I fl - Oath 1*19 - $1463 (AIL-n! / W ‘ .1 r ' -. 1‘ ' J . _. 1.1. 1'1 W:;;.;.:n"% :4, .1.“ , - w . J.“ r- ‘eil ~/ n ,. 4‘ .- V fill (aw-r L‘s / “’7' 1"“1’? I/‘f/ JUN 2 6‘ 2-005 © 1978 . CHARLES THOMAS KING ALL RI GHTS RESERVED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT NEEDS AS PERCEIVED BY FULL-TIME TEACHERS NOT PURSUING ADVANCED STUDY AND FACTORS AFFECTING THEIR ACCEPTANCE OF PROGRAMS DESIGNED TO MEET THOSE NEEDS By Charles Thomas King A Dissertation Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1978 l 7 6’ ABSTRACT PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT NEEDS AS PERCEIVED BY FULL-TIME TEACHERS NOT PURSUING ADVANCED STUDY AND FACTORS AFFECTING THEIR ACCEPTANCE OF PROGRAMS DESIGNED TO MEET THOSE NEEDS By Charles Thomas King The purpose of this study was to identify the self perceived professional development g§§g§_for full-time teachers not pursuing formal advanced study, and their perceptions of those factors that affect their acceptance of and participation in professsional development activities. Differences within the group based upon the variables of a) community type, b) teaching assignment, and c) length of service were also investigated. A questionnaire was sent to a random sampling of Michigan teachers. The questionnaire contained a) two qualifying questions to ascertain if the prospective respondent was a full-time teacher not pursuing formal graduate study, b) six demographic questions including the three independent variables of community type, teaching assignment, and length of service, c) thirty—one g§§g_items, and d) twenty-two inhibiting factors items (those items affecting their accep- tance of and participation in professional development activities). Charles Thomas King For the first thirty—one need items listed in the questionnaire all subjects were asked to place an "x" in the appropriate box marked ”low", "moderate" and "high" that most closely described their desire for skill in that area. The five items rated most often by the respondents as being "high" needs for their own professional development are ranked in descending order. They are: 1. Improving the Efficiency and Productivity of Students 2. Deve10ping Pupil Self 3. Detecting and Treating Emotional and Adjustment Problems 4. Individualizing Instruction 5. Classroom Management For the twenty—two inhibiting factors all subjects were asked to indicate the extent to which each factor was a problem for them by responding in the appropriate box marked either "never", "sometimes", or "always.” The five items rated most often by the respondents as being "always" a problem were ranked in descending order. They are: 1. Weekend Programs (Sunday) 2 Weekend Programs (Saturday and Sunday) 3 Lack of Released Time From the Job 4. Time of Day Held (8:00-3:00) 5 Duration of Activity (6-10 weeks) Charles Thomas King The six hypotheses that were tested using chi—square generally failed to reveal significant differences in professional development needs or inhibiting factors among full—time teachers not pursuing advanced study when grouped by the three independent variables of community type, teaching assignment and length of service. Only seven of the fifty-three items on the questionnaire were found to contain within group differences that were significant at or better than the .05 level. DEDICATION To the memory of my brothers, Leslie Thomas King Jr. and James Fredrick King whose passions for living taught me the virtues of temperance ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The subject of this dissertation is the personal and professional growth of teachers, but more than that, it is about the personal and professional growth of the author. It is about many people who have been a significant part of this growth experience. Charles A. Blackman, to whom Malcolm Knowles must have, been referring when he said, "The truly artistic teacher of adults perceives the focus of responsibility for learning to be the learner; he conscientiously suppresses his own compulsion to teach what he knows his students ought to learn in favor of helping his students learn for themselves what they want to know." Ruth Hill Useem, whose intuitive sensitivity provided a most sincere encouragement combined with insightful scholarship. Robert L. Green, my silent partner, whose manner said simply, "Go forth; you can do it." Ben A. Bonhorst, a true humanist cares enough to push for excellence. Samuel S. Corl III, who even believed I was good enough to teach his "special" students. iii Along with the special people aforementioned who comprised my doctoral guidance committee I would like to extend a special thanks to all my colleagues in the Profes- sional Development and Human Rights Division of the Michigan Education Association. Particularly Dr. Charles T. Williams who supported and encouraged my endeavors throughout, Dr. John Meeder, Mr. Charles Belnap and Ms. Joyce Messenger who gave me invaluable advice and assistance on the technical aspects of research design, instrument development, and data collection. Finally, to my most valuable asset in this venture, my critic, consultant, editor, proofreader, technical advisor and typist, my wife, Barbara. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page 1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . 11 Need for the Study . . . . . . . 19 Statement of Key Questions and Testable Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 23 Significance of the Research . . . . . . 25 Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . 29 Definitions of Terms. . . . . . . 31 Overview of Succeeding Chapters . . . . . 34 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. . . . . . . 35 An Historical Review of Teacher Professional Development in the United States. . . . 36 The Conceptual Framework of Professional Development (Definitions and Purposes). . 54 The Governance of Teacher Professional Development. . . 62 Models for Program Delivery (Current Trends). 82 Current Research on the Professional Development of Practicing Teachers . . . 90 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY 103 Selection of the Sample. . . . . . . . 106 Design of the Questionnaire . . . . . . 107 Data Collection . . . . . . . . 116 Method of Data Analysis. . . . . . . . 118 4 DATA ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Characteristics of the Population . . . 123 Analysis of Broad and Specific Professional Development Needs for the Total Sample. . 129 Analysis of Factors that Inhibit the Delivery of Professional Development Programs for the Total Sample . . . . 157 Summary of Open Comments . . . . . . . 166 Chapter Page 5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . 167 Implications. . . . . . . . . . . 177 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . 186 Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Recommendations for Further Research. . . 197 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 APPENDICES A Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . 208 B Cover Letter and Follow—up Postcard. . . . 213 C Chi-Square Results for Broad and Specific Needs . . . . . . . . . . 215 D Chi-Square Results for the Inhibiting Factors. . . . . . . . . 221 E Explanation of Process Employed to Assign Missing Responses. . . . . . . 227 F Open Comments . . . . . . . . . . . 232 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1 Tabulation of Qualifying Questions 4.2 Demographic Characteristics of Total Sample Contrasted with the Demographic Characteristics of the Michigan Teaching Population 4.3 Tabulation of Certification and Degree Status of Respondents. 4.4 Broad Professional Development Needs of the Total Sample (Degree of Need Rankings). . . . . 4.5 Broad Professional Development Needs of the Total Sample (Met/Unmet Need Rankings). . . . 4.6 Specific Professional Development Needs of the Total Sample (Degree of Need Rankings). . . . . 4.7 Specific Professional Development Needs of the Total Sample (Met/Unmet Need Rankings). . . 4.8 Specific Need Items of Greatest Disparity. 4.9 Need Items with Five or More Levels of Disparity Between the Combined Moderate and High Rankings and the High Only Rankings . 4h10 A Comparison of the Dual Rankings for the Five Priority Needs . . . . 4n11 Comparison of the Total Cumulative Responses for Met or Unmet Broad Needs to the Total Cumulative Responses for Met or Unmet Specific Needs vii Page 124 126 127 132 133 134 140 144 146 147 149 Table Page 4.12 Comparison of the Total Cumulative Responses for Low, Moderate or High Broad Needs to the Total Cumulative Responses for Low, Moderate, or High Specific Needs, , , , 150 4.13 Significant Chi-Square Results for Broad and Specific Needs According to Community Type. . . . . . . . . 152 4.14 Significant Chi-Square Results for Broad and Specific Needs According to Teaching Assignment . . . . . . . 156 4.15 Factors that Affect Teacher Access to Professional Development Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . 159 4.16 Significant Chi-Square Results for the Inhibiting Factors According to Teaching Assignment . . . . . . . 164 17 Chi-Square Results for Broad and Specific Needs According to Community Type (Rural—Urban/Suburban) . . . . . 215 18 Chi- Square Results for Broad and Specific Needs According to Teaching Assignment . . . . . . . 217 19 Chi-Square Results for Broad and Specific Needs According to Length of Service. . . . . . . . . 219 20 Chi-Square Results for the Inhibiting Factors According to Community Type (Access) . . . . . . . . . . 221 21 Chi—Square Results for the Inhibiting Factors According to Teaching Assignment (Access) . . . . . . . . 222 22 Chi—Square Results for the Inhibiting Factors According to Length of Service (Access) . . . . . . . . 224 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1 Teacher Supply and Demand to 1975 and Projections to 1980. . . . . . . 7 1.2 Projections of Teacher Surplus at Varying Turnover Rates . . . . . . . 8 E.l Number of Missing Cases for Met/Unmet Columns Versus the Number for Need Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 E.2 The Number of Missing Cases Per Item . . . 230 E.3 Sample Chart for Cross Tabulations on Each Item to Show the Number of Respondents for Each Category. . . . . 231 ix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Even a cursory look at inservice education tells us at the very least we have had limited success in meeting the professional development needs of public school teachers. Of all the tradition—bound practices in American education, the current state of in-service teacher training is probably the most indefensible.1 Historically, teacher professional development has been a neglected area in education. It has always been a part of teacher education under the rubric "Inservice Education," however, it has only been seen as a small part of teacher training. The history of inservice teacher education in the United States is complicated by the influ- ence of various factors contributing to the gradual structuring of the total educational program, of which the promotion of continuing professional growth on the part of the teacherg has been only a small, although important part. 1Dwight W. Allen, "In-service Teacher Training: A Modest Proposal," in Improving Inservice Education, ed. Louis J. Rubin, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), p. 109. 2Herman G. Richey, "Growth of the Modern Conception of Inservice Education,” In-Service Education for Teachers, Supervisors, and Administrators, in Fifty—Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957), p.35. 1 2 The prevailing belief seems to have been that if teachers were required to acquire more formal education it would result in an overall improvement in education; consequently the focus of inservice education became the filling of degree requirements. After the First World War educators believed that major improvement in the quality of teaching in American public schOols could be brought about by requiring all teachers to have a bachelor's degree. When the drive to implement this view began, over half of the teachers could show on their credentials only the equivalent of two years of college. Hence from 1918 until fifteen or twenty years later, inservice programs were not aimed primarily to helping teachers meet new problems but ratger, filling gaps in college degree requirements. A concept of continuing professional development and its relationship to improving education developed slowly. Inservice education as a vehicle for improving education was not seen as important, particularly by those persons in whom responsibility for operating the schools was vested. Administrators, for the most part, controlled professional develOpment activities because they perceived it to be a part of their responsibility to improve not teacher performance, but the instructional program, as though instructional improvement and teacher professional development were two separate activities. 3Ralph W. Tyler, "In-Service Education of Teachers: A Look at the Past and Future," in Improving Inservice Education, ed. Louis J. Rubin, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), p. 8. 3 The administrator, aware of the urgency of the task of improving instruction, was interested in developing a program and employing means that would most rapidly remedy the situation. Direc- tion, then as nowy'waswidely regarded as the most efficient procedure for achieving immediate improvement. Teachers, long conditioned to prescription and direction, were little disposed to be critical of the digection of those in whom legal authority resided. Inservice programs, consequently, did not focus on teacher need. Negative perceptions of most professional development activities were reinforced through the years. Teachers regardless of age, sex, experience, assignment, expressed neggtive perceptions of local inservice programs. It soon became apparent that teachers must assume a greater decision-making role in their own professional development. The teacher should have the opportunity to select the kind of inservice activities he fgels will strengthen his professional competence. Throughout the early period of education in America and indeed up until the middle and late 1960s, teacher shortage was the rule rather than the exception. The persistence of this problem understandably caused primary attention to be focused on the pre-service 4Herman G. Richey, op. cit. 5Barbara Arlene Ainsworth, "Stated Perceptions of Teachers Regarding Inservice Programs," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Maryland, 1974), p. 62. 6Jack L. Brimm and Daniel J. Tollett, "How Do Teachers Feel About In-Service Education?” Educational Leadership Vol. 31 (March 1974), p. 523. 4 preparation of teachers. As a result, the number of teachers completing pre—service preparation nationwide increased continuously each year beginning in 1954 and reached an all time high of 317,254 new teachers in 1972.7 One outcome of this phenomenon was an increase of provi— sionally certified teachers needing advanced study for permanent certification. During the 1967-68 school year, for example, there were 32,363 teachers holding provisional certificates according to figures in one key state (Michigan). This figure decreased to 26,912 in 1977—78.8 Colleges and universities responded to the need for graduate study aimed at permanent certification, not at professional development. This is reminiscent of the post- World War II push for bachelor degree completion when it became a minimum requirement in the late 1940s and as a consequence most professional development efforts were aimed at accumulating college credit to meet those degree require- ments. The professional development of many permanently certified teachers was neglected. 7National Education Association, Teacher Supply and Demand in Public Schools -1973, (Washington, D. C.: 1974), p. 4. 8Michigan Department of Education, Register of Profes- sional Personnel, (Lansing, Michigan: 1976), p. 68. 5 Edelfelt reinforces the neglect idea, The deplorable situation today exists probably not so much by design as by neglect. For the last six decades, teacher educators have been preoccupied with improving first preservice teacher education and then graduate training for teachers of teachers. When the degree requirement for beginning teachers was still but a dream, four years of preparation seemed reasonable to prepare a finished product. The drive to bring legitimacy to teacher education in the university may also have diverted attention frompprograms for teacher inservice.9i(emphasis added) Teacher Supply and Demand Today there is a lowering of enrollments in pre-service teacher preparation due principally to a surplus of teachers. The supply of graduates completing preparation to enter teaching in 1976 (233,470 graduates) is smaller by 6.2 percent than the number reported for 1975. This is the fourth consecutive year that the number completing preparation to enter teaching has decisased from the all-time high of 317,254 in 1972. With more stable staffs in public schools and fewer new teachers entering the profession, the time has never been more opportune‘ha shift the emphasis from pre-service preparation to new teachers to the professional development of practicing teachers. National studies show that the surplus teacher supply will be an on—going phenomenon at least through 1981. These same studies project less turnover 9Roy A. Edelfelt, "The School of Education and Inservice Education," Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. XXVIII, No. 2 (March-April 1977), p. 13. 1ONational Education Association, Teacher Supply and Demand in Public Schools - 1976, Research Memo 1977, (June 1977), p. 2. 6 in existing staffs. However, even if turnover is high there is still an excess supply projected according to a report by the U. S. Office of Education projecting teacher supply and demand for elementary and secondary, public and non—public, schools through 1980—81.11 These research results show that excess supply will not disappear in any of the projected years and that by 1980—81 there will be about half again as many applicants as there are openings. Not all of these applicants will be newly prepared teachers because many experienced teachers who left the profession (38.8 percent in 1966)12 will desire to return to teaching. Figure 1.1 shows a consistently increasing surplus of teachers deSpite a decreasing demand. One should remember, however, that these figures do not take into account the approximately 10-15 percent who although prepared and certified are not actively seeking teaching positions.13 Figure 1.2 shows that regardless of what the turnover rate is supply will continue to outstrip demand through 1981.14 11Educational Daily, December 6, 1976. lZNational EducatiOn Association, Status of the American Public School Teacher 1975-76, (Washington, D.C.: 1977) p.16. 13Placement Bureau Report, Michigan State University, (East Lansing, Michigan: 1978) 14Education Daily, op. cit. __YEAR DEMAND SUPPLY ggggig 1970-71 134,000 188,939 54,393 1971-72 149,000 199,636 50,636 1972-73 185,000 207,479 22,479 1973—74 177,000 212,821 35,821 1974—75 165,000 212,400 47,400 PROJECTED 1975—76 179,000 210,600 31,600 1976-77 154,000 214,200 60,200 1977-78 136,000 227,475 91,475 1978-79 124,000 233,550 109,550 1979-80 120,000 236,700 116,700 1980-81 116,000 239,400 123,40015 FIGURE 1.1 TEACHER SUPPLY AND DEMAND TO 1975 AND PROJECTIONS TO 1981 15Education Daily, op. cit. . 149,400 150,000 - . , -J 123,400 - “‘1 80,400 3.1.1620. 1975-76 1980—81 1980—81 1980—8116 INTERMEDIATE HIGH INTERMEDIATE LN 'IURNOVER 'IURNOV'ER TURNOVER 'IURNOVER RATE RATE RATE RATE FIGURE 1.2 PROJECTIONS OF TEACHER SURPLUS AT VARYING TURNOVER RATES 16Education Daily, op. cit. 9 Thrust Toward Professional Development The mid-1970s saw a nationwide thrust toward teacher professional development which is evidenced not only by a proliferation of "teacher center" activity in most states, but is also graphically illustrated by the Congress author— izing 50 million dollars for teacher centers in the Higher Education Bill of 1977. As teaching staffs became more stable, with less mobility and fewer new teachers, there also arose a phenomenon whereby collective bargaining provided greater economic incentive to pursue advanced study. Teacher contracts specified salary increments tied to earned degrees. An outgrowth of this,that only added to the neglect of inservice,was attention being diverted from pre-service preparation to high enrollments of teachers pursuing advanced study for advanced degree work. The number of teachers with master's degrees nationwide increased from 23.1 percent in 1961 to 37.1 percent in 1976.17 The State of Michigan experienced an increase from 42,472 in 1974-75 to 43,124 in the 1976-77 school year, a two year increase of 652 teachers.18 Elizabeth Dillion attributes this to "salary incre- ments” among other things. 17National Education Association, op. cit. 18Michigan Department of Education, Register of Professional Personnel 1976-77, (Lansing, Michigan), p. 72. 10 As the educational system becomes more complex policy makers began to require continued profes- sional training for new or renewed certification. Salary schedules reflected concern for continuous growth through sakgry increments based on additional university work. 1 As indicated, financing teacher education has been directed toward those persons involved in pre-service preparation, advanced degree work, or those pursuing advanced study for permanent certification. Too little attention has been given to career teachers not pursuing advanced study. Adequate financing is no small problem; however, there seems to be some agreement that money (or the lack of it), and perhaps a multiplicity of other things, have had the net effect of relegating teacher professional development to a low priority in education. When district personnel examine their needs they often become preoccupied with money and their lack of it. Money is important in providing per- sonnel with learning opportunities, but, in many districts funding inservice education is a low priority.20 19Elizabeth A. Dillion, "Staff Development: Bright Hope or Empty Promise," Educational Leadership, Vol. 34, No. 3 (December 1976), pp. 165-170. 20Raymond Hendee, "Toward Effective Self Development Programs," Educational Leadership, Vol. 34, No. 3 (December 1976), pp. 163—164. 11 Statement of the Problem The central focus of this investigation is to examine what full-time certified teachers perceive their profes- sional development needs to be, as well as what they per- ceive the factors to be that inhibit their access to programs designed to meet these needs. Typically, career classroom teachers graduate, begin teaching, and become permanently certified sometime between the ages of 22 and 25, and retire at 65. This represents a 40 year span of time, in which the only formal professional growth experiences (assuming the choice is made not to pursue an advanced degree) that are engaged in are through non- credit professional development opportunities provided by the local school district whose budget commitments often do not allow for high quality programs with sufficient released time from school. While many teachers do not choose to pursue formal graduate study, they do in many instances self—initiate informal professional development activities. (Conferences, workshops, visitation, travel, etc.) The fact that we really have no information as to the extent of the informal activities only more graphically points up the need for some kind of concerted, organized effort in building a professional development program. The available data relating to formal professional development pursuits are also not encouraging. 12 Of the total national teacher workforce comprising 2,496,000 as of the fall of 1976, fully 63.9 percent hold no formal degree beyond the bachelor's. While accurate data does not exist relative to what portion of that number is currently in graduate school, it is significant to note that 44 percent of the total workforce is beyond ten years of service.21 Of these there area significant number of teachers who do not have access to adequate professional development experiences during their career. Teacher professional development is admittedly a complex task. Complexity is one reason staff development has an unimpressive record. Even a small system would be hard pressed to document, much less organize, all shades and varieties of efforts tggt comprise the procedures for staff development. It is admittedly a significant financial burden, and is consequently kept low on the list of priorities. An informal survey made by the author indicates that less than l/25th of 1 percent of their school district collective budgets were earmarked for in- service education programs. If 80 percent of a budget is in instructional salaries, leaving only 20 percent about which decisions can be made, only l/5th of 1 percent Of that amount is being directed to what is surely one of the institution's most important obligations —- the initiation and main- tenance of programs designed to insure better instruction. 21National Education Association, op. cit., p.11. 2 Leslee J. Bishop, Staff Development and Instructional Improvement, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1976), p. ix. 23Arnold Finch, Growth of Inservice Education Programs That Work, (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969), p. 18. 13 These are not legitimate excuses for perpetuating neglect in the professional development of classroom teachers. One outgrowth of complexity and lack of money is that it has led to feeble efforts that have missed the mark. Programs that have been undertaken have been mini— mally successful in meeting the real professional develop- ment needs of classroom teachers. Indeed, Olivero in a recent article quoted actual comments by teachers revealing their attitudes about inservice: "Well, wonder what they have decided we need this time!" "We'll have another in—service consultant who will blow-in, blow-off, and blow-out!" "Just once I wish our staff development days could be used to meet some of my needs; there are so many areas where I need help." "Is there crggit on the salary schedule for this in-service?" These kinds of attitudes may unfortunately be some of the reasons many teachers go through their career with few or no meaningful professional development experiences. Other current delivery mechanisms are apparently inadequate also. In-service education today bears a close resemblance to the concepts that have shaped it historically. It is usually required of teachers. Content and approach are prescribed by universities and school districts. Course credits are mandated by state department regulations and school district policies. Although intentions have usually been 4James L. Olivero, "Helping Teachers Grow Profes— sionally," Educational Leadership, Vol. 34, No. 3. (December 1976), pp. 195. 14 good, too often programs are low level, piecemeal, and patchwork. Teachers achieve advanced degrees, credits for salary increments, and higher levels of certification, but the effort yields too little in the improvement Of teaching or school program. In fact, in—service does not often deal directly with helping teachers improve their skills in instruction or become more adept at planning and organizing curriculum. In school district programs, the focus is on introducing new curriculums, beefing up existing programs, or following new fads and trends, typically at the supervisor's discretion. In formal graduate work, study is largely divorced from the specifics of the teacher's job. In—service education takes place on the teacher's own time and frequently at her or his expense. It is seldom based on teacher need and is often conducted in a manner that negates the principles of good teaching and learning}5 (emphasis added) In an exhaustive National Teacher Corps conference dealing with inservice education, one of the conclusions drawn was stated succinctly by Edelfelt and Lawrence: In sum, in-service education has been the weakest and most haphazard component of teacher education. Even the most charitable would have to admit that it has not been nearly as effective as it might have been, considering the expenditure of time, effort and resources. However, to say that in—service education has been inadequate is not to say that teachers can or want to do without it. During the 1974—75 school year, NEA conducted assessments of teacher needs in instruction and professional develop— ment in 18 local school districts that were represent— ative of the country in terms of size, geographical location, types of clients served, and urban/suburban/ rural setting. Inadequacy of or interest in in- service education was one of the three categories of concern to surface in every single district. The positive conclusion to be drawn from this information is that teachers want quality in-service education; they also recognize a significant dis epency between what exists and what they would like. (emphasis added) 25Roy A. Edelfelt and Gordon Lawrence, ”Inservice Education: The State of the Art," in Rethinking Inservice Education, eds. Roy A. Edelfelt and Margo Johnson, (Washing- ton, D.C.: National Education Association, 1975), pp.l4-15. 261bid. 15 Continuing this indictment of inservice education Rubin adds: Teacher professional growth has not been taken seriously, it lacks a systematic methodology, and it has been managed with astonishing clumsiness. It is not surprising, therefore, that teachers have grown accustomed to its impotence, and that administrators have come to regard it as a routine exercise in futility.2 Out of these indictments comes a concern about those teachers who do not pursue efforts of professional develop- ment on their own. The consequences of a long period of abstinence can be significantly injurious to students. A teacher prepares to teach by spending four or five years at a training institution. There, in the present way of things, he learns a sampling of man's accumulated knowledge, something about the theory of education, and a few prescriptions regard- ing the art and science of teaching. Even if this preparation were adequate, and clearly it is not, his skills would become old-fashioned in the space of a very short time. Yet, after this brief appren- ticeship, the usual teacher will labor at his craft for the next thirty or forty years. Thus, at the moment he leaves the professional school, the teacher is enroute tO‘a state of obsolescence. It has been said, with good reason, that the teacher who has not studied, say, chemistry during the past five years no longer is master of his subjec§8and well may fill his students with misconceptions. Those responsible for teacher education programs are recognizing the need to refocus their attention to the professional development needs of practicing teachers. This view is corroborated by Drummond who is feeling pressure from 27Louis J. Rubin, Imprgying Inservige Education, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), pp. 257-258. 28Ibid., p. 260. 16 the highest levels to shift the emphasis from pre-service to inservice education. A few influential state legislators apparently have conluded that there is now an oversupply of teachers in Florida, and that this oversupply should cause the College of Education to shift a significant portion of its resources from preservice preparation to inservice personnel development. It is rumored that these same legislators have become disenchanted with the State University System and assert that university faculties should focus more of their time and talents on the "real world" problems of the State. The press for the shift from preservice to inservice education, of course, has not been accom- panied by either increased resources or a clearer concept of what inservice education is or ought to be. But irrespective of whether or not the pressure to change is justified, I am convinced that we as a faculty need to work closely with our colleagues in the local school administrations and professional organizations in order to develop a better definition of inservice education and then share that definition with the rest of the University, the Broad of Regents, the Commissioners of Education, and the Florida State Legislature. Unless we are clear about what can and should be done and how to do it, it will be difficult to convinag the Legislature to provide the resources required. Educators are calling for an increased and renewed effort to address the professional development needs of practicing teachers. Colleges and universities are experi- encing declining enrollments in pre—service programs and are looking for new ways to meet the inservice needs of teachers. I don't know how best to place the topic of inservice education on the agenda for the faculty. We don't seem to have a vehicle for college-wide discussions about ourselves and the future. Each of the departments and divisions seem to be Re: 29William A. Drummond,'An Open Letter to the Dean: Inservice Educationf‘(Gainsville, Florida: University of Florida, January 28, 1975), p. l. 17 comtemplating, or are involved in change. The contemplatinon of further change, of reduced funding, of eventual declining enrollments, and other pressing problems, may deter us from seeingithe positive possibilities of shifting some of our resources to inservice education. Change can be stimulating and growth producing, but it won't be unless our own morale becomes higher than it is now. It seems to me that we need to communicate and share our aspirations about inservice education and then develop some achievable, short-range goals to rally around. (emphasis added) Those responsible for teacher preparation programs have been very adept in meeting the needs of practitioners wanting advanced study for permanent certification, or advanced degrees, however, some benefits can be derived from learning more about practitioners wanting advanced study for profes- sional and personal growth. Only preliminary study has been directed to analyzing data for significant differences in responses according to: sex, teaching level, years of teaching experience, location, and amount of graduate education. Further research with attention to such variables is recommended with a more representative sample, including experi- enced teachers and those for whom credit is not an incentive.31 (emphasis added) It is most significant to point out the last sentence of Holly's recommendation. In stressing the need for more research she identifies three separate need areas: 1. More research on inservice needs attending to the five variables - sex, teaching assignment, 30Ibid. 31Mary L. Holly, "A Conceptual Framework for Personal- Professional Growth: Implications for Inservice Education," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1977), p. 239. 18 length of service, location,and amount of graduate education 2. More study of the needs of experienced teachers. 3. More study of the needs of teachers for whom credit is not an incentive. She also indicates that such research needs to utilize a larger more representative sample then she studied. This study will focus on the issues raised in the recommendation. Utilizing a larger sample this study will examine questions relating to: l. The professional development needs of full-time certified teachers not pursuing advanced study. 2. What these teachers perceive the factors to be that affect their access to professiOnal development opportunities. While Holly recommends the need for further research on differences in professional development needs as they might vary among the five variables aforementioned, only three (teaching assignment, location, and length of service) will be closely examined in this study. Attention to "the particular needs of various situations, and people" is also recommended by Edelfelt: ...... the planning and creating of new and multiple designs for continuing education programs that are appropriate to meet the particular needs of varioqg situations and people in local education programs. 2 32Roy A. Edelfelt, op. cit., p. 81. 19 Need for the Study One of the things that is needed is to increase our bank of knowledge pursuant to how we divert that teacher who is as Rubin describes "enroute to a state of obsolescence."33 We must have a sharp reversal in our policies regarding the ongoing education of practicing teachers. More importantly, we need more research data on those teachers who do not find the traditional vehicles for professional development sufficiently rewarding. How do teachers who do not attend university classes define and feel about their personaleprofes- sional growth? Since university course-work is such a substantial portion of professional development, with all teachers at one time or another attending classes, teachers so engaged have the benefits of meeting and interacting with numerous other profes— sionals. What about teachers who have certification and/or advanced degrees and who choose not to attend classes? Where do they find personal-professional development experiences? If they do not have the benefit of interacting with other teachers, which was so highly valued by teachers in this study, where do they find meaning, with peers? Or, do they value time with other teachers? With whom, from whom, and under what cigcumstances do they personally professionally develop? 5(emphasis added) Significant numbers of teachers in the career span beween permanent certification and retirement find many college and university graduate classes irrelevant. 33Louis J. Rubin, op. cit. p. 18. 34Louis J. Rubin, op. cit. p. 248. 35Mary L. Holly, op. cit., p. 236. 20 Teachers who fall into this category find many university offerings lacking practical approaches to problem solving, one reason possibly beingséhey are designed for advanced degree people. These teachers will surely experience some decline in performance and subject area expertise as a result. Hector found that: Teacher performance increases for only the first five years of teaching. There is a leveling after five years, and a gradual but steady decline for the next fifteen.3 There are studies that do not support the "Teacher Depreciation" idea. However, they do support Hector in suggesting that the way to enhance teacher performance is through reform in the delivery approaches to teacher professional growth. If Hector's findings are correct then it becomes all the more paramount to bring these refOrms as teaching staffs become more stable and less mobile. This study will focus on those teachers who are not currently choosing to take advantage of professional development through the traditional means of graduate study. This study will attempt to discover how best to meet their needs. 36David Darland, "Negotiating Instructional Issues,” Speech before the 1974 Second Annual Conference of the Program for the Study of Collective Negotiations in Education, (University of Michigan, 1974). 37Henry Hector, "Teacher Depreciation,” (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia Univer- sity, 1972), pp. 81—89. 21 Edwards found in a recent research project: Throughout this study teachers indicated dissatisfaction with present inservice education. 38 In addition to focusing on professional development needs zuui inhibiting factors as they apply to full-time teachers not pursuing advanced study, this study will focus on how these two dependent variables apply to teachers in different types of communities (rural/urban-suburban), teachers at varying experience levels (less than two years, two-five, six—ten, more than ten), and teachers teaching different grade levels (elementary, junior high/middle school, and senior high). There is a wide range of variables that could affect teacher professional development and teachers attitudes about professional development, such as, sex, kind of certification, salary, geographic location, number of children, or even such abstract variables as commitment or ambition. A comprehensive body of research on the issue needs to include some data on all these variables. This initial effort, however, will examine only those variables this researcher considers basic determinants of the teaching circumstances that have a potential for affecting teacher attitudes about professional development. 38PMtsy K. Edwards, "Inservice Education - The Teachers' Perceptions," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1975), p. 101. 22 The need to capitalize upon the uniqueness of the inservice recipients in identifying needs and planning professional development programs is widely accepted: Systems with successful programs make a genuine effort to identify all local needs, wants or problems suggested from those who are to be inservice recipients. Solicitation of input should emphasize the view of sources inside the systems. This study can also provide further information on finding better ways to address teacher professional development. So the job of bringing about action on in- service education is mammoth and complex. It involves not only designing programs that might serve present needs in improving school programs, but also recognizing the special interest of various groups and agencies involved. Teachers are fed up with the inservice education they had prescribed for them. They are now able to negotiate better circumstances through the collective power of their organiz- ations. In the final analysis, however, we can assert that this study is significant only if we believe in the basic premise that teacher professional development does make a difference in improving the quality of instruction we deliver to students. 39Roy A. Edelfelt, "Inservice Education: Alive With Interest and Fraught with Problem," National Council of States on Inservice Education Newsletter, (New York, Syracuse University, September 1976), p. 2. 40James C. King, Paul C. Hays, and Isadore Newman, "Some Requirements for Successful Inservice Education," Phil Delta Kappan, (May 1977), p. 686. 23 Teachers who have the most inservice education are significantly superior teachers to teachers who have had the least inservice education. Statement of Kev Questions and Testable Hypotheses As stated earlier the central focus of this investiga— tion is to examine what full—time certified teachers perceive their professional development needs to be, as well as what they perceive the factors to be that inhibit their access to programs designed to meet these needs. Exploration of the questions will be limited to a sample of the teaching population in the State of Michigan. Conclusions will be drawn which hopefully will be significant in better meeting the professional develop— ment and personal growth needs of the identified group. Data are collected to provide some new insights on the following key questions addressed by this study. 1. What kind of professional development needs do teachers have when they no longer have legal requirements for additional training and who are not pursuing formal graduate study? 4Arnold Finch, Growth of In-Service Education Programs That Work (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice—Hall, Inc., 1969), p. 9. 24 Are these needs general, long-term broad needs, or are they specific, short-term programs (sometimes called "fads")? 2. Do teachers who are not required to pursue professional development opportunities feel limited by factors that affect their acceptance of and participation in programs designed to meet those needs? The major testable hypotheses in this study will address the basic question of what differences exist in and among different groups of teachers. These hypo- theses as stated in null form are: Hypothesis l—A There are no differences in the expressed professional development needs among full-time certified teachers not pursuing advanced study in varying community types. Hypothesis l-B There are no differences in the factors that inhibit the delivery of programs designed to meet the profes- sional development needs of full-time certified teachers not pursuing advanced study in varying community types. Hypothesis 2—A There are no differences in the expressed professional development needs among full—time certified teachers not pursuing advanced study with varying teaching assignments. 25 Hypothesis 2-B There are no differences in the factors that inhibit the delivery of programs designed to meet the profes— sional development needs of full-time certified teachers not pursuing advanced study with varying teaching assignments. Hypothesis 3—A There are no differences in the expressed professional development needs among full-time certified teachers not pursuing advanced study with varying lengths of service. Hypothesis 3-B There are no differences in the factors that inhibit the delivery of programs designed to meet the profes- sional development needs of full-time certified teachers not pursuing advanced study with varying lengths of service. Significance of the Research Improvement in the quality of instructional services delivered to students in the future will be dependent more upon the ability to effectively impact and effectuate the professional and personal growth of practicing classroom teachers than upon the ability to improve the pre—service preparation of new teachers. Pre-service education is only the beginning of professional preparation, in spite 26 of the apparent assumption that four years of college preparation for teachers was a cure-all! Professional development must be continuing throughout a teacher's career if he/she is to keep up with changing conditions and new knowledge. Unfortunately, the stimulus to participate in profes- sional development opportunities is too often an unwelcome imposition of authority that sometimes results in resist- ance and defensiveness on the part of the teacher.42 Most teachers have experienced a wide variety of attempts to change their performance or to improve themselves, however, with little success. The 1976 report by the Commission on Undergraduate Education and the Education of Teachers, Chapter II, entitled, "Teacher Education in America Now," utilizes survey data from all segments of education including parents, students, and undergraduate students preparing to become teachers. The result is a depressingly dismal picture of the American educational scene. Under specific recommendations at the end of the chapter, Recommendation VI, among other things, states that: 42Ronald Lippitt and Robert Fox, "Development and Maintenance of Effective Classroom Learning," in Improving In-Service Education ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), pp. 134-135. 27 The National Institute of Education should support research and development on the creation of learning opportunities for college, university, and common school faculty members, starting with an identification of future needs of the common schools. These studies should include efforts to arrive at methods for involving faculty in contin- uous renewal of self and of one's institution. The report is replete with emphasis on the strategy of teacher professional and self development as a vehicle for improvement in American education. The Commission's innovative and futuristic views relative to the staff development strategy are also reinforced by this additional suggestion: If teachers are to design or encourage students to designnmmningfullearning space either in the community or the schools, they will have to have adequate help toward role restructuring, help to select moon-lighting work which contributes to renewal for them, help to find opportunities for work and study in their teaching capacities, help, most of all, to take responsibility for themselves, their institutions, and their relation to the out- side world.44 Looking down the road to better and improved delivery mechanisms in education, the harsh reality cannot be separated that improvement will happen only through change, whether change is defined as "growth," "progress," 43Report of the Study Commission on Undergraduate Education and the Education of Teachers," Teacher Education in the United States: The Responsibility Gap (University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1976), pp. 82-83. 44 Ibid., p. 73. 28 ”success," or any of its multiplicity of definitions. A part of the reality is that teachers are an indepensable ingredient to effective change and consequently may be the single most dynamic quality that will determine ultimately if education, or at least perceptions of education, will improve. Another futuristic view of education that also provides some implications for professional development is provided by Toffler: Education, however, is not just something that happens in the head. Nor does it occur solely within the indivdual. Education springs from the interplay between the individual and the changing environment. The movement to heighten future consciousness in education, therefore, must be seen as one step toward a deep restructuring of the links between schools, colleges, ggiversities, and the communities that surround them. The outcome of this and similar kinds of research will be to contribute to that bank of knowledge that will help to reconstruct at least one aspect of education that we know has to change in significant ways in order to progress toward the goal of overall improvement. When it is known with a fair degree of certainty: a) Why some teachers do not self-initiate the pursuance of their own professional development; b) What it is that teachers want to have happen that will cause them to feel better about the value of existing programs; and 45Alvin Toffler, ed. Learning for Tomorrow: The Role of the Future in Education, Vintage Books (Random House, New York, N. Y., 1970), p. 13. 29 c) What is the uniqueness between and among different groups of teachers relative to their professional development needs; the resolution of a complex dilemma in education will be closer. The National Study Commission on Teacher Education ends its fourth chapter (Gathering Information on the Process of Educating Teachers) in this way: In this chapter we stress the need for a quantum leap in information gathering on the education of teachers. We state further that there is required a qualis {sic} leap, a clarification of the qualities of what there is in education, a careful accounting of what is happening there as that clarification fig put into terms that we all can understand. Limitations of the Study This study represents a pilot effort in teacher profes— sional development in many respects. This researcher found no evidence that full-time teacher51n1tpursuing advanced study has ever as a group been isolated and studied previously with respect to the issue of professional development. The assumption that their perceptions of professional development needs and inhibiting factors are different from teachers in general is untested. 46Teacher Education in the United States: The Responsibility Gap, Op. cit., p. 184. 30 Another problem that follows from studying this group is that no instrument designed to collect the precise data needed to test the major research questions and hypotheses could be found. The instrument subsequently used was developed by this researcher and as a result lacked the advantage of having been tested for reliability. For example, despite precautions to the contrary some items ultimately selected for use on the questionnaire were open to multiple interpretations by the respondents. The perceptions of this group are limited to feedback gathered by a randomly distributed questionnaire which primarily depended upon responses to pre-identified items. The methodology then becomes a problem to the extent that there are no Snideposusfrom previous research as to how best to go about researching this group. The instrument was limited to assessing only two aspects of professional development: 1. Perceptions of professional development needs, and 2. Perceptions of the factors that affectaccess to professional development opportunities. The literature review was directed toward an under— standing of: a) An historical review of teacher professional development in the United States, b) The conceptual framework of professional development (definitions and purposes), 31 c) The governance of teacher professional development, d) Models of program delivery (current trends) and, e) Current research on the professional develop- ment of practicing teachers. Other areas of professional development such as: its relationship to pre-service, credentials and certification, performance—based teacher education, intrinsic-extrinsic motivation, and evaluation of professional development programs are omitted from the review. A copy of the instrument utilized to conduct this study can be found in Appendix A. Definitions of Terms Professional Development — A continuing series of activities through which teachers experience self-renewal in the knowledge and skills required for increasingly effective professional practice. These activites include, but are not limited to improving their: a) Subject area competence, b) Instructional expertise, 0) Classroom management skills, and d) Curriculum development skills. These four areas of professional development are further defined: a) Subject Area Competence - Experiences that keep practitioners updated in their major field of 32 study, including new theories, latest research current personalities in and contribution to the field. b) Instructional Expertise — Experiences that keep practitioners updated in improving instructional methods and techniques conducive to increased student achievement. c) Classroom Management - Experiences that keep practitioners updated in developments and findings in classroom management practices that facilitate greater retentive learning, and awareness of those traditional practices that hinder learning. d) Curriculum Development - Experiences that provide practitioners with leadership skills in curriculum updating, innovation, and renewal. Note: There are a plethora of terms that are used frequently and interchangeably when referring to teacher professional development. Many sources that are cited in this study will utilize the following terms: staff development, teacher renewal, continuing education, profes- sional growth, retraining, personnel development, inservice education, and professional improvement. Personal Growth — For the purposes of this study personal growth shall be defined as the end result of any professional development program that serves to increase the teacher's level of personal self—awareness, and self- knowledge. 33 Permanent Certification - Certificate granted to a teacher by the State Board of Education, upon the recom— mendation of the employing school district, after the completion of a probationary period of successful teaching and 10 hours of post-graduate study. Continuing Certification — Certificate granted to a teacher by the State Board of Education, upon the recom— mendation of the employing school district, after the completion of a probationary period of successful teaching and 18 hours of post—graduate study. Note: Permanent certification will be used in this study to include "continuing" certification. The State of Michign has gone to an 18 semester hour requirement for certifica— tion and the use of a new term "continuing." "Permanent" however, is still the more universally understood term. Advanced Study - Post—graduate study for which credit or semester hours are granted, leading to either fulfilling the requirements for permanent certification or an advanced degree. Advanced Degree - A specific program of study leading to the acquisition of a master's, specialist, or doctoral degree. Inhibiting Factors - Any person, thing, condition, or circumstance that effectively operates to prevent or cur— tail the involvement of a teacher in a professional development activity. 34 Program Delivery - Any person, thing, condition or circumstance that facilitate teacher access to profes- sional development opportunities. Overview of Succeeding Chapters Previous research on the professional development of classroom teachers has seldom attempted to test the assumption that professional development needs vary among different sub-categories of teachers. Most have attempted to treat teachers, or a sub—group of teachers, as a whole. Additional knowledge on uniqueness in deficiencies, and needs consequently remains inadequate. Some rationale for addressing not just the problem of inadequate professional development, but the needs of sub- categories of teachers affected by the problem in perhaps different ways is provided in the first chapter. Refining and updating the knowledge base pertaining to this issue have been cited as necessary prerequisites to improvement. A comprehensive review of the literature on profes- sional development is the focus of chapter two. The research design and methodology is presented in chapter three. An analysis of data from the questionnaire including the findings is presented in chapter fouru Chapter five includes a summary of the study, conclusions, implications, recom- mendations, reflections, and recommendations for further research. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The literature relating to the professional development of teachers has been done in four areas. They are: a) history, b) trends, 0) criticisms, and d) programs. While there is a substantial amount of writing, the intent here, using these four categories, is to provide an overview and a basic understanding of teacher professional development pertinent to this inquiry. In addition, recent research on the professional development of practicing teachers will be reviewed. The chapter thus has the following components. 1. An Historical Review of Teacher Professional Development in the United States. ~42, The Conceptual Framework of Professional Development (Definitions and Purposes). 3. The Governance of Teacher Professional Development. 4. Models for Program Delivery (Current Trends). <95. Current Research on the Professional Development of Practicing Teachers. 35 36 {yiHistorical Review of Teacher Professional Development in the United States Most of the literature, which utilizes the traditional term "inservice education," rather than "professional development" (the term that will be utilized for the purposes of this study) reveals virtually no concept of professional development in the early period of universal elementary education between 1840 and 1866. According to Tyler: In the midperiod of the nineteenth century the idea that the curriculum and teaching procedures should be in continuous development was not commonly accepted. The technological and social changes in those days were proceeding less rapidly than now, and school learning was considered desirable but not necessary for an individual's survivalfl Conscientious teachers depended primarily upon institutes of two or three days duration and short courses in the evening to meet their professional development needs. These experiences were purely self-initiated because most laymen (who ran local schools) in those days did not con- sider themselves competent to advise on how to teach children reading, writing, and arithmetic. These teacher institutes which led to the evolvement of the "normal school" grew rapidly in the latter part of the nineteenth century, prompted primarily by a new emphasis upon the question of "how peOple learn” becoming a subject of serious study. 47Ralph W. Tyler, ”In-Service Education for Teachers: A Look at the Past and Future," in Improving In-Service Education, ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), p. 8. 37 Teacher professional development in the United States was difficult to approach with universal coherence and consistency due to the varying degrees of rapidity with which education programs were being developed and imple- mented state by state. For example, the concept of teaching and curriculum being constant and basically unchanging began to change drastically in the midwest in the Land Grant College Act in 1862 and the Morrill Act which later gave recognition to the needs of working-class and agrarian youth for access to higher education as well as recognizing the idea that American educational institutions should be expected to respond to the realities of social change.48 Richey comments further: The history of inservice teacher education in the United States is complicated by the influence of various factors contributing to the gradual structuring of the total educational program, of which the promotion of continuing professional growth on the part of the teachers has been only a small,a1thoughan important part. The history of inservice education is further complicated by the fact that its development has not been uniform either among or within states. In the course of their development, inservice programs have reflected the differences in the educational pro— grams of the several states, differences that arose from the freedom of each state to shape its own educational enterprise and from the efforts that were made by all states to meet the needs of different groups such as city dwellers, oggthe one hand, and country folk, on the other. 48Herman G. Richey, "Growth of Modern Conception Of In-Service Education," In—Service Education for Teachers, Supervisors, and Administrators, in Fifty-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957), p. 35. 491bid. 38 Early professional development efforts in the United States centered primarily on the purpose of remedial improvement of teachers. From 1880 until the First World War remedi- ation comprised most of the content of after school and weekend institutes and even the much sought after summer terms of the normal schools. Tyler recounts his father's experiences in 1888 at the Scott Kansas Normal School: How exciting an experience it was to be hundreds of miles from home to hear great experts on teaching and to talk far into the night with other teachers about their views, and their special insights and skills. To learn of new moral ideas in some of the selections in the upper grade readers, get a new approach to teaching poetry, of learning simple ways to analyze grammatically and diagram complex sentences, discovering how to make the method of exgfifing square root sensible to a farm boy or girl. Another View of the need for professional development as remedial improvement is found in the following description of America's early teachers by Moffit: Separated from Older nations by the span of oceans, difficult transportation, and slow com- munication, it was nearly impossible to find teachers educationally prepared to meet the needs of this young country. Consequently, many of the teachers were not well educated and gave little thought tEH. improving their skills while they were teachers. Cubberly offers a supporting insight: The historians of education in the United States declare that a substantial number of those 5(Ralph W. Tyler, lop. cit. 5lJohn Clifton Moffit, In-Service Education for Teachers (Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc., 1965), p. l. 39 earlier teachers were itinerant wanderers, odd in both dress and behavior, frequently intemperate, 52 and brutally severe in their discipline of students. A harsher somewhat shocking View is offered by LaBue: It is claimed by some that many teachers of that time were incapable of adequate adjustment to the normal demands of society and consequently ”turned” to teaching. Some of these teachers were former criminals; others were generally incompetent and immature. Richey offers an ominous substantiation of the need for remediation: During the period between the establishment of state systems of public education and the recovery from the effects of the Civil War, the public schools, as a whole, were staffed by probably, the most indifferent, incompetent, and poorly educated teachers in the history of American education. Moffit, in In-Service Education for Teachers, cites Horace Mann's Sixth Annual Report (1843) declaring that hundreds of public schools were terminated due to grossly incompetent teachers. 55 The need for professional development as a remedial program to correct deficiencies was obvious. Richey emphatically states that: During the nineteenth century, inservice pro— grams of teacher training, and current ideas 52En1wood P. Cubberly, Public Education in the United States, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1947), p. 54. 53Anthony C. LaBue, "Teacher Certification in the United States: A Brief History," Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 11 (June 1960), p. 147. 54 Herman G. Richey, op. cit., p. 37. 55John Clifton Moffit, op. cit., p. 2. 4O regarding them reflected, above all else, the prevailing and partially valid assumption that the immaturity, meager educational equipment, and inexperience of the teacher rendered him unable to analyze or criticize his own teaching, or unless given direction, to improve it. This assumption, combined with the teacher's obvious need for a better command of the subject matter that he expected to teach and of appropriate methods of teaching it, went far to determine the purposes, content, and methods of inservice programs for teacher improvement. The conditions described, the prevailing ideas regarding education, and the temper of the people generally made it essential that programs in inservice of the period should be directed toward the correction of the most obvious defects of teachers, i.e., inadequate command of subject matter to be taught and lack of professional skill; that they should take into account the needs of the inexperienced and entirely untrained teachers; that they should be inexpensively operated; and that they should involve large numbers of teachers. Of programs suggested or devised during the period, the teachers'sGinstitute most nearly fulfilled these conditions. The late 1800's was a period of immense growth and development of the United States and of education. Elementary schooling gradually became compulsory, and new schools brought improved curriculum. Normal schools were opened, and although they had little influence on teacher improvement during the 1800's, they established the founda- tions for later teacher education institutions. From 1880 until the First World War, the summer courses in the normal school were strategically the most important agencies of professional development in the United States. 56Herman G. Richey, op. cit., p. 42. 41 The increasing commitment to universal elementary education (1850) required the employment of thousands of additional teachers with little or no preparation, many of whom did not have a high school education. Teachers' institutes became the chief means of remedial professional develOpment to develop skills and correct deficiencies. Tyler comments: Typically in the 1850's and '60's and '70's they depended upon institutes of two or three days duration and short courses in the evening to furnish inservice education. The purpose of these institutes was primarily to enable teachers to bridge the gap between what they were expected to know and do and what were in fact theig7level of knowledge and their teaching competencies. By the early 1900's teachers' institutes were required in about two-thirds of the states. Brenton reports on a teacher institute in Jamestown, Pennsylvania, on January 14, 1858: ..... teachers gathered to discuss these questions: Is it better for teachers to board around? Should the teachers encourage pupils to chew tobacco? Should teachers open their schools in the morning by reading a portion of the Scrip- ture? Should the door he closed against pupils who are not present by 9 o'clock in the morning? Should the rod be used in schOol? Should the wages of finales be equal to those of male teachers? 57Ralph W. Tyler, op. cit., p. 6. 5SMyron Brenton, What's Happened to Teachers? (New York: Coward-McCann, 1970), p. 69. 42 The original concept of remedial professional develop— ment was slowly changing, and this change was reflected in the modification or termination of some institutes. The name "institute" continued in professional development jargon long after the demise of the early teachers' institutes. Although vestiges of county-wide institutes are still in existence, their value was replaced in the early 1900's by other developments in education which emerged in response to changing conditions. Certification of teachers reflected the growing status of teaching as a profession. In 1890, relatively few teachers had a high school education; however, by 1950, nineteen states required four years of college work as a minimum requirement for certification.59 Tyler comments on certification and inservice: After the First World War and until the Great Depression of the 19305, in-service education was greatly affected by the establishment of quantitative standards for teaching certificates. At that time educators believed that major improvement in the quality of teaching in the American public schools could be brought about by requiring all teachers to have a bachelor's degree. When the drive to implement this View began, over half of the teachers could show on their credentials only the equivalent of two years of college. Hence, from 1918 until fifteen or twenty years later, inservice programs were not aimed primarily at helping teachers meet new problems but rather at filling gaps in college degree requirements. This had a deleterious effect both on the institutions and on the teachers enrolled. Instead of planning for summer courses that were new and exciting to the professors who offered them, colleges and universities sought to 59Ralph W. Tyler, op. cit., p. 56. 43 identify and offer old courses that teachers had not taken previously. The teachers came, not with the purpose of getting new insight, understanding, and competence, but rather with the purpose of getting certéaicates renewed by patching up their backgrounds. During the early 1900's teachers' colleges experienced growth from the normal school movement. Moffit states that: -Gradually, normal schools either ceased to exist or were converted into teachers' colleges. Like the normal school, the teachers' colleges became a significant institution for educating teachers for American schools. Like its predecessors, however, the teachers' college -- its staff and curriculum -- eventually became inadequate. The attempt to adapt to the changing needs of the times brought about a transition to state colleges and state universities. From 1910 to the middle of the century, plans and programs for educating teachers changed greatly.6 Other changes were evident in the growing stability of the teaching profession. Better trained teachers who remained on the staff longer, wanted continuous training and renewal. A sharp reduction in the nation's economy during the depression created a higher level of unemploy- ment; and young people, not able to obtain jobs, stayed in school longer. Teachers needed new skills and curric- ulums needed redesigning to keep pace with changes. In the 1930's colleges and universities became increasingly important as the models of professional development for teachers. Tyler comments on several specific programs: 60Ibid., p. 10. 61John Clifton Moffit, op. cit., p. 3-4. 44 The Eight-Year Study begun in 1933 involved thirty school systems which, under an agreement with the colleges and universities, were made responsible for developing and implementing new educational programs designed to reach all high school students. Shortly thereafter, a similar arrangement was established for selected southern high schools, and this was followed by a state- wide program of secondary school curriculum develop- ment in Michigan. By 1939, colleges of teacher education became involved in pre-service and in— service education focused on the new educational programs of the schools. The American Council on Education established the Commission on Teacher Education and aided a selected group of colleges and universities to develop new programs of teacher education and6Eew ways of working with schools and teachers. Colleges and universities became the acceptable means of obtaining teacher certification and primary emphasis in courses was given to the acquisition of knowledge and skills; the traditional notion of content persisted. Professional development also helped in the certification process. Tyler comments: The Second World War, followed by a sharp increase in the birth rate, created conditions in which there waszulacute shortage of teachers. In—service education during this period largely offered courses that would enable teachers to fill the gaps in meeting certification require- ments. While supervision has always been one of the oldest methods for the improvement of instruction, during the middle 1900's, supervision became one of the most impor— tant methods of teacher improvement. The person in the 62Ralph W. Tyler, Op. cit., p. 11. 63Ibid. 45 role of superintendent or principal was accepted as a person of authority based on competence and understanding superior to teachers. Richey elaborates further on the authority role: Teacher dependence upon established authority was perhaps more firmly fixed by the fact that admin- istrators were generally men and generally older and more experienced than teachers. Not only their age but their sex demanded the respect of many young women teachers who were not entirely certain in their own minds that men were not their natural superiors. Under these conditions and since most superintendents, principals, and directors of supervision were helpful and kindly in their rela— tions with teachers, questioning of the nature of their leadership was slow to develop. As teachers became better skilled and acquired more knowledge, the supervisor's role in teacher professional development began to be questioned. Richey comments on teacher dissatisfaction with administration directed programs: The continued upgrading of classroom teachers, during the period, was accompanied by a growing recognition of the expertness of the increasing number of them and their growing capacity for self-direction. More and more teachers were be— coming equipped, through extended training and lengthened experience, with knowledge and skills possessed by neither superintendent nor principal, with a body of theory equal or superior to that possessed, in some spheres, by the supervisor. The growing complexity of the educational enter- prise was making expertness at all levels and in many areas increasingly essential. The many high— level competencies required could hardly be the possession of a single person or of a single group of persons such as administrators and supervisors. 64Herman G. Richey, op. cit., p.53. 46 To the extent that competence became general and special abilities were distributed among all levels of the staff, the assumption of an inferior-superior relationship between two levels became untenable and administratively-organized-and-directed programs to train teachers in-service lost whatever meaning they may have once possessed. The history of inservice education in the United States indicates sporadic development; therefore, it is possible to find teacher professional development programs in all stages of administrative and model development in existence at this time. Tyler comments on the present in regard to the history of professional development: As we look at the presentagainstthe background of 125 years of in—service education, we can make a few generalizations. Much less attention is given today than in earlier times to remedying gross defi- ciencies in the pre-service preparation of teachers. In-service education is still viewed by many teachers as a means of increasing communication and reducing the sense Of loneliness and isolation that is prev- alent in an occupation in which contact with other adults is limited. In-service education is still a major way of achieving social mobility in the educational profession, not only by acquiring paper credentials that are necessary for more responsible positions and higher salaries, but also by gaining wider visibility in the professional world. In- service education continues to be one avenue by which an individual teacher's personal interest and needs can be served. Actually, the only new major purpose of in-service education since 1930 is to aid the school in implementing new educational programs by helping teachers acquire understanding, skills, and attitudes essential to the roles they are to play in the new programs.66 65Ihid., p. 66. 66Ralph W. Tyler, op. cit., pp. 13—14. 47 The Impact of Learning Theories The review of the history of teacher professional development is incomplete without discussing the changing learning theories and practices of American education and the impact of these changes on professional development. Learning theories reflect the idea that interaction, such as teaching, is based on whatever beliefs people have about the nature of man and his behavior. Combs, Avila, and Purkey comment on the historical pattern of beliefs: In earliest times our concepts about the nature of man and his behavior were derived from folklore and tradition. Later on they were largely formulated from philosophical or theological sources. More recently, we have learned to apply the methods of sciences such as psychology, anthropology, and sociology, which are designed to explore the nature of man's behavior in all kinds of settings. American psychology in the past eighty years has centered on three movements. The earliest of these move- ments was the stimulus-response psychology, a view which seeks the explanations of behavior in the stimuli to which the organism is subjected. Combs describes the approach in education: Present—day teacher education is still deeply influenced by the stimulus-response (S-R) approach to human behavior characteristic of American psychol- ogy. When it first appeared on the scene many educators embraced it wholeheartedly, hoping it might provide the basis for a scientific approach 67Arthur w. Combs, Donald L. Avila, and Williams w. Purkey, Helping Relationships, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), pp. 18-19. 48 to problems of teaching and learning. But this hope has given way to disappointment as it has become clear that so mechanistic a View of psychol— ogy cannot supply the answers we need ........... Its greatest effect upon education in particular came in the 1920's and 1930's: it was then that educational psychology came into being and that the ideas of stimulus-response psychology began to be applied to educational problems.6 Following World War I, the psychoanalytic movement was stimulated by Freud. Combs comments: This was really an extension of the S-R approach: it included not just immediate stimuli, but the whole gamut of experiences to which a person had been subjected in his lifetime. Looking at man in this way provided useful clues for dealing with many of our educational problems. During the late 1800's and early 1900's, many teachers embraced one or both movements to search for answers to existing problems. Tyler remarks on several conditions and reflects on professional development: The very heavy immigration into the United States from Europe from 1870 until the First World War brought to attention new problems for the American schools. Children enrolled who spoke no English in the home or in the local community. Children came to school with attitudes, habits, and values different from those which had been taken for granted by the schools in the past.... This change forced many teachers to re-examine the assumptions upon which their practices had been based, and it stimulated the addition of new topics for consideration in in- service training programs. In this period, too, the ideas of Darwin and of other modern scientists were influencing some educators to look more care— fully at the teaching-learning situation and to try new ideas in the classroom. John Dewey was profoundly influenced by the spirit and contribu- tions of science. His School and Sociepy made a great impression upon the more venturesome writer% and speakers at institutes and in summer schools. 68Ihid., p. v. 69Ibid., p. 11. 49 Francis W. Parker, first in Qunicy, Mass., and then in Chicago, developed a large following as he sought to change the schools from institutions that "imprison man in the cells of custom" to those that "free the human spirifi; and aid man in developing his own potential. As early as 1900, the seeds of the third movement in Amer— ican Psychology were beginning - the humanistic movement. During the past twenty years in American educational psychology, the humanistic movement has greatly influenced teachers' beliefs about students and their behavior. Combs describes the movement: It is a psychology that is deeply interested in the person's own experience, his internal life. It seeks understanding the nature of people's feelings, attitudes, beliefs, concepts, purposes, desires, loves, hates, and human values. Because these qual- ities are the very ones that most uniquely make us human, this psychology has come to be known as the humanist movement. Since feelings, values, beliefs, and purposes lie inside people and are not available for direct observation by outsiders, psychologists dealing with these matters are forced to operate from the internal frame of reference, also called the phenomenological frame of reference. For the historical development of learning theory in American education, the three movements were discussed as unique movements; however, they do not exist as "pure" schools of thought. The effort of integration of the theories is evident in present practices in teacher professional development although there are some real incompatibilities between them. 70Ralph W. Tyler, op. cit., pp. 8-9. 7JIZombs, Avila, and Purkey, op. cit., p. 23. 50 Current Practices There is widespread criticism of present professional development efforts. Bush relates the criticism to the unresponsiveness of current professional development efforts to teachers. Much of the current paraphernalia and practice in in-service education has grown up haphazardly and without a coherent rationale over a half century or more. It grew in response to a situation in which teachers were, to a large degree, not well prepared. They required supervision and wherever possible exhortation to bring themselves up to a minimum level of competence. This condition has changed drastically over the past fifty years. In—service education has not. It now needs to be brought into harmony with the current competence of teachers.’7 The National Education Association in the publication Inservice Education and Teacher Centers, lists several reasons for dissatisfaction with current practices in professional development programs. 1. In-service education, a legal mandate in some states and a long-established tradition in others, has come to be viewed as a "require— ment" which in some cases means that as many as ten days (of teacher time) each year must be filled with something. 2. Such programs are often planned unilaterally by central administrative staff for an entire school system without teacher participation in planning. 3. In—service programs are frequently presented as uncoordinated, one—shot affairs--discipline last month, drugs this month, and behavioral objectives next--devoid of the systematic continuity that makes for outside preparation, classroom trial, and collegial discussion. 7ZRobert N. Bush, "Curriculum—ProOf Teachers," in Improving In-Service Education, ed. Louis J. Rubin, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), pp. 38-39. 51 4. Too many consultants and other outside experts who come to dominate "in-service offerings” are theoreticians--"paper educators" who are often out of touch with unique local conditions in the real world of a particular school today. 5. When held after school, the "in-service experi- ence" is presented to teachers who are exhausted from a full day in the classroom and who are sometimes unable or unwilling to stay awake. 6. A manifest lack of individualized instruction, therefore,can be said to characterize most in-service programs which, as they are presently conceived, can in no way meet the individual requirem7o§ts of each teacher for professional growth. Allen attributes some of the current dissatisfaction to a lack of coherence between the practice of inservice in relation to learning theories, and methods of evaluating teacher performance: The fairly common in-service schedule of two visits per year to the classroom, separated by four or five months, makes very little sense in the light of any theory of learning. If supervision is intended to be an integral part of inservice training, at least as a diagnostic device, then it would make much more sense for a supervisory session to be followed by specific in-service training experiences designed to overcome the teacher's observed needs. Another supervisory session should then follow im- mediately to determine whether or not the training has had any effect on the teacher's classroom performance. 73National Education Association, ”In-Service Education and Teacher Centers, " Briefing Memo, (Washington, D.C.: Fall, 1973), No. 3., p. l. 74Dwight w. Allen, "In-Service Training," in Improving In-Service Education ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), p. 117. 52 Lippitt and Fox list several assumptions which outline the current dissatisfaction of teachers based on their past experiences in professional development programs. 1. Most teachers have experienced a wide variety of attempts to influence them to change their performance or to improve themselves. 2. Many of these experiences have not appeared relevant to any felt need of the teacher, and have resulted in defensive attitudes. 3. Most teachers have participated in some of these activities and have been disappointed by the impracticality of the help offered. 4. Typically the stimulus to participate in in- service training is an unwelcome imposition of authority, with no previous involvement or warm-up opportunity to,fi¥plore the potential- ities of the training. Brearley, Goddard, Browse, and Kallet state that in—service "is not a closely coordinated service and relies too often on local and personal initiative. Inevitably, therefore, provision nationally is uneven."76 Fischer comments further on this diversity: In the absence of a common, agreed upon program of teacher education, any effort at in-service educa- tion that has surface validity will be useful for some teachers and useless for others. Large-scale systematic, efficient use of time, energy, and money in such a case is not possible. Programs will continue on a hit and miss basis.77 75 Ronald Lippitt and Robert Fox, "Development and Maintenance of Effective Classroom Learning," in Improving In-Service Education ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), pp. 134-135. 76 Molly Brearley, Nora Goddard, Bill Browse, and Tony Kallet, Educating Teachers (New York: Citation Press, 1972) p. 17. .T7Louis Fischer, "In-Service Education,” Improving In- Service Education ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), p. 233. 53 Rubin attributes complacent attitudes as a contributing factor to dissatisfaction of professional development programs: In-service education has been a standard educational artifact for most of the twentieth century. That its benefits have been recogfigzed, however, has not been of much consequence. Dissatisfaction in current professional development practices reflects high emphasis on activities in the cognitive domain with little emphasis on humanistic education. Meade comments: Frustrated by the magnitude of problems that deal with human wants and needs, we have turned to technical questions, engineering questions, that lend themselves to rational solutions: hence our preoccupation with materials over people. Much of our activity is given to developing expertise and technical finesse in our teachers. We roam about in the cognitive domain not because we think it is the more important, although some obviously do hold that View, but because the terrain is much more uncertain in the affective domain. Yet we know that more than knowledge about subject and method, the teacher needs knowledge about the children he teaches. Methods will change,schools will vary, as will society's expectations. The constant fact will be people (teachers) dealing with people (children). Until our programs of inservice education include an emphasis on humanistic skills, they will remain incomplete. 71omis J. Rubin, "Teacher Growth in Perspective," in Improving In—Service Education ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), p. 257. 7gidward J. Meade, Jr. , "No Health In Us," in Improving In-Service Education ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), pp. 223-224. 54 The review of the literature on the history of teacher professional development in the United States has related the growth of the teaching profession, the role of higher education, the credential process, the supervisor's function, the model adaptations of professional development, the effects of changing educational theories on professional development and a review of the major criticisms of current professional development efforts. The Conceptual Framework of Professional Development (Definitions and Purposes) Before locking ourselves into rigid definitions of professional development it may be helpful to look at our attitudes about professional development out of which our definitions flow. These attitudes significantly affect how we are inclined to approach the delivery of profes- sional development programs. Two prevailing attitudes about professional development are contrasted by Jackson: The first of the two perspectives from which the business of inservice training might be viewed is found in the notions of repair and remediation. For this reason I have chosen to call it the ”defect” point of view. It begins with the assumption that something is wrong with the way practicing teachers now operate and the purpose of inservice education training is to set them straight - to repair their defects so to speak. The point of view I would like to contrast with the one I just mentioned begins with the assumption that teaching is a complex and multi-faceted activity abOut which there is more to know than can ever be known by any one person. 55 From this point of view the motive for learning more about teaching isrunzto repair a personal inadequacy as a teacher but to seek greater fullfil— ment as a practitioner of the art.80 Broadly conceived, "inservice education” includes all activities a teacher experiences. Many experiences will be outside the teacher's professional life, therefore, "inservice" may be too broad a term to reflect accurately the intent of the activity. All of life in a broad sense is an "inservice" experience. This broad definition begins to be narrowed by Edelfelt and Lawrence to reflect activities related to professional behavior: Inservice education of teachers (or staff development, continuing education, professional development) is defined as: Any professional development activity that a teacher undertakes singly or with other teachers after receiving her or his initial teachers' cegg'f- icate and after beginning professional practice. It is further narrowed by Finch as it pertains to the profes- sional sphere of the teacher: Broadly speaking, inservice education includes all activities that teachers engage in during their service, designed to contribute to their improvement and effectiveness on their assignment. This may be travel, professional reading, participation in supervisory and curriculum development programs, attendance at summer session courses, and any other of a wide range of activities--varying from a classroom observation to a sabbatical; from 80Philip W. Jackson, "Old Dogs and New Tricks," in Improving In-Service Education ed. Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), p. 28. 81Roy A. Edelfelt and Gordon Lawrence, "In-Service Education: The State of the Art," in Rethinking Inservice Education ed. Roy A. Edelfelt and Margo Johnson (Washington D. C.: National Education Association, 1975), p. 5. 56 viewing a film or television program, to total personalififvolvement of great depth and long duration. (emphasis added) Finch's View of the concept, at this point, includes incidental learning through experience, non-goal directed or planned. Jackson comments on another non-directed professional development experience: It is necessary to consider the possible sources of a teacher's knowledge about his work. I believe anyone who thinks about it will have to admit that the single most important source is the act of teaching itself. Indeed, the acceptance of this fact is clearly reflected in the salary schedules of most school systems ..... A teacher who did nothing but teach presumably would grow in his professional ability even if he never read a profes- sional journal or attended a professional convention. Thus, from one point of view, the greatest contri— bution to in-sergfife training is the experience of teaching itself. Before narrowing the definition further, it is necessary to discuss other broad ramifications of the concepts of "inservice education." There is no specific time at which a person progresses from non-teacher to teacher. Jackson comments: Not only is there no specific time at which a person becomes a teacher, but there is also no definable time at which a teacher stops becoming one. This is simply another way of saying that there is no such thing as the "complete" teacher.84 82Arnold Finch, Growth of In—Service Education Programs That Work (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969), p. 9. 83Philip W. Jackson, op. cit. 841511, p. 27. 57_ The concept of teacher professional development involves a dimension of continuing education or inservice education. Smith comments on continuous teacher develop- ment: As long as knowledge about education continues to increase and new techniques and devices are contrived, there will be something new for the teacher to learn regardless of his degree or years of experience. The continuum of preparation gen therefore cover the teacher's entire career.8 Smith sees professional improvement on a continuum, however, not limited to strictly professional activity: That part of the continuum that precedes certification is ordinarily referred to as pre- service training. Preparation beyond this is called ”in-service training" or more recently "continuing education." We shall use the term "perennial education.” This expression will be used because not all of the teacher's education after certification is acquired in inservice, and because the expression "continuing education" has been pre-empted by those who are concerned with schooling beyond the bachelor's degree level. Throughout the literature on inservice, many terms are used frequently and often interchangeably, continuing education, perennial education, teacher renewal, profes- sional growth, professional development, professional improvement and others. These self—directed opportunites include, but are not limited to: incidental learning, travel, reading, attending conferences, self-study, taking course work through universities, and actual teaching. 85 B. Othanel Smith, Saul B. Cohen, and Arthur Pearl, Teachers for the Real World (Washington, D.C.: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Educators, 1969), p.151. 86 Ibid. 58 To develop a functional definition of professional development for this study, it is necessary to limit the broad concept of inservice by distinguishing teacher behaviors outside the sphere of her/his professional responsibilities from those behaviors that directly relate to the exercising of professional responsibilities. The latter set of behaviors are more accurately profes- sional development behaviors. Admittedly, this distinction is hard to draw, but the focus here is to concentrate on professional responsibiities, recognizing that you cannot separate completely the personal and the professional. Due to the historical significance of remedial improvement, the terms "training," "institute," as well as ”inservice," often imply negative connotations of professional development. Harris and Bessent define inservice education more as professionally related behavioral changes: ..... being directed toward the improvement of instructional staff members. Inservice education is a goal-directed activity concerned with changes in individuals and organizational systems and achieved through changes in people, rather than in rules, structures, function, or physical environment (although these may be associated changes); and accomplished through training, rather than replacement or reassignment. 87Ben M. Harris and Wailand Bessent, In-Service Education: A Guide to Better Practice (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1969), p. 29 59 Harris and Bessent explain this definition within a con- ceptualized framework of the nature and function of professional development; whereby, inservice is sharply defined, the unique contribution of inservice to the oper- ation of education needs is specified, and the purposes of inservice are placed in the total perspective of other organizational processes. Harris and Bessent develop the conceptual framework from four propositions: l. In-service education is a process for change. 2. Changes through in-service education take place in an organizational context. 3. In-service education is a process for planned change. 4. In-service education is one of several organizational changes and takes place through personnel development. The conceptual framework for inservice education is schematically diagrammed as The Organizational Context for In-Service: 331511, p. 16. 60 THE FORMAL ORGANIZATION J? it Organizational Organizational Maintenance Change ( - ,1, ~ 4. ~v Unplanned Change Planned Change 6' .5 q. iv ~lv Physical Rule Structural Functional Personnel Change Change Change Change Change (: 7‘ *ib Replacement Reassignment In-Service89 Education Using the diagram from the bottom up, inservice education, according to Harris and Bessent is: ..... one of several means for bringing about personnel changes. Personnel change is only one of the several classes of planned change in organiza- tions. Changes may be unplanned as well as planned, and formal organizations such as school districts have both maintenance and change operations. In- service education, then, is defined as being for both change and maintenance; planned and goal- directed rather than unplanned; achieved through personnel changes, not changes in procedures and rules, structure, function, or physical environment; and accomplishedQBhrough retraining, not replacement or reassignment. Hass reinforces Harris and Bessent's definition of teacher professional development when discussing the purpose of professional development: 89Ibid. 90Ibid., p. 16—17. 61 The major purpose for in-service education is to promote the continuous improvement of the total professional staff of the school system. All teachers, administrators, and supervisors must constantly study in order to keep up with advances in subject matter and in the theory and practice of teaching. Continuous in—service education is needed to keep the profession abreast of new knowledge and to release creative abilities.91 Finch comments from the teacher's perspective: These then are some of the purposes of the teachers as he engages in inservice education activities; he wants to become more skillful in y the management of people (his students), the management of learning (his primary tasks), and the management of advancement of his profession.92 Smith and others comment further on the teacher's purposes in professional development programs: The purpose of perennial education of teachers is to increase the proficiency of teachers now employed. The roles of teachers, their prior preparation, and their career aspirations vary so greatly that a program of perennial education must serve a number of specific needs and goals. Among other goals, the program should: remedy the teacher's deficiencies arising out of defects in his initial teacher-training preparation, advance the teacher's skills and pedagogical knowledge required for new teaching roles, advance and update the teacher's knowledge of subject matter and train the teacher for non-tutorial positions.93 91C. Glen Hass, "In-Service Today," In—Service Educa- tion for Teachers, Supervisors, and Administrators, in Fifty-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957), p. 211. 92Arnold Finch, Op. cit., p. 12. 93Smith and Others, Op. cit., p. 152. 62 Harris and Bessent's conceptual framewok of professional development along with Hass, Finch, and Smith's purpose statements indicate professional development is a continual process of change, hopefully initiating positive change in teacher behavior. The ultimate goal of teacher profes- sional development, however, is positive change in pupil behavior through constructive alteration of teacher behavior. Rubin writes: The only true "index of the program's" quality lies in the teacher's classroom performance and ultimately in the student's learning. Surely the ultimate objective is to improve the student's learning, but there are intermediate objectives at which in—service education can be aimed. The alteration of teacher behavior can be considered as a legitimate Objective in and of itself. It is essential, in the final analysis, to link teacher behavior to changes in pupil behavior, but there are intermediate stages in which it is not necessary to apply this full link. While change in pupil behavior is essential, an inter— mediate objective of professional development is modified teacher behavior through school system or district planned and supported activities. -The_391§1nance_gf_1§acher Professional Development The problem area recognized by most writers as the basis for much of the present criticism of professional development efforts is the area of governance. In the past, administration of professional development programs 94Louis J. Rubin, op. cit., p. 258. 63 has been a function of various roles, predominantly university personnel and school administrators. Presently, both of these groups are losing some control of this function. Administrative control of professional develop- ment is becoming a shared function with the teacher's role gaining parity through the negotiations process. This trend toward governance by teachers is a reflection of changes in the total education picture. Ward found that one of the professional development priorities of local teacher association leaders nationwide was to achieve teacher control over local programs: Priority #5 - The local teacher association should initiate and plan in-service programs in the professional development of its members. An anonymous article in Today's Education entitled, "What Does Governance Mean?," states the following: In the past, almost everyone but the teacher has called the tune in education. Teachers have traditionally taken direction from others--local and state school boards, legislators, parents, powerful community leaders. Because most teachers are paid from public funds, many think of them as public servants, and, as such, subject in all matters to the whims of the taxpayers. That concept is changing. With the increased public demand that teachers be accountable for the learning of children, the entire teaching profes- sion is taking a new look at what is needed to improve teaching and learning. And some members of the profession (among them leaders of NBA) are 94Douglas Ward, Local Associations Eye Instruction and Professional Development (Washington, D. C.: National Education Association, 1974), p. 12. 64 concluding that teachers are not able to teach as well as they know how to teach because they unfor- tunately have little control over their profession. Practitioners, therefore, are actively seeking more responsibility for professional matters. They maintain it is neither feasible nor fair for them to be held accountable for whether or not Johnny and Jane and Hector and Paula learn to read or to under- stand math concepts or whatever until teachers also have the responsibility for making decisions about how reading teachers, math teachers, and other teachers should be trained, in what institutions they should study, who should be licensed to teacB5 and how teachers' skills can be kept up to date. It is necessary to examine the present role and expectations of all levels having influence on leadership roles in professional development: government, school administrators, teachers and teacher organizations. The Role of the Federal Government The federal govennment does not directly govern profes- sional development. However, through such acts as the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, the 1968 Amendments to the Vocational Education Act, the Education Professions Development Act and, more recently, the Teacher Center section of the Higher Education Appropriations Act; support is provided for instructional staff improvement, particularly teacher professional development. While these acts are major funding sources of professional development, their use is limited. Dolan states: 95"What Does Governance Mean?" Today's Education (December 1971), p. 20. 65 National funding of education has been limited in past years to categorical programs, many of which incorporate in—service as essential ingredients. Funds, however, have been extremely sparse and during the Nixon administration have been relegated almost exclusively to accountability related projects. The National Institute of Education, which is funded by the Congress as a center for the allocation of research grants, has not been favorably disposed to providing funds to meet needs as seen by teachers, but rather to perpetuate and extend the "results oriented" approach of the current administration. The national Congress is perhaps the greatest potential source of new funding for the schools, yet year after year educatigg monies seem to be diverted to other programs. Government funding usually implies an accountability approach with controls attached to the funding. Many educators, including Smith, foresee the federal government as assuming a larger support role in the future of teacher professional development: It is unrealistic to assume that local and state institutions and agencies can or should bear the major brunt for long-range planning and develop— ment of training programs to meet national needs. Particularly at a time when comprehensive and system— atic approaches to teacher training area so desper- ately needed, there is a strong case for the federal government to assume part of the burden of long- range planning in cooperation with state and local institutions. Given the objective of an open society, it is essential that national revenues be made available for the initiation and continued support of such national teacher education projects as manpower recruitmen§7 training programs, and materials development. 96Patrick H. Dolan, "Issue in Professional Development of Concern to Teacher Organizations," (East Lansing, MI.: Michigan Education Association, 1974), p. 16. (Mimeographed) 97Smith and Others, op. cit., p. 173. 66 An unresolved question emerges as to what is the appropriate federal governance role of professional development attached to future fund allocation by the government. The Role of the State Government By the Nation's Constitution, the control of education is delegated to state governments. Smith comments: The people have delegated the primary control of education to state legislatures and state depart— ments of education. Local boards have been delegated certain parallel and specific powers. But the right to educate, certify teachers, and accredit teacher training institutions rests with the state government. It is important to remember here that local school boards are also the creations of the state government.98 The role of the state government in governance of professional development is similar to the federal govern— ment: financial support. Since 1960 both state and federal governments have become active in teacher education through financial controls in universities and school districts. The future role of the state government in governance of professional develOpment is viewed by many educators as becoming intrusive and highly visible. Atkins writes: Regardless, during the next decade major govern- mental effect on teacher education is likely to be observed at the state level. If the various state legislatures do not mount planning and monitoring capabilities to match those of the various governors, 981bid., p. 141. 67 then state-wide centralization is likely to acceler- ate. Predicting the future is hardly a science, but it is my view that legislative leaders in the states will begin to gain some ground in their competition with the state governors for power. The deficiencies of social planning and centralized management are beginning to be discussed widely. The future of teacher education will more than likely be deter- mined by negotiation of competing interests among university groups, the organized profession, and the public, with executive-level governmental roles less intrusive than they were in the late 19603. The legislatureggre more sensitive to such pressures than governors. Most writers, including Drummond, envision a different role for state governments: In an educational system decisions about schooling should be made as close as possible to the clients of the system. Most of the decisions now being made at the school district level should be either decentralized and given to the staff and faculty of the individual building and their clients or centralized and coordinated by the state depart- ment of education. In addition it must provide the financial resources and the technical assistance that the local schools need to do their job. The state must allow and encourage the local school profes- sional staff and their clients to create and carry out their own educational program. If this is to be done, state departments of education must play very different roles from what they have in the past, especially in the areas of curriculum and personnel development. State governments differ in their approach to profes— sional development, however, the current thrust is forcing 99Myron J. Atkins, "Governmental Roles," in New Perspec— tives on Teacher Education ed. Donald J. McCarty (San Francisco: Jossey—Bass, Publ., 1973), pp.82-83. 100William H. Drummond, "Role of State Departments of Education," in New Perspectives on Teacher Education ed. Donald J. McCarty (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Publ., 1973), p. 99. 68 many to move aggressively forward. Michigan is well in the forefront of state initiated professional development activity. The following excerpts from The Professional Development for School Staffs: The Michigan Approach identify three separate thrusts toward reform in profes— sional development: The 1975-76 appropriation to the Department of Education included $1/2 million for a Detroit center and required that a program plan be developed for the approval of the State Board and reported to that body and the House and Senate Appropriations and Education Committees. Ultimately the appro- priation was reduced to $375,000 and the center opening was delayed until about January 1, 1976. A fifth quarter operation appropriation was made for 1976 and new funds for 1976-77 are included in the Department of Education's appropriation bill. The new appropriation and carry-over moneys from 1975-76 provide $1/2 million for the 12 month 1976-77 operational year. The 1976-77 apprOpriation for the Department of Education included $50,000 for grants for the development of a detailed plan for a professional development center. On September 8, 1976, the State Board approved the award of up to four planning grants of $12,500 each. This Board action was implemented by distribution to 58 intermediate school districts and 30 teacher preparation insti- tutions Of a Request for Proposal to be responded to, on, or before November 10, 1976. Thirty-four intermediate school districts were involved in one way or another in the development and submission of fourteen proposals. In January of 1976, the Superintendent of Public Instruction established, with the Department of Education, a council responsible for the coordi- nation of professional development activities cur- rently administered by nine different department units. Council members are Department of Education staff who administer programs which include funding 69 for professional development. It is estimated that more than six million state and federal dollars tied to categorical programs flow through the Department of Education each year to fund profes- sional development activities. The Role of Intermediate School Districts It is significant to mention the role of the inter- mediate school districts in a study of professional development in Michigan because these school districts are becoming more important as the State Department of Education delegates more authority. The concept of Professional Development Advisory Councils at the immediate school district level is a unique innovation in state supported efforts at teacher professional development: On May 4, 1976, the State Board of Education approved the voluntary creation of advisory councils on professional development in intermediate school districts. The creation of such advisory councils on professional development, in coordination with the Michigan Department of Education Internal Council on Professional Development, is an attempt to better coordinate the diverse and fragmented state and local approach to professional development which provides some school districts with no services and others with programs based on inadequate planning and inadequate identification of needs.10 101Michigan Department of Education, The Profes- sional Developmgnt for Sghogl Staffs; The Michigan Approach, (Lansing, MI., 1977), p. 5-6. 102Ibid. 70 The Role of the Local School District The local school district is responsible for the bureaucratic entity of education. Harris and Bessent comment: The school district shares several character- istics that have been termed the bureaucratic form with other large formal organizations. These characteristics determine, in part, the organiza— tional context for all school operations including in-service programs and establish the basis for controlling the behavior of individuals in ways other than professional development through in-service. They are as follows: (1) a hierarchy of authority (2) reliance on rules and Eggplations, and (3) functional specialization. Should, however, the "bureaucratic form" and its characteristics determine the purpose of the school district and how it will function, or should the purposes of the school district be paramount and determine how the bureau— cratic form will function? Blackman comments: Ultimately, the board of education is respon- sible for the quality of the school's program or curriculum. After all, the central task of the school is to help our children and youth-—and in some cases, adults—-learn. Each decision should be weighed with this ultimate end in mind. ”How well does your board keep the central purgose of the school in mind as it makes decisions?"1 1Gallarris and Bessent, op. cit., p. 8. 104Charles A. Blackman, "Continual Improvement . . . . The Keystone of An Effective School Program," Michigan School Board Journal, (Lansing,MI., 1964), p. 64. 71 Meade believes the system should identify professional growth goals and teachers should be allowed personal pre- rogatives for ways to achieve goals: The present state of affairs suggests that we have as yet been unable to resolve a crucial issue: should the teacher assume responsibility for his own professional growth or should the system? Although it would be easy to make a case for shared responsibility, the fact remains that if we wish to guarantee quality teaching, the guarantee must be made good by one party or the other. Ultimately, in other words, either the individual must decide for himself whether he has adequate competence and then do what is required to bring himself up to par, or the organization--the school-- must judge his competence and provide the necessary corrective measures. My own incf6gation is to place the charge on the system. Smith identifies the problem historically, as one of the maturity of the profession of teaching in relation to school boards: Education at the elementary and secondary levels was organized before there was any semblance of an education profession. It became customary for lay boards not only to control education but to govern the profession of teaching. There was almost no distinction drawn between them. It is only recently that teachers have moved decisively toward profes— sionalization. Yet in many areas laymen are still, today, having to make decisions of a professional nature. Control of the profession by laymen is so entrenched that it is very difficult to understand the importance of differentiating between control of education and governing of the profession. Acceptance of this difference is essential if the teaching profession is to function in the best interests of society. 105Edward J. Meade, Jr. , Op. cit., p. 216. 106Smith and Others, op. cit., p. 137. 72 Laymen who control school boards are recognizing the necessity to change. Nowhere is this more evidenced than in the response to teacher collective bargaining. Unfor— tunately, this is almost forced adaptation. Other changes will come, but slower. Blackman laments: The continued development of a school program will occur only through the continual growth of the professional staff and board of education. Changes on paper will not suffice! Administrative decrees are not enough! People must come to under- stand the need for changes in programs—-and what such changes mean for them as they work with students-—or as they seek to chart the course for a school system. "Does your board really recognize that programs come to life through peOple."-“J’ Financial support of professional development at the local district level is an indication of its importance. No research studies were found on the issue of local district financial support. Finch relates: An informal survey made by the author indicates that less than l/25th of l per cent of their collec- tive budgets were earmarked for in-service education programs. If 80 per cent of a budget is instructional salaries, leaving only 20 per cent about which deliberate decisions can be made, only 1/5th of l per cent of that amount is being directed to what is surely one of the institution's most important obligations—-the initiation and maintenance of programs designed to insure better instruction.108 Whitmore comments on the approval of the board of education for professional development: 10’Z'Jharles A. Blackman, lop. cit. l Oirnold Finch, op. cit., p. 18. 73 It is imperative that this commendation be given and financial assistance be available from the general budget if the faculty is to accept the program as an 1ingportant part of the educa- tional structure. A recent development influencing local district financial support of professional development is the pressure of teacher organizations and unions. This is discussed later in this chapter. The Role of the School Administrators Traditionally, historically and legally, professional development has been assigned to school administrators for planning and implementation, however, the emerging role for school administrators is one involving cooperation with teachers. Some administrators are reluctant to share this control. Hightower comments: Functional in-service education will be brought about when the school administrator real- izes that the problems analyzed by the process should come from the staff members as a result of felt needs. He should get away from the common practice of selecting and handing down the educa- tional problems for the staff to study.110 Lewis,an Assistant Superintendent of Schools in Minneapolis, Minnesota, suggests cooperation as a part of the role of administrators: 109 Richard Frank Whitmore, "Effective Methods for the Orientation and Administration of an In- Service Education Program, ” (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Nebraska, 1960),p . 135. 110Howard W. Hightower, "In- Service Education, " Educa- tional Administration and Supervision, Vol. 38 (1952), pp. 243-244. 74 The administrator who attempts to develop or modify an organizational plan for in-service by himself is making a mistake. If in—service educa— tion is to be based on cooperative group work, the development or modification of this program must be cooperative. Some communities have used system-wide elected committees, composed of teachers, principals, and consultgfifs to plan for an in-ser- vice education program;l Castetter relates, "the chief responsibility of school administration for in—service programs is to create both climate and opportunities for self—improvement.J12 Rubin describes the principal's role in developing a favorable climate: The principal who inspires trust, who has the ego strength to concede his own mistakes, and who facilitates the cooperative invention of solutions to common teaching problems generally is able to establish an unrepressed working climate in his school. By and large, teachers are a highly commit—. ted lot; they are willing to do away with fraudulent ethics and deliberate deception almost as soon as 113 the situation permits openness to be nonthreatening. Harris and Bessent delineate the administrator's role of establishing the climate by involvement to include partic- ipation of administrators in professional development programs: 111Arthur Lewis, "The Role of Administration in In-Service Education," In-Service Education for Teachers, Supervisors, and Administrators, in Fifty-Sixth Yearbook of phe National Society for the Study of Education, (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957), p. 58. 112William B. Castetter, Administering the School Personnel Program (New York, N.Y.: The Macmillian Company, 1962), p.258. 113Louis J. Rubin, "The Self-Evolving Teacher," in Improv- ing In-Service Education ed. by Louis J. Rubin (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), p. 273. 75 The superintendent's or dean's participation in programs on inservice education seems to be a crucial element in their success. When the status leader enters into the activities fully, as a learner and not just as an observer, and when he provides enthusiastic leadership and shows by example that he is serious about setting a climate for self— improvement, the program has a much greater than average chance for success. Where the leader merely tolerates the program or sets it in motion and then remains aloof from it, his subordinates tend to catch the spirit and little is accomplishgfig: Instructional leadership is a team affair. One of the conflicts in the emerging role of adminis- trators in professional development is the diminishing supervisory function. Bush comments: There is a conflict regarding the place of supervision in current in-service training. The hint that the role of the supervisor is obsolete is probably warranted. The role of the principal as administrative line officer or as supervisor is also clearly in question. It is my view that the old concept of supervision, as implied in the line staff relationship and in the school organiza— tion of the past, is rapidly coming to a close. As teachers become better trained and more competent, their need is not for supervision but for a continued opportunity to improve their professional ability.11 Finally, the role of the administrator includes the demonstration of the priority of professional development. Rubin states: It is important to observe, in this connection that the remediation of teaching errors and the mastery of new technical skills are greatly expedited when teachers perceive that their administrators 114 Harris and Bessent, op. cit., p. 9. 111lobert N. Bush, op. cit., p. 60. 76 genuinely value--and reward--improved performance. The extent of the administrator's interest in professional growth is reflected in the time and resources he makes available, in his acknowledge— ment of the improvement that has occurred, and, generally, in the importance that he attaches to a continuous struggle for teaching artistry. The emerging role of administrators in the governance of professional development involves: cooperating in planning, providing unthreatening climates, and creating opportunities for self-improvement. This role becomes more difficult with the added conflict of teacher organizations and collective bargaining. The Role of the Teacher The teacher also has an emerging role in governance of professional development, an increasing role in control and involvement. Harris and Bessent establish involvement of teachers as the most important part of the emerging role of governance: One of the few certainties in the field Of human endeavor is the relationship between involve- ment in an enterprise and commitment to its goals. From initial planning to final evaluation, the staff members must be intimately involved in the activities of a program in a meaningful way. Involvement is an important key to success. There are others, perhaps, but none so basic nor more important.11 116Louis J. Rubin, op. cit., p. 269. 117Harris and Bessent, lop. cit. 77 The National Education Association comments on involvement as a necessary part of learning: Every precept of learning demonstrates that skill improvement, the maturation of concepts, and any significant advance in personal and profes- sional growth arises out of the active and meaningful participation of those to be involved in making decisions about their growth patterns. Lasting and effective professional development therefore requires that teachers have a dominant role in developing processes relating to their own contin— uing professional development. An unsigned article in Today's Education reinforces the concept of involvement: Governance...self—regulation...autonomy for the teaching profession, by whatever name, the meaning is the same: the fixing of responsibility for professional decision with the teaching profession. Most educators advocate future governance of profes— sional development as a cooperative process and agree that all segments of the teaching profession must be involved in planning, carrying out, and evaluating. A few educators advocate governance by teachers only. Bush advises that inservice governed completely by teachers will provide the open climate teachers need for self- evaluation: 118National Education Association, "Teacher Centered Professional Development," (Washington, D. C., 1972), p. 33. (Mimeographed) 119"What Does Governance Mean?", lop. cit. 78 After a long period of attempting to provide in-service education for teachers, I am convinced that the teacher ought to be the one who takes the initiative, that the teacher ought to select the kind of help, from a wide array of interesting alternatives, which he wishes to avail himself of, and that, in most instances, he needs the help of an impartial outsider to enable him to make a diagnosis and analysis of the situation. For the time being, the program needs to be freed from the formal administrative structure. The evidence is quite conclusive that as now conceived, the administrator is in too strong an authoritative role with his responsibility for rating teachers for dismissal and tenure to also play a role as an impartial, objective expert who can help with the diagnosis of instructional problems. This is a problem most difficult for persons in the adminis- trative staff to accept. They simply fail to believe that teachers' attitudes and perceptions are as they are. It is when the teachers are assured anonymity, when they.are assured that the results of investigations of classroom work will not be made available to administrative superiors, that they accept eagerly an opportunity to study their own teaching and improve it. They will reveal data about their teaching which are not available otherwise but which are essential for accurate diagnosis. The emerging role of governance by teachers requires involve- ment with responsibility according to Rubin: The demand for more professionalism must be matched with a larger participation in the control of the enterprise. The authentic professional finds it important to involve himself in the form- ulation of policy, the setting of priorities, the selection of objectives, and so on, since profes- sionalism, by its nature, is based upon conscien- tious self-discipline and deep involvement. 120Robert N. Bush, op. cit., p. 57-58. 121Louis J. Rubin, op. cit., p. 274. 79 Kinnick states that involvement in governance increases professionalism: The finest testimonial to the effectiveness of strong teacher participation in the identification of school problems and in formulation of plans for problem—solving is the increased professional spirit which such participation fosters.122 The emerging teacher's role in governance of profes- sional development is intermeshed in the development of teacher organizations. The Role of Teacher Organizations The advent of teachers' associations, unions and negotiations have had strong influences on total teacher education. Atkins writes: When the history of the National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards of the National Education Association is written, it will show a gradual shift in emphasis from attempts at changing teacher education through persuasion and open dialogue among diverse groups to changing of teacher education through political action and collective bargaining. As associations and unions have become more active politically they have attempted to control or govern more teacher education... Conflict has occurred between commissions and state boards and between associations and unions. As unions and associa- tions merge and as the supply of teachers continues to be greater than the demand, pressures by teacher organizations to control preparation and licensure will undoubtedly increase. 1 3 122Jo Kinnick, "The Teachers and the In—Service Program,” In-Service Education for Teachers, Supervisors, and Adminis— trators in Fifty-Sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957), p. 136. 123 Myron J. Atkins, op. cit., p. 90. 80 The National Education Association cites teachers' profes- sional organizations as the major factor in the emerging role changes of governance of professional development: Teacher involvement in professional develop- ment programs will not take place unless this cause is championed and actively pursued by the teachers' professional assoc iat ions . 124 Dolan comments on the increased role local teacher assoc- iations are assuming in the governance of professional development: During the past ten years, local teacher groups have devoted their resources primarily to the building of an effective organization for the purposes of collective bargaining and political action. They are now beginning to assume greater and greater responsibility for inservice activities, doing needs assessments, and operating workshops, seminars and conferences. There is, however, considerable conflict within the association as to what is the appropriate role of teacher organizations. The conflicts apparent since the development of teacher organizations as unions, however, are not limited to internal organization conflict. The conflicts resulting from the lack of cooperation between teachers and school administrators, referred to earlier in this chapter are monumental barriers to well-defined role establishment in governance of inservice. Ryan and Cooper discuss the realignment of power in governance: 124 National Education Association, op. cit., p. 36. 125FMtrick H. Dolan, op. cit., pp. 11-12. 81 The day of meek Miss Dove is over. Teachers, through their professional organizations, are demanding both improved benefits for themselves and revised and updated instructional policies for their schools. Teachers are calling for administrators and school boards to relinquish some of their decision-making power to those who they believe are most qualified to make instruc- tional and curricular decisions. Demands, of course, arouse conflict. As teachers demand higher salaries, more clerical assistance and improved personal benefits, all of which require additional funds, legislators must propose and the public must accept increased taxes. And as teachers demand greater decision- making power, those who now2Bfigd such power must be willing to relinquish it. The development of teacher organizations as unions has produced a new dimension of professionalism in teaching —-a dimension of self-determination and self-regulation. Bush comments: In their annual fall roundup of educational events two of our most distinguished newspapers, the New York Times and the Christian Science Monitor, headlined teacher strikes as signaling that a professional teacher is emerging: better trained, surer of his own professional competence, and unwilling to have it hemmed in by unreasonable restraints and conditions that prohibit him fro using his full competence to educate children.1 126Kevin Ryan and James M. Cooper, Those Who Can, Teach (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1972), p. 409. 127Robert N. Bush, op. cit., p. 39. 82 Summary In reviewing the changing roles with respect to govern- ance of the federal and state government, the intermediate district, the local system, the school administrators, the teachers and teachers'organizations, it is evident many levels of educational structure and agencies are involved in the governance of professional development. Some of these levels and agencies are losing control as teachers are gaining influence through a process of change. Dolan comments: The question of who will control the various decision—making mechanisms is not so much a matter of law'gs it is a matter of political and economic power.1 8 Models for Program Delivery (Current Trends) What elements comprise a good and effective model for staff develOpment? There are probably as many inservice programs models as there are educational organizations, programs, subject areas and schools. It does not seem possible to isolate any consistent set of effective elements. Some corroborating insights are provided by Bishop: Complexity is one reason that staff develop- ment has an unimpressive record. Even a small system would be hard pressed to document, much less organize, all the shades and varieties of efforts that comprise the procedures for staff development 128Patrick H. Dolan, op. cit. p.2. 129 Leslee J. BishOp, Staff Development and Instruc- tional Improvement (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1976),p. ix. 83 Bishop additionally provides some reasons for complexity and differentiation: Good staff development, inservice education, and instructional change programs are intensely human and personal processes. Well drawn and well conceived plans for such development are the most conclusive commitment that a school system can exhibit toward its personnel and their achievements. If humaneness is not included in the conceptualizing and structuring of these plans, it is unlikely that it will surface in the implementing and evaluating phases. 130 Harris and Bessent have designed a valuable index of analyzing delivery systems through an analysis of activi- ties based on the "experience impact" of the teacher: Activities may be arranged from those with low experience impact to those with high experi- ence impact on the learner. By experience impact we mean that the learner is more likely to inter- act with the learning situation in such a way that the experience will have some impact that will affect his later behavior}- The authors relate the experience impact to three charac- teristics of the learning situation: The first of these is the extent to which he can control the content of the experience. If he has some influence on the content of what is being presented, there is a greater chance that it can be made relevant to his past experience-~an impor- tant principle in learning. The second character— istic is whether or not the learning experience is multisensory. Use of multisensory stimuli increases the probability that the learner will become involved in the learning situation. Finally, whether communi- cation is one-way or two-way will influence the accuracy of perceptionugfd affect confidence in what has been communicated. 130Ibid. 131Harris and Bessent, op. cit., p. 34. 1321bid. 84 The following diagram suggested several basic activities incorporated in delivery systems of professional develop— ment and illustrates the way in which they are ordered according to their experience impact. EXPERIENCE IMPACT OF ACTIVITIES Two-Way Activities Control of Multi- Communi- Content Sensory cation Lecture L.E.I. Illustrated Lecture x Demonstration x Observation x Interviewing x x Brainstorming x x Group Discussions x x Buzz Sessions x x Role—playing x x x Guided Practice x x x H.E.I L.E.I. H.E.I. Low Experience Impact High Experience Impact133 Harris and Bessent use the experience impact framework as a basis for developing activities related to objectives of inservice education illustrated as a "design grid." 133Ibid., p. 35. 85 IN-SERVICE DESIGN GRID O B J E C T I V E S m o 'o s 4.1 a .H .2 s 33 m o < B o a H m a w o u «a a o 13 .G d m E a) o o o m P r4 H -H .a m w 8 2* E. E .3 3» ACTIVITIES s: o a. >. as '5 ,M L) S Lecture Cognitive Illustrated Lecture Objective Demonstration Observation Broad—Spectrum . . Objectives Interv1ew1ng Brainstorming Group Discussions Buzz Sessions Cognitive Role-Play Objective ‘ Guided Practice 134 134 Ibid., pp. 36-37. 86 The horizontal dimension lists the objectives that might be sought. Beginning at the left are those objectives that lie lowest in the cognitive domain (1) outcomes that concern recall or recognition (knowledge), (2) outcomes that demand that the learner can relate various knowledges to each other or to possible application (comprehension), (3) outcomes that demonstrate that the learner will exhibit the desired behavior given the opportunity to do so (application), (4) outcomes that require that the learner demonstrate that he can recognize the appro- priate use of the new behavior in relation to the total configuration of the teaching task—-that he knows when to use it (synthesis). In the order men- tioned, each category of objective is higher in the cognitive domain, with synthesis being the most complex. Although there is not a clear demarcation among the categories, the remaining two classes of objectives lie in what is ordinarily considered to be the affective domain-—those that concern the feelings of the learner. These are popularly called attitudes and values. The experience impact chart and design grid indicate that some activities are better for certain professional development purposes than others. For example, to Obtain factual content, a low experience impact activity is appro— priate. Harris and Bessent state, ”In general, those activities that have a higher experience impact take more time and skill and require more materials and equipment.136 Historically and traditionally, professional develop- ment delivery systems have reflected low experience impact, however, recent developments, including teacher demand, have forced development of models approaching the high experience impact for teachers. This emerging condition reflects the 135Ibid. 136Ibid., p. 39. 87 facilitation of the learning of teachers in the same con— text as the learning of students--in an open, experiencing, learning environment. The emerging models of professional development reflect sound education theory in bringing about conditions, such as these examples which follow: increasing the number of activity options to meet the individualized needs of teachers, providing opportunities for teachers to teach teachers, and allowing freedom to experiment and self-evaluate. Harris and Bessent describe the laboratory approach as one design for professional development with these elements: 1. The participant is actively involved in solving a problem. 2. The problem situation is simulated as realistically as possible. 3. Quantifiable data are produced and recorded to reveal the nature of the response of the participants. 4. Feedback on data is provided to permit each participant to contrast his reactions with those of the larger group or other groups. 5. Data are discussed and analyzed so as to lead to generfgizations and implications for practice. 7 One model based on the laboratory approach is the teacher center concept. Teacher centers have gained national prominence as a delivery system in professional 137Ibid., p. 45. 88 development in the past few years. A teacher center, as presently conceived, is a physical space or place where programs are developed for the training and improvement of instructional personnel. Teachers have an opportunity to receive training specifically related to their most press- ing needs. The center can be located within the school district. The teacher preparation and professional development services unit of the Michigan Department of Education published a position paper in 1974, A Proposed Statute Authorizing Teacher Centers for Michigan, advocating teacher centers. This move has set Michigan well on the way to establishing a network of state and federally funded teacher centers. As previously noted in this chapter, the 1975-76 appropriation to the Department of Education included $l/2 million for a Detroit center. Although the appropriation was reduced to $375,000, it was enough to firmly establish the "idea" of teacher centers in the fabric of Michigan education. The following year saw a renewal to the tune of $420,000, as well as two $100,000 pilot grants for two outstate centers and $12,000 for the continued planning of two additional outstate centers. Teacher centers may well emerge as the most viable model for the delivery of professional development programs. While teacher centers are rapidly emerging as a pro- mising vehicle for professional development, they are all too often becoming extensions of the traditional 89 institutions and institutional approaches that have been cited as being ineffectual in the delivery of adequate pro— fessional development services. Waskin found in her research: That teacher centers are largely affiliated with universities. Another fact is that universi- ties provide services to the teacher centers on a significant basis. A third fact is that the universi— ties use the facilities of the teacher centers on a regular basis. A notable factor here is that under- graduate students seem to be using the teacher centers. It seems apparent that affiliation between universities and teacher centers are strong. ......... Teacher centers today have been created in the rush of jumping on the bandwagon. There is no research to prove that the experiences teachers have in these teacher centers lead to any more productive classroom performance than any other experience in inservice.1 Although there will be many stresses and strains in the establishment of viable delivery systems, the new emphasis on professional development seems to be a firmly entrenched aspect of teacher education. The Michigan Department of Education was given $80,000 to set up a separate office of Professional Development within the Department for the purpose of coordinating the multiplicity of statewide staff development programs going on in Michigan. More than $1.5 million is being devoted to implementing a variety of program models related to staff development. 138Yvonne Waskin, "Teacher Centers in the United States," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1976), p. 124 and 140. 90 Current Research on the Professional Development of Practicing Teachers Unfortunately there is little substantive research on teacher professional development, and what does exist is often not teacher oriented. Most are case studies, program analyses, assessments of student outcomes or descriptive studies of particular programs. In 1971 Francis Sobol conducted an indepth search of the literature on "What Variables Appear Important in Changing Traditional In— service Training" and concluded: When the term "variables" is used, a reader or reviewer assumes that research is involved in the definition of that term. Unfortunately, there is little or no educational research bearing on the subject of this review. The reviewer was to search the educational literature and suggest those variables which might be important for further work in the area of changing inservice training programs. The net result of this search is a proposal that the topic be defined more specifically and that systematic research be conducted to document with valid and reliable data the variables which do influence changes in inservice programs. Such documentation does not now exist. Ideas, proposals, needs and suggested chagges exist, but they all lack supporting data.13 Sobol further comments that, for lack of research, educa— tors address inservice as "descriptions or prescriptions of the problem and suggested solutions." There is little supporting data for these prescriptions. 139Francis Thomas Sobol, "What Variables Appear Impor- tant in Changing Traditional Inservice Training Procedures" (Washington, D.C.: Division of Assessment and Coordination, U.S. Office of Education, 1971), p. l. 91 More recently (1975) Edelfelt conducted a review of the entries in the ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education about professional development and concluded: The 256 entries reviewed include project and research reports of action programs, summaries and syntheses of theory and research, precis of doctoral theses, proposals for new or needed programs, reports of evaluation studies, speeches, and the like. They present a very wide variety of types of inservice education. Obviously, there are a multitude of concerns being treated in inservice education pro- grams. That fact is a plus. The reports will cer- tainly help anyone looking for ideas. On the other hand, the reports reflect disarray, a hodgepodge. In most programs, little attention is given to formulating a comprehensive concept of inservice education. The approach is piecemeal, and the result is patchwork.1 0 This investigator found twenty-three research studies that date back to 1973, and five additional between 1973 and 1964 that were on the subject of inservice education and had a reasonable degree of relevance to this study. Of the twenty—eight, twelve were central to this inquiry. Campbell studied the effects of a humanistic education inservice program on teacher behavior. Teacher behavior was rated after experiencing varying levels of involvement in humanistic education activities. It was found that increased teacher knowledge~of his/her affective behavior as derived from student feed— back did not result in increased positive perceptions 140 . Roy A. Edelfelt, "What You Can Find 1n the ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education About Inservice Teacher Education," (Washington, D.C.: National Education Assoc— iation, 1975), p. l. 92 of that behavior by students, which provides some important implications for inservice education.141 Toll studied the teacher center movement and defines them as: Semi-autonomous organizations with a physical facility the purpose of which is to encourage the in-service of professional growth of teachers, in which teachers are involved in the decision—making and administrzgive processes involved in Operating the centers.1 Ainsworth studied the perceptions of teachers regarding professional development programs and concluded: 1. Teachers regardless of age, sex, experience, assignments, expressed negative perceptions of local programs. 2. Teachers expressed a willingness to attend voluntarily. 3. Pay and credit incentives increased participa- tion with no guarantee in quality. 4. State approved or university programs were more well received than local. 5. Teacher-planned programs were rated higher by both elementary and secondary teachers, although higher for elementary. 6. The most desirable elements were practicality, support, encouragement, self—direction and choice. 7. There were differing perceptions expressed between teachers, supervisors1 3nd administrators due to lack of communication. 4 141David Clifton Campbell, "An Inservice Program for Personalizing Teaching in Secondary Schools," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1974), p. 267. 142 Sherran Sinson Toll, "The U. 8. Teacher Center Movement," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Massachusetts, 1974), p. 32. 143Barbara Arlene Ainsworth, "Stated Perceptions of Teachers Regarding Inservice Programs," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Maryland, 1974), p. 62. 93 Ainsworth offered the following recommendations: 1. Responsibility must be placed in the hands of classroom teachers. 2. The voluntary teacher-sharing nature of the teacher center prOposal by the NEA is the most applicable to stated perceptions.144 Kisor put together a conceptual model for continuous staff improvement in a small school district and suggested the following imperatives as indispensable to programmatic success: 1. Identification of outside sources for program assistance. 2. Utilization of key personnel within the district. 3. Development of significant board policy to assist and support inservice. 4. Selection of a coordinator aware of educational planning and general educational principles.145 Finch analyzed the performance of teachers in the Los Angeles City School District and noted that professional development does make a difference in the performance of teachers. Finch reported that: ..... teachers who have had the most inservice education are significantly superior to teafhgrs who have had the least inservice education. 4 One of the conclusions of the research by Finch, therefore, is that other factors being reasonably equal, the extent 144Ibid. 145Hazel Theresa Kisor, "A Conceptual Model for Con- tinuous Staff Improvement in a Small School District," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Alabama, 1974), p. 32. 146Arnold Finch, op. cit., p. 268. 94 of a teacher's professional development is the best basis for salary determination and advancement.147 Lloyd studied the effects of a staff development pro- gram on teacher performance and student achievement. Using an experimental-control group design, she found that the experimental group (inservice experience) score signifi- cantly higher (.01 level of significance) on observed teacher performance, although, there was no significant difference in the achievement of the students of the teachers in the experimental or control group.148 Rusk studied career education attitude change in teachers. Using a pre-test and post-test, he found a significant difference in change of attitude about career education after participating in a professional develop- ment program on career education.149 Dushan compared inservice education perceptions of principals and teachers in the secondary schools of Santa Clara County in California. As a result of the study the following conclusions were drawn: 147151a. 148Dorothy Marie Lloyd, ”The Effects of a Staff Development Inservice Program on Teacher Performance and Student Achievement," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of California, 1973), p. 186. 149Glen Dennis Rusk, "The Identification of Teacher Attitudes Related to Career Education and Attitudinal Change as a Result of In—Service Education," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Kansas State University, 1973), p. 87. 95 1. When considering specific instructional diffi- culties, significant perceptual differences were found between teacher and principals regarding the value of certain inservice practices. Specifically, when considering the teacher need of methodology, principals placed a significantly higher value than did teachers on teacher-princi- pal conferences and packaged inservice programs. When considering the teacher need of individuali- zation, principals placed a significantly higher value than did teachers on consultancy services, faculty meetings, teacher-principal conferences, within-school visitations, educational television and packaged inservice programs. When considering the teacher need of student motivation, principals placed a significantly higher value than did teachers on faculty meetings, teacher—principal conferences, teacher-department chairman con— ferences, laboratory methods, and packaged in- service programs. When considering the teacher need of classroom management, principals placed a significantly higher value than did teachers on faculty meetings, teacher-principal confer- ences, and within-school visitations. 2. When analyzing responses by teacher groupings, teachers' perceptions of the appropriateness of inservice education practices tended to be modal in nature with no significant deviation because of experience, sex, or teaching speciali- zation. However, an analysis of the data suggests that teachers' skepticism regarding the value of inservifgopractices tended to increase with experience. Six research studies were found having direct implica— tions for planning professional development programs. Jacquith did a comparison study of perceptions of junior high/middle school teachers, principals and university specialists concerning professional development. He con- cludes: 150Angius Dushan, "The Appropriateness of Selected Inservice Education Practices as Perceived by Secondary School Educators," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of the Pacific, 1974), p. 96. 96 l. Involvement of teachers in the selection of objectives and the organization of methods of inservice education were closely associated with teacher willingness to participate in inservice education. 2. Most teachers and principals perceived inservice education at the local building level as the most preferable method of inservice education. 3. The apparent unwillingness of university spe— cialists to become involved in inservice educa- tion and their general preference for developing competencies in on-campus classes suggested that effective consultants for inservice educa- tion might be experienced teachers or admini— strators, and university specialists in specific competency areas. 4. 0n the basis of perceived importance and willing- ness for inservice education, the most probable areas for successful inservice education would be in the teaching strategylgf diagnostic categories of competencies. Smith conducted a teacher assessment of the professional development program in Huntsville, Alabama, schools. The priority needs as indicated by teachers were: 1. Provision for the participants affected by the in-service program to have an opportunity to participate in identifying objectives and planning activities. 2. Provision for improvement of instruction in the classroom. 3. Promotion of improvement in staff competency. 4. Provision for meeting the needs and interests of the participants. 5. Provision for encouraging participation in groups. 151Charles Ervan Jacquith, "An Analysis of Perceptions of Junior High/Middle School Teachers, Principals, and University Specialists Concerning Inservice Education," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Michigan, 1973), p. 264. 97 Inclusion of clear and concise communication to avoid misunderstandings and misinterpreta— tations. Inclusion of activities for fulfillin the need of staff members to grow on the job.1 Brimm and Tollett conducted a statewide research study on professional development needs of teachers in Tennessee. Needs identified by 90 percent or better of the teachers were: 1. The teacher should have the opportunity to select the kind of inservice activities which he feels will strengthen his professional compe- tence. Inservice programs should include special orientation activities for the new classroom teacher. The real test of an inservice program is whether it helps the teacher to c0pe with his profes- sional tasks more successfully. Inservice programs must include activities which allow for the different interests which exist among individual teachers. Teachers need to be involved in the developing of purposes, activities, and methods of evalu- ation for inservice programs. The primary purpose of inservice education is to upgrade the teacher's classroom performance. Teachers should receive some released time for inservice education activities. 152John Carlton Smith, "An Assessment of the In- Service Education Program in Huntsville Alabama Schools," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Alabama, 1971), p. 78. James had fessional 98 One of the most important ways to judge the effectiveness of an inservice program is whether the teacher uses the results of the training in his classroom. participants evaluate a junior high school pro- development program designed to help teachers provide for pupils' individual differences in reading abilities. I. The conclusions were: Continuous individualized inservice training tends to be effective in improving junior high school teachers' sensitivities, understandings, abilities, and attitudes about those aspects of instruction for which they perceive support in their institutional setting. Continuous inservice training which utilizes the process of problem-identification and solution in connection with recommended instruc— tional practices tends to have a cumulative positive effect in improving teachers' perceptions about their own and their pupils' needs related to the practices. The implementation of recommended practices at the junior high school level appears to depend more on what the individual teacher sees as implications of the recommendations than on the practices themselves. Junior high school subject-matter teachers who study basic reading skill—building principles tend to have difficulty in learning how to apply the principles without extensive practice in incor- porating the teaching of the principles into their on—going instructional program. 153Jack L. Brimm and Daniel J. Tollett, "How Do Teachers Feel About In-Service Education?" Educational Leadership, Vol. 31 (March 1974), p. 523. 99 Improvement of junior high school teachers' abilities to teach reading skills depends in part on the teachers' understandings and abilities to group pupils within their classes and to incorporate skill-Exilding techniques into their lesson plans.1 Turner did a study of teachers' perceptions of professional development in three Maryland counties. The following conclusions were produced: 1. There is no single format for inservice education that is effective for all teachers; however, there are elements which should be incorporated into all programs if teachers are to perceive them as effective. Objectives must be closely related to the reality of the classroom; topics should be limited to those which can be exten- sively studied during the workshop; skills and information presented should be those which teachers can use immediately in their classrooms; and workshops should be concerned with resolving the kinds of problems which teachers encounter daily. The climate in which inservice is conducted is a major ingredient in teachers' perceptions of effective inservice education. It must be a relaxed, nonthreatening atmosphere in which they can question and express opinions, try new teaching behaviors, share ideas with others, change the direction of the activities when needed, and evaluate progress daily. Teachers must be actively involved in the learn- ing process--not passive listeners. Teachers want to be shown, through demonstrations with children, what to do and how, to be given an opportunity to practice under the guidance of an expert consultant, and to be provided with follow- up assistance in their classrooms. 154 H. J. James, "Evaluation of a Junior High School In-Service Program Designed to Help Teachers Provide for Pupils' Individual Differences in Reading Abilities" (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Miami, 1969), p. 45. 100 Teachers will identify factors which contribute to satisfaction with inservice education. Teachers need assistafifie in identifying specific teaching weaknesses. Bigelow used administrator perceptions for a survey and analysis of professional development programs in six mid- western cities. The findings were: 1. Supervision of instruction and curriculum planning are being combined into one unit, the inservice program. Many schools are implementing planned in—service programs executed on a year-around basis. A need exists for more school time in which to plan and implement an inservice program. There is a tendency for school systems to provide the teachers with an inservice curriculum. The use of college consultants is becoming more prevalent in the public schools. The building principal has a great responsi- bility in the inservice program. There is a need for more systematic and objective evaluations of inservice education programs. Professional growth for teachers is entering a new era and teacher involvement is becoming an important part of the professional growth pattern. Money budgeted for inservice programs was at a level far below that recommended in the litera- ture. 1551. S. Turner, "A Study of Teachers' Perceptions of an In-Service Program in Three Southern Maryland Counties," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The George Washington University, 1970), p. 62. 101 10. Nearly 90 percent of the coordinators spent less than half-time coordinating the in- service program. 11. A written philosophy is an importanf aspect of the inservice education program. 5 Summary The literature discussed in this chapter was presented for the purpose of giving the reader an appreciation of the development of teacher professional development as an integral part of teacher education in the United States. The literature does indicate that teacher professional development was historically limited to remediation, and the upgrading of teacher credentials. This focus and direction in teacher professional development was motivated by the needs of the "system" as determined by the "system," rather than the needs of the teacher as determined by the teacher. The literature further shows that teacher professional development has been conceptually viewed as a program designed to a) remedy deficiencies, b) advance pedagogical knowledge and skill, c) update subject area knowledge, and d) train the teacher for non-tutorial positions. The integration of personal and professional growth in our defining of professional development is still struggling for acceptance. A central issue in this struggle that will l 56E. B. Bigelow, "A Survey, Analysis, and Proposed Program of In-Service Education in Selected School Dis— tricts in Six Midwestern States," (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of South Dakota, 1969), p. 276. 102 have much to do with the outcome is "who will govern teacher professional development, the system, or teachers themselves." Current trends in professional development programs indicate that those with high experiential content have a greater impact on teachers than those with low experi- ential content. Most of the recent research tends to substantiate this idea. CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The primary objective of this study is to gather and examine data from a random sample of classroom teachers who fit the criteria of being full-time, certified teachers not currently pursuing advanced study. Two issues will be addressed in this study. 1. What these teachers perceive their profes— sional development needs to be, and 2. What they perceive the factors to be that affect their access to programs designed to meet those needs. As evidenced in chapter two the issue of professional development has persisted historically in education, and as a result a great deal has been written on the subject. There has also been subtantial research conducted on the issue. The particular group of teachers this study is addressing, however, is a fairly recent phenomenon in education. Many teacher educators have historically perceived little need for requiring professional development during service. The minimum requirement of four years 103 104 undergraduate study imposed after World War II presupposed that an adequately prepared teacher was being placed in the classroom. A consequence of this perception is that research focusing on the professional development concerns of full- time teachers not pursuing advanced study could not be found by this researcher. This fact alone imposes significant constraints upon this study due to a lack of tested procedural methodology relating to the issue. Furthermore, there is a great deal of evidence to suggest that this problem is national in scope, however, attributing these initial findings from a small random sample in one state onto such a vast population itself places limitations upon this study, and creates a need for much more research. Phi Delta Kappa's Commission on Professional Renewal reported on the national character of the problem. It is one of the perplexing and persistent questions in American education: Why do teachers, who almost universally appear eager to improve their professional performance, frequently respond :ithigizggigeertfizgrigg; hostility to local efforts Concern over the issue of adequate professional development is not confined to the ranks of educators. 15Uames C. King, Paul C. Hayes, and Isadore Newman, "Some Requirements for Successful Inservice Education," Phi Delta Kappan (May 1977), p. 686. 105 It is fast becoming a focal point for criticism outside the profession. Edelfelt comments: It is no secret that the inservice education of teachers and other personnel in education is a topic of major concern to people within and outside the teaching profession. The inadequacies of in- service education have been well documented in recent writings and speeches. Teachers, other educators, and the public have in various ways indicated that this is the time to give attention to the career-long development of public school personnel if we arg to have the quality of schools this nation needs. 58 It seems fair to say that the generalizations made about inservice education efforts would not be contradicted by most practicing teachers and school administrators who are nearest to the problems involved.159 The State of Michigan is no less affected by this problem than any other. For the purposes of this research Michigan provides an exemplary laboratory for testing the research questions and hypotheses. According to the 1974-75 Register of Professional Personnel certified personnel including teachers and administrators number approximately 105,000 in the State of Michigan. Of that total workforce, 26 percent hold 158Roy A. Edelfelt, "The School Education and Inservice Education," Journal of Teacher Education Vol. XXXVIII, No. 2 (March-April 1977), p. 10. 159Matthew Miles, "The Teacher Center - Educational Change Through Teacher Development," in In-Service Education and Teacher Centers ed. by Elizabeth Adams (Oxford, England, Pergamon Press, 1975), p. 169. 106 provisional certificates and can be assumed to be pursuing advanced study for permanent certification.160 The register further reveals that 72 percent hold permanent certification with what may be a terminal bachelor's or master's degree. For example, there are some among the 72 percent with permanent certification who have initiated formal graduate study since the data were collected, and there are those who self-initiate the pursuance of informal professional development opportunities. There is also, however, a cluster among the 72 percent group who go from permanent certifica- tion to retirement with little or no formal or informal professional development experiences. There is, of course, change in these data from year to year. Selection of the Sample A random sample of 500 teachers was selected from some 87,000 active members of the 1976-77 mailing list of the Michigan Education Association. Of those 500, 494 were ultimately mailed. Six were eliminated because of recent terminations of their Michigan teaching assignments. The sample was systematically selected by extracting every 174th name from the mailing list. The random starting number was 102. The sample was systematically selected because the intent of this research is to infer 160Michigan Department of Education, Register of Professional Personnel 1974-75 (Lansing, MI., 1974-75) 107 the characteristics of the sample onto the population. Teachers were sent the questionnaire with an appropriate cover letter (see Appendix B) asking them to participate in an MBA sponsored research project focusing on inservice education. Design of the Questionnaire Existing questionnaires were found to be inadequate in retrieving the precise information desired for this study. It became necessary to construct a questionnaire that contained items pertinent to the desired areas of investi- gation. Approximately 12-15 sample questionnaires were examined for appropriate items pertaining to teacher profes- sional development that related to the objectives of the study. All of the sample instruments were taken from the files of the Professional Development Division - Michigan Education Association. The questionnaire that results from this amalgamation comprised the following components: 1. Demographic Data 2 Broad Need Items 3 Specific Need Items 4. Inhibiting Factors Items 5 Open Comment Section 108 Demographic Data The first two of the eight demographic questions were qualifying questions for inclusion in the sample: 1. Are you a full-time classroom teacher? 2. Are you presently pursuing formal graduate study leading to a degree? If the respondent answered go to the first question he/she was asked to stop, insert the questionnaire into the enclosed envelope and return. If they answered ygg to the second question they were asked to do the same. Those questionnaires so returned were eliminated from consideration in the study. The six remaining questions were: 3. Are you a) female, or b) male? 4. Have you been a classroom teacher a) less than two years, b) two-five years, c) six—ten years, and d) more than ten years? 5. Your perception of the community that you currently teach in is a) rural, b) urban/suburban? 6. Your major teaching assignment is a) elementary, b) junior high/middle school, c) senior high? 7. The teaching certificate you hold is a) provisional b) permanent, c) continuing, d) other? 8. Indicate your highest degree completed a) Bachelor's, b) master's, c) master's +30, d) specialist, and e) doctorate. 109 Questions three (female-male), seven (the teaching certificategmnlhold is?) and eight (indicate your highest degree completed?) were utilized to provide some additional insights into the characteristics of the population (see chapter 4, table 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3). Questions four (length of service), five (community type) and six (teaching assignment) are the three independent variables that will be measured statistically against the two dependent vari- ables of "needs and "inhibiting factors." The hypotheses are predicated upon the belief that full-time certified teachers not pursuing advanced study have different profes- sional development needs because of differences in their teaching circumstances. The teaching circumstances hypothesized to cause differences are the major focus of this study. These are: a) length of service, b) community type (rural versus urban/ suburban), and 0) teaching assignment (elementary, junior high/middle school, and senior high). Indeed, another finding of Phi Delta Kappa's Commission on Professional Renewal was that: Systems with successful programs make a geniune effort to identify all local needs, wants or problems suggested from those who are to be inservice recipients. Solicitation of input should emphasize the view of sources inside the system. 161Phi Delta Kappan, lop. cit. 110 Current research in professional development strongly suggests that programs are most effective when locally based and decisions are made locally. If local and even building- 1evel decision-making ever become a reality on a wide scale it will be helpful to have substantive data on professional development concerns as they relate to the local circum- stances teachers find themselves in. Factors like community type, teaching assignment, and length of service would become valuable criteria in the planning and implementation of professional development programs. Decisions on professional development must be made as close as possible to the situation where it will be operative. Edelfelt comments: Obviously decision-making for the design of local programs should be locally based ..... The argument for building level decision-making is that it involves the people who are most immediately responsible for improving school programs. And there is some evidence that the school building is the large viable unit for change and improvement.162 Broad Need Items There are fifty-three items on the questionnaire divided into two categories. The first thirty-one are "need” items 162'Roy A. Edelfelt, "Inservice Education," Criteria for and Examples of Local Progpams (Washington: Western Washington State College, 1977), pp. 13-14. 111 and the remaining;twenty-two are "inhibiting factors" items. For the first seven need items which are broad needs the subjects were asked to place an ”x" in the appropriate box to indicate whether the need is one you do not have (met) or a need you have (unmet). If the need has only been partially met, check unmet. Secondly, go the the need continuum and place an "x" in the box that most closely describes your desire for skill in that area. 69' 9,8 geebg‘b" $ 2g,. 06,0 , 33‘ @W@9® 1 . Interpersonal Communication D [:l D D [:1 2. Developing Pupil Self (Values, Attitudes, Self—Worth, etc.) D D D D D Developing Personal (Teacher) Self D [:I D D C] . Individualizing Instruction [3 E] El CI C] Classroom Management (Discipline) D D [:I C] D Student Assessment Testing D C] D E] El Increasing My Subject Area Competence D D D D C] These items were adopted from a survey instrument entitled \lCDO'IDOO "Teacher Training Needs" developed by Gary M.IngersolL Janet Hosea Jackson, and James D. Walden, of the National Center for the Development of Training Materials in Teacher Education, Indiana University.163 16zl‘uary M. Ingersoll, Janet Hosea Jackson, and James D. Walden, "Teacher Training Needs, Conditions and Materials: A Preliminary Survey of Inservice Education," (Unpublished Survey Report National Center for the Development of Training Materials in Teacher Education, Indiana University, 1975). 112 These items were selected because they were identified through a rational process that involved surveying a sample of 745 midwestern teachers to gain feedback on their perceptions of what professional development needs they have for which training materials ought to be developed. They were considered by this researcher to be more relevant to the objectives of this research than other items. Specific Need Items The next twenty-four need questions focus on kinds of programs and program areas that are of the most current interest to teachers. The subjects were asked to mark the boxes in exactly the same way they marked the boxes for the broad need items except for the fact that they were in this case identifying "specific need." t 1. More Skill in Working 6’9 6‘“ Harmoniously with People 6a I] 2. Improving the Efficiency and , Productivity of Students DD D DD 3. Using Behavioral or Performance Objectives D D E] D E] 4. Understanding Interpersonal Processes (Group Dynamics) DE] D DD 5. Values Clarification*** DD C] DE 6. Detecting and Treating Emo- tional and Adjustment Problems D C] EDD 7. Greater Awareness of Human Needs (Growth and Development) DD DUE] 113 8. P 1 S lf-A aifisgggwtnerraizaiizness DC] DUE] 9.Afft‘ T h Bh‘ (neiiiigewficnirowfi Efioltoironsfl C] D [:I E] 10. Teacher Effectiveness Training*** [:1 [:1 D D D 11. I d' 'd 11 G 'd d Ed — SCHEIEEML ”1 9 “ca El III III E] [I] 12. Th L i C t r Apgro::£:*2g en 6 DD D D D 13 . The Open Classroom** [:l [3 D [:1 [Z] 14. C fl' t R l t' 123231;; 3533263“ U D E] D C] 1:. iehavio: Modi:ica1/:ion*** D D E] D D . r181s reven lon Intervention D D D D D 17. H dl' St d t D' t' n Pigblégg 11 en lsrup 10 D D E] D D 18. Competency Based Learning [:3 [:3 DD [:3 19. Using Student Assessment Tests or Test Results E] D DD D 20. Using Standardized Test Results E] D D D D 21. Updating in Subject Area Skills DE] EDD 22. Increasing Proficiency In Another Subject Area for DE] DOD My Own Flexibility 23. Administrative and Student Evaluation of My InstructionDD EDD 24. Peer Evaluation '3 D DUE] *Have had sufficient learning experiences in this area. **Would like more learning experiences in this area. ***Types of Programs 114 These items were adopted from an inservice survey developed by the Curriculum Advisory Council's Inservice Committee of the Carman School District in Michigan and given to the Carman teachers. The intent of the survey was to find out what kinds of programs and activities the teachers would like the committee to plan for their inservice days. The list of twenty—four utilized in this study was taken from their original fifty-one items brainstormed by the committee. These particular items were selected because they were identified by practicing classroom teachers under circum- stances that were similar to one of the objectives of this study, identifying professional development needs. No set of items could be found that were more reflective of the current interest of teachers in specific areas that were taken on a broader scale than these. Inhibiting Factors Items The twenty-two inhibiting factor items are limited to one group. The twenty-two items all relate to those things that are inclined to affect a teacher's access to profes- sional development activities. Subjects were asked to go through the following list of reasons why teachers sometimes do not take advantage of professional growth experiences. In the boxes to the right they were asked to indicate the extent to which each factor was a problem for them. 115 944' 1. Cost of Program [:1 D 2. Distance You Must Travel to Attend [:][:][:J 3. Time of Day Held (8:00-3:00) [3C] C] 4. Time of Day Held (8:00-5:00) [:][:][:] 5. Time of Day Held (5:00-11:00) [j [3 El 6. Weekend Programs (Saturday) [:1 [:1 [:I 7. Weekend Programs (Sunday) CI DI: 8. Weekend Programs (both Saturday and Sunday) [:][:][:3 9. Lack of Graduate Credit Cl [3 C] 10. Lack of Child Care [:1 [:1 [:1 ll. F2321;10H11:a51522 Away from Other [:I[:][:] 12. Duration of Activity (1-2 weeks) {:1 CI III 13. Duration of Activity (2-4 weeks) E] D C] 14. Duration of Activity (4—6 weeks) I: C] [:1 15. Duration of Activity (6-10 weeks) D [:I [:1 16. Lack of Transportation E] D [:I 17. Lack of Released Time from Job [:][:][:I 18' £2323: Sifiiiiéioii‘iec‘éiéfinh‘me I] I] D 19. Time Demands of Job Too Heavy (Don't [:'[:][:‘ have Time for Involvement in Growth Experiences) 20. Skill Level for Teaching Assignment Sufficient (Inservice Training D D D Not Needed) 21. NgtM$w§gedgf Programs Relevant [:][:][:] 22. Egogoft‘eigfieed to Remain a Class- D D D These items were brainstormed by this researcher and his doctoral guidance committee, two members of the Profes- sional Development staff of the Michigan Education Association, an informal group of Michigan State University graduate students, and two classroom teachers in the Lansing School 116 District. This is by no means an exhaustive list. A compilation of factors by a larger more representative group of teachers is ideally desirable. Perhaps this initial effort can provide the catalyst for such an undertaking. For the purposes of this study the list is limited to those items thought to be most relevant to a selected group of Michigan teachers, and limited to a number that could be adequately examined within the scope of this research. Open Comment Section The final section of the questionnaire provided space for each respondent to write further comments on the question- naire items, or any additional comments on the issue of professional development itself. The purpose of this section was to get some expression of feeling about inservice education in general, professional development needs, and some reasons why teachers do not take advantage of professional development programs. The intent was to permit the respondent to focus on issues not covered in the questionnaire. Data Collection A survey mailing date and a follow-up schedule was developed for this study. The first mail contact consisted of a cover letter (see Appendix B) and a COpy of the instru- ment itself. The first follow-up consisted of a postcard (see Appendix B) mailed two weeks later to only those not responding as of that date. The second follow—up two weeks later was a new cover letter plus another copy of the instru- ment sent to all those not responding as of that current date. 117 The third follow—up was a postcard two weeks later to all those not responding to the second follow-up. The fourth and final follow-up postcard two weeks later was sent selectively to only those not responding who could provide a reasonably equal rural-urban/suburban balance in the event such a balance had not been attained as of the date for the fourth mailing. The entire data collection effort was completed in approximately two and one half months. A total of 345 (69.8 percent of the original 494 mailed) questionnaires were returned. From those returned, a total of 75 (21.8 percent) was rejected because the respondents were not full-time classroom teachers, and 62 (18.0 percent) were rejected because the respondents were in fact currently pursuing formal graduate study. The remaining qualifying respondents 208 (60.2 percent of those returned or 42.1 per- cent of the total mailed) became the subject of the study. Using inferential statistics the proportion of the teachers in the population (42.1 percent) represent 36,627 of the 87,000 active members of the Michigan Education Association. 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Contrary to the expectation that different factors tend to affect the access of rural teachers versus urban/suburban teachers to professional improvement opportunities, the results of the chi-square test failed to indicate whether there are differences at a statistically significant level (.05). Factors that tend to affect teacher access seem to be universally applicable whether those factors relate to practical problems in terms of time conflicts and personal circumstances, or whether they relate to the way in which the actual professional development opportunity is structured. The table of chi-square scores for the inhibiting factors according to community type can be found in Appendix D, Table 20. 163 Hypothesis 2-B There are no differences in the factors that inhibit the delivery of programs designed to meet the professional development needs among full-time certified teachers not pursuing advanced study with varying teaching assignments. Findings Two of the twenty-two inhibiting factors were found to be statistically significant at the .05 level or better. These items are: 1. Lack of Graduate Credit (.05 level) 2. Lack of Economic Incentive (More Pay for Professional Growth) (.01 level) (see Table 4.16) The results of the chi-square test failed to establish significance at the .05 level on twenty of the twenty-two inhibiting factors, therefore, the null hypothesis could not be rejected on these twenty. A table of chi-square results for all twenty-two inhibiting factors according to teaching assignment can be found in Appendix D, Table 21. The within group differences for the two inhibiting factors identified as statistically significant at .05 or better are: 1. Lack of Graduate Credit - No respondent marked the "always" column, few marked the "sometimes" column and most indicated it was "never" an inhibiting factor, elementary teachers at 82.2 percent, junior high/middle school teachers at 87.7 percent, and senior high teachers at 63.3 percent. Junior high/ 164 .nbpoonn no moonwop 4 HEB Ho>oH Ho. onn no Ewmooo: on nowndH no 88N.NH no onoUMIHno «*4... .Eopoonn no moonwop N can? Ho>oH Ho. o5 no Smwooo: mH nomneH no HNN.O .Ho ondHHHowano <1. mommo 9:932... 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N wvasmwm pmme ho mumme acmemowm< pamUSpm mean: .mH mz Nmm.H N wcflcudoq oomdm monopoaeoo .mH mo. mam o m msmflnohd donpdspmfio pdmcspm wdHHeamm .sH mz moo.H m doflpdm>dmde\coHpcm>dnd mflmflno .mH mz mmo.m m defindoflwaeos dofi>dgom .mH mozmq mmmmomo Addsanpdoov saimqmaom smfinogm\doflpsfiommm poflflwaoo .vH mz sad w v goonmmaflo ammo one .mH mz Hmw m w nodondd< nmpdmo mafidpamq one .NH mz sam.m v AmoHV aofipmoscm cmefiso sHHasofl>HudH .HH mz com. d wsficflans mmmcd>flpommwm nmaodwe .oH mz wom.s v Amaoflpoem :30 s: an“: wdfladmov nofi>aamm “madame m>fipomom< .8 m2 va.H w wawuflmhe museum can mmoamhw3mQ was :pBOAOV mommz mass: 90 mmoawhw3< hopmmno .b m2 me.m v mamfinond pawspmsne< use HanoNLOEm mdflpampe was weapompmo .6 m2 mam.m v dofipmdfiwflumfio mm=Ha> .m mz voH.H v AmoflEmahn anchov mommoooum HdcownoaumpaH mafipnwpmpopnb .v mz bNm.N v mm>fiuomnno mommEHoHHom no Hanofi>dnwm mcfimb .m mz Hus.mH v mpdmcspm mo spH>Hposnond use sodmaoflwwm may mafl>ondsH .m mz maw.ma e madood spfia sfimsofidoeaam wdaxpos dfi Haflxm who: .H mommz onHommm mz th.N v monopoaeoo mop< poonnsw >2 NewmwopoaH .u mz smo. e wdfipmme pdmsmmmmm< pdmedpm .6 m2 mhv.a v Aouwamwowflnv undamwdcdz 8009mmmfio .m mz mmH.m w deaposapde wdflnfifiasefl>aedH .4 m2 mH¢.m w “Hmm Aymsoedev Haaomnmm wafldon>mo .m mz smm.m w Aupm npnoaamfimm macspapp< mmsflmsc “Hmm Hfldsd mafidoflm>mo .m mz NHN.H v aoflpmoflcseeoo HmcomuomnopaH .H mozmq mmmmomo BZMEZOHmm¢ OZHmU®H Ho. on» scams no pm mndmmooomc ma uwwnwa so bbN.mH Ho mumSUmIHno ¢ .Eocomhm Ho mmohwop v 59H? mocdoflwnwfim mo Hm>oH mo. may soHon no as hhwmmooo: ma hmwnda so wwv.m mo ohwsuwlwso ¢ mz mom.m v doflpasaa>m “mod .vm mz wwo.m e nonposnpde s: we dofipwsaa>m namespm and d>fipanpmhdfleu< .mm mz wmm.w e spflaanfixmfim ago as now dou¢ Hmnpon< :H moawwofimonm mcflmwopocH .NN mz vom.m w mHHflxm amn< pomnnsm an medpdedo .Hm mz mmm.H v mpfismmm amme omuflcddedapm mdflm: .om mo. owm.m v mpasmom pmme so muwme paosmmomm¢ unoUSpm wean: .mH mz HHN.N v wcflchdoq commm Nocogmmeoo .wH mz oHN.¢ w mamanohd doflpdsnmfin udmcspm mqfifiedam .sH mz mmm.® v acapem>hmpaH\dodem>mgd mnwfigo .oH mz mam.v w doflpaoflgfleos pofl>anmm .mH mozeoH mmmq mammomo Acosqfludoov ma mqmee 219 m2 mH©.mH m mqn>nom EoHnonm\:0nn:Homom nonanaoo .vH mz msm.m m soonmmano dado man .mn mz boo.® m nononma< noncoo qucnmmq one .NH mz mvo.m m Amqu :OHHdoscm ooonsw handson>nocH .HH mz mmb.HH w wannnane wmoao>npoommm nonomoe .oH mz nnm.m m Am:0nuoem :30 s: nuns mannmmov n0n>mnmm nmnoamn m>npomnn< .8 m2 Hmm.w m mananmnh anono pad mmmcond3oQ cad :pBonov momoz awash mo mwocmna3< nmpmmno .5 m2 ®m>.© m wEmHnonm namEnmano< Una Ha:0nnoem wannwone can wcnuoopma .m mz vmm.NH o :OHnaonnnano mound> .m mz mm®.> w AmonEmnhm msonuv mowmooonm HwaownomnoncH wcnvcdpmnooca .v mz mNN.® m mo>npomnno mundanonnmm no Hdn0n>mnom wanna .m mz omo.s w mpcmcspm no npn>npo=cond use noanOnnnm map man>ondsn .m mz wNH.m m onaoom nun? 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