agencies such as the Federal Title I and
Model Cities programs, impose strategies and tactics on
the local practitioner through their own guidelines, it
is believed. An investigation of this consideration was
not part of the purpose of this study, however.

Acceptance of the Offered solution (the innovation)

 

is a condition which is effected both by the success
achieved in meeting the other conditions of relationship,

diagnosis-resource-solution, and funding, as well as

150

actions the practitioner takes to specifically bring about
the condition of having the innovation accepted. Havelock
suggests that a knowledge of how groups and individuals
accept innovations is necessary, as well as the selection
of a strategy to communicate, and the maintenance of a
flexible program (39:121). Havelock devotes a considerable
portion of his discussion of this snags to communicate
methods and media. Perhaps because of our own individual
exposure to "selling messages" so continuously during our
waking hours, we associate "sell" with the diffusion of
innovations. Havelock describes written and oral presenta-
tions, films, demonstrations, person-to-person contacts,
and group discussions rather than radio, TV, neWSpapers,
etc., as medium to select from (39:138-144). Practitioners
interviewed for this study placed an emphasis on person-
to-person communication and limited use of mass media, also.

Stabilization describes a condition of both

 

acceptance of the innovation and also the establishment Of
the capacity in the organization or client system to con-
tinuously generate its own innovations to meet new needs
and new conditions. This latter condition is called selrf
renewal by Havelock. This is a relatively new concept in
the literature and, as noted earlier, is not dealt with by
Rogers or Lippitt, ep_al. Havelock notes that the key
word in insuring continued acceptance of the innovation

is "internalization." He cites six important considera-

tions in insuring this condition:

151

continuing reward

practice and routinazation

structural integration into the system
continuing evaluation

providing for continuing maintenance
continuing adaptation capability (39:150).

mmwaI—J
coo...

Havelock's gnlge, insofar as it is oriented to any
one area, is concerned with secondary education as indi-
cated by the job titles given as examples of persons who
might act as change agents (39:8). The mileau in which
the community services social action practitioner works
is far more complex. The practitioner has a multi-
dimensional client group which means that the satisfactory
meeting of each condition is a great deal more complex.

An innovation (the solution) has to fill the needs (do
something for) the primary client (the Blacks, the Puerto
Ricans, the poor, the unemployed, the underemployed, etc.)
as well as the secondary clients, the employer who might:
provide a job after training or counseling, and the agency
which may be asked to jointly undertake the program or to
participate in some meaningful way, and the funding ageney_
which has special interests and grants funds only to those
programs which undertake and continue actions which they

approve of, as well as members of other divisions of the

 

college, primarily the faculty, who must at least give

tacit approval and minimal involvement for the program to
function. It is probable that practitioners involved in
programs such as those under study here, are involved in

what Havelock describes as overload (40:7-34). In this

152

condition, the change agent is the interchange point for
so many stimuli of input, through-put and output that the
effectiveness of the role is lessened and the process
slowed. There are implications here for the training of
practitioners which will be discussed later in this
chapter.

In presenting the strategies and tactics induced
from the content analysis of the taped interviews, care
was taken to ask the practitioner to describe the techniques
he used in the order of use and to then present the data
in the same chronological order. As noted earlier, in
some cases it was detected that the practitioner recalled
techniques later which had been used earlier in the process
and these were repositioned by the author in what was
believed to be their prOper location.

Each of the strategies and tactics was then
logically related to the developmental condition which it
was used to support or bring about. It was found that
where there was a possibility of relating the strategy or
tactic to more than one develOpmental condition, a choice
could be made, based on the context of use, as to which
condition it was rlrss used to support. A listing of the
assignment of the strategies and tactics to areas of
develOpmental conditions is provided in Table 5.

A review of Table 5 reveals that the practitioner

does not move in a standard pattern through relationship,

153

TABLE 5.--Assignment of strategies and tactics to areas of

developmental conditions.

 

 

 

 

Cuyahoga Peralta Lake Michigan Genessee

l. diagnosis funding diagnosis diagnosis

2. relationship diagnosis resource funding

3. relationship resource funding solution

4. relationship relationship funding relationship
5. acceptance relationship resource diagnosis

6. acceptance solution diagnosis diagnosis

7. relationship acceptance resource diagnosis

8. resource resource solution diagnosis

9. acceptance relationship solution diagnosis
10. acceptance acceptance relationship diagnosis
11. acceptance acceptance relationship relationship
12. acceptance acceptance relationship- relationship
13. acceptance acceptance acceptance relationship
14. relationship relationship relationship
15. relationship relationship relationship
16. relationship relationship relationship
17. relationship acceptance relationship
18. relationship stabilization acceptance
19. acceptance

Washtenaw Delta Quinsigamond San Mateo

1. relationship diagnosis stabilization acceptance
2. funding solution resource acceptance
3. diagnosis acceptance funding acceptance
4. acceptance funding funding acceptance
5. relationship solution acceptance diagnosis

6. relationship acceptance acceptance acceptance
7. relationship resource diagnosis acceptance
8. relationship solution resource acceptance
9. acceptance relationship acceptance stabilization
10. relationship relationship relationship stabilization
11. relationship relationship relationship stabilization
12. solution relationship diagnosis funding
13. acceptance acceptance acceptance funding
14. resource acceptance acceptance funding

15. funding acceptance acceptance relationship
16. relationship funding funding resource

1?. acceptance relationship acceptance
18. acceptance acceptance

19. diagnosis

20. diagnosis

21. solution

 

154

diagnosis, resource retrieval, solution selection, to
acceptance and stabilization. Rather, he moves in a
highly individual and unique pattern to achieve satis-
factory condition levels which fit his local situation.
In view of the data presented in Table 5, it appears that
use of the concept of stages, phases, or steps, each of
which signifies a somewhat logical chronological progres-
sion, is less apprOpriate to the phenomenon than the

concept Of areas of developmental conditions.

Classification of Strategies and Tactics

 

It is believed that community service practitioners
concerned with introducing social action programs will
find that a familiarity with the strategies and tactics
used by practitioners who have operated major, successful
community service social action programs is useful. As
a means to organize this material, both for practitioners
and for researchers in this area, a classification of
strategies and tactics used in community services social
action programs was constructed.

The classification presented here is organized
utilizing the areas of developmental conditions just

discussed, as follows:

1. relationship

2. diagnosis and resource retrieval leading
to a solution to a defined problem

3. funding

4. acceptance

5.

stabilization

155

The general characteristics of each of these conditions
was described earlier. Also, in achieving a satisfactory
level of performance in each condition area, the practi-
tioner is concerned with primary and secondary clients.
For this reason, the strategies and tactics are related

to achieving the condition with each Of these groups.

funding sources
other divisions of the college

1. client

2. agencies
3. employers
4

5

Strategies and Tactice Used in Eight
MajOr Social Action Programs By
Communitnyervices PractitiOners

 

 

The reference number on the right refers to the
transcript of the practitioner's tape recorded statement
from which the strategy or tactic was induced. The
letters refer to the colleges; the numbers to the transcript
order. Key to colleges:

Cuyahoga
Peralta

Lake Michigan
Genessee
Washtenaw
Delta
Quinsigamond
San Mateo

UHOUSCIL'HUO

I. RELATIONSHlP

With Client

 

Strategy: Establishing contacts or links
with persons indiginous to the
community or group you wish to
help. Q8

Strategy:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Strategy:

Strategy:

Strategy:

156

Building a positive trust among
clients and practitioners.

Did not isolate clients by
calling attention to their
differences.

Provided a physical "retreat"
or room for client use.

Sought out clients on an
informal basis for feedback
on the program.

Included clients in program
planning and decision-making.

Responded to underlying message
of surface behavior of clients.

Accepted responsibility of
environmental intervention.

Becoming involved with client
welfare.

Building individual client self-

image.

Employing indigenous staff
members.

Selecting a staff who can
relate to clients.

With Agencies

 

Strategy:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Establishing working relation-
ships (linkages) with com-
munity agencies.

Opened communication with local
agencies through a conference.

Established working relation-
ships with agencies for client
referrals.

Established a working relation-
ship (linkage) with a specific
agency to complete a specific
part of the program.

C11,G14

sis

G16

G17
C12
C13

C14

C15
D12
P10*,C16*

$13

Q7,W5

P7

G12

D7

Strategy:

Tactic:

157

Establishing mechanisms for
continuing interaction and
feedback with agencies.

Provided publicity to meet

the needs of the agencies
(secondary clients) involved
but respected client's concerns.

With Employers

 

Tactic:

Tactic:

Obtained a formal commitment
relative to the relationship
between primary clients and
Secondary clients (employers).

Obtained a clear understanding
of post-program relationship
between primary clients and
secondary clients (employers).

With Funding Sources

 

Strategy:

.Tactic:

Establishing working relation-
ships (linkages) with local
offices of Federal agencies.

Utilized contracts to set forth
the relationship between a
consortium and a funding source
and between a consortium and
the college as sub-contractor.

With Other Divisions of the College

 

In GeneraI

 

Strategy:

Tactic:

Strategy:

Establishing working relation-
ships (linkages) with clients,
employers, agencies, and other
divisions of the college.

Held a workshop of all interested

parties to familiarize them with
your program and to get their
input.

Building a positive relation-
ship between primary and
secondary clients.

Lll,W6

Dll

C2

W11*

QlS

W13

W14*

G4

C3,W8

 

Strategy:

Strategy:

Strategy:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Strategy:

Tactic:

158

AdOpting a multi-media
approach to attract large
numbers of clients. W7,Pll

Conducting limited publicity
on the program until the
success of it is certain. D8

Conducting limited publicity
on programs when resources are
limited. C4,L9,Gll

Prepared simple descriptive
literature and materials to
known client groups. L10

Used direct mail to reach
Specific groups. P12

Assigned journalism students as
work-study interns on local
papers. P13

Used informal channels of
person-to-person communication. G13

Establishing a network of
influencial people as a first
step in approaching a problem. W1

Established a specific means
to keep advisory committees
informed. P14*

II. DIAGNOSIS, RESOURCE RETRIEVAL, SOLUTION

With Client

Diagnosis

 

Strategy:

Strategy:

Tactic:

Establishing a community-wide
advisory committee. P2,S3

Involving clients in program
planning. GS

Sought out meetings with client
groups to tell of program and
learn their needs. 66

159

Tactic: Sought out personal conversations
with clients-~both the ones who
come forward and the ones who
don't. G7

Tactic: Solicited client input through
letters. G8

Tactic: Conducted interviews to get
client input. 69

Tactic: Solicited client input through
their telephoning you. G10

Tactic: Conducted a survey of client
needs. Ll,Gl,W3

Tactic: Conducted additional client
need surveys as necessary for
Specific purposes. L5

Resource Retrieval

 

Tactic: Used nominative procedure from
constituencies to identify
potential clients. P5
Solution
Strategy: Developing and packaging a
visably practical program for W9,D2,
clients P6*,L8
TactiC: Used the best available tests

to determine develOpmental
status of your clients as a

 

 

basis for curriculum planning. D6
With Agencies
Diagnosis
Tactic: Conducted an investigation of
client needs through contact
with local agencies. Dl

Resource Retrieval

 

Tactic: Utilized agencies as resources. C5

Tactic: Used data already assembled
by agencies. L4

160

Solution
Strategy: Relating the innovation or
solution to data collected
from local agencies. L6

With Employers

 

Diagnosis
Resource Retrieval

 

 

Tactic: Obtained or made a survey of
secondary client needs (employers). D5

Solution

With Funding Sources

 

Diagnosis
Resource Retrieval

 

 

Strategy: Establishing a consortium, a
linkage with employers in the
area, to undertake continuance
of the program. W12
Solution
With Other Divisions of the College

Diagnosis

 

Strategy: Organizing an internal committee
(in your organization) to study
and make recommendations in the
area of your concern. Q9

Rgsource Retrieval
Solution

 

 

In General

 

Diagnosis

 

Strategy: Organizing a community-wide
committee to study and make
recommendations in your area
of concern. 018

Strategy:

Strategy:

Tactic:

161

Determining what other institu-
tions in your area are or might
be submitting to the same funding
source you seek funds from.

Conducting collaborative action
inquiry and diagnosis.

Defined the problem preparatory
to seeking a solution.

Resource Retrieval

 

Strategy:

Strategy:

Strategy:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Sglution
Strategy:

Strategy:

Tactic:

Establishing a consortium, a
linkage with other colleges, to
broaden the institution's
capabilities.

Hosting a workshop or a con—
ference to generate interest in
the area of your proposed
innovation.

Observing innovations in action
at another location before
trying them out.

Employed a consultant to provide
expert help.

Provided for ad hoc committees to

do special projects for advisory
committees.

Installing a solution "fait

accompli" if certain it will work.

Planning on a period of adjust-
ment to shape your program (the
innovation or solution) into a
more useful state.

Conducted an experimental
demonstration or pilot program
to convince others of the value
of your program and to test
your assumptions.

Q4

C1

017

L2

06*

Q2

P3

019

G3

D4

162

III. FUNDING

Withgglients
WiEh AgenEies

 

 

Tactic: Visited and convinced the
Federal agency in Washington
who will make the grant of the

program's value. SlOA
Tactic: Visited and convinced the local

offices of the Federal agencies

of the program's value. SlOB

With Emplgyers
With Funding Sources

 

 

Strategy: Procurring necessary resources Pl,L3,GZ,
for program develOpment. W2,D3,Q3,SlO

Tactic: Persisted in funding efforts
through repeated visits,
rewriting proposals, etc. 03A

Tactic: Sought funding from additional
sources. 014

Tactic: Sought funding from alternate
sources. L3A,W12A

Tactic: Sought funding from new
source to expand program. D16

With Other Divisions of the College

 

IV. ACCEPTANCE

From Clients

 

Strategy: Building client group pride

and interdependence. C6
Tactic: Established a newspaper. C7
Tactic: Involved client's family. C8

Tactic: Provided for recongition of
individual talents among
group members. C9

Tactic: Encouraged client self-
governance. ClO

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

From Agencies

 

Tactic:

From Emplgyers

 

Tactic:

163

Held street fairs and festivals
to build group identity.

Invited cleint groups to
seminars at the college.

Utilized peer group pressure
to improve client performance.

Invited client group leaders to
make presentations at the college.

Obtained feedback on the program
from clients through regular use
of evaluation forms.

Arranged for a social agency to
select the participants
especially where the need is
greater than the ability of

the program to meet them.

Created a better understanding
of minority group mores and
needs on the part of employer
work force.

From Funding Sources

 

Tactic:

Emphasized funding sources in
publicity to encourage
continued support.

From Other Divisions of the College

Strategy:

Strategy:

Establishing understanding of
and support for the program by
the faculty of the college
through their involvement.

Organizing the solution to a
defined problem in such a way
that the college community can
and will support it.

P9

P8A

D14

P8B

L12,D15

D10*

C17*,W10

W7A

016

S4

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

Tactic:

In General

 

Strategy:

Strategy:

Tactic:

Strategy:

Strategy:

Strategy:

164

Recruited faculty who will
support your program through
personal contact with persons
with a record of previous
service in the area of your
interest.

Recruited key persons whose
decisions others respect and
follow.

Obtained reduction of other
duties for persons working on
community service social action
programs as a form of commit-
ment by the college.

Utilized the college campus and
certificates to build client
self-image.

Providing feedback for the
larger constituency.

Building evaluation plans into
the program from the start.

Involved the national associa-
tion with "jurisdiction" in the
evaluation process to both
legitamize and add weight to a
successful outcome.

Accepting confrontation as an
essential element of the change
process when other means fail.

Withholding use of confrontation
until you are certain of the
outcome from its use.

Placing the responsibility for
the development of a successful
program where there are dif-
ficulties with one person who
is personally committed to make
it work.

85

S6

012

D13

P8

Ql3*,D9*

013A*

P15

010

W16,Qll

165

Strategy: When seeking funds and support
in a political context, utilizing
the kinds of pressures politi-
cinas respond to.

Strategy: Determining who the persons are
who will ultimately make the
decisions relative to acceptance
of the program(s).

Tactic: Studied past situations,
similar to the one you are con-
templating, to find out who has
the power.

Tactic: Gathered and stored information
on who the influencials are in
different situations.

Tactic: Sought an informal meeting with
the influencial person prior to
a formal meeting.

Tactic: Used informal channels of
person-to-person communication
to gain acceptance of an innova-

tion.

Tactic: Utilized the success/acceptance
of one program to deve10p other
programs.

Tactic: EXplained benefits of involvement

to all clients.

Tactic: Maintained sufficient flexibility
in administrative structure to
address new needs.

Tactic: Arranged program hours to suit
clients. ‘

V. STABILIZATION

With Clients
With Agencies

With Employers
Wit Fun ing Sources

 

 

 

Q5

81

82

811*

812*

$15

W15,G19

C18*

P4,W4

G18

166

With Other Divisions of the Collegg

 

Strategy: Establishing an internal
change agent. P16,Ql

Strategy: Considering those steps which
could be taken to assure
continuance. S7

Tactic: Established a permanent office
or role as a focus for the
innovation to assure continuance
of the innovation. SB

Tactic: Considered the location of the
office or role in the hierarchy
of the administrative structure
to assure continuance. S9

A Comparative Analysis of Field-
Generated and Literature-
Generated'Strategies
and’Tactics

 

 

This analysis will focus on two points: (1) how
many of the strategies and tactics identified in the
literature were also identified in field use and how did
their circumstances of use compare to the discussion of

use provided in the literature?- (2) what strategic

 

orientation,* if any, emerged which might represent a

 

"composite social action practitioner orientation" and
how does this compare with the four strategic orientations

discussed in the literature?

 

*

Strategic orientation is a term used by Havelock
to refer to the action orientation held by a practitioner
based on the observation of the strategies and tactics
used. Havelock identifies four orientations or per-
Spectives which were discussed in Chapter II.

167

Of the 140 strategies and tactics induced from a
content analysis of the recorded interviews of the eight
practitioners, 32 instances could be related to references
to such activities in the literature. Seven of the eight
practitioners noted a strategy or a tactic related to
locating funding for the program, which is a strategy
noted by Havelock as used either as "pump priming" or as
long-term subsidy. It is interesting to note that the
practitioners both used this strategy and had it "used"
(quite willingly) on them. The practitioner, in a number
of cases, provided a stipend or grant to trainees to both
get them to participate and to make it possible for them
to participate. This was usually paid as an hourly rate.
The funding agencies, such as Title I, Model Cities,
etc., also use this strategy to encourage groups, such
as the community college community services division,
working with community agencies, to follow thgia guidelines
and to develop programs which, presumably, other sources
will fund if the program proves useful to the local
community. Havelock notes that there is little evidence
that funding offered without restrictions, guidance, or
"strings," will really lead to innovation (39:Appendix A,
6). Although it was not a part of the purpose of this
study to examine it, an examination of the strategies and
tactics employed by funding agencies, community agencies,

employers, and even community (client) groups and other

168

parts of the community college "family" to bring about
conditions which they want to see established would be of
interest. These strategies and tactics are certainly
issues with which the practitioner must c0pe in carrying
out his own strategy.

The instances of "multiple use" of a given strategy
or tactic was limited to two or perhaps three different

practitioners being observed as using it. User need

 

surveys, identified by Havelock as an RD&D tactic
(39:Appendix A, 10), was employed in various ways. In

L1 and L5, surveys were taken to determine user needs.
This represents the "cyclic motion" noted by Lippitt,
et_al. (53:130) in which the needs of the program dictate
a repeating of "stages" rather than an orderly progression
through clearly defined "stages." In P5, a user need
survey was used to nominate clients to participate in the
program.

In P2, G4 and Q6, temporary systems (identified

 

by Havelock) (39:Appendix A, 10) were used in the form of I
advisory committees, workshOps, and conferences.

Successive approximation, the RD&D tactic identi-

 

fied by Havelock (39:Appendis A, 10) was used in G3 and P4
to, in the first instance, provide a planned period when
the client group could be "zeroed in on," and in the
second case, make administrative structural changes. To

a large degree, this was an overriding strategy (but not

169

specifically identified) in all of the programs examined.
All of the programs can be viewed as experimental and
in a constant state of adjustment.

Confrontation is identified by Havelock (39:

 

Appendix A, 5) and was used in P15 within the college
"family" and in Q10 was considered for use in a highly
political situation which develOped between the community
college and the State Board governing the college. It is
interesting to note that the two instances cited are
within a_system rather than between systems.

The establishment of an internal change agent was

 

noted in Ql and P16. Havelock cites the need for this

step in stabilization (39:153).

 

The crucial importance of linkage between the
social action community services practitioner (as a role
in the community college) and community agencies in the
successful Operation of the programs examined, should be
noted. In almost all of the programs, there was a clear
interdependence observed of the kind noted by Myran at
the program c00peration level of linkage (70:46). The
areas of cooperation include a collaborative action inquiry
and diagnosis, as in C1; a survey of client needs as in
L1 and L5; establishing input from the community as in
QB; arranging for an agency to select the clients, as in
D10; or to arrange for a specific part of the program to
be handled by an agency, as in D7; or to receive funding

for a program, as in W2.

170

Of the strategies and tactics used by practitioners
which have also been identified in the literature, five
were associated with the problem-solvipg_per§pective, four
with the research, development and diffusion perspective,

and two with the social-interaction perspective. A number

 

of strategies and tactics identified in the field and
also noted in the literature, are not associated with
(derived from) any of the above mentioned perspectives.
Can one construct a "composite social action
practitioner orientation" from the interviews? An analysis
of the strategies and tactics used does not disclose any
clear-cut orientation but shows rather the use of a wide
range of both literature-identified strategies and tactics
and field-generated ones which do not fall into a pattern.
It was not clear from the interviews that any of the
practitioners had utilized a highly organized, strategic
approach based on an orderly sequence of goal-setting,
planning, and systematic execution. This is not to say
that the programs were unplanned or that the practitioner
operated Spontaneously. Quite the Opposite is true as
the success of each program testifies to. The point is
that the practitioners were not oriented to thinking in
terms of strategic orientations, strategies, and tactics,
as such. One cannot assume from the data that any of the

programs would have been more or less successful if this

171

had been the case and it was not the purpose of this
study to examine this question.

There are similarities in the programs, however,
which provide a pattern for examination. In all cases,
the solution or innovation to be introduced was arrived
at prior to actually starting the program. In some
cases, a certain amount of diagnosis and resource retrieval
preceded generation of the solution. This approach was
dictated by the need to "have a program" which could be
described so that funding could be sought. The problems
inherent in this approach were discussed in some detail
by the Genessee practitioner. It must be noted that most
of the programs the community needs were obvious. In some
cases, the practitioners were themselves indiginous to the
areas and were steeped in knowledge of the plight of the
clients. Also, where the need is so broad and so obvious,
almost any kind of solution is apt to be "right" in the
sense that at least some of the needs will be filled.

The fact that any program at all, irregardless of its
apprOpriateness, was being offered may have itself filled
a need for some. We are saying then, that the solution
or innovation to be introduced was arrived at more in the

style of the social interactiongperepective, which views

 

the innovation as something relatively fixed and "under-

stood" as being apprOpriate, than in the problem-solving

 

perspective which sees an interaction between client and

 

172

practitioner to arrive at and solve the problem, or the
research, development and diffusion perspective which
views solution generation as a rational sequence involving
a division and coordination of labor.

The programs funded by Federal programs, did, at
the point of funding, become part of a larger strategy
undertaken by the U.S. Government to encourage local
agencies to attempt to solve current, pressing social
problems. As noted before, it is not known to what extent
any external strategy directed the operation of the local

program. It is here that the research, develOpment and

 

disseminationgperspective is evident. These programs were,

 

individually, expressions of the RD&D tactic experimental

 

demonstration (39:Appendix A, 6). Title I, Model Cities,

 

O.E.O., etc., see these programs as ways to show clearly
and dramatically that "the" innovation makes a difference
and that things change for the better as a result of it.
When this is seen and appreciated locally, the assumption
is that local funding will continue it. Also, in the
application of these Federally funded programs (as well
as the privately funded program) the RD&D strategy of

fait accompli is obvious. By and large, these innovations

 

were installed without consulting the users, the primary
clients. This was not done because "excessive initial
resistance" was contemplated (as Havelock cites as the

usual reason for using this strategy) but for various

173

other reasons. In almost all of the cases a great deal
of effort was spent in consulting with secondary clients,
the agencies, the employers, the funding offices, prior
to installation of the innovation. This perhaps raises
the question of which group should be called primary
clients but by definition the primary clients of the
community college community services division are "the
peOple who live and work where it is located" (14:21).
Also, it would have been difficult, if not impossible, to
engage in the problem-solving kind of activity which is
appropriate to a change agent consultant and a secondary
school system in a controlled situation. The Lake
Michigan practitioner did consult directly with the
primary clients in developing the details or final form
of the innovation. All of thepractitioners worked closely
with the primary clients in the installation of the inno-
vation during the accomplishment of the condition of
acceptance. There are many instances of modification of
the program to better meet client needs and abilities,
especially in the Cuyahoga and Genessee programs.

What emerges as a "composite practitioner" or a
strategic orientation is clearly a pattern dictated by
the environment in which the programs and the practitioners
operate. It is, as Havelock suggests it should be, a
"pragmatic and eclectic choosing of strategies and tactics

that fit . . . the situation" (41:1). This pattern has

 

174 '

similarities to the linkage perepective except that the

 

internal problem-solving process of the user is not the
starting point as it is the linkage perSpective. The
"resource" for the client or user is the community
services practitioner. As suggested in the linkage per-
spective, the resource does have a good "model" of the |F2
user and does have empathy and understanding for the user. i

On the basis of this orientation, the resource is able

 

to devise apprOpriate solutions and work with the client i ,

system to install them. h

Implications for Graduate
SEhool Training

 

 

What implications can be drawn for graduate school
training of the community services practitioner from the
data presented in this study?

It is clear that the practitioner involved in
social action programs both has a need for a knowledge of
strategies and tactics and utilizes startegies and tactics
in his daily work. It is also clear that the practitioner
does not have a very sophisticated knowledge of this area.
It is improbable that he views his program as an "innova-
tion" or that he has devised an overall strategy and
tactical action steps to bring about the acceptance of
his "planned innovation." It is probable that the under-
taking of such plans would make him a more efficient

practitioner able to execute programs more effectively.

175

Sections IV and V of the Interview Schedule were
administered to half of the sample, that is, in alternate
interviews. Part IV is a listing of the six "stages"
which Havelock suggests are progressed through during the
process of implanting a planned innovation. These
"stages," with the condition of funding, are used in this

study as conditions which must be filled in order to intro-

 

duce an innovation successfully, and they form the
organizing framework of the taxonomy which was developed.
Part V is a list of 21 "techniques" identified by Havelock
as strategies and tactics described in the literature.
This list of 21 is drawn from a larger list of 44 which he
presents (39:Appendix A, 5-10). The 21 used here were
selected by Havelock as being of "especial relevance" in
at least two "stages." The term "technique" was used with
the practitioners because it was found during the initial
field trip in developing the Schedule that this term was
better understood and was less threatening than the terms
"strategies" and "tactics." As a final step, the practi-
tioner was asked to read the list of 21 "techniques" and,
if he had actually used a "technique," to describe its

use to the author and to relate the use of the "technique"
to one or more of the "stages." As Havelock notes in pre-
senting the 44 strategies and tactics, the use of these
helping methods "are skills which have to be learned. A

good tactic badly executed may be worse than no tactic

176

at all" (39:Appendix A, l). A large number are drawn

from psychology and social psychology and some are rather
complicated and SOphisticated. "Human Relations
Laboratory . . . the use of human relations training
experiences" is normally considered to require training
from an authorized National Training Laboratories trainer.
The purpose of the inclusion of these sections was twofold:

(l) to determine to what extent the practitioner was

 

familiar with "techniques" (strategies and tactics), and
(2) to determine if the practitioner was able to relate
use of the "technique" to a "stage" or "stages." This
is done logically and was a second test of the practitioner's
understanding of the strategy or tactic. It was also felt
that the practitioner might recall other, unlisted
techniques which he had used during this part of the
interview but this did not occur. None of the 21
"techniques" provided to the practitioner during this part
of the interview were included in the strategies and tactics
induced from a content analySIs of the recorded interviews
simply because he mentioned or claimed use at this point.

It was clear in the practitioner's description
of the "use" of these "techniques" that most of the
practitioners did not have a detailed knowledge of most
of these "techniques." This was confirmed in their
application of the logical use of these "techniques" in the

various "stages." A record of the practitioners' responses,

 

177

with the logical application points suggested by Havelock,
is provided in Appendix J.

From this, one may conclude that a better knowledge
of and training in the use of these strategies and tactics
would be useful to practitioners. Myran, in his discussion
of "Implications for Leadership Training," suggests that
the community services administrator might benefit from a
course in "planned social change" (72:138). Certainly,

Havelock's two texts Planning for Innovation (40), and

 

A Guide to Innovation in Education (39) would be useful

 

materials for such a course as would be Roger's Diffusion

 

of Innovations (88), and the Lippitt, et al., text The

 

Dynamics of Planned Change (53). Other resources, as

 

listed in the bibliography of this study, would be useful.
The exact role which the community college will
play in the total societal response to the immense social
problems which beset our society is not clear. Certainly
the small number of social action programs found which met
the criteria established for this study is an indication
that the community college is not currently involved to
any great degree in this response. If those authors who
predict a significant role for the community college in
the social action area are correct, then education in
the theory and process of change and innovation would

indeed be useful to the practitioner.

178

This study did not attempt to investigate the
role of strategies and tactics in pep social action
programs undertaken by the community services practitioner
but it is clear that strategies and tactics of some kind
would be involved in the relationships the practitioner
would have with community agencies, employers, funding
agencies and other divisions of the community college.

As noted earlier the question of overload is
clearly suggested by this study and is of importance to
the practitioner. The community services practitioner
stands at the junction point between the community college
and the community. All of the programs investigated in
this study involved a number of groups and within each
group a number of sub-entities. The groups identified and
used in the taxonomy were the primary client, the group
of persons who the practitioner was attempting to help,
and the secondary clients, the agencies, the employers,
the funding sources and the other divisions of the college.
Each of these groups has multiple membership so that it
would not be unusual for the practitioner to have at least
two dozen groups or organizations with whom he must main-
tain close contact and all of whom would eXpect to put
input into the program and to receive regular reports on
progress. These groups often represent diverse viewPoints,
perhaps the most diverse contained in the community.

Somehow the practitioner must move among them and bring

 

179

his program to pass. A knowledge of the process of change
and innovation and specifically an understanding of the
strategies and tactics which can be brought into play
would be useful, clearly, to the practitioner in coping

with such a situation.

Summary
In this chapter the data collected in eight inter-

views with community services practitioners who had
administered successful social action programs, was pre-
sented. Following a discussion of the Background
Information collected on each program, the strategies and
tactics induced from a content analysis of the recorded
interviews was presented. The areas of developmental
conditions were developed, discussed, and used as the
organizing framework of a taxonomy of strategies and
tactics used in the eight community services social action
programs studied. A comparative analysis of the field-
generated and the literature-generated strategies and
tactics was provided as were implications for graduate

school training of community services practitioners.

 

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND SUGGESTIONS

FOR FURTHER RESEARCH

The purpose of this chapter is to serve as a summary
point for the problem examined, the literature reviewed,
and the data collected. Implications of the study are
discussed, conclusions are presented, and suggestions for

further research are made.

Summary of the Problem

This exploratory study emerges from the confluence
of two major streams of interest in contemporary higher
education. One is the expanding community services function
of community colleges which is often based on a concern
for better meeting the needs of the poor, the unemployed,
or the racial minority in the urban community. The second
is the interest in the application of change and innovation
theory to the operation of colleges to make these institu-
tions more responsive to human needs.

The community services function, as one of the major
areas of the community college, is the area where a response

to the social ills of the community is undertaken. A

180

181

need exists to know more about the techniques used by
community service practitioners to establish successful
social action programs. It is the purpose of this study
(1) to compile strategies and tactics used by community
college community services practitioners in selected
social action programs; (2) to develop a classification
system for these strategies and tactics; (3) to make a
comparative analysis of field-generated and literature-
generated strategies and tactics; and (4) to make sugges-

tions for graduate school course work for practitioners.

Summary of the Literature

 

Social action programs, undertaken by the community
services division of the two-year, public, community
college as a response to basic human needs in the college's
local community, are described in the literature as being
both an appropriate and a necessary response by the community
college. Various authors, including Lauter, Spiegel, and
Miller, have noted the importance of a knowledge of change
and innovation in the successful undertaking of such
programs.

As a context for the focus on social action programs
undertaken by community services divisions of community
colleges, the philosophical development of the community
services function was reviewed. The importance of linkages
for the community services practitioner was traced as it

has appeared in the literature.

182

Theories of change and innovation were reviewed
utilizing the classification scheme advanced by Ronald G.
Havelock. The social interaction perspective was examined
in the form of the model suggested by Rogers. The research,
development, and diffusion perspective model of Miles and
Lake was reviewed. The problem-solver perspective of
Lippitt, e£_al., and that of Watson were examined as was
the linkage perspective suggested by Havelock. Strategies

and tactics identified in the literature were set forth.

Summary of the Data

 

A total of 140 strategies and tactics used by
eight community services practitioners in administering
successful social action programs were induced from a
content analysis of the recorded interviews. Five areas
of developmental conditions were postulated. These are
(1) relationship; (2) diagnosis and resource retrieval
leading to solutions; (3) funding; (4) acceptance, and
(5) stabilization. These developmental conditions then
served as a framework for the presentation of a classifi-
cation of strategies and tactics induced from the eight
interviews. A comparative analySis of field-generated
and literature-generated strategies and tactics was
presented as were suggestions for graduate school training

of community services practitioners.

 

183

Discussion of Implications of the Study

 

What emerges from this study is, of necessity, a
fragmentary picture of the strategies and tactics intui-
tively used by community service practitioners during the
course of their conducting a successful social action
program. It is obvious that other strategies and tactics
were operative in each of the eight situations studied
which were not identified because there were not recalled
during the brief two-hour interviews, or because they were
not seen clearly by the practitioner as strategies and
tactics, or for other reasons.

The important point is that although none of the
practitioners had deliberately drawn up a set of specific
strategies and related tactics, the existence of strategies
and tactics was readily discernible and use of these
strategies.and tactics were the keys to operating a success-
ful program. The question then arises that if the intuitive,
unplanned use of strategies and tactics, with which the
practitioner was by chance familiar, was so important to
success, would not the planned use of a wide range of
strategies and tactics, purposively collected from "success
settings," be even more productive in bringing about a
successful social action program?

The community services practitioner interested in

conducting a social action program in his community is, in

184

effect, introducing an innovation. In order to maximize
the possibilities of success, it is suggested that the
practitioner adopt the concept that he is introducing a

planned innovation, that he proceed through a process of

 

systematic planning, development, and evaluation, that he
familiarize himself with theories of change and innovation,
and that he seek out, understand, and utilize Specific
strategies and tactics to introduce and establish his
planned innovation, a social action program.

As was noted in Chapter IV, it is believed that
a valuable way to classify or organize strategies and
tactics to be used in community services social action
programs is to relate them to the areas of developmental
conditions which characterize the introduction and estab—
lishments of a planned innovation, that is, a social
action program. Strategies and tactics are used to bring
about a satisfactory state in each of these areas. The
developmental conditions postulated in Chapter IV are
(1) relationship, (2) diagnosis and resource retrieval
leading to a solution of a defined problem, (3) funding,
(4) acceptance of the solution or solutions, and (5)
stabilization of the solution or solutions.

The practitioner may find it valuable, in devising
or locating strategies and tactics to bring about each

of the above noted conditions, to undertake a set of action

 

185

steps in each area of develOpmental conditions. These
action steps would take the form of determining certain
basic information on which his program would be built.
Havelock, in his A Guide to Innovation in Education (39),
suggests that considerations of this kind be examined in

introducing a planned innovation program.

Developmental Guideline

 

It seemed desireable to extract ideas, practices,
and concepts which might be used as developmental guidelines
in developing social action programs. While these guide-
lines are largely based upon the observations of practition—
ers in the field, it would seem that their delineation
might be a first step to later empirical investigation of
their relevance.

In examining the strategies and tactics used by
the practitioners to establish effective programs, it
appeared that the following guidelines were in evidence:

Relationships with the
Clientegystems

 

 

l. Clarify the nature of the client systems with
particular attention to the normative pattern
for both primary and secondary client systems.

2. Identify the designated leaders, underlying
influentials within the group, and "gate
keepers" who control the channels of informa-
tion in and out of the client systems.

3. Clarify the role of the outside change agent
in terms of his perceived role with the member—
ship of the client systems.

186

4. Identify internal change agents with whom a
satisfactory working relationship might be
established in the various client systems.

Diarnosis and Resource Retrieval
Leading to a Solution

 

 

 

1. Establish the needs of the primary client system
and state them as a problem to be solved by examining the
symptoms (both surface and underlying), the history, and
possible causes of the problem.

2. Identify the positive aspects of the primary
client's system by determining areas of maximum potential
and strength.

3. Clarify the nature of the larger system in which
the primary client system fits with particular attention to
the relationships between the primary client system and each
of the secondary systems as well as the interrelationship
between secondary systems which will bear on the program.

4. Identify the broad purposes, long-range goals,
and short-range objectives of the primary client system
and the secondary systems and the extent to which they are
compatible or incompatable.

5. Identify the structure which exists in each
system for achieving the goals and objectives and assess
the adequacy of the structure in the primary client system

and in the vital secondary systems for achieving the goals.

187

6. Determine if there is openess in communication
internally in each client system and between systems.

7. Assess the ability of the various systems to
reward and reinforce those members who work toward the
accepted goals.

8. Resources, which can provide potential solutions,
exist in the form of printed (or film and/or sound) materials,
people, and products and services. Establish a strategy
for resource retrieval by determining yhep the resource will
be needed, EEEES it can be found and Egg it can be acquired.

9. Determine what solution(s) will best meet the
needs of the primary client system by utilizing resources
to generate and feasibility test alternative solutions and
consider adaptions necessary to fit the solution to the

needs of the primary client system.

Funding

1. Determine the amount and form of funding needed
to implement the solution(s).

2. Review potential sources of funding, determin-
ing the historic interests of the funding sources, criteria
for participation, and details of their decision-making
process.

3. Identify the purposes, goals, and objectives of
the funding source being considered and the extent to which
they are compatable or incompatable with those of the pri-

mary client system.

17"""3

i- ii): _, SF

 

188

4. Obtain funding by selecting the most promising
sources and identifying and pursuing the critical steps

involved.

Acceptance

 

1. Determine how acceptance of the solution can
be brought about within each of the systems by identifying !
how each system accepts or rejects other innovations and

determining to which communications methods each responds. (

 

2. Clarify the role of leaders, influential, 3%?
"gate keepers," and inside change agents in each system in i
the process of gaining acceptance of the solution. H
3. Determine how flexible application of the
solution can be and still meet the needs of the primary

client system.

Stabilization

 

1. Establish ways, from the beginning of the program,
to "internalize" the solution developed to meet the primary
client system's needs. Determine what rewards or positive
reinforcement can be provided to those within the primary
client system who adopt the solution. Determine what steps
should be taken to provide a non-threatening setting for
client trial of the proposed solution. Devise ways in which
use of the solution can be made part of the routine of
individuals within the client system. Determine how continu-

ing maintenance can be built in.

189

2. Since the practitioner will not want the client
systems with which he is working to "refreeze" permanently
around the solution developed to meet a current need, but
rather to develop an openess to solutions to other needs
and newly developed needs, the practitioner will want to
go about his work in such a way as to develop within the e~

client systems a positive attitude towards innovation.

in 4“ u

Develop an active inclination within the system to become

change agents for themselves.

--

 

In order to effectively carry out the action steps H

\ _- h'
—,...

suggested above, the practitioner must consider his own

strategic orientation, his own inter-related assumptions

 

about the nature of the process of change. The four
perspectives or schools identified by Havelock and dis-
cussed at length earlier are strategic orientations. The
strategic orientations of the practitioners interviewed
did not fit neatly into one of these perspectives (insofar
as could be determined during a two-hour interview) and it
is doubtful if the strategic orientation of any practitioner
would unless, after instruction and consideration, he
deliberately adopted such a perspective. Rather, a
practitioner is apt to have a strategic orientation built
from observations of what works for him and for those
around him. It is eclectic, pragmatic, and intuitively

developed.

190

It was evident in the interviews with the more
sophisticated practitioners (who had moved through a
number of situations in which they had been change agents)
that they had already developed a strategy for obtaining
the answers to a basic set of questions about the context
in which they were going to attempt to introduce a planned
innovation. The development of such a strategy is basic
to becoming an effective change agent and it involves deep
self-knowledge as well as knowledge of change and innovation
theory.

Another viewpoint useful to the practitioner in
developing and/or selecting his strategies and tactics to
introduce and establish a planned innovation is to view
the various client groups as systems and each client system
as part of a larger system. It is helpful to view these
systems and sub-systems as sets of components which act
with and upon one another. On an obvious level, if the
primary client group or system is made up of Blacks and the
secondary system, in which he wishes to place them in jobs,
is an all-white system, the practitioner must develop a
strategy and related tactics to sensitize both groups to
the norms held by the other if they are going to interact
successfully. The complexity of the task of the community
services practitioner working with a number of primary and
secondary clients (systems) is obvious as is the need, in
such a situation, to devise a carefully planned strategic

approach.

191

An important implication of this study is the need
for the identification and description of a large number
of strategies and tactics now is use by community service
practitioners involved in introducing and establishing
social action programs, as well as strategies and tactics
utilized in related functions, which would provide the
practitioner with a wide choice of alternatives to con-
sider. Havelock provides a brief description of 44 strategies
and tactics which he relates to the major perspectives or
strategic orientations which he has identified (39: Appendix
A, 5—10). Many of these require special training in order
to be used effectively, as for example those originated by
the National Training Laboratories. It is probable that
a good tactic which is badly executed is better not
attempted. It is often observed that the most valuable
part of workshops or professional association conventions
is the informal "rap-sessions" where actual successful
action-steps°are shared. The practitioner assimilates
these on a "hit-or-miss" basis and returns home to apply
or mis-apply them in his own setting. There would be value
in collecting, documenting, and organizing the great number
of strategies and tactics used by community services
practitioners in social action and related programs so that
the individual practitioner would be exposed to the range
of possibilities open to him and so that he could select,

adapt, and use those which meet his needs.

 

192

Conclusions

 

Strategies and tactics used by community service
practitioners can be identified through a content
analysis of tape-recorded interviews made with the
practitioners when the interviews are conducted about
a specific set of experiences related to a program and

are recalled in chronological order.

Community services practitioners, in conducting success-
ful social action programs, do not progress through
clearly defined stages in an order common to all.
Rather, they move to complete areas of developmental
conditions. Each moves in a highly individual and

unique pattern in response to local conditions.

Community services practitioners utilize a wide range
of strategies and tactics in administering a social
action program. Identified strategies are fewer in
number than identified tactics. Specific strategies
are sometimes employed by a number of practitioners.
Tactics are more unique to a specific program or

practitioner.

The strategic orientation of practitioners does not
coincide with any of the four strategic orientations
identified in the literature but is instead an eclectic

combination of elements of each of the four orientations.

193

Community services practitioners administering social
action programs are not generally familiar with change
and innovation theory of strategies and tactics
identified in the literature. They do not regard their
programs as "planned innovations“ and they do not use

strategies and tactics in a planned, systematic way.

A classification of strategies and tactics induced from
a content analysis of tape-recorded interviews with
community services practitioners conducting social

action programs can be constructed using areas of

'developmental conditions as the structuring device.

Such a classification is useful in compiling and codifying
strategies and tactics and in relating them to primary

and secondary clients of the practitioner.

The concept of areas of developmental conditions is
more appropriate to an explanation of the process of
introducing an innovation than are the concepts of
stages, phases, or steps, or other terms or concepts

which imply a sequence.

The community services practitioner administering a
social action program deals with a multi-level category
of clients which includes a primary client system and

a number of secondary client systems.

194

It should be noted that all of the conclusions are

limited to the eight programs studied.

Suggestions for Further Research

 

Based on analysis of the data set forth in this

study, the following suggestions are made as being worthy

of

further research:

A study of additional community services social action
programs selected using the same criteria would be use-

ful in testing the conclusions of this study.

The further compilation of strategies and tactics used
by practitioners in all kinds of community services
programs, and the addition of these to the classification

offered here, would be useful to practitioners.

The generation of strategies and tactics seen as being
of possible use by community services practitioners,
perhaps through a series of brainstorming meetings in
various parts of the country and involving change agents

from various disciplines, would be of interest.

A compilation and codification of strategies and tactics
used in other areas of disciplines, such as community
development, urban planning, sociology, political science,

etc. would be of interest.

 

195

A study of the general strategies and tactics used by
presidents of community colleges having nationally
recognized community services programs, and the codifica-

tion of these strategies and tactics, would be useful.

A study examing the role which strategies and tactics

of Federal agencies funding local social action programs
have in the administration of those programs by
practitioners would be of interest, especially in the

case of Federal funding of community services programs.

A study of the strategies and tactics employed by the
clients of the community services practitioner would

be of interest especially as these strategies and tactics
influence the administration of the program and are met

by counter strategies and tactics by the practitioner.

A study of the strategies and tactics useful in creating
a renewal capacity in an organization, as distinct

from the stabilization of an innovation, would be useful.

The development of a training program on change and
innovation and the use of strategies and tactics for
community services practitioners, and the necessary

research to develop such a program would be of value.

10.

11.

196

The development of self-administered instrument for use
by community services practitioners to determine their
relative knowledge of change and innovation theory

and the use of strategies and tactics in community
services work, and the research associated with the
development of such an instrument, would be of practical

1138.

The development of a user-oriented handbook on the
innovation process which is especially constructed
for use by community services practitioners, and the
research necessary to produce such a handbook, would

be of practical value.

 

BIBLIOGRAPHY

197

10.

11.

12.

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Argyris, Chris. Interpersonal Competence and Organiza-
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Havelock, Ronald G. in collaboration with Guskin, Alan;
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Jennings, Frank G. "Junior Colleges in America: The TH

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I:EVI’_-_n‘£_ . -

 

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APPENDICES

206

 

 

‘fl'. .p_v

APPENDIX A

STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES OF A

COMMUNITY COLLEGE

207

Statement of Objectives of Lake Michigan College,
Benton Harbor, Michigan, from the
1968-69 Catalog, pp. 9-10.

The General Opjectives

 

To provide a level of distinction in its faculty,
facilities, and educational program which will insure
quality higher educational opportunity in the community
at a reasonable cost.

To produce, through superior educational services Of
the community college, better citizens who will be pro-
ductive members of their communities.

To recognize the regional and local economic needs
Of the community: agricultural, business and industrial,
and to effect the fulfillment of these needs through the
develOpment of apprOpriate educational and training
programs.

To provide wide Opportunity for the development and
improvement of the personal and vocational competence of
individuals through the educational services Of the
college.

TO offer higher educational opportunities to those
adults who wish to avail themselves of such Opportunities.

To enable the fulfillment of these objectives by
providing the facilities, instruction, and atmosphere
which will stimulate the acquisition and integration Of
knowledge.

The Specific Goals

 

To Offer the first two years of transfer or pre-
professional education of highest quality to each student
eligible for admission and to prepare this student with
a sound background within his chosen field of study
commensurate with the first two years of education at
any four-year college or university.

To provide technical or vocational training programs
which offer terminal certification in order to enhance
a student's employment Opportunities and to provide
refresher or retraining courses in order to facilitate a
student's adjustment and employment within a changing
labor force.

208

209

To provide adequate general education for transfer,
technical and vocational students in an attempt to prepare
them more effectively for the responsibilities they share
as citizens of a free society along with the personal and
cultural enrichment, which makes for wholesome, creative
participation in life's activities.

TO provide guidance services to students of all
backgrounds and abilities in order to assist them in
choosing appropriate courses of study which will allow
them to make a notable contribution to and find their
place in an ever-changing society.

To provide community educational services to its
citizens and to play a leadership role in offering adult
education courses, resource personnel, speakers, meeting
rooms and facilities, educationa guidance and cultural
Offerings in the community.

 

\ ‘1 .

APPENDIX B

RAINES' COMMUNITY SERVICES TAXONOMY

210

A Community Services Taxonomy

By Dr. Max R. Raines

From A Community Services Inventory for Community Colleges.
East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1969.

Individual Development Functions

 

Developmental Counseling Function.--Providing
community members with Opportunities for self-discovery
and develOpment through individual and group counseling
processes; e.g., aptitude-interest testing, individual
interviews, career information, job placement, family
life, etc.

 

Educational Extension Function.--Increasing the '
accessibility of the regular courses and curriculum of
college by extending their availability to the community-
at-large; e.g., evening classes, TV courses, "weekend
college," neighborhood extension centers..

 

Educational Expansion Function.--Programming a
variety of educational, up-grading and new career
Opportunities which reach beyond the traditional limita-
tions of college credit restrictions; e.g., institutes,
seminars, tours, short courses, contractual inplant
training, etc.

Social Outreach Function.--Organizing programs to
increase the earning power, educational level, and
political influence of disadvantaged; e.g., ADC mothers,
unemployed males, educationally deprived youth, welfare
recipients, etc.

 

Cultural DevelOpment Function.--Expanding
Opportunities for community members to participate in a
variety of cultural activities; e.g., fine arts series,
art festivals, artists in residence, community theatre,
etc.

 

Leisure-time Activity Function.--Expanding
opportunities for community members to participate in a
variety of recreational activities, e.g., sports instruc-
tion, outdoor education, summer youth programs, senior
citizen activities, etc.

 

211

212

Community Develepment Functions

Community Analysis Function.--Collecting and
analyzing significant data which reflect existing and
emerging needs of the community and which can serve as
a basis for developing the community service program of
the college; e.g., analyzing census tracts, analyzing
manpower data, conducting problem-oriented studies,
identifying roles and goals of organizations.

Inter-Agency Cooperation Function.--Establishing
adequate linkage with related programs Of the college and
community to supplement and coordinate rather than
duplicate existing programs; e.g., calendar coordination,
information exchange, joint committee work, etc.

 

Advisory Liaison Function.--Identifying and
involving (in an advisory capacity) key members of the
various sub-groups with whom cooperative programs are
being planned; e.g., community services advisory council,
ad hoc advisory committee, etc.

Public Forum Function.--Developing activities
designed to stimulate interest and understanding of local,
national, and world problems; e.g., public affairs
pamphlets, "town" meetings, TV symposiums, etc.

 

Civic Action Function.--Participating in coopera-
tive efforts with local government, business, industry,
professions, religious and social groups to increase the
resources of the community to deal with major problems
confronting the community; e.g., community self-studies,
urban beautification, community chest drives, air
pollution, etc.

 

Staff Consultation Function.--Identifying,
developing, and making available the consulting skills
of the faculty in community development activities;
e.g., consulting with small businesses, advising on
instructional materials, designing community studies,
instructing in group leadership, laboratory testing, etc.

 

Program Development Functions

 

Public Information Function.--Interpreting programs
and activities Oftcommunity services to the college staff
as well as to the community-at-large and coordinating
releases with the central information services Of the
college.

 

213

Professional Development Function.--Providing
Opportunities andiencouragementifOr staff members to
up-grade their skills in program development and
evaluation; e.g., professional affiliations, exchange
visitations, professional conferences, advanced graduate
studies, etc.

 

Program Management Function.--Estab1ishing
procedures fOr procuring and allocating the physical
and human resources necessary to implement the community
services program; e.g., staff recruitment, job descriptions,
budgetary development, etc.

 

Conference Planning Function.--Providing pro-
fessional assistance to community groups in the planning
of conferences, institutes and workshOps, e.g., registra-
tion procedures, program development, conference
evaluations, etc.

 

Facility Utilization Function.--Encouraging
community use of college facilities by making them
readily accessible, by facilitating the scheduling
process, and by designing them for multi-purpose activities
when appropriate; e.g., campus tours, centralized
scheduling office, conference rooms, auditorium design,
etc.

 

Program Evaluation Function.--Developing with the
staff the specific Objectives of the program, identifying
sources of data, and establishing procedures for
gathering data to appraise the probable effectiveness
of various facets of the program; e.g., participant
ratings, attendance patterns, behavioral changes, program
requests, etc.

 

APPENDIX C

KLEIS'S LISTING OF INSTITUTIONAL

INVOLVEMENT IN CONTINUING

EDUCATION

214

 

Department of Administration

and Higher Education
College of Education
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan

Institutional Involvement in Continuing Education

 

By Dr. Russell Kleis

Educational Institutions

 

Public

Local School District
Area Voc-Tech School
Intermediate District

Co-Op Extension Service

University Extension
Public Libraries
Nearby Colleges

Official Community Agencies

 

Civil Service

CAAP

Courts

Employment Security
Health Department

Voluntary Community and Member

 

Serving Institutions

 

Church

Church Council

YM, YW, KC, etc.

Human Relations Groups
Professional Societies
Labor Unions

Labor Council

Business or Industry

215

Private

Nearby Colleges

Parochial Schools
Proprietary Schools
Voluntary Education Groups

Law Enforcement
Social Security
Social Welfare
Other Agencies

Area Development Council
Manufacturers' Association
Trade Associations
Political Organizations
Arts Council

Communication Media

Other Institutions

 

APPENDIX D

HAVELOCK'S MODEL OF THE LINKAGE PROCESS

216

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217

APPENDIX E

MILES' TYPOLOGY OF CHANGE STRATEGIES

218

 

STAGES IN MSTRAIEGYMWWWTMW

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A Typology of Change Strategies

219

APPENDIX F

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

220

 

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

COMMUNITY SERVICES SOCIAL ACTION PROGRAMS

II.

III.

IV.

STRATEGIES AND TACTICS

Contents

Interview Introduction
Background Data T
Chronological Review Of Program

Stages in the Adoption of an Innovation

List of Techniques Used by Practitioners
and Schema Relating Techniques to Stages

Developed by Robert E. Balster

Doctoral Student

Department of Administration and Higher Education
College Of Education

Michigan State University

May ,

1971

221

 

222

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Community Services Social
Action Programs

INTERVIEW INTRODUCTION: (Read the follosing to the
interviewee).

The purpose of my study is to compile a list of the
techniques used by community services practitioners
in initiating and establishing their programs. By
techniques I mean those actual methods of giving
help you used. Examples of techniques or helping
methods are research, setting up a demonstration
unit, role playing, free association, interpretation,
or in some cases, complete silence and inactivity
(Lippitt et al., p. 146).

 

I would like to have you tell me about one, specific
ro ram with which you were familiar from its
beginning. I am interested in a program in the
social action area; a program which was a planned
innovation and not a change that occurred naturally;
a program in which the goals included producing
observable behavioral changes in skills, attitudes
or values; one which was created to meet specific,
identifiable needs of a group of people in your
community college district; and a program which you
judged to be successful.

I'd like to begin the interview by obtaining some
background facts; then I'd appreciate your review
Of the program from the beginning until the end or
until you left it (use on alternate interviews);
then I have a few questions about a list of
identified techniques which you may or may not
have used in this or other programs.

(Reconfirm permission to tape interview; and,
determine if interview is to be anonymous.)

 

 

223

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Community Services Social Action
Programs

(This form to be completed for each interviewee.)

Tape number ; side 1 or 2; track 1, 4, 3, 2; start number and .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Time started___j time ended_____. Location of interview '
kl“
II. Background Information:
1. Name 2. Date of interview .
3. College sponsoring program . ‘
4. Name of program . lg‘
5. Name Of description of group served . ' b
6. On what date did the project begin? Is it still
operative? (yes) (no). If not, on what date did it end?
Why? (tape). What date did you end your
relationship with the program? ?
7. Please estimate the total number of people involved in or
helped by the program in the lst year____; 2nd year____j
3rd year____; etc. .
8. Was Federal or State funding involved? Federal;___j
State___. If so, what is the name of the program? .
If the program is still operative, is funding still present?
(yes) (no). Other funding? (State source and program.)
9. Were criteria for evaluating the program established
before the program began? (yes) (no). If so, was an
evaluation made? What was the outcome? (Tape answer.)
10. What evidence would you point to to show that this program

was really successful? (Tape answer.)

III.

IV.

224

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Community Services Social
Action Programs

Chronological Review: (Read the following to the
interviewee).

Please start at the beginning Of your program and
describe the step-by-step development of the program
emphasizing the techniques or helping methods you
used to initiate and maintain the program. (Turn
on tape recorder and let it remain running until the
end of the interview.)
(Note: Interviewer will ask non-directive questions
when necessary to get interviewee to describe his
program in areas not covered or covered too briefly.)
(Ask at end of interview.)
What were the most critical steps--the key points--
in making the program successful?

Stages in the Adoption of an Innovation: (Use
on alternate interviews).

Ronald G. Havelock has suggested that there are six
stages in the establishment of a program or the
introduction of an innovation. I would like to review
these with you.

 

STAGE I. Relationship. This is where you build a relationship
between yourself and the people you are trying to
help.

STAGE II. Diagnosis. This is where you help people articulate
their needs and then transform the needs into a
defined problem so that both of you can work on a
solution.

STAGE III. Resource retrieval. This is where you help obtain
resources of all kinds to help generate solutions.

STAGE IV. Solution. This is where you and those you are .
trying to help consider the range of alternatives
and settle upon a potential solution.

STAGE V. Gaining acceptance. At this point the solution or
the innovation is put into practice and you help
to get acceptance of it.

 

STAGE VI. Stabilization. This is where the innovation is
stabilized and accepted.

 

 

 

V.

225

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Community Services Social
Action Programs

(Techniques Used by Practitioners: (Use on alternate
interviews.)

Here is a list of techniques which practitioners have

found useful in some situations. Would you please

look down this list. If you have had occasion to use

any of these techniques in the program we are discussing

or in other programs would you indicate this to me and

tell me something about the situation in which you u

used it?

Have you provided peOple with feedback so as to

help them better understand their own process

of communication? (For example, have you arranged

for someone to see themselves on videotape?) (2)

Did you use a group to generate potential solution

ideas prior to consideration of the feasibility of

the solutions? (Brainstorming; "blue-skying.") (3)

As an "outsider" to an organization, have you
attempted to influence adoption of an innovation? (4)

As an "insider" or member of an organization

have you attempted to influence an adoption

of innovation? Or have you recruited an

"insider" to help you? (5)

Did you work closely with a university professor
to jointly do research to define your problems
and seek solutions? (6)

Did you call in an outside expert for help? (8)
Did you and resource peOple meet to define

your problems and to devise possible solutions

and action ideas based on research findings? (9)

Have you "primed the pump" with financial
support to get an innovation started? (13)

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

226

Did you make an accounting of the forces for and

against the innovation and then work to reduce

Opposing forces and strengthen favoring forces?

Have you used human relations training
experiences in a workshop to develop Openness
so that problem-solving could take place?

Did you arrange for persons with whom you were
working to visit another group to see how they
carried out a program?

Did you arrange two-way discussions between
ifinovation'users and various resource persons
and groups?

Did you "infuse the environment with your
message," that is, did you use many different
media (i.e., newsletters, presentations, ads,
audio-visual) to reach people with messages
about your program? -

Did you seek out and convince the peOple other
people listen to?

Did you depend on ideas being passed from one
group to another by means of a person who
belonged to both groups?

Have you used a systematic approach to determine
and fill needs? If so, what steps did you take?

Have you guided your client toward a more careful

self-examination by reflecting back to him his
own spoken thoughts and actions?

Did you provide a careful documentation and
evaluation of the success of an innovation
over time?

Did you build a capacity for continuing
innovation and problem-solving in the group
you were working with?

Did you deve10p an ideal model of your program,

then compare this with reality, and finally
systematically tackle the problem spots on a
priority basis?

Did you hold workshops, short courses, or
conferences for people interested in your
program?

(14)

(16)

(17)

(20)

(22)

(24)

(25)

(28)

(32)

(33)

(39)

(40)

(41)

VI.

227

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Community Services Social
Action Programs

Would you now relate those techniques you have used
from this list to the six stages we discussed.
(Present Schema and insert interviewee name.) Please
mark a single "X" in the box if the technique was
relevant to the success of the program and mark a
double "XX" in the box if the technique was especially

relevant.

228

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APPENDIX G

LETTER FROM AUTHOR TO

DR. J. KENNETH CUMMISKEY

229

Tr

 

 

""1

ROBERT E. BALSTER
ALBION. MICHIGAN

May 13, 1971

Dr. J. Kenneth Cummiskey

Director

Community Services Project

American Association of Junior Colleges
One Dupont Circle, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20036

Dear Dr. Cummiskey:

I am a doctoral student working on my dissertation at
Michigan State University. Dr. Max R. Raines is the
chairman of my committee.

My purpose in writing is to ask you to nominate from six
to eight community services programs for me to study as
part of my dissertation. I am interested in social
action programs meeting the following criteria:

5.

6.

A program involving primarily Black peOple, or other
minority peOple, or the poor, or the unemployed or
the under-employed;

A planned innovation, not a change that occurred
naturally;

A program with goals which included producing
observable skills or attitudes or values;

A program having impact on the community involving
at least 100 persons or more on a voluntary basis
in the community college district during a period
of one year;

A program in Operation at least one year and
having taken place within the past five years;

A program judged successful by the practitioner.

Thank you for your help in this project.

Sincerely yours,

Robert E. Balster

CC:

Dr. Max R. Raines

230

APPENDIX H

LETTER FROM AUTHOR TO

DR. J. KENNETH CUMMISKEY

231

 

ROBERT E. BALSTER
ALuION. MICHIGAN

May 20, 1971

Dr. J. Kenneth Cummiskey

Director

Community Services Project .
American Association of Junior Colleges
One Dupont Circle, N.W.

Washington, D.C. 20036

Dear Dr. Cummiskey:

Thank you for taking the time to discuss my project on
the telephone today.

I am writing to confirm your naming of seven colleges
which you have nominated for me to study and having, in
your Opinion, social action programs which meet the
criteria set forth in my letter to you of May 13. They
are as follows:

1. Peralta Junior College District,
Oakland, California;
2. New York City Community College,
Brooklyn, New York;
3. Cuyahoga Community College, Cleveland, Ohio;
4. San Mateo Junior College District, College of
San Mateo, San Mateo, California;
5. Staten Island Community College,
Staten Island, New York;
6. Malcolm X Community College, Chicago, Illinois;
7. Quinsigamond Community College,
Worcester, Massachusetts.

Your help in this matter is appreciated.

Sincerely yours,

Robert E. Balster

cc: Dr. Max R. Raines

232

 

APPENDIX I

BACKGROUND DATA ON EACH INTERVIEW

233

 

 

INTERVIEW summon;
Comunity Services Social lotion Programs

(This form to be completed fcr each interviewee.)

Tape number [‘2 ; side@r 2; track 1, 14,63) 2; start number Aend :0?
Time started IQ“? time ended ‘3'} . location ofinterview ”Ml“ MLM'

_ II Background Infcrmation:

1. 'Name‘!‘ BBEICE A“ ADJ 2. Date of intended-'3. .
‘ (Luau cause

3. College sponsoring Program WW

(4. Name of program 1054'.) Wk: .

. M q. (A
5. Name or description cf group served “we‘ll QILI‘ ”QWQ
6. On what date did the project. begin?gm ‘Q? __Is it still operativef2t1

(yes) (no). If not, on what date did it end? -—— Why? (tape).—
”

I
What date did you end your relaticnship wi th the prog- ram? AME ZQ .

 

 

“v qr ., .q'

 

 

 

 

7. Please estimaee the total number of people involved in or helped by the

pregram in the lot. year A; 2nd year m; 3rd year _____; etc. . .

8. ‘.-.’as Federal or State funding involved? Federal/3 State . If so,

what is the name of the program? :m‘f & ‘ fi'ihk .

If the program is Still operative, is funding still present? (ves) (no).

Other funding? (State source and program.) .

9. here criteria for evaluating the program established before the program
began? (yes) (no). If so, was an evaluativn made? What was the outocre?

(Tape answer.) V

10. What evidence would you pcint to to show that this protram was real 1y

. successful? (Tape answer.) /
234

235
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Comunity Services Social fiction Programs

('lhis form to be completed for each interviewee.)

. / / ... 12 1.
laps number [:2 ; sideéor 2; tracké) b, 3, 2; start number ZXSend '38-?
Time started pk; tine ended ‘39; Location of interview W! OfFl

MSK

II Background Information:

1.

.3-

7.

NameW MfiA-KT!“ Th2. Date'of intervieww

College' sponsoring program "’ | .

LAQ‘E‘Y <- manna-70mm)!

 

 

 

Name of program (ah If": (gust 2: 5,1ch [4 m3 .
. V' I
' $16 rmc.
Name or description of group served £2520 ‘Qlé'htbfl& " EtflCJQ
M $ M

\

On what date did the project begin? AE fig Is it still operative?

(yes) (no). If not, on what date did it end? —-- 'why? (tape),

What date did you end your relationship with the programm.

Please estimate the total number of people involved in or helped by the

program in the lst year AK; 2nd year M3rd year ; etc. . .

I-fas Federal or State funding involved? Federal / State . If so,

what is the name of the program? 62E Q . .

If the program is still operative, is funding still present? (yes) (no).

Other funding? (State source and program.) %I J'Tgml" .
Sone 9am; c,“- -— annoy

Were criteria for’ evaluating the program established before the program

began? (yes) (no). If so, was an ‘evaluaticn made? that was the outcome?

(Tape answer.) V

10. What evidence would you point to to snow that this protram was really

successful? (Tape answer.) V

236
INERVIEW SCHEDULE '
Community Services Social fiction Programs

(This form to be completed for each interviewee.)

Tape number I ; sideaor 2; tracl@ b, 3, 2; start number“ end 'Zflb

lime started flak time ended l3 "5. Location of interview K‘rm.
A. M =-
11 Background Information:

1. 'Name Kg lukj'rgt '2 RILE \L 2. Date of interview (”z-IS.
. ‘ I

3. College sponsoring pregram LAKE) M}; u: Knfi M 3,5“ E(&.

14. Name of program LEA-5 .

 

 

 

M r- \A
5. Name or description of group served 8" fl<£¢2_ Bag)“ ASfiéEy
PfiH’t (- thr.
6. an what date did the project begin? Q3“; . '4 2 Is it still operative?

(y_es_) (no). If not, on what date did it end? -"""" Why? (tape). ....—

What date did you end your relationship with the program? {2‘2 33 get) ...-go

 

7. Please estimate the total number of people involved in or helped by the

program in the lst year W; 2nd year ; 3rd year ; etc. . .

8. the Federal or State funding involved? Federal 4mm _. If so,
what is the name of the program? M6154 C £1 (£2 .
If the program is Still operative, is fundinc still present? (ves 2 (no).

Other funding? (State source and program.) 3". KEN EUO‘L

War-van).

9. Were criteria for evaluating the program established before the program

 

began? (yes) (no). If so, was an evaluatitn made? What was the outcome?

(Tape answer.)( /

10. What evidence would you point to to show that this protram was really '

successful? (Tape answer.)¢/ .

2 3 7
IN TERVIE‘J SCHEDULE

Comunity Services Social Icticn Programs,

(This form to be completed for each interviewee.)

'Ihpe number 2 3 side 1 org track 1,0, 3, 23 start number fiends £8.
. Time started flak; tine ended ‘3 We Location of interview W

C-

11 Background Information:

1.
3.

h.

7.

9.

Name 5M5: Efi ggggkfilg gflfggsoflz. Date of interview Eds
College sponsoring program c-ZEA15336G g: Q , ¢C ( Hr:

COMMON'H'H ubUMSE-alufi- Pen-
Name of program M t]: OILS LA hm ,

Name or description of group served 3g“; lébnfi A) .

at what date aid the project begin? SE21 fig Is it still operative?
F‘hku. -
(yes) (232° lAf not, on wzat fét‘é‘dfi ivend? MA“ ‘éba‘hy? (tape). “I

What date did you end your relationship with the program? Qg&‘£ r .

 

 

 

 

Please estimate the total number of people involved in or helped by the

program in the lst year LEAD; 2nd year W 3rd year 3 etc. . .

Was Federal or State funding involved? Federal L/{State . If so,

what is the name of the program? 1111::- j" .
. i

If the program is Still operative, is funding still present? (yes) (no). ,

O

 

Other funding? (State source and program.) .

Were criteria for evaluating the program established before the program
began? (yes) (no). If so, was an evaluati-z-n made? What was the outcome?

(Tape answer.) (./

10. What evidence would you point to to show that this protram was really

\ 3

successful? (Tape answer.) < .

Tape number ;2 3 side l or@ track 1,0 3, 23 start numberLéoendS .31“
started 2Q 3 tine ended 33° 9 . Location of interview N‘OLUMIL I'JM €337

Tims

II Background Information:

1.

3.

7.

2 3 8
IN Tz‘JRVInv‘J SCHEDULE
Community Services Social roticn ProLramsi

('Ihis form to be completed for each interviewee.)

Pup

Avg.) A F?“ L

 

time i g till A) TH-OM RS 2. Datewof interview 5’3. Q.

 

\ire'cmcczcb rammed» caucus!“

Name of program \TEP- Q e ”9%“ - UNW-

0

Name or description of group served Sldfihdfll 33* ED M kl; .

I ,
Ch what date did the project begin? MAL; 451 Is it still operative?
r -

College sponsoring pregram wAJ‘fi 1 Ga a 3d (2 g mu) flggggb

( es) (no). If not, on what date did it end? Why? (tape).
L.

What data did you end your relationship with the program? c: ()3 55¢! ‘7

Please estimate the total number of people involved in or helped by the

program in the lst year (”at 2nd year 80 T3rd year ‘. '3 etc. . .

0

Was Federal or State funding involved? {:deral 3 State . If so,
what is the name of the program? . . .
If the program is still operative, is funding: still present? (yes) (no).

PRN ATE. 9009!!)6 --
Other funding? (State source and program.) 3.. J" .
b

$05386”! 03:

Were criteria for evaluating the program established before the program

began? (ya) (no). If so,‘ was an evaluaticn made? What was the outcome?

(Tape answer. ) L/

10. What evidence would you point to to show that this program was real" y

successml? (Tape answer.) 4.."

2 3 9
IN 'I'LSRVIE'W SCHEDULE

Comunity Services Social Iction Programs

(’Ihis form to be completed for each interviewee.)

'lhpe number L3 _2__side®r 23 track 1, b, Q23 start number A end 2‘20
Time started mktime ended 3°. location of interview CW.

.3

II Background Information:

1.

3.

la.

7.

9.

‘hame MES “fl 5) HARMEJL 1+ 2. Date of interview S‘QZ.

. - ~ . ‘ 3
College sponsoring prOgram C . ~

Name °f Pmsram WW1? -

Name or description of group served WMNC

 

 

S’PPJMG- 7Q -
On what date did the project begin? W9, Is it still operative?
(yes) (no). If not, on what date did it end? ’w‘ny? (tape).

 

What date did you end your relationship with the program? C (£8 a E 3C

Please estimate the total number of people involved in or helped by the

program in the lst year “a; 2nd year 3 3rd year 3 etc. . .

ND -
I-fas Federal or State funding involved? Federal 3 State . If so,
what is the name of the program?______ .
If the program is Still operative, is funding still present? (yes) (no).
(auto... - 1H£ come“—

Other funding? (State source and program.)

 

Were criteria for evaluating the program established before the program
began? (yes) (no). If so, was an evaluatinn made? What was the outcome?

(Tape answer.) /

10. What evidence would you point to) to show that this protram was really

successful? ('I’ape answer.)V

240
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Comunity Services Social Iction Programs

(This form to be completed for each interviewee.)

laps number 5 3 side®or 23 track 1, b 3 23 start number gendég

Time started (an; the ended 33: . Location of interview éKlCK-NNI ARM

36:4:th ECO M

II Background Information:

1.N

3.

7.

 

 

3mm .DOMU 2. Date'of interviewfl.
WOK¢€3TEQ, MST“-

College sponsoring program . .

Name of program EK Q A 55!.— Q UESI— .

(cu: moons mama @0623“ -“
Name or description of group served “5 film ”- i F
I. I
On what date did the project begin? Xfic‘r <9&_IS it still operative?

0
(yes) (no). If not, on what date did it end?w_hhy? (tape).
I
What date did you end your relationship with the program? Egg: €92 .

 

Please estimate the total number of people involved in or helped by the

program in the lst year [5 3 2nd warm; 3rd year 3 etc. . .

Was Federal or State funding involved? Federal ‘/3 State . If so, ,
what is the name of. the program? T) U 5 . :1: fl .
If the prOgram is Still operative, is funding still present? (yes) (no).

Other funding? (State source and program.) .

- Were criteria for evaluating the program established before the program

began? (yes) (no). If so, was an evaluatirn made? What was the outcome?

(Tape answer.) ‘/

10. What evidence would you point to to show that this program was really

successful? (Tape answer.) v

241
INT." «JRVIEM SCHEDULE
Community Services Social fiction Programs

(This form to be completed for each interviewee.)

Tape number i3 side 1 or®traok l, b, b 23 start number Lend @223

Time started '35 3 time ended 53"}. location of interview feesmemg OFFKS

Foams were MIA-5‘

II Background Information: BCG- flown/Mi

l. Nam

3.
h.

S.

7'.

9.

 

 

om Egg ‘.1': 4:. E41316 15 735A) 2. Date of interviepr-z .
College sponsoring program A A! Mmg g0 (.QE (LC- #.
Name of program 9&4! “3.1% SEMISE‘ .

' Mew
Name or description of group served UNDER 3 “MEMIM‘IEQ .

On what date did the project begin? JAIJ '75 _Is it still operative?

 

 

(yes) (no). If not, on what date did it end? Why? (tape).

\
What date did you end your relationship with the program? MASC-fl: 7’ .

Please estim; te the total nu ber of people involved in or helped by the
program in the lst yeargofi-and year OMd year 3 etc. . .

Was Federal or State funding in volved? Federal :3 State______ ‘/ .If so, »
CAMP- T'Ax 0&0

what is the name of the program? IJW'

If the program is Still operative, is funding still present? (yes) (no).

Other funding? (State source and program.) mm PREFML

Were criteria for evaluating the program established before the program

began? (yes) (no). If so, was an evaluatirn made? What was the outcome?

(Tape answer. )e/

10. What evidence would you point to to show. that this program was really

successful? (Tape answer.) ‘--

APPENDIX

J

TECHNIQUES RELATED TO STAGES OF THE PROCESS

OF INNOVATION BY FOUR COMMUNITY SERVICES

PRACTITIONERS AND RONALD G. HAVELOCK

(25:Appendix A,

3-4)

 

KEY

relevant especially relevant
Havelock X XX
Peralta P PP
Delta D DD
Lake Michigan L LL
Genessee G GG

242

243

 

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