POUCE RECRUIT EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND ANALYSIS Bissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY LARRY THORNE HOOVER 1974 A'.'MI‘V‘4‘5.JV 4.1.3.4 L IIIIIIIIII III III 31293 1035 827 LIBR A R Y Michigan Stitc Univcisity um i I This is to Eertify mange ' ‘ "thesis. entitled ' g a (W ‘ POLICE 95cm IT EDUCATIONAL mcztcmrm mmsrs presented by LARRY THOR‘IE HOOVER has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D . degree in Education Major professor 3 sons" - '; I BOOK BlIIIIERY ENC. ‘ll LIBRARY! BNI ‘ gm! .llwm “. r». MAGICZ L 7‘: .'r r :APR gz‘lss‘g -SPS u r _, L «Hr ' '3"- ii". MIY101630098 ABSTRACT POLICE RECRUIT EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND ANALYSIS By Larry Thorne Hoover The purpose of this study was to determine the educational levels of police recruits in the United States between July l, 1972, and June 30, 1973, and the influence of certain factors affecting college educated recruits' choice of a particular agency for employ- ment. In order to obtain a national sample, four states representa- tive of national characteristics were selected for inclusion in the study: California, Michigan, New Jersey, and Texas. Data obtained from records of the law enforcement standards and training commissions in these states included names. educational levels, and agencies of employment of newly hired police recruits during the designated period. A stratified random sampling of these recruits was selected to provide a research population for mailed questionnaires. The purpose of the questionnaire was to elicit information regarding factors pertinent in selection of a particular law enforcement agency for employment by college educated police recruits. The study design is descriptive in l Larry Thorne Hoover nature, employing eight research hypotheses subsuming fifty-four test- able hypotheses. The findings pertinent to each research hypothesis are: Hypothesis 0ne--individuals with a collegiate background are now entering the police service in impressively large numbers: The data from this study indicate that some thirty-seven percent of the recruits now entering the police service have been in college for at least one year; in California, this percentage is an atypical seventy- three percent. Some ten percent of the police recruits now entering law enforcement have completed four or more years of college. Patterns of employment by size or type of agency according to level of education do not emerge. Hypothesis Two-~the Law Enforcement Education Program has sig- nificantly contributed to raising the educational level of police re- cruits: Only thirteen percent of collegiate police recruits now entering police service have received direct financial assistance through the Law Enforcement Education Program. However, because this assistance was differentially distributed. twenty-three percent to law enforcement majors as opposed to four percent to others, the program has fostered development of academic programs in law enforcement, hence indirectly upgrading the educational level of police recruits. The 2 Larry Thorne Hoover receipt of LEEP assistance related positively to both level of educa- tion and attainment of academic degrees. Hypothesis Three--police cadet programs have significantly contributed to raising the educational level of police recruits: Some eighteen percent of collegiate police recruits, eight percent of the total number of recruits employed during the period, had had prior involvement in a police cadet program. Cadet involvement relates positively to associate degree attainment, but negatively to bacca- laureate attainment. Hypothesis Four--agency reward programs for completed college education have significantly contributed to raising the educational level of police recruits: Fifty-eight percent of the police recruits who received a reward for completed education indicate that it had at least some influence in their decision to seek employment with the particular agency they did. Police recruits rank a percentage salary increment as the most attractive reward program for completed education. Hypothesis Five--agency prestige is the primary consideration of collegiate recruits in selection of a particular agency: Agency career and promotion opportunities is ranked as the primary considera- tion by police recruits. However, these opportunities and agency prestige appear to be very closely related. Overall, the order Larry Thorne Hoover assigned in this study to factors influential in police recruits' selection of a particular agency, are, in descending impact: 1) agency career and promotion opportunities, 2) agency prestige, 3) agency salary, 4) nature of agency jurisdiction, 5) agency recruitment efforts, 6) only available police employment at the time. Hypothesis Six--starting annual salary is a significant consi- deration of collegiate recruits in selection of a particular agency: Although ranked third among considerations affecting the choice of a particular agency, the mean rank of salary is close to that of the first two considerations. Salary appears to function as a conjunctive influence with several other factors, specifically career and promotion opportunities, agency prestige, educational requirements, and reward for completed education. Hypothesis Seven--anticipated tenure in both present employing agencies and the criminal justice field is influenced by level of edu- cation: Levels of education do not appear to influence anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field, but influence anticipated tenure in present employing agencies. An overwhelming majority of police re- cruits (95%) anticipate permanent careers in the criminal justice field: only seventy percent, however, anticipate life-time careers with their present agency. Emergent, however, is a type of agency Larry Thorne Hoover attractive to college educated police recruits who express longer anti- cipated tenure with their present agency. These are the agencies which tend to offer better career and promotion opportunities, are of higher prestige, offer better initial salaries, impose higher educational re- quirements, and are larger in size. Hypothesis Eight-~police recruits with an academic major in law enforcement are more committed to a career in law enforcement than those majoring in other areas: There is no pragmatically significant difference in expressed anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field by academic major, and there is no apparent different in the degree of selectivity in the choice of an employing agency--a factor indirectly indicative of stronger comnitment to a career. Only about half of the collegiate police recruits entering law enforcement have majored in law enforcement or criminal justice as a field of academic study. The associate degree appears to be academically terminal to a large proportion of law enforcement majors, although a significant number do attain a baccalaureate degree. POLICE RECRUIT EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND ANALYSIS By Larry Thorne Hoover A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1974 Copyright LARRY THORNE HOOVER 1974 ii The material in this project was prepared under Grant No. 73-NI-99-lOO4 from the Manpower Development Assistance Division, Office of Criminal Justice Assistance, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, U.S. Department of Justice. Researchers undertaking such projects under Government sponsorship are encouraged to express freely their professional judgment. Therefore, points of view or opinions stated in this document do not necessarily represent the official position or policy in the U.S. Department of Justice. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express appreciation to a number of individuals without whose assistance this endeavor could not have been completed. First of all, a very special thanks to my wife, Martha, whose encouragement, moral support, and cheerfulness was always there when needed. In addition, I also express my appreciation to her for using Pepsi-Cola properly throughout these years. To Dr. John McNamara for support and guidance in ways too numerous to mention. To Miss Tricia Gould fer effort far beyond that expected. She has been integral to this study, and a large portion rightfully belongs to her. To Mr. William Nash for the catalytic idea which spawned the development of the study. To Dr. William Sweetland, chairman of my guidance corrmittee, I owe much for his contributions and never-ending willingness to devote his valuable time. Also my appreciation extends to Dr. Richard iv Featherstone, Dr. James Nelson, and Dr. Robert Trojanowicz for similar contributions. Finally, to my parents who, although unable to enjoy the benefits of higher education themselves, had the foresight and wisdom to see that such benefits would accrue to their children. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .......................... Chapter I. THE PROBLEM ....................... Need for the Study .................. Crime: Primary Catalyst for Upgrading ...... Concensus Agreement: Upgrade the Police ..... Key to the Upgrading Effort: The Safe Streets Act ......... ’ ......... Educational Upgrading: How Great an Impact?. . . Purpose of the Study ................. Statement and Rationale of Hypotheses ........ Relevance of the Study ................ Definition of Terms . . .’ .............. Format of the Study .......... I ....... II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................. The Police Role: Diversity as a Descriptor ..... Educational Upgrading: A Second Rationale ...... The Police Role: Immense Discretion ......... vi Page 2 6 l4 17 24 26 45 46 48 49 so 59 66 TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page Educational Upgrading: A Third Rationale ...... 73 Summary ....................... 76 III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................... 79 Sample ........................ 80 Measures ....................... 87 Design ........................ 88 Testable Hypotheses ................. 88 Analysis ....................... 95 Summary ....................... 95 IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ............ 97 Hypothesis One. . .................. 97 Hypothesis 1.1 .................. 98 Hypothesis 1.2 .................. 102 Hypothesis 1.3 .................. 104 Hypothesis 1.4 .................. 104 Summary of Hypothesis One ............ 106 Hypothesis Two .................... 108 Hypothesis 2.1 .................. 108 Hypothesis 2.2 .................. 110 Hypothesis 2.3 .................. 112 Hypothesis 2.4 .................. 113 Hypothesis 2.5 .................. 115 Summary of Hypothesis Two ............ 115 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page Hypothesis Three ................... 118 Hypothesis 3.1 .................. 118 Hypothesis 3.2 .................. 120 Hypothesis 3.3 .................. 122 Summary of Hypothesis Three ........... 123 Hypothesis Four ................... 123 Hypothesis 4.1 .................. 124 Hypothesis 4.2 .................. 125 Hypothesis 4.3 .................. 127 Hypothesis 4.4 .................. 128 Hypothesis 4.5 .................. 130 Hypothesis 4.6 .................. 133 Hypothesis 4.7 .................. 134 Summary of Hypothesis Four ............ 135 Hypothesis Five ................... 137 Hypothesis 5.1 .................. 138 Hypothesis 5.2 .................. 141 Hypothesis 5.3 .................. 144 Hypothesis 5.4 .................. 146 Hypothesis 5.5 .................. 147 Hypothesis 5.6 .................. 149 Hypothesis 5.7 .................. 152 Hypothesis 5.8 .................. 154 Summary of Hypothesis Five ............ 154 Hypothesis Six .................... 156 Hypothesis 6.1 .................. 157 Hypothesis 6.2 .................. 158 Hypothesis 6.3 .................. 160 Hypothesis 6.4 .................. 162 Hypothesis 6.5 .................. 164 Hypothesis 6.6 .................. 166 Summary of Hypothesis Six ............ 168 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page Hypothesis Seven ................... 170 Hypothesis 7.1 .................. 170 Hypothesis 7.2 .................. 172 Hypothesis 7.3 .................. 173 Hypothesis 7.4 .................. 175 Hypothesis 7.5 .................. 176 Hypothesis 7.6 .................. 177 Hypothesis 7.7 .................. 179 Hypothesis 7.8 .................. 181 Hypothesis 7.9 .................. 183 Summary of Hypothesis Seven ........... 184 Hypothesis Eight ................... 185 Hypothesis 8.1 .................. 186 Hypothesis 8.2 .................. 186 Hypothesis 8.3 .................. 189 Hypothesis 8.4 .................. 191 Hypothesis 8.5 .................. 193 Hypothesis 8.6 .................. 193 Hypothesis 8.7 .................. 195 Hypothesis 8.8 .................. 198 Summary of Hypothesis Eight ........... 199 Summary of Analysis ................. 200 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................. 207 Summary ....................... 207 Conclusions ..................... 215 APPENDIX. . . .......................... 219 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................... 223 ix Table 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 2.1. 2.2. 3.1. 4.1.1. 4.1.2. 4.1.3. 4.1.4. LIST OF TABLES POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN 1964 BY REGION REPORTED BY NELSON AND O'CONNOR ................ POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN 1964 BY RANK REPORTED BY NELSON AND O'CONNOR ................ POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN THE DETROIT METROPOLITAN REGION: 1965 . . . . . . . . . ........... YEARS OF COLLEGIATE WORK COMPLETED BY RECRUITS 1968 IACP POLICE ROLE STUDY ............. SUMMARY OF PRIOR STUDIES OF COLLEGIATE EDUCATION OF POLICE ...................... EMPLOYMENT PATTERNS OF NEW POLICE PERSONNEL WITH BACCALAUREATE DEGREES IN MICHIGAN, JANUARY- SPETEMBER 1971 .................... CITIZEN COMPLAINTS RADIOED TO PATROL VEHICLES SYRACUSE POLICE DEPARTMENT JUNE 3-9, 1966 (BASED ON A ONE-FIFTH SAMPLE OF A WEEK'S CALLS). . . . JOB ASSIGNMENTS FOR PATROLMEN NEW YORK CITY, 1969 . . . . QUESTIONNAIRE DISTRIBUTION AND RESPONSE PATTERN . . . . LEVEL OF EDUCATION OF POLICE RECRUITS, 1972-73 ..... ACADEMIC DEGREES RECEIVED BY POLICE RECRUITS, 1972-73 . . TYPE OF AGENCY AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION ......... SIZE OF AGENCY AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION ......... X Page 19 20 21 23 25 3O 53 54 84 100 103 105 107 Table 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 2.1. 2.2. 3.1. 4.1.1. 4.1.2. 4.1.3. 4.1.4. LIST OF TABLES POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN 1964 BY REGION REPORTED BY NELSON AND O'CONNOR ................ POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN 1964 BY RANK REPORTED BY NELSON AND O'CONNOR ................ POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN THE DETROIT METROPOLITAN REGION: 1965 .................... YEARS OF COLLEGIATE WORK COMPLETED BY RECRUITS 1968 IACP POLICE ROLE STUDY ............. SUMMARY OF PRIOR STUDIES OF COLLEGIATE EDUCATION OF POLICE ...................... EMPLOYMENT PATTERNS OF NEW POLICE PERSONNEL WITH BACCALAUREATE DEGREES IN MICHIGAN. JANUARY- SPETEMBER 1971 .................... CITIZEN COMPLAINTS RADIOED TO PATROL VEHICLES SYRACUSE POLICE DEPARTMENT JUNE 3-9, 1966 (BASED ON A ONE-FIFTH SAMPLE OF A WEEK'S CALLS). . . . . . . . JOB ASSIGNMENTS FOR PATROLMEN NEW YORK CITY, 1969 . . . QUESTIONNAIRE DISTRIBUTION AND RESPONSE PATTERN . . . . LEVEL OF EDUCATION OF POLICE RECRUITS, 1972-73 ..... ACADEMIC DEGREES RECEIVED BY POLICE RECRUITS, 1972-73 . . TYPE OF AGENCY AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION ......... SIZE OF AGENCY AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION ......... X Page 19 20 21 23 25 30 53 54 84 100 103 105 107 Table 10]. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 2.1. 2.2. 3.1. 4.1.1. 4.1.2. 4.1.3. 4.1.4. LIST OF TABLES POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN 1964 BY REGION REPORTED BY NELSON AND O'CONNOR ............... POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN 1964 BY RANK REPORTED BY NELSON AND O'CONNOR ............... POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN THE DETROIT METROPOLITAN REGION: 1965 ................... YEARS OF COLLEGIATE WORK COMPLETED BY RECRUITS 1968 IACP POLICE ROLE STUDY ............ SUMMARY OF PRIOR STUDIES OF COLLEGIATE EDUCATION OF POLICE ..................... EMPLOYMENT PATTERNS OF NEW POLICE PERSONNEL WITH BACCALAUREATE DEGREES IN MICHIGAN, JANUARY- SPETEMBER 1971 ..................... CITIZEN COMPLAINTS RADIOED TO PATROL VEHICLES SYRACUSE POLICE DEPARTMENT JUNE 3-9. 1966 (BASED ON A ONE-FIFTH SAMPLE OF A WEEK'S CALLS) ...... JOB ASSIGNMENTS FOR PATROLMEN NEW YORK CITY. 1969 . . . . QUESTIONNAIRE DISTRIBUTION AND RESPONSE PATTERN . . . LEVEL OF EDUCATION OF POLICE RECRUITS, 1972-73 ...... ACADEMIC DEGREES RECEIVED BY POLICE RECRUITS, 1972-73 . . TYPE OF AGENCY AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION .......... SIZE OF AGENCY AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION .......... X Page 19 20 21 23 25 3O 53 54 84 100 103 105 107 LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table 4.2.1. 4.2.2. 4.2.3. 4.2.4. 4.2.5. 4.3.1. 4.3.2. 4.3.3. 4.4.1. 4.4.2. 4.4.3. 4.4.4. 4.4.5. Page LEEP ASSISTANCE RECEIVED PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT . . . 109 LEVELS OF EDUCATION AND LEEP ASSISTANCE PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT ................... 111 ACADEMIC DEGREE AND RECEIPT OF LEEP ASSISTANCE PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT .................. 113 ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND RECEIPT OF LEEP ASSISTANCE PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT ....................... 114 MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY AND LEEP ASSISTANCE RECEIVED PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT .......... 116 PRIOR INVOLVEMENT IN POLICE CADET PROGRAM AMONG RECRUITS WITH SOME COLLEGIATE TRAINING ......... 119 ACADEMIC DEGREE AND PRIOR INVOLVEMENT IN POLICE CADET PROGRAM ........................ 121 ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND PRIOR INVOLVEMENT IN POLICE CADET PROGRAM ....... 122 IMPORTANCE OF THE EXISTENCE OF EDUCATIONAL REWARD IN CHOICE OF A PARTICULAR AGENCY ............. 124 AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION ................ 126 PROXIMITY 0F PRESENT EMPLOYMENT TO HOME TOWN AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION ....... 128 ANTICIPATED TENURE IN PRESENT AGENCY AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION ............. 129 RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY ....................... 131 xi LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table 4.4.6. 4.4.7. 4.5.1. 4.5.2. 4.5.3. 4.5.4. 4.5.5. 4.5.6. 4.5.7. 4.5.8. 4.6.1. 4.6.2. Page PREVIOUS POLICE EMPLOYMENT AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION .................. 134 LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND RELATIVE ATTRACTION OF VARIOUS EDUCATIONAL REWARD PROGRAMS .............. 136 LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATION AFFECTING CHOICE OF A PARTICULAR AGENCY ........ 139 TIME FRAME OF DECISION T0 PURSUE LAW ENFORCEMENT CAREER AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY ....................... 143 PRESENT EMPLOYMENT‘S PROXIMITY TO HOME TOWN AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY ....................... 145 PRESENT EMPLOYMENT'S PROXIMITY TO HOME TOWN AND EMPLOYMENT BY AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT ...... 147 EMPLOYMENT BY AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY ....................... 149 SIZE OF AGENCY AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE .................... 151 SIZE OF AGENCY AND PRESENT EMPLOYMENT'S PROXIMITY TO HOME TOWN ...................... 153 PREVIOUS POLICE EMPLOYMENT AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATION 0N CHOICE OF AGENCY ........... 155 ‘STARTING ANNUAL SALARY AND LEVEL OF COLLEGIATE EDUCATION ....................... 159 INITIAL ANNUAL SALARY AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF A PARTICULAR AGENCY ........ 161 xii LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table 4.6.3. 4.6.4. 4.6.5. 4.6.6. 4.7.1. 4.7.2. 4.7.3. 4.7.4. 4.7.5. 4.7.6. 4.7.7. 4.7.8. 4.7.9. 4.8.1. INITIAL ANNUAL SALARY AND EMPLOYMENT BY AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT ................ INITIAL ANNUAL SALARY AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION .................. INITIAL ANNUAL SALARY AND PRESENT EMPLOYMENT'S PROXIMITY TO HOME TOWN ................. INITIAL ANNUAL SALARY AND PRIOR POLICE EMPLOYMENT . . . . LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND ANTICIPATED TENURE OF EMPLOYMENT IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD ............... ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND ACADEMIC DEGREE RECEIVED ................ ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND TIME FRAME OF DECISION TO PURSUE LAW ENFORCEMENT CAREER ......................... ANTICIPATED TENURE IN PRESENT AGENCY CONTRASTED TO ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD ...... LEVELS OF EDUCATION AND ANTICIPATED TENURE OF EMPLOYMENT IN PRESENT AGENCY .............. ANTICIPATED TENURE IN PRESENT AGENCY AND EMPLOYMENT BY AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT ............. ANTICIPATED TENURE IN PRESENT AGENCY AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY ....... INITIAL ANNUAL SALARY AND ANTICIPATED TENURE OF EMPLOYMENT IN PRESENT AGENCY .............. SIZE OF AGENCY AND ANTICIPATED TENURE OF EMPLOYMENT IN PRESENT AGENCY ................... MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY ............. xiii Page 163 165 167 169 171 173 174 175 177 178 180 182 183 187 LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table 4.8.2. 4.8.3. 4.8.4. 4.8.5. 4.8.6. 4.8.7. 4.8.8. LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY. . ACADEMIC DEGREE AND MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY . . . ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY ............ MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY ....... AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT AND MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY .................... MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION ................ PRESENT EMPLOYMENT'S PROXIMITY TO HOME TOWN AND MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY ............... xiv Page 188 190 192 194 196 197 199 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to express appreciation to a number of individuals without whose assistance this endeavor could not have been completed. First of all, a very special thanks to my wife, Martha, whose encouragement, moral support, and cheerfulness was always there when needed. In addition, I also express my appreciation to her for using Pepsi-Cola properly throughout these years. To Dr. John McNamara for support and guidance in ways too numerous to mention. To Miss Tricia Gould fbr effort far beyond that expected. She has been integral to this study, and a large portion rightfully belongs to her. To Mr. William Nash for the catalytic idea which spawned the development of the study. To Dr. William Sweetland, chairman of my guidance committee, I owe much for his contributions and never-ending willingness to devote his valuable time. Also my appreciation extends to Dr. Richard iv Featherstone, Dr. James Nelson, and Dr. Robert Trojanowicz for similar contributions. Finally; to my parents who, although unable to enjoy the benefits of higher education themselves, had the foresight and wisdom to see that such benefits would accrue to their Children. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .......................... THE PROBLEM ....................... Need for the Study .................. Crime: Primary Catalyst for Upgrading ...... Concensus Agreement: Upgrade the Police ..... Key to the Upgrading Effort: The Safe Streets Act .................. Educational Upgrading: How Great an Impact?. . . Purpose of the Study ................. Statement and Rationale of Hypotheses ........ Relevance of the Study ................ Definition of Terms . . .‘ .............. Format of the Study ................. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................. The Police Role: Diversity as a Descriptor ..... Educational Upgrading: A Second Rationale ...... The Police Role: Immense Discretion ......... vi Page 2 6 14 17 24 26 45 46 48 49 50 59 66 TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page Educational Upgrading: A Third Rationale ...... 73 Summary ....................... 76 III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................... 79 Sample ........................ 80 Measures ....................... 87 Design ........................ 88 Testable Hypotheses ................. 88 Analysis ....................... 95 Summary ....................... 95 IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ............ 97 Hypothesis One. . .................. 97 Hypothesis 1.1 .................. 98 Hypothesis 1.2 .................. 102 Hypothesis 1.3 .................. 104 Hypothesis 1.4 .................. 104 Summary of Hypothesis One ............ 106 Hypothesis Two .................... 108 Hypothesis 2.1 .................. 108 Hypothesis 2.2 .................. 110 Hypothesis 2.3 .................. 112 Hypothesis 2.4 .................. 113 Hypothesis 2.5 .................. 115 Summary of Hypothesis Two ............ 115 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page Educational Upgrading: A Third Rationale ...... 73 Summary ....................... 76 III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ................... 79 Sample ........................ 80 Measures ....................... 87 Design ........................ 88 Testable Hypotheses ................. 88 Analysis ....................... 95 Summary ....................... 95 IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA ............ 97 Hypothesis One. . .................. 97 Hypothesis 1.1 ........ . ......... 98 Hypothesis 1.2 .................. 102 Hypothesis 1.3 .................. 104 Hypothesis 1.4 .................. 104 Summary of Hypothesis One ............ 106 Hypothesis Two .................... 108 Hypothesis 2.1 .................. 108 Hypothesis 2.2 .................. 110 Hypothesis 2.3 .................. 112 Hypothesis 2.4 .................. 113 Hypothesis 2.5 .................. 115 Summary of Hypothesis Two ............ 115 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page Hypothesis Three ................... 118 Hypothesis 3.1 .................. 118 Hypothesis 3.2 .................. 120 Hypothesis 3.3 .................. 122 Summary of Hypothesis Three ........... 123 Hypothesis Four ................... 123 Hypothesis 4.1 .................. 124 Hypothesis 4.2 .................. 125 Hypothesis 4.3 .................. 127 Hypothesis 4.4 .................. 128 Hypothesis 4.5 .................. 130 Hypothesis 4.6 .................. 133 Hypothesis 4.7 .................. 134 Summary of Hypothesis Four ............ 135 Hypothesis Five ................... 137 Hypothesis 5.1 .................. 138 Hypothesis 5.2 .................. 141 Hypothesis 5.3 .................. 144 Hypothesis 5.4 .................. 146 Hypothesis 5.5 .................. 147 Hypothesis 5.6 .................. 149 Hypothesis 5.7 .................. 152 Hypothesis 5.8 .................. 154 Summary of Hypothesis Five ............ 154 Hypothesis Six .................... 156 Hypothesis 6.1 .................. 157 Hypothesis 6.2 .................. 158 Hypothesis 6.3 .................. 160 Hypothesis 6.4 .................. 162 Hypothesis 6.5 .................. 164 Hypothesis 6.6 .................. 166 Summary of Hypothesis Six ............ 168 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Chapter Page Hypothesis Seven ................... 170 Hypothesis 7.1 .................. 170 Hypothesis 7.2 .................. 172 Hypothesis 7.3 .................. 173 Hypothesis 7.4 .................. 175 Hypothesis 7.5 .................. 176 Hypothesis 7.6 .................. 177 Hypothesis 7.7 .................. 179 Hypothesis 7.8 .................. 181 Hypothesis 7.9 .................. 183 Summary of Hypothesis Seven ........... 184 Hypothesis Eight ................... 185 Hypothesis 8.1 .................. 186 Hypothesis 8.2 .................. 186 Hypothesis 8.3 .................. 189 Hypothesis 8.4 .................. 191 Hypothesis 8.5 .................. 193 Hypothesis 8.6 .................. 193 Hypothesis 8.7 .................. 195 Hypothesis 8.8 .................. 198 Summary of Hypothesis Eight ........... 199 Summary of Analysis ................. 200 V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ................. 207 Summary . . . . . .................. 207 Conclusions ..................... 215 APPENDIX. . . . ......................... 219 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................... 223 ix Table 1.1. 1.2. 1.3. 1.4. 1.5. 1.6. 2.1. 2.2. 3.1. 4.1.1. 4.1.2. 4.1.3. 4.1.4. LIST OF TABLES POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN 1964 BY REGION REPORTED BY NELSON AND O'CONNOR ................ POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN 1964 BY RANK REPORTED BY NELSON AND O'CONNOR ................ POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN THE DETROIT METROPOLITAN REGION: YEARS OF COLLEGIATE WORK COMPLETED BY RECRUITS 1968 IACP POLICE ROLE STUDY ............. SUMMARY OF PRIOR STUDIES OF COLLEGIATE EDUCATION OF POLICE ...................... EMPLOYMENT PATTERNS OF NEW POLICE PERSONNEL WITH BACCALAUREATE DEGREES IN MICHIGAN. JANUARY- SPETEMBER 1971 .................... CITIZEN COMPLAINTS RADIOED TO PATROL VEHICLES SYRACUSE POLICE DEPARTMENT JUNE 3-9. 1966 (BASED ON A ONE-FIFTH SAMPLE OF A WEEK'S CALLS) ....... JOB ASSIGNMENTS FOR PATROLMEN NEW YORK CITY, 1969 . . . . QUESTIONNAIRE DISTRIBUTION AND RESPONSE PATTERN . . . . LEVEL OF EDUCATION OF POLICE RECRUITS, 1972-73 ..... ACADEMIC DEGREES RECEIVED BY POLICE RECRUITS, 1972-73 . . TYPE OF AGENCY AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION ......... SIZE OF AGENCY AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION ......... X 1965 .................... Page 19 20 21 23 25 3O 53 54 84 100 103 105 107 LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table 4.2.1. 4.2.2. 4.2.3. 4.2.4. 4.2.5. 4.3.1. 4.3.2. 4.3.3. 4.4.1. 4.4.2. 4.4.3. 4.4.4. 4.4.5. LEEP ASSISTANCE RECEIVED PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT . . LEVELS OF EDUCATION AND LEEP ASSISTANCE PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT ................... ACADEMIC DEGREE AND RECEIPT OF LEEP ASSISTANCE PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT .................. ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND RECEIPT OF LEEP ASSISTANCE PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT ....................... MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY AND LEEP ASSISTANCE RECEIVED PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT .......... PRIOR INVOLVEMENT IN POLICE CADET PROGRAM AMONG RECRUITS WITH SOME COLLEGIATE TRAINING ......... ACADEMIC DEGREE AND PRIOR INVOLVEMENT IN POLICE CADET PROGRAM ........................ ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND PRIOR INVOLVEMENT IN POLICE CADET PROGRAM ....... IMPORTANCE OF THE EXISTENCE OF EDUCATIONAL REWARD IN CHOICE OF A PARTICULAR AGENCY ............. AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION ................ PROXIMITY OF PRESENT EMPLOYMENT TO HOME TOWN AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION ....... ANTICIPATED TENURE IN PRESENT AGENCY AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION ............. RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY ....................... xi Page 109 111 113 114 116 119 121 122 124 126 128 129 131 LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table 4.4.6. 4.4.7. 4.5.1. 4.5.2. 4.5.3. 4.5.4. 4.5.5. 4.5.6. 4.5.7. 4.5.8. 4.6.1. 4.6.2. Page PREVIOUS POLICE EMPLOYMENT AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION .................. 134 LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND RELATIVE ATTRACTION OF VARIOUS EDUCATIONAL REWARD PROGRAMS .............. 136 LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATION AFFECTING CHOICE OF A PARTICULAR AGENCY ........ 139 TIME FRAME OF DECISION TO PURSUE LAW ENFORCEMENT CAREER AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY ....................... 143 PRESENT EMPLOYMENT'S PROXIMITY TO HOME TOWN AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY ....................... 145 PRESENT EMPLOYMENT'S PROXIMITY TO HOME TOWN AND EMPLOYMENT BY AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT ...... 147 EMPLOYMENT BY AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY ....................... 149 SIZE OF AGENCY AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE .................... 151 SIZE OF AGENCY AND PRESENT EMPLOYMENT'S PROXIMITY TO HOME TOWN ...................... 153 PREVIOUS POLICE EMPLOYMENT AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATION ON CHOICE OF AGENCY ........... 155 'STARTING ANNUAL SALARY AND LEVEL OF COLLEGIATE EDUCATION ....................... 159 INITIAL ANNUAL SALARY AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF A PARTICULAR AGENCY ........ 161 xii LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table 4.6.3. 4.6.4. 4.6.5. 4.6.6. 4.7.1. 4.7.2. 4.7.3. 4.7.4. 4.7.5. 4.7.6. 4.7.7. 4.7.8. 4.7.9. 4.8.1. INITIAL ANNUAL SALARY AND EMPLOYMENT BY AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT ................ INITIAL ANNUAL SALARY AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION .................. INITIAL ANNUAL SALARY AND PRESENT EMPLOYMENT'S PROXIMITY TO HOME TOWN ................. INITIAL ANNUAL SALARY AND PRIOR POLICE EMPLOYMENT . . . . LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND ANTICIPATED TENURE OF EMPLOYMENT IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD ............... ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND ACADEMIC DEGREE RECEIVED ................ ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND TIME FRAME OF DECISION TO PURSUE LAW ENFORCEMENT CAREER ......................... ANTICIPATED TENURE IN PRESENT AGENCY CONTRASTED TO ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD ...... LEVELS OF EDUCATION AND ANTICIPATED TENURE OF EMPLOYMENT IN PRESENT AGENCY .............. ANTICIPATED TENURE IN PRESENT AGENCY AND EMPLOYMENT BY AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT ............. ANTICIPATED TENURE IN PRESENT AGENCY AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY ....... INITIAL ANNUAL SALARY AND ANTICIPATED TENURE OF EMPLOYMENT IN PRESENT AGENCY ............. SIZE OF AGENCY AND ANTICIPATED TENURE OF EMPLOYMENT IN PRESENT AGENCY .................. MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY ............ xiii Page 163 165 167 169 171 173 174 175 177 178 180 182 183 187 LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table 4.8.2. 4.8.3. 4.8.4. 4.8.5. 4.8.6. 4.8.7. 4.8.8. LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY. . ACADEMIC DEGREE AND MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY . . . ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY ............ MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY ....... AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT AND MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY .................... MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION ................ PRESENT EMPLOYMENT'S PROXIMITY TO HOME TOWN AND MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY ............... xiv Page 188 190 192 194 196 197 199 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM During the past decade, various individuals.and groups representing many areas of public responsibility have called for the upgrading of America's police personnel. Concern with the quality of the nation's police has been intensified by continued social upheaval in our society, rising street crime--ghetto riots, and disorders related to policitcal protest catalyzing demand for the improvement of law enforcement personnel. Although no law enfocement system could or should entirely control social problems generated by broad cultural changes, nevertheless it is apparent that:ineffectua1 police response to public distress has often fur- thered serious avoidable manifestations of the problems. Proliferate eFforts are thus underway to improve the caliber of police personnel and, more particularly, the educational backgrounds of these per- sonnel. This study evaluates certain aspects of the impact of such efforts. Need for the Study Crime: Primary Catalyst for Upgrading It is difficult to exaggerate the impact of crime on American life in the last decade. Despite some doubts in the accuracy of crime statistics, it is apparent that crime has increased sharply. Uniform crime reports for 1972 indicate a rise of forty—seven percent in the last five years (Figure 1.1). CRIME AND POPULATION 1967 - 1972 PERCENT CHANGE OVER 1967 CRIME: CRIME INDEX OFFENSES CRIME RATE = NUMBER OF OFFENSES PER 100.000 INHABITANTS +60 CRIME UP 55% o V .v" “‘ CRIME RATE +40 4"" UP 47% I”’ +30 If! 4%20 +10 ' PDPULATIDN I .......................... up 5% 0 I 1957 1958 1969 1970 1971 1972 Figure 1.1 Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Reports of the United States: 1972 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1973). p. 3. It should be noted that the crime rate in the United States did decline an overall three percent in 1972. the last prior measurable decrease of two percent reported in 1955 according to FBI records. However, a de- crease was not evident in all categories of index offenses. Violent crime continued to increase in 1972. murder by four percent over 1971. aggravated assault by six percent, and forcible rape by eleven percent} The eConomic burden of crime has risen with the crime rate. In 1967. the cost of crime was estimated at 521.000.000.000. One estimate for 1973 is 551.000.000.000 a year, more than five percent of the gross national product.2 It is necessary, however. to look beyond raw statistics citing crime rates and the cost of crime to gain a full appreciation of its impact. The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Adminis- tration of Justice cited in its 1967 report the multitude of ways in which crime affects the quality of life in America: The existence of crime. the talk about crime. the reports of crime. and the fear of crime, have eroded the basic quality of life of many Americans. A commission study conducted in high-crime areas of two large cities found that: 43% of the respondents say they stay off the streets at night because of their fear of crime; 35% say they do not speak to strangers anymore because of 'Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, “Crime Down 3%." LEAA Newsletter, 3:2 (April-May 1973), pp. l..7. 2"Crime Expense,“ U.S. News and World Report. October 26. 1970. P. 30. their fear of crime: 33% say they keep firearms in the house for protection against criminals . . . people have been impelled to uproot themselves and find new homes . . . some have become distrustful of the gov- ernment's ability, or even desire, to protect them.3 The Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals in 1973 reiter- ated these observations by noting “crime portends an exasperating cost to citizens. in terms of fear, psychic damage. and mistrust . . . no price tag can be put on the fear that as much as any other factor, is speeding the exodus from the cities. strangling businesses, and causing people to mistrust each other.“4 In 1968. for the first time in three decades of opinion sampling. the Gallop Poll found that citizens ranked crime the most serious national issue (ahead of civil rights, cost of living, and poverty), and the most important local issue as well (ahead of schools. transportation. and taxes). The same poll indicated that thirty-five percent of the American public expressed a fear of walking in their own neighborhoods at night. In January of 1973. a replication of the 1968 survey indicated that the number of individuals afraid to walk in their own neighborhood at night had risen to forty-two percent, and 3The President's Commission on Law EnforCement and Administra- tion of Justice, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society (Washington: Government Printing Office. 1967). p. 5. 4National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. A National Strategy to Reduce Crime (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1973). p. 9. that one of every five persons in the nation had been victimized by crime in the preceding year. Figuresifor central cities were even more discouraging, one out of every three persons having been victim- ized by criminal means during 1972.5 It is documented that the most personally threatening Serious crimes--murder. rape, robbery, burglary--happen most often in the slums of large cities. Repeated studies show that the offenses, the victims, the offenders. are found most frequently in urban centers. particularly among the minority populations in these centers. The Eisenhower Com- mission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence cited a direct rela-4 tionship between popular violence and failure in the administration of justice. In the case of the ghetto riots in the 1960's. participants. when subsequently questioned about their motives. stated quite expli- citly that they had been protesting against police misconduct and racial disorimination (Commission on Law Enforcement and the Adminis- tration of Justice). The Kerner Commission Report on Civil Disorders documented two major grievances of persons involved in disorders: 1) the ineffectiveness of the political structure in disposing of grievances. and 2) discrimination in the administration of justice. ¥ 5“Special Report on Crime in the United States," The Gallop M, January, 1973’ pp. 3'17. Thus the effects of crime exceed the impact of individual victimization: national social order and styles of life are affected as well. Concensus‘Agreement: Upgrade the Police Crime as a phenomenon is extremely complex. its incidence during any given time resulting from varied social dynamics. Police charged with controlling it are one component of a criminal justice system consisting of legislative. prosecutorial. judicial. and cor- rective elements. Numerically accounting for sixty-four percent of criminal justice personnel and fifty-nine percent of criminal justice procedures.6 what the police can and cannot do is still very much constrained by the other components of the system. Nevertheless study commissions convened to investigate crime and its attendant social ills unanimously recognize inadequate or in- effective police response as contributing significantly to the problem of crime in this country. The Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice has pointed out that: —¥ 6Expenditure and Employment Data 1970-71. Department of Jus- the/LEAA and Department of Commerce/Bureau of the Census, April 1973. ppo 5‘7. The failure to establish high professional standards in police service has been a costly one, both for the police and for society. ‘Existing selection requirements and procedures for the majority of departments . . . do not screen out the unfit . . . the quality of police service will not significantly improve until higher educational requirements are established for its per- sonnel.7 The Commission recommends eventual establishment of a baccalaureate requirement of all police personnel. The Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals has suggested a specific time-table for the implementation of a baccalau- reate requirement: 1. Every police agency should require immediately. as a condition of initial employment. the completion .of at least 1 year of education (30 semester units) at an accredited college or university. Otherwise. qualified police applicants who do not satisfy this condition. but who have earned a high school diploma or its equivalent. should be employed under a con- tract requiring completion of the educational re- quirement within 3 years of initial employment. 2. Every police agency should. no later than 1975. require as a condition of initial employment the completion of at least 2 years of education (60 semester units) at an accredited college or univer- sity. 3. Every police agency should. no later than 1978, require as a condition of initial employment the completion of at least 3 years of education (90 semester units) at an accredited college or univer- sity. - 7President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice, Task Force Report: The Police (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1967). pp. 125. 126. 4. Every police agency should. no later than 1982. require as a condition of initial employment the completion of at least 4 years of education (120 semester units or a baccalaureate degree) at an accredited college or university.8 Similarly raised general standards for police are recommended by other governmental commissions. As observed by the Governor's Mutual Assistance Program for Criminal Justice: Police work is largely social in nature in that policemen deal with people on a one-to-one rela- tionship. These people may be the victims of crimes. witnesses to crimes. suspects in crimes. or, more usually. persons in need of one of a variety of miscellaneous services provided by the police. And. a policeman‘s work is usually conducted in a public situation of one kind or another; for this reason the key to successful police work rests primarily with the quality of the individual police officer. Accordingly. im- provement of police personnel is the most imBor- tant facet of improving the police function. The Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations recommended that at the earliest practicable time state law mandate that no person be appointed law enforcement officer unless "the holder of a bachelor's 10 degree from an accredited institution.“ A Task Force on Education 8National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. Report on the Police (Washington: Government Printing Office. 1973). p. 369. 9Governors' Mutual Assistance Program for Criminal Justice. Where We Stand in the Fight Against Crime (Washington: National Gov- ernors Conference. 1973). p. 49. 'oAdvisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. For a More Perfect Union--Police Reform (Washington. 0.0.: Government Printing Office. 1971). p. 7. and Training formulated by the Police Foundation (subsidiary of the Ford Foundation) recommended that as part of the primary thrust of the Foundation's efforts to assist police agencies it “should stimulate massive, imaginative. and systematic recruitment of college graduates 11 for police departments.“ The American Bar Association in its publi- cation Standards for the Urban Police Function recommended that: College graduates should be encouraged to apply for employment with police agencies. Individuals aspir- ing to careers in police agencies and those currently employed as police officers should be encouraged to advance their education at the college level. Commun- ities should support further educational achievement on the part of police personnel by adopting such de- vices as educational iNCentive pay plans. and by grad- ually instituting requirements for the completion of' specified periods of College work as a prerequisite for initial appointment and for promotion.12 Similar recommendations were made by the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders.'3 14 and the Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence. "Police Foundation. "Education and Training Task Force Report“ (Unpublished report of the Police Foundation. a subsidiary of the Ford Foundation, 1972). p. 40. 'ZAmerican Bar Association Project on Standards for Criminal Justice. The Urban Police Function (New York: American Bar Association. 1972) 9 p- 20. '3Report on the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (New York: Bantam Books. 1968). Chapter 11. 14To Establish Justice, to Insure Tranquility: Final Report on the Causes and Prevention of Violence (Washington: U.S. Printing Office. 1969). Chapter 3. paragraph 76. and Appendix 1. paragraph 275. 10 The recommendation of these numerous commissions that improve- ment of the quality of police personnel would improve the effectiveness of the American police service were not made without careful consider- ation of existihg alternatives. However. it has been established for4 ‘ some time that saturating the streets with policemen is not the answer. The 1967 President's Commission observed that the ratdos of police per thousand population in éities over 500:000 range from 1.2’to 5.4. but that no discernable relationships exist between these ratios and re? ported rates of crime. A second alternative to personnel improvement is the improve- ment of police operations per se. However. since improvement of oper- ations is intrinsically related to quality of staff. a point of dimin- ishing returns is soon reached if efforts are concentrated solely on technology and systems. Ultimately consideration again reverts to the need for improving the quality of police personnel by improving educa- tional standards: Education is an indispensable prerequisite for the type of officer needed today. It tends to diminish authori- tarianism. broaden the outlook. and instill self- discipline and reasoned thinking. To take advantage of the scientific aids now coming to the fore, the officer must additionally have a thorough grounding in the sciences.15 15William W. Turner. The Police Establishment (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. 1968). p. 257. 11 It has been observed that “some twenty professional groups. including law. medicine. engineering. architecture. teaching. veteri- nary medicine. pharmacy, etc.’. . . have set minimum academic require- ments . . . to improve the quality and economic status of their practitioners in order to protect the public. . . ."'6 The implication for the police service is obvious. It is interesting to note the contrast between the amount of training received by police in the United States and certain European nations. In Denmark. for example. a new police officer spends five years in a combination of work experience and class preparation before he is considered fully trained. In Sweden. a minimum of one year of training is required. In Germany, three to four years of instruction and training are provided before the recruit becomes a member of the Schutz Polizei.'7 These requirements contrast sharply with the amount of training now usually required of the typical American municipal police officer: between eight and twelve weeks in a police academy. Quinn Tamm. Executive Director of the International Association of Chiefs of Police. commented: '6A. C. Germann as quoted in George H. Brereton. “The Impor- tance of Training and Education in the Professionalization of Law Enforcement," Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science (58:2). pp. 112. 113. '7George E. Berkley. The Democratic Policeman (Boston: The Beacon Press. 1969). pp. 77-83. 12 It is nonsense to state or to assume that the enforce- ment of the law is so simple that it can be done best by those unencumbered by a study of the liberal arts. The man who goes into our streets in hopes of regulat- ing, directing. or controlling human behavior must be armed with more than a gun and the ability to perform mechanical movements in response to a situation. Such men as these engage in the difficult. complex, and im- portant business of human behavior. Their intellectual armament--so long restricted to the minimum--must be no less than their physical prowess and protection. Orlando W. Wilson. former Chicago police superintendent and professor of police science. amplified Tamm's remarks by offering the following rationale of employing college-trained policemen: While university training will not make a competent person of one who is intellectually inferior or otherwise deficient. when all other factors are equal the university-trained man is better qualified for police-service than one who has graduated only from high school. He has had broader experience with people and new situations; his adaptability has been tested; he has had the opportunity to meet students of many different nationalities. cultural backgrounds. and racial characteristics. and. con- sequently. should have lost much of any previous bias or prejudice he may have held. His studies will have given him a new perspective on the prob- lems and aspirations common to all men. and he will have learned to some degree to withold judgement and restrain his actions and impulses in favor of calm consideration and analysis.19 18Quinn Tamm. "A Change for the Better," The Police Chief, 29:5 (May 1962), p. 5. 19Orlando W. Wilson, Police Administration (New York: McGraw- Hill Publishing, 1963). p. 139. 13 Other authorities too numerous to individually quote who have made outstanding contributions to the law enforcement field have also advo- cated higher educational standards for police personnel.20 In summary. the consensus of both study commissions and indi- vidual authorities in the field is that to improve law enforcement, the quality of the individual police officer must be upgraded. and the most effective means is by the imposition of higher educational stand- ards. The need to improve the quality of police personnel was first recognized in the recommendations of the Wickersham Crime Commission in 1931. Since that time the effort to infuse higher educational standards into the selection criteria for police officers has steadily gained momentum. The real turning point was reached. however. in 1967 with the recommendations of the President's Comnission on Law Enforce- ment and the Administration of Justice, resulting in passage of the Omnibus Safe Streets and Crime Control Act of 1968. 20August Vollmer in The Police and Modern Society; V. A. Leonard in Police Personnel Management; Raymond Fosdick in American Police Systems; Clark and Chapman in Forward Steo;_ Educational Back- grounds for Police; Louis Radelet in The Police and the Community: Thomas Frost in A Forward Look in Police Education; Wilson E. Purdy in The Police Chief (32:16); William Parker in Journal of Criminal Law. Criminology and Police Science (55:2); Allen Gammage in Police Training in the United States; Donal MacNamara in Public Administra- tion Review (10:187). 14 Koy to the Upgrading Effort: The Safe Streets Act In the Presidential campaign of 1964. crime became for the first time a political issue. The federal government reacted by initiating a program of federal assistance to local law enforcement agencies. Beginning with the Law Enforcement Assistance Act of 1965. federal support attained massive proportions with the passage of the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968, PL 90-351. The Act created the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA) as the agency within the federal Department of Justice responsible for a nationally coordinated effort to control crime. From an initial budget of $63,000,000 in fascal 1969. LEAA funding had climbed to $I,ooo.ooo,ooo in 1973.2' In keeping with the recommendations above enumerated. the upgrading of police personnél was made an important part of the Act. Section 406 established a program designed to en- courage the pursuit of higher education by both present and potential police officers (Law Enforcement Education Program--LEEP). The sta- tute authroized grants "for tuition and fees not exceeding $200 per academic quarter or $300 per semester . . . for officers of any pub- licly funded agency." and “loans not to exceed $1800 per academic 2'Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. "Nixon Signs Bill Extending LEAA." LEAA Newsletter. 3:7 (September-October 1973). p. 33. 15 year for pre-service students intending to seek employment in a law en- 22 In 1973, the grants were increased to $250 per forcement agency." quarter or $400 per semester. and the loans to $2,200 per academic year. Grants are forgivable at the rate of twenty-five percent per year for each year of service with a criminal justice agency following comple- tion of academic work. Three and a quarter million dollars in such funds were granted in 1969: $16,000,000 in 1970; $25,000,000 in 1971; $29,000,000 in 1972; and $40,000,000 in 1973. In the 1972-73 academic year. some 95,000 students at 990 institutions received LEEP aid. The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration estimates that fifty-four per- cent of all criminal justice students are receiving LEEP aid. Of these, eighty-four percent--79.391--are in-service students, and sixteen per- cent--15.609--are pre-service students. Since the LEEP program began in 1969. some 135,000 students have received LEEP aid totaling $110,000,000. The vast majority of these are either police officers or students intending to enter the police service.23 Police personnel have, throughout the program, constituted approximately eighty percent 0f the students, corrections personnel fourteen percent. and court and related personnel the other five percent. It should be noted that 22Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Third Annual Report (”astrington: Government Printing Office. 1972). pp. 81-82. 23Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, "LEEP Aids 95.000 StiltZlents at 990 Schools." LEAA Newsletter, 3:7 (September-October 1973). p. 35. 16 although in-service personnel constitute eighty percent of LEEP recip- ients, they are allocated only sixty percent of the funds, loan recip— ients being eligible to receive more assistance than grant recipients. The LEEP program cannot be classified as anything but a sig- nificant success, undoubtedly responsible for proliferate growth in the number of criminal justice academic programs in the last decade. Requests for funds from institutions have exceeded available amounts since 1971. and, as the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration notes: many inStitutions begin LEEP participation with the sole intent of providing grants to part-time in- service officers. But program experience over three years shows that, more often than not. the initial concern and commitment of the academic community tend to expand and deepen.25 The number of criminal justice programs grew from 184 in 1966 to 515 in 1972. a growth rate whose impact is now being felt in police agencies themselves. In a questionnaire distributed by LEAA to 2.400 criminal justice agencies, eighty percent of the agencies were familiar With LEEP. Agencies with no knowledge of LEEP, were. almost without excePtion. units of fewer than ten employees. Of the agencies parti- CIPairing in LEEP, fifty-two percent observed that LEEP had contributed 24LEAA Third Annual Report. op. cit.. p. 84. 25Ibid. 17 to improved performance by individuals in law enforcement. thirty-eight percent deferred judgment regarding impact. and ten percent observed no impact of the program.26 But the real impact of the LEEP program is not, of course, perceptible in numbers of academic programs initiated or the receptiv- ity of police agencies to it. To evaluate the impact of the program in upgrading the educational levels of police personnel, it is neces- sary to compare the current levels with those existent prior to LEEP. Educational Uogoodino;_ How Great an Impact? Efforts to ascertain the education of police officers have been sporadic and unsystematically conducted. Heretofore data have been either limited to a single agency (most notably the New York City Police Department) or incidental to obtaining information for some other purpose. In common with the employment market at large. police service occupied relatively few college graduates prior to the 1930's. Excep- tions to this general condition did exist in Berkeley, California. where a unique relationship between police and the University of California was cultivated by August Vollmer. and during the depression 26Ibid., p. 86. 18 when otherwise unemployed or low paid college graduates applied for police employment.27 By June 1940. of the 300 recruits appointed to the New York City Police Department more than half held college de- grees.28 However. as general economic conditions improved duringIand after the Second World War. that statistic depreciated dramatically.29 By 1950 a Special report released as part of the census indicated the median of school years completed by all officers in the United States as 11.7. Disaggregation of the data revealed that fifty-three percent had not completed high school, thirty-four percent were high school graduates. nine percent had one to three years of college. and three percent had four or more years of college.30 27John H. McNamara. “Uncertainties in Police Work: The Rele- vance of Police Recruits' Backgrounds and Training" in David Bordna. ed., The Police: Six Sociological Essays (New York: Johaniley and Sons. 1967). p. 166. 28Arthur Niederhoffer. Behind the Shield: The Police in Urban Society (Garden City. N.Y.: Doubleday and Co.. Inc.. 1967). p. 17. Niederhoffer notes that: "These middle-class college men formed the nucleus of the future elite group; before long they began to try to raise the prestige of the police occupation to match their own middle- class ideologies and attainments: to transform it into a profession." 29John H. McNamara. loc. cit. 301950 United States Census of Population. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of Census Special Report. P.E., Table II, pp. 81-120 and No. 18. Table 10. pp. 18-113. as quoted in William J. Yankee, "A Description and Evaluation of the Associate Degree Law Enforcement Curricula in the Public Community and Junior Colleges of Michigan“ (Michigan State University: unpublished Ph.D. dissertation. 1970). p. 6. 19 The next available information comes from data gathered a decade later in Portland, Oregon. During the period 1959-1962, of 116 men appointed to the Portland, Oregon, Police Department, no more than three percent were college graduates.3' Information on police educational levels in 1964 was obtained from a nationwide sample taken by O'Connor and Watson as part of a study of the police role in juvenile delinquency and crime. These data, based upon responses from 6.330 police officers. are presented in Tables 1.1 and 1.2. TABLE 1.1 POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN 1964 BY REGION REPORTED BY NELSON AND O'CONNOR Percent Percent Having States by Region Attending College One or More Degrees New England 18.0 4.9 Middle Atlantic 17.6 4.1 South Atlantic 21.6 5.2 Eastern No. Central 27.4 6.4 Eastern So. Central 24.2 4.8 Western No. Central 27.7 4.6 Western 50. Central 37.1 6.0 Mountain 39.8 4.6 Pacific 55.5 18.6 Mean 30.3 7.3 Source: George W. O'Connor and Nelson A. Watson. Juvenile Delinquenoy_ and Youth Crime: The Police Role (Gaithersburg. Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police. 1964), p. 79. 3'Neiderhoffer, Behind the Shield. op. cit.. p. 40. 20 TABLE 1.2 POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN 1964 BY RANK REPORTED BY NELSON AND O'CONNOR Rank Percent Attending Percent Having College One or More Degrees Patrolman 25.7 4.4 Detectives 28.8 6.0 Juvenile Officers 38.8 13.4 Administrators 33.6 9.2 Source: gold. Two facts should be particularly noted regarding these data. First, the Pacific states reported much higher educational levels. This is due to the early development of academic programs in law enforcement in California. Secondly, the term gogrog_as utilized by Nelson and O'Connor included both associate and baccalaureate attainment. The percentages reported in that category therefore do not necessarily indicate completion of four or more years of college. In 1965. Michigan State University's Institute for Community Development and School of Police Administration and Public Safety (now School of Criminal Justice) undertook an extensive study of police training needs in the Detroit Metropolitan region. The study included a survey of police training and educational levels. The 21 information gathered regarding educational levels is presented in Table 1.3. TABLE 1.3 POLICE EDUCATIONAL LEVELS IN THE DETROIT METROPOLITAN REGION: 1965 Number Percent Completion of 4 or More Years of College '83 3% Completion of 2 But < 4 Years of College 462 8% Completion of 1 But < 2 Years of College 56' '0% Less Than 1 Year of College 22' 4% High School or Less 4287 75% Total 5714 Source: Michigan State University Institute for Community Development, "Police Training in the Detroit Metropolitan Region: Recom- mendations for a Regional Approach" (Detroit: The Metropol- itan Fund, 1966). p. 69. The next measurement of police educational levels occurred in 1968. studies completed during that year including data pertaining to the amount of college completed by police officers. In the state of Ohio. it was reported that 23 percent of the police officers in four 22 cities above 100,000 in population had some college credit. and 1.9 percent of these had college degrees (the term dogroo_not specifically defined). In 163 cities in Ohio below 100,000 in population, 11.3 percent of the police officers had attended college. while 1 percent had college degrees. In summary, 1.4 percent or 66 of the 4.846 police officers in Ohio had actual college degrees. and 15.1 percent had attended college.32 A study of role concepts of police recruits conducted by the International Association of Chiefs of Police in 1968 included gather- ing data on the educational levels of police recruits in four cities: Baltimore, Cincinnati, Columbus. and Indianapolis. The agencies se- lected for study were chosen as progressive urban police departments with "outstanding leadership. a sound organizational structure, good personnel training practices. and realistic standards of police per- formance." As can be seen in Table 1.4, the caliber of such agencies attracts recruits of relatively high educational caliber. In another IACP survey conducted in 1968, unpublished data indicated that of 4.672 officers in fifty states, some five percent ‘ 32Kent State University Institute of Government Research and Service. "Police Education and Training in Ohio" (Unpublished report to the Ohio Board of Regents. 1968), pp. 22- 23. 23 TABLE 1.4 YEARS OF COLLEGIATE WORK COMPLETED BY RECRUITS 1968 IACP POLICE ROLE STUDY One Year Two Three Four Total with Percentage City or Less Years Years Years AEEAAzgfice Cityoiotal ($2123) 5 0 l 3 10 23.3% (NC:n§9) 12 3 2 1 18 45.2% (NC:1 {31) 9 2 0 I 12 38. 7% (N12d39) 5 l 2 1 9 23.1% (Noiai 52) 32 6 5 6 49 32. 5% Source: James W. Sterling, Changes in Role Concepts of Police Officers (Gaithersburg. Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police. 1972), p. 37. 33 In that same year. it was reported that 7.8 were college graduates. percent of the officers in the San Francisco Police Department had college degrees.34 In the first six months of 1969. of 1.196 New York 33Nelson A. Watson of the IACP as quoted in: Charles B. Saunders, Jr.. Upgradipg_the American Police (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution. 1970), p. 80. 34Gordon Misner as quoted in George Berkley, The Democratic Policeman, op. cit.. p. 87. 24 City Police Department recruits. 18.7 percent had completed some col- lege study, 1.2 percent having obtained associate degrees, one percent bachelors' degrees. and .1 percent (one individual) the master's de- gree."5 The last reported measure of police college educational levels was obtained from data gathered between January and September of 1971 in Michigan. Of 1133 officers employed in Michigan during that period some 27% had some college background, while an additional 10% had com- pleted four or more years of college.36 Table 1.5 summarizes the information gathered to date regard- ing police college educational levels. Purpose of the Study, Although we know that as a result of the Law Enforcement Education Program. as well as other efforts, a significant impact is being made on upgrading police educational standards. specific data 35George P. McManus, and others, Police Training_and Perform- ance Study, a report of the National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office. 1970). p. 37. 36William C. Nash, “A Study of the Employment Patterns of College Educated Officers in Michigan Police Agencies" (Unpublished mimeographed research paper. Michigan State University, 1972). PP. 7-11. 25 'TABLE 1.5 SUMMARY OF PRIOR STUDIES OF COLLEGIATE EDUCATION OF POLICE Year Location 2$§r3;::022;{/ % EDINezgme Bacza¥gfiteate Degree 1950 National All Personnel 12 3 1960 Portland Recruits - 3 1964 National A11 Personnel 30 - 1965 Detroit All Personnel 25 3 1968 Ohio All Personnel 16 2 1968 Balt., Cinn., Recruits 32 4 Colb.. Idpl. 1968 National All Personnel - 5 1968 San Francisco All Personnel - 8 1969 New York City Recruits 19 1 1971 Michigan Recruits 37 10 Note: With Some College includes the percentage with a baccalaureate degree. 26 regarding that impact is lacking. Necessary istinformation based on a national sampling of the current educational backgrounds brought to the profession by newly employed police personnel. The purpose of this study is to gather data on the current educational levels of police recruits as well as related information pertaining to the criteria employed by college educated personnel in selecting a particular agency. Such information will prove useful in several respects to policy decisions regarding the allocation of re- sources for the educational upgrading effort. More specifically. the information is applicable to policy decisions regarding the Law En- forcement Education Program, implementation of police cadet programs. implementation of agency reward programs for completed education. agency-recruitment efforts, and the development of academic programs in law enforcement or criminal justice. The nature of such applica- tion is explained in the following Statement and Rationale of Hypotheses. Statement and Rationale of Hypotheses Eight research hypotheses are addressed in this study. Sub- sumed within the context of these eight research hypotheses are fifty statistically viable hypotheses. The research hypotheses themselves 27 are not statistically viable. but must be either accepted or rejected on the basis of the statistically viable hypotheses which pertain. The eight research hypotheses are given below. the statistically viable hypotheses which apply to each are presented in Chapters III and IV. 1. Individuals with a collegiate background are now entering the police service in impressively large numbers. The Law Enforcement Education Program has significantly contributed to raising the educational level of police recruits. Police cadet programs have significantly contributed to raising the educational level of police recruits. Agency reward programs for completed college education have significantly contributed to raising the educa- tional level of police recruits. Agency prestige is the primary consideration of collegiate‘ recruits in selection of a particular agency. Starting annual salary is a significant consideration of collegiate recrUits in selection of a particular agency. Anticipated tenure in both present employing agencies and the criminal justice field is influenced by level of education. Police recruits whose academic major is law enforcement are more committed to a career in lawenforcement than 'those majoring in other areas. Rationale for Hypothesis 1: Individuals with a collegiate background'are now entering the police service in impressively large numbers. 28 Of primary importance in evaluating the impact of efforts to upgrade educational levels is a data base assessing the total impact of all programs to professionalize the police. One aspect of such a base should be information of the average educational levels of en- tering personnel in 1973 compared to 1975. compared to 1977, etc. An educational standard of either a required associate or baccalau- i reate degree has been recommended in a number of studies. but its feasibility cannot be assessed without data indicative of the educa- tional status of entering personnel. Also necessary is basic information of the size and type of agency to which educated personnel are attracted. Although crime is not exclusively a "big city“ problem, it is widely recognized to have the greatest impact on the quality of life within large urban areas; the Safe Streets Act. for example. has been characterized as a "federal lifeline thrown to our large cities.“ It is concommi- tantly evident that professionalization of metropolitan police is the most problematic aspect of general upgrading efforts. James O. Wilson comments: First, the prospects for a high level of profession- alism in the police forces of many--if not most--large American cities seem dim. There are not in these cities either the governmental arrangements or the in- stitutionalized political ethos necessary to support professionalism against the opposing forces represented by the conditions of the central city. As many large 29 cities fill up with lower-income people-~Negroes. Puerto Ricans or rural whites--the police problem may grow worse. The incidence of hostile police-citizen contacts will likely increase rather than decrease. Further. if there is a continued migration of middle-class home- owners and business firms to the suburbs, the tax re- sources necessary to support police work may decline at the same time that the cost of law enforcement rises.37 This prognosis is supported by some preliminary data that indi- cate that large metropolitan police agencies are not attracting their share of the collegiate personnel entering law enforcement. In an analysis of police employment in Michigan municipal agencies for the first nine months of 1971. the pattern of employment depicted in Table 1.6 was revealed. These data indicate that medium-sized agencies are attracting a higher proportion of collegiate personnel than "big city“ departments (in this case. the Class V agencies are the Detroit Police Department and Wayne County Sheriff's Department). Such information has impli- cations for educational funding programs. If this pattern is nation— wide, an attempt might be made to direct collegiate personnel to urban agencies by redirecting educational funding to urban colleges. or by offering monetary incentives for employment in such agencies (accel- erated forgiveness of LEEP loans?). Obviously current employment 37James O. Wilson. "The Police and Their Problems: A Theory" in Niederhoffer and Blumberg. ed., The Ambivalent Force: Perspectives go_the Police (Waltham. Mass.: Xerox Publishing. 1970). p. 306. 30 TABLE 1.6 EMPLOYMENT PATTERNS OF NEW POLICE PERSONNEL WITH BACCALAUREATE DEGREES IN MICHIGAN, JANUARY-SEPTEMBER 1971 Size of Agency: No. of Sworn Persons Class I Class II ClassifIII Class IV Class V (l-lO) (ll-50) (51-100) (101-500) (500+) Percent of Total Entering Personnel in Agency Class 5.3% 15.0% 12.4% 10.6% 8.1% With Baccalaureate Degree Source: William C. Nash. loc. cit. patterns of collegiate personnel have important implications for the future of law enforcement. Hence. Hypothesis One addresses not only aggregate educational levels of police recruits, but educational level by character and size of agency as well. Rationale for Hypothesis 2: The Law Enforcement Education Program has significantly contributed to raising the educational level of police recruits. Any policy evaluation of the LEEP program should include an assessment of its impact on attracting pre-service personnel to the profession. We do not now know what percentage of newly employed police officers with a college education received such an education 31 as a result of the LEEP program. The allocative decisions with regard to LEEP funds might be considerably different if. for instance, only twenty percent of newly employed college educated police personnel were "products" of the LEEP program, versus the possibility that ninety percent of such personnel are entering law enforcement as a result of LEEP. If the former is true. then a strong argument can be offered for deemphasizing the pre-service aspect of LEEP. At the same time. if the latter is true, then the opposite argument can be offered. In addition. evaluation of the program also should include an assessment of the degree to which LEEP enhances completion of academic studies and cultivates a commitment to a career in the criminal justice field. Hence. Hypothesis 2 concerns the impact of the Law Enforcement Educa- tion Program in these respects. Rationale for Hypothesis 3: Police cadet programs have sig- nificantly contributed to raising the edvcational level of’police recruits. One of the means suggested for attracting better qualified personnel to the police service has been the implementation of police cadet programs. The initiation of such programs was one of the spe- cific recommendations included in the report of the 1967 President's Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of Justice. loo Challenge of Crime in a Free Society. A cadet program is an 32 arrangement by which a young person 18-21 years of age is employed in a part-time capacity by a police agency (usually twenty hours per week) while he or she at the same time attends college classes. The cadet is a civilian employee. but iS‘utilized in various capacities which are intended to provide him with a career orientation to the police service. Upon reaching 21 years of age. it is understood that the police cadet will be employed as a police officer with the agency. Duties assigned cadets vary significantly from agency to agency and include such work as dispatching. staffing public relations programs. lab assistance, parking meter enforcement. serving subpoenas, and miscellaneous clerical assignments. Some of the more commonly cited advantages of a cadet program are: 1. It attracts and recruits young men and women before they are committed to other occupations. 2. Long probation periods are provided by the cadet system. Potential policemen are observed for several years rather than the one-year probationary period normally established. 3. Longer training periods are provided. The cadet can and should actually be in training for police service throughout his cadet career. 4. Regular sworn personnel are released from clerical and routine duties for assignment to basic police functions when cadets are available. 5. When combined with a college program. the cadet system will produce at twenty-one years of age a candidate for police service who has not only 33 received training, experience. and education, but has been closely observed over a period of years for defects in character or attitude that would adversely affect his performance as a policeman.38 It should be noted that many cadet programs were hot initially combined work-study arrangements. Some were initiated instead to merely attract promising high school graduates to police service before they embarked on another career during the three year hiatus before being eligible for police service. However. through primarily the efforts of community colleges. these programs now almost all have educational components: Through a cadet program the community college can offer to be a partner with the police department in career preparation and it is the wise police depart- ment that requires the cadet to attend his local col- lege part-time. Such a joint effort should gradually insure the adequate flow of motivated young men with some departmental orientation into the recruit ranks, but even more significant. it will incorporate higher education into the recruitment process.39 The availability of Law Enforcement Assistance Administration Grants enhanced the implementation cadet programs. A number of police agencies implemented such programs in the late 1960's with financial 38Thompson S. Crockett and James D. Stinchcomb, Guidelines for Law Enforcement Education Programs in Community and Junior Colleges (Washington: American Association of Community and Junior Colleges. 1968). p. 27. ‘ 39James D. Stinchcomb, "The Community College and Its Impact." The Police Chief. August 1966, p. 30. 34 assistance from the federal government. However. such programs have not met with overwhelming success. Three primary problems have been encountered in managing cadet programs: 1. The difficulty in identifying potentially desirable police officers at eighteen years of age. 2. Attrition rate in the programs (primarily attributed to the age of the participants). 3. Difficulty in finding meaningful assignments for which cadets are qualified outside of routine clerical duties. Precise data is not available. but it can be reasonably estimated that 25% of agencies of over 200 sworn personnel have implemented cadet programs. An effort will be made to partially assess the impact of cadet programs in this study by ascertaining the total percentage of police recruits that participated in such programs. and whether participation in such programs relates to academic degree attainment and expected tenure in the field. Rationale for Hypothesis 4: Agency reward programs for com— pleted college education have significantly contributed to raising the educational level of police recruits. 35 A third type of program included in efforts to educationally upgrade the police has been the granting of a reward for completed education to police officers. Reward programs implemented to date have been of four types: 1. A percentage salary increment. i.e.. an "x" percent annual salary bonus for those officers who have completed an academic degree, or "x" amount of dollars for each credit of college work completed; 2. A seniority salary increment, i.e.. those police recruits who have completed a certain amount of college are given a start- ing annual salary equivalent to “x“ amount of years of service; 3. Shorter time in rank before qualifying for promotion. i.e.. police officers with a baccalaureate degree or some other increment of college education are eligible to take promotional examinations in a shorter period of time than others: 4. Special preference given for particular types of assignments. such as tactical units. crisis intervention units. special investigative units. The implementation of incentive rewards for completed education has been recommended by both the President's Commission on Law 36 4O Enforcement and Administration of Justice. and the Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. The recommendation made by the Commission on Standards and Goals was very specific: Incentive pay should be provided for the attainment of specified levels of academic achievement. This pay should be in addition to any other salary incentive. It should amount to at least 2.5 percent of the em- ployee's current salary for each 30 semester units of college work completed in pursuance of a degree that will lead, directly or indirectly. to service better- ment warranting the expense of the salary incentive.4' Reward programs for completed education are only now becoming widely implemented. In 1968. according to a study of the International Association of Chiefs of Police. less than twelve percent of 427 de- partments reporting in a national selection standard survey provided 42 A preferential pay incentives for credit toward college degrees. more compreheNSive study conducted in the State of Ohio in that same year revealed that three percent of the Ohio agencies awarded salary. increments for given amounts of college work. while an additional seven and one half percent awarded extra points (credit) towards pro- motional examination grades.43 40Task Force Report: The Police, op, cit.. p. 140. 4'Report on the Police. op. cit.. p. 372. '42Unpublished 1968 IACP training survey as quoted in Saunders, op. cit.. p. 84. 43Kent State University Institute of Government Research and Service. op. cit.. p. 23. 37 The number of agencies offering a reward for completed educa- tion has grown steadily since 1968. The precise number of agencies that currently offer incentive rewards is not known. However. to illustrate the gain in the popularity of such plans. it should be noted that statewide salary incentive reward plans have been implemented by Kentucky, Florida, and Massachusetts. A statewide incentive pay plan was established by Florida's revenue sharing act of 1972. The state government reimburses each county and municipal government for parti- 44 In cipation in a state supervised police education incentive plan. 1971 the Massachusetts legislature passed the Police Pay Incentive Program, which authorizes the state to subsidize salary increases of up to fifteen percent to policemen having an associate degree. twenty percent for a bachelor's degree. and thirty percent for a masters or law degree. The city of Boston has already authorized half of these maximum allowable increases.45 A survey of West Coast police agencies. conducted by the Los Angeles Police Department in 1968, elicited such favorable comments concerning incentive salary plans as: 44Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. Report on the Police. op. cit.. p. 374. 45Jonathon Hoffman, “Can Colleges Make Better Cops?.“ College Management, November 1972, p. 16. 38 The recruitment of college-educated applicants has risen significantly . . . The increased level of education has created better community rapport . . The number of officers enrolled in or having com- pleted college has increased significantly . . .45 An attempt is made in this study to gain some additional in- sight into the impact of such programs by measuring police recruits' attitudes towards such rewards, and comparing the existence of such rewards with the employment patterns of college educcated police re- cruits. Rationale for Hypothesis 5: Agency prestige is the primary consideration of collegiate recruits in selection of a particular agency. As stated above. to measure the impact of educational upgrading efforts it is necessary to not only determine the aggregate educa- tional levels of entering police recruits, but also, to ascertain em- ployment patterns by educational level. If certain patterns do emerge. then it is also important to determine the factors which are attracting college personnel to agency "X" rather than agency "y.“ Two factors which might attract collegiate personnel to a particular agency have been alluded to in the discussion of prior hypotheses, cadet programs 46Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, loc. cit. 39 and reward programs for completed education. However. it is necessary to also attempt to ascertain what other kinds of considerations might affect the selection of a particular agency by collegiate personnel. Six factors are postulated as having possible relevance: 1. The particular agency was the only available police employment at the time. 2. The employing agency's salary was favorable compared to others. 3. The employing agency's prestige was favorable compared to others. 4. The nature of the jurisdiction (i.e.. suburban vs urban; lower-class vs middle-class. etc.) held some particular kind of appeal. 5. The particular agency's recruitment efforts were better than others. 6. The agency's career and promotion opportunities were better than others. It is wise to determine the relative importance of these factors as they bear upon choice of employment before agencies launch extensive programs to attract collegiate personnel. The ranked importance of these factors definitely affect the types of recruitment programs appropriate. Preliminary information indicates that agency prestige may be more important than the other factors listed. Following is a perti- nent excerpt from Police Compensation, a research study for the Pres- ident's Commission on Crime and Criminal Justice: 40 The Educational standard for law enforcement of less than high school will seriously affect the quality of police recruits who will be attracted to the position. There is a kind of "Gresham's Law" which operates in recruitment standards. The recruiting agency tends to attract in greatest quantity the persons who barely meet the minimum standards for the position. Persons whose educational attainment exceeds the minimum stand- ards for a position will not often apply for a position which requires lesser standards of education. The fact that a "Gresham's Law" effect does affect police recruitment efforts is supported by reports from agencies which have initiated higher educational standards. Multnomah County, Oregon, was one of the first police agencies in the country to adopt a baccalaureate requirement. In a recent article regarding that agency's experience with such a requirement, the Sheriff's Department training sergeant, James K. Weber. commented: Four hundred and twenty-nine applicants sought employment with Multnomah County in 1971. Twenty men were hired during this period reflecting a "hired" to "applied" ratio of 1:22 . . . . The baccalaureate requirement, itself. appears to have a magnetizing effect on recruiting graduates. The appeal to work for a police agency requiring four years of college as an entrance requirement has become a standard response Df applicants when asked why they applied for a position with our depart- ment.48 ' 47As quoted in Carl F. Lutz. “Overcoming Obstacles to Profes- sionalism." in Harry W. More, Jr.. Critical Issues in Law Enforcement (Cincinnati: W. H. Anderson. 1972), p. 394. 48James K. Weber, "It Can Work for You." The Police Chief, 40:10 (October, 1973). p. 41. 41 A similar observation was elicited from William F. Danielson, Director of Personnel for the city of Berkeley. California: For several years the cities of San Jose and Berkeley have required two years of college to apply for police positions. It has been my experience in Berkeley. and I understand in San Jose as well. that many’college graduates and young men with substan- tial college education have been attracted to apply for police positions in these departments because oftthe high educational standard.49 These reports indicate a significant relationship between the existence of educational standards and the attraction of educated personnel. This phenomenon supports the inference that agency prestige is primary among considerations to seek employment with a particular agency by collegiate personnel. Rationale for Hypothesis 6: Starting annual salary is a sig- nificant consideration of'collegiate recruits in selection of’a par- ticular agency. Whenever thought is given to upgrading a particular occupation. one of the first factors examined is the occupational salary level. There is considerable variation in police salary levels among sizes and types of jurisdictions: Large. suburban. and state agencies 49California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Train- ing, Symposium on Professional Police-~Fact or Fantasy, Proceedings of a Symposium Held at Goodman Hall._0akland, California, April 3, 1968 (Printed by State of California Department of Justice. 1968), p. 9. '42 tending to offer better salaries. The best salaries tend to be avail- able in large. suburban police agencies. while rural sheriff agencies offer the lowest salary levels. The reported influence of salary level on the choice of a particular agency may tend to be distorted by socially deSirable re- sponse sets. Therefore. it is important to analyze salary level in- dependent of the considerations enumerated in the rationale for Hypothesis Five. It would be reasonable to expect that salary level is at least a significant consideration (although possibly not the ' primary consideration) in determining the choice of a particular agency. Rationale for Hypothesis 7: Anticipated tenure in both present employing agencies and the criminal justice field is influenced by level of education. A scarcity of data exists relating levels of education to tenure with law enforcement agencies. There are conflicting reports from the information that has been gathered. In a study of 14 Cali- fornia jurisdictions involving some 5,000 individual cases. level of 50 education and tenure were negatively correlated. In a study of New York City police recruits. it was similarly found that: 50Ruth Levy in California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training. Symposium on Professional Police--Fact or Fantasy (1968), op. cit.. p. 42. 43 It is particularly noteworthy that one-third of the college-educated recruits in 1957 (8 out of 24) were found to have left the force by 1968. compared to 19 percent of the men who had not graduated from college . . . . The data suggest that many men who represent the Department's view of a desirable cand- idate. especially college-educated men, will have _shorter tenure than the average officer unless the Department consciously attempts to determine the source of dissatisfaction among such officers and modifies its personnel policies accordingly.51 However, a report from the Multnomah County, Oregon Sheriff's Depart- ment indicates that the attrition rate of college educated officers 52 It is thus difficUlt differs little from other police personnel. to conclude just what the influence of educational level might be with regard to tenure. and Hypothesis Seven is stated in non-directiohal terms. Rationale for Hypothesis 8: Police recruits whose academic major is law enforcement are more committed to a career in law en- forcement than those majoring in other areas. ' It would seem logical to examine not only educational levels of police recruits. but also the nature of their educational exper- ience. Individuals enter police service with diverse educational backgrounds. Although academic programs in law enforcement have pro- liferated, little documentation exists to substantiate the 5'Cohen and Chaiken. op. cit.. pp.'112, 113. 52James K. Weber. op. cit.. p. 42. 44 establishment of specific courses of study in this area, other than the obvious fact that the existence of an academic major in a partic- Ular field undoubtedly attracts more students to that ocdupational concern than would otherwise be the case. The only information that exists regarding performance of the police role among individuals with different college backgrounds is personal opinion indicating there isv. no difference in performance between those who major in law enforce- ment and those majoring in other fields of study.53 Evidence does exist. however. which indicates that those ‘ majoring in law enforcement may be more committed to a career in the field. In the study of 5,000 officers in fourteen California jurisdictions alluded to above. it was observed that more personnel who had attended police science courses before employment remained 54 It is true that one study is a scant in the law enforcement field. bit of evidence. but such evidence is bolstered by the logical sound- ness of the supposition. Hence. Hypothesis Eight postulates that law enforcement majors are more committed to a career in the field. 53One such observation was made in personal correspondence dated September 24. 1973 between the author and’Major Lou Rowlett. Director of Personnel. Baltimore Police Department: "There appears to be no significant difference in the performance of college grad- uates by their major course of study." Statements by other police administrators also support this view. ‘ 54Ruth Levy, op. cit.. p. 42. 45 Evidence supporting this hypothesis would add credibility to attempts to establish academic programs in this field of study. Relevance of the Study Whether or not current efforts to upgrade the quality of police personnel are adequate is undecided. LEEP appropriations have been leveled at approximately $40,000,000 per year, while requests from 55 institutions for funds far exceed this figure. This level of effort has been criticized as inadequate: The priorities expressed in the omnibus crime bill' of 1968 reflect the traditional faith in equipment and technology as the means to affect crime statistics. The bill creates unrealistic expectations and accen- tuates many of the pressUres which already limit police effectiveness. It may actually divert attention from the central problems of police personnel and encourage the tendencies of local departments to manipulate sta- tistics. assign arrest quotas, buy more shiny patrol cars, and otherwise engage in image-building to jus- tify further federal funds.56 The Law Enforcement Assistance Administration has been specifically criticized for failing to provide adequate support to expand faculty 55Personal conversation with Mr. Carl W. Hamm, Educational Development Program Manager, Office of Educational and Manpower ‘ Assistance. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, October 15. 1973. ' 56Charles B. Saunders. op. cit.. p. 46 resources of academic programs. Almost all aid has been in the form of student support. Many educators feel that this condition fosters development of "fly by night" programs which will collapse as soon as federal support is withdrawn. Law enforcement agencies have been even more severely attacked for inadequate efforts to attract college personnel. It should be noted that only a handful of agencies actually do recruit on college campuses, and the implementation of reward programs for completed education has often been more the result of outside prodding than self- initiated agency action. In a sense, then, the rationale for the hypotheses presented in this study all relate to an assessment of the aggregate adequacy of current efforts to educationally upgrade the police. The scope of the study will not. of course, allow definitive conclusions to be drawn with regard to each type of effort enumerated. However, the information provided will contribute to that goal. Definition of Termsv In an effort to clarify a number of terms used in a particular manner in this study. the following definitions are provided. 47 Criminal Justice: In the generic sense. criminal justice refers to the entire process or system to which an individual could be exposed from the point of commission of a crime to the point of rehabilitation. This includes the police, the courts, and correc- tional agencies. These are referred to as the criminal justice system. In terms of academic program, criminal justice refers to a unified program under which all the agencies and the relationships are con- sidered together. Law Enforcement: The term refers to those agencies which, as members of executive branches our federal, state. and local govern- ments. are invested with the power to enforce law by arrest. In terms of academic programs, law enforcement refers to those programs focusing upon the study of the police and only incidentally including consider- ation of other criminal justice agencies. Law Enforcement Major: This term is utilized herein to refer to those students whose primary college course of study was in an academic department with either a law enforcement or criminal justice orientation. .ppgg: The Law Enforcement Education Program as authorized by Section 406 of the Omnibus Safe Streets and Crime Control Act of 1968, as amended in 1970 and 1973. 48 Some College--or--Collegjate Background: These two terms are used interchangeably herein to refer to those individuals who have completed at least one year of study in an accredited institution of higher education. Format of the Study This study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One. THE PROBLEM, includes the need for the study, purpose of the study, statement and rationale of the hypotheses. relevance of the study, definition of terms, and format of the study. Chapter Two, A REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE, contains a review of the police role and its relation to higher education. Chapter Three, RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. includes the scope of the study. the nature of the sample utilized, the nature of the data gathered. and the analytic techniques utilized. Chapter Four. ANALYSIS OF.DATA. contains a presentation of the information gathered in the Study, as well as commentary regarding its meaning and significance. Chapter Five, SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. contains a synopsis of the major findings of the study, as well as commentary regarding the nature of the conclusions which can be drawn. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE In Chapter I the context of this study is described as: 1) the problem of crime as it has increased in the United States during the past decade, 2) concensus agreement that we must upgrade the quality of police personnel in order to effectively combat the problem of crime, 3) the primary initiator of upgrading efforts being the Safe Streets Act of 1968. and 4) the precise role of this study as one evaluative measure of the impact of educational upgrad- ing efforts. Had it not been for a spiraling crime rate. the magnitude of current efforts to upgrade America's police would be negligible; and hence. no need would exist for the study. Reducing crime is not. however. the only rationale for edUcationally upgrading the police. It would be remiss to leave the impression that this is the ' case. Therefore. in Chapter II the police role in our society is more closely examined as it relates to two other reasons for educa- tionally upgrading the police. 49 50 The Police Role: Diversity as a Descriptor Few people in American society really understand what consti- tutes the urban police function. The media depict the police exclu- sively as crime fighters. The crime fighting image presented takes two extremes. one characterizing the typical police officer as having the cunning of Sherlock Homes and bravado of Matt Dillon. while at the other extreme as the bumbling idiot always needing the help of a private investigator. In reality, the vast majority of urban police officers are not anything akin to crime fighters. Specific assign- ments which involve only the control of criminal conduct exist only in special tactical units or investigative bureaus, and then within certain carefully defined bounds. A second misconceived image of the police results from the traffic patrol function assigned to law enforcement. Middle-class contact with police officers is generally limited to traffic related incidents. Unfortunately such contact fosters a perception of the police role which is unduly simplistic. Traffic law enforcement in- volves few skills beyond alert observation. The function is regarded as an onerous chore by most police officers. the motivational force for vigorously performing the function characterized by the phrase "a ticket a day keeps the sergeant away.“ Yet. outside of "misinformation" 51 presented through the media, the traffic enforcement function is all the general public ever sees of the police role. Unfortunately. neither the traffic enforcement nor crime fighting function lend much credibility to platitudes to educationally upgrade the police. The crime fighting role really involves talent which would best be characterized as “craftsmanship skills" to which a college education lends very little. At the same time. the traffic envorcement function is so mundane that by no stretch of the imagina- tion is a baccalaureate degree a necessary qualification to perform the same. These functions are not. however. the heart of urban uni- form police work. The police task is far more complex and diverse than is popularly conceived. The American Bar Association comments: The police should be recognized as having complex and multiple tasks to perform in addition to identify- ing and apprehending persons committing serious crime inal offenses. Such other police tasks include pro- tection of certain rights such as to speak and to assemble, participation either directly or in con- junction with other public and social agencies in the prevention of criminal and delinquent behavior. main- tenance of order and control of pedestrian and vehi- cular traffic, resolution of conflict. and assistance to citizens in need of help such as the person who is mentall ill, the chronic alcoholic, or the drug addict. 7 57American Bar Association, The Urban Police Function, op. cit.. p. 7. 52 The diversity of the task is best illustrated by examining calls for service made to the police. Table 2.1 illustrates the nature of such requests for service in a medium-sized municipal jurisdiction. Note that only ten percent of the requests for service involve control of criminal behavior per se. A large number. thirty percent, involved the management of disputes which sometime include behavior defined as criminal. However, seldom in these situations is the sanction of arrest appropriate resolution. The remainder of the calls are re- quests for the management of non-criminal situations of some kind. However. not all of a patrolman's time is spent answering calls for service. A categorization of the percent of time spent performing various functions by police officers in New York City is presented in Table 2.2. If patrol and observation are conceived of as primarily a crime control function, then the data in Table 2.2 indicate the police role involves greater emphasis on enforcement of the criminal code than inferences based solely on calls for service. The often heard claim that only 10% of police work involves criminal conduct is therefore inaccurate. However, in most communities the vast najority of patrolman are assigned to motorized patrol. and in this instance. crime control. even broadly defined, still occupies less than half of a police officer's time. 53 TABLE 2.1 CITIZEN COMPLAINTS RADIOED TO PATROL VEHICLES SYRACUSE POLICE DEPARTMENT. JUNE 3-9. 1966 (BASED ON A ONE-FIFTH SAMPLE OF A WEEK'S CALLS) Calls Full count (sample multiplied by 5) Number in Sample Percent Information gathering Book and check Get a report Service Accidents, illnesses. ambulance calls Animals Assist a person Drunk person Escort vehicle Fire, power line or tree down Lost or found person or property Property damage Order maintenance Gang disturbance Family trouble Assault. fight Investigation Neighbor trouble Law enforcement Burglary in progress Check a car Open door. window Prowler Make an arrest Totals 69 345 117 585 94 470 32 160 312 1.560 22.1 37.5 30.1 10.3 100.0 Source: James O. Wilson, Varieties of Police Behavior (Cambridge. Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968), p. 18. 54 TABLE 2.2 JOB ASSIGNMENTS FOR PATROLMEN NEW YORK CITY. 1969 Percent of Time Job Category Foot Patrol Motorized Patrol Patrol and observation 53 36 Public service l7 l7 Investigations 4 12 Disputes l 4 Assist other agencies 0 3 Miscellaneous services 0 9 Enforcement 1 3 Reporting 2 4 Community relations 5 1 Other 16 11 Total 100 100 Source: John F. Skelly as cited in George P. McManus, op. cit.. p. 17. It has been observed that diversity in the police task is not a new phenomenon; the function of the police has always been more accurately described as "maintenance_of order“ rather than "crime 58 control." It is clear. however. that urbanization has intensified 58Victor G. Strecher. The Environment of Law Enforcement (Englewood Cliffs. N.J.: Prentice-Hall. 1971). p. 96: "From the historical accounts of policing in North America. it may be concluded that there has never really been a progression away from crime fight- ing and toward general service functions. as police folklore would have it. From the earliest days, it is cledr. those appointed to law enforcement positions were charged with solvdng all of the safety and security problems of the community as well as with enforcing laws." 55 and complicated the order maintenance function of the police. The Education and Training Task Force of the Police Foundation commented upon the change in the police role which has resulted from urbaniza- tion: There has been so vast an expansion in demands made on the police that the police really have become a dif- ferent institution. In the past. only a select group of people were ever in need of police help--that is, those people who really had no place else to turn. Urban life as we know it is so generally precarious that none of us can count ourselves safe. and all of us may at some time or another have to invoke the policeman's help in a striking variety of problems. Thus, a different kind of person is required to meet the needs of the bona-fide members of society.59 The complexity of the social role of the urban policeman is evident in the sociological description of the role offered by James O. Wilson: In sum. the order-maintenance function of the patrolman defines his role and that role, which is unlike that of any other occupation, can be described as one in which sub-professionals, working alone. exercise wide discretion in matters of utmost impor- tance (life and death. honor and dishonor) in an en- vironment that is apprehensive and perhaps hostile.60 The key term in this description of the police role is "order main- tenance function." Wilson goes on to point out that understanding the order-maintenance function of the police as it contrasts to their 59Education and Training Task Force Report. Police Foundation. op. cit.. p. 30. 60James O. Wilson. Varieties of Police Behavior. op. cit.. p. 30. 56 law enforcement function is fundamental to understanding the police role: The difference between order maintenance and law enforcement is not simply the difference between "little stuff“ and "real crime“ or between misde- meanors and felonies. The distinction is fundamental to the police role, for the two functions involve quite dissimilar police actions and judgments. Order maintenance arises out of a dispute among citizens who accuse each other of being at fault: law enforce- ment arises out of the victimization of an innocent party by a person whose guilt must be proved.61 Wilson's description of the order maintenanace function can be characterized by the terminology "management of conflict situations to bring about consensual resolution.“ In urban areas the lower socio- economic strata have come to depend upon the police to manage a wide variety of conflict situations. The police “perform the functions of family counselors. obstetricians. agents of socialization for potential delinquents. and myriad roles associated in other socio-economic strata with the family or other more specialized agencies of social control."62 The term "order maintenance.“ used by Wilson and numerous other authors. is meant to by synonymous with the terms "service function" or "social work function" of the police. Utilization of the term as synonymous to "social work function," however. creates considerable 6'James O. Wilson. “What Makes a Better Policemanl." Atlantic. 223 (March 1969). p. 131. 62John H. McNamara, op. cit.. p. 164. 57 confusion. The term "order maintenance" is better used with a meaning synonymous to "situational management.“ Conceived of in this manner. order maintenance becomes the omni-purpose of the police. while law enforcement and social work are the means to effect this purpose. This brings us to an important conceptual point--law enforcement and social work are not separate functions of the police. they are instead alter- native techniques utilized to resolve conflict situations. Further- more, the resolution of conflict situations does not involve employing one technique or the other, but rather the employment of both tech- niques concurrently with an emphasis on one versus the other as the situation demands. This fact was emphasized by Bittner in a study of police--community interaction in a “skid-row" area: Though our interest was focused initially on those police procedures that did not involve invoking the law. we found that the two cannot be separated. The reason for the connection is given in the circumstance that the roles of the “law officer" and of the “peace officer" are enacted by the same person and thus are contiguous. According to our observations. patrolmen do not act alternatively as one or the other. with certain actions being determined by the intended ob- jective of keeping the peace and other being determined by the duty to enforce the law. Instead. we have found that peace keeping occasionally acquires the external aspects of law enforcement. This makes it specious to inquire whether or not police discretion in invoking the law conforms with the intention of some specific legal formula. The real reason behind an arrest is 58 virtually always the actual state of particular social situations. or of the skid-row area in general. Thus, the "true" role of the police officer does not consist either of law enforcement or social work, but rather order mainten- ance--defined as the management of conflict situations. However, it must be realized that the two techniques utilized to perform the func- tion of order maintenance, law enforcement and social work, involve fundamentally conflicting value systems. Associated with the term social work are descriptors such as helper. counselor. and facilitator. In contrast. associated with the term law enforcement are descriptors such as controller, authority, and restrictor. The difficulty in maintaining a congruent self-image while employing both kinds of tech- niques is immense. Numerous studies have documented the fact that most police officers resolve the conflict by rejecting any social work image and conceiving of themselves exClusively as crime fighters. Whenever this occurs, the ability of a police officer to resolve conflict situations without invoking the criminal process, i.e. arrest, is greatly diminished. 63Egon Bittner. “The Police on Skid-Row," in Richard Quinney, ed., Crime and Justice in Society (Boston: Little. Brown and Company. 1969). p. 192. 59 Educational Upgrading: A Second Rationale The police role, then. is diverse and complex, involving the simultaneous utilization of two contradictory philosophic orientations. The question which follows is: How can we improve the ability of the police officer to cope with the role conflict thus created, in order to enable him to perform the task of order maintenance without utiliz- ing repressive techniques? It is obvious that police training is not the answer. Police training programs have traditionally emphasized the more mechanical aspects of the law enforcement task. These programs. of necessity. deal with subjects such as preservation of crime scenes. proper col- lection of evidence. motor vehicle codes. and physical and firearms training. Police training academies have neither the time or ability to educate officers to deal with social conflict or understand human behavior. Robert E. McCann. Director of Training for the Chicago Police Department, Comments that “the training programs we have estab- lished teach a man how to behave for the twenty percent of the time that he has to operate in a crime situation; and eighty percent of his d."54 time we scarcely touch as far as training is concerne In John 64Selected Presentations from the 1970 National Conference on Law Enforcement Education. Proceedings of a Symposium Held at Jackson- ville, Florida. February 1-3, 1970 (Washington: Government Printing Office. 1970), p. 15. 60 McNamara's study of the New York City Police Training Academy, it was found that police training methodologies resembled much closer a mili- tary training model than an academic professional model: Perhaps our most significant inference from the analysis of the data on the New York Police Department is that a training program for police recruits faces two major dilemmas in preparing recruits for their later duties in the field. The first involves the question of whether to emphasize training strategies aimed at the development of self-directed and auton- omous personnel or to emphasize strategies aimed at developing personnel over whom the organization can easily exercise control. It appears that the second strategy is the one most often emphasized. Such training fails to recognize the autonomous nature of the police task. Police officers in the daily routine of keeping the peace do not function as members of a highly coordinated military unit. despite the military overtones of police decorum. Once the daily line- up and inspection is finished all resemblances to a military operation cease. The highly structured bureaucratic organization of which the police officer is a part does not follow him on to the street--field supervision is minimal: As indicated previously, police work is a unique and specialized kind of occupation. This uniqueness is highlighted by the fact that police must work within a bureaucratic framework of rules and regulations promulgated by a centralized author- ity. Yet, in actual practice. the police officer 65John H. McNamara, in David Bordua, op. cit.. p. 251. 61 on the job must act alone. making decisions and dis— cretionary judgments-which affect the lives of other people.66 It is the individual officer, working by himself on the street, who must make the kind of discretionary judgments which mean the differ- ence between fair or biased enforcement of the law. There are such a multitude of situations which are confronted. each with individual circumstances. that there exists no way to issue written policy direc- tives which will provide definitive guidance in every kind of circum- stance. A police officer must perform instinctively on his own ini- tiative and make instantaneous judgments: to shoot or to hold fire. to arrest or desist, to use force or friendly persuasion, to act or not to act.67 The questions which are left to individual police officers to decide are critical to the quality of justice in our society. It is largely on the streets where the questions of how much pluralism and diversity our society will tolerate are answered. The judgments made 66Franklin G. Ashburn. "Changing the Rhetoric of Professional- ism" in Innovation in Law Enforcement. a report of the National In- stitute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice (Washington: Govern- ment Printing Office. 1973), pp. 7-8. 67William W. Turner, op. cit.. p. 22. 62 regarding these questions are enforced by an incredible range of techniques, from friendly persuasion to summary execution.68 The kind of training which is necessary to produce individuals capable of making such judgments in a manner consistent with demo— cratic philosophy cannot be provided by police training academies. The kind of training necessary to create tolerant. humane, and skilled professionals is characterized by the word "education": Further. the transformation of the United States from a rural to an urban society. the tremendous social problems resulting from herding people together in vast conglomerations around urban centers, the rapid accel- eration of the drive for equality, the breakdown of many of our institutions which have heretofore main- tained social stability. pose problems for police which are greater in both magnitude and complexity than those which they have faced before. We believe they demand changes in some of our approaches to police work. They require an increasing knowledge of the social sciences, especially psychology and sociology, and they require the capacity to adapt an array of technological devices to police work.69 Peter J. Lejins has documented the means by which an educational background would enhance a police officer's ability to handle a number of social conflict circumstances. The explanation is rather 68Police Foundation, Education and TrainingiTask Force Report, 0p. cit.. p. 33. 69International Association of Police Professors (now American Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences), "Report of the Committee to Establish Guidelines for the Development of Law Enforcement Programs" (Mimeographed, 1966). p. 2. 63 lengthy, but is stated so well that it is very difficult to para- phrase: 1. Among the frequent disturbances to which a policeman is called are family conflicts. which often reach the level of disturbances of the peace. fights. assault and manslaughter. It stands to reason that an officer who has been exposed to some educational experience in the area of family rela- tionships, the types of family conflict and the way they run their course. would approach this type of disturbance with a much broader and sounder perspec- tive than someone equipped with many conventional folklore stereotypes permeated by punitive, disci- plinary or ridiculing impulses . . . . 2. An even more obvious example is a disturbance anchored in the area of ethnic relations and ethnic tensions. Exposure to the university-level study of ethnic relations. contributing an historical and broader perspective . . . again suggests itself. and again one would expect that such study would tend to diminish the effect of prejudice. racial and ethnic stereotypes, erroneous and often exaggerated, rumors. etc ..... . 3. Still another example is the handling of distur- bances for which mentally abnormal people are respon- sible. The use of conventional and straight-forward evaluations of behavior as being or not being a vio- lation of law, and the use of conventional law en- forcement steps to arrest the ongoing violation and secure the violator for action of the criminal jus- tice system. would often cause unnecessary harm to the perpetrator, who is viewed by contemporary so- ciety as a sick person. and to the community itself. by injecting what basically amounts to an improper solution of the problem . . . . 4. Whatever has been said with regard to the above three categories of disturbances could be properly restated with regard to the handling of drunks and drug addicts . . . . 64 5. And finally, let us take the so-called area of civil rights and contemporary struggles for them, which often express themselves in disturbances and so-called riots. Here again the quick and sharp discernment between permissible actions in terms of freedom of speech. and freedom of demonstration, and actions that violate the individual rights of others and have all the characteristics of plain criminal acts, presupposes alert and sophisticated individ- uals. Persons without any higher education, acquired either in their college-age period or subsequently by means of adult education and in-service training. can hardly be cast in the role of the wise law en- forcement officer who manages to lessen the tensions between ideologically antagonistic mobs, protects the rights of innocent bystanders and would-be victims, ahd contains the amount of violence . 70 It is true that in many police agencies officers perform numerous mundane tasks such as directing traffic, issuing parking tickets. conducting permit inspections. and driving tow trucks. Per- formance of such tasks obviously does not require collegiate training. However. such routine tasks are rapidly being turned over to civilian employees and other governmental agencies. Thus, "police officers are left with their more essential task which includes social control in a period of increasing social turmoil, preservation of our constitutional guarantees, and exercise of the broadest range of discretion--sometimes 7'OPeter P. Lejins, Introducing a Law Enforcement Curriculum at a State University, a report of the National Institute of Law Enforce- ment and Criminal Justice (Washington: Government Printing Office. 1970). pp. 13-15. 65 71 involving life and death decisions--of any government service." The ‘ Education and Training_Task Force of the Police Foundation comments: The job defining that delicate balance between liberty and order, of applying wisdom. of being flex- ible. of using discretion and, most particularly, of seeing the mundane and trivial in a broader legal and moral context is an intellectually and psychologically awesome one. This is a job that requires not minimal maturity. not marginal intelligence, not narrowness of view, not vulgarity of spirity, but rather vision, courage. sensitivity, and depth. All things being equal (and with exceptions) the most talented and the most responsible people in society are found as a class among those who seek the highest educational attainment. We are not saying that policemen ought to become educated but that educated persons ought to become policemen.72 If the tasks performed by the police are those normally performed by professionals, and if professionals are normally prepared for the role they fulfill by an academic program of study, then so ought the police be prepared. Thus. it is the nature of the police function as it relates to conflict resolution which is the substance of the second rationale for educationally upgrading the police. Conflict reSolution--or order , maintenance-~in an urban society involves the concurrent employment 7'National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. Report on the Police. op. cit.. p. 370. 72Police Foundation, Education and Training Task Force Report. op. cit.. p. 31. 66 of both social work and law enforcement techniques. Whether or not these techniques are employed at the appropriate time and in an appro- priate manner means the difference between successful and unsuccessful resolution of conflict. Unsuccessful resolution of conflict extols a human cost whether or not criminal behavior eventually results. As stated above. the necessity of utilizing two philosophically conflicting techniques (social work versus law enforcement) results in role conflict for police officers. This conflict is currently too often resolved by rejection of a social work image and adoption of a crime fighting self-concept. Unfortunately. the crime fighting self- concept greatly inhibits the ability of a police officer to success- fully resolve a situation which is more appropriately handled by social counseling techniques. The fact that college educated individuals are more able to cope with role conflict. and the fact that a college education provides one with a social perspective more conducive to abilities related to social counseling, is the basis for a second rationale for educational upgrading. The Police Role: Immense Discretion The police have become the most critical and perhaps the most powerful component of the criminal justice system. Most of us do not 67 fully comprehend the implications of the awesome power that the police possess in their exercise of discretion to arrest.73 Although the police are formally organized as a part of the criminal justice system only to maintain public order and identify probable perpetrators of crime. it is apparent that they are actually involved in enacting jus- tice by deciding when and where to invoke the sanction of arrest.7f Arrest is a powerful weapon. In many. if not most cases. it is a form of punishment in and of itself. even though it is formally conceived of as merely the beginning of the criminal justice process. The over— whelming majority of criminal cases. most studies put the figure near ninety-five percent. are disposed of by guilty pleas. Judicial dis- cretion in relation to determination of guilt is thus much more limited than popularly thought: In practice the average policeman exercises greater judicial discretion over cases than does a judge on the court bench. In a recent Chicago study conducted in connection with a legal services program for youthful offenders. it was established that out of 500 possible arrest situations the police had arrested 100 persons and finally presented a total of 40 for court action. The criteria employed in this decision- making process as to which cases were proper subjects 73Arthur Niederhoffer and Abraham S. Blumberg. The Ambivalent Force: Perspectives on the Police (Waltham. Mass.: Xerox Publishing. T970). p. 3. 74Alber J. Reiss Jr.. and David Bordua, "Environment and Orga- nization: A Perspective on the Police" in David Bordua, ed., I_h_e_ Lolice: Six Sociological Essays (New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1967), p. 32. 68 for arrest and processing are known only to the police. The crux of the matter is that police perform more important judicial functions. in many cases, than do our judges.75 It is important to emphasize that “mere" arrest. whether conviction follows or not, is sufficient to label an individual "criminal." This is particularly true in the case of juveniles. It is widely recognized that the appropriateness of labelihg a juvenile as “delinquent" has serious implications for the individual's future behavior. In this regard, police discretionary authority is immense: It is apparent from the findings presented above that the police officers studied in this research were permitted and even encouraged to exercise immense latitude in disposing of the juveniles they encoun- tered. That is, it was within the officers' discre- tionary authority. except in extreme limiting cases. to decide which juveniles were to come to the atten- tion of the courts and correctional agencies and thereby be identified officially as delinquents . . . . The observations made in this study serve to underscore the fact that the official delinquent, as distinguished from the juvenile who simply commits a delinquent act. is the product of a social judgment. in this case a judgment made by the police.76 Although perhaps the same degree of discretion is not exercised with regard to adults, nevertheless, the discretion exercised in either case is immense. It has been pointed out that'the police make far more 75Neiderhoffer and Blumberg. op. cit.. p. 4. 76Irving Piliavin and Scott Briar, “Police Encounters’with Juveniles" in Richard Quinney, ed., Crime and Justice in Society (Boston: Little, Brown and Company. l969).-pp. 248. 249. ' 69 discretionary determinations than any other class of governmental administrators. The amount of governmental activity handled by the police. measured by man-hours. is more than forty times as much as the amount of governmental activity through the independent federal . 77 regulatory agenCIes. Paradoxically however. police discretionary power is not generally acknowledged. Despite extensive policy making by the police, there is an assumption by the community that the police do not. or at least ought not. make policy. Furthermore, for a number of political reasons the police themselves do not generally acknowl- edge policy making responsibility: There has been no express legislative delegation of discretion to the police. although it is arguable that such a delegation would be constitutional because police are in a position comparable to other adminis- trative agencies. Such a delegation might even be implied, particularly where the substantive criminal law is ambiguous. However. police have not claimed to have this kind of discretion; rather. they exercise a wide range of discretion without attempting to give explicit justification for the practice.78 There are a number of reasons why neither the community nor the police themselves acknowledge police discretionary power. First of all. the 77Kenneth C. Davis. Handbook on Administrative Law (St. Paul: West Publishing, 1951), p. 222. 78Wayne R. LaFave, “Police Discretion“ in Richard Quinney, ed., Crime and Justice in Society_(Boston: Little. Brown and Company. 1959). p. 112. 7O substantive criminal law implies an absolute mandate. There is an assumption that the rule of law or principle of legality demands that wherever and whenever a transgression of the substantive criminal law occurs, impartiality demands that the transgressor be arrested re- gardless of circumstance.79 Second. acknowledgement of the extent of police discretion would admit to a violation of the principle of divi- sion of power among the three branches of government. Theoretically. administrative agencies are recognized as responsible for only execut- ing policy. Recognition of the range of police discretionary power would have the appearance of condoning usurption of both legislative 80 and judicial functions. Finally. there is the widespread myth that the prosecutor. an elected official, exercises whatever discretion is necessary at the enforcement stage of the criminal justice process.8' In reality, it is pragmatically impossible for the prosecutor to con- trol all police actions. Even if it were possible. attempts at such control, if resisted by the police. would be politically disastrous for the prosecutor. . Acknowledgement of police discretion should not be conceived as condoning complete police control over the decision to arrest. 791bid., p. 110. 71 The police are not thought of as having discretion with respect to serious crimes that produce victims. No one would argue that certain circumstances could justify. for example. police failure to invoke an arrest in the case of a homicide. However. less than ten percent of all arrests are made for any of the seven serious offenses that make up the FBI Crime Index: The vast majority of arrests. and of citizen-police contacts that involve an offense but do not lead to an arrest. are for such matters as drunkenness, disorderly conduct, assault. driving while intoxicated, gambling, vandalism, and the like. People do differ as to whether such matters are important. or such conduct "really wrong," or even what constitutes the proscribed conduct in question.82 In some cases. then. a police officer for all practical pur- poses has no discretion. However, in other cases--numerically. the vast majority--neither social mandate nor departmental policy have little or any effect. and discretion as it is exercised is almost 83 It is the policeman on entirely the individual police officers'. the beat or in the patrol car who makes more decisions and exercises broader discretion affecting the daily lives of people. every day and to a greater extent, than a judge will ordinarily exercise in a 82James O. Wilson. Varieties of Police Behavior. op. cit.. 83Ibi ., p. 84. 72 84 It is the police patrolman who is almost solely in charge of week. enforcing the laws that are the least precise, most ambiguous, or whose application is most sensitive to the availability of scarce resources and the policy of the police administrator.85 There is a real need to delegate discretion to the patrolman on the beat. First of all. the exercise of discretion in interpreting the substantive criminal law is necessary because no legislature and no police administrator has succeeded in formulating a criminal code or policy manual which Clearly defines all conduct intended to be made criminal and which clearly excludes all other conduct. Individual circumstances sometimes make even an arrest for certain behavior ex- 86 Furthermore, it is fairly obvious that there cessive punishment. are insufficient financial resources to make possible "complete" en- forcement of all law. all of the time. For instance, society obviously wants the flow of narcotic drugs controlled. However, no one desires that homicides go uninvestigated while the police are attempting to arrest heroin dealers. Decisions must be made regarding levels of Enforcement. i.e., what resources will be devoted to enforcement of 84Chief Justice Warren E. Burger as quoted in The Urban Police Function. op. cit.. p. 2. 85 James O. Wilson. Varieties of Police Behavior. op. cit.. 86Wayne R. LeFave. op. cit.. pp. 114, 116. .- “Er.' d I J fl.p‘n H F we V A p v'Iy Hub CUR I I; ‘I (1. 73 particular types and classes of criminal conduct to the exclusion of other enforcement activity. Police discretion is paradoxical. On the one hand, it appears to flout legal commandS--certain laws are ignored either in individual instances or as departmental enforcement policy. Yet discretion is necessary because of limited police resources, the ambiguity and breadth of criminal statutes. the informal expectations of legislatures, and the often conflicting demands of the public.87 Educational Upgrading: A Third Rationale It is necessary that police discretion be acknowledged not only because of the need to delegate certain discretion to the police. but also because even where there is a desire to exercise absolute control over certain police actions, doing the same has proven to be impossible. This is best illustrated by judicial attempts to control police violations of due process. There is a fundamental conflict between due process and crime control. Observance of due process necessarily results in less effective and efficient enforcement of 87National Advisory Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Report on the Police. op. cit.. p. 22. 74 criminal statutes. Police zealousness to effectively enforce the law thus inevitably leads to violations of due process. Theoretically, the judiciary ensures that constitutional guarantees are observed by excluding evidence introduced into court obtained by violation of due process. From the available evidence, however, it seems doubtful that police violations of due process can be effectively sanctioned by the 88 exclusionary rule. The reach of the courtroom does not extend to a skid-row alley at 3:00 a.m. If the police see it to their best in- terest, they will simply disregard due process mandates, while testi- fying in court that such mandates were observed: the policeman's self-perception as the ruthless. im- placable avenger of crime. and the subculture of the police that nurtures police behavior according to this self-perception. will not be affected by a court's refusal to convict a criminal,despite evi- dence against him. on the ground that "the constable blundered." More likely than compelling the police to abide by the norms of due process, it will er- suade him to evade these norms more adroitly.8 There is no simple answer to making the police accountable in a demo- cratic society. Direct supervision of the police is obviously not possible. The only viable solution appears to lie in profession- alization: 88William J. Chambliss and Robert B. Seidman. Law, Order. and Power (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1971). p. 383. 891 id., p. 379. 75 Historically. we have found but one way—-apart from supervision-~that deals with this problem. That solu- tion is professionalization of workers. Perhaps only through the professionalization of the police can we hope to solve the problem of police malpractice.90 The structures of professions typically arise because it is realized that the minimal standards of law as they apply to the profession in question are inadequate.9' Whenever supervision is not possible, then we depend upon internalization of codes of conduct to protect society. In this case we are concerned with a standard of conduct that will contain violations of constitutional guarantees of due process within certain bounds.92 Such a professional code of conduct is intrinsically related to education: With the possible exception of recruitment. nothing is more vital to the creation of the democratic police- man than education. As noted earlier, democratic atti- tudes and patterns of behavior increase markedly with education. Thus. the educated policeman is more likely to be the democratic policeman. 3 90Albert J. Reiss Jr.. "Police Brutality--Answers to Key Ques- tions" in Niederhoffer and Blumberg. ed., The Ambivalent Force: Per- opectives on the Police (Waltham. Mass.: Xerox Publishing. 1970), p. 331. ' 4 9'James F. Ahern, Police in Trouble (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1972), p. 179. 92The phrase "within certain bounds" is purposefully included. The basic conflict between enforcement efficiency and due process will inevitably result in limited violations of due process, regardless of police educational level. Our concern is that these do not become so flagrant that democratic government is threatened. 93George Berkley, op. cit.. p. 74. 76 The use of police discretionary power within the restraining intent of the Bill of Rights is a delicate. precarious, and comprehensive intel- lectual task. It doesn't seem logical that this function should be left in the hands of individuals whose observation of this world is informed by any less than a college education.94 We have gradually come to the realization that, “police decisions not to invoke the criminal process determine the outer limits of law enforcement."95 This appears to be the case for both the substantive and procedural criminal law. Since the police cannot be policed, they must police themselves. This is the third and best rationale for educationally upgrading America's police. Summary There are three distinct rationales for educationally upgrading America's police. The first of these relates to improving the effec- tiveness of the police in performing their crime control function. and was discussed in Chapter I. The second relates to the effectiveness with which the police are able to perform their “order maintenance" 94Police Foundation. op. cit.. p. 1. 95Joseph Goldstein. "Police Discretion Not to Invoke the Crim- inal Process," Yale Law Journal, 69 (1960). p. 543. 77 function. The third relates to ensuring proper exercise of police discretionary power. The nature of the police function as it relates to conflict resolution is the substance of the second rationale for educationally upgrading the police. Conflict resolution--or order maintenance--in an urban society involves concurrent employment of both social work and law enforcement techniques. These two techniques require philo- sophically conflicting orientations, resulting in role conflict for police officers. This conflict is too often currently resolved by rejection of the social work image and adoption of a crime fighter self-concept. Unfortunately, the crime fighting self-concept greatly inhibits the ability of a police officer to successfully resolve a situation appropriately handled by social counseling techniques. The fact that college educated individuals are more able to cope with v/ role conflict. and the fact that a college education provides one with a social perspective more conducive to abilities related to social counseling. provides the basis of the second rationale for educational upgrading. Ensuring proper exercise of police discretion is the substance of the third rationale for educationally Upgrading the police. The amount of discretion exercised by the police is immense. Such dis- cretion is necessary because of limited police resources and the 78 ambiguity and breadth of criminal statutes. Efforts to control police discretion have not been successful. The use of police discretionary power within the restraining intent of the Bill of Rights is a delicate and comprehensive intellectual task. This function should not be left in the hands of individuals whose observation of this world is informed by any less than a college education. This is the third and best ra- tionale for educational upgrading. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Information is needed regarding the current educational levels of newly employed police personnel to adequately assess the impact of current efforts to educationally upgrade America's police. In order for this information to be of greatest use, the data should be disag- gregated such that it is possible to ascertain average educational levels of police recruits both by sizes and types of police agencies. Concommitant to this information, there is a need to obtain data re- garding the influence of several factors on the decision of collegiate . personnel to seek employment with a particular agency. Such informa- tion has application to the design of manpower development programs. The research methodology is designed to obtain information in both of these respects. i.e., educational levels of police recruits by character of agency. and the influence of several relevant factors on the employment decision of these recruits. 79 80 Sample In order for the data gathered to have implications applicable to the entire law enforcement community of the United States. it is necessary to draw a sample representative of the entire nation. That is obviously a broad undertaking for a study of this scope and dura- tion. As a means to accomplish the compilation of such a sample while recognizing pragmatic limitations, a methodology has been selected which is based upon the designation of four representative states. These states are California. Michigan. New Jersey, and Texas. The designation of these particular states is based upon the rationale 96 Speci- developed for their inclusion in the Project STAR study. fically. they are representative of the nation in terms of geography. economic conditions. and population composition. Further, together the personnel of their criminal justice systems comprise 24 percent of the total criminal justice system population of the country. Each of these four states has an established commission on police officer standards and training. These agencies maintain records of police officers trained in recruit academies within the 96Project STAR is an acronym for Systems Training Analysis Requirements. STAR is a five year, three million dollar project de- signed to determine the precise role behavior required of operative level positions in the Criminal justice system. The project is co- ordinated by the Systems Development Corporation and funded by the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. 81 respective states. The specific organizational titles and addresses of these agencies are: California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training 7100 Bowling Drive. Suite 250 Sacramento, California 95823 Michigan Michigan Law Enforcement Officers Training Council 1331 E. Grand River Avenue East Lansing, Michigan 48823 New Jersey Department of Law and Public Safety Police Training Commission 1100 Raymond Boulevard Newark, New Jersey 07102 Texas Texas Commission on Law Enforcement Officer Standards and Education 502-E Sam Houston Building Austin, Texas 78701 From the records of these agencies data was compiled regarding the names, educational levels, and employing agencies of newly hired police personnel. The most recent period of twelve months from which it was feasible to gather information from the records was utilized. July 1, 1972 to June 31, 1973. It should be noted that the records of the training commissions actually indicated the names of officers trained in basic recruit schools during that period. However. the variation between those trained during the period and those employed 82 during the period is slight. for police officers in each of these states are compeled by state law to be trained either immediately upon employment or within six months of employment. In practice. even where a grace period of six months is allowed by law. most officers are sent immediately to a training academy. For all prac- tical purposes then. the records of the training commissions indicate officers employed during the period in question. Once the data describing the names. educational level. and agency of employment of all newly hired police officers in these states was obtained, a stratified sample of those personnel having completed various increments of education was selected to receive a mailed questionnaire. The questionnaire is included as Appendix I. The purpose of the questionnaire was to determine: first. certain descriptive information regarding the characteristics of the recruits which was unavailable from the training commissions (e.g.. whether they had prior police experience. the proximity of their employing agency to their home town, whether they had received LEEP assistance. whether they had participated in a police cadet program); and. second. to determine from the responses to certain attitudinal questions the factors which influenced the recruits' decision to seek employment with particular agencies. 83 The California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training did not maidtain data regarding the educational level of police officers trained in that state. Therefore. a questionnaire was mailed to a random sample of 33-1/3% of the officers trained in that state during the period July 1. 1972 to June 31, 1973. Informa- tion regarding educational levels was available from the records of the other three states. The primary purpose of the questionnaire was to obtain information regarding the attitude of college educated per- sonnel. Therefore. questionnaires in Michigan. New Jersey. and Texas were mailed to all personnel who had completed one or more years of college. A random sample of officers completing less than one year of college in these states was also selected to receive the question- naire. The purpose of mailing the questionnaire to those individuals with less than one year of college was to provide a control group to which resoonses could be compared. A total of 2.736 questionnaires was distributed. The number of questionnaires distributed in each state and the response pattern by educational level are depicted in Table 3.1. A total of 101 questionnaires were returned marked "addressee moved--not forwardable.“ This leaves a total possible responding population of 2,635 individuals. The return of 1.941 questionnaires represents a response rate of 74%. (A follow-up letter 84 mam ems mus mus _em.P ems.~ Peooe so an mm, mu _mm Nam nexoc eo_ om e~_ on can now senses 3oz Aw amp ma, mm. emm mm“ eoseeo_z e__ eN_ new mac wee «mm aeeeocepec .2» v .mc» N v .m2» 5 v mmwppou F can F can N .mcz +5 so a umcczuma umuznwcumvo Pecan _eooe ccmupca mmcoqmmm zmmhhm4 P.F.¢ m4m .01 106 The rationale for Hypothesis 1.4 was presented as part of the Rationale for Hypothesis One developed in Chapter I. Briefly. the rationale is based upon the fact that evidence from one previous study indicates that college educated police officers tend to seek employ— ment in medium-Sized agencies. Furthermore, it is expected that college graduates seek employment in jurisdictions of better economic and social conditions, which tend to be medium-sized agencies. The data relating level of education and size of agency are presented in Table 4.1.4. As indicated by the probability statement cited in Table 4.1.4, the data fails to indicate a pattern of employment by size of agency. Hypothesis 1.4 is therefore rejected. Summary of Hypothesis One The data pertinent to the testable hypotheses subsumed under hypothesis one support the basic tenet of that hypothesis; that is. individuals with a college background are entering the police service in significantly large numbers. In California, which is several Years ahead of the rest of the nation in terms of the development 0f law enforcement education programs. three-fourths of the police recruits have one year or more of college. while one-fourth possess a baccalaureate degree. In the rest of the nation. thirty-seven Percent of the police recruits have one or more years of college. 107 TABLE 4.1.4 SIZE OF AGENCY AND LEVEL OF EDUCATION Size of Agency Level of Education < 50 50-199 200-499 > 500 4 ygargrgf college 97 95 50 '79 2 :gzr: 5f college '89 '62 77 283 ' gzgr; 5f college '22 92 55 '6' “2: 2211.136" .7 .. 32 as High School 50 32 22 45 Chi Square = 20.810 df = 12 p > .01 while ten percent possess baccalaureate degrees. A significant number of police recruits with between two and four years of college possess an associate degree. This would indicate that they are products of purposely designed academic programs terminating at this level. rather than merely "drop-outs“ of baccalaureate programs. A concern related to Hypothesis One was the employment patterns of college educated 108 police recruits by type and size of agency. The data fail to indicate that any pattern of employment by either of these dimensions exists. Hypothesis Two Hypothesis Two is: The Law Enforcement Education Program has. significantly contributed to raising the educational levels of'police recruits. Five testable hypotheses are subsumed under this research hypothesis. Hypothesis 2.1 Hypothesis 2.1 is: "At least fifty percent of police recruits with some college have received assistance through the Law Enforcement Education Program.“ The priorities of the Law Enforcement Education Program have always stipulated that in-service personnel should receive funds in preference to pre-service students. While sufficient LEEP monies have generally been available to meet all the needs of in-service students, there have never been sufficient funds to fulfill all the requests for support by pre-service students. The adequacy of LEEP appropriations for pre-service students is thus important to decisions regarding the 109 adequacy of total LEEP appropriations. The data indicating the per- centage of police recruits with at least one year of college that have received LEEP assistance are presented in Table 4.2.1. TABLE 4.2.1 LEEP ASSISTANCE RECEIVED PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT Number Percent Received LEEP 207 13% Did not receive LEEP 1351 87% As indicated in the table, the percentage of police recruits with some college that have received LEEP assistance is quite low. The impact of LEEP with regard to attracting college students to the law enforcement field by providing direct assistance for educational expenses apparently has not been nearly as great as generally thought. Obviously, these data raise the question of whether the current level of these appropriations is adequate. i.e.. whether raising LEEP ex- penditures in order to reach more pre-service students would be cost effective in terms of upgrading the educational levels of police re- cruits. One of the primary issues in this regard is how many of the eighty-seven percent who did not receive LEEP had a commitment to 110 entering law enforcement before terminating college study. and thus might have obtained more education had LEEP been available. The questionnaire used in this study elicited a response in this regard by querying the police recruits with some college as to the time- frame of their decision to pursue a career in law enforcement. Seventy-two percent of the respondents indicated that they made such a decision before terminating college study; ten percent of the re- spondents indicated such a decision came near or upon termination, while eighteen percent indicated that the decision occurred after termination of college study. Thus. a majority of those who did not receive LEEP assistance intended to pursue a career in law enforcement while they were still enrolled in college. and presumably may have obtained more education had such assistance been available. Hypothesis 2.2 Hypothesis 2.2 is: “0f police recruits with some college. those having received LEEP assistance have completed more college than those not receiving such aid." A second evaluative measure of the LEEP program is an examina- tion of its relationship to level of education achieved. The data relating level of education and receipt of LEEP assistance prior to police employment are presented in Table 4.2.2. 111 TABLE 4.2.2 LEVELS OF EDUCATION AND LEEP ASSISTANCE PRIOR ' TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT Level of Education LEEP Assistance . 4 or 2 but 1 but < 1 High 4+ yrs. < 4 yrs. < 2 yrs. yr. Received LEEP 82 92 33 21 4 Did not receive LEEP 339 618 394 198 18 Chi Square = 29.067 df = 4 p < .01 The data indicate that level of education and receipt of LEEP assistance are positively related. Forty percent of those with one or more years of college who received LEEP assistance entered the police service at the baccalaureate level. while only twenty-five percent of those with one or more years of college who did not receive LEEP assistance entered at the baccalaureate level. Whether the en- tire difference is attributable to LEEP making it possible for the former group to pursue college studies longer is problematic. since the former group may have been predisposed in the first place to pursue more education. and therefore may have tended to be more active in seeking assistance to do so. However. it is not unreasonable to 112 assume that at least a substantial part of the difference in educa- tional levels between recipients and non-recipients is attributable to the availability of the financial assistance per se. Hypothesis 2.3 Hypothesis 2.3 is: "Proportionally more police recruits who received LEEP assistance completed academic degrees." Concomitant to the importance of the relation between LEEP and educational level is the relation between LEEP and receipt of academic degree. It is expected that the availability of the financial assis- tance enhances the probability of students finishing a specific pro- gram of study. The data relating receipt of LEEP assistance and aca- demic degree attainment are presented in Table 4.2.3. These data indicate that LEEP is related to academic degree attainment. Of those receiving LEEP. some twenty-seven percent re- ceived an associate degree. while an additional thirty-five percent received a baccalaureate degree. Of those not receiving LEEP, twenty- one percent received an associate degree. while twenty percent re- ceived a baccalaureate degree. With regard to degree attainment. the impact of LEEP is thus significant, particularly at the bacca- laureate level. 113 TABLE 4.2.3 ACADEMIC DEGREE AND RECEIPT OF LEEP ASSISTANCE PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT Academic Degree LEEP Assistance Graduate/ None Associate Baccalaureate Professional Received LEEP 86 63 81 2 Did not receive LEEP 899 330 319 17 Chi Square = 37.966 df = 3 p < .01 Hypothesis 2.4 Hypothesis 2.4 is: "Those police recruits with some college who received LEEP assistance anticipate longer tenure in the criminal justice field." A third evaluative measure of the LEEP program relates to the program's effect on developing commitment to a career in criminal justice. In order to achieve forgiveness of a LEEP loan. a pre- service student must spend four years in the criminal justice field. The purpose of the forgiveness clause is obviously to foster a com- mitment on the part of LEEP recipients to remain employed in criminal justice. The best means to determine if LEEP has such an effect is, 114 naturally. a longitudinal study examining the actual tenure in crim- inal justice of LEEP recipients. However. lacking such information. it is at least of some use to examine the intentions of LEEP recip- ients relative to others with regard to anticipated tenure. The data relating receipt of LEEP assistance and anticipated tenure are pre- sented in Table 4.2.4. TABLE 4.2.4 ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND RECEIPT OF LEEP ASSISTANCE PRIOR TO POLICE EMPLOYMENT ‘— 1. Anticipated Tenure in Field LEEP Assistance < 1 year 1-5 years Career Received LEEP 0 8 219 Did not receive LEEP 4 76 1468 Chi Square = 1.446 df = 2 p > .01 The data in this case do not indicate that a relationship exists. However, it must be noted that the overwhelming majority of the re- spondents (95%) indicate they intended to spend a career in the crim- inal justice field. For this reason. differences are not apparent between recipients and non-recipients. 115 Hypothesis 2.5 Hypothesis 2.5 is: "Proportionally more police recruits with some college who major in law enforcement received LEEP assistance." The distribution of LEEP funds is made in such a manner that the veracity of Hypothesis 2.5 is to some extent a foregone conclusion. However. the magnitude of the relevant proportion of law enforcement majors versus others who receive LEEP assistance is not known. The data relating major field of college study and receipt of LEEP assis- tance are presented in Table 4.2.5. As expected, the data support the basic tenet of the hypoth- esis; that is. law enforcement majors do receive a greater proportion of assistance. The dimension of the proportional difference is of primary interest. The data indicate that of law enforcement majors. twenty-three percent received LEEP assistance prior to police em- ployment. while of all other majors, only four percent received LEEP assistance prior to police employment. This difference is substantial. Summary of Hypothesis Two The proportion of police recruits with some college who re- ceived LEEP assistance was found to be substantially lower than ex- pected. thirteen percent receiving such aid. LEEP has therefore not 116 _.o.vn m N wt NmP.F¢~ N msmscm wcu AN_ so_ am saw on PR mam mac oseoooc ouwmweo a e _ a o N NN cap _ ammo eoscoooa .mmca .Pum .mccaz msmupmn mucmwum .umaw .ewco cmzuo Icoz .uez \.m:m a muc< cowumozvm meuom \.mugo$=m zoo ooeeomcaa< some aesom to speed hzmz>OA¢2m momoom 0h monm ou>~mumm moza2hm up<~¢u44oo mo QAMHm mow .01 The data in the table do not indicate a relationship between police cadet involvement and anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field. However, as in the case of the relationship between anticipated tenure 123 and receipt of LEEP assistance, the relevancy of the data is question- able due to the fact that ninety-five percent of all respondents indi- cated an anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field of a career. Summary of Hypothesis Three The pattern of acceptance and rejection of the testable hy- potheses support the research hypothesis. A higher percentage of police recruits with some college have participated in police cadet programs than was expected (eighteen percent). Police cadet programs do relate positively to associate degree attainment, the level of edu- cation they are designed to encourage. However, note should be taken of the fact that involvement in a cadet program actually relates nega- tively to baccalaureate degree attainment. Thus, police cadet pro- grams ought to be carefully examined in the coming years as police educational levels rise to and exceed the two-year college level. Hypothesis Four Hypothesis Four 15: Agency reward programs for completed college education have significantly contributed to raising the 124 educational level of’police recruits. Seven testable hypotheses are subsumed under Hypothesis Four. Hypothesis 4.1 Hypothesis 4.1 is: "Where a reward program for completed education exists in the employing agency, it at least had some influ- ence in the recruits' decision to seek employment with that agency in over fifty percent of the cases.“ Respondents to the survey were asked to indicate whether or ‘ not they had received some form of a reward for completed college education from their employing agency. Those that responded affir- matively were then asked to indicate the importance of the reward as it affected their choice of that particular agency. The summarized responses are presented in Table 4.4.1. TABLE 4.4.1 IMPORTANCE OF THE EXISTENCE OF EDUCATIONAL REWARD IN CHOICE OF A PARTICULAR AGENCY Number Percent Very Important 82 13% Some Influence 287 45% Less Important 272 42% 'i 125 The term "less important" was utilized in order to avoid the more limiting and absolute term of l"unimportant." As indicated in the table, some fifty-eight percent of those recruits who received a remmrd for completed college education indicated it had at least some influence on their decision to seek employment with the particular agency they did. flypothesis 4. 2 Hypothesis 4.2 is: "Agency educational employment require- ments relate positively to the existence of a reward for completed education in the agency." Very few police agencies now impose an educational requirement of a baccalaureate degree as qualification for employment. A large number of agencies do, however, impose college educational require- ments, but less than a baccalaureate degree. It was felt that these agencies would also be likely to reward completed college education beyond the agency minimal requirements. The data relating these two Variables are presented in Table 4.4.2. As indicated in the table, an educational requirement of some college does relate positively to the existence of a reward for completed education in the agency. Those agencies which impose a college educational requirement as a Qualification for employment also tend to reward education completed 126 TABLE 4.4.2 AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION Educational Requirement Receipt of Reward High school / Some college equivalent work required Agency had such 408 155 a reward No such reward existed 992 241 ‘ Chi Square = 14.802 df = l p < .01 beyond that requirement. Specifically, of those recruits employed by agencies which impose some college education as a requirement for em- ployment, some forty percent also received a reward for completed edu- cation. Of those recruits employed by agencies in which no college educational requirement exists, only thirty percent received a reward for completed college education. The association of these two variables tends to support the PCstulate that reward programs impact the upgrading of educational 1evels of police recruits. Parenthetically it should be noted that 1’1 fty-two percent of the respondents from California with some college 127 indicate they received a reward for a completed college education, while only twenty percent with some college from the other states indicate receiving such a reward. Hypothesis 4.3 Hypothesis 4.3 is: "Proportionally more police recruits with some college who are employed in agencies distant (over 50 miles) from their home towns are also employed in agencies which have a reward program for a completed education." The rationale for Hypothesis 4.3 relates to the fact that if reward programs for completed education are influential in attracting college graduates (and hence, influential in upgrading the educational level of police recruits), then the reward ought to attract college graduates from places of other than local residence. The data relating receipt of reward for completed education and proximity of present employment to home town are presented in Table 4.4.3. As indicated by the probability statement cited in the table, these data do not indicate a relationship between distance of home town residence and employment in agencies offering a reward for completed education. The conclusion to be drawn is that reward programs for completed education apparently arerun:sufficiently influential in affecting the decision to 128 seek employment with a particular agency to overcome the tendency for individuals to seek employment proximate to their home towns. TABLE 4.4.3 PROXIMITY OF PRESENT EMPLOYMENT TO HOME TOWN AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION Distance Receipt of Reward Within 50 miles 50-100 miles Over 100 miles Agency had such a reward 446 27 96 No such reward existed 956 92 184 Chi Square = 5.336 df = 2 p > .01 Hypothesis 4.4 Hypothesis 4.4 is: "Among police recruits with some college anticipated tenure in present employing agencies relates positively to the existence of a reward for completed education in the employing agency." In addition to acting as an initial employment incentive, re- wards for completed education might also influence college educated recruits to extend the length of their tenure with the agency of 129 employment. Similar to an instance earlier, the best data in this regard would be a comparison of actual tenure of college educated recruits in agencies offering a reward fer completed education con- trasted with the tenure of such personnel in agencies not offering such a reward. However, in lieu of this measure, it is useful to query newly employed recruits with regard to their anticipated tenure with their present employing agency and contrast this with the exise tence of a reward for completed education in the agency. The data relative to this contrast are presented in Table 4.4.4. TABLE 4.4.4 ANTICIPATED TENURE IN PRESENT AGENCY AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION Anticipated Tenure with Agency Receipt of Reward < 1 year 1-5 years Career Agency had such 2 127 430 a reward Nca such reward existed 15 393 805 k Chi Square = 21.420 df == 2 p < .01 130 As indicated by the probability statement cited in the table, there is a positive relation between anticipated tenure in present employing agencies and receipt of a reward for completed education. Such a rela- tion tends to support Hypothesis Four. It is possible, and in fact may even be probable, that inter— vening variables are influencing this relationship. It would not be unreasonable to assume that agencies which offer a reward for completed college education might also be agencies which tend to offer better career opportunities, better salaries, and are more prestigious. These factors would affect anticipated tenure. The relationship among these several variables will be discussed in the conclusion section of this chapter. Hypothesis 4.5 Hypothesis 4.5 is: "The rank order of factors influencing the employment decision relates to employment with agencies having a re- ward program for completed education." The respondents to the survey were asked to rank from high to low six factors which affected their choice of the particular agency lNlth which they sought employment. Table 4.4.5 contrasts the rank order assigned these factors by those recruits receiving a reward for completed education and those not receiving such a reward. The 131 TABLE 4.4.5 RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY Receipt of Reward Mean Rank of Con51deration Agency had No such KW such a reward reward p Only available police employment at the time 4.90 4.47 13.976 ‘<.01 Agency's salary compared 2 85 3 14 13 302 <, 0] to others ' ' ‘ ' Agency's prestige compared to others 2.76 2.93 5.020 > .01 Nature of the jurisdiction 3.26 3.13 3.102 > .01 Agency's recruitment efforts 4.69 4.46 11.951 < .01 Agency's career & promotion opportunities 2.51 2.84 12.248 < .01 purpose of this comparison is to attempt to determine what other factors are associated with the seeking of a reward for completed education, and thus obtain an indirect measure of the influence of such a reward in and of itself. The data in the table indicate that those recruits who received a reward ranked "agency salary" and "agency career and promotion opportunities" higher than those who did not re- ceive such a reward. They ranked "only available police employment 132 at the time" and "agency recruitment efforts" lower than others. No differences were detected in the rankings of “agency prestige" and "nature of the agency jurisdiction.“ The association between receipt of a reward for completed education and a higher ranking of agency salary as a factor influencing the decision is to be expected. Most reward programs for completed education consist of a salary increment. Those who would seek out such a reward would therefore place a higher value upon salary. The receipt of a reward for completed education is also posi- tively associated with agency career opportunities. Apparently those agencies which offer an educational incentive reward are also per- ceived as offering better career opportunities. The negative association between receipt of a reward and the rank order of agency recruitment efforts is somewhat difficult to explain. One might logically expect a positive association in this regard. However, perhaps the existence of a reward for completed education serves as a recruitment technique in and of itself, and hence other agency efforts in this regard are ranked as less important. The negative association between receipt of a reward and the rank order of "only available police employment at the time" is a logical one. The relation indicates that the existence of a reward for completed education in an agency will tend to draw personnel 133 seeking an agency with good career and promotion opportunities (note again the positive relationship in that regard) rather than individuals simply groping for the first employment available. The pattern of the data in Table 4.4.5 therefore tends to support the postulate that re- ward programs significantly contribute to raising educational levels. Hypothesis 4.6 Hypothesis 4.6 is: “Proportionally more police recruits with some college who have prior police experience seek employment in agencies which have a reward program for completed education." Examination of the relationship between prior police experi- ence and employment with agencies having a reward for completed educa- tion is relevant to assessing the degree to which such rewards influ-' ence employment decisions. Those personnel who are changing their agency of employment are less influenced by the mere availability of employment at some particular point in time, and hence are more selective in their choice of another agency. Removing the nuisance variable of the availability of employment at a particular point in . time allows a clearer assessment of the influence of agency reward 4 programs. The data relating previous police employment and receipt Inf a reward for completed education are presented in Table 4.4.6. 134 As cited in the table, the probability value is not significant. These data indicate no relation between the two variables. It must be concluded that the influence of a reward for completed education is not significant among those with prior police experience. This result is contrary to the postulate that reward programs have a significant impact on upgrading educational levels. TABLE 4.4.6 PREVIOUS POLICE EMPLOYMENT AND RECEIPT OF REWARD FOR COMPLETED EDUCATION Police Employment Receipt of Reward ' Previously employed First employment Agency had such 78 146 a reward No such reward existed 488 1085 cm Square = 1.311) df =1 p > .01 _Hypothesis 4.7 Hypothesis 4.7 is: “Preference for various educational re- ward programs varies by level of education.“ 135 A related issue to assessing the impact of agency reward pro- grams for completed education is the determination of the desirability of various types of reward programs. The most useful information in this regard is a comparison of the desirability of various reward pro- grams by educational levels. All respondents to the survey were asked to rank four types of reward programs in terms of their relative attractiveness. The data relating the mean ranks assigned each of these programs by level of education are presented in Table 4.4.7. The police recruits indicated that a percentage salary increment was the most attractive reward program, then shorter time in rank before qualifying for promotion, then preference given for special assign- ments, and last, seniority salary increments. No differences in rank order emerged by level of education. Summary of Hypothesis Four The pattern of acceptance and rejection of the testable hy- potheses subsumed under Hypothesis Four provides only limited support for the hypothesis. Certain of the data lend support to the hypoth-. esis: Some fifty-eight percent of the police recruits who received a reward for completed education indicate that it had at least some influence on their decision to seek employment with the particular aQency they did; proportionally more agencies with higher educational 136 mpcmscmwmmm Fo.A mom.PP mo.N om.N mo.N mN.N ew.N Forumam com cm>wm mucmcmmmcm coruoEoea Fo.A mom.~ we.N om.N me.N we.N oe.N Lou mcwxvamsc mgoamn me_u Lougogm . . . . . . . accemcucw Po A mam N mm N No N mm N mm N mm N xgmpmm xuwgopcmm :mewsoc 8.x 3; SN 3; SN mm; a; essmpmmssha Foozum .mgx N v .mgx e v .mgx +e . a a 3c. 3:. a _ v “a _ “3 N .5 s cowumozum we pm>m4 mamgmogm ugmzma monm<> mo zoahu~p<4mm oz< onHm4 mzm apco —oo;um . .mc» N v .mgx e v .mgx +e a 3g new: a» P v can F can N to e Ppeem>o meowpmeauumeou cowpoozum ac Fm>m4 mo xcmm cum: >ozuw< m<420Hhm<¢ < mo moHozu oszumam< onhm4 P.m.¢ m4mm xpco comp—cu ac mmmppou No mmmppoo ocean mmmppou cowuwns< 3g cowpmcweme covumcwsemp -cwecmp deacon mc_gmpcm acopmmwe mcovpmgmuwmcou smum< coa=\gmmz \m:_gmucm gmum< cog: mo xcmm cam: mange meNN >uzmw< no moHozu wthumaa< mzouh.0] I Agency 5 salary C°mPared 3.01 3.31 3.19 10.908 > .01 to others , . Agency 5 Prestlge 2.97 2.90 2.50 26.663 > .01 compared to others Nature of the jurisdiction 3.15 3.14 3.33 3.637 =>.01 1 Agency 5 recruitment 4.51 4.44 4.47 .709 :»,01 efforts I _ Agency 5 carrer and pro 2.77 2.66 2.55 .773 >.,01 motion opportunities as a factor affecting the choice of a particular agency as distance of employment from home town increased. Hypothesis 5.3 is therefore aaccepted. Note should be taken of the fact that agency prestige is 'the most important consideration among police recruits employed in agencies over 100 miles from their home town. These data lend support to Research Hypothesis Five. 146 Hypothesis 5.4 Hypothesis 5.4 is: I‘Proportionally more police recruits with some college employed in agencies distant from their home towns (over 50 miles) are employed in agencies which require some collegei as qualification for employment." Because agency prestige and agency educational requirements are very closely related, it was decided to also test education re- quirements against proximity of present employment to home town. Such an examination serves as an indirect measure of the influence of agency prestige. Such “hard" data is a valuable supplement to the "soft" data obtained by querying the respondents as to the rank order they would assign the six variables listed earlier. The "soft" data is, of course, susceptible to the influence of socially desirable response patterns and other nuisance variables which do not affect relationships such as that being tested in this hypothesis. The data relating prox- imity of present employment to home town and employment by agency educational requirement are presented in Table 4.5.4. As indicated by the data presented in the table, the two variables are positively related. The imposition of college educational requirements appar- ently does draw college educated personnel from their home town vicin- ity to distant agencies which have such requirements. Hypothesis 5.4 is therefore accepted. Because of the relationship between agency 147 educational requirements and agency prestige, these data also tend to support Research Hypothesis Five. TABLE 4.5.4 PRESENT EMPLOYMENT'S PROXIMITY TO HOME TOWN AND EMPLOYMENT BY AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT Distance Educational Requ1rement Within 51-100 miles Over 50 miles 100 miles High school or equivalent 1127 82 189 Some college work 272 34 90 Chi Square = 25.986 df = 2 p < .01 .Hypothesis 5.5 Hypothesis 5.5 is: “The rank order of agency prestige as a ffiictor influencing the employment decision relates positively to agency educational requirements . " In the discussion of Hypothesis 5.4 it was stated that agency educational requirements and agency prestige are closely related. The Purpose of this hypothesis is to examine the rank order assigned agency 148 prestige as it relates to employment by agency educational require- ment. If the two variables are related, then those employed in agencies which require some college ought to rank agency prestige higher. Agency educatidnal requirement and the rank order of consi- derations affecting the choice of a particular agency are presented in Table 4.5.5. The probability values cited in the table indicate that the rank order of two factors affecting the choice of a partic- ular agency vary by agency educational requirement—-“agency prestige compared to others" and "only available police employment at the time." The factor of “only available police employment at the time" is ranked lower by those employed in agencies which require some college. This is a reasonable expectation since one would anticipate those seeking employment in such agencies to be more selective in their choice of an agency. The mean rank of "agency prestige compared to others" is higher among those employed in agencies which require some college. In fact, agency prestige is ranked the most important con- sideration by those employed in agencies which require some college. Hypothesis 5.5 is therefore accepted. This relationship supports the contention that agency educational requirements and agency prestige are closely related. The data further indicate that among those em- ployed in agencies which require some college, agency prestige is the primary consideration affecting the choice of that particular agency. EMPLOYMENT BY AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT AND IMPORTANCE 149 TABLE 4.5.5 OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY Educational Requirement Mean Rank of Considerations High school Some college KW or equivalent work required Only available employment at 4.51 4.93 17.004 .01 the time Age"Qy's sa'a“’ 3 07 2 98 797 01 compared to others ' ' ' ' Agency's prestige compared to others 2.96 2.59 18.645 .01 Nature of the jurisdiction 3.13 3.29 3.306 .01 Agency's recruitment efforts 4.57 4.42 2.589 .01 Agency's career and promotion 2.73 2.75 .121 .01 opportunities _Hypothesis 5.6 Hypothesis 5.6 is: “Factors related to the decision to seek employment with a particular agency do not differ by the size of the _ employing agency. " 150 When considering the factors which affect the choice of a particular agency, it is useful to ascertain whether such factors might vary by agency size. Since no particular evidence exists to indicate that there might be such variation, Hypothesis 5.6 is stated in null form. The data relating size of agency and the rank order of considerations affecting the choice of a particular agency are pre- sented in Table 4.5.6. As indicated by the data in Table 4.5.6., Hypothesis 5.6 is rejected. Five of the six factors do vary by size of agency. The influence of “only available police employment at the time" apparently increases as size of agency decreases. This would indicate that either smaller agencies are less selective in their em- ployment criteria or that those who are groping for the first avail- able police employment tend to look to these agencies more often. There is a general tendency for agency salary to be rated more impor- tant as a consideration as size of agency increases. Other factors are apparently more important to those who seek employment with smaller agencies (in particular, "only available police employment at the time" and “nature of the agency jurisdiction"). Agency prestige assumes increased importance as size of agency increases. This is consonant with the general observation that larger police agencies are generally more prestigious. The importance of “nature of agency jurisdiction" 151 TABLE 4.5.6 SIZE OF AGENCY AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE Mean Rank of S1ze of Agency c°"5'derat'°"5 < 50 50-199 200-499 > 500 KW p Only available employment at 3.78 4.52 4.45 5.23 155.721 <.01 the time Agency's salary compared to Others 3.44 2.90 2.96 2.91 45.787 <.01 Agency 5 PFESt'ge 3.32 3.06 2.93 2.48 11.777 <.01 compared to others Nature 0f the 2.76 2.84 3.24 3.67 ~133.065 <.01 jurisdiction Agency's recruitment efforts 4.35 4.57 4.49 4.58 7.290 >.Ol Agency's career and promotion 3.31 3.10 2.89 2.09 183.308 >.Ol opportunities varies inversely with size of agency. Smaller agencies do tend to be associated with suburban and middle-class jurisdictions, while larger agencies are associated with metr0politan jurisdictions. Those who seek employment in smaller agencies are apparently influenced by the Opportunity to work in a middle-class or suburban environment. Agency 152 recruitment efforts do not vary by size of agency, but this is to be expected considering the fact that very few police agencies make much of an effort at recruitment. Agency career and promotion opportunities tends to be rated higher as size of agency increases. The utility of this data relates to the kind of recruitment efforts likely to be most effective in various sizes of agencies. The data indicate that large agencies would do well to emphasize their career and promotion opportunities, while small agencies would do best to emphasize the nature of the agency jurisdiction. Hypothesis 5.7 Hypothesis 5.7 is: "A higher proportion of police recruits in large police agencies (over 500 sworn personnel) are from that agency vicinity (within 50 miles) than are those employed in other sized agencies." Ancillary to consideration of factors affecting the choice of a particular agency is consideration of whether agencies of any par- ticular size tend to "draw" personnel from greater distances than other agencies. The data relating size of agency and proximity of employment to home town are presented in Table 4.5.7. The probabil- ity value cited in Table 4.5.7 indicates that a relationship does exist between agency size and proximity of employment to home town. 153 TABLE 4.5.7 SIZE OF AGENCY AND PRESENT EMPLOYMENT'S , PROXIMITY TO HOME TOWN Size of Agency Proximity < 50 50-199 200-499 > 500 Within 50 miles 425 372 194 515 51-100 miles 35 20 18 57 Over 101 miles 64 49 24 155 Chi Square = 42.868 df = 6 p < .01 Examination of the data reveals that there is a tendency for large agencies to attract personnel from greater distances, while small agencies tend to employ personnel from the immediate agency vicinity. The practical inference of such information is that national recruit- ing is probably beneficial for large agencies, and less so for smaller agencies. 154 Hypothesis 5.8 Hypothesis 5.8 is: “The rank order of agency prestige as a factor influencing the employment decision relates positively to the existence of previous police experience." The rationale for Hypothesis 5.8 is similar to that of several of the other testable hypotheses subsumed under Research Hypothesis Five. Specifically, it is felt that previous police employment re- lates to greater selectivity in the choice of a particular agency, and hence mitigates against interference from the nuisance variable of "only available employment at the time." The data relating previous employment and the rank order of considerations affecting the choice of a particular agency are presented in Table 4.5.8. As indicated by the probability values cited in Table 4.5.8, no relationship exists between prior police experience and the mean ranks assigned any of the six factors examined in the study. Hypothesis 5.8 is therefore re- jected. These data do not lend support to Research Hypothesis Five. Summary of Hypothesis Five The pattern of acceptance and rejection of the testable hy- potheses subsumed under Hypothesis Five do not support acceptance of the hypothesis as it is explicitly stated. It might very well be said, 155 TABLE 4.5.8 PREVIOUS POLICE EMPLOYMENT AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATION ON CHOICE OF AGENCY Police Employment Mean Rank of Considerations Previously First KW p employed employment Only available police employment at the time 4.63 4.59 .518 >.01 Agency's salary compared to others 2.90 3.08 3.039 >.01 Agency's prestige compared to others 3.00 2.87 1.907 >.01 Nature of the jurisdiction 3.21 3.17 .172 >.01 Agency's recruitment efforts 4.63 4.49 1.663 >.01 Agency's career and I 2 55 2 77 3 650 > 0] promotion opportunities however, that "agency prestige is ghprimary consideration which affects the selection of a particular agency by police recruits with a college background" rather than "agency prestige is tHg_primary consideration which affects . . . ." Agency career and promotion opportunities emerges as a consideration of at least equal importance. The mean ranks of these two considerations are very close, agency career and 156 promotion opportunities being ranked overall slightly higher. Among police recruits employed in agencies at distances over 100 miles from their home town, agency prestige is ranked as the primary considera- tion. In addition, among police recruits employed in agencies which imposed a college educational requirement, agency prestige is ranked as the primary consideration. Categorical rejection of the hypothesis would therefore be inappropriate, but likewise, categorical acceptance of the postulate is also inappropriate. The rank order of considerations affecting the choice of a particular agency did not vary by the forethought of a decision to seek employment in law enforcement, or the existence of previous police experience. The ordering of the factors did vary by size of agency, "agency career and promotion opportunities" being ranked higher among police recruits in large agencies, and "nature of agency jurisdic- tion being ranked higher among police recruits in small agencies. Agency prestige and agency educational requirements were closely related. Hypothesis Six Hypothesis Six is: Starting annual salary is a significant consideration which affects the selection of a particular agency by 157 police recruits with a college background. There are six testable hypotheses subsumed under Hypothesis Six. The rationale for testing the effect of salary upon the decision to seek employment with a par- iticular agency separately from the other considerations was developed in Chapter I. Specifically, it is hoped that by contrasting salary with several other “hard“ variables, the effect of this consideration may be more clearly discernable than by merely examining the rank order assigned salary in comparison to other variables. The rank order assigned salary by police recruits might be lower than its actual influence due to a perceived socially desirable response set. Hypothesis 6.1 Hypothesis 6.1 is: "Starting annual salary levels of police recruits relate positively to level of education." One alternate means of assessing the effect salary has upon the employment decision of police recruits is to examine salary by educational level. A tendency for the two variables to be strongly -positively related would indicate that salary is perhaps a more impor- tant consideration affecting agency selection than indicated by the rank order assigned salary by the respondents. The data relating starting salary level and level of education are presented in 158 Table 4.6.1. As indicated by the probability value cited in the table, starting annual salary and level of education are related. This relation is positive, i.e., as education increases salary level increases. However, it should be noted that the two variables are not strongly related. Furthermore, it should be expected that some positive relationship would exist attributable to thirty-one percent of the respondents receiving a reward for completed education. A relationship of no greater strength than that indicated can be ex- ‘plained by this factor. Hence, even though the data support the acceptance of Hypothesis 6.1, nevertheless, they do not indicate that salary is necessarily a more important consideration in the decision to seek employment with a particular agency than the rank order as- signed it in relation to the other five considerations. Hypothesis 6.2 Hypothesis 6.2 is: "Starting annual salary levels of police recruits relate positively to the rank order assigned salary as a factor contributing to a decision to seek employment with a partic- ular agency." In assessing the impact of salary level upon the employment decision, it is useful to determine the relationship between actual salary received and the rank order assigned salary as an influence 159 _.o.va mm H mu emm.mm u mLmzcmuwgo N N Np Fm mm on NN mp Noocum zap: o m «P mm mm Fe mm mN «mapped mo cam» _ v mumppou an m e NN _NN cop Nw on me mama» N v use N «mapped mo m NN Nm mop mmp mNN mm Nm mama» e v pan N mmmppou No m mN Nm mm mop mm as —m mama» mace ea c seam?” same,” mmmoem mama» momma mmmNa ooomNa A -ooowpa -ooo,_a -oooo_a -oooma -oooma -OCONa OOONm v xgmpmm Nmacc< mappgapm cowumuznu mo Nm>84 onNm4 oz< >m<4m apco mmmNFa mmm_Pm mmmo_m mmmmm mmmmm mmmNm 80m; A - - - .. - .. 8on v a 32 OOONNW oooNFm oooopm ooomm ooomm OOONw meowumawuwmcou myopam szcc< mcwugmum mo scam cam: >uzma< m<4=o-mm<4vacm mmm~_m mmm__m mmmo_a mmmmm mmmmm mmmNm -mommem -mmouum -momo_a -mmmmm -mmmmm -oomNa moon v acmsmauemme Nacowuaoaum momm_m A meapmm Pascc< mcwpgagm hzmzmmmaomm 4ozmo< >m quz>04m2m nz< >m<4m<4o F N m ON we NN m_ we mm_es oop-_m m_ ms ms_ mmm __m mmN mmp ms. mmNPe om cases: mmmNFm mmm_Pm mmmopm mmmmm mmmmm mmmNm comm,” A -OOON_a -mooepa -mmoo_m -omoma -mooma -OQONN OOONW v mavewxosa mumpam Nascc< mcwugmpm 23OP mzo: 0h >HHszomm m.bzmz>ogm2m kzmmmmm oz< >m<4maa mmmNFm mmm_Fm mmmo_m mmmmm mmmmm mmmNm omompm A momN_a mom__m -mommpm -mmmma -mmmmm -OOONm ommNm v pcoemo_q2m muNNoN Nympmm Nazcc< mcwpgmpm kzmz>04m2m muHAOm monm oz< >m<4 .01 As indicated by the probability value cited in the table, these data do not indicate that a relationship exists between the two variables. It should be noted, however, that the overwhelming majority of respon- dents to this study (95%) indicated that they anticipated a career in the criminal justice field. Upon initial examination it was thought that the ninety-five percent statistic was influenced by the fact that an indication of an anticipated career was a socially desirable 172 response. It is interesting to note, however, that when queried re- garding anticipated tenure in present employing agencies, the respon- dents indicated in much greater proportions a lesser tenure expecta- tion. Thus, the socially desirable response factor may not be that influential. Apparently the vast majority of law enforcement recruits do intend upon entering the police service to remain in the field, even if not with their first employing agenCY- Hypothesis 7.2 Hypothesis 7.2 is: "Academic degree attainment relates posi- tively to anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field." In conjunction to determining whether level of education and anticipated tenure in the field are related, it is felt useful to determine if the completion of a specific academic program of study might relate to anticipated tenure. The data relating these two vari- ables are presented in Table 4.7.2. As was the case with level of education, these data do not indicate a relationship between academic degree attainment and anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field. Once again, however, the lack of such a relationship is to be expected due to the high proportion of respondents indicating an anticipated tenure of a career. 173 TABLE 4.7.2 ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE IN FIELD AND ACADEMIC DEGREES RECEIVED Anticipated Tenure in Field Academic Degree < 1 year 1-5 years Career None 2 43 924 Associate 1 11 378 Baccalaureate l 29 367 Graduate/ Professional 0 1 18 Chi Square = 9.278 df = 6 p > .01 Hypothesis 7.3 Hypothesis 7.3 is: "Anticipated tenure in the criminal jus- tice field relates positively to the forethought of a decision to pursue employment in law enforcement among police recruits with some college.“ The purpose of this hypothesis is to determine if a late deci- sion to pursue employment in the field relates to a regard of the employment as temporary. The data relating anticipated tenure in the 174 criminal justice field and the time frame of a decision to pursue a law enforcement career among college educated recruits are presented in Table 4.7.3. TABLE 4.7.3 ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND TIME FRAME OF DECISION TO PURSUE LAW ENFORCEMENT CAREER Anticipated Tenure in Field Time Frame < 1 year 1-5 years Career Lifelong ambition O 13 576 Upon entering 1 9 262 college After entering/before terminating college 0 23 365 Near/upon termination 2 17 160 of college After termination 1 21 283 of college Chi Square = 31.591 df = 8 p < .01 As indicated by the data in the table, a positive relationship does exist between the forethought of a decision to pursue a law enforcement career and the anticipated tenure in the field. These data indicate 175 that it is advisable to interest college students in a career in law enforcement early in their college career. Hypothesis 7.4 Hypothesis 7.4 is: "Anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field relates positively to anticipated tenure in present employing agencies." The fact that a positive relationship is likely to exist be- tween these two variables is rather obvious. The real issue in quese tion in Hypothesis 7.4 is the magnitude of the relationship. The data contrasting anticipated tenure in present employing agencies to anti- cipated tenure in the criminal justice field are presented in Table 3.7.4. TABLE 4.7.4 IANTICIPATED TENURE IN PRESENT AGENCY CONTRASTED TO ANTICIPATED TENURE ,IN, CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD < 1 year 1-5 years Career Anticipated Tenure in Present Agency 1% 29% 70% Anticipated Tenure 0% 5% 95% in Field 176 The data indicate that although only five percent of police recruits anticipate less than a career in the criminal justice field, some thirty percent anticipate less than a career in their present employ- ing agency. Relatively few police recruits with-some college who i enter the police service do so as merely temporary employment. How- ever, a fairly large percentage anticipate leaving their initial agency of employment. Hypothesis 7.5 Hypothesis 7.5 is: “Level of education of police recruits re- lates positively to anticipated tenure in present employing agencies." The data relating level of education and anticipated tenure in present employing agencies are presented in Table 4.7.5. As indicated in the table, these variables are related negatively at an educational level of four or more years of college, pr0portionally fewer police recruits at that level anticipating a career in present employing agencies. Specifically, thirty-nine percent of the police recruits with four or more years of college indicate an anticipated tenure of only one to five years with present employing agencies, contrasted to an average of twenty-five percent of all other police recruits. It would appear that four year graduates expect greater mobility in the 177 field than others. Anticipated mobility is not, however, affected by lesser levels of education. TABLE 4.7.5 LEVELS OF EDUCATION AND ANTICIPATED TENURE OF EMPLOYMENT IN PRESENT AGENCY Anticipated Tenure Level of Education ——v— 4*or 2-but' 1 but fly in Present Agency . < 1 yr High 4+.yrs. < 4 yrs. < 2 yrs. " Sch001 Less than 1 year 7 5 3 2 0 1-5 years 162 201 95 56 32 Career 250 490 324 164 113 Chi Square = 38.672 dfp= 8 p i .01 Hypothesis 7.6 Hypothesis 7.6 is: “Anticipated tenure in present employing agencies relates positively to agency educational employment require- ments." I The purpose of testing this hypothesis is to determine whether certain factors might mitigate against the tendency of college edu- cated recruits to leave their initial agency of employment. The data 178 relating anticipated tenure with present agencies and employment by agency educational requirement are presented in Table 4.7.6. TABLE 4.7.6 ANTICIPATED TENURE IN PRESENT AGENCY AND EMPLOYMENT BY AGENCY EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENT Anticipated Tenure in Present Agency Educational Requirement < 1 year ]_5 years career High school/ equivalent 13 428 930 Some college 4 90 300 work required Chi Square = 10.361 df = 2 p < .01 As indicated by the data in Table 4.7.6, anticipated tenure with pres- ent employing agencies is positively related to agency educational employment requirement, i.e., recruits employed in agencies which require some college work as qualification for employment anticipate remaining with that agency longer. Hypothesis 7.6 is therefore ac- cepted. There is not‘necessarily a direct cause and effect relation- ship between these two variables. However, these data do indicate that cgllege educated recruits are more committed to remaining with 179 agencies which are of such a nature that they impose college educa— tional requirementsas qualification for employment. Hypothesis 7.7 Hypothesis 7.7 is: “The rank order of factors influencing the employment decision relates to anticipated tenure in present ‘ employing agencies." It is useful to determine what relationships exist between anticipated tenure in initial employing agencies and considerations which affect the selection of the particular agency. The data relat- ing these two variables are presented in Table 4.7.7. These data indicate that three factors, “only available police employment at the time," "agency prestige compared to others," and "agency career and promotion opportunities," relate to anticipated tenure in present employing agencies. As might be expected, those who anticipate longer tenure in present employing agencies rank "only available police em- ployment at the time" as having less influence upon the employment decision. The mean rank of agency prestige relates positively to anticipated tenure in present employing agencies, as does the mean rank of agency career and promotion opportunities. In the discussion of Hypothesis 7.6, it was stated that the positive relationship between agency educational employment requirements and anticipated tenure in 180 TABLE 4.7.7 ANTICIPATED TENURE IN PRESENT AGENCY AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSIDERATIONS AFFECTING CHOICE OF AGENCY. — A Mean Rank of Anticipated Tenure in Present Agency. Cons1derations < 1 year 1-5 years Career KW p Only available police employment 1.67 3.71 4.99 175.819 < . at the time Agency's salary compared to others 3.63 3.12 3.02 2.435 > . 1 Agency 5 9’35t'ge 4.25 3.28 2.72 66.814 < . compared to others "Btu”? °I the 3.38 3.06 3.23 5.340 > . jurisdiction Age"cy's recru't' 3 56 4 50 - 4 52 7 573 > ment efforts ’ ' ° ' ' Agency's career and promotion 4.56 3.31 2.49 101.612 < . opportunities present employing agency might not be a direct cause and effect rela- tionship; that instead, police recruits with a college background anticipate longer tenure in the kind of agency which would impose a college educational requirement. The data in Table 4.7.7 support this contention. An agency type emerges which relates to longer 181 anticipated tenure, that agency type including greater prestige, greater career and promotion opportunities, and higher educational employment requirements. Hypothesis 7.8 Hypothesis 7.8 is: "Starting annual salary levels of police recruits relate positively to anticipated tenure with present employing agencies." 1 As was the case in the two previous hypotheses, the purpose of this hypothesis is to attempt to identify factors which might mitigate against short anticipated tenure in initial agencies of employment. Salary is one such possible factor. The data relating starting annual salary level and anticipated tenure of employment in present agencies are presented in Table 4.7.8. As indicated by the data in Table 4.7.8, there is a strong positive relationship between anticipated tenure in present employing agencies and the starting annual salaries received in that agency. A high starting salary may thus be added to the de- scription of a type of agency which tends to attract college educated officers who intend to remain with that agency. 182 No. v a vp u we NPP.Nw u wgmsom ego mp me mm_ men NNN ONN Nmp em emmeem 4 mp Nm No, Nm em, mm Nm memes m-p o o o N m m e m eem» F ease mums mmmNPe mmm,_a mmmo_m mmmma mmmea mmmNs . Neemm :3 we comm—a A -mmmNFm -ommp_s -ommo_a -mommm -omoma -moon OOONm v eeuzmw< kzmmmmm 2H Fzmz>04a2m mo mmzzmh omhm<4 500 Less than 1 year 10 4 3 ' 0 1-5 years 228 128 61 128 Career 274 303 163 596 Chi Square = 124.444 df = 6 p < .01 184 As indicated by the probability value cited in the table, size of agency does relate to anticipated tenure with that agency. Antici- pated tenure increases as size of agency increases. The relationship may be partially explained by the agency type which emerged as likely to attract college educated police officers anticipating a career in the agency--agencies of the type described are most often large in size. Summary of Hypothesis Seven The pattern of acceptance and rejection of the testable hy- potheses subsumed under Hypothesis Seven only partially support the hypothesis. Level of education does not appear to influence antici- pated tenure in the criminal justice field. Level of education does influence anticipated tenure in present employing agencies, but only at the level of four or more years of college. Among police recruits with that level of education, anticipated tenure with present employ- ing agencies tends to diminish. Academic degree attainment does not relate to anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field. Anticipated tenure in the field does relate, as might be expected, to the forethought of a decision to pursue employment in law enforcement. Some ninety-five percent of 185 police recruits indicate that they anticipate spending a career in the criminal justice field. There is a considerable difference between anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field and anticipated tenure with present em- ploying agencies. OVerall, seventy percent of the police recruits ex- pect to spend a career with their present employing agency, and only sixty percent of those with four or more years of college. An agency type emerged, however, which was related to greater anticipated tenure in present employing agencies. The type includes those agencies which tend to have better career and promotion opportunities, higher pres- tige, better salaries, higher educational employment standards, and of a size of over fifty sworn personnel. Hypothesis Eight Hypothesis Eight is: Police recruits whose academic major is law enforcement are more committed to a career in law enforcement than those majoring in other areas. There are eight testable hypoth- eses subsumed under Hypothesis Eight. 186 Hypothesis 8.1 Hypothesis 8.1 is: “At least thirty percent of police re- cruits with some college major in a field other than law enforcement/ criminal justice." The first statistic of interest when examining the contrast between law enforcement majors and police recruits with other academic backgrounds is the relative proportion of each entering the police service. The data describing the nature of the academic majors of collegiate police recruits are presented in Table 4.8.1. Note should be taken of the fact that only about half of the collegiate police recruits entering the police service between July 1, 1972, and June 30, 1973, majored in law enforcement. When this fact is considered in' conjunction with the finding that only thirty-seven percent of police recruits during the period had some college background, the need for, continued expansion of academic programs in law enforcement is obvious. Hypothesis 8.2 Hypothesis 8.2 is: "Of police recruits with some college, those majoring in law enforcement have completed proportionally more college than those majoring in other fields." 187 TABLE 4.8.1 MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY Number Percent Law Enforcement/Criminal Justice 834 46 Social Science 297 17 Education 73 - 4 Arts 8 Letters 31 2 Business/Management 232 13 Natural Sciences 90 5 Non-Preference ' 108 6 Other 131 7 Total 1796 100 The effect of law enforcement as an academic major upon level of education is important to ascertain when assessing the impact of such programs. There is considerable debate among law enforcement academicians as to whether law enforcement programs ought to be con- centrated at the associate or baccalaureate level. This argument will be largely resolved, however, not by the academicians themselves, but by the academic ambitions of law enforcement students. Level of edu- cation and major field of study are contrasted in Table 4.8.2. As 188 TABLE 4.8.2 LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY Level of Education Field of Study 4 or 2 but 1 but < 1 yr. High 4+ yrs. < 4 yrs. < 2 yrs. School ’ .. Social Science 117 93 54 29 4 Education 35 21 15 2 0 Arts & Letters 12 ill 5 3 O Business/Management 57 104 56 14 1 Natural Science 21 44 18 i 7 O Non-Preference O 34 44 30 O Other 38 59 22 11 l Chi Square = 184.207 df = 28 p < .01 indicated in the table, there is a relationship between the two vari- ables. Proportionally fewer law enforcement majors completed four or more years of college, while proportionally more law enforcement majors complete two but less than four years of college. This phenomenon is, of course, a function of the widespread development of associate degree 189 programs in law enforcement. In contrast, proportionally more police recruits who majored in other disciplines complete four or more years of college. Data from the table indicate that a large number of law en- forcement majors are terminating their college study at the associate degree level. At the same time, however, a percentage of law enforce- ment majors which is certainly not slight are continuing their educa- tion through the four year level. Continued development of baccalau- reate programs is therefore appropriate. The data regarding the other fields of college study indicate that law enforcement employment is not merely a haven for drop-outs from these majors, but that the police service is attracting an equal proportion of four year grad- uates from these programs. Hypothesis 8.3 Hypothesis 8.3 is: “Proportionally more police recruits with some college who major in law enforcement complete academic degrees." The purpose of Hypothesis 8.3 is to further assess the effect of associate degree programs in law enforcement. The data relating academic attainment and major field of study in college are presented in Table 4.8.3. As indicated by the data in the table, there is a relationship between field of study in college and academic 190 TABLE 4.8.3 ACADEMIC DEGREE AND MAJOR FIELD OF COLLEGIATE STUDY Academic Degree Field of Study None Associate Baccalaureate g::$::::bnal ”tililé‘ielfi's‘iice 460 234 133 6 Social Science 140 40 112 5 Education 33 6 32 2 Arts & Letters 15 4 11 1 Business/Management 122 54 54 2 Natural Sciences 49 20 21 0 Non-Preference 98 8 1 O Other 65 27 36 3 Chi Square = 171.253 df = 21 p > .01 attainment. Specifically, law enforcement majors tend to complete proportionally more academic degrees at the associate degree level, and proportionally fewer degrees at the baccalaureate level. Consi- dered in conjunction with the data in Table 4.8.2, these data indicate 191 that the associate degree is being utilized as a terminal degree by a large proportion of law enforcement majors. Hypothesis 8.4 Hypothesis 8.4 is: “Those police recruits with some college who major in law enforcement anticipate longer tenure in the criminal justice field.‘' There is a fear among many of the professionals in the law enforcement field that a large number of the college educated recruits entering the police service from academic majors other than law en- forcement are using such employment simply as an expedient means of obtaining a temporary job. The purpose of Hypothesis 8.4 is to deter- mine whether this is true (to the extent possible by a query as to anticipated tenure), and if so, to what degree. The data relating anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field and major field of college study are presented in Table 4.8.4. As indicated by the data in the table, there is a relationship between the two variables. Law enforcement majors do anticipate longer tenure in the criminal justice field. However, the magnitude of the difference is not great enough to warrant discriminating against non-law enforcement majors. This is particularly true when the nature of the data is considered, 1 92 since a much more valid study in this regard would be one which ascer- tained actual tenure rather than expressed anticipated tenure. TABLE 4.8.4 ANTICIPATED TENURE IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE FIELD AND MAJOR FIELD OF C OLLEGIATE STUDY Field of Study Anticipated Tenure in Field < 1 year 1-5 years Career Latilifiiiel‘fié'iiee 1 22 80‘ Social Science 1 17 274 Education 0 6 67 Arts & Letters 0 4 26 Business/Management 1 8 220 Natural Science 0 12 76 Non-Preference 1 3 101 Other 0 12 119 Chi Square = 42.279 df = 14 p < .01 193 Hypothesis 8.5 Hypothesis 8.5 is: “The rank order of factors influencing the employment decision relates to academic major." Consistent with the postulate of Hypothesis Eight that law enforcement majors are more committed to a career in the field than others, it is expected that agency selection criteria among law enforce- ment majors emphasizes agency career and promotion opportunities. The data relating the mean ranks assigned considerations affecting the choice of a particular agency and academic major are presented in Table 4.8.5. As indicated by the data in the table, no differences emerged in the mean rank assigned the various considerations among categories of academic majors. Hypothesis 8.5 is therefore rejected, which indicates no difference in commitment between law enforcement versus other academic majors. Hypothesis 8.6 Hypothesis 8.6 is: “Proportionally more police recruits with some college who major in law enforcement are employed in agencies which require some college as qualification for employment." As was the case in Hypothesis 8.5, it is expected that more commitment to a law enforcement career among law enforcement majors 194 mmwavcapsoaao _o.A N¢_.m Nm.N Fm.N eN.N om.N mm.N _m.N mo.N ew.N cowpoeosa use smegma m.mocmm< . . . . . . . . . . mpsoeem No A NON m NN a em a oN e No e mm a mm e Fm e mm a ucmeuwzeume m_mu=mm< . . . . . . . . . . cowuuwumrean Fo A Nme m NN m m_ m mm N m_ m mN m mN m NN m mp m eo mezpmz . . . . . . . . . . Assess 6» eeeemsoe _o A NNo m _m N we m mm N mN N o. m Nm N om N om N morpmmsa a.mocmm< . . . . . . . . . . messes es eseemeou No A NNe ep NN m oN N e_ m mm N no m oN N am N pp m msepmm m.>u:mm< we?» mg» as _o.A NNo.mN om.e om.e oe.e om.¢ me.e em.e ON.e me.e Nemeaopaem weapon mpampro>m xpco a so mesa .Num .ucEmz memppmq cow» mucmwom .umzo .eweo 3g :uo -coz .uez \.m=m a mps< -musum Naruom \somcm zed accrueemuwmcoo mesem No epmea mo xcmm :mmz monho2hm mhozmu< mo muHozu wthumma< m.w.¢ m¢m .01 197 No. A a N u mu mop.mp u mgmacm ecu .. D i P umpmwxm mop NN em amp "N «m NON mam accrue scam oz vcmzme a :uzm mN Pm oN an op mp mm PmN on; aucmm< cacao mesa .Num .mmcez memupmd cow» wocmwom .umsa .Evsu icoz .emz \.m=m a mue< nausea Newucm \moeomcu :ae Nesem so opera usezwm ea pmwmumm onko=km mk<~¢m44ou mo QAmHm mon .01 Summary of Hypothesis Eight The pattern of acceptance and rejection of the testable hy- potheses subsumed under Hypothesis Eight do not support the hypothesis. Although there is a statistically significant difference between law 200 enforcement majors and others with regard to expressed anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field, the magnitude of the difference is not pragmatically significant. When law enfbrcement majors are contrasted to others with regard to employment patterns and consider- ations affecting the selection of a particular agency, relationships which would support the contention that law enforcement majors are more committed to a career in the field do not emerge. These data also indicate that law enforcement majors only constituted about one half of the police recruits with some college entering the police service between July 1, 1972, and June 30, 1973. The a550ciate degree is an apparent terminal program of college study for a high proportion of law enforcement majors, however, a signifi- cant number of such majors do continue through the baccalaureate level. In addition, these data indicate that the law enforcement profession was not chosen by only those from other academic majors who failed to complete four years of college, but that a substantial portion of these individuals enter law enforcement with a baccalaureate degree. Summary of Analysis 'Hypothesis One.--Individuals with a collegiate background are now entering the police service in impressively large numbers--is 201 accepted. The data from this study indicate that some thirty-seven percent of the recruits now entering police service have been in college for at least one year. In California, this percentage is substantially higher-~seventy-three percent. Some ten percent of the police recruits now entering law enfbrcement have completed four or more years of college. Patterns of employment by size or type i of agency according to level of education did not emerge. Hypothesis Two.--The Law Enforcement Program has significantly contributed to raising the educational level of police recruits--is accepted with modification. Only thirteen percent of collegiate police recruits now entering police service have received direct financial assistance through the Law Enforcement Education Program. However, because this aSSistance was differentially distributed, twenty-three percent to law enforcement majors as opposed to four percent to others, the program has fostered the development of academic programs in law enforcement, and hence has indirectly impacted upgrading the educa- tional level of police recruits. The receipt of LEEP assistance re- “ lated positively to both level of education and academic degree attain- ment. Considering these data in totality, it is concluded that the Law Enforcement Education Program has had an indirect impact upon raising police recruit educational levels, rather than a direct impact. 202 Hypothesis Three.--Police cadet programs have significantly contributed to raising the educational level of police recruits--is accepted. Some eighteen percent of collegiate police recruits, eight percent of the total number of recruits employed during the period, experienced prior involvement in a police cadet program. Cadet in- volvement relates positively to associate degree attainment, but negatively to baccalaureate attainment. Anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field is not related to prior involvement in a police cadet program. Hypothesis Four.--Agency reward programs for completed college education have significantly contributed to raising the educational level of police recruits--is accepted. Fifty-eight percent of the police recruits who received a reward fer completed education indicate that it had at least some influence in their decision to seek employ- ment with the particular agency they did. The existence of a reward for completed education also relates positively to anticipated tenure in present employing agencies. On the other hand, however, agency reward programs are not extremely influential in drawing college grad- uates from distant residences. The influence of reward programs, considering all factors, can thus be characterized as significant although not overwhelming. Police recruits rank a percentage salary increment as the most attractive reward program for completed education. 203 Hypothesis Five.--Agency prestige is the primary consideration of collegiate recruits in selection of a particular agency--is re- jected. Agency career and promotion opportunities is ranked as the primary consideration by police recruits. However, agency career and promotion opportunities and agency prestige appear to be very closely related. Agency prestige is ranked as the second most important con- sideration, with a mean rank very close to that of agency career and promotion opportunities. Furthermore, agency prestige is ranked as the primary consideration by recruits employed in agencies more than one hundred miles from their home towns, and among recruits employed in agencies which impose a college educational employment requirement. Agency prestige thus emerges as a primary consideration rather than the primary consideration. Overall, the order assigned in this study to factors influential in police recruits' selection of a particular agency are, in descending impact: 1) Agency career and promotion opportunities, 2) Agency prestige, 3) Agency salary, 4) Nature of agency jurisdiction, 5) Agency recruitment efforts, 6) Only available police employment at the time. The order of considerations affecting the choice of a particular agency did not vary by educational level, forethought of a decision to pursue a career in law enforcement, or the existence of previous police experience. It did vary by size of agency, career and promotion opportunities being ranked higher among 204 police recruits in large agencies, and nature of agency jurisdiction higher among police recruits in small agencies. Hypothesis Six.--Starting annual salary is a significant con- sideration of collegiate recruits in selection of a particular agency-- is accepted. Although ranked third among considerations affecting the choice of a particular agency, the mean rank of salary as an influence is close to that of the first two considerations. Furthermore, start- ing annual salary relates positively to level of education, distance of employing agency from home town, and prior police experience. Starting annual salary is therefore a significant, although probably not primary, consideration affecting the choice of a particular agency. It appears to function as a conjunctive influence with several other factors, specifically career and promotion opportunities, agency prestige, educational requirements, and reward for completed education. Hypothesis Seven.--Anticipated tenure in both present employing agencies and the criminal justice field is influenced by level of education—-is accepted in part. Levels of education do not appear to influence anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field, but do influence anticipated tenure in present employing agencies. An over- whelming majority of police recruits (95%) anticipate permanent careers in the criminal justice field, only seventy percent, however, antici- pated lifetime careers with their present agency. Furthermore, 205 anticipated tenure in present agencies varies according to level of education--those with four or more years of college anticipating shorter tenure than those with less education. Emergent, however, is a type of agency attractive to college educated police recruits who express longer anticipated tenure with their present agency. These are the agencies which tend to offer better career and promotion opportunities, are of higher prestige, offer better initial salaries, impose higher educational employment requirements, and are larger in size. Hypothesis Eight.--Police recruits with an academic major in law enforcement are more committed to a career in law enforcement than those majoring in other areas--is rejected. There is no pragmatically significant difference in expressed anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field by academic major, and there is no apparent difference in the degree of selectivity in the choice of an employing agency--a factor indirectly indicative of stronger commitment to a career. Only about half of the collegiate police recruits entering law enforcement have majored in law enforcement or criminal justice as a field of academic study. The associate degree appears to be a terminal aca- demic program for a large proportion of law enforcement majors, al- though a significant number do attain a baccalaureate degree. Of 206 other academic majors entering the police service, a high proportion have completed four or more years of college. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary In Chapter I the contextual framework of the rationale for this study is related to: l) the magnitude of the problem of crime as it has increased in the United States during the past decade, 2) concensus that the quality of police personnel must be improved to effectively combat the problem of crime, 3) the primary initiator of upgrading efforts being the Safe Streets Act of 1968, and 4) the precise role of this study as one evaluative meaSure of the impact of educational upgrading efforts. It is appropriate to define crime as the basic rationale for this particular study, because had it not been for the spiraling of crime, efforts to upgrade America's police would still be negligible; thus, negating a need for such a study. Reducing crime is not, how- ever, the only reason for upgrading the education of police. It would be remiss to leave the impression that that were the case. Therefore, in Chapter II the police role in our society is more closely examined 207 208 'and related to two other rationales for educationally upgrading the police. The nature of the police function in societal conflict resolu- tion is the substance of the second rationale for educationally upgrad- ing the police. Conflict resolution--or the maintenance of social order--in an urban society involves concurrent employment of both social work and law enforcement techniques. The philosophically op- i posed orientations of the two fields result in role conflict for : police officers. This conflict is too often currently resolved by rejection of the social work image and adoption of a crime fighter A self-concept, inhibiting the ability of a police officer to success— fully resolve a situation basically amenable to social counseling techniques. Because college educated individuals are more able to cope with role conflict, and because a college education encourages social perspective conducive to social counseling, balanced order maintenance by police is the second rationale for upgrading their education. Ensurance of proportionate exercise of police discretion is the substance of the third rationale for educationally upgrading the police. The amount of discretion available to police is immense, both because of limited police resources and because of the ambiguity and breadth of criminal statutes. Efforts to externally control police 209 discretion have not been successful. The use of police discretionary power within the restraining intent of the Bill of Rights is a delicate and comprehensive intellectual task. This function should not be left in the hands of individuals whose observation of this world is informed by any less than a college education. This is the third and best ra- tionale for improving the education of police. The purpose of this study was to determine the educational levels of police recruits in the United States between July 1, 1972, and June 30, 1973, and the influence of certain factors affecting college educated recruits' choice of a particular agency for employ- ment. In order to obtain a national sample, four states representative of national characteristics were selected for inclusion in the study: California, Michigan, New Jersey, and Texas. Data obtained from the records of the law enforcement standards and training commissions in these states included names, educational levels, and agencies of em- ployment of newly hired police recruits during the designated period. A stratified random sampling of these recruits was selected to provide a research population for a mailed questionnaire. The purpose of the questionnaire was to elicit information regarding factors pertinent in selection of a particular law enforcement agency for employment by college educated police recruits. The study design is descriptive in nature, employing eight research hypotheses subsuming fifty-four 210 testable hypotheses. Relationships are tested by chi square analysis of contingency tables and the Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance. The research hypotheses are accepted or rejected on the basis of the weight of evidence emerging from the pattern of acceptance and rejec- tion of subsumed testable hypotheses. The findings pertinent to each research hypothesis are: Hypothesis 0ne.--Individuals with a collegiate background are now entering the police service in impressively large numbers, is accepted. The data from this study indicate that some thirty-seven percent of the recruits now entering police service have been in col- lege for at least one year; in California, this percentage is an atypical seventy-three percent. Some ten percent of the police re- cruits now entering law enforcement have completed our or more years of college. Patterns of employment by size or type of agency according to level of education did not emerge. Hypothesis Two.--The Law Enforcement Education Program has significantly contributed to raising the educational level of police recruits, is accepted with modification. Only thirteen percent of collegiate police recruits now entering police service have received direct financial assistance through the Law Enforcement Education Pro- gram. However, because this assistance was differentially distributed, twenty-three percent to law enforcement majors as opposed to four 211 percent to others, the program has fostered development of academic programs in law enforcement, hence, indirectly upgrading the educa— tional level of police recruits. The receipt of LEEP assistance re- lated positively to both level of education and attainment of academic degree. Considering these data in totality, it is concluded that the Law Enforcement Education Program has had an indirect impact upon raising police recruit educational levels, rather than a direct impact. Hypothesis Three.--Police cadet programs have significantly contributed to raising the educational level of police recruits, is accepted. Some eighteen percent of collegiate police recruits, eight percent of the total number of recruits employed during the period, had had prior involvement in a police cadet program. Cadet involvement relates positively to associate degree attainment, but negatively to baccalaureate attainment. Hypothesis Four.--Agency reward programs for completed college education have significantly contributed to raiSing the educational level of police recruits, is accepted. Fifty-eight percent of the police recruits who received a reward a reward for completed education indicate that it had at least some influence in their decision to seek employment with the particular agency they did. The existence of a reward for completed education also relates positively to anticipated tenure in present employing agencies. On the other hand, however, 212 agency reward programs are not extremely influential in drawing college graduates from distant residences. The influence of reward programs, considering all factors, can thus be characterized as significant although not overwhelming. Police recruits rank a percentage salary increment as the most attractive reward program for completed educa- tion. Hypothesis Five.--Agency prestige is the primary consideration of collegiate recruits in selection of a particular agency, is re- jected. Agency career and promotion opportunities is ranked as the primary consideration by police recruits. However, these opportunities and agency prestige appear to be very closely related. Agency prestige is ranked as the second most important consideration, with a mean rank very close to that of agency career and promotion opportunities. Fur- thermore, agency prestige is ranked as the primary consideration by recruits employed in agencies more than one hundred miles from their home towns, and by recruits employed in agencies imposing a collegiate employment requirement. Agency prestige thus emerges as a primary consideration rather than the primary consideration. OVerall, the order assigned in this study to factors influential in police recruits' selection of a particular agency are, in descending impact: 1) Agency career and promotion opportunities, 2) Agency prestige, 3) Agency salary, 4) Nature of agency jurisdiction, 5) Agency recruitment 213 efforts, 6) Only available police employment at the time. The order of considerations affecting choice of a particular agency did not vary by educational level, forethought of a decision to pursue a career in law enforcement, or the existence of previous police exper- ience. It did vary according to size of agency, career and promotion opportunities being more important among police recruits in large agencies, and the nature of agency jurisdiction being ranked more important among recruits in small agencies. Hypothesis Six.--Starting annual salary is a significant con- sideration of collegiate recruitsiriselection of a particular agency, is accepted. Although ranked third among considerations affecting the choice of a particular agency, the mean rank of salary is close to that of the first two considerations. Furthermore, initial annual salary relates positively to level of education, as well as proximity of employing agency to home town and prior police experience. Initial annual salary is therefore a significant, if not primary, considera- tion in the choice of a particular agency. It appears to function as a conjunctive influence with several other factors, specifically career and promotion opportunities, agency prestige, educational re- quirements, and reward for completed education. Hypothesis Seven.--Anticipated tenure in both present employing agencies and the criminal justice field is influenced by level of 214 education, is accepted in part. Levels of education do not appear to influence anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field, but do influence anticipated tenure in present employing agencies. An over- whelming majority of police recruits (95%) anticipate permanent careers in the criminal justice field; only seventy percent, however, antici- pate lifetime careers with their present agency. Furthermore, fore- seeable tenure in present agencies varies according to level of educa- U' 'flsmm'ounm? ”I '4‘ " tion—~recruits with four or more years of college anticipating shorter tenure than those with less education. Emergent, however, is a type of agency attractive to college educated police recruits who express longer anticipated tenure with their present agency. These are the agencies which tend to offer better career and promotion opportunities, are of higher prestige, offer better initial salaries, impose higher educational requirements, and are larger in size. Hypothesis Eight.--Police recruits with an academic major in law enforcement are more committed to a career in law enforcement than those majoring in other areas, is rejected. There is no pragmatically significant difference in expressed anticipated tenure in the criminal justice field by academic major, and there is no apparent difference in the degree of selectivity in the choice of an employing agency--a factor indirectly indicative of stronger commitment to a career. Only about half of the collegiate police recruits entering law enforcement 215 have majored in law enforcement orcriminal justice as a field of aca- demic study. The associate degree appears to be academically terminal to a large proportion of law enforcement majors, although a signifi- cant number do attain a baccalaureate degree. Of other academic majors entering the police service, a high proportion have completed four or more years of college. Conclusions Two generalized conclusions can be drawn from the findings of this study. The first of these is that current efforts to education- ally upgrade the police have resulted in moving police educational levels to a transitory stage between high school and college; nearly one half of the police recruits now being employed have completed at least one year of college. The second conclusion is that the educa- tional levels of police recruits in a particular agency are a function of the extrinsic rather than intrinsic characteristics of that agency. Most notable among the extrinsic characteristics are agency career and promotion opportunities, agency prestige, the existence of higher education employment requirements, and reward programs for completed education. 216 The first conclusion--that police educational levels have risen significantly during the last few years--offers encouragement to present efforts to upgrade the police. The fact that the LEEP program had directly assisted so few police recruits with a college background, only thirteen percent, was a surprising finding of this study. It must be remembered, however, that the impact of LEEP goes beyond the extent to which it directly aids particular individuals. The development of academic programs in law enforcement/criminal justice has been by far the most significant reason police recruit educational levels have risen. Approximately fifty percent of the police recruits with some college have majored in an academic pro- gram in law enforcement, and LEEP has fostered the development of these programs. Most encouraging also is the fact that LEEP assis- tance, when received, does relate positively to levels of education and academic degree attainment. The assistance program apparently accomplishes what it is intended to accomplish in this regard. It should be noted that in California, which is several years ahead of the rest of the nation in development of academic programs in law enforcement, three-fourths of the police recruits spend at least one year in college, and one-fourth hold the baccalaureate degree. The California experience indicates that continued growth of academic programs in law enforcement will cause educational levels 217 to rise significantly beyond their present status. Considering the fact that current LEEP appropriations in the form of direct student assistance are reaching only thirteen percent of college educated po- lice recruits, it would appear to be more economical to direct a large proportion of future program funding to academic program development . r-.o-~ new-finan- per se. A significant number of police recruits with between two and four years of college standing, particularly among law enforcement majors, possess an associate degree. This seems to indicate that they have deliberately elected purposely designed academic programs termi- nating at this level, rather than that they are drop-outs of baccalau- reate programs. The findings of this study also indicate that a high proportion of law enforcement majors continue study through the bacca- laureate level, making it reasonable to infer that the associate degree is not likely to become accepted as terminal for law enforcement of- ficers. In this regard it is also noteworthy that involvement in a police cadet program actually relates negatively to baccalaureate at- tainment. Implied is a need for careful examination of police cadet programs as police educational levels rise to and beyond the two years of college at which such programs are now designed to terminate. The second conclusion--that the educational levels of police recruits in a particular agency are a function of the extrinsic rather 218 than the intrinsic characteristics of that agency--is, like the first conclusion, encouraging to efforts to upgrade the police. Educational levels do not vary according to either size of an agency or the nature of agency jurisdiction. They do vary, however, according to manipu- lable characteristics of an agency, agencies characterized by better promotion and career opportunities, higher prestige, and the existence of higher educational employment requirements more likely to attract ‘mh'vql .' . .: and retain college educated police recruits. Thus, if a real desire exists to improve the caliber of police personnel in a particular agency, the intrinsic nature of the agency is not an excuse for failure to make such improvements. In summary, all of the programs designed to educationally up- grade the police examined in this study were found to have had posi- tive impact. The LEEP program, police cadet programs, agency reward programs, and academic programs in law enforcement are functioning conjunctively to improve police educational standards. While certain aspects of these efforts would benefit from specific changes, none were found to be completely ineffective. Continued effort to upgrade the police is indicated, as is the day when the democratic policeman becomes standard rather than ideal. APPENDIX SCHOOL OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE APPENDIX College of Social Science Michigan State University E. Lansing, Michigan 48823 CODE: QUESTIONNAIRE Police Recruit Educational Background Analysis Introduction Please answer the following questions utilizing the appropriate code number, writing it on the line to the left of the question. If you respond by the category "other,“ please briefly explain the response. 1. With what type of agency are you employed? 1. Municipal 3. State Police or Highway Patrol 2. County (Sheriff) 4. Other: 2. What is the size of the agency in terms of authorized sworn personnel? 1. Less than 50 3. 200 to 499 2. 50 to 199 4. Over 500 3. What was your starting annual salary level? 1. Under $7000 5. $10,000 to $10,999 2. $7000 to $7999 6. $11,000 to $11,999 3. $8000 to $8999 7. $12,000 to $12,999 4. $9000 to $9999 8 Over $13,000 4. Your level of education: High School or GED Less than one year of college Completion of one but less than two years of college Completion of two but less than four years of college Completion of four or more years of college 01¢de 00 o o o 5. Prior to your present employment, were you employed full-time as a police officer in any other police agency? 1. Yes 2. No 219 10. 220 How close is your employing agency to what you would consider to be your "home town" (if a state police agency, consider its location to be that of your present assignment)? 1. Within 50 miles 2. 51 to 100 miles 3. Over 101 miles A number of factors interacting in a complex way contribute to a decision to seek employment with a particular agency. How- ever, some considerations are invariably more important than others. Would you rank order the following considerations in terms of their relative importance in your decision to seek em- ployment with the particular agency you did (1 being the most important, to 6 being the least important. Use each number, 1 through 6, only once). Only available police employment at the time Agency's salary compared to Others Agency's prestige compared to others Nature of the jurisdiction (that is, suburban vs urban; lower class vs middle class, etc.) Agency's recruitment efforts Agency's career and promotion opportunities 00 you regard employment in the law enforcement/criminal jus- tice field (that is, not necessarily your present agency) as: 1. Temporary available employment (less than one year) 2. Short-term employment (one to five years) 3. Career 00 you regard employment with the police agency where you are now as: 1. Temporary available employment (less than one year) 2. Short-term employment (one to five years) 3. Career Whether or not you have completed some college credit, would you rank order the following types of educational incentive programs (rewards for college credit completed) in terms of their attractiveness to you (1 being the most attractive, to 4 being the least attractive. Use each number, 1 through 4, only once): Percentage salary increment (for example, 5% or 10% extra for specified amount of college work completed) tions 11 11. 12. 13. 14. 221 ____ Seniority salary increment (for example, starting at the two-year seniority salary level for specified amount of college work completed, thus allowing college personnel to "get to the top" faster) Shorter time in rank before qualifying for promotion (for example, eligible for promotion to sergeant in three years instead of five years) Preference given for special assignments (for example, investigative, tactical, or crisis intervention units). If you have completed some college credit, please answer ques- through 18. If not, skip to question 19. Does your agency require as qualification for employment? 1. Only completion of high school or equivalent 2. Some college work (anything ranging from a few credits to a BA/BS degree) Have you received an academic degree? Indicate highest re- ceived. 1. None as yet 3. Baccalaureate degree 2. Associate degree 4. Graduate or professional degree (MS, PhD, LLB, JD, etc.) Major field of study in college: 1. Law Enforcement or Criminal Justice 2. Social Science (Sociology, Psychology, Political Science, etc.) Education (kindergarten through 12 teacher preparation) . Arts and Letters Business or Management Natural Sciences (Chemistry, Engineering, etc.) No declared major (non-preference student) Other: acumen-boo Did you receive any LEEP assistance (Law Enforcement Education Program grant or loan) prior to your employment as a police officer? 1. Yes 2. No 222 15. At what point in time did you decide to pursue employment in law enforcement? Lifelong ambition Upon entering college After entering but well before terminating college study Very near or upon termination of college study Some time after terminating college study UT‘PDPNA 16. Were you in a police cadet program prior to becoming a law enforcement officer? 1. Yes 2. No 17. Did your agency have a percentage salary increment or other reward program for completed education at the time of your employment? 1. Yes 2. No 18. If so, how important was the incentive reward in your decision to seek employment with the agency? 1. Very important 2. Had some influence 3. Less important 19. Are there any additional coments you would like to make re- garding the topic of the questionnaire which would influence future police manpower development program decisions? Thank you for your cooperation. If you so requested, a copy of the summary results of the study will be forthcoming within twelve weeks. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Books American Bar Association Project on Standards for Criminal Justice. 1 The Urban Police FunCtion. New York: American Bar Associa- ' tion, 1972. Ahern, James F. Police in Trouble. New York: Hawthorn Books, 1972. Berkley, George E. The Democratic Policeman. Boston: The Beacon Press, 1969. Bordua, David (ed.). The Police: Six Sociological Essays. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1967. Chambliss, William J. and Seidman, Robert 8. Law, Order, and Power. Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1971. Crockett, Thompson S., and Stinchcomb, James 0. Guidelines for Law Enforcement Education Programs in Community and Junior Colleges. Washington: American Association of Community and Junior Colleges, 1968. Davis, Kenneth C. Handbook on Administrative Law. St. Paul: West Publishing, 1951. Governor's Mutual Assistance Program for Criminal Justice. Where We Stand in the Fight Against Crime. Washington: National Governor's Conference, 1973. More, Harry W. Jr. Critical Issues in Law Enforcement. Cincinnati: W. H. Anderson, 1972. Neiderhoffer, Arthur. Behind the Shield;, The Police in Urban Society. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Co., 1967. 223 224 O'Connor, George W. and Watson, Nelson A. Juvenile Delinquency and Youth Crime: The Police Role. Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1964. Quinney, Richard (ed.). Crime andeustice in Society. Boston: Little. Brown and Co., 1969. Saunders, Charles B. Upgradingythe,American Police. Washington: The ' Brookings Institution, 1970. Sterling, James W. Chapges in Role Concepts of Police Officers. Gaithersburg, Maryland: International Association of Chiefs of Police, 1972. Strecher. Victor G. The Environment of Law Enforcement. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971. A Turner, William W. The Police Establishment. New York: G. P. Put- nam's Sons, 1968. Wilson, James O. Varieties of Police Behavior. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1968. Wilson, Orlando W. Police Administration. First edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963. Government Documents Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. For a More Perfegg Union--Police Reform. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1971. California Commission on Peace Officer Standards and Training Symposium on Professional Police. Proceedings of a Symposium Held at _Oakland, California, April 3, 1968. Sacramento: California Department of Justice, 1968. Commission on the Causes and Prevention of Violence. To Establish Justice, To Insure Tranquility, Washington: Government Print- ing Office, 1969. 225 Federal Bureau of Investigation. Uniform Crime Reports for the United States: 1972. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1973. Law Enforcement Assistance Administration. Criminal Justice Expendi- ture and Employment Data: 1970-71. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1973. . Third Annual Report. Washington: Government Printing 7 Office, 1972. . "Crime Down 3%." LEAA Newsletter, 3:2, April-May, 1973, pp. 1, 7. "Nixon Signs Bill Extending LEAA." LEAA Newsletter, 3:7, 1 September-October 1973, p. 33. H: “LEEP Aids 95,000 Students." LEAA Newsletter, 3:7, September-October 1973, p. 35. Legins, Peter P. Introducingya Law Enforcement Curriculum at a State University. A report of the National Institute of Law Enforce- ment and Criminal Justice. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1970. McManus, George P. and others. Police Training and Performance Study. A report of the National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1970. Report on the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. New York: Bantam Books, 1968. National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. A National Strategy to Reduce Crime. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1973. . Report on the Police. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1973. National Institute of Law Enforcement and Criminal Justice. Innova- tion in Law Enforcement. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1973. 226 President's Commission on Law Enforcement and the Administration of Justice. The Challenge of Crime in a Free Socioty. Wash- ington: Government Printing Office, 1967. . Task Force Report: The Police. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1967. Selected Presentations from the 1970 National Conference on Law En- forcement Education. Proceedings of a Symposium Held at Jacksonville; Florida, February 1-3, 1970. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1970. Periodicals Brereton. George H. "The Importance of Training and Education in the Professionalization of Law Enforcement,“ Oournal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science, 52, May-June 1961, pp. 111-121. "Crime Expense," U.S. News and World Report, October 26, 1970, p. 30. Goldstein, Joseph. "Police Discretion Not to Invoke the Criminal Process," Yale Law Journal, 69 (1960), p. 543. Hoffman, Jonathan. "Can Colleges Make Better Cops," College Manage- ment, November 1972, p. 16. "Special Report on Crime in the U.S.," The Gallup Index, January 1973, pp. 3-17. Stinchcomb, James D. "The Community College and Its Impact," ng_ Police Chief, August 1966, p. 30. Tamm, Quinn. "A Change for the Better,“ The Police Chief, May 1962, p. 5. Weber, James K. “It Can Work for You," The Police Chief, October 1973, pp. 41-43. Wilson, James Q. "What Makes a Better Policeman," Atlantic, 223, March 1969, p. 131. 227 Other Sources American Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. Report of the Committee to Establish Guidelines for the Development of Law Enforcement Programs, 1966. (Mimeographed) Hamm, Carl W. Personal Interview. October 15, 1973. I Kent State University Institute of Government Research and Service. 3 "Police Education and Training in Ohio.“ Unpublished report i to the Ohio Board of Regents, 1968. (Mimeographed) ! Michigan State University Institute for Community Development. "Police Training in the Detroit Metropolitan Region: Recommendations for a Regional Approach." Detroit: The Metropolitan Fund, 1966. Nash, William C. "A Study of the Employment Patterns of College Edu- cated Officers in Michigan Police Agencies.“ Unpublished research report, Michigan State University, 1972. (Mimeo- graphed) Police Foundation. "Education and Training Task Force Report." Un- published report to the Foundation Board of Directors, 1972. (Mimeographed) Roulett, Lou. Personal Correspondence. September 24, 1973. Yankee, William J. "A Description and Evaluation of the Associate Degree Law Enforcement Curricula in the Public Community and Junior Colleges of Michigan." Unpublished Doctoral Disser- tation, Michigan State University, 1970. "Ililill‘ll'llllllli