*

ABSTRACT
ETHNIC MUSIC AS A SOURCE FOR THE MUSICAL
DEVELOPMENT AND ENRICHMENT OF CULTURALLY

DIFFERENT STUDENTS IN
GENERAL MUSIC CLASSES

BY

Warrick Livingston Carter

Purpose of the Studx

The purpose of this study was to examine the
effects of ethnic related music materials on music achieve-
ment, attitudes toward music and attitudes toward school
of culturally different junior high school students en-

rolled in general music classes.

Population

One hundred and six urban junior high school gen-
eral music students were randomly selected and placed in
experimental and control groups. These students were lo-
cated in three junior high schools (Noble Junior High
School, Detroit, Holmes Junior High School, Flint, and

l

—-—-——

Warrick Livingston Carter

Gardner Junior High School, Lansing). In each school one
experimental and one control group were taught by the gen-
eral music instructor of the school. Subjects were equated
on the basis of music achievement, attitudes toward music,
and attitudes toward school, measured by three tests con-

structed by the researcher.

Treatment and Analysis

 

The experimental treatment lasted for a minimum of
fourteen weeks, and consisted of five modules of instruc-
tion (Duration, Pitch, Intensity, Timbre, and Form and
the Similarities Within All Music). Each module used songs
currently popular in the communities as examples for the
musical concepts. The control method involved use of the
same modules and investigation of the same musical con-
cepts; The group differed only in the presence or absence
of ethnic materials. The effects of each method of instruc-
tion were measured by the music achievement, music attitude,
and school attitude tests. Analysis of covariance, thtest,
beta weights, and gain score correlations were the statis-

tical procedures used in testing the hypotheses.

2

Warrick Livingston Carter

Findings

1.

\

The presence of ethnic related music materials as used
in this study, was found to be significant, in terms
of attitudes toward school, at the .01 level of confi-

dence.

The presence of ethnic related music materials, as
used in this study,vmm found to be significant, in
terms of attitudes toward music, at the .01 level of

confidence.

The presence of ethnic related materials, as used in
this study, was found to be significant, in terms of

music achievement, at the .01 level of confidence.

No significant gain score correlations at the .05
level existed between the three post tests for the

experimental groups.

For the control groups, significant negative gain
score correlations at the .01 and .05 levels were
found between attitudes toward music and music achieve-

ment, and attitudes toward school and music achievement,

3

Warrick Livingston Carter

respectively. Additionally, no significant gain score cor-
relations, at the .05 level, existed between attitudes to-
ward school and attitudes toward music for the control

groups.

ETHNIC MUSIC AS A SOURCE FOR THE MUSICAL
DEVELOPMENT AND ENRICHMENT OF CULTURALLY
DIFFERENT STUDENTS IN

GENERAL MUSIC CLASSES

BY

Warrick Livingston Carter

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Music

1970

’0 ’d‘JoL

E3 Copyright by

Warrick Livingston Carter

1971

 

To Pat, Carrie, Evelyn,

and Charles

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Appreciation is expressed to the members of the
writer's thesis advisory committee. Dr. Charles McDermid,
Dr. Richard Klausli and Mr. Robert Unkefer provided en-
couragement and advisement, as well as a willingness to
support this type of research project. Greatest appreci-
ation goes to Dr. Robert Sidnell, the writer's chairman,
who has shown both professional and personal interest in
and given.constant encouragement toward the completion
of this research project.

Gratitude is expressed to Mrs. Mary E. Gustafson,
Mr. Lloyd Miller, and Mr. Stanley Waldon, who gave much
of themselves in the actual teaching of the project. Addi-
tionally, gratitude is expressed to the students of Noble
Junior High School, Holmes Junior High School, and Gardner-
Junior High School who participated in the project.

Appreciation is also expressed to Miss Anita Pat-
terson, who from the very beginning has done the secre-
tarial work, including the typing of letters, instruc-
tional modules, the proposal and chapter drafts.

iv

Further gratitude is expressed to Dr. Howard E.
Wright of Maryland State College, who was instrumental in
securing financial support which enabled the writer to pur-
sue additional graduate study.

Special thanks is given to the Human Learning Re—
search Institute, Michigan State University, for the grant
which supported this project.

Special and greatest gratitude goes to my wife,
Pat, for sacrifices made and understanding during the

writer’s study.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Acmowm DGEMENTS O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O i V
LIST OF TABLES O I O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 ix
Chapter
I 0 INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O 1
Background of the Problem. . . . . . . . . 1
Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . 18
The Need for the Study . . . . . . . . . . l9
Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Scope of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Limitations of the Study . . . . . . . . . 26
Definitions of Terms for the Purpose of
this Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Order of Presentation. . . . . . . . . . . 34
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. . . . . . . . . . . 35
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
The Nature and Need of the Junior High
School Student. . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Socio-Economic Status (SES), Social
Conditions and Environment of
Culturally Different Students . . . . . 42
Effects of Environmental Conditions or
Socio-Economic Status (SES) on School
Achievement and/or Attitudes toward
School. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS-(cont.)'

Chapter

SES, IQ, Motivation.and Achievement.

Attitudes toward School and/or
Education. . . . . . . .-. . . . .

The Learning Process . . . . . . . .

Programs and Practices for the Education
of the Culturally Different Student in
NOn-mUSiC Areas 0 o o o o o- o a c o e 0

Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PraCticeSo O O C 0 0 O O O I O O O 0

General Music Programs in Junior High
School and Music Programs for the
Culturally Different Student. . . . . .

General Music Programs . . . . . . .
Music Programs for Culturally
Different Students . . . . . . . .

Teachers for the Culturally Different
Student 0 O O O C O I O O O I O O O O 0

Teacher Attitudes, Traits or
Qualities o o o o o o o o a o o o a
Teacher Education or Preparation . .

Summary and Discussions. . . . . . . . . .
Implications of the Present Study. . . . .

III 0 DESIGN OF THE STUDY 0 O 0 O O O C O O O C O 0

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

vii

Page

52

65
70

73

73
78

86

86

99

121

121
133

153
168

171

171
172
173
176
179

TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)

Chapter Page
IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA. . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Pre-Test-Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Post-Test Data . . . . . . . . . . o . . . 184

Analysis of Data Relative to Attitudes
toward School . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

Analysis of Data Relative to Attitudes
toward Music. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

Analysis of Data Relative to Music

Achievement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Beta Coefficients. . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Analysis of Correlations . . . . . . . . . 194
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 2 0 4

summary. 0 O O O O O C O C O O O O O O O O 204

Findings 0 O t C O O O I O C O O C O O O O 211

Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Implications of the Use of Ethnic

Materials 0 O I O O I O O O O O O O O O 215

Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O I 0 O O I 219

APPENDIX

A. Instruction Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

B. Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300

C. Reliability and Scaling of Instruments. . . . 315

D. Teachers'Questionnaire. . . . . . . . . . . . 333

E. Analysis of Variance, Correlation and T_Value
Tables 0 I O 0 O O c O O O C O O O O O O O 336

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Tab 1e P age

3.1 RACIAL COMPOSITION OF THE SCHOOLS . . . . . 172

3.2 RACIAL COMPOSITION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUPS 0 G I O O O C O O O O O O 173

3.3 FAVORABLE (HIGH), NEUTRAL (MEDIUM), AND
UNFAVORABLE (LOW) SCORE AND AVERAGE
POSSIBILITIES FOR THE SCHOOL ATTITUDE
(#1) AND MUSIC ATTITUDE (#2) TESTS . . . 175

3.4 RADIO STATION QUESTIONNAIRE . . . . . . . . 176

4.1 PRE-TEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF
THE THREE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES. . . . . 182

4.2 PRE-TEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF
THE THREE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES FOR
THE CONTROL GROUPS 0 o o o o o o o o o o 182

4.3 PRE-TEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF
THE THREE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES FOR
THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS. . . . . . . . . 183

4.4 POST-TEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
OF THE THREE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES . . . 184

4.5 POST-TEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF

THE THREE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES FOR THE
CONTROL GROUPS 0 O O O O O O O O O O C C 185

ix

LIST OF TABLES (cont.
Table Page

4.6 POST-TEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF
THE THREE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES FOR THE‘
EXPERIMNTAL GROUPS 0 I O O C O C O O O O O 185

4.7 ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF SCHOOL ATTITUDE
TEST: DEPENDENT VARIABLE-POST SCHOOL
ATTITUDE TEST. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187

4.8 ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MUSIC ATTITUDE
TEST: DEPENDENT VARIABLE-POST MUSIC
ATTITUDE TEST. 0 O O O O O O O C C O O O I 189

4.9 ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MUSIC ACHIEVEMENT
TEST: DEPENDENT VARIABLE-POST MUSIC
ACHIEVEMENT TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

4.10 BETA WEIGHTS FOR THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES (PRE-TESTS) TO
THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES (POST-TESTS) . . . 192

4.11 BETA WEIGHTS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS FOR
THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES (PRE-TESTS) TO THE DEPENDENT
VARIABLES (POST-TESTS) . . . . . . . . . . 193

4.12 CORRELATIONS OF PRE-TESTS AND POST-TESTS
RESULTS. 0 o o o o o c o o o o o o o o o o 195

4.13 ANALYSIS OF GAIN SCORE CORRELATIONS OF
CONTROL GROUPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196

4.14 GAIN SCORE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE INDE-
PENDENT VARIABLES OF THE CONTROL GROUPS. . 197

4.15 ANALYSIS OF GAIN SCORE CORRELATIONS OF
EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS 0 C I C O O I O O O C O 19 8

4.16 GAIN SCORE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN INDEPENDENT
VARIABLES OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP. . . . 199

LIST OF TABLES (cont.)

Table

C.1

C.1

ITEM ANALYSIS: PRE-MUSIC ACHIEVEMENT TEST. .

SUMMARY: DIFFICULTY AND DISCRIMINATION
INDICES, PRE-MUSIC ACHIEVEMENT TEST. . . .

MEANS, ERROR OF MEASUREMENT AND RELIABILITY

RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTION OF PRE-MUSIC
ACHIEVEWNT TEST . O C . O . . O C C C . .

SUMMARY: RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTION OF PRE-MUSIC
ACHIEVEMENT TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SUMMARY TABLE FOR SCALE JUDGMENTS--TEST #1. .
SUMMARY TABLE FOR SCALE JUDGMENTS--TEST #2. .

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF ATTITUDES TOWARD
EDUCATION FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS. . . . .

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF ATTITUDES TOWARD
MUSIC FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS. . . . . . .

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF MUSIC ACHIEVEMENT
FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS. . . . . . . . . .

MULTIPLE CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS . . . . . .

T VALUES OF GAIN SCORE CORRELATIONS--

CONTROL GROUPS 0 O O C O C C O C C O C O O

T VALUES OF GAIN SCORE CORRELATIONS--
EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS. . . . . . . . . . . .

xi

Page

316

319

319

320

321
323

328

336

336

337

337

337

338

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Problem

 

Unless it is considered whimsical or completely
arbitrary, the decision that one child has a higher men-
tal ability than another, made solely on the basis of
IQ tests, presupposes that the measuring object is
equally reliable for both children in question. The
comparison between culturally different children and
dominant culture children, solely on the basis of IQ
tests, frequently indicates that the latter's IQ are
considerably higher than the former (Riessman, 1962).
However, this indication can not be considered a fact
until further investigations are made.

The unreliability of IQ tests rests on the fact
that traditional measurements are strongly geared toward
the middle-income experience (see Davis, 1948, and Fishman
et a1., 1964). Ausubel (1967) states: "The tests are un-
fair in that they dO-not give the lower class child a fair

1

opportunity to demonstrate his true attained level of cog-
nititive capacity" (p. 313). Consequently, educators
should be cautious about using these tests when making in-
ferences about children from deprived areas. The prudent
educator can accept the test scores as a measure of the
child's current academic standing, but must reject them

as a measure of native intelligence.

Recent investigations (Erickson,-l964; Maynor,~
1968; et a1.) indicate that a similar approach can be
taken in teaching music to culturally different children.
The teacher of music has to be aware that the approaches
and materials used in affluent neighborhoods will not,
and in some instances can not, proVide for similar achieve-
ment in areas of deprivation.

In order to deal more effectively with culturally
different children, the teacher must understand the his-
tory, traditions, and social structure of the particular
area in which he is working. Further the teacher must
comprehend the children's unique culture patterns, their
status in American society, the frustrations which they
experience, and their life perceptions are all reflected.

in the music of their community. In addition, the music

teacher should not feel he is introducing music to the

child. In most ethnic groups, music already exists as an

important part of the culture, history, and environment

of the community.

One logical way to begin a general music class
would be to start with music that is indigenous

to the group. This is

a valid approach because

the students can become immediately involved
with familiar music; they can sing it expres-
sively and can understand the idiom when they
hear it because it is actually an extension of
their own language and culture (Armstrong, 1968;

pp. 67-68).

In order to use the music of an ethnic group, the teacher

must first become familiar

with the music; second, he must

develop an understanding of this music. It is at the lat-

ter point where most music
either fail to realize the
or else approach the music

ing in musical substance,"

educators fall short. They
intrinsic value of ethnic music
as "trite," "vulgar," or "lack-

when compared with "classical

music" or "music of the masters." However, the value of

ethnic music is unsurpassed if used as the starting point

in the music education of culturally different children

(See Klotman, 1968 and Doig, 1965). The use of ethnic-

related materials (folk music) has proven most successful

in the music education of Hungary. The basis for this

approach was established by Zoltan Kodaly (see Richards,
1966).

The field of music education has been slow to
recognize that culturally different children need differ-
ent materials and/or different instructional approaches.
One needs only to investigate some of the early or even
recent articles in the professional literature of music
and music education to find negative statements regarding
the music of the culturally different, often referred to
as popular music. The reason for beginning music educa-
tion in this country even fostered this attitude toward
this music. As Britton (1966) aptly puts it, "From the
very beginning, music education in the United States was
conditioned by a deliberate desire on the part of cultural
leaders to suppress indigenous music and to substitute
something 'better' in its place" (p. 17). These feelings
were mirrored by many misguided music educators. Early
writers struck out against whatever types of indigenous
music popular at the time, e.g., various folk music, the
style of psalm singing, and/or any music produced in this

country.

American music educators have stressed the import-
ance of utilizing "better music"; but, when one surveys
the historical development, what constituted better music
is somewhat of a puzzle. Britton's historical survey
points out that

for Tufts and Walter (1721) and their immediate
successes, using better music meant substituting
for a well-loved improvisatory style of congrega-
tional singing one in which the traditional psalm
tunes were sung note for note according to the
book (p. 18).

By 1838, when Lowell Mason succeeded in introduc-
ing music to the public schools of Boston, Massachusetts,
better music consisted of works by English and "third-
rate" continental composers. Throughout the nineteenth
century and well into the twentieth, music educators con-
sidered better music as "almost anything song-like so
long as it possessed no indigenous flavor, excepting only
a few patriotic airs and the most popular tunes of Stephen
Fosterv‘ (Britton, p. 22). When jazz and ragtime appeared,
music educators also dismissed them as unworthy for educa-
tional use. Early twentieth century music teachers at-
tacked jazz and-ragtime, in much the same way that presu

ent music educators criticize "rock," "soul," "folk," or

whatever is popular.

These early attitudes toward popular music can be
found in articles in The Etude, The Musician, and The Mu-

sical Quarterly. In all three periodicals, between 1922

 

and 1941, there appeared a total of twenty-one articles
rejecting all types of jazz, seven articles rejecting all
jazz except the "advanced," highly orchestrated jazz of»
the large bands, seven articles granting jazz a limited
place in music; and two articles treating jazz unapolo-
getically as equal to all forms of music.

The foregoing articles all treat jazz differently
depending upon-the fluctuating popular acceptance of jazz
and jazz forms, By the 1930's favorable articles began
to appear; however, it was not until 1935 that an article
(Rogers, 1935) appeared which, without qualifications,
accepted jazz as worthwhile music. This article, however,
did not discuss the educational acceptance or the merits
of jazz, but rather its influenoe on French music. The.
first genuine acceptance of jazz did not come until 1941,

in an article in The Musical_guarterly (Harap, 1941).

 

Harap was the only writer in all three magazines, between
1922 and 1945, who without qualifications, fully accepted

jazz, as a genuine artistic achievement.

Of the three magazines, The Etude’s treatment of
jazz shows the most ambivalent tendencies. From 1923 (the

year in which the Readers' Guide lists The Etude's first

 

 

discussion of jazz) until June 1945, The Etude printed

 

thirteen articles and editorials pertaining to jazz, most.

of which rejected all jazz. Comments typical of The Etude's

 

approach to jazz can be found in its first editorial on the
subject in January, 1924:

First, Jazz, at its worst, is an unforgivable
orgy of noise, a riot of discord, usually per-
petrated by players of scant musical training . . .

Second, Jazz, at its worst is often associated
with vile surroundings, filthy words [and] un-
mentionable dances . . .

Yet in the music itself there is often much that
is charming and genuinely fascinating when writ-
ten and played effectively. There is no more
harm in well-written Jazz than there is in a.
Liszt Rhapsody . . .

Good Jazz can be-a wholesome tonic; bad Jazz is
always a dangerous drug (p. 6).

In a later editorial of the same year ("Where The
Etude Stands on Jazz," August, 1924), the editors reiter-
ated the magazine's position toward Jazz:
In its original form it [jazz] has no place in

the musical education and deserves none. It
will have to be transmogrified many times before

it can present its credentials for the Wal-
halla of music (p. 515).

Another expression of The Etude's ambivalent atti-

 

tude toward jazz was revealed in two further types of
treatment: 1) articles which suggested ways in which
music teachers could remove or diminish their pupiles'
interest in jazz, and 2) technical discussion explaining
how jazz techniques might be mastered.

One of the earliest articles in the first category
was that of Wister (1928). Wister stated that she used
jazz as "bait" to get her pupils interested in "good"
music. In 1934, Goodbrod stressed a technique of "dos-
ing" pupils with "light jazz pieces" to such an extent
that "a dislike would be created for it." When the pupils
became tired of jazz, Goodbrod continued requiring them
to play it until they could "no longer stand it and were
happy to concentrate only on classical music." In con-
clusion, Goodbrod stated: "I felt that I had accom-
plished a real service for classical music and for the

pupils themselves" (p. 82). As late as 1944, The Etude

 

continued to run a regular column, "The Teachers' Round

Table," which offered similar advice to teachers.

Parallel attitudes toward popular music are found
in other segments of the professional literature. For
example, writing in 1927, Mursell stated:

It is commonplace, of course, that the American
people seem to be more devoted to the type of mu-
sic known as jazz than are any other advanced peo-
ple . . . it is evident that musical instruction
in our public and private schools has not been
very effective in developing musical intelligence
and appreciation. It is probably not going beyond
proper bounds to say that musical culture is at a
low ebb in our country; by culture is meant an un-
derstanding of the meaning of good music as distin-
guished from mere jazz (pp. viii-ix).

Dykema and Gehrkens (1941) questioned the educa-
tional value of jazz and jazz bands. They felt that the
student who devoted several hours to playing or to study-
ing jazz was likely to cause his "serious" musical per-
formance skills to suffer. Conversely, if the student
practiced

quality music several hours a day and playing in

an orchestra or band in which real music is stud-

ied under the direction of a fine musician, and

if he regards his hour or two of playing swing,

as more or less of a joke, no harm results (p. 202).
A second danger identified by the authors stems from

the fear that the educational juse of jazz would have

an adverse effect on the musical taste of performing

10

students and other students in the school. In this connec-
tion, they state: "Jazz music is very popular for certain
types of dancing and as a background for light conversa-
tion," but, because it "reaches back to the jungle . . .

it has little value as art, and it is hard to imagine an
audience of intelligent and discriminating people giving
the same attention to such music as they gladly give to

a symphony concert" (p. 202).

Dykema and Gehrkens drew the following conclusions:

So jazz music and art music are at opposite poles
of the musical earth. In most respects they con-
tradict one another. And the devotee of the one

is likely to be the scorner of the other.

Educationally they are antagonistic. If a boy
practices jazz an hour a day and art music an

hour, in which direction will his taste be formed?
Music will probably be influenced by the principle
long ago enunciated in finance: had money drives
out good money. Actually jazz-~both "sweet" and
"hot"--tears down what the music educator is try-
ing to build up; and it is because the pupil often
hears so much more jazz than the real music that
his artistic taste tends to deteriorate. The school
is not responsible for all this jazz of course, and
we teachers must recognize the existence of these
environmental factors, and we must not give in to
popular clamor-when pupils--yes, and parents too--
beg us to allow "popular" music to have a larger
place in the school program. Let the school con-
cern itself with influencing students to choose
higher activities than they would without the
guidance of the school (p. 203).

11

Flagg (1949) emphasized that the teacher himself
must possess sufficient musical taste to’differentiate
between "music which is really fine and that which is
lifeless, banal, always giving forth the obvious" (p. 23)
so that the teacher can consequently guide the students
toward the former type of music. Flagg stated that:

The danger of popular music . . . is not that
it is "bad" music, it is that ears become com-
pletely content with what they know, and resist
anything that makes new demands on attention.
The danger with music given to children in
school is that it may be lacking in this sig-
nificant unique characteristic quality that
differentiates real music from banal, manufac-
tured-to-a-purpose music . . . (p. 24).

In a manner similar to that of Dykema and Gehrkens,
Lehman (1966) attacked the educational and academic value
of jazz and jazz bands. Lehman based his criticism upon
the proposition that the amount of time devoted to any
performance group should be justified only in "terms of
the groups furtherance of the major purposes of music edu-
cation" and that this purpose "is not and has never been
. . . to teach popular art" (p. 532). He argued that the
orchestra, choir and band are capable of performing music

from all historical periods. However, because jazz bands

are organized to perform a repertoire limited to music of

12

the popular whim, "the establishment of a separate organi-
zation devoted solely to the performance of music in a
single idiom is difficult to justify and can easily result
in serious curricular imbalance" (p. 531). After analyz-
ing Aaron Copland's three levels of musical listening--
(1) the sensuous plane, (2) the expressive plane, and (3)
the sheerly musical plane-~Lehman concluded that jazz, as
an "aesthetic response, is capable of being experienced
only on the first plane." Hence, jazz tends to appeal
primarily to the senses rather than to the intellect.

This is not to say that jazz is formless, but

merely that jazz . . . is seldom of sufficient

subtlety. That it requires no particular thought

to appreciate it is precisely why such music is

in popular demand and at the same time why it

serves education so poorly (pp. 530-531).

Broudy (1969) disparages the same musical idioms,
only with new terminology. His main thesis is that ser-
ious art is better than popular art. He builds his thesis
upon the statement that serious art was developed through
tradition and "for all practical and educational purposes
what is right, good, and beautiful is determined by tradi-

tion as distilled from the history of the wise, the learned,

the connoisseurs of each generation" (pp. 115-116). The-

13

paradox of Broudy's statement.is his explanation of tradi-
tion as opposed to custom, as well as his statements about
jazz in relation to connoisseurship. "Custom," he states,
"is merely a social habit nourished by repetition . . . ,
Tradition is a continuously, growing interpretive instru-
ment with whibh we perceive, think and feel" (p. 115). In
explaining connoisseurship, he states: "Jazz, for example,
was a cultural custom, an item of cultural fashion, until
its devotees began to study it and to formulate the cri-
teria that made selection justifiable" (p. 115). What
Broudy has done is to take jazz away from the popular field
and place it somewhere between "popular and serious" music.
However, what he fails to realize is that all popular music.
whether rock, folk, or soul, has its roots in jazz, and
that one can no more ignore this relationship than one can
ignore the relationship between the opera overtures of
Alessandro Scarlatti (after 1696) and the symphonic over-
ture form as used by Beethoven. If one were to apply
Broudy's philosophy to all music, he would have to con-
clude that the present electronic compositions are all

popular music as compared to Bach's "Two Part Inventions,"

14

simply because the former have not existed long enough to
become a tradition.

The educational attitudes toward culturally dif-
ferent students are well documented by Green (1969). How-
ever, there are two attitudes which deal specifically with
the musical abilities and music education of the black,
culturally different child which are important from a
historical viewpoint.

The first is the popular belief that black children
possess a distinctive racial talent for musical rhythmic
expression, and, consequently, their music education should
be along rhythmic lines. This belief fails to consider the
environmental situation, ethnic background, or cultural
heritage of blacks, which all place emphasis on the rhyth-
mic aspects of music. The studies of a. Johnson (1931),
Lenoir (1921), and Peterson (1923) have shown that this
rhythmic characteristic appears to be the result of a com-
bination of factors rather than that of race. In an at-
tempt to compare the distinctive rhythmic expression of
the black child to that of the white child, G. Johnson,

Lenoir, and Peterson were unable to find any clearly

15

defined differences. Using the Seashore Music Tests as
the testing device, Bond (1966) stated:

It has been the observation of the author that

Negro students suffer from the same handicap in

responding to the Seashore test as do white

children . . . In addition, it has also been

observed that the scores obtained by the Negro

students in the areas of time and rhythm do not

significantly differ from those of white stu-

dents (p. 326).
The black child's inability to express himself melodically
or harmonically has also been refuted by the research of
Bond.

A second attitude of educators toward black stu-

dents is that the music education of black students has
to be an "either/or" situation: either an all traditional
music educational experience or an all black music educa-
tional experience. This attitude frequently produces the
belief that black students lack the mental ability to man-
ipulate two cultural idioms. This belief seems to develop
from the inability of the majority race to understand the
complex culture of the black race. As Julian "Cannonball"
Adderley, jazz saxophonist, is quoted as saying: "Baby,

I need two systems of communication just to survive."

Adderley's realization characterizes the understanding

16

that underlies many of the current English programs devel-
oped for the culturally different student. (See Chapter
II, page 78, for a review of these English programs.)

The writer argues that the negative statements
toward the music and music education of the culturally
different are results of musical snobbery, inadequate
music education, and musical racism. Snobbery is defined
here as the view that any music which does nOt use stand-
ard symphonic or chamber forms is lacking in musical sub-
stance and, therefore, of a lower grade. An inadequate
music education refers to a one-sided education in music,
whether all popular or all serious. In relation to a one-
sided education, Reimer (1968) pointed out that the mistake
made by most "music outcome studies" was the comparison for
likes or dislikes of a popular composition with a serious
composition. Arnold Shaw (1961) puts it another way when
he states "there are serious consequences for scholars,
historians, and critics, many of whom pay little heed to
developments in popular music and consequently blunder

when they feel compelled to deal with it" (p. 164).

17

The foregoing statements can be termed as musical
racism in that less complimentary statements toward a type
of music tend to relate to the proportion of black com-
posers and performers with whom the music is associated.
With Mursell, one finds negative feelings toward jazz dur-
ing a period when this art was almost completely dominated
by black artists. Later, in the writings of Broudy, jazz
is no longer a black art, but rather an interracial and
international one. Thus, more positive attitudes toward
jazz are apparent, but statements toward popular or ethnic
music which might show a strong black influence or black
dominance are more derogatory.

The negative attitudes are by no means held solely
by the educators quoted. As stated previously, these atti-
tudes have been voiced by many music educators throughout
the history of music education. These educators writings
were chosen only as representative examples. Additional
comments by E. B. Birge, Father Rouse, Lowell Mason, or
viewpoints expressed in many of the articles pertaining
to the state of music education or music taste found in,

the Proceedings of the Music Supervisors' National

18

Conference or any of the current music journals could have
been cited.

Although the opposition to popular music is a
strong one, a growing number of progressive music educa-
tors view popular music differently. Recent articles and
programs by Dorothy Maynor, Robert Binkley, Robert Klotman,
Charles Leonhard, Frank Erickson, and others have empha-
sized the value of popular music as an educational tool.
Two of the writers, Maynor and Erickson, have directed
their attention to special methods and materials that are
required for culturally different children. (See Chapter

II, beginning page 86 for a review of these programs.)

Statement of the Problem

 

The basic premise of the present study is: l) to
examine the use of ethnic music in junior high school gen-
eral music instruction for culturally different students,
2) to evaluate this instruction through the use of test,
in both music achievement and music attitudes, and 3) to

compare the instruction as it relates to attitudes toward

19

school. In regards to these three variables, the study
will seek to determine if significant differences exist
between students of the same socio-economic status (SES)
and location who-are exposed to ethnic music as part of
their general music instruction and those who are not.
More specifically, the sub-problems are: 1) to
develop behavioral objectives which are applicable to all
junior high school general music instruction, but are spe-
cifically designed to meet the needs of the culturally
different student, 2) to select cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor experiences relevant to the objectives, 3) to
develop written and aural instructional material based on
the ethnic songs popular in the communities selected for
the study, and 4) to evaluate the effectiveness of the

course in meeting the stated objectives.

The Need for the Study-

 

At the time the present study was undertaken (Fall,
l969--Spring, 1970), few research studies were listed in

the area of general music methods or general music courses

20

at the junior high school level. The reviews of music
education research by Small (1944), Larson (1949 and 1957),
Worthington (1956), and Gordon (1964 and 1968), covering

a period of 36 years, collectively contain only 38 studies
which relate to general music problems. About half of
these 38 studies pertain specifically to course content

or methods of instruction for junior high school general
music classes. (For a discussion of those studies which
have investigated junior high school general music courses,
see Chapter II, beginning page 86.)

The-lack of investigations in music materials for
culturally different students is more apparent. Other
than the few city-wide federally sponsored programs, as
well as individually sponsored and privately sponsored
programs, the remainder of the music programs for cultur-
ally different students are hypbthetical. (See Chapter II,
beginning page 99, for a review of these programs.) Even.
the majority of the operational programs are aimed at "cul-
tural enrichment," i.e., to provide musical experiences
which are supposedly better than those in the student's

environment.

21

The lack of investigation in this area offers the
music teacher little, if any, information and assistance
in providing musical instruction for junior high school
culturally different students. Murphy and Gross (1968)
designate this as one of the areas of research needed in
the arts. They state that materials of instruction need
to be developed which will:

enable children, especially those from under-
privileged groups, to acquire a sense of the
dignity and worthiness of their ethnic identity
through immersion in the history of their group
and its achievements, and through the discovery
of all the praiseworthy features generally over-
looked, unmentioned, or demeaned by society at
large (p. 23).

In summary, this research study is needed not only
because of the scarcity of studies in the area of junior
high school general music, but also because of the dearth
of research studies in regards to music instruction and
music materials available for the culturally different
student. The-present study and its subsequent findings
should also raise questions about the total education of
all culturally different students. Garrett (1969) points

out this latter need in relationship to the education of

the culturally different when he states:

22

In a situation in which there are thousands of
dropouts from elementary schools and junior high
schools, the questions that must be raised are

not whether there is something wrong with the
children or their mothers or fathers, but whether
there is something wrong with the educational sys-
tem. They say that black children attention spans
are short. Is that true? Has anybody tried to
gear the educational system toward their needs?

Why is it that white children can sit and hear
high-flown rhetoric all day long and dig it?

And why is it that black children can sit and
listen to records all day long and dig that?

Are their attention spans short? Or is it that

the information they receive has nothing to do with
what they're doing every day? Why is it that black
children who can't even sign their own names know
how to spell respect? (p. 4).

Hypotheses

The philosophical foundation for the present study
lies in pragmatism, which holds that the purpose of a gen-
eral education should be aimed toward helping students
undergo varied musical experiences Which will enable each
student to arrive at a system of values that is satisfac-
tory to him. The aesthetic foundation lies in relativism,
which holds that music is a psychological product of expec-

tation, an outgrowth of styles, experience and general

23

cultural orientation. Combining the aesthetic and philo-

sophical orientations,the writer developed the following

rationale about music pedagogy and teachers of culturally

different students:

All ethnic groups develop music which should be
the foundation of the music education program in

their schools.

The-intrinsic value of ethnic music is indetermin-
able unless it is used in the community which pro-

duces it.

Teachers who fail to see the value of ethnic music
deprive the culturally different students of a
sense of their identity, a most important factor

in the early and continuous development of children.

The hypotheses for the study were constructed from

these beliefs and related readings. They are:

The general attitudes toward school will be more
favorable for those students who-experience music
instruction which uses ethnic materials as compared

to those using traditional materials.

24

2. The students' attitudes toward music will be more
favorable than the attitudes of students of the

same area who are denied their own ethnic music.

3. Students who are given the opportunity to use their
own ethnic music as a starting point in musical de-
velopment will progress faster in all musical un-

derstanding. All music will become more meaningful.

Investigation of the hypotheses necessitated test-

ing three null hypotheses:

1. There is no significant difference in attitudes de-
veloped toward school between groups using ethnic
material as compared to those using traditional

material.

2. There is no significant difference in attitudes
developed toward music between groups using ethnic
material as compared to those using traditional maé

terials.

3. There is no significant difference in musical
achievement between groups using ethnic material

as compared to those using traditional material.

25

Scope of the Study

 

This study investigated the effect of popular
ethnic music upon measurable music achievement of one
hundred and six urban junior high school general music
students. Attitudes toward music and attitudes toward
school were also studied in relation to the inclusion or
exclusion of ethnic muSIc. These attitudes were further
investigated for their interaction.

Experimental instructional materials consisted
of popular ethnic music, determined by weekly radio record
polls identified by the Radio Questionnaire. (See Chapter
III, Table 3.4.) Experimental and control groups were
comprised of six general music classes in three urban
junior high schools: Noble Junior High School, Detroit,
Michigan; Holmes Junior High School, Flint, Michigan; and

Gardner Junior High School, Lansing, Michigan.

26

Limitations of the Study

Music achievement, attitudes toward music and atti-

tudes toward school were limited to cognitive and affective

written examinations. For the purpose of delimitation, the

experiment was restricted to students enrolled in general

music classes. Other reasons for this decision were:

1.

General music is the only music course which most
school systems require of all students. This,
then, enabled the research project to reach many
students who would normally be excluded if the
project were geared toward instrumental and/or

vocal classes.

General music, at the junior high level, is fre-
quently approached as a pupil-oriented program.
Hence, the content of the courses should be de-
termined by the needs, interests, attitudes, and

abilities of the students being served.

The general music class is designed, more than
other music classes, to offer an integrated approach

to musical understanding. General music can contain

27

a sixfold combination of musical experiences:
singing, music reading, listening, theory or

fundamentals, creating, and playing.

4. General music can and does serve as the founda—

tion of the total music program.

The experiment was designed for five weekly class~
meetings of an hour each and to last a minimum of 20 weeks:
however, circumstances in each school system required some

variations:

1. Detroit—-Noble: September 8, 1969 to January 23,

1970 (daily meeting of an hour each).

2. Flint-~Ho1mes: September 8, 1969 to December 19,
1969 (five meetings of an hour each, every two

weeks).

3. Lansing-~Gardner: November 24, 1969 to May 1,

1970 (daily meeting of an hour each).

The Flint groups were also out of school for three weeks

(November 17, 1969 to December 5, 1969) due to teacher

28

strikes. Consequently, the experimental and control groups
at this center were unable to complete modules four and
five: Timbre and Form and the Similarities within All

Music, respectively.

Definition of Terms for the
Purpose of This Research

 

Ethnic--The writer has chosen the following defi-
nition for the term as used in this paper: "Belonging to
or deriving from the culture, racial, religious or linguis-
tic tradition of a people or country" (Stein, 1966, p. 489).

Ethnic Music--Music that is produced and practiced
by the various sub-cultures of American society. The var-
ious types of music have been limited to: jazz, folk music,

rock and roll, "soul music,#-and Latin American.

1. Sub-culture--(a) the culture values and behavior
patterns distinctive of a particular group in a
society, (b) a group having social, economic,
ethnic, or other traits distinctive enough to
distinguish it from others within the same culture

or society (Stein, p. 144).

29

Jazz--A general name for 20th century styles in
music based on Afro—American spirituals, work
songs, blues, and ragtime. The latter two forms
exhibited the most influence on jazz and are di-
stinguished from each other in that blues (1) uses
lZ-measure phrases rather than 8-, 16-, or 32-;

(2) is frequently harmonized with seventh chords
of the dominant type, especially those of the flat
variety: (3) melodies are closely related to the
tradition of work songs and spirituals, and differs
from that of ragtime in that the blues began as
vocal music and only later developed as an idiom
for instruments adone; and (4) cadential formu-
las avoid the VII degree in favor of II or VI as
penultimate melody tones. From these beginnings,
jazz has "evolved into complex styles marked by
improvisation, propulsive rhythms, polyphonic en-
semble playing," and a harmonic palette "ranging
from simple diatonicism (I, IV, V, I) through
chromaticism to atonality and tone clusters"

(Stein, 1968, p. 717).

30

Folk music--Music that is frequently but not ex-
clusively of anonymous origin. Anonymous collec-
tive folk authorship and oral transmission are
two of the identifying factors of some folk songs.
However, in recent years, folk music has been
written by established composers, i.e., Stephen
Foster and Bob Dylan. These folk songs usually
deal with American folklore and/or current polit-

ical and social events.

Rock-'nFRoll--A style of popular music marked by

a heavily accented beat and a repetitious phrase
structure. The lyrics frequently deal with sub-
jects of "love," "boy meets girl," or other iso-
lated topics of interest to youth. More recently,
the lyrics have included topics on humane treatment

for all segments of society and the Vietnamese War.

Soul music--"Pertaining to the influence or the
quality of Negritude (Blackness) displayed in the
music" (Dill and Bebeau, 1968, p. 44). It is char—

acterized by rhythms, harmonies, and lyrics, "about

31

paying the dues," (Lit, 1968, p. 37), which appeals
to members of the black race. Under most circum-
stances, soul music is composed, recorded and per-
formed by members of the black race. Outstanding
performers are: the Temptations, Stevie Wonder,

and James Brown.

6. Latin American music—-Music that is influenced by
the rhythms, harmonies, and melodies of the coun-
tries in Central and South America, particularly
Cuba, Mexico, Brazil, Peru, Venezuela, and Guate-
mala. The instruments used in performing the
music are those native to these countries: marim-

bas, claves, maracas, and bongoes.

Ghetto--From the Italian, Jew's quarters in Euro-
pean cities to which they were confined by law (Filler,
1963: p. 314). In this paper, the term is used as a de-
scription of those "less legal," but effectively segregated
sections of larger cities. These segments of the larger
cities are characterized by a large populace of minority

groups with lower socio-economic status, a high rate of

32

unemployment, wide-spread poverty and frequently a negative
attitude toward education.

Socio—Economic Status--The status or amount of

 

prestige in the larger society which is associated with
income, wealth, or type of occupation (Zadrozny, 1959,
p. 318).

CoreeCity--A generic term used in reference to

 

inner-city communities. This term will be used synonym-
ouslvaith the term ghetto communities.

Deprived Persons--A population within a society

 

which has been denied many of the advantages and oppor-
tunities available to other members of that society. This
population or minority usually has a lower political, eco-
nomic, and social status than the remainder or dominant
group in that society.

Culturally Different Persons--Used interchangeably
with the terms deprived, ethnic or ghetto individuals. The-
writer, however, prefers this term to that currently used
in the research literature: culturally deprived. The
former term gives a clearer conception of the cultural

situation. The latter terms suggest that the persons in

33

question have been removed from or have never been admitted
to any culture; while the former suggests that the persons
have had a culture (in some cases, a well-developed one),
but that this culture-differs from that of dominant soci-
etal values.

General Music--A non-performance-oriented class
which provides a variety of developmental music experiences.
The class can be organized to offer a broad survey of the
entire field of music, or to develop specific concepts or
attitudes. In either of the class organizations, the basic
purpose is to develop musical persons with ample experiences
to judge all music on the basis of its musical properties.

Classical Music--A term used in reference to mu-
sical works which have held their place in general estima-
tion for a considerable time, and of new works which are
generally considered to be of the same type and style.

Serious Music--A generic or colloquial term used

 

for classical music.
Attitude--"A person's manner, disposition, feeling

or position, toward a person or thing" (Stein, p. 87).

34

Average--The use of this term has been restricted
to the reference of a quantity intermediate to a composite

score of the attitude tests.

Order of Presentation

 

This dissertation is structured according to the
following plan:

Chapter I presents an introduction to the nature
of the problem and the need for the present study.

Chapter II presents a review of the literature
related to this study.

Chapter III describes the methodology of the study.
The measuring instruments, a description of the program,
and the statistical procedures used in analyzing the data
are also included in this chapter.

Chapter IV presents an analysis of the data and
the statistical results in tabular and explanatory form.

Chapter V contains a summary of the results with

conclusions and recommendations for additional study.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

 

The theoretical orientation of the present study
is primarily music-educational and social-psychological.
Underlying this orientation are the beliefs that: 1)
models of proper conduct, values, and behavior are given
to individuals by their cultures or environments as they
interact with the conditions of life; 2) the rational
nature of man is affected by his physical and social en-
vironment; and 3) the music that is pragmatically suited
for the individual, whether because of his environment,
social condition, economic situation or cultural heritage,
is the music best suited for providing "peak experiences"
(Fowler, 1968).

In an attempt to investigate this theoretical
orientation, as it relates to the musical development of

the culturally different child in junior high school

35

36

general music classes, the present chapter is divided into
six areas: 1) the nature and need of the junior high
school'student: 2) the socio-economic status (SES), so-
cial conditions and‘environment of culturally different
students;. 3) the effects of the environmental conditions
or SES-on school achievement and/or attitudes toward school
and education:. 4) programs and practices for the education
of the culturally different student in non-music areas: 5)
the general music program in junior high school and music
programs for the culturally different student: and 6)
teachers for the culturally different student.

With the exception of the fourth area, these six
areas are in complete agreement with the five "Elements
in the Process of Music Education” outlined by Schneider
and Cady (1965):~ l) the teacher,. 2) the student, 3) the
teaching-learning process, 4) constraining elements, and
5) the music education program. The authors also identi-
fied these elements as the areas of relevant research
needed in the field of music education.

The remaining five areas have the following rela-

tionship to the five elements of Schneider and Cady:

37

Areas

The nature and need of the junior
high school student

Socio-economic status (SES), social
conditions and environment of cul-
turally different students.

Effects of environmental conditions
or socio-economic status (SES) on
school achievement and/or attitudes
toward school and education.

General music programs in junior high
school and music programs for the
culturally different student.

Teachers for the culturally different
student.

Elements

The student.

The student.

Constraining
elements and
the teaching-
learning
process.

The music
education

program.

The teacher.

The Nature and Needs of the Junior High

 

School Student

 

Blair and Jones (1964) have observed that all ado-

lescents have special problems and certain pressing needs

which must be met, and a series of developmental tasks

which must be mastered if the adolescents are to become

self-sufficient members of society.

They have also said:

Adolescence is that period in every person's
life which lies between the end of childhood

38

and the beginning of adulthood. It may be a

long period or a short one. It varies in length
from family to family, from one socio-economic
level to another, and from culture to culture.
Its length may even fluctuate in the same soci-
ety from time to time, depending upon economic

or other conditions. . . . The adolescent, like
everyone.else, spends twenty-four hours a day
satisfying or attempting to satisfy his physical,
social, and personality needs. Whether he is
shy, aggressive, negativistic, reckless, ideal-
istic, helpful, conforming, or impudent, depends
upon which needs are active and how he goes about
satisfying them. All behavior can be said to be
motivated. . . . Needs may be satisfied in num-
erous ways. Some may be socially acceptable,
others may lead to social difficulties for the
adolescent. One of the chief responsibilities

of teachers and schools should be to help young
people satisfy their biological and acquired needs
in ways which will be socially and personally re-
warding (p. 7).

Wattenberg (1965) also observed the difficulty of
adequately describing the junior high school age group and
identifying its special needs. At the same time, he recog-
nized there was some justification and value in recording
the similarities which characterize early adolescent de-
velopment and behavior. In discussing the junior high
school years, he stated:

Three major strands of fact give texture to the
junior high school: First, due to the fact that
young people do not develop in accordance with

time tables, junior high school populations are-
heterogeneous not only as to ability and all the

39

usual variables, but also as to developmental
stage. Second, during the years over which

this institution presides, youngsters may make
sharp changes in the course of intellectual
growth, emotional adjustment, and social goals.
Third, our knowledge of what forces cause the
changes is fragmentary at best. . . . Let us
begin by picturing more concretely what was
implied by the observation that the junior

high school student body is composed of young
people in assorted phases. Writers and research
workers have found it convenient to divide human
existence into a series of stages. Although
everyone knows that some poetic and prosaic li-
cense is involved, that no living human being

is ever entirely childish or adolescent or
adult, yet it helps us to organize our thinking
if we highlight commonalities (pp-.43-44).

Although obvious differences exist among adoles-
cents, in individuals and in age groups, Havighurst (1952)
has identified certain developmental tasks which all young-
sters should satisfy to live successfully in society. He
has defined a developmental task as a task which arises
during a certain period in the life of an individual, the
successful achievement of which leads to his happiness
and to success with later tasks. Failure to cope success-
fully with these tasks leads to unhappiness in the indi-
vidual, disapproval by society, and difficulty with later
tasks. He also observed that some tasks arise mainly from

physical maturation, others arise primarily from the

40

cultural pressures of society upon the individual: but most

-arise from the-combination of these factors. Havighurst's

ten development tasks are listed below:'

Achieving new and more mature relations
with age mates of beth sexes.

Achieving a masculine or feminine social
role.

Accepting one's physique and using the
body effectively.

Achieving emotional independence of par-
ents and other adults.

Achieving assurance of economic indepen-
dence.

Selecting and preparing for an occupation.
Preparing for marriage and family life.
Developing intellectual skills and con-
cepts necessary for civic competence.
Desiring and achieving socially respon-
sible behavior.

Acquiring a set of values and an ethical
system as a guide to behavior (pp..3l-71).

As early adolescents attempt to accomplish the de-

velopmental tasks of this age period, VariouS‘behavioral

patterns may be evident. Educators need to recognize and

understand these significant patterns to help adolescents

attain their goals and to adjust to the expectation of so-

ciety.

Tyron and Lilienthal (1950) designated the follow-

ing behavioral patterns as.being important to early ado-

lescents:

41

1. Establishing one's independence from adults
in all areas of behavior.

2. Accepting one's self as a worthwhile person,
really worthy of love.

3. Behaving according to a shifting peer code.

4. Strong identification with one's own sex
mates.

5. Learning one's role in hetero-sexual rela-
tionships.

6. Reorganizing one's thoughts and feelings
about one's self in the face of significant
bodily changes and their concomitants.

7. Accepting the reality of one's appearance.

8. Controlling and using a "new” body.

9. Using language to express and to clarify
more complex concepts.

10. Moving from the concrete to the abstract
and applying general principles to the par-
ticular (pp. 77-89).

Continued study and increased understanding of the
physical, mental, social, and emotional characteristics of
junior high school pupils and of the developmental tasks
which accompany these characteristics should aid educat-
ors in providing more adequate programs to meet the needs
of all junior high school youth, including the culturally
different.

This section of the literature has identified
three characteristics of junior high school students, which
must be seriously considered by educators if they-are to-

successfuly teach students of this age group:

42

1. The students have a rapid change in emotional, in-
tellectual, social and physical growth (Blair and

Jones).

2. The students have a great need for successful

achievement (Havighurst).

3. During this period of growth, the students formu-
late many of the patterns which will dominate their

adult life (Tyron and Lilienthal).

Socio-Economic Status (SES), Social Conditions
and Environment of Culturally Different
Students

 

 

A number of terms are currently in use which at—
tempt to describe the child being considered here: minor-
ity, poor, underprivileged, lower class, lower socio-
economic status, and socially and culturally deprived.
Educators have also used such terms as slow, retarded,
underachiever, and "late bloomer" in describing some of
the same children. The choice of a proper term is a very

sensitive issue for each serves to suggest different

43

deficiencies or sources of blame: the school, the parents,
the child, the immediate environment, or society as a whole.
Haubrich (1963) was the first to suggest the term "cultur-
ally different" to avoid any implications of the problesz
having originated with the parents or the children. Fur-
ther Taba (1964) notes that the educational terms suggest
the difficulty, while the other terms describe the source
of the problem. The literature uses all of the previously
mentioned terms. Hence, studies have approached the cul-
turally different child through racial and/or ethnic char-
acteristics, social class characteristics, and socio-
economic status (SES).*

Riesman (1962) identified a number of characteris-
tics of the black "underprivileged" child and his family.
For the former, he noted that the children are ineffective
readers, poorly informed about educational possibilities,
and are more concerned with "getting by" than with "getting
ahead." These children were also considered excitable and
their attention span is easily interrupted by.new gadgets

or new goals. Finally, Riesman believes that the children's

 

*The abbreviation SES will be used in reference to socio-
economic status in the remainder of this paper.

44

greatest interest is in sports, having strongest admiration
for prize fighters and baseball heroes.

The families of the underprivileged child are char-
acterized as old fashioned, superstitious, religious, and
suspicious of "newfangled" ideas. Socially, the families
feel alienated from the "mainstream" of society. Although
they are not attracted to a middle-class style of life for
status, prestige or methods of bettering their standard of
living, like their children, they would rather work toward
"getting by" than getting ahead. Riesman felt that these
families are not active politically, but when they do par-
ticipate, they act overwhelmingly in favor of the underdog.
The parents of underprivileged children were termed "opin-
ionated about morality, punishment, traditional education,
and the role of women" (p.72).

Riesman described the underprivileged family as
one in which living conditions have been disrupted. The
family may have been prematurely broken by divorce, deser-
tion, and death, and home itself may be overcrowded with
many children and parents or parent substitutes. Facili-

ties are very likely inadequate, which is frequently the

45

the result of considerable economic insecurity. Both par-
ents frequently work and thus the children may be neglec-

ted; even when the child is given attention, the excitable
tired parents invariably use physical punishment in order

to maintain discipline.

Davis (1948) investigated culturally different
children in terms of their social class. He investigated
the physical and social anxieties of lower class people.
He found that their physical anxieties derive from the
fear of having too little food, the fear of getting too
little sleep, the fear of being cold, and the fear of evic-
tion. When they have food, they eat too much, and when
they have money they spend too much. "In their lives it
is all or nothing or next to nothing" (p. 27). Davis felt
that they participate in two areas of experiences which are
"acute" sources of anxiety for the middle class: sexual
relation and physical aggression. DeCecco stated (1968,
p. 187) that "while middle-class children are punished for
their sexual and aggressive behavior, lower—class children
are rewarded."

Henry (1965) seems to disagree with Davis about

the sensuous-physical pleasures of lower class people.

46

Henry believed that their lives are a "flight from death."
This is seen through an effort to concentrate on and par-
ticipate in those experiences which give them a most vivid
reassurance of being alive. Henry felt that these exper-
iences include overuse of drugs and alcohol.

Havighurst (1964) identified five groups of disad-
vantaged persons: 1) southern blacks who have recently
migrated to northern urban centers; 2) southern whites
who.have migrated from the rural South and southern moun-
tain areas to northern cities; 3) Puerto Ricans living
in northern cities; 4) Mexican farmers Who have migrated
to the West and Midwest; and 5) European immigrants from
eastern and southern Europe.

David and Pearl Ausubel (1963) used the Havighurst
characteristics in their discussion of culturally differ-
ent children. They believe that these black children lack
the appropriate adult figures with whom to identify and
that they lack expectations of future success. Failing
to identify with either a black father or mother, the
child frequently fails to identify with any adult. His

most important social identity is his peer group, and in

47

the case of the young black male, this association can lead
to premature maturity. Even before he enters school, the
black child has learned the inferior status of his race and,
as Clark (1947) has stated, prefers to play with white dolls
and white playmates as opposed to objects or persons which
serve to remind the child of his inferiority.

A number of authors and researchers have directed
their attention to the SES of black students and its rela-
tionship to IQ and race (Arlilt, 1921; Horton and Crump,
1962; and Deutsch and Brown, 1964); achievement (Wilson,
1963, and Siller, 1957): and motivation (Feldhusen and
Klausmer, 1962, and Hieronymus, 1951). These studies are
not of primary importance to the present discussion, but
do lend a greater insight into some of the variables which
must be considered in teaching culturally different chil-
dren. (See page 52 of this chapter.) Also these studies
have helped to identify many of the SES characteristics
of the culturally different child. However, in identify-
ing SES characteristics, most of these studies have been
guided by the SES scale of warner and his associates (1949).

This scale bases SES on four characteristics: occupation,

48

source of income, house type and living area, with occupa-

tion having the most weight.

One of the most inclusive studies, pertaining to

the SES of the disadvantaged child and his family, was that

of Witmer (1964). Rather than investigating both the so-

cial and economic situation of the disadvantaged, Witmer

concentrated mainly on the latter:

1.

The-annual income of disadvantaged families is

$3,000. About one-third is spent on food ($5.00
per week, per person), $65 per month is spent on
rent, and $25.00 per week is left for all other

living expenses.

In 1961, approximately 17 million American children

(25 per cent) were living in poverty.

In 1962, approximately 9.3 million American fami-

lies (20 per cent) were living in poverty.

In terms of race, 47 per cent of non—white families

are poor, compared to 14 per cent of white families.

49

5. In families with a female head, 63 per cent are

poor, compared with 13 per cent with a male head.

6. In rural areas, 26 per cent of the families are
poor, as compared with 11 per cent of urban fam-

lies.

7. In the South, 30 per cent of the families are poor,
as compared to 11 per cent of the families in the.

remainder of this country.

When the factors of a non-white family and the lack
of a male¢head of the family are added together, the child's
chances of escaping poverty or being disadvantaged decreases
from-59 per cent to ll'per cent, or the likelihood of the
child being raised in poverty rises from 47 per cent to
81 per cent (Witmer, 1964, p. 212).

Some-authors have used social class as-a means of
determining the cultural differences of children (Cloward
and Jones, 1963; Henry, 1965; and Kohn, 1959). DeCecco,
however, refuted the existence of social classes in America.
Instead he identifies the four conditions of R. W. Brown

(1965), which musttprevail within a community for social

50

classes to exist: 1) the population must be conscious of
classes and agree on the number of classes; 2) styles of
life within the classes must be strikingly uniform and,
between classes, clearly unique; 3) social interaction
must be sharply patterned on class: 4) data of each of
these factors must indicate the same bound-areas between
classes (DeCecco, p. 190). This is followed by an analy—
sis of each of the conditions as related to the social,
environmental and SES descriptions of the lower class.
These relationships are discussed in terms of the recent
research findings investigating social classes. DeCecco
used the studies of N. Gross (1953), R. W. Brown (1965),
K. Johnsen and G. Leslie (1965), Nisbet (1959), Heald (1965),
and Havighurst (1964) as bases for drawing his conclusion
about the existence of social classes in America. He stated
(p. 194):

No convincing evidence proves the existence of

social classes in modern American life. . . .

We have no clear consciousness of class, no sense

of class solidarity, no highly distinctive styles

of life, and no highly exclusive patterns of-so-

cial interaction. . . . Privilege, power, and

wealth are not the monopoly of one class. . . .

We can assume no uniformity of moral values,
child-rearing practices, character formation,

51

or preschool educational experience. Although
often the product of humanitarian zeal, the.
myth of social classes leads more Often to the
stereotyping and patronizing of disadvantaged
children than to informed efforts to give them
the pedagogical assistance they require.
DeCecco also denied the existence of social class when the
variable of races is included. He stated:
American Negroes are not conscious of belonging
to a social class but of belonging to a caste
which, like castes in India, has little or no
upward social mobility (p. 191).

This section of the literature has provided a num-
ber of educational and social descriptive terms of the cul-
turally different. Included among these were minority,-
poor, lowerrclass, socially deprived, culturally deprived,
retarded, underachiever, and late bloomer. Taba and Hau-
brich cautioned educators as to the appropriate term, used
in reference to these students.

Additionally, conflicting characteristics of the
students' family (Riesman and Ausbel): their social class
(Davis and DeCecco); and their anxieties (Davis and Henry)
were also included., However, there are some characteris-

tics which educators can use in identifying culturally

different students:

52

1. They are either southern whites or non-whites who

have migrated to urban centers (Havighurst).

2. Their families are frequently headed by females

(Riesman).

3. Their world has been filled with alienation,

failure and prejudice (Riesman).

Effects of Environmental Conditions or
Socio-Economic-Status (SESLyon School‘
- Achievement and/or Attitudes toward
School and Education
The literature in this area can be conveniently
divided into three separate but related areas: 1) SES,
IQ, motivation, achievement and learning abilities; 2) SES

and attitudes toward school and/or education: and 3) SES

and the learning process.

SES, IQ, Motivation
and Achievement

 

 

Arlitt (1921) studied 343 elementary school chil-

dren in a "single school district." Of these, 191 were

53

white, 87 were Italian, and 71 were.black. The children
were grouped into four SES groups according to their par—
ents' occupations: Inferior, Average, Superior, and Very
Superior. She found that 40% of the Inferior children had
IQ's below 90, while only 4.6% had IQ's above 110; 50% of
the Average children had IQ's of about 110, and 25% had'
IQ's above 110: 75% of the Superior children had IQ's of
about 110 and 76% of these had IQ's above 110; 70% of the.
Very Superior children had IQ's above 110 and 76% of these
had IQ's above 120. Arlitt also compared Italian and black
children with white children of inferior SES. She discov-
ered that the difference in average IQ was reduced from
33.9 points to 8.6 points. She concluded that,

there is more likeness between children of the

same social-status but different race than be-

tween children of the same race but of differ-

ent social status‘ (p. 183).
Her findings are consistent with those of Horton and Crump
(1962), who also found that IQ is influenced more by edu-
cational levels of the-parents and SES-than by race.

Two recent studies of Deutsch and associates have

investigated the correlation between SES, race, and IQ.

Brown and Deutsch (1964) studied a sample composed of 543

54

urban first and fifth grade children from both the black
and white race. The students were divided into three SES
levels on the basis of the parentsi occupations, housing
conditions, parents' education, and the aspirations of

both'parents and children. The Lorge-Thorndike, Level 1,

Primary Battery was used as the IQ test for the first

 

grade and Level 3 for the fifth grade. Both levels are
essentially non-verbal and each level required the stu-
dent to pair, classify, or establish relationships between
pictorial and/or numerical items.

Deutsch and Brown found no significant IQ differ-
ences within the two groups (black and white) between the
two grades, a highly significant difference between SES
and IQ, with the higher IQ correlating with the higher
SES levels, and a significant difference between black
and white IQ's at both the first and fifth grade. The
investigators drew two conclusions from their findings:

1) black children at each SES level score lower than white
children on IQ tests, and 2) the black-white IQ differ-
ence increases at each higher SES level--the blacks show

less gain in IQ points at higher SES levels than do whites.

55

The-findings support the investigators' "participation"
hypothesis:

The hypothesis we would advance has to do

with increased participation in the cultural.

mainstream, and the differing conditions under

which Negroes and whites participate" (p. 27).:
They believed that the difference of color and minority
status resulted in less participation by blacks. The
lower class status operated similarly for whites.

In other words, it is much more difficult for>

the Negro to attain identical middle or upper-

middle-class status with whites,'and the social

class gradations are less marked for Negroes

because Negro life in a caste society is con-

siderably more homogeneous than is life for

the majority group (p. 27).

In a more recent study, Whiteman, Brown and Deutsch

(1965) obtained a sample group of 292-first and fifth grade
black and white children from 12 elementary schools in New
York City. Schools were selected to maximize the possibil-
ity of obtaining sample groups of black and white children
with similar SES backgrounds. The SES for each student
was determined by the parents' occupation and education.
The children were grouped into~three SES levels according

to this background.and the students' composite scores on

the "Deprivation Index." The index was composed of six

56

variables, ranging from housing conditions to kindergarten
experiences. Each variable was dichotomized to yield a
score of one or two. Two tests were used to measure lan-
guage skills and intellectual abilities: the Lorge-

Thorndike Intelligence Test and the Wechsler Intelligence.

 

Scale for Children. The findings of the Lorge-Thorndike
were similar to those of Deutsch and Brown's study (1964).
However, lower SES ratings and scores denoting greater
disadvantage on the Deprivation Index were independently
associated with IQ scores.

The results of the Wechsler vocabulary subtest
were: 1) a highly significant difference between the
grades, SES groups, and black and white children in lan-
guage skills: 2) an interaction between SES and the De-
privation Index did not result: and 3) a significant and
independent decline in language skills of grade by race
and grade by deprivation.

.The investigators drew four conclusions:

(1) . . . that cumulations of specific environ-
mental factors (e.g. low parental motiva-

tion, absence of kindergarten experience)

can have a disadvantaging effect despite
relatively high SES, and that the

57

diminuation of such features may have an
advantageous effect despite relatively low
SES (p. 332).

(2) . . . On the vocabulary scale, as age in-
creases, the disadvantaged children, whether
white or Negro, tended to score relatively
lower than the more advantaged children
(p. 333).

(3) There was little evidence of interaction
among the three main types of background
variables--SES, Race, and Deprivation In-
dex . . . with the test measures, perform-
ance was not significantly altered within
the more complex groupings formed by any
particular combination of background fac-
tors. . . . that deprivational factors cum-
ulating "over" time may be more important
in effecting decrement than the cumulation
of conditions "within" a particular time
(p. 334).

(4) . . . race and SES play different roles de-
pending upon the degree to which language
is involved in test performance. In the . . .
Lorge-Thorndike there was no cumulative defi-
cit manifest when the data were analyzed by
SES groups, but the same SES analysis did
show a cumulative deficit in connection with
the vocabulary scale (p. 334).

Similarly, in 1964 and 1965, McDill, Meyers and
Rigsby investigated the influence of the socio-economic
context of the school and a variety of dimensions of school
climate on academic achievement. The data was obtained in

20 public high schools from a teacher-administered

58

questionnaire, an aptitude test for abstract reasoning,
and an achievement test in mathematics. A questionnaire
was also given to the faculty of each school.

School climate was determined by the information
supplied by the teachers' and students' questionnaires.

A modified version of Selvin's and Hagstrom's formulation
for "classifying formal groups according to many variables
in order to assess group effects on the behavior of mem-
bers" measured this information (p. 3). Thirty-nine "ag-
gregative" characteristics of schools were obtained from
the formulation. Each of the 39 characteristics was graded
from most to least important. Six types of schools were
determined by the number and grade of the 39 characteris-
tics present Within the different schools. The socio-
economic context of the schools was determined by level

of education attained by the students' fathers.

The investigators found that the two most powerful
predictors of academic performance were family SES and in-
telligence, but they also felt that the students' ability
had more explanatory power. Although controlling scholas-

tic ability and SES reduced the effect of the school, each

59

of the six types of schools retained some of its orig-
inal explanatory power. SES also served as an adequate
indicator of a school's climate when the institution
was at either the low or high end of the socio-economic
continuum, but SES is not an adequate indicator for
schools which are in between these two extreme posi-
tions.

Studies which have compared SES and motiva-
tional variables, such as anxiety, self-concept and
teacher's expectation, have shown that motivation is
more closely associated with high than with low SES
students. Feldhusen and Klausmeier (1962) found,
among fifth grade students, that students with low
IQ scores were more anxious than those with average
or high IQ scores. Using an arithmetic test, they
also found a significant relationship between low
arithmetic achievement and anXiety in students with
low IQ scores. The investigators suggest that as
early as the fifth grade, lower SES students have
developed "a long history" of school failure which

results in an ”emotionally erosive effect."

60

Green and Farquhar (1965) used a motivational
scale, constructed at Michigan State University, to
evaluate achievement. They discovered that the scale
predicted achievement for black male high school stu-
dents better than did IQ tests. They also found that
the part of the scale which examined self-concept,
predicted achievement better than did the other tests
included in the motivational scale and IQ test.

Membership in a particular race and social
class or the achievement of a particular IQ score’
have been used by investigators as identifiable char-
acteristics in determining a pupil's achievement.
However, recent investigations have proven that these
same variables frequently influence teacher expecta-
tions of a pupil's intellectual ability. It was this
source of teacher expectancy which Flower (1966) em-
ployed in his study.

Flower used ficticious ability groupings to learn
about the effects of teacher expectancy on pupil perform-

ance. His study was conducted in two different junior

61

high schools located in depressed areas of two cities. In
each of the schools two seventh grade classes were selected
whose "actual" abilities, as measured by IQ and achievement
tests, were only average. In each school, one of the
matched pairs of classes was arbitrarily labeled as one

of the top groups in the school.

At the end of the school year, all children were
retested for ability in reading and arithmetic and for IQ.
In one of the schools, the upgraded group performed better
than the control group in both reading and arithmetic;
however, there was no difference in IQ between the upgraded
and the control group. In the other school, the upgraded
group showed a gain of five IQ points, but conversely there
was no significant difference in reading or arithmetic
achievement between this upgraded group and the control
group.

At the conclusion of the study, Flower asked each-
of the_teachers, who taught the various courses in which
the children were enrolled, to answer a number of ques-
tions about the children. Compared to teachers of the

control groups, the teachers of the upgraded group (1)

62

referred more often to what the students could do rather
than what they could not do, (2) found virtually no disci-
pline problems in class, (3) referred more often to efforts
to motivate their pupils and less often to the inadequacy
of teaching materials; and (4) preferred teaching the
"higher" ability group.

The most publicized study of the effects of teacher
expectancy is the "Oak School Experiment" of Rosenthal and
Jacobson (1968). Oak School is a public elementary school
in a lower class community. The school has a minority
group of Mexican children comprising about one-sixth of
the school population. The school uses an "ability-tracking"
to divide each of the six grades into three tracks: fast,
medium, and slow. The Mexican children were heavily "over-
represented" in the slow track.

All of the children of Oak School were pretested
with a standard non-verbal test of intelligence. The tea-
chers were informed that the test would predict intellec-
tual "blooming" or "spurting."

At the beginning of the school year, following the

school-wide test, each of the teachers was given the names

63

of those students in his classroom who, in the new academic
year, would show "dramatic intellectual growth," based on
the score obtained on the test. Twenty per cent of Oak
school's students were alleged to be potential bloomers

or spurters. The names of the spurters had actually been
chosen by a table of random numbers.

All students were retested with the same IQ test
at intervals of one semester, one full academic year and
two full academic years. After the first year, a signif-
icant "expectancy advantage" was found, especially among
the students of grades one and two.

The control-group children of these grades

gained well in IQ, 19 percent of them gaining

twenty or more total IQ points. The "special"

children, however, showed 47 percent of their

number gaining twenty or more total IQ points

(p. 176).
At the end of the second year, the younger children lost
their expectancy advantage. The students of the upper
grades, however, showed an increasing expectancy advantage
at the conclusion of the second year. The investigators
had originally felt that the students in the slow track

would benefit greatest by the experiment. However, at the

end of one year, they discovered that the students of the

64

middle track showed the greatest expectancy advantage, and
after two years the expectancy advantage in the middle
track was much more obvious. Most important, the Mexican
students showed greater expectancy advantages than did the
non-Mexican students at each retesting.

At the conclusion of the project, all teachers were
asked to rate their pupils on variables related to intel-
lectual curiosity, personal and social adjustment, and need
for social approval. The students who had been expected to
bloom intellectually were generally rated higher in all
categories than those in the control groups.

Rosenthal and Jacobson offered the following as
reasons for their findings:

Teachers probably watched their special children
more closely, and this greater attentiveness may
have led to more rapid reinforcement of correct
responses with a consequent increase in pupil's
learning . . . . Teachers may have treated their
children in-a more pleasant, friendly, and encour-
aging-fashion-when they expected greater intellec-
tual gains of them. . . . the teacher may have.
communicated to the children of the experimental
group that she expected improved intellectual
performance. Such communication together with
possible changes in teaching techniques may have
helped the child learn by changing his self con-
cept, his expectations of his own behavior, and
his motivation, as well as his cognitive style

and skills (p. 180).

65

Attitudes toward School
andzor Education

 

Davis (1948) believed that while the middle—class
child learns a "socially adoptive" fear of receiving poor
grades in school and of being aggressive toward the teacher,
the lower class child learns to respond differently. "To
study homework seriously is literally a disgrace" for the
lower class child and "instead of boasting of good marks
in school, one conceals them, if he ever receives any" (p.
30). Davis' statements add strength to a later study which
drew similar conclusions (Kahl, 1953). Kahl went one step
further by stating that lower class families do view school
success as important when they are dissatisfied with their
present status and wish to move up in status and/or to
have their children move up in the social hierarchy.

Miller and Swanson (1960) contrasted the attitudes
(bf the two groups in a manner similar to that of Davis,
hunt the two groups were identified as middle-class and

wcxrking class (rather than lower class). The authors be-
liAeved that although some working-class persons may view

formal education as desirable, they do not necessarily

66

feel it is vital for securing or retaining jobs. The au-
thors concur with Cloward and Jones (1963) as to the var-
iations within the middle class toward the value of educa-
tion. Miller and Swanson concluded that the middle class,
as a whole, values schools and higher education more than
the working class does. These beliefs are also shared by
Goldberg (1967).-

Wilson (1967) surveyed students' interests and at-
titudes toward educational and occupational specialization
as they relate to school success. Information was gathered
in eight high schools in the San Francisco-Oakland Bay area.
The schools were grouped on the basis of rank order and
"congruent distinction": impressions of the school, school
artmosphere, classrooms and halls. The schools were grouped
as follows: (A) upper white collar, including one private

lDCnvs' school, one residential and one suburban school; (B)
lower. white collar, including two metropolitan. schools;
((3) industrial, containing one predominantly Catholic
sChool, one heterogeneous school and one school attended
Predominantly by blacks. In comparing the effects of

School climate upon grades and educational aspirations,

67

Wilson found that "the devaluation of education in the
working-class schools affects academic achievement as much
as it is reflected in educational aspirations" (p. 280).

Hieronymus (1951) studied the SES and IQ of junior
and senior high students and their relationship to the stu-
dents' attitudes toward education. He-found that SES, more
than IQ, was related to the student's attitude toward edu-
cation and to the student's expectations of occupational
success. However, expectation did vary with SES but not
with ability.

Whitt (1966) measured the self-concept of students
and the students' attitudes toward the learning climate of
the classroom situation in relation to the attitudes of
the teachers. The students measured were enrolled in
grades three, four, five, and six in thirteen "inner-city
schools“ in the Flint, Michigan "Better Tomorrows for Ur-
.ban Youth Program." Six instruments were used in gather-
iJag the data: Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory, My Opin-
icxn Questionnaire, Pupil Classroom_guestionnaire, Minnesota
'Leacher Attitude Inventory, and the Scale Measuring Teacher

Observation of Pupils in Classroom. In analyzing the data,

68

Whitt drew three conclusions pertinent to this discussion:
1) pupils at the third-grade level have the least satisfac-
tory perception of the learning situation and climate; 2)
the students' self-concepts in all four grades were con-
siderably higher than Whitt felt their environment would
indicate; and 3) the teachers' attitudes toward the pu-
pilS' concepts of self were directly related to the pu—
pils' behavior, achievement and the teachers' fulfillment.
Cloward and Jones (1963) stated that most lower
class individuals, regardless of race, fail to see educa-
tion as a means of upward mobility, not because they de-
value education (see Silson, 1967, and Medinnus, 1962),
but because they do not expect to rise very far in the
occupational world. This attitude is partially fostered
by the educational institutions which fail to instill, in
the lower class individual, feelings of personal worth and
dignity. These feelings rarely exist in an environment
Vfliich surrounds the lower class individual with a visible
Ccnifirmation of his inferiority and denies his value as a
Person. When race is involved, the authors state: "It

hardly needs to be said that race usually acts as a major

69

barrier to occupational mobility no matter what the educa-
tional achievement of the person involved" (p. 192).

In an attempt to determine the students' attitudes
toward the school and their relationship to other variables,
the authors identified five community problems: "the trans-
portation, the public schools, the city police protection,
the way teenagers behave around here, and the way certain
racial groups behave" (p. 204). Attitudes toward these
problems were gathered from three classes: the lower
class, the working class, and the middle class. The re-
sults of the study indicated that the designation of the
school as the first or second problem in the community in-
creased in-direct proportion to higher class membership.
Middle-class residents were more negative toward the school
than were lower class or working residents. Middle-class
residents evaluated schools in light of conditions (over-
Crowded classes and buildings). Lower class residents
e\naluated schools in terms of the teachers, while working
Cilass residents stood between these two groups. Middle-
dlass residents evaluated teachers more negatively than

ch43 lower and working class residents.

70

These findings are contrary to those of Goldberg
(1967) and Miller and Swanson (1960). Cloward and Jones
attributed their findings to three factors:

. . . it may be that lower-class respondents,
faced with the certainty of sending their chil-
dren to public school, develop a more positive
attitude toward the schools as a means of feel-
ing better about what has to be done. Middle—
class persons, with the alternative of sending
their children to private schools, can afford

to be.more negative about the state of the
schools. A second interpretation is that the
middle-class persons imagine the school unable
to cope with a discipline problem presented to
lower-class pupils and concludes that public edu-
cation cannot be very good. Finally, it is pos-
sible that members of the middle-class have
higher expectations of what the schools are sup-
posed to accomplish, thus making their evalua-
tion of the performance of the school more neg-
ative than that of members of the working and
lower classes (p. 209).

The Learning Process

In an attempt to explain the high percentage of
low achievers from minority and lower class groups, some
researchers have investigated the learning processes of
these children. Deutsch (1963) suggested that the envir-
Qnmental surroundings, a history of discrimination and

the frequent absence of a successful "role model" of

71

home life are significant factors which "prevent" black
children from achievement in school. Deutsch indicated
that a verbally oriented home life and "language- \
conceptually" oriented tasks as well as toys, books, and
puzzles are missing in.the black home. He concluded that
it is understandable that black children are low achievers
because these activities and objects which are prototypes
of school accouterments help to prepare the child for the
school experience.

'Using the lack of verbal communication and
Conseptual-oriented tasks as a foundation, Miller and
Swanson (1960) described the learning and tasks approaches
of the deprived child as physical or "motoric" in fashion.
They stated:

Some people.can think through a problem only

if they can work on it with their hands.. Un-

less they can manipulate objects physically,

they cannot perform adequately' (p. 24).
The authors believe that the overt psychomotor responses
of deprived persons, as seen in the physical manifesta-
'Cions of emotions, such as hand clapping and singing dur-

leg religious occasions, are directly related to the non-

VEarbal and physically oriented home environment.

72

Building upon the study of Miller and Swanson,
Goldberg (1967) compared the learning styles of the lower
class and middle-class child:

In general, the expressive style of the lower—

class child can be described as more often

motoric, concrete, "think—oriented," and non-

verbal. The middle-class child, on the other

hand, is more often conceptual, abstract-

symbelic, "idea-oriented," and verbal in his

style of expression (p. 43).
Siller's study (1957) further supported these findings.
He found significant social-class differences in pupil
selection of abstract rather than concrete explanations
and~definitions.

This section of the literature has shown that
there is more of a significant relationship between SES
and IQ than there is with race (Arlitt, Horton, Crump,
Brown, Deutsch, McDill, Meyers and Rigsby). Similar re-
lationships were reported for SES and attitudes toward
school (Klausmeier, Green, and Farquhar). Additionally,
the studies indicate that teacher expectancy has a signif-
icant relationship to student achievement; thus serving

tc>strengthen the "self-fulfilling" prophecy (Flower,

Rosenthal and Jacobson)

73

Programs and Practices for the Education of
the Culturally Different Student-
in Non-Music Areas

 

The recent research literature has not provided a
concrete distinction between programs and practices. For
the present discussion, the distinction provided by DeCecco
(1968) will be used:

We tend to describe fairly extensive curricular
changes as programs, and the introduction of
special procedures and materials within the old

course and curriculum structure as practices
(p. 224).

Programs

Wilkerson (1925) identified five types of programs
that have been and are presently being organized for cul-
turally different children: comprehensive programs, read-
ing improvement programs, preschool programs, multiracial
reading material programs, and dropout programs. Although
'the various programs may differ in method and practice,

tihey all have the similar goal of providing the appropri-
ate educational experiences to help the culturally differ-

erlt student (I) raise his educational and occupational

74

aspirations; (2) develop feelings of "self-worth," "self-
pride," and "self-dignityt; and (3) bring the students in-
to the "main-stream" of American life. The goals, ser-
vices, and objectives of three of the more publicized pro-
grams deserve further discussion.

The "Higher Horizons Program" (HH) of New York
City is a broad-spectrum program which is aimed at rais-
ing the educationa1,vocational, and cultural sights of
culturally different children. The HH began in September
of 1959, it now has a total population of 50 elementary
and 13 junior high schools. The schools are located in
Manhattan, Bronx, Brooklyn, and Queens, and are staffed
by classroom teachers, supplementary program teachers,
and guidance counselors. This program applies the prin-
ciples of compensatory education, differential utiliza-
tion of services in curriculum and guidance, and inspira-
tional education. Parental and community involvement and
‘teacher training are most important to the program.

The program offers small-group and "half-class"
idastruction in-reading, mathematics, and other curricular

Eireas where needed. Music, art, and field trips provide

75

cultural enrichment opportunities. The teacher-training
conferences involve demonstration lessons by program.
_teachers and methods of group counseling for children and
parents. Other services include: publication of the
Higher Horizon Newsletter, interaction with local commun-
ity agencies and cultural resources of the city, workshops,
trips, and parental committees.
The Philadelphia "Great Cities School Improvement
Program" (GCIP) is a large-scale project which includes an
enrichment program emphasizing language arts plus a wide-
range community program. The program is designed to raise
the achievement and aspiration levels of the students in
order to discover latent abilities among culturally differ-
ent students, and to awaken community responsibility
through fostering "home-school.ties."
“The GCIP began ih September of 1960. In 1966, the
GCIP had a total student population of 7,447: 1,900 stu-
dents were in one. junior high school and 5,547 students
“here in seven elementary schools. The student population
Was. predominantly lower SES blacks and Puerto Ricans.

C31assroom teachers, teacher consultants, arithmetic

76

consultants, language laboratory teachers, school-community
coordinators (including two bilingual coordinators), and
language arts consultants comprised the staff.

The GCIP provides numerous educational services:
once-a-week in-service teacher training and workshops in
the use of audio-visual aids: experimental materials and
methods in mathematics and language, the latter including
"culture-free" reading and writing classes: flexible
class grouping; and tutorial help for "late bloomers."

The extent of the community services provided is also im-
pressive. These include: special programs to stimulate
community interest, understanding and support; parent dis-
cussion groups: civic educational associations and special
coordinators for Spanish-speaking parents.

The "Detroit Great Cities Project for School Im-
provement" is a city-wide program designed to promote the
development of academic and social competence in cultur-
ally different children. The DetrOit project began in

September of 1964. It had a target population of approx-
innately 32,250 pupils and their families in 27 schools

tllroughout the city. The staff was comprised of 1250

77

school personnel, including approximately 950 classroom
teachers, 27 "coaching teachers," 27 visiting teachers,
27 school-community agents, and a number of language arts
specialists.

The Detroit project offered a number of instruc-
tional innovations: team teaching, ungraded primary se-
quences, "block-time" programming With emphasis on devel-
opmental and remedial reading, and the use of interracial
city-oriented reading materials. Field and camping trips
along with comprehensive recreational and enrichment sum-
mer programs for remedial work were included as extracur-
ricular activities. The teachers of the project were in-
volved in numerous in-service training programs and work-
shops, structured around the various individual problems
of the schools. A number of school-community agents were
provided to involve parents and other adults in educational
and recreational activities. Community personnel, of all
ages, were also used as baby sitters, teacher aids, and
after-school assistants in both recreational and educa-

tional projects.

78

Practices

 

A number of praCtices can be identified in the var-
ious programs which have been cited: language arts develop-
ment, enrichment experiences, parent and community involve-
ment, teacher training or in-serVice teacher training, and
the development of mathematical skills. The three prac-
tices which are common to nearly all programs, either pro-
posed or in effect, are the development of language skills,
the development of mathematical skills, and teacher train-
ing.

In teaching culturally different children language
skills, Newton (1960) stressed the technique of synonymity.
Synonymity is the teacher's restating of a difficult word,
term, or idea in many different and familiar ways. For
example, when a passage contains reference to the "extreme
amount of enjoyment one can receive from a particular job,"
the teacher should immediately paraphrase the original pas-
sage to "how hip or groovy a certain gig might be."

Newton's work is closely related to a program de-
veloped at Howard University in 1965. The Howard program

approached the study of English as a foreign language,

79

without, however, devaluing language skills or systems of.

communication previously developed by the students.‘ The

underlying rationale of the program appears to be two-fold:

l.

0

Black students, because of their culture, history
and environment, have developed a language which
is foreign to the majority of the white race and
that this language is a valid system of communica-

tion which does not have to be replaced.

English was offered as a foreign language because
it is the language of the dominant American society_
in which the black student must work and live, but
English does not have to be the main language of,
the black student. Rather, black students should
be bilingual in much the same way as the Spanish-

speaking Americans are bilingual.

An approach differing from that of Newton’s and

Howard University's has been applied by Ashton-Warner (1963)

in her teaching of Maori children in New-Zealand. Ashton-

‘Warner used the "key vocabulary" of the children as a

bridge to "organic" reading and writing. She defined key

8O

vocabulary as "the one word illustrations seen by the
inner eye" (p. 32). The researcher used these one-word
organic illustrations of each child to teach reading and
writing. These one-word illustrations were frequently
the first English words spoken by the children. She
felt that:

First words must mean something to the child.

First words must have intense meaning to a

child. They must be part of his being . . .

Pleasant words won't do. Respectable words

won't do. They must be words organically

tied up, organically born from the dynamic

life itself. They must be words that are

already part of the child's being (p. 33).
Ashton-Warner related that at the beginning of each school
day each student was presented with the written form of a
word of his choice. "They [the students] ask for a new
word each morning and never have I to repeat to them what
it is" (p. 36).

After a sufficient number of key words had been

learned, the students were asked to construct sentences
with their respective words. Reading materials were also

provided for each student, constructed from his key vocab-

ulary. Additional words were then introduced by the

81

teacher and the students were asked to share their words
with the class. As with the first words, all new words
were presented in a written form to each student individ-
ually.

Although conceived in New Zealand, this approach
toward developing language skills has strong implications
for the teaching of culturally different children in Amer-
ica. There are several parallel conditions which exist
between the Maori and the culturally different: 1) a ma-
jority of members from both groups are born into poverty,
2) parents in both groups have been denied the educational
opportunities of the dominant society in their respective
countries, and 3) the children of both groups speak mainly
a dialect or sub-dialect of the English language.

In discussing the development of language skills
of culturally different children in America, Sawyer (1965)
offered procedures similar to those of Ashton-Warner.
Sawyer believed that the preschool and elementary years
should not be concerned with the teaching ofva "second
dialect" (the English of the more affluent), but that "the

purpose of this early language instruction is that of

82

enriching the basic language system which the child al-
ready possesses" (p. 219).

In still other experiments with language develop-
ment, Olson-and Larson (1965) organized a program of in-
struction around a combination of pupils and puppets drama-
tizing-well-known stories. They felt that this allowed
the children to project their speech without self-
consciousness and personal exposure.

Zwier (1967) outlined four parts of language learn-
ing: stimulation, intake, association and output. She be-
lieved that teachers have placed too much emphasis on out-
put (test, etc.). However, with culturally different chil-
dren, the emphasis should be placed on intake. She stated:

When the teacher fails to take into considera-

tion the form of language which the child

brings to the school, inadequate as they may

be from her point of View, she has no point

of departure (p. 157).
Zweir concluded that neither the teacher nor the child is
disadvantaged if the teacher is able to "match her readi-

ness to teach with the pupil's readiness to learn" (p.

159).

83

Mathematics instruction is the second subject area
common to most programs for culturally different students.
Possibly because of the abstract nature of mathematics or
these students' need for concrete, physical and/or "mo-
toric" experiences, culturally different students have
often encountered great difficulties with traditional
mathematical instruction. In an attempt to lessen the
abstract nature of the subject, Fremont (1964) has sug-
gested several concrete representations (automated pro-
grams, commercial aids, mathematical games and puzzles,
manipulative devices and flash cards) which may be used.

A year later, Mintz and Fremont (1965) developed
a mathematics program for classroom use which applied the
instruction to practical everyday use. They used the ac-
tual purchasing of an item to teach multiplication and
division of decimal fractions, meaning of per cent and
equivalent per cent, conversion of per cent to fractions
(and the reverse) and general problem-solving techniques.
Using order blanks from various large department store
catalogs, the students were able to see the practical
application of many of the mathematical computations and

concepts.

84

Graham (1965) stressed that the senses of the cul-
turally different child, "particularly his sense of touch,"
must be utilized to their fullest in learning mathematics.
"The disadvantaged child, even more than most, must be ex-
posed to many experiences with concrete materials and per-
haps for a longer period of time" (p. 156). Graham offered
seven mathematical concepts along with activities which in-
cluded concrete materials and practical applications of the
mathematical concepts. The concepts were: patterns, geom-
etry and measurement, numeration, estimation, budgeting,
banking, and taxes taught with the use of actual forms.

She further encouraged the use of films, film strips, pic-
tures, records and books as "multisensory aids." "Use
conversation as much as possible in order to facilitate
communication and understanding. Accept his child-like
definitions" (pp. 160-161).

The theory underlying the majority of the current
teaching practices has been expertly explained by Trobowitz
(1968a) in his discussion of the successful "ghetto"
teachers:

Successful teachers in the ghetto have used a
knowledge of‘past experiences of children to

85

guide them as they help pupils to acquire new
skills, new knowledge, and new attitudes. They
know that the past experiences of children are
their frame of reference for meeting new situa-
tions. Concepts and generalizations developed
from previous experience guide the children's
thinking and acting as they meet new situations
and have new experiences. These teachers have
tried to help the children discover the rela-
tionship that exists between their past exper-
iences and present classroom activities (p. 72).

This section of the literature has examined three
operational programs, and instructional practices in lan-
guage arts and mathematics. The goals similar to all pro-
grams and practices were the identification of experiences
which will help the culturally different student (1) raise
his educational and occupational aspirations; (2) develop
feeling of "self-worth," "self-pride," and "self-dignity":
and (3) bring the student into the "main-stream" of Amer-

ican life. Attempts toward meeting these goals were ac-

complished through:

1. Compensatory education (HH)

2. Language arts enrichment (GCIP)

3. Interracial reading materials (Detroit)

86

4. Synonymity in teaching language arts (Newton and

Howard University)

5. Organic reading (Ashton-Warner)

6. The use of concrete motoric mathematic experiences

(Mitz, Fremont, and Graham).

General Music Programs in Junior High School
and Music Programs for the Culturally
Different Student

 

General Music Programs

Although a number of articles have been written in
relation to general music instruction, John (1961) has
pointed out:

From all the available data, it is evident that
we have less unanimity of aims, goals, purpose

and practices in the general music class than
we have in any other facet of music education

(p. 55).
This lack of unanimity becomes more apparent in the

general music research studies or doctoral studies mentioned

in the works of Small (1944), Larson (1949 and 1957).

87

Worthington (1956), and Gordon (1964 and 1968). In addi-
tion, few studies appearing in the last 36 years have
dealt specifically with course content or objectives for
junior high school general music. Thus, this segment of
the review of literature will treat only the research
which pertains to the course content, objectives and ma-
terials used in.junior high school general music classes.
The literature has been further limited to include only
the most recent studies (1964-1970).

Pearman (1964) used a "philosophical-psychological"
theoretical framework in developing a course of instruction
for general music classes. She outlined specific problems
in developing her course: formulating objectives, organiz-
ing experiences relevant to the objectives, method of in-
struction, instructional materials and evaluation of the
materials.

Pearman's objectives were formed from the "profes-
sional literature on general music" and were translated
into behavioral terms. The experiences were organized
around current theories of learning and were designed to

meet the requirements of the objectives. A "wealth" of

88

instructional materials, including recordings, pictures,
books and music was analyzed to form the basis for in-
struction.

While philosophically founded in pragmatism, Pearman's
course.was psychologically geared to the current theories
of learning, emphasizing motivation, readiness, organiza-
tion, and transfer of learning. Musically, the course
was based on Pearman's ideas of participation and involve-
ment with various kinds of music.

The result was a one-year general music course, di-
vided into four sections, and designed to develop percep-
tion, sensitivity, enrichment of musical experiences, and
a discriminant taste in music. The four sections included:

Elements of Musical Sound (a consideration of

melody, rhythm, and harmony in relation to the

development of music-~emphasizing folk music

and the music of the renaissance); The Form of

Sound (preparation of the pupil to understand

form in music with emphasis on theme and var-

iations in jazz, the symphony, and baroque

music); The Media of Sound (a consideration

of interrelationship of instrumental and vocal

sound in romantic music); Program and Absolute

Music (preparation of the pupil to understand

the difference between these categorires with

‘emphasis on the music of the middle ages and
classic music (p. 129).

89

The Pearman study is similar to those of Motycka
(1965) and Reimer (1967). All three of these authors
identified the same specific problems in developing their
courses: objectives, experiences, instructional materials,
and evaluation. The studies differ mainly in their course
content and, in the case of Reimer's study, in its theor-
etical orientation.

The three-year Motycka study represents an elabor-
ately and carefully planned investigation into general
music methods. A full year was devoted to the testing of
the materials before they were used in the two-year.exper-
iment conducted at the Laboratory School of Indiana State
College, Terre Haute, Indiana. Three standardized music
tests and one "teacher-constructed music information test"
were used for pre- and post-testing. The course content
of Motycka's study was determined by objectives as formu-
lated in Music 441, Foundation and Principles of Music
Education, at the University of Illinois. The course of
study was divided into five chapters guided by a three—

fold "confidence outline."

90

I. Confidence of location: explain the area or do-
main of human experience from whichflmusic takes
its content.

A. Why the arts?
B. How music satisfies this need.
C. Establish the right for critical judgment.
II. Confidence of opportunity: Procedures by which
musicians operate (composers); what techniques
they employ; how they gather, develop, and eval-
uate music's composition; i.e., harmony, melody,.
rhythm, and tonal texture.
A. Structurally.
B. Historically.
III. Confidence of command: The uses by which know-
ledge of music is put in this world. What dif-

ference having this knowledge does in the world.

A. Permits and establishes the right of critical
judgment.

B. Facilitates understanding of creative process.

C. Increases ability to understand artistic en-
deavor in the field of modern music.

D. The ability to fit modern music into intellec-
tual and physical reality of human experience
(pp. 7-8)o

Although Motycka did not compare his course of in-

Struction with a second method, his post-test results

ShOWed a substantial gain in music achievement over the

91

pre-test. However, Motycka did make comparisons between
the class taught by one instructor and one that involved
team-teaching; the latter class showed a significantly
higher level of achievement on the post-test than did
the former.

The Reimer study differed from those of Motycka
and Pearman-primarily in its theoretical orientation.
Reimer based his orientation on "absolute expressionism":

1.. To develop a consistent and valid aesthetic
foundation for secondary general music

courses:

2. To apply as-many principles from the cur-
riculum reform movement in American educa-

tion as seemed relevant to general music

classes in secondary school; and

3. To combine (a) suggested changes by music
educators, (b) a consistent aesthetic posi-

tion and (c) curriculum reform principles,'

into a single approach exemplifying the

best thoughts in each of these areas (PP.

1-2) 0
This orientation "holds that the meaning of a work of art
is contained in the work's content of aesthetic elements"
(p. 40). Therefore, the goal of Reimer's study was to

teach for the aesthetic experience of music. Because he

felt this experience is best grasped through the structure

92

of music, the course was aimed primarily at the structural
investigation of music.

Following his theoretical orientation, objectives
were established, course content was organized, experi-
ences were organized, and a course of instruction for one
to four semesters was constructed. The course was divided
into three sections:

I. What Does Music Do?
A. The Composer
B. The Performer and Conductor
C. The Listener

II. How Does Music Do What It Does?
A. Tone Color
B. Rhythm
C. Melody
D. Harmony
E. Texture
F. Form

III. How Has Music Done What It Does?
A. Baroque Style
B. Classical Style
C. Romantic Style
D. Our Music: Modern Style (p. 41)
Each section included cognitive materials, instrumental
and vocal activities, and listening experiences.

The course was administered in three junior high

schools and three senior high schools during the first

93

and second semesters of the 1966-1967 school year. The
schools were chosen to represent the widest possible
spread of socio-economic status in the Cleveland, Ohio,
area. Reimer used one junior and senior high school from
the inner-city Hough area of Cleveland, one school of each
level from a middle-class suburb of Cleveland, and one
school of each level from a wealthy neighborhood in Cleve-
land Heights, in which to administer the course.

In the junior high schools, the experiment was
conducted in the required seventh grade general music
classes, while in the senior high schools the experiment
was conducted in the elective general music classes com-
posed of tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grade students. All
six classes met five days a week for an average of 42.5
minutes. The experiment, using the material in six dife
ferent schools and at two levels, indicated that:

1. the material is capable of being learned

to a high level of proficiency by the vast

majority of students and to a reasonable

level of proficiency by even the slowest

learner.

2. the material is equally useful and rele-

vant at both junior and senior high school
levels . . .

94

3. . . . the personality and competency of

the teacher will have significant effects

on the course's impact (p. 33).

In the middle- and upper-class schools, Reimer
observed a "reverse Hawthorne effect." He attributed this
to the "toughness" of the course as compared with the gen-
eral music classes being taught to other students in the
same schools. "These children were not lacking for chal-
lenge in school work, and expected the general music
class to be a pleasant and easy interlude in the day's
work" (p. 34).

The reverse was true of the inner-city schools.
The students in these schools did not seem to have been
excessively challenged by school work and did not appear
to be under the same academic pressures as the students
in the middle- and upper-class schools. "The course pre-
sented to them did challenge them, but it also provided
them with a great many success experiences, these being
built into the course materials" (p. 34, also see Standi-
fer, 1970, p. 124).

Forcucci (1966) undertook a two-fold study, to

investigate and appraise many of the current practices

95

in general music programs. An "Instructional Guide" for
use in junior high school general music classes developed
from the study. The appraisal indicated that the programs,
in terms of course content, current practices, and general
teaching practices, are incomplete, and therefore, mislead-
ing because they "do not fulfill the goals of general music
in their truest and broadest sense" (p. 170). The apprai-
sal also indicated that an imbalance existed in the junior
high school music program. This imbalance resulted from

an exceSSive emphasis on activities which develop perform-
ance skills rather than experiences which could help to
develop complete musical understanding and musical sensi-
tivity.

The "Instructional Guide" contained what Forcucci
termed a "distinctive feature," in that it is intended to
be a "Student Guide," written expressly in the language of
junior and senior high school students. The content of the
guide parallels that of the previous mentioned studies
(Pearman, Motycka and Reimer), and as with the other
courses the guide can be used in conjunction with music

books, recordings, musical instruments and other materials.

96

In two separate articles, Rankin (1966) and Hughes

(1966) both directed their attention to the first step
outlined by the previous researchers: how to establish
objectives for junior high school general music classes
and/or why these objectives are important. Rankin be-
lieved that the objectives must "be consistent with the
school's philosophy of education and need to be teachable
in terms of what we know about learning" (p. 31). After
taking this into consideration, the organizers of general
music classes should next determine, according to Rankin
"What is it that music can contribute to general educa-
tion?" (p. 31). The answer to this question should bring
about a "detailed analysis of the essence of music." It
requires the separation of those elements of music which
are purely musical from those elements which are common

to many disciplines including music. "Every teacher has
responsibility for the development of symbol, form, change,
contrast, meaning, problem, order, structure and control.
Chily the music teacher will teach tone, rhythm, harmony,

melody, pitch, tempo and volume" (p. 32).

97

Rankin identified two additional problems which
require consideration in determining objectives. The
first is the interrelation of music with other parts of
the humanities. The second problem is the importance
of skills, i.e., listening skills, performing skills,
music concepts, and knowledge of particular compositions
or composers. Current practices in general music classes
and the philosophy of the school should be taken into con-
sideration in solving these two problems. In regard to
the former problem, Rankin felt that "any adequate plan
for curriculum in music must provide for the interaction
of the arts" (p. 32).

Hughes asked, "How can we teachers be certain that
musical instruction will be the worthwhile experience we
desire it to be, and are we truly offering to our students
a foundation for musical growth?" (p. 76). He believed
that the answer lies in the amount of planning used in
establishing the course objectives, course content, and
class experience. The-value in planning is most important
because it:

1. Serves as a vehicle for implementing
philosophy;

98

2. Demands the formulation of objectives
stated in terms of desired behavioral
change, which gives direction and focus
to the instructional program;

3. Provides.for the development of learning
experiences which implement objectives;

4. Necessitates the structuring of learning
experiences in terms a student can under-

stand;

5. Requires that a sequence of learning ex-
periences be determined by cyclical growth
rather than by additive learning;

6. Offers criteria by which student growth

and teacher effectiveness may be evaluated

(p. 76).

In addition, Hughes felt that the teacher is able
to structure, within his objectives, opportunity for indi-
vidualized instruction, motivation and reinforcement. In-
dividualized instructional objectives would be constructed
to provide a wide range of activities and-opportunities
geared toward the varying capabilities and backgrounds of
the students. With motivation and reinforcement built
into the objectives, the teacher has allowed significant

freedom for each student to find qualities in music to

respond to and successfully manage, to guide
him into finding deeper acquaintance with it,
and to challenge him to further discoveries’

of more breadth and depth (p. 78).

99

Music Programs for Culturally
Different Students

 

 

Underlying many of the special music programs for
urban schools, developed or being developed, is the reali-
zation that music is not a "universal language, but a pro-V
duct of each culture, subculture or social class within
our complex society." This point was possibly best ex-
pressed by DeJager (1967) when he stated:

Each social class has its own standards re-
garding appropriate ways of spending leisure
time, what it considers to be "music," and

the functions of music. It teaches its newly~
born members what is "good" and "bad" or "beau-
tiful" and "ugly." In this sense, aesthetic
emotion is deeply influenced by social factors
in that people have learned from other people
what to like and what to listen for in musical
sounds. Therefore, conceptions of music, as a
"universal language" to be understood by every-
one, are simply unrealistic. Each social class
has its own, more or less distinctive, "style
of life," of which music may or may not be a
part. It should be stressed that music is not
some isolated phenomenon, but that it is inte-
grated with other cultural elements in a style
of life. This is one of the reasons, inciden-
tally, which makes it so difficult to transmit
music to people who have been raised in another
style of life. Members of every social class
have been taught to listen to certain kinds of
music in certain ways and on certain occasions

(p. 40).

100

Because of the influence of the work of DeJager
and other sociologists (Conyers, 1963; Kaplan, 1966; Miller,
1966; and Finkelsteen, 1957 and 1960), many individual mu-
sic teachers and the directors of some city-wide music de-
partments are making efforts toward including "indigenous"
music as part of music instruction. This segment of lit-
erature will deal with this type of development in general
music courses, either in regard to the use of indigenous
musical materials, the use of indigenous musical experi-
ences, or programs developed specifically for culturally
different students.

Doig (1965) reviewed the experiment conducted by
Frederick Erickson in the Lawndale Chicago area. The "Ex-
periment in Curriculum Planning" was conducted under a
$15,000 grant from W. Clement stone, president of Chicago's
Combined Insurance Company of America and the Jessie V.
Stone Foundation. The importance of recognizing the stu-
dent's cultural heritage clearly formed Erickson's ra-
tionale for the experiment. He stated that:

1. Children of the black ghetto should be
taught their music, as it derives from

the slave-holding South and before, from
Africa and the Caribbean.

101

2. Music should be the focal point in learn-

ing and appreciation of their history and

culture.

3. Music is an experience had every day.
4. The students need to be shown how their
'culture and history relate to the world

outside the slum (p. 43).

The program began in October, 1964. Weekly ses-
sions of an hour each involving 10 to 15 seventh and
eighth graders were held at five different locations in
or near the Lawndale area. Voluntary attendance and non-
professional teachers helped to distinguish this program
from those conducted in the schools. Current popular
songs served as the basis of the instructional material.
These songs were used in explaining all musical concepts
and in establishing the historical development of these
types of songs as a reflection of the history and culture
of the black race.

The results of the experiment were so favorable
that Erickson ran a second program in early 1965. How-
ever, these classes were held in homes. Instead of using

current popular songs, Erickson used those songs popular

fifteen to twenty years ago: songs familiar to the '

102

students' parents. As Erickson hypothesized, this "con-

tributed an important element to family life in the slums
by helping to establish the parent as a respected figure

of knowledge.and authority" (p. 44).

Like the Lawndale project, the Child Service Asso-
ciation (CSA) in Newark, New Jersey, operated independently
of the school system. However, unlike the Lawndale project,
CSA directed its attention to pre-school culturally differ-.
ent children. In-reviewing CSA, Forster (1965) stated that
the primary goal of the program was "to help children build
a self-image of themselves as acceptable and adequate indi-
viduals" (p. 373). Working toward this goal, the staff of
CSA found that music played a large part in attaining this
goal. The music period was geared to be more than a sched-
.uled singing period, rather it became an "integral part of
the children's living throughout the day" (p. 374). Oppor-
tunities-for playing games, and for listening, were also

Provided during rest periods. Rhythm instruments were pro-
Vined for exploration, interpretation and creative response.
Forster found culturally different children respond

Phytsically, more than other children, to their inner

103

feelings, thus finding singing and rhythmic.movement to be
a natural outlet of expression. As an aesthetic experience,
she discovered that "music encourages appreciation of this
aspect of our cultural heritage at the child's own level"
(p. 375). It also contributed strongly to the student's
growth in other areas of study. "For some of these chil-
dren, music seems to be the first, and sometimes the only,
group participation which can consistently interest them"
(p. 376). In these cases, CSA used music as the starting
or focal point for other subject area development.

This approach is completely opposite to that of
Eisman (1966) who believed that many of the culturally dif-
ferent or "difficult" students are not "turned on" by music.
Eisman believed that rather than using music as a focal or
starting point for other subject areas or using music as a
means to transfer interest, the music lesson should begin
"outside of music, with a situation to which the student
can relate and then inconspicuously make a transition to
the music" (p. 52).

The-program at the Harlem School for the Arts (HSA),

New York City, is similar in operation to the programs of

104

CSA and the Lawndale project, in that the Harlem school
was operated independently of the local public school sys-
tem. Also, as with the other projects, the Harlem school's
organizer hoped that many of the methods, materials and
approaches used by the instructors in the HarIEm school
were reinforced by the public school music instructors.

The HSA was formed by Dorothy Maynor (1968), "in
hope that at least a few boys and girls in our area might
be given some clue to their own possibilities and self-
hood" (p. 39). Maynor did not expect that all the stu-
dents would become outstanding artists, but rather that
a student who seems to have little or no purpose, who has
never been taken seriously by his parents, his peers or
his teachers, might be taught to "dream" and to realize
that "dreams are quite real." Her aim was to give all
the students "a view of themselves, a vista" (p. 39):
through all types of artistic experiences.

The school enrolled hundreds of impoverished black
Children of the Harlem area. Classes were held after
school and on weekends. The courses included painting,
vocal music, instrumental music, sculpture, ballet, and

modern dance .

105

One of the conditions insisted upon by the school
was a "responsible participation" by the parents in an ef-
fort to bring out the best pOSSible responses and musical
talents of the child. The aim was toward including both
parents; however, the father was frequently missing. The
school tried to convince the parents that the odds against
their child's amounting to anything are "unsurmountable
unless the parents take the role of parents with utmost
seriousness" (p. 40).

The study of McCoy (1968) differed from the Lawn-
dale project, the CSA and the HSA in that McCoy's work was
performed as part of a school classroom situation. In his
junior high school general music class, McCoy dealt with
black, Syrian, Jewish, Mexican, Chinesehand southern white
students, all from economically deprived areas. After es-
tablishing the goal that "music can and must give cultur-
ally disadvantaged youth a sense of identity and belonging"
(E). 47), McCoy began using the music of the various ethnic
'Jroups as instructional material. Students were first em-
barrassed to identify with their ethnic groups, but as

Classes progressed they became proud of their past. McCoy

106

began by showing the class what each ethnic group had con-
tributed to music. Through recordings and actual singing
in class, the students were introduced to music from all
ethnic groups.
McCoy offered three suggestions for the success-
ful application of his methods:
1. Teach a full unit with emphasis on the cul-
tural contributions to music. Be sure to
cite examples and persons.
2. Discuss the background of the "people" (its
history) in detail before presenting any mu-
sic. Try to show how the history of the
"people" enable it to produce its particular

contribution to music.

3. Provide for musical experiences with the mu-
sic, concerts, recordings, etc. (p. 48).

Underlying these three suggestions was McCoy's belief that:
If a person knows his cultural heritage, the
accomplishments of his people and the differ-
ent personalities of his race who have made
substantial contributions, his self takes on.

a new image (p. 47).
The participants of the Tanglewood Symposium (1968)

(affered many suggestions for the structuring of music

courses for the culturally different, which might be in-

stituted from the national level. The article which seems

to best articulate many of these suggestions is the

107

"Minority Report" of DaVid McAllister (1968). For this
reason, the McAllister report is included in its entirety.

The MENC has become increasingly aware that the
entire Music Establishment is the perpetrator as
well as the victim of a hoax. Ralph Ellison has
identified it best in The Invisible Man, where

he points out that the controlling middle class

in the United States does not "see" the lower
classes and the poor among them. Such euphemisms
as "the inner city" (slums), "the disadvantaged"
(the poor), "institute for living" (lunatic asy-
lum) are linguistic evidence that the middle class
is profoundly unwilling to face the invisible cul-
ture.

 

Most of the Establishment is unaware, or unwill-
ing to admit, that the invisible culture has a
rugged vitality of its own. When social workers
and crime commissions consider the invisible cul-
ture at all, they mistake invisibility (their own
inability to see) for emptiness.

In,a democracy, class barriers are uncomfortable.
The-Establishment seeing that its entertainments,
customs, and values are not shared by everybody,
makes a limited effort through the schools to im-
part the love of Shakespeare, T. S. Eliot, and
Schubert to the poor. This endeavor is a failure
because these great expressions of the cultural
heritage of the Establishment have little to do
with the cultural heritage of the poor. This en-
deavor is a hoax because in the name of communi-
cation and the elimination of class barriers we
insist that only one cultural language be spoken
and that the natives on the other side of the
barrier do not, in fact, really have a language
at all.

We of the Music Establishment believe that there
must be real communication, especially in the

108

arts, between all sectors of a democratic soci-
ety, if it is to remain healthy. The evidence
of a crisis in the health of our society is
clear enough. In Dorothy Maynor's words: "It
would be tragic indeed if, while we are striv-
ing to weave a cloak of democracy for Vietnam
and the rest of the world, the fabric of Democ-
racy were torn beyond repair right here within
our own borders."

In view of these matters, we affirm that it is
our duty to seek true musical communication
with the great masses of our population. While
we continue to develop and make available, to
all who are interested, the great musics of
the middle class and aristocracy, we must also
learn the language of the great musical arts
which we have labeled "base" because they are
popular.

When we have learned that any musical expression
is "music," we hope to be able to reduce the
class barriers in our schools and our concert
halls. The resulting enrichment of our music
will, we hope, give it a new vitality at all
levels, and provide a united voice that can
speak, without sham, of our democratic ideals
(p. 138).

Along the lines of McAllister's suggestions, Ni-
cosia (1965) offered a three-fold discussion for provid-
ing the musical experiences needed to balance the cultur-
ally different child's total development. These are:
"(l) the acculturation and socialization of the child

‘Uarough music; (2) linguistics, literature and music;

and (3) the basic music concepts" (p. 200)-

109

Nicosia defines acculturation as "the group's tak-
ing on elements from the culture of another group" and
socialization as "the process of building group values
into the individual" (p. 200). Therefore, the first ex-
periences should be those which "ease" the new student
into a strange environment, and those which assist the
student in creating a positive "self-school-community
image." She suggested the following to build these posi-
tive images: 1) use of a specially composed welcome song
for each new student to help minimize the feeling of
strangeness which should enhance self-image: 2) a student-
composed school song to build the school image; and 3) a
play or musical written and directed by the students,
based on positive events or "happenings" of the community,
to build the community image.

Nicosia believed that the Orff-Schulwerk approach
is very helpful in providing meaningful experiences in lan-
guage and music learning. She also recommended the use of
escho games, chanting of the roll call, intoning proper-
Ihames in rhythm, and the use of rhythmic patterns and

1uonal patterns in rhymes, riddles, and ballads in

110

conjunction with the Orff approach. The following steps
were established by Nicosia for teaching linguistics
through music:

1. Chant words rhythmically.

2. Clap the pulse (beat).

3. Stomp or patschen (knee slapping) on first
beat and clap the remaining beats.

4. Divide the class into two groups. Have one
group clap and stamp the meter and the other
group clap the rhythmic pattern.

5. Make up a tune based on the pentatonic
scale . . .

6. Play your tune on resonator bells, melody
bells, xylophone or even the piano. If
necessary put markers on the keys to in-
dicate the pentatonic scale.

7. Try improvising an accompaniment by play-
ing two or three notes over and over (pp.
211-212).

In regard to the basic musical concepts taught to
culturally different children, she stated that,
the objectives of the music curriculum for the
culturally disadvantaged should be kept to a
minimum of feasible concepts predicted by the
student's potential and the teacher's capabil-

ities (p. 217).

Thvo objectives were offered by Nicosia:

111

1. Build a repertoire of worthwhile songs,

singing games, and dances:

a. For relaxation and enjoyment.

b.- For development of an understanding
and an appreciation of other cultures
(use both foreign and English texts).

c. For development of tone quality, dic-
tion and musical interpretation.

2. To develop specific musical concepts
a. Pitch recognition: the tune goes up
or down or remains the same; the tonal
pattern is high or low.
b. Rhythmic recognition:
(1) metric pattern--the song swings in
2's or 3's
(2) rhythmic pattern--the notes are
even or uneven; long or short.
(3) tempo-~the music is fast or slow.
c. Phrasing: recognize number of phrases;
kind of phrases-~identical, almost alike
or different.
d. Dynamics: the mood and tonal quality
are related to the degree of loudness
or softness as well as tempo (pp. 217-
218).

Nicosia's idea of a "minimum number of feasible
concepts," was completely rejected by Reimer (1970).
Reimer argued that the same aims, objectives and concepts
should be used in the music education of all children,
.regardless of social class, economic situation or race.-
UIhese considerations should not be ignored, "but should

Ewe taken as opportunities for developing musical sensi-

ttivity applicable to any and all music" (p. 95).

112

With specific regard to the music education of

"black ghetto" children, Reimer suggested that although
including music from the black culture is important,
there are two dangers which exist in doing so. The first
is a tendency to abandon musical consideration in favor
of social or political considerations. He felt that the
music used in teaching black children should be of the
same musical value as that used for other children. Con-
sequently, the music used should be chosen without con-
sideration of its ethnic affiliation. The second danger
is the assumption that all black children identify equally
with all music of the black culture. He-stated:

. . . while some Negro children will respond

to nothing but what they can identify as "black

music," others are offended by the very notion

that there is such a thing‘ (p. 148).

Reimer-rationalized that because of these inherent

dangers in the-use of music-from the black culture, the
teachers of these.students must develop strategies applic-
able to all children and all subjects, "but particularly
.relevent for ghetto children and general music" (p. 150).

He felt that these teaching strategies should take the

form of; "attributes of excellent education" which should

113

apply for all children. The attributes for general music
education are outlined in the ensuing manner:‘

1. Materials of excellent musical and peda-
gogical quality that bring children into
contact with the best music-of common
Western heritage, of their own social
group, of the many groups in America. . .

2.~ Music teachers are required who are music-
ally mature, personally secure, accepting
and loving of children as individuals ra--
ther than as so many peas in a racial pod,
expert in helping children grasp musical
processes, and capable of adapting them-
selves and their teaching to different
situations as they are faced with them..

3. Thelschool as a whole . . . must be sup--
portive of musical learning, providing an,
environment in which musical opportunities
are rich and varied and in which the physi-
cal conditions for taking advantage of the
opportunities are present in abundance..

4. The attitude surrounding the entire enter-
prise must be one of respect for the music
regarded as important by the children, of
respect for their ability to widen their
views of what music can be shared by them,.
of high expectations that they can and will
succeed in musical learning, and of devo-
tion to the job of fostering their growth
as musically sensitive individuals (pp.
150-151).

131 conclusion, Reimer stated that the effective general

Imlsir:teacher for ghetto students "must be willing and

114

able to transform indigenous manners and mores into oppor-
tunities for musical learning and musical enjoyment" (p.
152).

Along with these individual efforts, a few city
systems, some supported federally, some locally, have be-
gun developing special programs and materials for the gen-
eral music education of culturally different students.
Some of these programs are operated in conjunction with
the local Job Corps and the school system, while others
are housed.independently of the school system but operate
closely with the school or schools within the area.

Three of the latter type of programs (The Watts
Towers Art Center in Los Angeles; the Arts-for-Living Pro-
gram in New York City; and the Santa Fe, New Mexico Board-
ing School Project) were reviewed at the Gaitherbury,
Maryland, Conference in 1966 (Murphy and Gross, 1968).

The first two programs are aimed at black youth, while

idle third is geared toward the American Indian. All three
«are built upon a rich curriculum of experiences in art and
Imlsic of all kinds and keyed, but not limited, to the stu-

derrt's respective heritage. From these experiences, it is

115

hoped that the students will "blossom into individuals,
develop self-esteem and pride, and gradually transfer
their newfound confidence to mastering the routines of
arithmetic and English and the other standard school sub-
jects" (p. 2).

Utilizing the accomplishments and practices of
the previously mentioned programs, the members of the con-
ference began a discussion of the specific uses or contri-
butions of the arts to the culturally different child.
Out of this discussion emerged a statement of purpose
that became one of the principal themes of the conference:
"that the arts, unlike other school subjects, can engage
the whole person in an experience of unusual depth and
delight, with effects that are complex, multiple, and
powerful" (p. 8). The conference's participants were able
to identify uses of the arts that are geared to help the
student to:

1. Have a continuing experience of accomplish-

ment and achievement, and thus acquire the

confidence necessary to develop a sense of

worthiness.

2. Develop greater refinement of taste and sen—

sibility--the ability to discriminate the
fine and true from the coarse and false.

10.

110

12.

116

Appreciate a wide range of sensory, intel-
lectual, emotional, and aesthetic experi-
ences.

Acquire an understanding of the importance
of work and discipline in order to achieve
desired ends in life.—

Learn how to cope with hostile environments
as the result of new understanding, atti-
tudes, and skills.

Express himself without the need for words
so that teachers can better understand the
student's feelings, thoughts, and behavior.

Increase the capacity to manage effectively
verbal and symbolic nonart tasks, like the
three R's.

Improve in general mental and emotional
health and provide, thereby, for more ade-
quate personality growth and role function-
ing.

Enter various new kinds of reciprocally in-
vigorating relationships with other people.

Relate more easily and rewardingly with mem-
bers of other groups, thus fostering more
productive and humane societies.

Develop perceptual skills which might con-
tribute to the more complex and subtle View
of reality that culturally disadvantaged
children often fail to develop.

See possibilities for constructive social
action (p. 9).

117

During the "Music in the Inner-City Schools Sym-
posium," held at Ohio State University in June of 1968,
Katherine McGill identified four Ohio cities that had de-
veloped special programs for inner-city music instruction.
She related that the common element of all the programs
was the existence of federal funds. However, each of the
programs were unique and offered a variety of opportuni-
ties. The cities discussed were Akron, Cincinnati, Colum-
bus, and Toledo.

In Akron, the program was divided into three dif-
ferent activities: 1) a summer cultural arts center, 2)
a special class of xylophone instruction, and 3) commun-
ity school activities. The six weeks' summer arts center,
designed for fifth and sixth grade students, included
singing, music appreciation, music theory, folk dance,
creative dance, creative drama, the use of instruments,
the history of music, and art.

The xylophone instruction was a special experiment
lxaing conducted in seventeen elementary schools. Along
Vfi:th.the xylophone instruction, the elements of music and

aszreciation are also included. Sufficient funds had been

118

provided to enable each student to have his individual
instrument. The community schools offered informal courses
in piano and art crafts for both students and adults.

Cincinnati offered an elementary string program
in five of the inner-city schools.. Other instruments
and materials included in the program are Orff instruments,
recorders, Kodély charts and audio-visual material. Sat-
urday enrichment programs during the regular school year
and a.six-week summer enrichment program wich includes
art and music instruction by "teaching teams" provide addi-
tional musical experiences. The city also had art and mu-
sic activities in "open studios," and supports art and mu-
sic classes for talented performing arts students of the
inner-city.

Columbus had established a number of regional
centers throughout the inner-city area. Art teachers,
music teachers, physical education teachers, and resource
teachers at each center provide instruction for four days
and had the fifth day free for research, planning or
lother activities that would help in their teaching in the

.inner-city.

119

Music instructions were provided in band and orche-
stra instruments, voice, Orff instruments, and rhythm.in-
struments. Language development was also stressed, with
teachers of art, music, and physical education working
together as a team.

Toledo had received an unusually large amount of
federal funds. Basically, the program was the same all
over the city, but the federal funds have made possible
six harp centers for grades two through five. Two of the
harp centers were located in inner-city schools. Out of
the eight pre-school violin centers, three are located in
inner-city schools. Special ability classes involving
choir, orchestra and band were offered for the inner-city
junior and senior high school students. The city supported
a piano mobile unit which toured five inner-city schools
providing free piano instruction. Also, during the sum-
mer the mobile piano unit toured five inner-city recrea-
tional facilities.

This section of the literature has identified
steps used in organizing the instructional sequence for

\

general music classes. Course content, class activities,

120

class experiences and appropriate music concepts for gen-
eral music classes were also discussed. The courses were
designed to:

(1) develop perception, sensitivity and discriminant

taste in music (Pearman).
(2) teach for the aesthetic experience of music (Reimer).

Additionally, a reView of operational and hypothe-
sized music programs for culturally different students were
included. The realization that music is not a "universal
language;" but rather a product of various cultures, formed
the basis for many of these programs (DeJager, Doig, Foster,
Mayor, McCoy, Nicosia and McGill).

Although he agreed upon the importance of includ-
ing music from the black culture, Reimer-felt that there

were two inherent dangers in doing so:

(1) the choice of musical examples in favor of social

rather than musical considerations.

(2) the assumption that all black children identify

equally with all black music.

121

Teachers for the Culturally
Different Student

 

 

The literature presented in this section is con-
cerned with two factors of the teachers who work with cul-
turally different children: 1) the attitudes, character-
istics, traits or qualities which are needed by the tea-
chers, and 2) the training or preparation of these tea-

chers.

Teacher Attitudes, Traits
or Qualities

 

Joyce (1965) lists seven qualities and/or attitudes
which he felt were necessary for the teacher of culturally
different children: 1) the teacher must have a wide range
of skills and teaching styles; 2) he has to learn to be
discriminating regarding the children on terms other than
those which show a reference to social class or race; 3)
he has to learn to find out and use the forms of referece
his pupils use to interpret the world; .4) he must be an
experimenter with new methods and an educator of other

prospective teachers of culturally different children;

122

5) he must be "willing to fail, to risk failure because he
recognizes that his own learning to teach requires him to
step into the areas where we all are uncertain" (p. 271);
6) he must be willing to work with other subject-area
teachers as a team; and 7) he must-have a comprehensive
knowledge of his subject area which will enable him to

use a variety of instructional approaches and "prepare
additional material needed for the culturally disadvan-
taged" (p. 274).

In analyzing the "Operation Fair Chance Program"
of Hayward, California, Olsen (1967) observed the import-
ance of the teabher's cognizance of the culturally differ-
ent student's milieu:

If teachers ever are to work effectively with
such children, they must first come to know
through extensive personal, first-hand exper-
ience and rigorous conceptual analysis, the
pattern of life, the value systems, and the
motivational outlooks of these children as
they live in their own daily enVironment.
These teachers, then may be able to see edu-
cation as the child views it, and plan their
work in continuous relation to that perception
(p. 233).

Gordon (1966) outlined eight factors of teacher

Ibehaviors and attitudes which he felt were "appropriate

123

to the educational characteristics and needs of children

handicapped by social and economic disadvantage" (p. 28).

Gordon

in the

1.

described these attitudinal and behavioral factors

ensuing manner:

Probably the overriding demand of teachers

of disadvantaged children is for an attitud-
inal commitment to hope and expectation that
these children can learn and that the teacher
can create the necessary conditions to permit
effective learning.

While we are dealing with attitudes, we must
recognize that hope and expectation are neces-
sary, but not sufficient, conditions for suc-
cess. There must, in addition, exist the
attitudinal capacity to be challenged by work
with these children and the attitudinal readi-
ness for controlled experimentation and inno-
vation in directed learning.

Teachers of socially disadvantaged children
will need to understand and appreciate the
nature of the life conditions of their pupils
--their homes and their communities--and the
significance of these.conditions for learning
and development.

Since the school must emerge as a major con-
sistently stabilizing influence in the lives
of these children, the teacher must understand
the sociology of ' the school, the dynamics of
its function, and must be master of its appro-
priate utilization in the interest of these
children.

For the foreseeable future, most of our tea-
chers are not going to be the social peers
of their disadvantaged pupils. Since we are

124

beginning to appreciate the influence of the
dynamics of intragroup interaction for be-
havioral change, the teacher's competence

as a guide to and utilizer of intragroup
interaction can be a crucial counterbalance
to the social distance and discontinuity.

The challenge presented by the atypical
learner requires that the teacher possess
competence and skill in the educational
appraisal of each pupil. Such competence
cannot be limited to quantification and
classification of intelligence and achieve-
ment but must include qualitative evalua-
tion and descriptive analysis of the learn-
ing function and potential in the child.
Such appraisal should lead to educational
prescription.'

Children who are progressing at their ex-
pected rate need good teachers. Children
who are not making it in the system-~who

are handicapped by intrinsic or extrinsic

conditions--require exceptionally good.

teachers with special competencies. The
skills to which I now refer are in the area
of psycho-educational processes.

a. Mastery of content that enables them to
be excellent teachers of children as-well
as excellent teachers of their designated
subject matter. The plea here is for
excellence in basic preparation as a
teacher, with the scope of knowledge
and the quality of interpersonal skills
that this implies.

b. Skill in the utilization of knowledge
and experience in an infinite variety of
ways to achieve maximal learning styles
and learning strengths are known to vary
extensively.

c. Skill in relating knowledge of physical,
mental, psychological, social, and

125

educational status~and of capacity for
readiness for learning to.the design of
learning experiences and to the guidance
of pupil development.

d. Skill in the application of the laws of
learning to academic, emotional, and so-
cial learning situations.

e. Skill in the utilization and development
of materials and procedures leading to
the use of appropriate aspects of the
environment and in the use of oneself
to influence and modify individual and
group learning.

f. Skill in the conceptualization of prob-
lems and in the use of logical steps in
problem solving as prerequisites to con-
tinued growth as a scholar and as a pro-
fessional worker.

8. Integration of all the above-mentioned types

of understanding, knowledge, and skill with

personal attitudes and behaviors so as to re-

flect respect for human life and welfare,

commitment to the search for truth, mainten-

ance of integrity, and the achievement of so-

cial productivity for the teacher as well as

for the learner (pp. 28-30).

Along lines similar to Rosenthal and Jacobson,
Strom (1966) felt that teacher aspirations serve as the
primary criteria for success or failure in the classroom,
"govern academic and behavioral expectations and gener-
ally determine methods of instruction" (p. 22). Atti-

tudes toward the various races or a specific socio-

economic status also "affect the motivation of both

126

teacher and pupils, influence objective observation of
what is being learned, and provide the base for rapport"
(p. 23).

Apart from the possible danger of adopting atti-
tudes which are unfair, many teachers face the hazard of
developing an "emotional logic." Strom defined emotional
logic as "sorting people into categories based on their
income, color, or other criteria," and selectively admit-
ting "new evidence about the persons in each category
only if the information confirms our previous beliefs"
(p. 23).

The concept of emotional logic is further docu-
mented by the research of Gottlieb (1964) and Torrance
(1966). Gottlieb investigated the differences and simi-
larities between 36 black and 53 white teachers in their
attitudes toward their work and their students (approxi-
mately 85 per cent black, from low-income families) in
six inner-city elementary schools. More than 80 per
cent of both teacher groups were female, with the black
teachers tending to be somewhat younger, more likely to

‘be married, with fewer divorcees or widows. The black

127

sample tended to come from larger communities and were
twice as likely.to have attended public colleges in ur-
ban centers. While the white teachers were generally
raised in middle—class families, the black teachers came
from lower class families with primarily manual occupa-
tions. To Gottlieb, the fact that the black teachers,
more'often than the white, came from lower.socio-economic
strata and possibly from families headed by.a woman, ex-
plained the differences in the attitudes and perceptions
of the two groups.

When selecting from a list of thirty-three*adjec-
tives which most accurately described their pupils in the
inner-city schools, black and white teachers differed sig-
nificantly in their choices. In order of importance,
white teachers most frequently selected talkative, lazy,

fun-loving, high-strung, and rebellious, while black tea-

 

 

chers selected fun-loving, happy, cooperative, energetic,

amd ambitious. The white teachers tended to omit adjec-

 

‘tives which are universal attributes of children and re-
lated to successful learning. Thus, white teachers were

rmore likely than black teachers to list shortcomings

128

which have generally been attributed to blacks, and point
to deficiencies in the system to explain their dissatis-
factions.

After interviewing a large population of inner-
city teachers, Torrance identified two types of negative
teacher attitudes, which can impair the creative behavior
of inner-city children. The first is that teachers feel
discipline is such a serious problem that fostering cre-
ative behavior would cause the teachers to lose control
of their classes and "that destructiveness and chaos
would result." These teachers fear that the release of
creativity would "unloose primitive impulses that would
be overwhelming to them and their pupils" (p. 57). The
second is that the teachers perceive their students as
"apathetic" and "listless" and feel that it is impossible
to foster creative behavior with these types of students.
Torrance attributed these attitudes to the same kinds of
‘emotional logic as identified by Strom. They both agreed
that instructors reared in "more favorable environs" than
'the neighborhood to which a work assignment takes them,

Inay respond by approaching their job with a sense of

129

reluctance, a lack of desire, and/or a feeling of defeat.
"For a teacher to so behave is to render academic expec-
tation to economic or racial membership, and thus deter-
mine progress before instruction begins" (Strom, 1966,

p. 24).

Goldberg (1967) constructed a "hypothetical model
of the successful teacher" of culturally different stu-
dents. In this model, encompassing qualities needed by
these teachers, she included the type of attitude toward,
knowledge and understanding of,.and familiarity with, cul-‘
turally different children. Goldberg believed that the
successful teacher: 1) respects the children in his class
and, therefore, receives respect in return; 2) observes
the culture of the students not as a judge, but empathet-
ically from the point of view of the students, understand-
ing the backgrounds from which the students come, their
values toward various achievements and the kind of life
style to which they aspire; 3) is aware of his students'
Inembership in-the ethnic group, the history, traditions
and social structure of that group, and how such member-

sship shapes each student's image of himself and his world;

130

4) knows that the language of his students is closely tied
to their life style and recognizes its functional quali-
ties for the pupils; 5) has a sophisticated understanding
of how a child's abilities are assessed and, therefore, a
realistic perception of what these assessments of measure-
ments describe and predict; 6) meets the children on a
person-to-person basis; and 7) realizes the danger of

the "self-fulfilling prophesy" of expecting, and conse-
quently lets each student know that he expects more than
the pupil thinks he can produce (the standards are never
too high or remote, but are within the intellectual po-
tential of the students). Goldberg characterized her hy-
pothetical successful teacher in a single phrase: "ordered

flexibility." (Goldberg's italics.)

 

A second hypothetical model of the successful
teacher of culturally different children also emphasizes
the teacher's knowledge of the children's background and
the teacher's social relationship with the children. Web-
ster's (1966) model was based on the difficulties middle-
iclass teachers find in culturally different schools,

twhether-because of a conflict in attitudes, values, or

131

desired social and academic behaviors. Webster offered
several hypotheses to explain why some teachers remain
and are successful, and why others leave the culturally
different schools. He believed that those teachers who
remain possess many of the qualities and attitudes listed
by Goldberg.

Other research studies and articles have approached
desired teacher attitudes through social class (Becker,
1952; Charters, 1968; and Wolf and Wolf, 1962), subject
matter areas (James, 1967; Trobowitz, 1968a; Andrews, 1967;
K. R. Johnson, 1969; and Armstrong, 1968), or the use of
meaningful or indigenous material (Trobowitz, 1968b; and
Armstrong, 1968). In each of these approaches, the authors
stress the importance of the teacher's familiarity with the
students' background and environment.- '

The majority of the desirable attitudes and traits,
identified for music teachers, coincide with those previ-
ously discussed; however, there are a number of desired
attitudes and traits which deal specifically with the
teaching of music to culturally different children. James

(1967) believed that the music teacher best shows his

132

trust and acceptance of the student's thinking by using
"the popular music of the day alternating with other works
to show comparisons" (p. 29). He further stated: "Let
your hair down, drive in and swallow your pride-~don’t be
reluctant to play for your own enjoyment or express your
likes and dislikes in music" (p. 58).

Several of the teachers' comments presented in
the January, 1970, edition of the Music Educators JOUEEéi
contain reference to appropriate teacher attitude or de-
sirable teacher traits. Donald Dustin (instrumental music
teacher, Locke High School, Los Angeles) suggested that
the teacher must be flexible. "If you're working on a
particular lesson plan and find it's not happening, you
have to break away from it, . . . feel your class out and
find out where they are . . . . You have to use sensible
rehearsal thought" (p. 74).

Susan Lewis (elementary music teacher, Whitehall
City Schools, Whitehall, Ohio) stated that a good and ef-
fective teacher, of culturally different children, needs
to develop the attitude that "there is essentially no

right or wrong in music, but varying degrees of excellence"

133

(p. 75). Only after such an attitude is developed and
communicated to the students,-can the teacher help the
student find success and satisfaction in his accomplish-
ments.

Louis Wersen (Director of Music Education, School
District of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) discussed teacher
attitudes in terms of the extent of the teachers' under-
standing their students. He uses the following example
to demonstrate this concept of attitudinal understanding:

It has been said that Negro children are more
rhythmic than white. One thing to consider is
that they are not [so] inhibited. They are more
outgoing than white children. In music, a child
who isn't outgoing will not represent himself.
adequately in rhythmic expression . . . .-so-
phistication brings rigidity . . . one of the

reasons young people subscribe to rock [is]
because it's free (p. 73).

Teacher Education or Preparation

Although a variety of systems, ideal models, ideas,
teaching styles and teacher education programs have been
theorized, little research data is available to substanti-
ate their effectiveness in the culturally different class-

rcmmlsituation. It is heartening to note, however, that

134

educators in a number of colleges and public school systems
have recognized the importancerof preparing teachers more
adequately for these responsibilities. According to a
recent survey conducted by the American Association of
Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE), more than 200 in-
stitutions were either preparing teachers for urban schools
or were planning to introduce such programs (Clifford,
1968). The review which follows includes a sampling of
programs already instituted and some either planned or
hypothesized.

The program at California State College in Hayward
is considered a "full-time program of experimental educa-
tion." The program is operated for 32 weeks, divided into
six stages of experiences and interrelations. The stages
are:

l. Orientation (8 days)--includes a three hour

test to measure attitudes, outlooks, values,

and culture orientation. The remainder of

the time is spent in evaluations of the test

and interaction with the various members of

the class.

2. Community Study (2 weeks)--deals with-an in-
vestigation of all conditions of the commun-

ity: jobs, health, racial composition, and
living conditions.

135

3. Job Corp Work (6 weeks)--an investigation
of the Job Corp, and its members to under-
stand the attitude of the Job Corp members
toward the school.

4. School and Community Work (4 weeks)--a.
variety of teaching and working situations
in both.schools and other community agen-
cies, under very close supervision.

5. Supervised Student Teaching (18 weeks)--the
activities are much like those in number
four; however, during this period the pro-
spective teachers are assigned to a partic-
ular subject area and school under a class-
room teacher.

6. Summary Sharing (l week)--a period of evalua-
tion of the complete program to "take stock

of all that has been done" (Olsen, 1967, p.

234).

The program of Michigan State University (MSU) is
operated in conjunction with the Education Department of
Flint Junior College (FJC). The objectives of the program
are listed as:

. . . getting any student interested in a teach-
ing career to consider the challenge and rewards
of teaching in inner-city schools and to give
the prospective teachers an opportunity to learn
about this challenge and reward of inner-city
teaching (1969, p. 24).

These objectives are met through "five levels of

(activity" and interaction with culturally different chil-

dren:

136

All MSU education majors visit and observe in

inner-city schools.

Student involvement in tutorial and other volun-
teer programs for the culturally different child.
This volunteer work varies from a half day each

week to two days a week.

Opportunity is provided for one hundred.and fifty
volunteer students from MSU to participate in
three months of study and practice teaching in

the Flint, Michigan, inner-city schools.

In their junior year, 75 MSU students are given
the opportunity to participate in a special six-
month training program in the Detroit, Michigan,

inner-city schools.

Upon graduation, 25 MSU and FJC students are given
the opportunity to work full time for 18 months in

the Flint inner-city schools.

137

This program had an ample amount of flexibility
to include any student who has an interest or desire to
work with inner-city students, from the person giving a
few hours a week to those persons who want to become
inner-city teachers.

The-program at Pennsylvania State University for
prospective teachers of culturally different children is
conducted on the University's Capitol Campus in Middletown.
All students enrolled in the Bachelor's program of Elemen-
tary Education are eligible, but are required to have com-
pleted a minimum of 60 semester hours before.being admitted
to the Capitol Campus. Once admitted, all students are en-
rolled for six terms in 18 courses, three per term. All
courses are considered equal and the time allocated for
each course varies according to its objectives. Some of
the method courses are combined to broaden their scope and
concepts.

Ward Sinclair (1968), program director, states that
the program was established

. . . as an attempt to make professional educa-
tion courses more realistic to students by in-

corporating laboratory experiences in the public
schools with each professional course on campus.

138

Not only would this prepare the prospective
teachers academically, but also would provide
them with the necessary understanding and scope
to "cope" successfully with children from the
lower socioeconomic areas (p. 341).

The laboratory experiences are arranged through
an agreement with the Harrisburg Public Schools. Through
these arrangements, each student is given five different
types of classroom experiences, ranging from one-half day
per week to full-time student teaching. All of the stu-
dent's classroom experiences are guided by an instructor
on campus and a classroom teacher.

In their last term, the prospective teachers are
enrolled in "Social Philosophy of School," which is a com-
bination of an evaluation of the previous five terms and
lectures, using both educators and lay persons. It is
hoped that this course will acquaint the students with cur-
rent educational questions as viewed by the professional
educator and the lay person.

At the end of two years, an evaluation of the Penn-

sylvania State program produced the following results:

1. A better relationship established between
the college student and classroom teacher.

139
2. An outstanding development of school (col-
lege) and community relationship.
3. College students are better able to relate

their lectures, readings and discussions

in classroom to actual children and events

with which they have had contact in public

schools (p. 345).

Knapp (1965) investigated five programs which pre-
pare teachers for culturally different children in an at-
tempt to find any common trends. The programs were those
of Hunter College, New York; California State College, Los
Angeles; Mercy College, Detroit; City University of New
York; and Project Mission, a cooperative program of COppin

State College, Morgan State College, and the Baltimore
Public Schools.

Knapp was able to identify five trends common to
the programs:

1. Prospective teachers of the disadvantaged are
receiving earlier and more extensive field
experience in selected lower socioeconomic
area schools . . .

2. Field experiences are being expanded to in-
clude the community which the schools serve

3. Participation in special programs proceeds
upon a voluntary basis. Most of the students
enrolled in the programs do teach in disad-
vantaged schools . . . .

140

4. Special programs are resulting in changed
perceptions of a "good" teaching situation.

5. There is closer contact between schools and
college personnel than is normally true in
conventional programs (pp. 189-191).

Knapp also found a few problems common to all five
programs. He felt that frequently the well-publicized
breakthroughs, with the accompanying recognition, have
caused teacher education institutions, especially in large
cities, to concentrate too heavily upon the culturally dif-
ferent. Hence, a resulting neglect of suburban school
needs and of the candidates who may best be suited for
this setting. Finally, he discovered that too much of
the program's planning was done by school administrators
and college staff, with too few instances of the involve-
ment of classroom teachers.

Of all the programs he investigated, Passow (1966)
concluded that "one of the more promising is that of Hunter
College" (p. 107). The Hunter program was one of the few
which prepared teachers in the very school where they will
eventually teach. The concepts being tested by the Hunter
EDrogram were summarized by Passow as:

Student teaching can be both challenging and
rewarding in a personal and professional sense;

141

the apprehensions of prospective teachers are
best alleviated and their perceptions modified
by direct, wide contact with education and com-
munity workers and leaders; a team of profes-
sionals from the depressed-area school itself--
such as subjett matter specialists, curriculum
experts, and social psychologists--is required
for introducing the student teacher to the par-
ticular demands of these schools and for help-
ing orient him to working with children in this
special context; participation in a program for
teaching in.a depressed-area school should be
voluntary on the student's part and must begin
early in his college career (Passow, 1963, p.
238).

Many of the hypothesized teacher education pro-
grams have used the successful developments of programs
in Operation, while others have recommended additional
educational experience or re-working many of the tradi-
tional course requirements. For example, in proposing
his teacher education for "inner-city" teachers, Joyce
(1965) placed strong emphasis on laboratory experiences
that must take place in schools of the inner-city. The
basic unit in laboratory experience would not be the
placement of an individual student with an individual
teacher, but rather a "team" of students placed in a
school where the total school program could be viewed

as the educative unit.

142

School district and college should work together
to staff the school and develop an experimental
program to produce knowledge about education of
the culturally disadvantaged and at the same
time provide a laboratory for the education of
the student teacher (p. 279).

Joyce argued that the laboratories should involve
teams of teachers and student teachers in a constant dia-
logue about teaching and education. He further argued
that educational psychology, sociology. and method courses
should be taught in the laboratory schools; "utilize demon-
strations and illustrative material gathered by the profes-
sors and teachers" (p. 280). In conclusion, he felt that
the laboratory school should be operated in such a fashion
that the new teacher is supported realistically through
the "failure that attends of almost everyone who teaches
in the inner-city" (p. 281).

Conversely, in outlining his program, Rivilin
(1965a) stated:
The goal for the initial phase of teacher edue
cation.should be the relatively modest one of
preparing good beginning teachers who will know
what to do, how to do it, and why‘ (p. 711).

To attain this goal, he suggested that the program include

courses in urban sociology, cultural anthropology,

143

psychology, and an intensive course in composition and
speech. While enrolled in these courses, the student
would serve as a community service aide in a social agency
and as a school aide, being paid apprppriately for his ser-
vices. Rivilin did not feel that changes should be made

in the total number of credits assigned to education
courses, but that major educational courses should be
planned in large blocks of credits so that adjustments
could be made within the "academic rituals."

According to Rivilin, the existing courses in psy-
chological foundations, in curriculum, and in methods,
should be replaced by a two-semester course, taught by a
team of college teachers and aimed at the application of
psychology to methods of teaching. The students enrolled
in this two-semester course would also be appointed to a
specially selected classroom teacher for three hours a
day; as an assistant teacher, each to receive one—fourth
of the salary of a beginning teacher. The student would
assist the teacher with clerical and teaching responsi-
.bilities, placing emphasis on work with individuals, groups

and the class as a whole.

144

Upon the year's completion of their service as
assistant teachers, the students would be appointed as in—
terns and be assigned full time to a school under the su-
pervision of a classroom teacher, selected and paid by
both the school and college. The intern would be expected
to assume only half a regular teaching load and consequently
only have the salary of a beginning teacher. All interns
and new teachers would be required to take a college course
concerned with problems of "methods of teaching, class man-
agement, and discipline as they arise from direct experi-
ence" (p. 713).

At the conclusion of their internship, the perspec-
tive teachers would be appointed to a regular position,
with a salary comparable to the second step of the salary
schedule "in recognition of their service as school aides,
assistant teachers and interns" (p. 713).

Ornstein's (1962) model for teacher preparation is
very similar to that of Rivilin. The two models differ
only at the first level. Along with the courses in urban
sociology and psychology, Ornstein also included observa-
tion, independent responsibility of planning and teaching,

and sensitivity (T-group) sessions as part of the program.

145

Other authors (Strom, 1965; Haubrich, 1969; Hor-
rocks, 1964) have planned teacher education programs for
the prospective teacher of culturally different children.
Most of these programs are similar to those previously
discussed or they adopt what Conant (1963) called "clin-
ical professorship." Conant has urged that every insti-
tution purporting to train teachers employ three or four
clinical professors who, as competent scholars, would
spend at least half their time teaching in their particu—
lar discipline, and the remaining portion supervising,
counseling and conferring with student teachers as well
as deciding on the certification of those teachers.

In 1965, Daniel investigated, from a historical
perspective, the current concerns and changes in the tea-
cher training programs. His findings were that recommen—
dations for improving teacher training, through more ef-
fective pre-service experiences to help prospective tea-
chers understand children, have been made throughout the
'twentieth century. He observed that the American Council
on Education Commission on Teacher Education idealized

Inore than twenty years ago that improvements could result

146

if the following omissions from most psychology courses
could be corrected:
1. Descriptions of the social roles and patterns

of behaviors that are differentially per-

mitted or demanded of children according to

their age, sex, race, social class, religious

affiliation, and region of the country in-

habited.
2. Descriptions of the educational significance

of individual differences in health, vigor,

knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, and

aspirations among children as these roles

are related to the different social roles

played by their families, peer groups, races,

sex, age groups, and social class in our so-

ciety (p. 383).

A few music educators have also discovered that
the choice and preparation of a teacher for the culturally
different student is of vital importance. Some have
planned teacher education programs for prospective tea-
chers. As with the general education and elementary edu-
cation programs previously outlined, the musicians see a
strong need for courses in urban sociology, cultural an-
thropology and psychology. Along with these course changes
or additions, each music educator has recommended changes

and/or additions within the specialized work in the field

of music.

147

Andrews (1967) offers these specific suggestions
along with others, for changes in the music courses:

1. A heavy emphasis on the properties of music
as a common means of expression that has al-
ways existed in many cultures and at many
levels. 1

2. A teacher commitment to the business of open-
ing up understanding of music in the hearts
and minds of children who are poorly cared
for . . . inadequately housed, clothed and
fed.

3. An emphasis on learning by doing, by making
much music . . . . The musical experience
offered must be extremely rich in music itb
self, rather than talking about music or
stressing the symbolic aspects of music.

. . . The teacher should be prepared to make,
or join in and encourage pupils in the making
of music that is indigenous to [them].

4. The training of the new breed of teacher in
areas of applied, theoretical, and histori-
cal music must be both thorough and practi-
cal . . . for it may well be that the teacher-
violinist who can play a country fiddle tune
as well as a Brahms "Hungarian Dance" will
have more status in . . . the group with which
he works than will the teacher more limited in
his musical repertoire (pp. 43-44).

Schwadron (1967) recommended interdisciplinary
studies in aesthetics, cultural anthropology, philosophy,
and the social sciences. Some of the purposes of these

studies would be:

148

1. To develop a broad understanding of the means
and ends «If music education inuuplifting
socio-musical values.

2. To develop an understanding of the role of
artistic conformity during periods of cultur-

al crisis.

3. To develop an understanding of the relative
social, political, and cultural development

as these affett the functioning of music

education in a free society (pp. 107-108).

In regard to the cultural determinants and differ-
entiations of various musical styles and expressions, Clay-
man (1961) offered the suggestion:

. . . that the teacher-training institution be-
come a center for the transevaluation of cultural
values, in order to extend to the teacher the op-
portunity to study his own values in relation to
other cultures. In this way the teacher can gain
invaluable insight into the "nature and nurture
of man" who, strikingly diverse in his pattern

of behavior, exhibit common values (p. 26).

Along with a number of socially oriented courses,
Klotman (1968) recommended that all music education majors
be required to take a series of courses in ethnic music,
including studies in African music, Asian music, American
:Indian music, music of Appalachia and Latin American music.

In addition, all theory courses would include a unit on

Ijazz, and a complete unit of music history would be devoted

149

to jazz. Finally, Klotman pointed out that there should
be sufficient training in the use of music as a therapeu-
tic tool "for these children so that teachers may use mu-
sic not merely as a 'skill' subject but also as a means
of developing positive self-concepts" (p. 7)-

Both on the state and national level, suggestions
have been offered for comprehensive and effective teacher
education programs. At the "Music in the Inner-City
Schools Symposium" of Ohio State University in June, 1968,
teacher education was approached through ways in which
this training could develop the appropriate attitudes
needed for effectively teaching in inner-city schools.
The members of the symposium placed considerable emphasis
on the comprehensiveness of the teacher education program
in developing, not only good teachers but also "good mu-
sicians," i.e., musicians comprehensively trained in "all
kinds of music, and . . . to have an open mind willing
(enough) to use any kind of music" (p. 79) as instruc-_
tional material.

Although the participants of the "Tanglewood Sym-

posium" did not outline any specific teacher education

150

programs for the prospective teachers of culturally dif—
ferent students, various committees offered several sug—
gestions in relationship to the appropriate types of train-
ing needed by all prospective music educators. The com-
mittee on "Implication for Music in Higher Education and
the Community" recommended that all teachers be "trained
and retrained to understand the specifics of a multipli-
city of music-~avant-garde, art music, various mutations
of jazz, and ethnic music" (p. 135). They further related
that recent discoveries in musicology and theory as they
relate to philosophy, sociology and learning psychology

be communicated to the prospective teachers "without de-
lay."

The committee on Implications for the Music Cur-
riculum made the following recommendation-for the inclu-
sion of other types of music in both the teacher educa-
tion and child education programs:

We recommend that teachers be encouraged to ex-
periment with and utilize many types of music
in their instructional activities. Ineservice
education programs instituted on a regional ba-
sis could equip teachers with the materials and
techniques necessary to present a wider variety

of music to children. The fulcrum of the reper-
toire should be shifted to include-more of the

151

many varieties of contemporary popular and ser-
ious music as well as music of other cultures.

Historically, the instrumental program has de-
veloped entirely around the standard orchestral
instruments. It is incumbent upon music edu-
cators to reevaluate this position and to con-
sider the validity of adding other instruments,
particularly those social instruments having a
considerable effect upon American culture (p.
136).

In the "Special Report on Music in Urban Education"
in the January, 1970, issue of the Music Educators Journal,
seven recommendations were made for teacher education pro-
grams in music. The recommendations were drawn from re-
marks and suggestions offered by a number of principals,
school board members, parents, students, teachers, and
music educators selected from various communities through-

out the United States.

1. Teacher education courses that are preparing
music teachers for positions in the cities
should be directed by competent personnel
who-have first-hand knowledge of the situa-
tion and who maintain close articulation
with music education programs in the city
schools . . .

2. Prospective music teachers should be provided
with a thorough and realistic on-the-spot
picture of urban teaching conditions, so
that there is no danger of cultural shock
when the teacher assumes his first teaching
position . . .

152

3.- Prospective music teachers who plan to teach
in the city should be equipped with the most
up-to-date information, understandings, ma-
terials, and techniques for teaching inner-
city students successfully. . . .

4. General music and general musicianship should
be given special attention on the college
level if they are to be taught effectively
in the public schools, particularly in the
city. . . .

5. Prospective music teachers should develop
skill in communication and the ability to
relate to others-—students,-parents,-commun-
ity, administration and fellow teachers. . . .

6. Knowledge of the widest possible variety of
musics--ethnic, rock, soul, jazz, electronic,
aliatoric, serial, as well as the historical

1iterature--is essential if music teachers
are to meet the demands of urban education. . . ,

7. Music teachers who aspire to teach in the
city should be required to develop in-depth
cultural, sociological, and psychological
understanding of the students they will be
teaching (pp. 105-111).
This section of the literature has identified three

desirable traits or qualities needed by teachers.of cultur-

ally different students:

1. Thorough knowledge of the student (Olsen).

2. Understanding of ways to direct the learning of

the culturally different student (Joyce).

153

3. Skill in human relations, as it relates to atti-

tudes and behaviors of the students (Gordon).

These qualities were made the bases of most of the teacher
education programs discussed (Sinclair, Knapp, Passow and

Rivilin).

Summary and Discussion

The literature beginning on page 37 reveals that
the junior high school years are ones in which the stu-
dent: 1) has a rapid change in emotional, intellectual,
social and physical growth; 2) has a great need for peer
acceptance; 3) has a great need for successful achieve-
.ment; 4) formulates many of the attitudes, values, skills,
social behavior and cultural patterns which will possibly
dominate his adult life style. Because of these numerous
changes and developments, the teachers must become sensi-
tized to these biological, emotional and intellectual

needs in ways which will help the student develop into

self-sustaining and self-actualizing individuals.

154

In analyzing the literature beginning on page 42,
one readily sees that there are many conflicting concepts
in reference to the specific conditions which constitute
the environment of the culturally different child. This
is most evident in the variety of terms, both socially
and educationally, used in describing this child.

Many of the characteristics identified by Riessman,
though possibly appropriate in 1962, are questionable at
the present time. The work of Charles Keil (1966), which
describes the role of the urban blues singers in the lower
class culture, causes this writer to question the import-
ance given by Riessman to the prize fighter and baseball
heroes. The recent work of recording star James Brown
and movie star Jim Brown in providing jobs for lower class
persons and scholarships for students of lower socio-
economic status, have also caused the lower class person
to develop admiration for more persons than prize fighters
and baseball heroes.

Politically, Riessman characterizes the culturally
different as "not interested in politics and favoring the

under-dog." The former statement can be questioned by

155

viewing the recent mayoral elections of John Lindsay in
New York; Carl Stokes in Cleveland; Richard Hatcher in
Gary, Indiana; and Charles Evers in Fayette, Mississippi.
These men were elected primarily by a minority vote.
These same elections also serve to confirm Riessman's
political characterization of culturally different per-
sons, for the previously mentioned mayors were considered
underdogs.

Henry believes that the culturally different in-
dividual places considerable emphasis on drug taking and
drinking of alcohol "as a reassurance of being alive."
However, recent studies have shown that drug use is no
longer confined to this segment of the population. Three
important studies in this connection are those of Freed-
man (1967), Rolfing (1967), and Goddard (1969). Accord-
ing to Freedman:

Within the last five years, drug use has in-
creased on the American campus. Before that,
drugs were used almost exclusively by those
clearly out of step with conventional Ameri-
can life. Approximately 10 to 15 per cent.
of the students on large city campuses or

small liberal arts campuses have experimented
with pot or LSD (p. 165).

156

Goddard investigating marijuana states:
Marijuana, until recently a conspicuous liturgy
of the rebellious young, is spreading into the
middle class and fast becoming an institution.
An estimated 12 million Americans have now tried
it (p. 27).
Rolfing directed her attention to the use of alcohol, and
concludes that in the United States "in 1965 over 93.5
[per cent of] people age 15 and over were known to use
alcohol"(p. 2).
The work of Clark (1948) also should be questioned.
With the advent of "Black awareness," "Black pride" and an
overall awakening of the worth and contributions of the
black race, black children presently exhibit a preference
for black playmates and black dolls (Billingsley, 1968).
Some of the studies seem to agree on a few charac-

teristics of the culturally different child and his family.

Most important among these are:

1. They are either southern whites or non-whites

who have migrated to urban centers (Havighurst).

2. They have an income of $3,000 or less and are

frequently headed by a female (Witmer).

157

3. They have been raised in a world of failure,

prejudice, alienation, and broken homes (Riessman).

4. They are driven by the desire to have food, money,
dwellings, and by the fear of the natural elements

(Davis).

Although there are some conflicting results pre-
sented in the literature of the section beginning on page
52, the one point which appears to be consistent in most
of the studies of SES, IQ, motivation, and achievement
is that there is more of a Significant relationship be-
tween SES and IQ or academic achievement than there is
with race. The studies show that students of higher SES
levels consistently score higher on IQ and achievement
tests than do those of lower SES levels regardless of
race. The only study which shows different results was
that of Deutsch and Brown.(l964). These investigators
attribute their findings to what they termed a "partici-
pation hypothesis." Hence, they draw the conclusion that
‘white students of all SES levels score higher than their

Iblack counterparts on IQ tests. These conclusions are

158

similar to those of other studies which have shown that
there is a 30 per cent overlap in black and white intel-
ligence.

The studies which investigated the motivation of
students and SES proved that the positive attributes of
motivation are closely associated with high SES students,
and, consequently, high academic achievement or IQ scores.
One of the reasons given for this was that of teacher
expectation. The studies in the area of teacher expecta-
tion hypothesized that a student's IQ score, his member-
ship in a particular ability track, or his race, are fre-
quently used by teachers in determining a student's in-
tellectual ability. However, as the studies indicate,
when this information (with the exception of race) is
withheld from the teacher or arbitrarily assigned to
various students, unknown to the teacher, the achievement.
scores and/or IQ scores of the students are improved.

The-studies have further shown that a significant
correlation exists between students of low SES levels, IQ
scores and negative attitudes toward school or education.

A number of reasons were supplied in defense of the

159

finding: lack of parental or teacher motivation, an en-
vironmental surrounding which negates academic achievement
with occupational achievement, lack of positive teacher
expectation, poor academic achievement and a lack of a
"language—conceptual" oriented environment.

Cloward and Jones reported findings conflicting
with those stated above. They found that lower class and
working class persons have more positive attitudes toward
school, education and teachers than do middle-class per-
sons. They felt that middle-class persons have a higher
expectation of what schools are supposed to accomplish,
and are more financially able to send their children to
private schools than are lower or working-class persons,
who must cope with the situation as it exists.

The remarks of Campbell and Marx (1969) best sum-
marize the feelings underlying the current programs and
practices presented beginning on page 73. Their remarks
are drawn from observations made at the "National Confer-
ence on the Education Dimension of the Model Cities Pro-

gram" at the University of Chicago in 1968.

160

After reflecting on the various papers presented
at the conference, Campbell and Marx found that they were
unable to draw any final conclusions as to the specific
type of program or practices which could best suit the
culturally different child. Nevertheless, they were able
to offer their impressions and recommendations "that we
think are pertinent to educational planning in our cities"
(p. 133). Of the ten recommendations offered, the fourth
is of greatest importance to the present discussion: "In-
struction in the urban school must be student—centered"
(p. 138-139). The observers imply that teachers must be
able to accept, and understand, the values of students
whose backgrounds "vastly" differ from their own.

Teachers if they are to surmount the instruction
differences associated with "tuned-out children,"
must structure their teaching around experiences
that are relevant to daily life in the city. . . .
The ultimate individual goal, of course, is for
teachers to help students attain self-realization
through learning. As Willard Congreve noted [a
participant in the conference], education for self-
realization requires that teachers place consider-
able trust in the judgment of their students (pp.
138-139).

The junior high school general music studies re-

viewed beginning on page 86 are similar in their research

161

approach. Although the studies of Pearman, Motycka,
Reimer, and Forcucci differ in theoretical orientation,
all use the same four steps in constructing their general
music courses: 1) formulating objectives; 2) organizing
experiences relevant to the objectives; 3) organizing and
gathering of instructional materials; and 4) evaluation
of the materials, objectives and experiences. The theor-
etical orientation of the studies were identified as:
Philosophical-psychological, used by Pearman; a confidence
outline, used by Motycka; aesthetic foundation and sensi-
tivity, used by Reimer; and a study guide written ex-
pressly in the language of the students, used by Forcucci.
The articles of Rankin and Hughes investigated the
reasons, importance, and ways of developing junior high
school general music instructional objectives. Rankin
emphasized the importance of the objectives being con-
sistent with those of the school's philosophy and "what
is teachable." Hughes stressed the importance of planning
the instructional objectives and the instructional sequence
in order to facilitate individualized instruction, motiva-

tion, and reinforcement.

162

Many of the current developments in urban music
education have come about through what Rankin called a
"detail analysis of the essence of music," and also
through attempts to establish what is essential for
musical understanding, Broudy (1961) noted that levels
of musical understanding fall into three broad categories:
the emotional level, the level of general approval, and
the level of discrimination. The two which present the
most difficulty for urban general music teachers are the
levels of general approval and discrimination.

In relation to the former level, the problem rests
with the teacher's inability to realize that his level of
general approval differs vastly from those of his students.
The teacher's level "usually conforms to an established
norm, or relies heavily on traditional standards and sanc-
tions of artistic value," that have been instilled in him
as part of his professional training (Schwadron, 1967, p.
83). The student's level of approval is influenced by a
number of variables, the most important of which are his

environment and ethnic culture.

163

The problems found in the level of discrimination
appear to be formed in the different philosophical orien-
tations employed by various teachers. For example, Koontz
(1956) stated that it is "the primary task of general mu-
sic to develop the latent sensibilities of our students
to beauty in all its varied forms" (p. 20), while Krone
(1959) felt that the "activities of the general music class
should involve many different kinds of experience so that
a finer degree of discrimination will result" (p. 24).
Both suggest the need for general music classes to develop
a level of aesthetic discrimination within its students,
but each offers different points of reference. Koontz
suggests the use of only "good" music to develop this
level, and Krone feels that all types of music should be
used because the final decision of musical discrimination
must be the studenth responsibility. Krone's approach
relates to that of Heyl (1943), who stated:

A critic who attempts to instill an idea of
absolute standards and evaluation upon the un—
knowing and untrained may distort wholesome and
just attitudes . . . A teacher who informs pu-
‘pils that one kind of art is intrinsically su-

perior to another may be doing positive and
permanent harm (p. 106).

164

An understanding of these two problems and an at-
tempt to solve them underlies most of the programs that
were reviewed. In each of these.prOgrams, one finds an
intense effort on the part of teachers or program organ-
izers to make the-music experiences.more meaningful to.
the culturally different student. This has been accom-
plished either through the use of indigenous music ma-
terial and experiences (providing special opportunities
for musically talented culturally different students),
or by offering free instrumental, vocal, music theory
or music history instructions which are usually not.
available to culturally different students.

In the section on the training of teachers for
culturally different students, it was evident that no
generally accepted characteristiC-teacher education pro-
grams had been developed for the teachers of culturally
different students. Where some writers have focused on
the attitudes and behaviors of the teachers, others have
enmhasized-the influence of teachers' aspirations. Avail-
.able evidence suggests that black teachers tend to empha-

:size-the.inadequate physical conditions of the schools,

165

while white teachers tend to emphasize the shortcomings
of the students. Both hypothetical models emphasized the
teacher's knowledge of the children's background, while
one also stressed the teacher's social relationship with
the children. However, within these varied emphases,
both models offered three desirable attitudes, traits,
characteristics, or qualities:

1. Thorough knowledge of the student, his background,

his aspirations, his fears, his habits, his tal-

ents, his shortcomings and his life-style.

2. Knowledge of ways to direct and guide the learn-
ing of the culturally different child.

3. Skill in human relations, particularly as they
affect the attitudes and behaviors of the students.

Many of these same teacher attitudes were identi-
fied for music teachers of the culturally different. Added
to these were the need for teachers to understand and ac-
cept the various types of popular music found in the en-
vironment of the students.

The current developments in teacher preparation
programs, both in practice and theory, have been summar-
ized by Passow (1967). These developments include:

1. Early and continuous contact with children
and adults in disadvantaged areas in a

166

variety of school and non-school related
activities. These range from one-to-one
tutoring of pupils to supervising after-
school activities to classroom observations
and intensive classroom teaching. These
experiences are carefully supervised and
often analyzed in seminar or small group,
sessions afterwards.

Intensive involvement of behavioral and so-
cial scientists who apply research and the-
ory from their disciplines to the specific'
needs and problems of the disadvantaged
area. These include cultural anthropolo-
gists, social psychologists, architects,
city planners, historians and political
scientists-~many of whom are actively in-
volved in field experiences with students.

Intensive involvement of successful school
practitioners--classroom teachers, princi-
pals, counselors and others-~in working
with the teacher education staff in plan-
ning, supervising, and evaluating experi-
ences. The-two-way flow of college and
school staffs has been of considerable
benefit to both. Rivilin has urged the
use of affiliated schools as laboratories
for urban teacher education drawing the
analogy-to the teaching hospital attached
to the medical school.

Opportunities for pre-service teachers to
work with non-school agencies, government
and agency-sponsored, and to become ac-
tively involved in on-going projects for
overcoming poverty, extending civil rights,
and-generally "reversing the spiral toward
futility." Aside from the insights acquired
into the life styles of the inner-city fam-
ilies, such experiences are apparently

167

instrumental in more positive attitude for-
mation to the problems faced in such areas.

5. Modification of college courses to develop
those techniques and skills essential to
teaching in depressed areas. These include
help with diagnostic and remedial procedures,
with methods and materials for individualiza-
tion of instruction, with strategies for
classroom control, and with personnel and
material resources.

6. Opportunity to examine, discuss, and plan

local program adaptations to known situa-

tions, current research, and experimentation

being reported by other education centers.

7. Establishment of internships and other means

for continuing relationships between the

college and the teacher in-service so that

the teacher has continuing supervisory aid

as well as support (PP. 108-109).

Along with the above-mentioned developments, music
educators have emphasized courses dealing with ethnic mu-
sic as well as music of the various cultures of American
society. In addition, complete courses in jazz, both his-
itorical and theoretical; systematic instructions for use
of musical instruments which are currently popular in

American subcultures; and training in the use of music

as a therapeutic tool, have also been included.

168

Implications for the Present Study

 

The six areas of literature have the following

implications for this investigation:

The studies reviewed have included a detailed
description of the social, emotional, intellec-
tual and physical characteristics of the junior
high school students which must be considered
by the researcher in developing a program for

this age level.

The studies reviewed have included descriptions
of the SES and environmental conditions of the
student With which the investigation will deal.
These conditions were also investigated in terms
of their effects on school achievement and atti-
tudes toward school. These studies have enabled
the researcher to construct music experiences
which may possibly off-set some of the adverse

effects of the conditions.

169

The studies have included discussions of a number
of successful programs and practices, in non-music
areas. Where appropriate, many of the practices
were incorporated into the present study. The
increase in language arts and mathematic achieve—
ment, due to the use of indigenous experiences,

was of special interest to this research study.

The review has included musical concepts, exper-
iences, activities and objectives appropriate for
junior high school general music classes. Addi-
tionally, specific music programs for culturally
different students were also reviewed. These two
types of studies enabled the researcher to con-
struct a junior high school general music course,
relevant to the needs of culturally different

students.

The review of the literature has also included
discussions of desirable teacher behavior for
teachers of culturally different students. Addi-

tionally, operational and proposed teacher

170

education programs, for perspective teachers of
the culturally different were included. These
sections of the literature sensitized the re-
searcher and the teachers of the project to their
—responSibilities in working with culturally dif-

ferent students.

CHAPTER III
DESIGN OF THE STUDY
Introduction

The purpose of the study was to investigate popu-
lar ethnic music as a foundation for music learning. The
writer hypothesizes that through ethnic music, children
of culturally different areas or lower socio-economic
situations can develop the necessary music skills and
knowledge to participate and/or communicate musically
with children from all other musical backgrounds. It is
further hypothesized that these experiences will be an
adequate background for musical development and will help
foster a greater degree of self-esteem, as well as a bet-
ter understanding of how all music is interrelated and

dependent on the same materials for existence.

171

172

Sample

Three junior high schools (Noble Junior High School,
Detroit; Holmes Junior High School, Flint; and Gardner Jun-
ior High School, Lansing) were selected to participate in
the project for one of two reasons: 1) their locations
within an inner-city or ghetto area or 2) because of their
large population of minority or ethnic children. In each
school one experimental and one control group were taught
by the general music instructor of the school. The control
and experimental groups were randomly selected from the

general music classes. Tables 3.1 and 3.2 contain racial

breakdowns of the three schools and the six groups.

TABLE 3.1

RACIAL COMPOSITION OF THE SCHOOLS

 

 

 

 

Black White Spanish Others Type Of
School Total School
' Pop. Neighbor-
. N . % N . % . .
o o No % No % hood
Noble 1283 1217 94.86 62 4.83 4 .31 Integrated
Holmes 1318 520 39.45 780 59.18 18 1.36 Newly In-
tegrated

Gardner 1589 396 24.92 1154 72.62 37 2.33 l .12 Newly In-
tegrated

 

173

TABLE 3.2

RACIAL COMPOSITION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL (EX.)
AND CONTROL (CT.) GROUPS

 

 

 

 

m
Black White Spanish
School ' Total
No. % No. % No. %
Noble-Ct. 17 100.00 17
Noble-Ex. 21 100.00 21
Holmes-Ct. 13 54.16 11 45.83 24
Holmes-Ex. 11 55.00 9 45.00 20
Gardner-Ct. 4 30.76 9 68.61 13
Gardner-Ex. l 9.09 9 81.81 1 9.09 11
Measures

At the beginning of the experimental period, all
six groups took three examinations: l) a music achieve-
ment test, 2) a test for attitudes toward music and music
instruction, and 3) a test for attitudes toward school.
(See Appendix B.) These tests were validated by members
of the music education faculty of Michigan State Univer—
sity. Reliability for the music achievement test was ob-
tained by an item analysis from the results of the pre-
test. The reliability coefficient is 0.8544 as determined

by Kunder-Richardson Reliability #20. Item analysis data

174

are contained in Appendix C, Tables C.1, C.2, C.3, C.4,
and C.5.

Each of the statements from the music attitude
test and the school attitude test were scaled by using
the Thurstone and Chave (1929) "method of equal-appearing
intervals"(See Appendix C.). The scaling was performed
by ten music and ten education specialists, each scaling
the twenty-eight or thirty-two attitudinal statements in
his area of specialization. These twenty specialists were
asked to judge the degree of favorableness or unfavorable-
ness of attitude-expressed by each statement in terms of
an eleven-interval continuum. The-composite scaling re-
sults were then used for obtaining the scale value of each
(attitude statement of the two tests. These scale values
were calculated from Edwards' (1957) "calculation of scale"

formula:

.50 - 2 pb
PW

S = ( )i

(See Appendix C, Tables C.6 and C.7.).
Each of the possible responses for the statements

'was assigned a value of one to five from agreement (A) to

175

disagreement (D), respectively: i.e., A=1, AS=2, N=3,
DS=4, D=5. A response of a question mark (2), which in-
dicated "non-understanding" of a statement, equaled zero
(0). By multiplying each favorable statement's scale
value by one or five for unfavorable statements, a favor—
able composite score and its average was obtained for each
test. The reverse process was used for obtaining the un-
favorable composite scores and their averages.; Using
three as a multiplier, neutral composite-scoring and their
averages were calculated for each test. The averages are
more important than the composite scores because of the
negative effect or lowering of the composite score by the
non-understanding response (question mark). The results

of the calculation are contained in Table 3.3.

TABLE 3.3

FAVORABLE (HIGH), NEUTRAL (MEDIUM), AND UNFAVORABLE (LOW)
SCORE AND AVERAGE POSSIBILITIES FOR THE
SCHOOL ATTITUDE (#1) AND MUSIC ATTITUDE (#2) TESTS

 

 

Favorable Neutral Unfavorable
Test
.Score Average Score Average Score Average
#1 857.97 39.64 559.47 19.98 260.97 9.32

#2 1,048.53 32.76 735.75 22.99 449.07 14.03

.1;

176

The three experimental groups also took a ques-
tionnaire to determine the radio stations most popular
The results of the

with the students. (See Appendix-B.)

questionnaire are shown in Table 3.4.

TABLE 3.4

RADIO STATION QUESTIONNAIRE

 

 

 

 

Cit lst Choice 2nd Choice Others Total No. of
Y No. % No. % No. % Responses

Detroit 20 47.6% 17 40.9% 5 11.5% 42

WCHB WJLB
Flint 20 50.0% 15 37.5% 5 12.5% 40

WAAM WTAC
Lansing 11 50.0% 7 31.8% 4 17.2% 22

WILS WJIM

Design
Six musical experiences (singing, reading, listen-

ing:

as basic to musicianship.

.

ized into five modules of instruction:

fundamentals, creating, and playing) were identified
These experiences were organ-

Duration, Pitch,

177

Intensity, Timbre, and Form and the Similarities Within
All Music. (See Appendix A.)

Students in the three experimental groups received
integrated instruction with the six musical experiences
outlined above. Music reading and listening materials
for these classes were provided by the writer, selected
from the songs currently popular in the community, deter-
mined by the record polls of the radio stations identi-
fied by the Radio Questionnaire. These materials were
implemented with other published instructional materials--
some provided by the researcher and others available to.
the different teachers. The-instructions in these classes
began with familiar ethnic songs (soul, folk, rock, etc.)
which served as the basis of the instructional material
for all six areas of development. Form, rhythm, melody,
harmony, pitch, duration, intensity and timbre were all
explained as they pertained to the ethnic songs being
used as examples. ' As the students progressed in musical
understanding, the establishment of relationships between
the structure and component parts of the ethnic songs and

those of other types of music began to develop.

178

The succeeding instructional sequences, activi-
ties, and experiences were also applied to the three con-
trol groups. The only differences were the ethnic mater-
ials used for music reading and listening experiences,
and their employment in explaining form, rhythm, melody,
harmony, pitch, duration intensity, and timbre in the
experimental groups; while "standard" published and re—
corded general music materials were used for the experi-
ences and explanations in the control groups. Therefore,
all six groups received the same type of musical experi-
ences, were instructed in the same musical concepts, and
participated in the same type of musical activities at
approximately the same time. The experimental and con-
trol instructions differed only in the presence or ab-
sence of ethnic materials.

The instructional modules for all six groups were
constructed from behavioral objectives developed by the
tflxree general music instructors and the writer. These
(flojectives were aimed toward the type of cognitive, af-
fective, and psychomotor musical experience basic to mu-

:sicianship and the development of "musical-liberal"

179

students, i.e., students who regard all music as similar
but who realize that music differs in the use of its

properties.

Analysis

At the conclusion of the experimental period, the
same two attitude tests-~music and school-~and music
achievement test were administered to all six groups.
Analysis of covariance, t-test, and beta weights were

used in testing the null hypotheses:

1. There is no significant difference in attitudes
developed toward school between groups using eth-
nic material as compared to those using tradi-

tional material.

2. There is no significant difference in attitudes
developed toward music between groups using eth-
nic material as compared to those using tradi-

tional material.

180

3. There is no Significant difference in musical
achievement between groups using ethnic material

as compared to those using traditional material.

Correlations of gain scores was used in computing the de-

pendence between the three independent variables:

1. Music achievement and attitudes toward music;
2. Music achievement and attitudes toward school;

3. Attitudes toward music and attitudes toward school.~

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA

The purpose of this study was to evaluate how in-
clusion of popular ethnic music in general music classes
affects culturally different junior high school students,
and how this music influences their music achievement,
attitude toward music, and attitude toward school.

The present chapter will present the results of
the study and analysis of the data obtained during the
course of the inquiry. These data form the basis for
accepting or rejecting the hypothesis set forth in Chap-

ter I.

Pre-Test Data

Means and standard deviations of the three inde-
pendent variables for the total sample (N=106) are revealed
in Table 4.1 Tables 4.2 and 4.3 contain the same informa-

tion for the control and experimental groups, respectively.

181

182

TABLE 4.1

PRE-TEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF THE
THREE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES (N=106)

 

 

Score

 

 

. Score Ave. Ave.
School Attitudes (#1) 453.40 16.83 78.96 2.84
Music Attitudes (#2) 754.37 32.76 120.68 3.59
Music Achievement (#3) 77.91 31.86
TABLE 4.2

PRE-TEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF THE
THREE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE FOR THE:

CONTROL GROUPS (N=54)

 

 

 

. Score Ave. Score Ave.
Variables
Mean Mean S.D. S.D.
School Attitudes (#1) 451.90 16.73 81.48 2.76
Music Attitudes (#2) 751.74 24.62 113.82 3.40
Music Achievement (#3) 80.18 30.10

 

183

The "score" represents the total points earned on
either of the two attitude examinations (Tests #1 and #2),
while the "average" (Ave.) represents these total points
divided by the actual number of responses. The highest.

possible scores and their averages are given in Table 3.1.

TABLE 4.3

PRE-TEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF THE'
THREE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES FOR THE‘
EXPERIMENTAL-GROUPS (N=52)

 

Variables Score Ave. Score Ave.»

Mean Mean S.D. S.D.

School Attitudes (#1) 454.96 16.93 77.02- 2.95

Music Attitudes (#2) 757.09 24.73 128.47 3.80
Music Achievement (#3) 75.71 33.61

 

The means and standard deviations reported in Tables
4.2 and 4.3 reveal that the experimental and control groups‘
are substantially heterogeneous within themselves [raw
scores range from 8.1 to 21.9 (Test #1); 15.6 to 30.6 (Test
#2); and 10.0 to 148.4 (Test #3) for the control group; and
11.6 to 20.4 (Test #1); 14.5 to 31.7 (Test #2); and 6.1 to

155.8 (Test #3) for the experimental groups]. However, the

184

groups are homogeneous to each other in that the amount
of variance in each group is about the same. This is
most apparent upon examining the groups' standard devia-

tions.

Post-Test Data

Means and standard deviations were also obtained
for the three post—tests. Table 4.4 shows these results
for the total population, while Tables 4.5 and 4.6 con-
tain the results for the control and experimental groups,

respectively.

TABLE 4.4

POST-TEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
OF THE THREE INDEPENDENT'
VARIABLES (N=106)

 

 

 

. Score Ave. Score Ave.

variables Mean Mean S.D. S.D.

School Attitudes (#1) 521.17 19.15 115.77 4.13
Music Attitudes (#2) 870.41 27.61 122.62 3.73

Music Achievement (#3) 111.87 32.86

 

185

TABLE 4.5

POST-TEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
OF THE THREE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
FOR THE CONTROL GROUPS (N=54)

 

 

 

Variables Score Ave. Score, Ave.
Mean, Mean S.D. S.D.
School Attitudes (#1) 493.16 18.05 82.31 3.01
Music Attitudes (#2) 805.52 25.61 122.88 3.79
Music Achievement (#3) 96.87 33.61
TABLE 4.6

POST-TEST MEANS AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS
OF THE THREE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS (N=52)

 

 

 

Variables Score, Ave. Score Ave.

Mean Mean S.D. S.D.
School Attitudes (#1) 550.27 20.28 137.33 4.81
Music Attitudes (#2) 937.79 29.68 78.60 2.26

Music Achievement (#3) 127.46 27.14

 

186

A comparison of data contained in Tables 4.1 and
4.4 shows a significant gain in average mean points (Tests
#1 and #2) and in score mean points (Test #3). This gain
is accounted for in Table 4.6 which shows average point
gains of 3.35, 4.95 for Test #1 and #2, and 51.75 score
point gains for Test #3. These gains are higher than
those of 1.32, .99, and 16.67 for Tests #1, #2, and #3,
respectively (Table 4.5). In addition, the heterogeneity
between the groups, becomes evident if the standard devia-
tions in Tables 4.1 and 4.4 are compared. The experimental
groups exhibit more homogeneity for Test #2 (average raw
scores range from 24.7 to 32.6) and Test #3 (raw scores
range from 41.5 to 168.5). However,the experimental groups
do show great heterogeneity for Test #1 (average raw scores
range from 11.8 to 30.2).

The control groups show heterogeneity for all three

‘post-tests:

1. Test #1 average raw scores range from 11.0 to 25.6.

2. Test #2 average raw scores range from 15.7 to 32.1.

3. Test #3 raw scores range from 29.0 to 163.6.

187

Analysis of Data Relative to_
Attitudes toward School
Analysis of covariance was used in evaluating
additional differences between control and experimental
groups. For the evaluation of each test, the pre-test.
scores were used as the covariate. Table 4.7 shows the
results of the school attitude test (Test #1) with the

post-test serving as the dependent variable.

TABLE 4.7

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF SCHOOL ATTITUDE TEST:
DEPENDENT VARIABLE-POST SCHOOL
ATTITUDE TEST (N=106)

 

 

 

Source of Sum of Deggees Mean S taiis- Signifi-
Variance Squares Freedom Square tic cance
Ave. :

Treatment (EvsC) 714. 749 1 714 . 749 77. 322 < . 005
Error 952. 101 103 9 . 243, .
Scare: ”

Treatment (EvsC 545745 . 077 1 545745 .077 72 . 322 < . 005

Error 775254.138 103 7526.739

 

Analysis of variance of the dependent variable
(Post-Test #1) reveals a significance of .001 for the

averages and .002 for the scores (See Table E. 1). In

188

addition, the average square of the multiple correlation
coefficient, R2=.47, indicates that only 47% of the gain
scores earned by the experimental groups may be attributed
to the experimental treatment (see Table E.4). Hence, the
remaining 53% must be due to other factors not considered
by the analysis.

The F values of 77.322 and 72.507 are significant
at the .005 level; therefore, the null hypothesis that
there is no significant difference in attitudes developed
toward school between groups using ethnic materials as
compared to those using traditional materials is rejected.
Although the average square of the multiple correlation
coefficient, R2= .47, shows little relation to gain scores,
the application of the t-test-on the significance of the
square of the multiple correlation coefficient yields an
average t value of 3.62, which exceeds the..01 level of

confidence.

189

Analysis of Data Relative to Attitudes
Toward Music

Table 4.8 shows the analysis of covariance results

of the music attitude tests (Test #2), with the post—test

serving as covariate.

TABLE 4.8

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MUSIC ATTITUDE TEST: DEPENDENT
VARIABLE-POST MUSIC ATTITUDE TEST (N=106)

w

Degrees ' F

 

 

Source of Sum of Mean Signifi-
. of Statis-

Variance Squares Freedom Square. 'tic canoe

Ave.:

Treatment (EvsC) 471.490 1 471.490 87.570 <.005

Error 554.565 103 5.384

Score: '

Treatment (EvsC) 605444.634 1 605444.634 122.286 (.005

Error . 509957.377 103 4951.042

 

Analysis of variance of the dependent variable
(Post-Test #2) produced F values of 79.019 and-88.860,
whiCh are both significant at the .005 level (see Table
E.2). The averagesquare of the multiple correlation co-
efficient, R2=.62, indicates that 62% of the gain scores,

earned by the experimental groups, are attributed to the

experimental treatment (see Table E.4).

190

The null hypothesis (there is no significant dif-
ference in attitudes developed toward music between groups
using ethnic material as compared to those using tradi-
tional material) is rejected. The F values of 122.286
and 87.570 for music attitudes exceed the .005 level of
confidence. In addition, the average 2 value of 6.51 is

significant at the .01 level of confidence.

Analysis of Data Relative to
Music Achievement
Table 4.9 contains the analysis of covariance re-
sults of the music achievement test (Test #3), with the

post—test serving as the covariate.

TABLE 4.9

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE OF MUSIC ACHIEVEMENT TEST: DEPENDENT
VARIABLE-POST MUSIC ACHIEVEMENT TEST (N=106)-

 

 

u 1

Source of Sum of Degrees Mean F . Signifi-

Variance Squares 0f Square Statis- cance
Freedom ’ tic

Treatment (EvsC) 66466.298 1 66466.298 308.774 .05

Error ‘ 22171.591 103 215.258

 

191

Analysis of variance of the dependent variable
(Post—Test #3) produced an F value of 89.634, which is
significant at the .05 level (see Table E.3). The square
of the multiple correlation coefficient, R2=.80, shows
that 80% of the gain scores, earned by the experimental
groups, are attributed to the experimental treatment (see
Table E.4).

The null hypothesis (there is no significant dif-
ference in.music achievement between groups using ethnic
material as compared to those using traditional material)
is rejected. The F value of 308.77 exceeds the .05 level'
of confidence. Additionally the t value of 9.83 is sig-

nificant at the .01 level of confidence.

BetaCoefficients

Beta coefficients were computed to indicate the
contributions of the independent variables (the pre-tests)
to the dependent variables (the post-tests). Table 4.10

presents the beta weights for all three pre-tests.

192

TABLE 4.10

BETA WEIGHTS FOR THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES (PRE-TESTS) TO THE
DEPENDENT VARIABLES (POST-TESTS)

 

 

 

Pre-Test Pre-Test Pre-Test
Beta weights .63070 .56715 .76738

 

The information contained in Table 4.10 indicates
the differences in the magnitude of the respective inde-
pendent variables as they bear on the dependent variables.
It is evident that the post-test results of Test #3 are
more dependent on their pre-test result, than are Tests
#1 or #2. In other words, it takes more "weighting" of.
Pre-test.#3 than it does for Pre-tests #1 and #2 in order
to determine the criterion variables (Post—tests #1, #2,
and #3). Although this seems to contradict the results
of the square of the multiple-correlation coefficients,
it should be remembered that beta weights are computed
for both control and experimental gains; while the square
of the multiple correlation coefficients is computed only

for the gains of the experimental groups. The beta

193

weights for the experimental groups were determined by re-
gression analysis. The-results of the regressed beta

weights are presented in Table 4.11.

TABLE 4.11

BETA WEIGHTS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS FOR THE
CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES~
(PRE-TESTS) TO THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES
(POST-TESTS) N=52

 

 

Pre-Test Pre-Test Pre-Test
Beta weights .24918 .53874 .41345

 

Compared to the original beta weights (Table 4.10), the
adjusted or regressed beta weights, for the experimental
groups, show that a smaller proportion of the criterion
variables (postptests) is accountable by the contributions
of the independent variables (pre-tests). This is in
agreement with the square of the multiple correlation co-

efficients for the three tests.

194

Analysis of Correlations

Two forms of correlations were used in analyzing
the dependence between variables. The first form, simple
correlations, was used to view the relationship between
the pre- and post-tests results of the total population
(N=106). These correlations also serve to strengthen
the reliability coefficient quoted in Chapter III.

Table 4.12 shows the results of this correlation.

Converted into reliability coefficients (test-

retest design), the correlations indicate the following:

1. Test #l-—reliabi1ity coefficients of .60956 for

the scores and .63934 for the averages.

2. Test #2--re1iability coefficients of .63116 for

the scores and .57585 for the averages.

3. Test #3--a reliability coefficient of .79652.

These reliability coefficients are not so significant as
they ndght appear. This is particularly true in regard

to Tests #1 and #2.

195

.mocmouuaoo mo Hm>ma so. was um ucmonmncmum.

 

 

ooooooa Hmhnm. mavvm. Hmmmm. «mmmhm. onooo. mmoom. mmnmd. mommm. mvnam. .m>¢ umom mt ummB
ooooo.a mmmmm. hmmmm. vmmbm. «maamm. Nvmam. mmmma. nomov. haamm. whoom umom we Umoa
ooooo.a enorm. Hmvom. onmom. «wmmmo. «@mmoo. mqmmm. hmamm. .o>¢ pace at puma
ooooo.H mommm. hammm. Nmmvo. thmm. hmmmm. memmm. ouoom umom Ht anus
ooooo.a omvmw. mamwm. mmhmm. mvawm. mammm. .m>¢lonm mt umoa
ooooo.H HNNNM.. :mvmmm. mvdmm. momVM. whoomlmum mt ummB
ooooo.a ommmm. mmmwm. ommmm. .o>£loum At Home
ooooo.H mmmmm. hummm. whoomloum Ht Home
ooooood «Nmmmh. umom m¢ ummB
ooooo.H mum m¢ ummB
.o>¢ ouoom .o>¢ muoom .o>< muoom .o>¢ whoom
umom umom umom pmom none none Imam loam umom mum

me umme me away as name as umma we umms we umms He umme He Dams me name me name

 

AOOHHZV mBQDmmm Emmalfimom QZG Bmmalmmm ho mZOHeflnmmmOU

ma.v mqmde

196

For attitude tests, the re-test should be admin-
istered within a twenty-four hour period. Therefore, a
negative effect is encountered due, in part, to the length
of time elapsed between the administering of the tests.
However,the correlation coefficient is significant for
Test #3.

The second form, gain score correlations, was used
in determining the dependence between the three independent
variables. Tables 4.13 and 4.14 contain the analysis of
the gain score correlations, and the gain score correla—

tions of the control groups.

TABLE 4.13

ANALYSIS OF GAIN SCORE CORRELATIONS OF
CONTROL GROUPS (N=54)

 

 

m— M'
Source Mean S D T of F.of Significance
of Gain ' ' Mean Mean of Mean
Test #1 41.259 58.063 5.221 27,266 (.0005

Test #2 52.776 72.191 5.474 29.964 <.0005

Test #3 21.153 15.723 9.886 97.735 <.0005

 

197

TABLE 4.14

GAIN SCORE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
OF THE CONTROL GROUPS (N=54)

 

 

 

Test.#l Test #2 Test #3
Test #1 1.00000 0.15069 -0.33970
Test #2 1.00000 -0.29559
Test #3 1.00000

 

Tables 4.13 and 4.14 show significance of the means
at the <.0005 level; two negative gain score correlation
and one positive gain score correlation. In analyzing the
significance of these correlations, it was found that RVs
of .35400 and .27300 were needed for significance at the
.01 and .05 levels, respectively. The-gain score correla-
tion (between Test #1 and #2) of .15069 does not meet
either of these levels. Therefore, no significant corre-
lation exists between these tests. However, both correla-
tions of -.33970 (between Test #1-and #3) and -.29559 (be-
tween Test #2 and #3) exceeds the .05 level of significance.
.Hence, negative gain score correlations, significant at the

.05 level, are evident between Test #1 and #3, and Test #2

ennd #3.

198

A t-test was used to compare further-the signifi-
cance between gain score correlations of the three inde-
pendent variables (see Table E.5). The E values were
-2.53 (between Test #1 and #3), -5.25 (between Test #2
and #3), and 1.13 (between Test #1 and #2). The E value
of -5.25 exceeds the .01 level of significance; the E
value -2.53 exceeds the .05 level and is very close to
the .01 level of confidence; while the Ervalue of 1.13
does not meet either level of significance. The signif-
icance of the three 5 values is therefore, in agreement
with those reported for the significance of the correla-
tion.

Tables 4.15 and 4.16 contain the analysis of the
gain score correlations, and the gain score correlations

of the experimental groups.

TABLE 4.15

ANALYSIS OF GAIN SCORE CORRELATIONS OF
EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS (N=52)

 

 

 

Source S D -T of F of Significance
of Gain Mean ' ' Mean Mean of Mean
Test #1 95.312 108.601 6.328 40.053 <.0005
Test #2 180.696 93.272 13.970 195.162 <.005

Test #3 47.276 16.376 20.817 433.354 <-005

199

TABLE 4.16

GAIN SCORE CORRELATIONS BETWEEN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
OF THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS (N=52)

 

 

 

Test #1 Test #2 Test #3
Test #1 1.00000 0.00411 0.20147
Test #3 1.00000

 

Table 4.15 shows significances of the means at the
.005 level for Tests #2 and #3, and a significance of the
mean at the .0005 level for Test #1. Table 4.16 shows one
negative gain score correlation and two positive gain
score correlations. In analyzing the significance of the
three correlations, it was found that the R's of .35400
and .27300 were needed for significance at the .01 and .05
levels, respectively. The gain score correlations for all
three tests fall below these levels of significance.

A t-test was used to compare further the signifi-
cance-between gain score correlations of the three inde-
pendent variables (see Table E.6). The E values were 1.44

(between Test #1 and #3), 1.43 (between Test #2 and #3),

200

and 1.41 (between Test #1 and #2). None of these values
exceed the .01 or .05 level of confidence. The signifi-
cance of the E values is therefore, in agreement with
those reported for the significance of the correlation.
Consequently, it is concluded that no significant
gain score correlation exists between the three independ-
ent variables for the experimental groups or between tests
#1 and #2 for the control groups. In spite of this, it
was found that significant negative gain score correla-
tions do exist between Test #2 and #3, and Test #1 and #2

for the control groups.

Summary

The main objective of this chapter was to reveal
the results of statistical analysis of the data obtained
during the course of the research. The main hypothesis
and.three accompanying null hypotheses were tested in
this analysis of data by an analysis of covariance treat-
:menta Results of each analysis of covariance were further

supported and explained by the application of beta weights

201

and t-test. Gain score correlation was also applied to
determine the dependence between the three independent
variables. The following summaries were evident after

computation of data treatment:

Summary of_Hypothesis

 

 

Null Hypothesis Results.

1. There is no significant The null hypothesis of no
difference in attitudes significant difference in
developed toward school attitudes toward school
between groups using was rejected. A t-value
ethnic material as com- of 3.62 was obtained, sig-
pared to those using tra- nificant at the .01 level
ditional material. of confidence. In addi-

tion, F values of 77.32
and 72.32 were obtained,
both significant at the

.005 level of confidence.

There is no signifi-

cance in attitudes de-.

veloped toward music
between groups using
ethnic material as
compared to those
using traditional

material.

There is no signifi-
cant difference in
music.achievement be-
tween groups using
ethnic material as
compared to those
using traditional

material.)

202

The null hypothesis of no
significant difference in
attitudes toward music was
rejected. A E_va1ue of
6.51 was obtained, signif-
icant at the .01 level of
confidence. In addition,
F values of 87.57 and
122.28 were obtained, both

significant at the .005

level of confidence.

The null hypothesis of no
significant difference in
music achievement is re-

jected. A t_value of 9.83
was obtained, significant

at the .01 level of confi-
dence. In addition, an F
value of 308.77 was ob-

tained, significant at

the .05 level of confidence.

203

Beta Weights

There was a contribution of .63070 (Test #1), .56715
Test #2), and .76738 (Test #3) of the pre-tests to

the post-test results for the total population (N=106).

By Regression technique, beta weights of .24918 (Test
#1), .53874 (Test #2), and .41345 (Test #3) were ob-
tained for the experimental groups, which show a sig-

nificant decrease of pre-test contribution.

Gain Score Correlations

 

No significant gain score correlations occurred be-
tween the independent variables for the experimental

groups.

No significant gain score correlations occurred be-

tween Test #1 and #2 for the control groups.

Negative significant gain score correlations at the
.01 and .05 levels of confidence were obtained for
Test #2 and #3,.and Test #1 and #3 for the control

groups, respectively.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

This study investigated the use of popular ethnic
music as a basis for music learning in general music
classes. The main purpose of the study was to offer mean-
ingful indigenous musical experiences for culturally dif-
ferent junior high school music students. More specific-

ally, the study assessed:

1. the effect of the inclusion or exclusion of popu-
lar ethnic music upon measurable music achievement

of culturally different students,

2. the effect of the inclusion or exclusion of popular
ethnic music upon attitudes toward music and school,

and

204

205

the relationship between the use of ethnic music
and the three variables: a) music achievement,
b) attitudes toward music, and c) attitudes

toward school.

The main hypothes1s was that culturally different

students, given the opportunity to use their own ethnic

music as the foundation of music learning, will earn sig-

nificantly higher scores in music achievement. Further-

more,

the music attitudes and school attitudes of the

culturally different given this mode of study will be

higher than those students denied this opportunity.

The hypothesis necessitated testing three null

hypotheses:

1.

There is no difference in attitudes developed to-
ward school between groups using ethnic material

as compared to those using traditional material.

There is no difference in attitudes developed to-
ward music between groups using ethnic material

as compared to those using traditional material.

206

3. There is no difference in musical achievement be-
tween groups using ethnic material as compared to

those using traditional material.

A review of literature related to the nature and
needs of junior high school students revealed that the
junior high school years are ones in which the student:

1) has a rapid change in emotional, intellectual, social
and physical growth; 2) has a great need for peer accep-
tance; 3) has a great need for successful achievement;
and 4) formulates many of the attitudes, values, skills,
social customs and cultural patterns which will possibly
dominate his adult life style.

The research studies pertaining to SES, social
and environmental conditions of culturally different stu-
derme, produced a number of educational and socially de-
scriptive terms. Along with a variety of terms, additional
conflicting statements about specific conditions of the
students' environment were encountered. However, four

characteristics of the student and his family seemed to

be common :

207

1. They are either southern whites or non-whites who

have migrated to urban centers (Havighurst, 1964).

2. They have an income of $3,000 or less and are fre-

quently headed by a female (Witmer, 1964).

3. They have been raised in a world of failure, pre-
judice, alienation, and broken homes (Riessman,

1962).

4. They are driven by the desire to have food, money,
dwellings, and the fear of the natural elements

(Davis, 1948).

Studies which dealt with the effects of the stu-
dents' environment upon learning, although offering-con-
flicting findings, indicate that students of higher SES
level consistently score higher on IQ tests than do those
of lower SES levels, regardless of race. This was also
true for the positive attributes of motivation.

Remarks by Campbell and Marx (1969) were used in
summarizing the approaches underlying the various programs

and practices reviewed:

208

Teachers if they are to surmount the instruc-
tion differences associated with "tuned-out
children," must structure their teaching around
experiences that are relevant to daily life in
the city . . . . The ultimate individual goal,
of course, is for teachers to help students at-
tain self-realization through learning. As
Willard Congreve noted education for self-
realization requires that teachers place con-
siderable trust in the judgment of their stu-
dents (PP. 138-139).

The four general music research studies revealed
that each had a different theoretical orientation, but all
were related in the constructional procedure of general
music courses: 1) formulating objectives; 2) organizing
experiences relevant to the objectives; 3) organizing and
gathering materials, activities and experiences; and 4)
evaluating the materials, objectives and experiences.

The studies relative to current developments in
urban music education placed considerable emphasis on the
teachers' inability to realize that his levels of general
approval and discrimination differ vastly from those of
his students—-an understanding of these problems and an
attempt toward their solution formed the basis for many

<3f these studies. The solutions took the forms of incor-

gxzration of indigenous music materials and experiences

209

in classes, special opportunities for musically talented
culturally different students, or free instrumental and
vocal music instructions for these students.

From the studies reviewed, three suggestions were
outlined in regard to desirable attitudes, traits, char-
acteristics, or qualities of the teachers for the cultur-

ally different:

1. Thorough knowledge of the student, his background,
his aspirations, his fears, his habits, his tal-

ents, his shortcomings and his life-style.

2. Knowledge of ways to direct and guide the learn-

ing of the culturally different child.

3. Skill in human relations, particularly as it

affects the attitudes and behavior of the students.

Along with other suggestions, these three were put into
practice in many of the teacher education programs dis-
cussed.

One hundred and six general music students of

three urban junior high schools were randomly assigned

210

to experimental and control groups (one of each in each
school). The three independent variables were tested,
on both the pre- and post-test, by: 1) a music achieve-
ment test, 2) a test for attitudes toward music and mu-
sic instruction, and 3) a test for attitudes toward
school.

For a minimum of fourteen weeks, experimental and
control groups received instruction in the same musical
experiences, concepts and activities at approximately the
same time. The presence or absence of ethnic materials
was the only difference between the groups. The experi-
mental classes utilized ethnic materials for the experi-
ences and concepts, while the control classes used "tra-
ditional" published and recorded general music materials
for the experiences and concepts.

Analyses of covariance, t-tests, beta weights,
and correlation of gain scores were the statistical

methods used in testing the hypotheses.

211

Findings

The hypotheses tested were divided into three ma-
jor categories: 1) the effect of ethnic music materials
on attitudes toward school of culturally different chil-
dren, 2) the effect of ethnic music materials on atti-
tudes toward music of culturally different children, and
3) the effect of ethnic music materials on music achieve-
ment of culturally different children. In addition to
the three hypotheses, dependence between pre- and post-
test, and correlations between the three hypotheses were

also tested.

1. In the terms of the culturally different child's
attitudes toward school, ethnic music materials
produced a difference as compared with traditional
music materials. The difference was statistically

significant at the .01 level of confidence.

2. In terms of the culturally different child's atti-
tudes toward music, ethnic music materials pro-

duced a difference as compared with traditional

212

music materials. The difference was statistically

significant at the .01 level of confidence.

In terms of the culturally different child's music
achievement, ethnic music materials produced a

difference as compared with traditional music ma-
terials. The difference was statistically signif-

icant at the .01 level of confidence.

Dependence of the post-test results on the pre-
test results was statistically higher for the
total population than it was for the experimental

groups.

For the experimental group, correlation between
the gain scores of the three post—tests were not
statistically significant at either the .01 or .05

level of confidence.

For the control group, correlation between the
gain scores of attitudes toward school and atti-
tudes toward music was not statistically signifi-

cant at either the .01 or .05 level of confidence.

213

7. For the control group, correlation between the
gain scores of attitudes toward music and music
achievement produced a negative statistical sig-1

nificance at the .01 level of confidence.

8. For the control group, correlation between the
gain scores of attitudes toward school and music
achievement produced a negative statistical sig-

nificance at the .05 level of confidence.

Conclusions

The conclusions drawn from this study apply only
to the sample of culturally different students from which
the data were obtained. Therefore, that which is true
for these culturally different students cannot necessar-
.ily be assumed to be true for all culturally different
students. In addition, the ethnic music materials used
131 this study are not applicable for all culturally dif-
ferent students. It must be the teachers' responsibility

'to iJTvestigate the students' environment and culture as

214

these affect the students' education. The results of each

teacher's investigation, then, should be used in determin-

ing the appropriate ethnic music materials to be used in

the teaching situation.' However, based upon an analysis

of the outcomes of this investigation, the following con-

clusions are admissible:

When using ethnic related music materials in gen-
eral music classes for culturally different stu-
dents, an increase in music achievement, atti-
tudes toward music and attitudes toward school

is noted. These increases are the_result of the
indigenous nature of the instructional materials

and the students' familiarity with the materials.

There is no significant relationship between the
amount of gains in attitudes toward music, atti-
tudes toward school and music achievement due to

the use of ethnic related music materials.

215

Implications of the Use of Ethnic Materials

 

The adoption of ethnic materials, as used in this

study could have the following implications for music in-

structions:

More enthusiastic student participation, because
of the indigenous nature of the instructional ma-

terials.

Higher levels of musical achievement for culturally

different junior high school general music students.

Improved attitudes toward general music and its
instruction for culturally different junior high

school students.

More class time is allotted for psychomotor music
experiences, with less time being used for purely

cognitive musical development.

De Jager (see Chapter II) reports that each social
class has its own standards of what it considers

to be music. Hence each teacher must determine

216

what particular type(s) of music is (are) accepted
in the community in which he teaches. Only after

such assessments can the teacher choose the appro-
priate ethnic materials to be used for instruc-

tional purposes.

A better understanding of how all music is related
may generate, in consumers, an increase in accep-

tance of all types of music.

Accomplishments noted in this study may also exist
at other levels of general music instructions and

with other ethnic groups.

The introduction of college and university method
courses for the prospective teachers of cultur-
ally different students can also be an outcome

of this study.

217

Recommendations

 

The following recommendations are offered in view

of the findings of this study:

A similar investigation should be made to include
other groups and types of music. Such an investi-
gation might determine whether the effects of
other ethnic related music materials hold true

with other ethnic minorities.

A similar study should be conducted in areas other
than urban centers to determine whether the effects

would be the same with non-urban subjects.

A similar investigation should be made at other
levels and in other areas of musical instruction
to determine whether the instructional approach
would be applicable to all levels and areas of

musical instruction.

A study should be made investigating correlation

between music achievement and attitudes toward

218

music to determine whether either of these vari-

eables affects the other.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Articles.and.Essays

Ausubel, David. ”How Reversible are the Cognitive and
Motivational Effects of Cultural Deprivation?
Implications for Teaching the Culturally Deprived
Child," in Education of the Disadvantaged, New
York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1967.

Ausubel, David and Pear Ausubel. "Ego Development.Among
Segregated Negro Children," in Education in De-

pressed Areas, ed: A. H. Passow.. New York: Tea-
chers College Press, 1963.

 

Britten, Allen. "Music Education an American Specialty,".l
in Perspectives in Music Education: -Source Book
III, ed. B. C. Kowall. Washington, D. C.: MENC,
1966.

Charters, W. W. "The Social Background of.Teaching," in
Handbook on Research on Teaching, ed. N. L. Gage.
Chicago: Rand McNally and Co., 1963.

Clark, Kenneth and Mamie Clark. "Racial Identification
and Preference in Negro Children," in Readings.
in Social Psychology, ed..T.-Newcomb. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1947..

Cloward, Richard and James Jones. "Social Class: Educa-
tional Attitudes and Participation," in Education.
in Depressed Areas, ed. A. H. Passow. New York:
Teachers College Press, 1963.

Deutsch, Martin. "The Disadvantaged Child and the Learn-
ing-Process: Some Social Psychological and Devel-
opmental Considerations," in Education in Depressed.
Areas, ed. A. H. Passow. ,New York: Teachers Col-
lege Press, 1963.

 

220

221

Fowler, Charles. "Joining the Mainstream," in The Tangle-
wood Symposiump.ed. R. Choate. Washington, D. C.:
MENC, 1968.

 

Goldberg, Miriam. "Adopting Teacher-Style to Pupil Dif-
ferences: Teachers for Disadvantaged Children"
in Education of the Disadvantaged, ed. A. H. Pas-
sow, M. Goldberg and A. J. Tannenbaun. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1967.

"Factors Affecting Educational Attainment in
Depressed Urban Areas," in Education of the Dis-
advantaged, ed. A. H. Passow, et al. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1967.

 

Gordon, Edmund. "Desired Teacher Behavior in Schools for
Socially Disadvantaged Children," in Teachers for
the Disadvantaged, eds. M. Usdan and F. Bertoloet.‘
Chicago: Follet Publishing Co., 1966.

 

Graham, Kathryn. "Mathematics for the Disadvantaged Child,"
in Teachingythe Culturally Disadvantaged Pupil, ed.
J. Beck and R. Saxe. Springfield, Illinois: Charles
C. Thomas Publishers, 1965.-

Green, B. F. "Attitude Measurement," in Handbook of Social
Psychology, ed. G. Lindzey. Reading, Mass.: Addi~
son—Wesley Publishing Co., 1954.

 

Haubrich, Vernon F. "Preparing Teachers for Disadvantaged
Youth," in Racial Crisis in American Education, ed.
R. L. Green. Chicagoz~ Follett Educational-Co.,
1969.

Horrock, John E. "Culture Free Test of Intelligence," in
Assessment of Behavior, Columbus, Ohio: Charles
E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1964.‘

.Johnson, Guy B. "A Study of-the Musical Talent of the
American Negro," in Race Psychology, ed. T. R.
Garth. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1931.

\‘ f.

222

Johnson, Kenneth R. "The Language of Black Children:
Instructional Implications," in Racial Crisis in
American Education, ed. R. L. Green. Chicago:
Follett Educational Co., 1969.

Joyce, Bruce R. "Teachers for the Culturally Disadvan-
taged," in Teaching the Culturally Disadvantaged
Pupil, ed. J. M. Beck and R. W. Saxe. Springfield,
Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1965.

Lehman, Paul. "The Stage Band: A Critical Evaluation,"
in Perspectives in Music Education: Source Book
III, ed. B. C. Kowall. Washington, D. C.: MENC,‘
1966.

McAllister, David. "Curriculum Must Assume a Place at
the Center of Music," in The Tanglewood.Symposium,
ed. R. Choate, Washington, D. C.: MENC, 1968.

McGill, Katherine L. "Large City Programs," in Music in
the Inner-City Schools: A Symposium, Current
Issues in Music Education, IV, ed. H. Cady. Co-
lumbus, Ohio: Ohio State University School of
Music.(June 21-22, 1968).

Nicosea, Dolores. "Music for the Disadvantaged Pupil,"
in Teaching the Culturally Disadvantaged Pupil,
ed. J. M. Beck and R. W. Saxe. Springfield, Illi-
nois: Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1965.

Passow, A. Harry. "Teachers for Depressed Areas" in Edu-
cation for Depressed Areas, ed. Al H. Passow.
New York: Teachers College Press, 1963.

. "Diminishing Teacher Prejudice," in The Inner-
City Classroom: Teachers Behavior's, ed. R. D.
Strom, Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books,v
Inc., 1966.

 

JRichards, Mary H. "The Legacy from Kodaly," in Perspec-.
tives in Music Education, ed. B. C. Kowall. Wash-
ington: Music Educators National Conference, 1966.

223

Shaw, Arnold. "Popular Music from Minstrel to Rock 'n'
Roll," in One Hundred Years of American Music,
ed. P. H. Lang. New York: G. Schirmer, 1961.

 

Stagner, R. "Attitudes," in Encyclopedia of Educational
Research, ed. W. S. Monroe. New York: MacMillan
Co., 1941.

Torrance, Paul E. "Fostering Creative Behavior," in The_
Inner-City Classroom: Teacher Behavior's, ed.
R. D. Strom.‘ Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill
Books, Inc., 1966.

 

Webster, Staten. "The Teacher as an Alien:. Some Theor-
etical Considerations Regarding Teachers for Dis-
advantaged Schools," in Educating the Disadvan-
taged Learner, Part III of the Disadvantaged
Learner, ed. S. W. Webster. Chicago: Science
Research Association, Inc., 1964.1

 

‘Whiteman, Martin, Bert Brown and Martin Deutsch.r "Effects
of Class and Race on Language and Intellectual
Abilities," in The Disadvantaged Child, ed. M.
Deutsch, et al. New York: Basic Books Inc., 1967.

‘Wilson, Alan B. "Residential Segregation of Social Classes
and Aspirations of High School Boys," in Education
of the Disadvantaged: A Book of Readings, ed. A.
H. Passow. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1967.

 

. "Social Stratification and Academic Achievement,"
in Education in Depressed Areas, ed. Al H. Passow.
New York: Teachers College Press, 1963.

 

224

Books

Ashton-Warner, Sylvia. Teacher. New York: Simon and
Schuster, 1963.

Beck, John and Richard Saxe. Teaching the Culturally
Disadvantaged Pupil. Springfield, Illinois:
Charles C. Thomas Publishers, 1965.

 

Billingsley, Andrew. Black Families in White America.
Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, 1968.

Berge, E. B. History of Public School_Music. Boston:
Oliver Ditson Co., 1928.

Blair, Glenn M. and R. Steward Jones. Psychology of Ado-
lescence for Teachers. New York: The McMillan

Co., 1964.

Bloom, Benjamin, et a1. Compensatopy Education for Cul-
tural Deprivation. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, Inc., 1965.

Bond, Horace M. The Education of the Negro in the Ameri-
can Social Order. New York: Octagon Books, Inc.,

1966.

 

jBroudy, Harry S. Building a Philosophy of Education.
Second ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall, Inc., 1961.

Brcmn, Rbger W. Social Psychology. New York: Free Press
of Glencoe, Inc., 1965.

Ihmnche, Jane A. and Martin Provensen. An Introduction to
the Instruments of the Orchestra. New York:
Golden Press, 1962.

225

Campbell, Ronald, Lucy Marx and Raphel Nystrand. Educa-
tion and Urban Renaissance. New York: John Wiley
and Sons, Inc., 1969.

Coleman, Satie A. The Drum Book. New York: The John
Day Co., 1931.

Conart, James B. The Education of American Teachers.
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1963.

Davis, Allison. Social-Class Influences Upon Learning.
Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948.

DeCecco, John P. The Psychology of Learning and Instruc-
tion: Education Psychology. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1968.

Dietz, Betty W. and Michael Olalunji. Music Instruments
of Africa. New York: The John Day Co., 1965.

 

Deutsch, Martin, et al. The Disadvantaged Child. New
York: Basic Books, Inc., 1967.

Dykema, Peter W. and Karl W. Gehrekens. The Teaching_and
Administration of High School Music. Boston: C.C.
Birchard and Co., 1941.

Edwards, Allen L. Techniques of Attitude Scale Construc-
tion. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.

.Fantini, Mario and Gerald Weinstein. Making Urban Schools
Work. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
1968.

C
.Finkelstein, Sydney. Art and Society. New York: The
International Publishers Co., Inc., 1957.

. Composers and Nation: Folk Heritage of Music.
New York: The Inernational Publishers Co., Inc.,
1960.

 

226

Flagg, Marion. Music Learning: A Guide to Child Growth.
Boston: C. C. Birchard and Co., 1949.

Freeman, Marvin. The College Experience. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass Inc., 1967.

Gilmore, Lee. Folk Instruments. Minneapolis, Minn.:
Lerner Publication Co., l962.~

Gordon, Edmund and Doxey Wilkerson. Compensatory Educae
tion for the Disadvantaged. New York: College
Entrance Examination Board, 1966.

Havighurst, Robert J. Developmental Tasks and Education.
New York: Longmans, Green and Co., 1952.

Heyl, Bernard C. New Bearings in Esthetics and Art Criti-
cism. New York: Yale University Press, 1943.

Kaplan, Max. Foundations and Frontiers of Music Education.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1966.

Katz, D. and F. H. Allport. Student's Attitudes. Syra-
' cuse, N. Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1931.

Keil, Charles. Urban Blues. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1966.

 

Kennan, Kent. The Technique of Orchestration. Englewood
Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1958.

Kerlinger, Frederick. Foundations of Behavioral Research.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1965.

:Leonhard, Charles and Robert House. Foundation and Prin-
ciples of Music Education. New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Co. Inc., 1959.

:Lohman, Joseph (ed.). Cultural Patterns in Urban Schools:
A Manual for Teachers, Counselors, and Administra-
tors. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California

Press, 1967.

227

Machlis, Joseph. The Enjgyment of Music. New York:
W. W. Norton and Co., 1963.

 

McGeach, Dorothy et a1. Learning to Teach in Urban Schools.
New York: Teachers College Press, 1965.

 

Miller, Daniel and Guy E. Swanson.' Inner Conflict and De-
fense. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
1960.

 

Mursell, James. Principles of Musical Education. New
York: The McMillan Co., 1927.

 

Oppenheim, A. N. Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measure—
ment. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1966.

Passow, A. Harry, et al. (ed.). Education for the Disad-
vantaged. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Inc., 1967.

 

Peters, Gordon. Treatise on Percussion. Chicago: Frank's
Drum Shop, 1962.

 

Queen, Stuart and David Carpenter. The American City.
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1953.

 

Quick, E. J. (ed.). New Opportunities for the Culturally.
Disadvantaged. Toronto: Canadian Education Asso—
ciation, 1963.

 

 

Riessman, Frank. The Culturally Deprived Child. New York:
Harper and Row, 1962.

 

Rosenthal, Robert and Lenore Jacobson. Pygmalion in the
Classroom: Teacher Expectation and Pupil's Intel—
lectua1.Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 1968..

 

 

Schwadron, Abraham A. Aesthetics: Dimensions for Music
Education. Washington, D. C.: MENC, 1967.

 

 

228

Strom, Robert D. (ed.). The Inner-City Classroom: ,Teacher
Behavior's. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill
Books, Inc., 1966.

 

. Teaching in the Slum School. Columbus, Ohio:
Charles E. Merill Books, Inc., 1965

 

Thurstone, L. L. and E. J. Chave. The Measurement of Atti-
tude. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1929.

Trobowitz, Sidney. A Handbook for Teaching in the Ghetto
School. Chicago: Quadrangle Book, Inc., 1968a.

Tuckman, Bruce and John L. O'Brian. Preparing to Teach
the Disadvantaged.. New York: The Free Press,
1969.

 

Usdan, Mitchael and Frederick Bertoloet (eds.). Teachers
for the Disadvantaged. Chicago: Follett Publish-
ing Co., 1966.

 

Warner, Lloyd, et a1. Social Class in America. Chicago:
Science Research Associates, Inc., 1949.

 

White, Charles. Drums Through the Ages. Los Angeles:
The Sterling Press, 1960.

Willson, Robina B. Musical Instruments. New York: Henry
Z. Walek, Inc., 1966.

Dictionaries

 

.Apel, Willi. Harvard Dictionary of Music. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965.

Dill, S. H. and D. E. Beblau (eds.). Current Slang. Ver-
million, South Dakota: University of South Dakota
Press, 1968.

 

229
Filler, Louis. A Dictionary of American Social Reform.
Neerork: Philosophical Library Inc., 1963.

Lit, Hy. Dictionaryiof Hip_Words. Philadelphia: Hyski
Press, Inc., 1968.

Stein, Jess (ed.). The Random House Dictionary of the
English Language: the Unabridged Edition. New
York: Random House, 1966.

Zadrozny, John. Dictionary of Social Science. Washing-
ton, D. C.: Public Affairs Press, 1959.

Periodicals.

 

Anderson, Margaret and Rhea White. "A Survey of Work on
ESP and Teach-Pupil Attitudes," Journal of Para-
psychology, XXII (1958), 246-268.

Andrews, Frances. "The Preparation of Music Educators
for the Culturally Disadvantaged," Music Educators
Journal, LIII, No. 6 (Feb., 1967), 42-44.

Arlitt, Adott. "On the Need for Caution in Establishing
Race Norms," Journal of Applied Psychology, V
(1921), 179-183.

.Armstrong, Naomis. "Music Education for Culturally De-
prived High School Students," The High School-
Journal (Nov., 1968), 62-72. 3

Becker, Howard. "Social Class Variations in the Teacher-
Pupil Relationship," Journal of Educational So-
ciology, XXV (1952), 451-465.

Boudy, Harry S. "A Philosophy of the Arts in an Emerging
Society," Music Educators Journal, LVI, No. I
(Sept., 1969), 43-46 and 109-119.

230

Browell, Samuel. "Teaching the Child from the Disadvan-
taged Neighborhood," The Journal of Teacher Edu-
cation, XVI, No. 2 (June, 1965), 180-183.

Christian, Floyd. "Rock 'n' Roll Music Gets Through to
Them--Why Can't We?" Grade Teacher, LXXXIV, No.

2 (October, 1966), 32-38.

 

Clayman, Charles. "Valve and the Teacher," Journal of
Education, CXLIII (April, 1969), 23-27.

 

Clifford, Paul. "Education Profession Development for
Urban and Depress Areas," The AACTE Yearbook-e
Teacher Education: Issues and Innovations, No.
18 (1968), 105-107.

Conyers, James. "An Exploratory Study of Music Tastes
and Interests of College Students," Sociology
Inquiry, XXXIII, No. 1 (Winter, 1963), 58-66.

Daniel, Walter G. "Teachers for America's Disadvantaged
with Special Reference to Race," The Journal of
Negro Education, XXXIV, No. 4 (Fall, 1965), 381-
384.

DeJager, H. "Musical Socialization and the Schools,"
Music Educators Journal, LIII, No. 6 (Feb., 1967),
39-42 and 108-111.

Deutsch, Martin and Bert Brown. "Social Influences in
Negro-White Intelligence Differences," Journal of
Social Issues, XX (1964), 24-35.

 

Doig, Ivan. "Music Hope for the Ghetto," Music Journal,
XXIII, No. 8 (Nov., 1965), 43-44, 68.

Eisman, Lawrence. "Teaching the Difficult General Music
Class," Music Educators Journal, LIII, No. 3 (Nov.,
1966), 51-53.

231

Feldhusen, John and Herbert Klousmeier. "Anxiety, Intel-
ligence and Achievement in Children of Low, Aver-
age and High Intelligence," Child Development,
XXXIII (1962), 403-409.

Fishman, Joshua, et a1. "Guidelines for Testing Minority
Group Children," Journal of Social Issues, XX
(1964), 120-145.

Foster, Florence. "The Song Within: Music and the Disad-
vantaged Preschool Child," Young Children (Sept.,
1965), 373-376.

Fremont, Herbert. "Some Thoughts on Teaching Mathematics
to Disadvantaged Groups," Arithmetic Teacher, XI
(1964), 319-322.

Goddard, James L. "Marijuana, the Law vs 12 Million Peo-
ple," Life, LXVII, No. 18 (Oct. 31, 1969), 29-34.

Goodbrod, R. M. "Conquering the Jazz Craze of Young Pian-
ists," The Etude, LII (Feb., 1934), 80-82.

 

Gordon, Roderick D. "Doctoral Dissertations in Music and
Music Education, 1957-1963," Journal of Research,
in Music Education, XII, No. 1 (Spring, 1964).

 

"Doctoral Dissertations in Music and Music Edu-
cation, 1963-1967," Journal of Research in Music
Education, XVI, No. 2 (Summer, 1968).

 

Gottlieb, David. "Teaching and Students: The Views of
Negro and White Teachers," Sociology of Education,
XXXVII (1964), 345-353.

Green, Robert and William Farquhar. "Negro Academic Moti-
vation and Scholastic-Achievement," Journal of-
Educational Psychology, LVI (1965), 241-243.

Groff, Patrick J. "Culturally Deprived Children: Opin-
ions of Teachers on the Views of Riessman," Excep-
tional Children, XXXI (Oct., 1964), 61-65.

 

232

"Teaching the Culturally Deprived Child: Tea-
cher Turnover,“ California Journal of Educational.
Research, XVIII, Noo 2 (March, 1967), 91—95.

Gross, N. "Social Class Identification in Urban Commun-
ity," American Sociological Reviews, XVIII (1953),
398-403.

Harap, Louis. "The Case for Hot Jazz," The Musical gear-

Haubrich, Vernon. "The Culturally Different: New Context
for Teacher Education," Journal of Teacher Educa-
tion, XIV (1963), 163-167.

Havighurst, Robert. "Who Are the Socially Disadvantaged?"
Journal of Negro Education, XXXIII, No. 4 (Fall,
1964), 210-217.

 

Heald, James. "In Defense of Middle-Class Values," Phi
Delta Kappan, XLVII, No.-2 (1965), 81-83.

Henry, Jules. "White People's Time and Colored People's
Time," Trans-Action (March-April, 1965), 31-34.

 

Hieronymus, Albert. "A Study of Social Class Motivation:
Relationships Between Anxiety for Education and
Certain Socioeconomic and Intellectual Variables,"
Journal of Educational Psychology, XLII (1951),
193-205.

Horton, Carrell and Perry Crump. "Growth and Development:
XI Descriptive Analysis of the Background of 76
Negro Children Whose Scores are Above or Below
Average on the Merrill-Palmer Scale of Mental Test
at Three Years of Age," Journal of Genetic Psychol-
ggy, C, No. 3 (1962), 255-265.

Huges, William 0. "Planning Educative Experiences in Jun-
ior High School General Music," Music Educators
Journal, LII, No. 5 (Jan., 1966), 76-78.

233
James, Paul S. "Teaching the Underprivileged Child,"
Music-Journal, XXV, No. 8 (Nov., 1967), 29, 58.

John, Robert. "The General Music Program," Music Educat-
ors Journal, XLVIII, No. 6 (Feb., 1961), 32-34.

 

 

Johnsen, Kathryn and Gerald R. Leslie. "Notes on Research
in Childrearing and Social Class," Merrill-Palmer
Quarterly, XI (1965), 345-358.

 

Kahl, Joseph A. "Educational Aspirations of 'Common Man'
Boys," Harvard Education Review, XXIII, No. 3
(1953), 183—203.

Katz, D. "The Functional Approach to the Study of Atti-
tudes," Public Opinion Quarterly, XXIV, No. 2
(Summer, 1960), 163-204.

Kerlinger, F. N. "Factor Invariance in the Measurement
of Attitudes Toward Education," Educational Psye
chological Measurement, XXI, No. 2 (1961), 273-
285.

 

Klotman, Robert. "Preparation of Public School Music
Teachers for the Inner-City Child," Michigan
Music Educator, XV, No. 1 (Oct., 1968), 6-7.

 

Knapp: Dale L. "Preparing Teachers of Disadvantaged Youth:
Emerging Trends," The Journal of Teacher Education,
XVI, No. 2 (June, 1965), 188-192.

Kohn, Melvin. "Social Class and Parental Values," Ameri-
can Journal of Sociology, LXIV, No. 4 (1959.

 

Koontz, James E. "Music and General Education," Music
Educators Journal, XLII, No. 5 (Jan., 1956), 20-22.

Krone, Max T. "Jazz and the General Music Class," Music Ed-
ucators Journal, XLV, No. 11 (June-Ju1y, 1959) 23-25.

Larson, William 8.. "Bibliography of Research Studies in Mu-
sic Education, 1932-1948," Journal of Research.in
Music Education (1949).

234

. "Bibliography of Research Studies in Music Edu-
cation, 1949-1956," Journal of_Research in Music
Education, V, No. 2 (Fall, 1957).

 

 

McCoy, Eugene. "Music and the Disadvantaged Child,"
Catholic School Journal, LXVIII (Dec., 1968),
47-48c

McDill, Meyers and Rigsby. "Institutional Effects on the
Academic Behaviors of High School Youth," Sociol-
ogy of Education, XL (Summer, 1967), 181-199.

Maynor, Dorthy. "Arts in the Ghetto," Music Educators
Journal, LIV, No. 7 (March, 1968), 39-40.

Medinnus, Gene. "The Development of a Parent Attitude
Toward Educational Scale," Journal of Educational
Research, LVI, No. 4 (1962), 102-103.

 

Miller, Thomas W. "Musical Taste Influences Curriculum,"
Music Journal, XXIV, No. 3 (March, 1966), 64-66,
107.

Mintz, Natalie and Herbert Fermont. "Some Practical Ideas

for Teaching Mathematics to Disadvantaged Chil-
dren," Arithmetic Teacher, XII (April, 1965), 258-
260.

Newton, Eunice. "Verbal Destitution: The Pivotal Barrier
to Learning," Journal of Negro Education, XXIX,
No. 4 (Fall, 1960), 111-113.

Nisbet, Robert. "The Decline and Fall of Social Class,"
Pacific Sociological Review, XII (1959), 11-17.

Olsen, Edward G. "Teacher Education for the Deprived: A
New Pattern," School and SocieEy, XCV, No. 2291
(April 1, 1967), 232-234.

Olson, James and Richard Larson. "An Experimental Curric-
ulum for Culturally Deprived Kindergarten Children,"
Educational Leadership (May, 1965), 553-558.

235

Ornstein, Allan C. "Preparing and Recruiting Teachers for
Slum Schools," Journal of Secondary Education,
XXXVII (1962), 386-372.

Peterson, Joseph. "A Comparison of the Abilities of White
and Colored Children," Comparative Psychological
Monographs, I, No. 5 (July, 1923), 21-26.

Rankin, Stuart. "Forging a Junior High General Music Pro-
gram," Music Educators Journal, LIII, No. 4 (Dec.,
1966), 31-32.

Reimer, Bennett. "Effect on Music Education: Implica-
tions from a Review of Research," Journal of Re-
search in Music Education, XIII, No. 2 (Fall,
1965a), 147-158.

 

. "General Music for the Black Ghetto Child,"
Music Educators Journal, LVI, No. 5 (Jan., 1970),
94-97, 145-152.

. "A New Curriculum for Secondary General Music,"
Council of Research in Music Education, No. 3
(Winter, 1965b), 11-20.

 

Rivilin, Harry N. "New Teacher for New Immigrants,"
Teachers College Record, LXVI, No. 8 (1965a),
707-717.

"Teaching and Teacher Education for Urban Dis-
advantaged Schools," The Journal of Teacher Edu-
cation, XVI, No. 2 (June 1965b), 135-186.

 

Rogers, M. Robert. "Jazz Influence on French Music,"
The Musical Quarterly, XXI, No. 2 (April, 1935),
53-8842

Rolfing, Linda. "What Will Guide Our Moral Decisions?"
Feminine Focus II (Feb., 1967).

 

236

Schueller, Herbert. "The Teacher of the Disadvantage,"
The Journal of Teacher Education, XVI, No. 2
(June, 1965), 174-180.

 

Siller, Jerome. "Socio-Economic Status and Conceptual
Thinking," Journal of Abnormal and Social Pay:
ChOlog!’ LV, NO: 3 (1957), 365-3710

 

Sinclair, Ward. "Teacher Preparation for Urban Schools,"
School and Society (1968), 339-345.

 

Small, Arnold. "Bibliography of Research Studies in
Music Education," Music Educators National Con-
ference (1944).

 

Standifer, James A. "Effect on Aesthetic Sensitivity of
Developing Perception of Musical Expressiveness,"
Journal of Research in Music Education, XVIII,
No. 3 (Summer, 1970), 112-125.

 

 

Taba, Hilda. "Cultural Deprivation as a Factor in School
Learning," Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, X (1964),
147-148.

"Teachers for Inner City," Michigan Educational Journal
(Oct., 1969), 24.

 

Trobowitz, Sidney. "How To Teach in Ghetto Schools,"
Todays Education (1968b), 26-29.

 

Wattenberg, William W. "The Junior High School: A Psy-
chologist's View," The Bulletin of the National
Association of Secondary Principals, XLIX, No. 300
(April, 1965), 34-44.

 

"What's the Matter with Jazz," The Etude, XLI (Jan., 1924),
6-7c

 

"Where The Etude Stands on Jazz," The Etude, XLII (Aug.,
1924), 515-517.

 

237

Wilkerson, Doxey. "Programs and Practices in Compensa-
tory Education for the Disadvantaged Children,"
Review of Educational Research, XXXV (1965),
426-440.

 

Wister, Isabel, "Yes I Teach Em Jazz," The Etude, XLVI
(Aug., 1928), 588-590.

 

Witmer, Helen L. "Children and Poverty," Children (Nov.—
DeC., 1964), 207‘2136

Wolf, Eleanor and Leo Wolf. "Sociological Perspectives
on the Education of Culturally Deprived Children,"
School Review, LXX, No. 6 (1962), 873-887.

 

Zwier, Marcia D. "The Disadvantaged Child or.Teacher,V
Education, LXXXVIII, No. 2 (Nov., 1967), 156-159.

 

Federal, State, Local or Organization
Reports and Documents

 

 

Cady, Henry (ed.). Music in the Inner-City Schools: A
Symposium, Current Issues in Music Education, IV,
Ohio State University School of Music; Columbus
(June 21-22, 1968).

 

 

Coleman, James et a1. (edx.). Equality of Educational
gpportunity, Office of Education Survey, Govern-
ment Printing Office (1966).

 

 

Choate, Robert (ed.). Documentagy Report of the Tangle-
wood Symposium, MENC (1968).

 

 

Downs, Anthony. Who Are The Urban Poor? New York: Com-
mittee for Economic Development (1968).-

 

Henderson, Judith and Ted Ward. Teaching in the Inner
City. East Lansing, Mich.: Learning Systems.
Institute, College of Education, Michigan State
University (1966).

 

238

Murphy, Judith and Ronald Gross. The Arts and the Poor:
New Challenge for Educators, Office of Education,
U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare,
CBS 7016 (June, 1968).

 

Perceiving, Behav1ng Becoming: A New Focus for Education,
Washington, D. C.: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development (Yearbook, 1962).

 

Reimer, Bennett. Development and Trial in a Junior and
Senior High School of a Two-Year Curriculum in
General Mu51c, Bethesda, Md.: U. S. Department
3f Health, Education and Welfare, Bureau of Re-»
search (1967).

 

 

 

Schneider, Erwin and Henry L. Cady. Evaluation and Syn-
thesis of Research Studies Relating to Music Edu-
cation, Cooperative Research Project No. E-016,
Ohio State University: Columbus (1965).

 

 

Sawyer, Janet (ed.). Language Programs for the Disadvan-
taged, Champaign, Illinois: National Council of
Teachers of English (1965).

 

Tyron, Caroline and Jesse W. Lilienthal. "Developmental
Tasks: The concept and Its Importance," Foster-
ing Mental Health in our Schools, 1950 Yearbook,
Washington, D. C.: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development, National Education
Association (1950).

Unpublished Material

 

Conner, Phyllis. "Educational Programs for Disadvantaged
Junior High School Students in Metropolitan Cities.‘
Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, University of Neb-
raska, 1965.

239

Dean, John T. "An Analysis of Attitudes Toward Education,
Theological Orientations, Interpersonal Values
and Education Experience." Unpublished Ph.D. dis-
sertation, Michigan State University, 1967.

Flowers, Charles E. "Effects of an Arbitrary Accelerated
Group Placement on the Tested Academic Achievement
of Educationally Disadvantaged Students." Unpub-
lished Ed.D. dissertation, Columbia, University,
1966.

Forcucci, Samuel L. "General Music in Junior High School--
An Overview and Guide for the Improvement of In--
struction." Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation,
Columbia University, 1966.

Garrett, James. Unpublished speech delivered at Federal
City College, Washington, D. C., May 8, 1969.
(Mimeographed.)

Lenoir, Zaid D. "Racial Differences in Certain Mental
and Education Abilities," Unpublished Master's
thesis, University of Iowa, 1921.

Leonhard, Charles. "Music an Integral Part of the Basic
Elementary School Curriculum." St. Louis: South-
west Division MENC. A transcription of an ad-
dress given on March 6, 1969. (Mimeographed.)

Motycka, Arthur. "A Report on the Results of an Experi-

mental Course'of Study in General Music." Unpub-
lished Ed.D. dissertation, University of Illinois,
1965.

Pearman, Martha. "A Theoretical Framework with Adaptable
Instructional Material for General Music Classes
at the Secondary Level." Unpublished Ed.D. dis-
sertation, University of Illinois, 1964.

Watson, Thomas. "A Study of Musical Attitudes and Their
Relationship to Environment Among Rural Socio-

240

economically Deprived Students in Central Okla-
homa." Unpublished D.Mus.Ed. dissertation, Uni-
versity of Oklahoma, 1968.

Whitt, Robert. "Attitudes of Teachers in Relation to
Student Self-Concept and Attitude Toward School."
Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, Wayne State Uni-
versity, 1966.

Worthington, Richard A. "A Review of Doctoral Disserta-
tions in Music Education." Unpublished Ed.D.
dissertation, University of Illinois, 1956.

APPENDIX A

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULES

THE - ELEMENTS
OF

MUSIC

Teachers'Guide*

*This is‘a copy of the booklet each student possessed during the study,
with the exception of the bracketed teacher suggestions.

September
September
September
September
September
September
September
September

September

September

Teachers'Guide

2nd - Test #1 and course objectives

3rd

Test #2 and objectives for modules #1
4th - Test #3 and Section I (Sound and Time)

5th Section II A

8th and 9th - Section IID 1

10th and 11th - Section IIB 2

12th - Section IIB 3

15th-26th - Section IIC (a test can be given on the 26th)

29th - Objectives of Module #2 (Pitch) and the definitions
of Pitch.

30th - Section IIIA

October lst - Section IIIB

October 2nd-10th - Section IIIC

October 13th—3lst - Section IIID

November 3rd-7th

1. Objectives for Intensity module and introduction

2. Section IV A

3. Section IV Bl

November lOth-14th

1. Section IV B2

2. Review of intensity module and test

243

244

November 17th-let
1. Objectives for Timbre module and introduction'
2. Section V A
November 24th-26th and December lst
Section V B
December 2nd-5th
Section V C
December 8th-19th
1. Section V D
2. Review all families characteristic
3. Test
4. Merry Christmas
January 5th-23rd
1. Section VI

2. Post Test

Course Objectives - General Music

 

To help the student develop a knowledge of the properties of
music, music fundamentals, scales, key signatures, note and
rest values and their relationship, and time signatures. This
will be done through a detail investigation of their use in
popular music (soul, rock, etc.).

To help the student develop attitudes toward all music. These
attitudes (positive or negative) should be based on cumulated

experiences with different types of music and how these types

differ or are similar.

To give the student creative musical experiences with rhythm,
melody, harmony, and timbre.

To expose the students to both "serious" and popular music by
establishing the relationship that exist between the two.

The student should develop the ability to relate any values
gained or held toward "serious" music with the values pre-
viously held toward popular music.

Given the situation, the student should have developed the

ability to change his opinion about different types of music
in light of new evidence acquired about them.

245

II.

Duration (Rhythm)--Objectives

A.

Given two sounds of different length, the student will be able
to distinguish between the long or short sound.

Given four sounds of different lengths, the student will be
able to determine the relationship between the four sounds
(3 tunes as long, 2 times as long, etc.).

The student will be expected to write an example for rhythm
instruments using the following note and rest tYpes: whole,
half, quarter, eighth. These examples will be played in
class.

The ability to read the above mentioned note and rest types
will be demonstrated by each student.

Given different time signatures the student will be able to
explain each numbers functions and to write the proper amount
of notes for the given signature.

The student is to be able to demonstrate (write) the division
subdivision and borrowed division of dotted and undotted notes.

246

I: Sound and Time

Sound and Time - Music is an art whose chief property is SOUND. Sound
can be experienced only within a period of TIME. Thus time and sound
are the basic materials of music.

A.

Sound - any noise or sensation which is heard by the human ear
or electronic ear.

Time - measure of duration, as by hours, days, years, ages, or
as in music by beats or notes.

There are four (4) properties of sound: Duration, Pitch, In-

tensity, and Timbre. ‘We will deal with each of these separ-
ately and see how each is used in popular music. '

247

II: Duration

DURATION - the length or shortness of a sound. In other words the
amount of time a sound is heard. [Tape I A]

A9

The arrangement or patterns of duration are called RHYTHM.
To indicate or write the patterns of duration (rhythm) a
system of NOTES have been used. We will discuss notes and
note types later; for now we will turn our attention to TIME
SIGNATURES or what is sometimes called TIME CLASSIFICATION.

Time Classification and Time Signatures refer to the organiza—
tion of time into a regular series of pulsation or BEATS. A
system of two numbers (2/4, 6/8, 9/4, etc.) are placed at the
beginning of the music to indicate how to organize the time

or how to arrange the regular series of beats.

1. Beats can be organized in one of four ways. These are
all called METER.

a. Duple - A pattern which has two beats: one strong
and one weak. (See example)

b. Triple - A pattern which has three beats: one strong
and two weak. (See example)

c. Quadruple - A pattern which is a combination of two
duple patterns. It has four beats: two strong and
two weak. (See example)

d. Quintuple - A pattern which is a combination of a.duple
and a triple pattern. Therefore, it has five beats:
two strong and three week. (See example)

[Have students to play or clap all examples, placing
accents in proper places. Tape I B]

2. All of the meters (duple, triple, etc.) refer to how many
beats we have or the number of regular pulsation. However,
each of the beats can be divided into two or three parts
or subdivided into four, five, six, or more parts. These
divisions and/or subdivisions of the beat are called
COMPOUND and SIMPLE TIME.

 

248

249

a. Simple time - beats are normally divided into two
equal parts.

b. Compound time - beats are normally divided into three
equal parts. Hence if we combine the meter (duple,
triple, etc.) with its division, we have two terms
which indicate the number of beats and how these
beats are divided. [Tape I C]

Example - Duple simple means that there are two beats and
each beat is divided into two parts. Duple compound means
that there are two beats and each beat is divided into
three equal parts. What does triple compound mean?

 

[Have students to figure out other time classifications.]

c. Subdivision - refers to making the divided part of the
beat smaller. In simple time we subdivide a beat into
four equal parts, but in compound time the beat sub-
divides into six equal parts. Example:

(1) Simple time
Beat: 1 2
Division:
Subdivision: _ _ _ _ _ _ _

(2) Compound time
Beat: 1 2
Division:

Subdivision:

[Tape I D]

Borrowed Division - refers to taking the division from one
time (simple or compound) and using it in the other time.
Therefore, when the beat in simple time divides into three
parts it is called borrowed division or triplets. When
the beat in compound time divides into two parts it is
called borrowed division or duplets.

250

Example

a. Simple time

u
Beat: 1 2
Division: __ __ _—
Borrowed division: __ _ _ _ _ __
b. Compound time
u
Beat: 1 2

Division:
Borrowed division:
[Tape I E]

Notation of Duration or RHYTHM - as mentioned before (letter A)
rhythm is the arrangement or patterns of duration. All of the
examples we have heard on tape have been rhythmic example. How-
ever, we have not given the notation or signs which indicates
the different patterns that we have heard. Let us go back and
see how each of these examples would look.

[Introduce note types and_their relationship in any manner you
like. (1) Be sure to also introduce dotted notes. (2) Include
rests and their relationship. (3) Be sure to include the con-
cept of bar lines and measure, "I almost forgot them."

(4) Have students to play examples which use different note
and rest types. (5) Use tape (1 F l & 2) with rhythmic ex-
amples (II C l & 2). (6) Have each student to write two mea-
sures of different meters, put all of these together to make
one composition (play in class). (7) Play tape dealing with
division, subdivision, etc., and have students to follow with
the examples. (8) Review all that we have covered and give

a test. (9) Use the Ella Jenkins record on rhythm.]

IB T313“ 05 Meter

 

 

3. Quadmpte .
> U 9 U ’ U 9 U
1 z 3 4 1 2. 3 4

4. Quintana“

’V’UU)U)UU ,UU’U
L Jl

1134:1134: 1234‘-

Isgnpk tin-c Di'i‘ i0“
1° D9?“ ’ U p U
I 4 ' '

1 2 1 2

’

 

UV > at
113 1 2.3

 

 

 

> - strong

Subdivision

 

 

 

 

IIB
Simple Tune
1 Dupie U ’ 9
t8...“ 1%
1 2 1 2
2, Trash U
.s_:1__.4 A :III :III :III
Compound Time
1.Dup1¢

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Borrowed

Simple Time
1. DHMC

 

’
16 12 1 z

z.QuI°ntupts , u u
'5 1) [JJ :II:-II:II:II:II

 

4 1 1 3 4 :
Compound.
1.111191:
’ U )2! U2.
W
1 z 1 2.
2. ("in
Q“) 3* u u ’1 91 v2. .1 yzf
15

 

 

 

 

Name

C.

DURATION TEST

City

 

 

Write the following types of notes and rests.

Whole note -
Half rest -
Eighth rest -
Eighth note -
Quarter note -
Dotted half note -

 

 

 

 

 

mmbWNH
I

Explain what is meant by Time Classification.

 

 

 

Explain what is meant by Compound and Simple Time. Give examples.

 

 

 

Give examples of the following:

Duple simple division -
Triple compound subdivision -
Quadruple simple borrowed division -
Quintuple compound meter -
Triple compound meter -
Duple compound subdivision -

 

 

 

 

 

O‘UIuwal-J
I

 

251

’11

G)

:12

252

Play or clap two of the following examples for your teacher.

1.-4\ \ l") \\‘ l
2. \. [TI 5)

Two or three sounds will be played, you are to indicate which is
the longest or shortest.

Answer: a-first; b-second; c-third

The longest of the two tones was:
The longest of the two tones was:
The shortest of the two tones was:
The shortest of the two tones was:
The longest of the three tones was:
The longest of the three tones was:
The shortest of the three tones was:
The shortest of the three tones was:

Write three (3) measures of the following meters. (Use three types
of notes in each example).

 

 

 

Name three popular songs which were used in our discussion about
duration. How were they used?

1.

 

 

 

 

 

 

III. Pitch--Objectives
A. Given isolated musical sounds the students will be able to
determine if the sound is high or low.

B. Given a variety of isolated musical sounds the students will
be able to match the sounds vocally.

C. Given a melody (aurally) the student is to determine if it
goes up or down.

D. After hearing two melodies the student is to determine if
they are similar or dissimilar.

E. Given a great staff with notes, the student will be able to
name the note and produce them vocally and/or instrumentally.

253

»

Pitch

PITCH - the highness or lowness of a musical sound. For example, the
highest female part is called soprano and the lowest female part is
called alto. The highest male part is called tenor and the lowest
part is called bass.* Therefore we can see that there are different
levels of highness and lowness. Two notes which are very close in
sound also have different pitches. One might be slightly higher or
lower than the other. In order to avoid confusing (mixing up) the
many pitches which are possible, letter names have been given to each
note or pitch and these notes or pitches are all given a line or space
on which to live. (Each pitch is located on a different line or space
on the STAFF.) To represent sound of pitch we use the notes that we
have already learned. [Tape II A]

A. STAFF - A staff is made of five lines and four spaces and each
of the lines and spaces represents a different pitch. At the
beginning of each staff we place a CLEF SIGN. There-are seven
kinds of clef signs, but we will only deal with two. The func-
tion of the clef signs is to name a particular line of the
staff. The two clefs with which we will deal are TREBLE CLEF
and BASS CLEF. (See examples.) The circle of the treble clef
sign marks the G line and the two dots and the circle of the
bass clef sign marks the E line.

[Have the students to draw bass and treble clef signs.]

B. Letter Names - Each of the lines and spaces have aename. How-
ever, only the first seven letters of the alphabet (A.through ,
G) are used to name the lines and spaced. We can understand.
then, that each of the letters will be used more than once.
Example III B shows us the name of all the lines and spaces
in both bass and treble clefs. When the clefs are joined in
this manner they are called a GREAT or GRAND STAFF.

[Tape II B (1) Have students to name lines and spaces.
(2) Introduce leger lines. (3) Have students to play the
great staff.]

C. SCALES - The pitches in the great staff can be arranged in any
order. However, there are two arrangements of pitch which are
very important. The arrangement of tones from C to G (C D E F

 

*Note--Some men are able to sing the high female parts. Smokey Robin-

son being an example.
254

255

G A B C) is called the MAJOR SCALE and that from A to A (A B C
D E F G A) is the MINOR SCALE. The scales are named so because
of the position of the whole and half-steps.

 

[(1) Use the keyboard to demonstrate this. (2) Let the students
play the scales and hear the differences. (3) Make sure they
understand the concept of whole and half-steps before moving
on.]

As you will see at the keyboard the natural half-steps occur
between E and F, and B and C. Between all other pitches there
are whole steps. When we start on C the half-steps occur be-
tween the 3rd and 4th and the 7th and 8th notes, but when we
start on A the half-steps occur between the 2nd and 3rd and
the 5th and 6th notes. Although we are using the same notes

in both scales, the placement of the half-steps make the.scales
different.

Example: A Eh-C

D {h'i‘ G A
1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8
c D an”? G A Eh-E:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

[......(1) Stop at this time to review or explain any material
or concept that is not clear. (2) Tape II C, see if the stur
dents can detect the difference. (3) Give them as much time
as possible.] " ”

Musicians like the sound of these two scales so much that they
have constructed a system so that the scales can be built on
any of the pitches. Major and minor scales can be built on
other notes by altering the basic notes. These alterations are
called ACCIDENTALS, which are shown below:

1. Shagp # - raises the pitch of a note a half-step.

2. Double Sharp °Xe- raises the pitch of a note a whole step
or 2 half-steps.

3. Flat b - lowers the pitch of a note a half-step.

4.. Double flat bb - lowers the pitch of a note a whole step
or 2 half-steps.

 

5. Natural b - is used to cancel an accidental and indicates
an unaltered rate. -

256

[(1) Have students to draw accidentals on any given note.

(2) Show the position of accidentals on the keyboard. (3) Ex-
plain that a bar line cancels an accidental. (4) Have stu-
dents to sing accidentals. (5) Tape III D l - observe the
chromatic movement, use written example III D l to demonstrate.
(6) Explain chromatic movement and demonstrate at keyboard.

(7) After a clear understanding of this, an exam can be given.
(8) At this time introduce major and minor scales built on
other pitches. Approach it from the idea of whole and half-
steps in the basic scales and those that are needed to make.
them major or minor. (9) Approach melodic and harmonic minor
as an altered form of pure minor. Numbers 8 & 9 will take a
maximum of two‘weeks, so to avoid boredom, buttress your.dis-
cussion with Tapes III D 2, III D 3, III D 4. (10) Also begin
some sight singing. Use example III D.]

SW

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Bass Ck}

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Letter Home: and the Gaunt: fiafl

 

 

 

 

 

 

”'15-!“

 

 

 

 

n.4,

 

 

 

 

0" ‘
midauc-[ cheIIcDEF-‘IA
‘0‘
w

M
'U

 

 

granlcpsrfiln

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4, Dminor 5. F‘ major

 

6. F- ninja:-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ill

Pitch Test

Name

 

Follow the directions given in the attached page (Ex. 2).

Sing and name the pitches given in #2 and #4 on the attached page.

Two pitches will be played for each example. You are to circle the
"a" if the first pitch is the highest or the “b" if the 2nd is the
highest.

U'IDUNH
”9930!!”
U‘U‘D‘U‘O‘

Draw a Great Staff, with clef signs. Name the spaces from the
lowest A to the highest E.

Write the following major scales:

1. D major -
2. A major -.
3. E major -
4. Eb major -
S. C major -
6. Db major -

Write the following minor scales:
1. A harmonic minor -

2. G melodic minor -
3. C "pure or natural" minor -

257

258

4. F#.harmonic minor -
5. E melodic minor -
6. Bb pure minor -

Define the following words:
1. Pitch

2. Chromatic

Name one song that uses both major and minor scale patterns:

 

“.2, mkmtlemte ormfltcginumtz

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1% 5.21:.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

T
tnnrcnt __________
s 4.
E E:
9
‘On 60
scpennor i) ea-FBDAC
1o a 8. .

 

 

 

”fl? 1111;"

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

IV.

Intensity--Objectives

Upon hearing two or more sounds the students will be able to
indicate which of the sounds are louder (or softer).

After hearing a portion of a musical composition, the student
will be able to determine if the dynamic level is closer to
piano (p) or forte (f).

. Given a dynamic level of mezzoforte (mf), the student will

determine if the sound level graduates to piano (p) or forte
(f). He will also be expected to use the appropriate musical
terminology which indicates gradation of sounds.

Upon hearing an example containing both staccato and non-
staccato notes, the student will be able to identify the
staccato notes.

Given the tempo of the first musical example, the student will
be able to determine the tempo of the second example. Exact
tempos are not necessary, the student will be judged on his
ability to distinguish slow from fast, slow from moderate,

and moderate from fast.

Upon hearing musical examples, the student will determine if
the tempo accels, retards or is rubato.

259

IV: Intensity

INTENSITY - The "loudness" or "softness" of a sound. Intensity is
determined by the amount of energy it takes to produce the sound.
The greater the amount of energy the louder the sound, the smaller
the amount of energy the softer the sound.

(1) Have the students to hum or sing loud and soft sounds and dis-
cuss which requires the greatest amount of energy to produce.
(2) Tape IV. ‘

In order to indicate whether the notes are to be played loud, soft,
or somewhere in between.a system of DYNAMIC MARKINGS are.used.

A. Dynamic markings or signs - These are signs and/or symbols.
usedvto indicate the amount of intensity. Eight degrees of
intensity are commonly used in music. These degrees are in-
dicated by the abbreviations of the Italian word. (See ex-
ample IV‘A 1 and A 2) ‘

[Tape A 1]

Some composers use as many as five p's and f's, however, most
performers are unable to play either louder or softer than
three p's or f's.

1. In addition to the piano, forte, and other abbreviations
which are derived from.these-words, there are gypamic
marks which indicate a gradual increase or decrease in
the intensity of sounds. (See example IV A 2),

[Tape A 2]
2. When a composer has to change the intensity of one note

or "chord" within a given musical passage, he has a dif-
ferent set of dynamic marks to choose from.

 

"IV Al
Word Abbreviation Meaning

Pianississimo ppp Very, very soft
Pianissimo pp Very soft

Piano p Soft

Mezzo Piano mp Moderately soft
Mezzo Forte mf Moderately loud
Forte f Loud

Fortissimo ff Very loud
Fortississimo fff Very, very loud

260

Crescendo (cresc.).

261

¢=:'”“"”"'fflffl

A 2
Gradually louder

Decrescendo (decresc.) :::::::::::::::=: Gradually softer

Word Symbol
Forte-Piano fp
Sforzando sf, fz, or sfz
Accent A , > or -
Detached 7

(See example IV A 3)

[Tape A 3]

B. Other signs, terms, and abbreviations.

1.

A 3
Meaning

a loud attack,
then suddenly
soft”
with force; with
sudden force and
strong accent
to play stronger
than the other
notes

_ very strong ac-
cent, each note
is separated as
if hammered

There are also signs which effect the duration of a note.
Some signs tell us to hold a note longer than its indicated
value, while others tell us to shorten its indicated value.
The following two signs are those most frequently used.

Sign Name
a. (7) hold pause or
fermata

Meaning

Indicates that the
duration of the note
or rest is to be
lengthened beyond.its
normal value. The
exact length of the
note (how long the
note is held) is de-
termined by the con-
ductor or performer.
The hold (fermata)
sign is frequently
found at the end of a

262-

composition or at the
end of a section with-
in a composition.

(Example B l a)

. staccato Meaning short quick,
crisp, brisk, etc.
Notes with this mark
are frequently given
only half of their
normal value. The dot
can be written above
or below the note-

(Example B 1 b)

(1) Have students to sing example B 1 b. (2) Study all-—1
examples of things covered before moving on. (3) A re-
view would be good at this time. (4) Give a test if you
would like to. (5) You can refer back to examples II B
for demonstrations of accents. (6) Have the students to
place dynamic markings on examples II C l and II C 2.

Try to guide the students in their choice of dynamics.
Choice and place of marking should be verbalized in mus-
ical terms. Perform the examples in class. (7) Divide
the class into four groups; let each group pick a record-
ing and.write rhythmic patterns with dynamics to the re-
cording. This should be performed in class by each group.
Discussions of each composition should follow the per-
formances. (8) Explain the use of the slur and compare

 

 

LEE with staccato. ___
As we have seen in our lessons so far, there are a number
of different signs and/or numbers which must be understood
before one can perform music. Our first discussion intro-
duced us to Time Signatures and the function of each number
in determining the tYpe of beat and its division. We then
discussed lines and spaces and the place of the Clef sigp;
learning that the circle or circle and two dots name a line
in the Treble or Bass Clefs. Our next discussion dealt~
with the use of Accidentals in constructing major and minor
scales on different pitches. Rather than writing the ac-
cidentals each time they are needed, the accidentals are
placed at the beginning of the music (in a pattern) and
called Key Sigpatures.

 

 

263

F_(l) It would be good to review

time to do so. However, we are

 

(2) If you have not introduced key signatures, now is the

students' understanding the concept of key signatures and
not his learning all of them. They can learn the first
three of both sharps and flats if you would like.

all of the concepts again]

only interested in the

 

Hence, we have learned three (3) of the four bits of infor-
mation that are usually placed at the beginning of a piece

of music. (See example B 2 a)

The fourth bit of informa-

tion has to deal with the Speed of the music.

a. To indicate the speed of the work, composers use TEMPO

MARKS. These are not marks

as such, but rather Italian

terms (words) which tell us how fast or slow to play a
work. The most important of these marks are:

Italian Word

(1) Largo
slow -
(2) Lento

(3) Andante
medium

(4) Moderato

(5) Allegro
fast - (6) Presto

(7) Prestissimo
[Tape IV B 2a]

b. In addition to these, there
gradual change of speed and

(l) Ritardando
(2) Accelerando

(3) Rubato

Meaning

very slow
slow; not as slow as largo
a slow walking tempo

(moderate) not too fast or
too slow

quick and cheerful
very fast

as fast as possible

are terms which indicate a
to change the speed at will.

to gradually slow down,

to gradually speed up

to speed up and slow down
according to the nature of

the music and the feelings
of the conductor.

264

[Tape IV E 2b & c

F71) Let the students experience all of the different
tempo marks (use Example IV B 2b).* (2) Have the
students to discuss tempo in relation to popular
dances: Pop Corn, Chicken, Hip City, etc. (3) Try
to stimulate a discussion about the importance of
different tempos. Use any of the past tapes to help
the discussion. (4) Have students to bring in re-
cordings and discuss these’in terms of tempo and dy-
namics. (5) Example B 2c is to be played with each of
the versions of Tape IV B 20.‘ If you like you can
assign a tempo mark for each of the different speeds.
(6) Give the Intensity Test.

 

 

 

*Example B 2b is to be performed at various tempos. Have students to
add dynamics. Play in class.

 

.....

\\\\\

131

 

00.0.0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Write (.1th with different time signatures, cfifn'gu‘, We
M and. I0, ts'gna‘hu-ct- U. dM‘t pitch“ and rum.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

J

 

 

 

 

 

 

Namefi

Intensity Test

 

a. 1st 2nd 3rd 2. a. forte piano
b. lst 2nd‘ 3rd b. forte piano
c. lst 2nd 3rd c. forte piano
d. lst 2nd. 3rd d. forte piano
(/
Sample: _______ ~_—_——_ ___f_
a. mf ________ ____
b. .mf ________ f___
c. mf ________ ___.
d. mf~ ________ ____
a. lst 2nd 3rd 4th
b. lst 2nd. 3rd 4th
c. lst 2nd 3rd 4th
d. lst 2nd 3rd 4th
lst
Sample: Presto - Moderato Allegro .
lst
a. Large - Andante Largo Moderato
b. Presto - Lento Allegro Lento
c. Lento - Prestissimo Andante Lento
d. Prestissimo — Presto Largo Moderato

265

266

Sample : Ritard

Accel.

Accel.

Accel.

Accel.

Accel.

Accel.

Rubato

Rubato

Rubato

Rubato

Rubato

Rubato

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

Same

V. Objectives--Timbre

 

A.

Upon having heard a given-musical composition, the student
will be able to demonstrate a knowledge of timbre by:

1.

2.

3.

discriminating between.two or three sound sources and
identifying the instrumental family of the sound source
(lowest accepted behavior).

identifying the type of instrument (no reed, single reed,
etc.) within a family.

identifying the exact sound sources (highest behavior
level).

The student will be able to demonstrate a knowledge of some of
the following terms or concepts by defining or matching the
words with their definition:

\omqmmowww

Open strings

Fingered strings

Mutes

Pianoforte

Single-reed instruments
Double-reed instruments
No-reed,instruments

Four instruments of each family
Slit-gong

Definite pitch instruments
Indefinite pitch instruments.
Sock Cymbals

The African and Latin American influence on percussion
instruments.

267

V: Timbre

 

 

'n'—— .

,(1) This unit of instruction should not be presented in the cut and
dry format as outlined here. Please feel free to review any of the
material presented in the other units. (2) Be sure to give the stu-
dents as many singing, playing, and creating experiences as possible.
(3) Students can make instruments and write compositions.for them
where possible. (4) Let the students control as much of the review
or discovery discussion as possible. (5) There are very good articles
in the Brass Quarterly, Woodwind Quarterly, and in C. Sach's Histogy-
of Musical Instruments. (6) Begin each class with an activity. Mates
rials will be provided for this. You can also use some of the mate-
rial from IIID, IVBZb, IVB2c, Tape IVB2d,.and IICl & 2. __J
' TIMBRE - The quality or "color" of a tone: the difference between

tones of the same pitch if produced on various instruments.1 In other
words, the property of sound which enables us to tell one musical in-
strument from another. '

 

[Tape IV *1

When one investigates all of the instruments currently used, he finds
out that there are some instruments that are closely related in timbre
and construction. Therefore, instruments have been organized into
groups of like instruments. These groups are called FAMILIES OF IN-
STRUMENTS. In our discussion we will approach all instruments through
their family characteristics.

A. STRING FAMILY - Instruments which use some type of stretched
string to produce the sound. With all of these instruments
the sound is produced by bowing, plucking, or striking by a

small felt hammer.

[Demonstrate each of these activities with strings.)

The most important members are the violin (and its family),
the harp, the piano, and the guitar (and its family).

1. The Violin Family - There are four instruments in the

violin family: violin, viola, cello, and double bass.
These all have four strings which are made to sound by

268

269

drawing a bow across them. The hair (horse hair) of the
bow is rubbed in rosin so that it will "grip" the strings.
The player is able to change the pitch of each string by
"fingering" (placing his finger on different places of the
string) the string. When the strings are not being fin-
gered they are called "OPEN" strings. (See example IVA)

n.

a.

[:It would be good to demonstrate the above before moving
0

(open and fingered strings) ‘]

The Violin was brought to its present form.by the in-
strument makers of Italy between 1600 and 1750. The
most famous of these being Antonio Stradivari (ca.
1644-1737). The instrument is considered the most
important of the orchestra because of its agility in
rapid passages, good dramatic effect, and the ability
to change quickly from one dynamic level to another.

[Tape IVAla]

The Viola is somewhat larger than the violin. Its
strings are longer, thicker, heavier, and it is lower
in range than the violin. It often serves as a con—
trast to the violin by playing a secondary melody or
a harmony part.

[Tape IVAlb]

The Violoncello, popularly known as the Cello, is lower
in range and larger than the viola. The cellos are
used in much the same way as the violins and Violas.
They often carry the melody; they frequently accent

the rhythm; and along with the bass supply the founda-
tion for the harmony of the string section.

 

[Tape Alc]

The Double Bass is the lowest in range of the violin
family. Therefore, it plays the bass part (lowest
harmonic part). As mentioned earlier, it is free
quently doubled with the cello. In recent music, the
lowest and highest timbre of the instrument has been
used for special effects.

 

(1) Tape Aid. (2) You can introduce such terms as legato,
staccato, pizzicato, vibrato, mute, harmonics, double
stops if you want to. (3) If possible have the instru-
ments shown in class.

[L— .4.

270

The H3£p_is one of the oldest musical instruments. It
appeared in its earliest form on Babylonian inscription
over two thousand years ago. It was the instrument of
the composers and singers of ancient Britain and Ireland,
and later became the national emblem of Ireland. Its
tone is produced by plucking the strings. Seven pedals
are used to shorten the strings, thus raising the.pitch.

(1) Tape A2. (2) If possible bring out old pictures of
harps for a discussion. (3) Explain any terms that are
not clear. (4) In all cases use demonstrations where
possible.

 

 

The Piano is third, only to the guitar in popularity. Its
full name is "pianoforte," the Italian for "soft-loud,"
which indicates its wide range of dynamic possibilities.
This name was first used to differentiate it from the
Harpsichords, Virginals, and Clavichords which did not.
have much control over their dynamics. The tone of the
piano is produced by little hammers striking the strings.
The piano can not sustain a tone as well as the violin
family of instruments, however, by pressing down a pedal
the "dampers" are raised so that the strings can vibrate
and sustain some sound.

 

(1) Tape A3. (2) A brief historical review about key-
board instruments would be good at this time. (3) The
following books may be helpful: Harvard Dictionary of
Music, pp. 574-576, and N. E. Michel, Historical Pianos

 

 

 

 

"Harpsichords and Clavichords."‘

 

The Guitar family: The instruments in this family are all
of Oriental origin. They appeared in various shapes in
carving, drawing, and in a famous miniature collection of
the 13th century. The sound is produced by plucking or
picking the strings, similar to the "Lute." However, it
differs from the lute in that it has a flat back and inward
curving sides. The instruments have had a long history of
development and many of the outstanding "serious“ composers
have written music for them. Today these instruments are
more popular than any other and are mainly used to provide
chordal accompaniment for dances or popular songs. The
chords being indicated by what are known as "chord symbols."
With the introduction of electronic amplifiers, the instru-
ments are now able to produce a variety of sounds. The

two most popular types of guitars are the TREBLE GUITAR

(6 strings) and the BASS GUITAR (4 strings).

271

F—Yl) Tape A4a & b. (2) Use a picture of a lute so that
the students can see the difference. It would be nice to
show pictures of other guitar like instruments for com-
parison. (See Harvard Dictionary of Music, pages 413 and
800.) (3) Be sure to use Example VA for a comparison of
all string instruments. (4) Give a brief explanation of
the frets on the guitar and how to interpret chord sym-
bols. (5) If any students own guitars, have them to dem-
onstrate in class. (6) Give a complete review before

 

moving on.’

WOODWING FAMILY - This family of instruments actually consists
of three separate families or the family can be divided into
three characteristic types of instruments: single reed in-
struments, double reed instruments, and those with no reed.
The tone of all three types is produced by a column of air,
vibrating within a pipe that has holes in its side. When one
of the holes is opened or closed, the length of the vibrating
air column'is changed. The history of the woodwinds can be
traced back to the ancient civilizations of the East. Intro-
duced into Europe very early, they gradually developed into
their present form.

 

 

*

'(1) Use Example VB to show all the instruments, then use the
Harvard Dictionary, pages 272, 152, and 816 to show how they

 

 

1.

have developed. Also use Musical Inst. in Art and History_-
Bragard. (2) Explain the vibrating air column concept and
have them to make woodwind instruments. (3) With each new
section refer back to the older inst. (4) Stop at anytime to
__demonstrate, review, or for other experiences.

_ \

 

 

 

Woodwind instruments with no reed

a. The Flute is the colorful soprano voice of the woode
wind section. Its timbre ranges from.breathy (lower
register) to bright and brilliant (upper register).
The present-day flute is made of silver or metal
rather than wood; it has a cylindrical body (like a
round tin can) and is held horizontally (parallel to
the ground). The player blows across a mouth hole
cut in the side of one end of the instrument. This
end of the instrument is closed.

[Tape Bla]

b. The Piccolo developed from the flute; in fact its name
is from the Italian words "flauto piccolo," meaning
"little flute." The history, development, and playing
position are like those of the flute. The main dif-
ference between the two is that the piccolo plays an

 

2.72

octave (8va) higher than the flute. For this reason
it is usually used at climatic points in mu51c. How-
ever, some composers are beginning to employ the
piccolo for other effects.

[Tape Blb]

2. Instruments with a Single Reed' - those reed instruments
which use one reed. ThlS reed vibrates against a slot of
the pipe (mouthpiece).

(1) Be sure to show them Single and double reeds before
moving on. (2) Let them try to play the mouthpieces.

a. The Clarinet is the most versatile of all the woodw1nd
instruments. It has a remarkably wide range from low
to high and from soft to loud. It has a cylindrical
pipe made of wood, ebonite (hard rubber), or metal,
with a mouthpiece which looks as if it were pinched
to form a sharp edge at the top. -The most common type
of Clarinets are the Blasoprano, Eb soprano, Eb alto,
Bb bass, and Eb bass.

[Tape-82a]

b. The Saxophone is of fairly recent origin, having been
created by Adolphe Sax in 1840. It was made by come
bining the features of several other instruments: the
single reed of the clarinet, the "conical bore"** of
the oboe, and the metal body of the brass instruments.
The instrument has been used by some serious composers,
but in the 1920's it became the main instrument of jazz
bands. It has been through jazz and related popular
music that the saxophone has gained its popularity.
There are five different types of saxophones, but only
three of these are widely used: Eb alto, Bb tenor, and
Eb baritone. The other two are: Bb soprano and Bb
bass.

[Tape B2b]

3. Instruments with Double Reeds - two reeds separated by a
slight opening. These two reeds vibrate against each
other.

*NOte: Reed - a small elastic piece of thin cane which is fixed at one
end and is free to vibrate, by means of blown air, at; the other end.

**Note: Conical - shaped like cone or like a. funnel.

273

a. The Oboe is the soprano of the double reed instruments.
Its tone is generally described as "nasal or reedy."
Because of its tone, the oboe is well suited for solo
passages. Although not as versatile as the flute or
clarinet, it can perform with great speed and flexi-
bility. Once its pitch is established it is not
readily changed; hence it is used to sound the tuning
note (A) when the orchestra tunes up.

[Tape B3a]

b. The English horn is neither a horn nor is it English.
Just how it got its name and why it is not called an
"alto oboe" are matters that have never been discovered.
The main differences between the English horn and the
oboe are: (l) the English horn has a "pear" shaped
bell cauSing its tone to be slightly softer; (2) it
'has a curved section at the reeds; and (3) it is longer
and has a lower range.

 

[Tape B3b]

c. The Bassoon - The Italian and German names for the in-
strument ("fagot")* gives a better picture of the in-
strument than the English term. Although the bassoon
is much like the oboe, its tone is much less nasal than
that of the oboe. In fact, its color is so neutral that
it is likely to be absorbed by other instruments. Much
like the bassoon is the "Contrabassoon." It produces
the lowest sound in the orchestra.

 

[Tape B3c]

C. BRASS FAMILY - There are many ways of categorizing the instru-
ments of this family; some persons refer to them as the instru-
ments that are made of brass or other metal (but saxophones are
also made of metal), others refer to them as the instruments
which have "cup" shape mouthpieces (but the French horn has a
funnel shaped mouthpiece). The best way to categorize them is
that they all use a column of air which is set vibrating by the
players lips. (The lips act as a kind of double reed.)

Brass instruments were in existence in many ancient cultures,
but they were late in developing to their present forms. In
the early Greek and Roman cultures, these instruments were used
chiefly for military signals and in religious ceremonies. How-
ever, with the proper mechanical invention, the instruments
were accepted as orchestra instruments.

*Note: The term fagot means a long stick bent back upon itself.

274

(1) If you would like to go into more detail about the history
of brass instruments, the following books might be helpful:
(suggest some of these to the students)

a. A. Carse; "Brass Instruments in the Orchestra." Music
and Letters, Vol. 111.

 

b. J. M. Barbour, "The Use of Brass Instruments in Early
Scores," Bulletin of the American Musicology Spgiety,
Vol . IV.

(2) See Harvard Dictionary of Music, pp. 97 & 98.

1°

1—- _‘

 

(L.— ___.

 

The Trumpet - Prior to 1800 the trumpet existed only in the
form known as "Natural Trumpet." From the 14th century on,
the trumpet was used with ceremonial and military function.
After 1600, the trumpet began to be used more in “serious“
music. Toward the end of the 17th century the trumpetS'
were_frequently used in operas, Cantatas, etc. During the
18th century attempts were made to overcome the limitations
of the natural trumpet; such devices as "crooks" and adding
tubing between the mouthpiece and the body of the trumpet
were tried. However the invention of the valves (1813)
opened the way for the permanent establishment of the
trumpet in "serious" music.

The modern trumpet has a narrow cylindrical tube which
widens at the bell and a cup shaped mouthpiece. It is
used with equal importance in both serious and popular
music.

(1) Tape B1. (2) Be sure to explain and show pictures of
the natural trumpet. (3) Explain the crooks and their
function. (4) A recording of Bach's Brandenburg #2 would
be good to show the sound of 18th century trumpets. (5)
Explain the valves, how they work, and how they improved
brass instruments. (6) Explain the difference between the
cornet and trumpet. (Example VC.) If possible let them
play the instruments. (7) Explain mutes.

 

In English the Horn is often called the French Horn, but

it is not called that in France. The name originated in
England in the 18th century, but the horn as we know it
today developed in Germany, so we could call it the "German
Horn."

 

Developing from the hunting horn, the instrument was a
favorite with 18th and 19th century composers, who identi-
fied its timbre with the sounds of nature. The timbre of
the horn blends well with that of all instruments, hence
it serves as the connecting link between them.

275

 

F—Yl) Tape C2. (2) You can explain the hunting horn and

the use of crooks. (3) Explain muted and stopped horn.

3. Trombone - The mechanical parts of this instrument differs
completely from those of the horn and trumpet in that it
includes no valves.* Instead, the length of the tubing is
changed by the slide. There are seven different positions
for the slide. This slide principle dates from ancient
times; it has been almost the same for at least five hun-
dred years.

 

(1) Tape C3. (2) Any discussion which would help en-
lighten the student about the topic would be good.

4. The Baritone or Euphonium - The instruments are much alike.
The outstanding difference being that of "bore." The Eu-
phonium has a wider bore and'is best for low parts, and
the baritone has a smaller bore and is best for higher
parts. The instruments are sometimes called "tenor tubas"
because they are made like the tuba, but smaller.

 

[Tape C4}

5. Tuba - The term tuba is used for two types of bass brass
instruments. One shapedrand played like the baritone and
the other (called sousaphone) constructed so that it can
be carried on the shoulder of the player. Both types of
instruments are a combination of horn bore and the cupped
mouthpiece of the trumpet. They have three, four, or five
valves and exist in three sizes: tenor Bh>tuba, bass Eb
tuba, and double bass.Bb tuba.

 

F_—(1) Tape C5. (2) Review all brass before going on. (3)
Tape C6 - preface this tape with a discussion of the mix-
ture of brass instruments in popular and serious music.

(4) You can discuss any of the special brass instruments.
(5) There might be some concepts that are not fully under-
stood, be sure to go over these.

 

 

D. PERCUSSION FAMILY - The first three families of instruments all
had their origin and development in Europe and the Orient. We
are not stating, however, that these instruments did not exist
elsewhere; for as we will see, many types of instruments have
deveIOped in other areas, some of these being related to those
we have discussed. However, because the percussion family is
the largest and oldest, we feel it necessary not only to dis-
cuss its European and Oriental development, but also its

‘

*Note: Valve trombones have been invested, and are quite popular in
jazz,

276

African and Latin American heritage where possible. In

many cases the different instruments have been cultivated

exclusively by these countries.

--- —1
(1) Use the Musical Instruments of Africa record and book

as much as possible. Of particular interest are:

 

a. Chapter on Body percussion--do as many of the ac-
tIVlties (pp. 7~23) as time will permit.

b. As much of Membranophones as possible.

0. First part of Idiophones (pp. 41-48) particularly
pages 44-47.

(2) This would be a good paint to make a xylophone type
of instrument out of glasses of water. After it has been
made and the pitches identified, have the students write
for it and other instruments. (3) Use the African WW
and brass pictures to show a comparison to these and
European instruments in early development.

_ ‘

 

 

What are percussion instruments?--Percussion is the general
term used for those instruments which are sounded by striking
or shaking. They can be divided into two groups: those
which produce a sound with a definite pitch and those which
do not. A second way of classifying percussion instruments
is to classify them by the type of material of which they
are made: 1) those which use some type of stretched skin,
2) those which use wood as the striking surface and 3)
those which use metal as a striking surface. We will use
the first claSSification when dealing with European, Orien-
tal and modern development and usage of the instruments,
and the second when dealing with the African and Latin
American influence and development of the instruments.

It is believed that the first musical sounds to be pro-
duced by man were made on some type of percussion instru-
ments° No one knows exactly who or where this first began,
but all of the information we have been able to gather
points to the Orient and Africa. Because of the large
amount of available metal and the development of their cul-
ture, the Oriental countries placed great importance on
instruments built of metal: gongs, triangles, cymbals,
etc. While the African countries, because of the availa-
bility of wood, animal skins and their cultural development,
aimed their attention toward instruments made of these ma-
terials. In both cultures, musical sounds were first pro~
duced mainly to create fear and terror in their enemies,
the evil spirits, and especially in Africa, to frighten

 

277

the wild animals away. Only after they had discovered its
usefulness for protection,.did the Africans begin to use
these instruments for other purposes.

The Africans invented a number of different instruments.
Most important for our present lesson were those which

used an animal skin stretched over a hollow log and those
which were made completely of wood. The first group con-
tains the many different types of drums: leach type differ-
ing according to its use. Hence, there were drums for send-
ing messages, drums for religious and ceremonial services,
drums for war dances, and drums for purely social enjoyment.
The size of the various drums ranged from those small enough
to be worn on a string around one's neck, to "tree-drums"
which were ten to fifteen feet high and five to ten feet
wide.

Most of the African drums are grouped under the term "tome
tom," which is also used to classify most Latin American
drums. The main difference between the drums of Africa and
those of Latin America is the manner in which they are
played. African drums are played with sticks or by hand,
while those of Latin America are usually played only with
the bare hands.

F__Use Music Inst. of Africa to show the various types of
drums. pp. 24-40.

 

The second group (those made of wood) contains two instru-
ments which have continued to develop and are quite popular
today: woodblock and marimba.

The slit-gouge (our present wood block) was originally a
tree trunk hallowed out like a boat and placed over a pit

in the ground. These gongs ranged in size from two to
twenty feet. The larger gongs were stamped upon by a row
of men, but smaller types were struck with a stick or sticks.

 

a .

V (1) Musical Inst. of Africa pp. 42 & 43.
(2) You can have the students make these instruments.
(3) Compare these with modern wood-blocks.

 

 

 

Our present woodblocks come in many sizes, the wood fre-
quently coming from China. The shape and the position of
the two slits have been changed, but the principle is the
same as that of the African slit-gongs.

The most important instrument to come out of Africa is the
Marimba or Xylophone. Although it originated in Asia, it
is so common to Africa that it is often called the "African

278

piano." It went through so many changes that when the in:
strument arrived in Central America, it was no longer an
imitation of the Asian instrument, but a true instrument
of African development. In Africa the instrument received
its name (marimba) and gourds*'(resonators).

The Africans who brought the marimba to Central America
were surprised to find that the natives of the "New World"
(Mexicans, Indians, etc.) were already acquainted with this
type of instrument. However, the native persons did adopt
the African instrument above their own and developed it.
The exceptional progress of the Central American Indians
and Mexicans in developing the marimba was due greatly to
the availability of the "rare" wood needed for the instru-
ment- Therefore the marimba and many of the instruments
which resemble it, were jointly developed by Africans and
Latin Americans. One could call this an "Afro-Latin" con-
tribution to music.

7"(1) Musical Inst. of Africa. pp. 46 & 47. (2) Use any

of the following records, if available:

(a) Record with the book for slit-gong and xylophone

(b) Olalunji Drums of Passion (Columbia)--for different
types of drums.

(2) Make sure the student understands the material before
moving on. (3) Tape D. the use of Latin American instru-
ments. (4) Use Example VDl.

 

1. Instruments of definite pitch

a. Timpani (Kettledrum)--the instrument is called
Kettledrum because of its shape. It has a copper
or fiberglass shell with calfskin or plastic
stretched across it. Pitch is controlled by the
screws around the skin ("head") or by a pedal.

The standard practice is to use two or more drums;
very seldom does a player use one drum.

[Tape VDla]

b. Xylophone--uses tuned hard "rose wood" blocks (bars).
It produces a dry, crisp sound when struck.

[Tape le]

—¥

*Note: Gourds-~A plant bearing a pumpkin-like fruit, the dried shell
or rind was used to help the tone vibrate.

 

279

Marimba--it differs from the xyloPhone in its timbre
and that all of the keys are not the same width.

[Tape ch]

Glockenspiel or Bells--a German instrument much like
the xylophone, however it has metal bars.

 

[Tape Dld]

Vibraphone, Vibraharp or Vibes--an American develop-
ment which combines the principle of the xylophone
with small propellers in each pipe under the bars.
Like the bells, the bars are made of metal.

[Tape Dle]

Chimes--a set of tuned metal tubes of various
lengths hung from a rack and struck with a small
hammer. They are frequently used to resemble
church bells.

[Tape le]

Celesta--combines the appearance and hammer action
of the piano with the metal bars of a glockenspiel.

[Tape Dlg]

Instruments of indefinite pitch

a.

Snare Drum or Side Drumr-the first name refers to
the wire or plastic strings stretched across the

bottom head. The second term refers to the prac-
tice of attaching the drum to a belt for marching.

[Tape D2a]

Tenor Drums-much like the snare drum, but larger

 

and without the snares.

[Tape D2b]

Bass Drums-made like the tenor drum but much larger.

There are two types of bass drums. The "scotch"
bass drum, used for marching and the largest drum,
the concert bass drum.

[Tape D2c]

280

d. Eymbals--these are circular brass plates of many -
sizes. There is a hole in the center through which
a strap or other device is attached. They can be
played in the following ways: 1) by clashing two
of them together; 2) by suspending one on a stand
and striking it with a stick; 3) by placing two
cymbals on a special stand which enables the foot
to work them (called--"sock cymbals").

 

(1) Tape D2d. (2) Explain the marching band drum
section and the drum set, then use Tape D2e. (3)
Tapes D2f—i can be played without stopping.

e. Triangle-~named after its shape. It is made of steel
bent into the shape of a triangle, open at one end
and is struck with a beater of the same material.
The-instrument is of Turkish origin.

[Tape D2f]

f.. Gongf-a large circular metal disk of Oriental origin.
It is freely suspended in a frame and struck with a
heavy metal ball wrapped in felt.

[Tape D29]

9. Tambourine--a small hand drum.with one head and
pairs of small metal plates, called "jingles,"
attached to openings in the side of the shell.

[Tape D2h]
h. Wood block--refer to the African slit—gong.

[Tape D21]

(1) Review the percussion family before playing
Tape D3. (2) Review all families, their character-
istics, etc. (3) Discuss the mixture of instruments
and h0w different effects are achieved. Tape VB.
(4) If you have to go back and play the tapes for
particular problms. (5) When you feel the students
are ready give a test on the complete unit.

'_ d'

_

 

 

      

«.4..-

v ~‘.- ~ . s... .
W515i;
I

new“,
:‘W‘

A, e. _.. -M...W 4,, .1:
l

q ."h

        

 

k
b"\ [4“

i
u

300'-

 

   

  
 

I
i—r“

"ass“. ._,_ .
“"‘fw—“firmegsaaeesaga

/'
,r

 

 

 

., ,
a. . . .
.y

W

 

1.
ya

.

' 5': a: 3...; ,1
“21,3. _ em "a
“Mngm- _ ,

a -.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

     
   

I

.

.

j i

.1.

n. L's“.
my")...
4..“

‘9

    
 

.‘;'%{:r‘7:_r"in7mr;ff~ ,
‘ \[ifflém L 1

STRWGS

_ WANG-.. .-

 

 

 

 

 

D
N

Swen. REED.

Rafi...

4.7.3 Winning
wave .Lfli....1~l.di€illlvt
52?. m , 85...? .7...

We; $97
vflmgfl mini... klgiflfihwgi 31% r éfiua

NO REED AN

          

a u jd ".04., 1163 fiflheJyMwflV” T...
fixffiveh» tihkksuurriflmfwhwnuafivtkw

REED

 

 

«t
a
T p.
w u
f a... i. 1.13.... has... 94.313331} .3

  

a. . 13.4Ay..1~u. w. a. n3...
.._. ”1:11.! I

.L... vr. 5m. If... \. .3§l zit flan Alanine/hwy“
,. . r3 :NJm :...Cy $5 3.4.“.

 

ssu Hoax

 

 

4‘
k
r
\

        

.\ .
C J . ?
raw . r»
.rwl.

 

 

 

ET)

\
!
\‘N'

\IJ .—

 

‘

a

I
V?

.>‘ H
”83 -

  

 

, - 3.x. . . 1.....-
Lanny... wan... 3W: me. JmWV. 1.3 MW. MHWHWH .
d..§br¥ . . ..r....13....xx - “9.3qu

U.

\ I
H,
- ,.
JO

1’.
§
3

 

if."

__mwum.~::l?.}n .l

-2

 

.‘v—-MV . .

 

 

BRASS

   

2..m‘n\.f-}2.1v'iER I CAN DE}? :11 SS ) OM

cgiiéi§;;p .MARMg;

Fm"
.9 (IL—ER. H
‘. ’42.... m. .. K - h
‘fi?.l_~..x¥;tg 2? trfl§§_rr:vfl
3:5?) jfgywmw‘x\ “‘7‘ '1”
(‘31: .11 : 3,771" ’n' ~34 47"
{SONIC—.0 .: g

 

COMQA mum

’\. i C‘ x. ,« x '
312:)1Q...30/ ON.

DEHMTE PiTCH

 

 

 

 

   

YxETRED RUM

 
    
    

       
      
      

‘f.’ .‘.<// ‘
' [ff/“”5””.

-. - --.,._./.».

lawmfifi

’antlutiV- .

 

" . .‘--?7:u‘:‘:"‘f-. N
- /Z.; EMU/33%- 1
.~~ '1“???

-.:;5,;:::::.:m.::‘”_.—~J«4

mocwmsvaa—L Wmfi'KONE

 

.fi‘lk9.\M?>>~

PERC USS ( 0N

DEFWH‘E Pi‘SCH

 

VP3W I FfiONE

 

 

 

 

CH ”4&5

TLC ULDSION
IN DE Hmri PWCK

 
 

 

: @133.

5.0: m SHAKE 08m.

 

BASS D‘RQK

E

WOOD 9210 LK.

  

TIMBRE TEST

Name Date

 

A. Identify the following instrumental sounds, first by their family
(woodwind, string, brass or percussion), second by their place
within the family (no reed, single reed, violin group, guitar
group, definite pitch, etc.) and third by their name (flute,
oboe, snare drum, piano, xylophone, etc.)o

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10.

 

11.

 

12.

 

l3.

 

 

14.

 

 

15.

 

281

282

B0 Match the terms with their apprOpriate meaning or description.

Mutes

Fingered string
Slit-gong

Sock cymbals

Definite pitch
instrument

Indefinite pitch
instrument

Pianoforte
Fagot
Tree drums

Single reed
instrument

Open string

placing the finger on the string
bassoon

two cymbals on a special stand
which are operated by the foot

saxophone

originally a hallowed out tree
trunk placed over a pit in the
ground

Marimba

Piano

drums which were ten to fifteen
feet high

triangle

a device used to soften or
change the instrumental tone

clarinet
playing the string without

placing one‘s finger on the
string

VI. The Similarities Within All Music

Objectives

 

A.

Upon hearing different types of musical compositions, both
familiar and non-familiar, the student should be able to:

10 Discuss the melodic and/or rhythmic similarities or the
differences of the compositions.

2. Discuss his likes or dislikes for the compositions in
terms of the manner in which the four (4) properties of
music are used in the compositions.

The student will be expected to demonstrate his knowledge of
melody, rhythm, harmony, timbre, and intensity by composing
a short composition in Rondo or Ternary Form.

Upon hearing various musical compositions, the student should

be able to discriminate between those in Rondo form (ABACA)
and those in Ternary form (ABA).

283

VI. The Similarities Within All Music

In our previous four 1esSons (duration, pitch, intensity, and timbre)
we discussed each property of music separately. We hope that this did
not imply that these properties were used independently of each other;
because each of the four properties depends heavily on one or more of
the other properties to express their musical ideas. There are three
very important musical terms which are used to describe the manner in'
which.the prOperties are linked, joined, combined and/or repeated
within-a musical composition: Melody, Harmony and Form.

 

A. Melody - An organized succession of two or more tones. Melody

can not be separated.from rhythm. Each of the tones in a melody

must contain two fundamental properties: pitch and.duration.

When these two properties are combined in a succession of tones,

we call this melody. To express the melody a third property is
used; that of timbre. A melody can exist without being heard
(the tones as they appear on the staff, without being played or
sounded, are still a melody) but in order for a melody to be

heard we must use one or more of the musical instruments to pro-

duce it. No matter which instruments are chosen to play the
melody, we introduce timbre. In fact many melodies are iden-
tified by the instrument which plays them.

[Tape VIAl]

Intensity is used with melody for what is known as musical ex-
pression. To make sure that the melody is not boring (tiresome)
and to make sure it is expressive, the composers use a variety
of dynamics. Think of how strange a melody would be if the
notes were all loud or all soft.‘ For example: imagine how
"Pop Corn" would sound if all of the tones in the melody used
the same dynamic level.

[Tape VIA]

B. Harmony - the sounding of two or more tones at the same time.
Harmony uses the four (4) properties in much the same way as
does melody. Pitch is the most important of the four, because
the different tones that are sounded frequently require dif-
ferent pitches.

[Tape VIBl]

284

285

Duration is used in determining how long the tones will be

sounded and in choosing a rhythm for the tones. The property
of intensity is used according to how loud or soft the tones
are to be played. The fourth property of timbre is used in
determining what instrument or instruments will play the tones.
The tones can either be played by one instrument (guitar,
piano, violin, marimba, etc.) or by any number of instruments.*
Think back to how many instruments were used in playing the
harmony in the first eight measures of "Walk On By."

[Tape VIB2]
[Use keyboard activities 14-19]

Musical Forms - the arrangement of melody and harmony into an
orderly manner according to a number of different relations.

In music, as in other fields, there are certain rules that are
used to organize the works. Some of these rules of organization
are called forms. Three of the earliest forms to be used, which
are still popular today, are Binary, Ternary, and Rondo form.

1. Binary Form - this form consists of two main sections or
ideas. It is frequently represented by the letters AB.
The A representing the first section and the B the second
section. Each section is often repeated. We are able to
discriminate between the A and the B by a change in either
the melody, harmony, rhythm, dynamics and/or instruments.

[Tape VICl]

2. Ternary Form - consists of three main sections or ideas.
The third section is usually the first section played again.
Therefore, it is represented by the letters ABA. In some
cases, the second A is not exactly the same as the first A.
It might have slight changes of’harmnny, pitch, or instru-
ments but, the melody is frequently unchanged.

[Tape VIC2 a & b]

3. Rondo Form - the word rondo means "coming around." Hence
rondo form indicates the coming around of a section or idea

 

*Note--It must be remembered that a change in the usage of any of the
properties within the harmony or melody will also change the sound of
the melody or harmony. This can easily be understood in terms of
pitch and duration because these changes can be readily heard. But
the change of an instrument or a dynamic level is also most important
and should be easy to hear, once we become aware of these types of

changes.

286

after new ideas have been introduced. The form can be
indicated by the letters ABACA. The coming around refers
to the return of A after each section (B and C). The
form can be extended pass C and use letters all the way
down to Z, but these are rare.

(1) Have the students to examine the keyboard activities
in regard to the three forms. (2) Tape VIC3 a & b. (3)
Review the concepts of melody, harmony, and form. If you
can find any additional examples of binary, ternary, or
rondo, please use them. (4) Have the students to write
rhythmic or melodic exercises using the three forms.

These should be quite short, no more than twelve measures
so that they can be performed in class. (5) After you are
sure the students understand melodic contrast and form,
have the class to write a short composition. You will have
to guide this activity very closely. Establish restric-
tions of meter, form, length, key, and instruments. The
following suggestion might be helpful:

(a) divide the class into groups according to the sec-
tions within the form.

(b) rondo form would be quite advantageous for larger
classes; this way we can have fewer students in
each group.

(c) a given rhythmic pattern might be helpful for the
students.

(d) if the students find it difficult to supply har-
monies, these can be omitted or added by you.

(e) let them experiment as much as possible with
different melodic patterns.

(f) use keyboard activities numbers nine (9), twenty-
five (25), and thirty (30) as examples of melody
construction and contrast.

Conclusion - During the past months you have been guided through
discussions of music in regard to its properties. The pro-
perties were identified as Duration, Pitch, Intensity, and
Timbre. Each property was discussed mainly in terms of how it
is used in familiar music; the examples used were those that

are presently popular or have been recently popular. Some
attempts were also made to use non-familiar music, mainly as a
means of exposing you to other types of music.

287

Our present discussion is aimed at the similarities which exist
between familiar and non-familiar music. To avoid any con-
fusion, the words popular music will be used in place of famil-
iar music and concert music will be used in place of non-
familiar music. Please do not feel, however, that non-familiar
music can not be popular or that popular music can not be con-
cert music. These terms have been chosen only as a means of
identifying two types of music and do not indicate that one
type is better than the other. It will be your job to decide
if one is better than the other or if they are equal. Remember,
any decision made about the music should be made in connection
with each song and not the type. For example, if one were to
say "I do not like popular music" he is saying that he has heard
most of the popular music that there is to hear and does not
like it. However, if one were to say "I do not like "Crums off
the Table," he is saying that he has heard this song and for
one reason or another does not like it. He is not judging all
popular music by one song. The same approach should be taken
toward concert music; that is, one can not judge all concert
music after hearing only one or two pieces of concert music,
but rather, each piecefof concert music should be judged sep-
arately.

 

There are four ways in which we can discuss these two types of
music: (1) popular music which has borrowed material from con-
cert music, (2) concert music which has borrowed material from
popular music, (3) concert music which has not borrowed mate-
rial from popular music, and (4) popular music which has not
borrowed material from concert music. Our discussion will use
the first three of these classes.

1. The influence of conert music on popular music is not a new
development. Throughout the history of music, composers
of popular music have turned to concert music for material
and ideas. Today, as in the past, many composers of con-
cert music are also popular music composers and it is quite
natural that they might use the same or similar materials
in different types of compositions. Some composers of
popular music, whether because of their liking for certain
concert melodies or because of the great beauty of some
concert.melodies, have used these melodies for popular
music. In other cases, certain concert compositions have
become quite popular on their own. Not only has concert
music influenced popular music, but also concert performers
have influenced popular performers. The training of both
performers is basically the same. The performers differ
only in how they plan to make a living. For example: the
string players who back the "Supremes" have received the
same training as those who play in an orchestra. In many

288

cases the performers play both concert and popular
music.

[Tape IVDl a, b, & 0]

Many of the statements about concert music's influence
upon popular music can be said in regard to popular
music's influence upon concert music. There are, how-
ever, Other influences and similarities which should be
mentioned. First, many instruments which have been
closely associated with popular music are now being used
in concert music: the Latin American percussion instru-
ments being a good example. Second, the interesting
rhythms of popular music have had a great influence on
concert music. So much so,-that some composers of con-
cert music have named their works for different types of
popular music: jazz, ragtime, etc. Third, complete
melodies of popular songs have been used in concert
music. Finally, some popular songs have been rearranged
and played as.concert music.

 

[Tape VID a, b, c, & d]

Concert music does not have to borrow, or be influenced
by¥popular musxc; in fact, most concert music is not
influenced by popular music. Throughout history, con-
cert music has been composed without any influences from
pOpular music. This music forms the largest amount of
music produced. This music can not be judged by compar-
ing it with popular music, but should be judged only by
comparing it with other works of concert music or other
works of concert music from about the same time in history.

 

 

[Tape VID3a, b, c, & d]

When listening to any music, whether concert or popular,
always remember that-all music is made of the same four
properties (duration, pitch, intensity, and timbre) and
that it is the manner in which these properties are used
and the reasons for which the music was written which
makes them different. Both types can stand by themselves
or can use material from the other.

TAPE I

Side #1

A. Duration Test--section F

B. Pitch Test-~section C

C. Intensity Test

D. Timbre Test—-section A

E. Pre- and Post-Music Achievement Test—-sections I-IV

TAPE I

Side #2

Directions for Keyboard, Rhythmic and Singing Activities

A. Keyboard

1.

These activities are presented in sequential order, how-
ever, the proper verbal chains of instructions must be
provided to join these activities together.

Remember that we are mainly interested in developing key-
board skills and not pianist.

Use three (3) or four (4) of these examples, along with
the practice examples and any other activities which will
help to develop the proper skills, each day.

The practice examples are geared to be used with #12-18,
if needed. Practice example #3 moves the first finger
of the right hand to G.

Numbers 22-29 introduces F #and Bb.

289

290

Notice the change of time signature in #30, also the new
notes A b and E b.

The following examples are to be played with the tape.

Number Tape number

5 000

6 084

10 055

11 081
19 101

30 124

31 151

Rhythmic - Eachtof the rhythmic activities are to be per-
formed with a variety of instruments. The given rhythms are
to be used as guides, let the students create additional
rhythms; the empty measures in examples B and C are provided
for that purpose.

Example A — 199
Example B - 251
Example C - 372

Singing

10

This song can be used for singing, playing, or rhythmic
activities. Have the students to add rhythm.pattern3'
to the sample.

Same as 1. Be sure to have the students follow this when
using Tape IVEZ.

TAPE II

Side #1

I. Duration

A.

1.

20

30

Sounds

Long and short sounds
Rhythmic patterns

Drum Solo

II.

291.

Signatures or Meter

1. Duple (Let Yourself Go)

 

2. Triple (Baby I Could be so Good)

 

3. Quadruple (The Nitty Gritty)

 

Division

1. Simple

2. Compound

Subdivision

1. Simple

2. Compound

Borrowed Division

1. Simple

2. Compound-

Examples to be played with IICl and 2

1. This is my Country,

 

Pitch

A.

Sounds

1. High and Low Sounds

2. Difference of voices (I Can't Get Next to You)
Great Staff

Major and Minor

1. C-Major and Minor Scales

2. Take Salem out of the Country

3. Call Me

292

Transposed scales and Chromatics

1. Major (Impossible Dream)

 

2. Minor (Grazin in the Grass)

 

3. Chromatic Movement (My Cherie Amour)

TAPE II

Side #2

III. Intensity

Loud and soft sounds at varying degrees, at the same pitch.

A.

Dynamic Marks
1. a. One melody played at 3 different dynamic-levels.
b. Serious melodies at different dynamic levels.
2. a. One melody played with cresc. and decresc.
b. Serious melodies using cresc. and.decresc.
3. Melodies showing the use of the following:
a. fp
b. sfp
c. A, > or -
Other signs, terms, and abbreviations.
1. Signs which affect duration
a. Fermata

b. Staccato

293

2. Tempo Marks

a. Melody played at 3 different tempos
(1) Slow tempo (2 examples)
(2) Medium tempo (2 examples)
(3) Fast tempo (2 examples)

b. Gradual change of tempo and others
(1) Ritardando
(2) Accelerando
(3) Rubato

c. Songs to be played with Example IVBZC

IV. Timbre

*Introduction; single notes, scales and a melody played by four.
different instruments.

A. String Family
1. Violin Family

a. Violin

b. Viola
c. Cello
d. Bass

String and violin section
(1) Tchaikowsky: Serenade for Strings
(2) Beatles: Eleanor Rigby_
(3) Issac Hayes: Walk On By

2. Harp

3. Piano

294

a. Range, scales, appeggio, and chords
b. Chopin: Prelude No. 6, Op. 28
c. Sly Stone: Hot fun in the Summertime
d. Electric piano
4. Guitar
a. Six string-~open strings, ranges, and chords
(1) K001 and The Gang
(2) Jose' Feliciano
(3) Classical guitar, Bach's Fugue in C Minor
B. Woodwind Family-~ranges
1. No Reed
a. Flute

(1) Blood Sweat & Tears: Variations on E. Satie..

 

(2) Herbie Mann: By The Time I Get to Phoenix.

(3) Issac Hayes: Walk On By.

TAPE III

Side #1

b. Piccolo--range
(l) H. Laws--Blackeyed Peas and Rice
2. Single Reed -
a. Clarinet & Bass Clarinet

b. Saxophones--range, scales, and melody.(Alto, Tenor,
and Baritone)

295

 

(1) Alto Saxophone-~Baby I'm For Real
(2) Tenor Saxophone-~Kool and the Gang_
(3) Baritone Saxophone-eLove Child:
3. Double Reed .
a. Oboe
(l) Vivaldi: Oboe Concerto in D minor
(2) C. Adderley: Brother John
(3) Isaac Hayes: Walk On By_
b. English Horn--Dvorak (New World) Symphony No. 9
c. Bassoon and Contra Bassoon
Woodwind section without saxophone
(l) Wagner: Overture to Die Meistersinger

(2) Hello Dolly

 

Brass Family--comparative ranges
l. Trumpet
a. Haydn: Concerto for Trumpet and Orchestra
b. Friends: Going in Circles
c. O. C. Smith: Daddy's Little Man
2. French Horn--appeggio, and muted
a. Strauss: Till Elulenspiegel
b. J. Butler: Never Going to Give You Up,
3. Trombone
a. Rimsky--Korsakov: Capri coio Espagnol

b. M. Gaye: Wherever I Lay My Hat

 

296

4. Baritone Horn
5. Tuba
Brass Choir
a. Wagner: Overture to Die Meistersinger
b. Watermellon Man
c. Blood, Sweat & Tears: More & More
Percussion Family
*Latin American instruments
Bongo
Maraca
Conga
Guiro
Claves
Castinets
l. Definite Pitch
a. Timpani
b. Xylophone
c. Marimba
d. Glockenspiel
(1) Die Meis tersinger
(2) Originals: Baby I'm For Real

e. Vibraphone

(1) C. Adderley: New Delhi

(2) J. Butler: Never Going to Give You up

f. Chimes

g. Clesta

297

r 2.. Indefinite Pitch
a. Snare Drum
b. Tenor Drum
c. Bass Drumr
d. Cymbals
e. Drum Set & Drum section
f. Triangle
(l) Daddyfs Little Man~
g. Gong '
h. Tambourine

(1) That's The Way Love Is

 

i. Wood Block

3. Complete Percussion section--H. Hanson: Merry Mount Suite
(Children's dance) ‘1- ~ ... .

 

TAPE III

Side #2-

E. Full Orchestra
1. Qgpriocio Espangnol
2. Walk On By,
V; Form and Similarities

A. 1. Dvorak: Symphonyp#9 (From the New World)

2. Popcorn

2951

Different triads, chords and intervals‘
Walk On By (lst 8 measures, identify the instruments)

Binary Form
Bach--French Suite No. 4'(A11emande)

Ternary Form

a. Kool & The Gang

b. Haydn--PianoY Sonata #43 in Ab major
Rondo Form

a. Haydn--Sonata #24; in Ek>majpr

b. J. C. Bach--Sonata #6

Popular and Concert Music Combined

1.

Influence of concert music on popular music
a. Toys: Lover's Concerto
b. Craig Huntley: How.1nsansitive
c. Strauss--(2001 Space Odysses) Also Sprach Zarthustra
Influence of popular music on concert music
a. Willie Bobo

H. 0. Reed:' La Fiesta Mexicana
b. Charles Ives--Holidays (Fourth of July)
c. Eleanor Rigby

(1) The Beatles

(2) The Jazz Crusaders

(3) Aretha Franklin

299

Concert music from various periods of history
a. Gregorian Chant.

b. Mozart: gymphony No. 40.

c.. Beethoven: Symphony No. 3

d. StravinSka‘ Birthday Suite‘

 

' '. . ’ ‘I U. II" up

' 5"' viii.

 

IIIIIIIIIIIIIII

 

saga“; Am ' '

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

[H

 

W

 

 

HH!

 

Keyboard Activities

 

 

ld‘. ‘‘‘‘‘‘‘ ll I‘.!1‘Ill.‘ Ill-Ii ul‘lll I .iilln ~I111‘ ill‘ it‘ll. \j“ 4“}... .,(.ll,lgk

 

 

Keyboard Practice Examples

 

4. c — major scale.

th' 4 3 3

 

4. cont. 5. G - major acute.

 

60 F' "‘0‘”. “a

 

6. mt.

 

 

 

 

 

~’ _~.——-.-—

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

~--.......

 

-—_......

 

....—. . m-

 

 

APPENDIX B:

INSTRUPENTATION

Test #1

 

 

 

 

Name Cityfir
School Date
Directions:

Each of the following statements is meant to evaluate your
feeling toward school. You are to mark a cross (X) in the appropriate
blank which matches the feelings you have toward the given statement.
The blanks under each statement are arranged in a decreasing order
from agreement to strong disagreement. The blank at the extreme right
is only to be used if you cannot decide about a statement. In this
case you are to place a question mark (?) in that blank (the sixth
blank). Please give your true feelings about eaCh statement. Be sure
to respond to each statement. Remember there are no right or wrong re-
sponses to the statements. All people differ. Your grades in music
will not be affected by your responses. Your teacher will not see the
papers. Be sure to read each statement very carefully. The letters
under each blank have the following meanings:

A - Agree

AS - Agree slightly

N - Neutral (neither agreement or disagreement)
DS - Disagree slightly

D - Disagree

Sample: School involves too much homework.

X
A A8 N DS D

 

 

In this case the person disagreed with the statement,
therefore he placed a cross (X) over the D blank.

301

10.

302'

Classrooms are dull.

 

A AS N DS D

I enjoy school.

A A5 N DS D

 

School is OK if your friends are there.

There are so many rules in school that it is like a prison or jail.

 

A A8 N DS D

Teachers give favors to some students.

 

 

A AS N DS D

Some teachers should be in the students place.

 

 

A AS N DS D

I enjoy going to class.

 

 

A A8 N , DS D

I am very interested in education and school.

 

 

 

A AS N DS D

Most school subjects are a waste of time.

 

 

 

A AS N DS D

I go to school only because I am made to do so.

 

 

 

 

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

303

In most cases the whole class is punished when only one or two
pupils are guilty.

 

 

 

 

A AS N DS D

Education tends to make people snobs.

More money should be spend on education.

 

 

 

 

A AS N DS D

I think school and education are most important for getting jobs
in later life.

 

 

 

A A8 N DS ' D

If I were not made to attend school, I could get a good-job..

The things I learn in school will not help me in later life.

 

 

 

 

A. AS N DS D

Too much money is spent on education.

 

 

 

 

A AS N DS D

I don't like teachers, so I don't like school.

 

 

 

 

A AS N US D

I like school best when it is closed.

 

 

 

 

304

20. I don't like to study.

 

 

 

 

A AS N DS D

21. I put study above all things.

 

 

 

 

A AS N DS D

22. Lack of a good education leads to poor jabs.

 

 

 

 

A AS N DS D

23. I don't need an education to get what I want in life.

 

 

 

 

A AS N DS D

24. Teachers don't like me.

 

 

 

 

A AS N DS D

25. Most teachers have stupid rules.

 

 

 

 

A AS N DS D

26. Some teachers are lazy and don't know what they are talking about.

 

 

 

A A8 N DS D

27. I love school.

 

 

 

 

A AS N 08 D

28. My parents were able to do OK without school.

 

 

 

Test #2

Name City

School Date

Directions:

Each of the following statements is meant to evaluate.your.
feeling toward music and its instruction. You are to‘mark a cross (X)
in the appropriate blank which matches the feelings you have toward
the given statement. The blanks under eachgstatement are arranged in
a decreasing order from agreement to strong disagreement. The blank
at the extreme right is only to be used if you cannot decide about a
statement. In this case you are to place a question mark (?) in that'
blank (the sixth blank). Please give your true feelings about each
statement. Be sure to respond to each statement. Remember there are
no right or wrong responses to the statements. All people differ.
Your grades in music will not be affected by your responses. Your
teacher will not see the papers. Be sure to read each statement very
carefully. The letters under each blank have the following meanings:

A - Agree

AS - Agree slightly

N - Neutral (neither agreement or disagreement)
DS - Disagree slightly

D - Disagree

Sample: That anyone should want to devote his whole life to music
seems very strange to me.

X'
A AS N DS D

 

In this case the person disagreed slightly with the statement,
therefore he placed a cross (X) over the DS blank.

305

No matter what happens, music always comes first.

 

A AS N DS D

I love to study music.

 

A A5 N DS D

Music is of great value.

 

A AS N DS D

To me there is nothing so beautiful, and so worthwhile in life, as

good music.

 

A AS N DS D

Music gives me certain pleasures and satisfactions which I would

not want to do without.

 

A AS N DS D

All great men have studied music.

 

A AS N DS D

Music is dull.

 

AI AS N DS D

Music has nothing to offer me. It not only bores me, but it is a

distinctly unpleasant experience.

 

A AS N DS D

Music has no place in the modern world.

 

306

307

10. I am happier listening to music than at any other time.

A A5 N DS D

11. I hate all music.

 

 

 

A AS N DS D

12. I like music, but not the kind they teach in school.

 

 

A AS N 05 D

13. All lessons and all methods used in this subject are clear.

 

 

A AS N DS D

14. My parents.never had music, so I see no use for it.

 

 

A AS N DS D

15. Music is a waste of time.

 

A AS N DS D

16. I like the way music is taught in school.

 

A AS N DS D

17. I would not advise anyone to take this course.

 

A AS N 08 D

18. Nobody likes this subject.

 

A AS N DS D

19. This subject is all right, but I would not take any more of it.

 

 

 

 

20°

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

308

All music is the same.

 

A AS N DS D

Living would be a much more dull and drab affair were it not for
the beauties of music.

 

A AS N DS D

Music is a good pastime.

 

A AS N DS D

I am against music for I believe that people who study it become
strange and one-sided.

 

A AS N DS D

Any student can do good in this subject.

 

A A5 N DS D

Music class is my favorite class.

 

A AS N DS D

This subject has no use outside of school.

 

A AS N DS D

I get scared every time I think about music class.

 

A AS N DS D

This class should be for girls only.

 

29.

30.

31.

32.

309

I will not use the things I learn in this class after I leave
school.

 

 

A A5 N DS D

I have a casual interest in music.

 

 

A AS N DS D

Everybody should take this subject.

 

A AS N DS D

This is the best subject taught in school.

 

Test #3

 

 

 

 

Name Date
School Grade Age
City Teacher

 

 

Father's, Mother's or guardian's occupation

Years of music study in school, not including the present school
year

 

Years of music study outside school

 

I. Pitch Discrimination
Two or three tones will be played, you are to determine which of the
tones is the highest or if they are the same. Circle the number of
the highest tone or circle the S if the tones are the same.

lst - first, 2nd - second, 3rd - third, 8 - same

smle: 2nd 3

1. lst 2nd S
2. lst 2nd S
3. lst 2nd S
4. lst 2nd. 8
5. lst 2nd 8
6. lst 2nd 3rd
7. lst 2nd 3rd
8. lst 2nd 3rd
9. lst 2nd 3rd

10. lst 2nd 3rd

310

11.

12.

II.

III.

311

lst 2nd 3rd

lst 2nd 3rd

Meter Discrimination

In the following section, a melody or part of a melody will be
played. You are to listen very carefully and determine if the
meter is duple (two or four beats per measure) or triple (three
or six beats per measure). Circle the d for duple or the t for
triple.

Sample: (:) t:

1. d t
2. d t
3. d t
4. d t
5. d t
6. d t
7. d t
8. d t

Error Detection

Indicate in which measure an error occurs in the following rhythm
patterns. If no error is heard, place the letter X in the blank.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A B C D X
B Sample: 2 1 ‘ ‘ r1 \ - No Error
- 4
1° A B C D X
" 34L. . 1.11.3? .JJ Jest-H mm
2. A B C D X
2 n l I E i I I ' .1. l" ' ’1 Q I No Error
.3. . A B ‘ c D x
4 ‘ ‘ Ii! :! :h 5" J I 11".“ . No Error
4. A B C D' X
“ .31 .U I. 1.1. DEM . .. mer

312

IV. Tone Direction and Similarities

AL}

Four melodies will be played. You are to circle the appro-
priate word or words which describes the direction of the
melody.

 

Sample: up down (up-then-down down-then-up

 

1. up down up-then—down down-then-up
2. up down up-then-down down-then-up
3. up down up-then-down down-then-up
4. up down up-then-down down-then-up

Each of the following examples contain two melodies which are
matched or paired. Some of these paired melodies will be
exactly alike; other will be nearly alike; while still others
will be very different. For example. some melodies will use
the same tempo, some the same instruments or voices, or some
the same rhythms, however, if the melodies are not the same
you would circle the appropriate words. Remeber, no matter
what other properties are changed or unchanged, you should
listen to the likeness or unlikeness of the paired melodies.

 

Sample: Exactly alike Nearly alike @y different)

1. Exactly alike Nearly alike Very different
2. Exactly alike Nearly alike Very different
3. Exactly alike Nearly alike Very different
4. Exactly alike Nearly alike Very different

5. Exactly alike Nearly alike Very different

'V. Music Symbols and Terms

A0

Match the letter with the correct symbol. Notice that the
sample calls for a bass clef: the correct response is C;
therefore, the letter C has been placed in the blank for
the sample.

C Sample: Bass clef

 

B C D E F G H

tJamaér J‘

1. Quarter note

4}~ H
(l_ D

2. Sharp

3. Treble clef

4. Eighth note

5. Quarter rest
6. Flat

7. Sixteenth rest

8.

 

Below is a list of abbreviations, terms and symbols.

Natural

Match

these with their correct meaning or word.

_____Jm /:\ a. Ritardando
__ 2. < b. Fast

.____ 3. dim. 0. Medium tempo
____ 4. pp d. Slow

.____ 5. Lento e. Fortissimo
_____ 6. mf f. Pianissimo
__ 7. 9‘ 0‘ g. A-cent

.____ 8. ff. h. Crescendo
__ 9. fp i. Diminuendo
_____10. Hit. j. Sforzando
.____ll. sfz k. Fermata
____;12. Presto . Staccato notes
_____13. Accel m. Forte piano
____}4. Rubato n. Mezzo forte
____15. Andante o. Accelerando
___16. A , > or - p. to speed up or slow down at will

313

Radio Questionnaire

 

1. List your favorite two (2) radio stations. #1 #2

2. In what cities are they located? #1 #2

 

 

3. Do you agree with their weekly record polls? yes . no

4. If you do not agree with their polls, which polls do you agree
with?

 

314

APPENDIX C

RELIABILITY AND SCALING OF INSTRUMENTS

316

.J¢I.III.L. 01". n.

.muoamcm pnmau

kebab

m.m§oum Hmsoa may no m was one museums unmflu Awhmv m.mmoum momma can no w on» soosuon oocoquMflp mesa;

 

 

.Eouw was mcwuuflso Ho amends mcouz a mswxnms msoum Houou on» mo w mesa
ma.nm omn.m comm. mane. mo hm mm
m~.om moo.m oomm. more. hm mm mm
mm.om w-.m mnmm. moon. on ov Hm
on.mm mmm.H mama. momm. mm on on
mm.mm hmv.a homa. Hmom. mm mm ma
Hm.mm omv.m mmmm. Hamm. mm mm ma
«H.0m omm.m whom. mmmv. Ho mm ha
mH.mm mom. ammo. coda. mm Ho ma
mm.vm emu. momo. mead. ma om ma
No.0m noo.m Noam. mmbm. mm mo ca
0H.mm nmN.H some. Hood. ma om ma
onuwm mmm.m whom. mmmv. Ho mo NH
o>.mm hhm.m mamm. come. on om Ha
Hm.mm ooh.m mmmm. Noam. mm mm 0H
mo.hm mmm.m comm. mmmv. av me o
~m.mm omo.a ooam. comm. ma mm m
oo.hm nmm.o hove. noun. om mm m
Hm.om mom.m omom. Name. Ho mm @
vv.mm nom.~ omhm. mmov. mm ma m
mm.hm moo.m nanm. memo. om Ho o
om.mm ovo.m anam. mmov. hm ma m
mm.om mma.o Nude. poem. mo mm m
om.om Hmo. mmoo. mHHo. ma mm H
coaumHonuou
ouoom . sofiumaouuoo coaumaonuou «acoauodasanomao «wpasoammaa .oz
Hmauomam ucaom . . .
cums . . awesomwm ucwom awesomam mo xoch mo xoosH EouH

no name now a

 

Ame n zc some ezmsm>mHmoa onozammm .mHqucza ameH

H.U mqmda

317

IV '41.. i i. .a

 

mm.sm omo.m ~mam. swam. am am we
so.am mv~.¢ mama. smam. mm as so
mo.mm osm.v mass. mamm. mm mm as
oo.mm mem.v mass. “mom. so me me
mo.sm «mo.a woos. ommm. we mm as
mo.mm omo.m sham. ammo. we me me
ma.nm kmo.m mmsm. mama. as as no
aa.sm omm.q mama. moss. «a an as
mm.mm oms.m oomm. «use. om om .ov
No.mm mmo.m ammo. swam. mm ow mm
mm.mm mmm.n memo. moom. am an an
om.mm mav.m seam. memo. mm Na hm
.oe.nm ~ma.o mmmm. mmms. mm mm on
~m.om mmm.a some. mafia. we um mm
mm.sm «mm.v mmss. mmsm. om on em
os.mm oso.m omam. moms. am am mm
sa.mm mNH.H ommfl. mama. a mm mm
ek.mm moo.v «Nov. mmom. om am am
mH.om Hos.a omma. some. me am om
~m.nm ms~.m mamm. Home. as mm mm
am.om «mo.~ moan. oosm. mm as mm
me.mm mom.m (Noam. «has. am om em
tvs.om mam.~ mmsm. Foam. mm Hm om
oo.om H55.~ oamm. mmmm. mm as mm
ms.am mmo.m mesa. moan. um am am
QOHHMHOHHOU
ouoom . sowumaounoo coaumaouuoo sowumsaaauomaa >9H50flmmaa .oz
Hmauomam uaaoa . . .
cam: Hmaummam uaaoa Hmaummam

mo xoch mo xoUGH amuH

Mo umoa mom 9

 

A.usoov H.o manna

318

 

 

mm.om mmm.H GNON. ommm. mm .mv hm
m®.mm Nwoofl mbHH. vbvd. ma mm mm
No.hm mbmom moflmo mva. 0% Hm mm
om.om NHH.m Nmmm. whom. NM 0v om
om.om oomom damm. Hmov. mv 0v mm
#m.hm mmH.v Nmav. mmmm. om 0v mm
mm.®m mmm.N NNom. mmmm. mm mm Hm
mm.om mmoom vHNm. Nva. mm mm om
Ho.wm oomom mmmm. ommm. mm vm mo
moonwaouuoo
ouoom awesomam usaom soaumaounoo soaumaouuou sowumsflfifluomwn avasowmman .02
com: . . . Howummam usHom defiuomwm mo xopsH mo xopsH EmuH

«0 away you a

 

A.u:oov H.U wanna

319

TABLE C.2
SUMMARY: DIFFICULTY AND DISCRIMINATION INDICES, PRE-MUSIC

ACHIEVEMENT TEST

w

 

 

Distribution of Item Distribution of Item
Difficulty Indices Discrimination Indices
No. of % No. of % 3
Items Items 9
81-100 0 0 81-100 1 2
61-80 0 0 61-80 4 7
41-60 25 44 41—60 24 42
21-40 28 49 21-40' 21 37
00—20 4' 7 00-20' 6 11 a,
Less than
00 l 2
TABLE C.3

MEANS, ERROR OF MEASUREMENT AND RELIABILITY OF

PRE-MUSIC ACHIEVEMENT TEST

w

Mean Item Difficulty 39
Mean Item Discrimination 39
Mean Point Biserial Correlation 32
Kunder Richardson Reliability #20 .8544

Standard Error of Measurement 3.4144

 

320

TABLE C.4
RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTION OF PRE-MUSIC ACHIEVEMENT

TEST (I = 57, N = 85)*

 

Raw Frequency Cumulative Percentile Standard
Score Frequency Rank Score
53 l 1 99 70.0
52 l 2~ 98 69.6
51 2 4 96 68.4:
49 l 5 95 66.2
47 2 7 93 64.0
46 l 8 91 62.9
45. l 9 90 61.7
44 2 ll 88 60.6
42 4 15 85 58.4
41 9 24 77 57.3
40 4 28 69 56.2
39 5 33 64 55.0
38 2 35 60 53.9
37 6 41 55 52.8
36 4 45 49 51.7
35 2 47- . 46 50.6
34 2 49 44 49.6
33 3 52 41 48.4
32 4 56 36 47.3
31 2 58 33 46.2
30 l 59 31 45.1
29 2 61 29 44.0
28 4 65 26 42.8-
27 2 67 22 41.7
26 4 71 19 40.6
24 l 72 16 38.4
23 3 75’ 14 37.3
22 3 78 10 36.1
21 2 80 7 35.0
19 2 82» 5 32.8
18 l 83 3 31.7
16 1 84' 2 29.4
11 ’l 85 1 23.9

 

*I = Items, N a Number of subjects.

i _g—, ___.vu..- .v. .u_

TABLE C.5
SUMMARY: RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS OF PRE-MUSIC

ACHIEVEMENT TEST

 

 

Raw Score Standard Score

 

Mean S.D. Variance Mean S.D.
34.49 8.95 80.16 50 10

 

~ . ._“-b.‘—¢H§ a... .. .4

13,—:

WORKSHEET FOR DETERMINING THURSTONE SCALE VALUES ON

CARTER ATTITUDE SCALES

Favorable Neutral Unfavorable

A B c D E F G H I J K
()() () () () () () () () () ()

()() () () () () () () () () ()
()() () () () () () () () () ()
()() () () () () () () () () ()
()() () ()' () () () () () () ()
()() () () () () () () (1 () ()
()() () () () () () () () () ()

Directions: Eachsubject is to judge. the degree of favorableness or
unfavorableness of feeling expressed by each statement. Place each .
statements .' corresponding number in the parenthesis which indicates

your judgment within the eleven internal continuum.

322

"a,

323

.n:OHUH0doum o>muoasaso u do
.mcowuuomonm mm moaocoswoum u m
we

 

 

 

.mwflhomwflmo HH 05». MO £060 G.“ GOOMHQ g3 UGOEBBN OS“ 50.2%} finnso aflwflghm "
OO. OO.H OO. Om. om. Om. Om. OH. OO. OO. OO. do
m.a OO. OH. Om. OH. Om. .OH. OH. OH. OO. OO. OO. d .m
O H m H m H H H O O O H
OO.H OO. Om. OO. Om. OO. OO. OH. OO. OO. OO. do
O.O Om. Om. OH. OO. OH. OO. OO. OH. OO. OO. OO. d .o
N m H O H O O H O O O m
OO.H OO. OO. On.- Om. om. Om. OH. OO. OO. OO. do
m.O OH. OH. OH. ON. ON. OH. OH. OH. OO. OO. OO. d .m
H H H m m H H H O O O m
OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO.H OO. Om. do
m.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OH. Om. d .N
O O O O O O O O o H m d
OO.H OO. Os. om. OO. OO. OO. ON. OO. OO. OO. do
m.m Om. OH. Om. Om. OO. OO° OO. ON. OO. OO. OO. d .H
a H m n O O O N O O O m.
HH OH O m h m m o m m H
oaHo> a O H a o d o O o m a
oHoom moaosoooom

momuomoumu msfluoom

 

 

aw BmflBIlmBZMZUQDh mA¢Um mom Mdmda HMdZEDm

0.0 mqmda

324

 

 

OO.H OO. OO. OH. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
ms.m OH. OH. OH. OH. OH. OO. JOO. OO. OO. OO. .OO. d .OH
H H o H O O O O O O H
OO.H OO. OO. Os. ,Om. Om. OO. .OO. OO. OH. OO. do
m.» OH. OH. OH. OH. Om. Om. _OO. OO. OO. OH. .OO. d .HH
H H H m H O O O H O H
OO.H OH. OH. OO. .OO. OO. OO. OO. .OO. , OO. OO. do
sm.OH OO. OH. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. .OO. OO. OO. OO. d .OH
O H H O O O O O O O H
OO. OO.H OO. ON. .OO. OO. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
O0.0 OO. OO. OO. OH. OO. OO. .OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. d .O
O O O O O H O O O O H
OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. .OO. OO. OO. OO.H Om. do
OO.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO° OO. OO. oo. om. d .O
O O O O O O O O a m H
OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO° OO. OO.H Ow. Os. do
m>.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO° OO. ON. OH. OH. d .n
O O O O O O O m a o H
OO. OO.H om. Om. OO. OO. OO. Om. .OH. OH. OH. do
m.m OO. ON. OH. OH. OO. OO° .OO. OH. OH. OH. OH. d .O
O m N O O O H m H H H
HH OH O m s m m o, m m H
oaHo> e O H m o d a O o m a
.oHuom monocoooom

.moHnomoumo mcHHoom

 

1988 80.282.

325

L Iiallnl JciIi . .. . . . ‘

OO.H ON. 00. OH. 00. oo. oo. oo. _oo. oo. oo.

“'CNET

 

.OO.OH .OO. OH. OO. OH. OO. -OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. .OH
O H O H O O O O O O O
OO.H OO. Om. .OO. OO. OO. .OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
OO.O OO. om. Om. OO° OO. OO. OO. OO. OO° OO. .OO. d .OH
O m m O O O O O O O O H
OO.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OH. OO° OO. OO. OO. OO. do
mO.O Om. OO. OO. OH. OO. OH. OO. OO. OO. .OO. .OO. d .OH
O m o H O H O O O O O H
OO.H Os. OO. om. Om. OO. OO. .OO. OH. .OO. OO. do
m.O Om. Om. _OO. Om. OH. OO. .OO. OO. OH. OO. .OO. d .OH
m O O m H O O O H O O H
OO.H OO. .OO. _OO. Om° OH. OO. OO° OO. OO. .OO. do
OH.O 1OH. Om. OO. OH. Om. OH. OO. OO. OO° OO. OO. d .mH
H m N H O H O O O O O H
OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO.H .OO.: OO. OO. OO. OH. do
.Om.m OO. OO° OO. OO. OO. OH. _OO. OH. OO. Om. OH° d .OH
O O O O O H O H O m H H
OO. OO° OO. OO° OO. OO. OO° ,OO.H OO. OO. om. do
m.H OO. OO. OO. .OO. OO° OO. OO° ,OH. Om. OH. Om. d .mH
O O O .O O O O H m H m H
HH OH O O O O m o m m H
oaHO> O O H O o H m o o O a mucosoumom

mamom -

 

commemoumo mcmuoom

 

“.Haooynw.o OHnOH

326

I! 151134 4.). It‘ll! LI

 

OO.H OO. OO. OO. OO. Om. OO. OO. OO. OH. OO. do
O.O OH. OH. OO. OO. OO. OH. OO. OO. OO. OH. OO. d .mm
H H O O O H
OO.H OO. OO. Om. OH. Om. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
O.O OH. Om. OO. OH. OO. Om. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. d .OO
H O O O O H
OO. OO.H OO. Om. Om. OO. OO. OO° OH. OO. .OO. do
OO.O OO. OO. Om. OH. OH. OO. OO. OO. OH. OO. OO. d .mm
O O m O O H
OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO.H OO. OO. OO. do
mm.m OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO° OH. Om. OO. OO. d .OO
O O O H O H
OO. OO.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. Om. do
OO.m OO. Om. OO. OH. OO. OO. OH. OO° Om. OO. Om. d .HO
O O O O m H
OO. OO.H OO. OO. OO. Om. Om. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
OH.m OO. Om. Om. OO. Om. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO.. d .OO
O m O O O H
HH OH O O s O O O m N H
OOHO> O O H O o d O O o O O mucosouoom

oamom

 

nomuomoumo mcmnoom

 

A.Haooc O.o oHOOH

327

 

oo. oo. (OO.H .om. oo. ow. oo. oo. VON. OH. .00. mo

 

m.m OO. OO. om. OH° OO. Om. OO. OO. OHi. OH. OO. d .OO
O O m H O O O O H H O H
OO. OO° OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO.H OO. OO. do
mm.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. ON. ON. OO. d .OO
O O O O O O O O m O O H
OO.H OO. OO. OO. Om. OO. Om. Om. OH. OO. OO. do
m.m OH. on. OH. OH. OH. OH. OH. OH. OH. OO. OO. d .Om
H m H H H H H H H O O H
HH OH O O O O m O m m H
OOHO> O O H O o d O O o O O
mHmom mucwfimumum

 

momuomoumu msmuoom

 

A.uaouv v.0 wanna

328

 

 

OO.H OO. OO. Om. Om. OO. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
m.OH OO. OH. OO. OH. OH. OO. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. d .O
O O H O H O O H
OO° OO° OO. OO° OO° .OO. OO. OO.H OO. OO. OO. do
OO.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. Om. OO. OO. OO. d .m
O O O O O O O H
OO. OO. OO. OO. OO.H OO. OO. om. OO. Om. OH. do
m.O OO. OO. OO. OO. ON. ON. OH. OH. OO. OH. OH. d .O
O O m m H H H H
OO° OO. OO. OO. OO. OO.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
m.m OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. Om. OH. OH. Om. OO. OO. d .m
O O O m H H O H
OO. OO. OO. OO° OO. OO.H OO. OO. OO. OO. Om. do
m.m OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. Om. OO. OO. Om. OO. Om. d .m
O O O O O O m H
OO.H OO. OO. OO. Om. OO. OO. Om. OO. OH. OO. do
m.m Om. OO. OH. OH. OH. Om. OO. OH. OO. ,OH. OO. d .H
m H H O O H O H
HH OH O O O O O O m m H
OOHOO, OH O H O o d O O o O O mucosoumom
mamom

 

 

mt BmWBIIBZMSOQDb NANUmeOh mamflfi HMflZZDm

momuomoumu mcHHoow

 

5.0 mqm<8

329

 

 

OO.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OH. do
mm.m OH. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. Om. OO. OO. OO. OH. d .mH
H H O O O H H
OO.H OO. OO. OO. _Om. OO. Om. OO. Om. OH. OO. do
m.O Om. Om. OO. OO. -OH. OH. OH. OO. .OH. OH. OO. d .OH
O m H H H O H
OO.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
O.HH OO.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. d .HH
OH O O O O O H
OO. OO.H OO. OO. OO. OO. .OO. Om. OH. OH. .OO. do
m.O OO. OH. OH. OH. OO. OO. OO. Om. OH. OH. OO. d .OH
O H O O H O H
OO.H OO° OO. OO. OO. OO° OO. OO° OO. OO. OO. do
O.HH OO.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. d .O
OH O O O O O H
OO.H OO. OO. OO° OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
O.HH OO.H OO. OO° OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO° OO. OO. d .O
OH O O O O O H
OO.H Om. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
Om.OH OO. Om. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. d .O
O O O O O O H
HH OH O O O O O O m m H
oOHO> O O H O o d O O o O1 O
ommom mucoEoumum

momuomoumo mcmuoom

 

A.u2000 5.0 OHAMB

330

 

OO.H Om. OO. Om. OO. .OO. OO. OO. ,OO. OO. OO. do
m.OH Om. Om. OO. .OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. .OO. OO. OO. d .OO
m O O O O O O O O O H
OO.H .OO. Om. OO. Om. .OO- OO. OO. OO. OO. .OO. do
m.O .OO. Om. Om. .OO. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. d .OH
O O O H O O O O O O H
OO.H OO. Om. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
OO.OH OO. Om. OO. OO. OO. OO. .OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. d .OH
O O O O O O O O O O H
,OO.H Om. OO. Om. Om. .OH. OO. OO. .OO. .OO. OO. do
m.m Om. Om. OO. ON. ON. OH. OO. .OO. OO. OO. OO. d .mH
m .O O O H O O O O O H
OO. OO. OO.H OO. OO. Om. OO. .OO. Om. OO. ,OO. do
mO.m OO. OO. .Om. OO. OO. Om. OH. ,OO. OH. Om. OO. d .OH
O m O O m H O H O O H
.OO.H OH. OH. OO° OO. OO. OO° OO. OO. OO. OO. do
OO.OH OO. OH. OH. OO. OO° OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. d .OH
O H O O O O O O O O H
OO.H OO. OO. .OO. OO. .OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
O0.0H OO. Om. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. .OO. OO. OO. d .OH
O O O O O O O O O O H
HH OH O O H O m O m m H
OOHO> O O H O o d O O o O O
mamom mucofioumum

 

momuomouou mcmuoom

 

H.Haoov m.O OHOOH

331

OO.H OO. Om. Om. OO. .OO. .OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
d
H

 

 

OO.OH OO. OH. OH. OH. OO. .OO. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. .OH
O H H H O O H O O O O
OO.H Om. OO. OO. OO. .OO. OO. OO. OO. .OO. OO° do
m.OH Om. Om. OO. Om. OO. OO. .OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. d .OO
O m O O O O O O O O O H
OO. OO. OO° OO. OO. OO. OO.H OO. .OO. .OO. om. do
m.H OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO° Om. OH. OH. OH. om. d .mm
O O O O O O O H H H m H
OO.H OO. Om. OO. OO. Om. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
m.O OH. OO. OH. OO. ON. ON. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. d .OO
H O H O O O O O O O O H
OO.H OO. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
OO.OH OO. OH. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO° OO. OO. OO. d .mm
O H H O O O O O O O O H
OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO.H OO. Om. Om. .OO. Om. do
m.m OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. Om. OH. OO. OH. OH. om. d .OO
O O O O O m H m H H m H
OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO.H OO. Om. do
OH.m OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. Om. Om. d .HO
O O O O O O O O O m m H
HH OH O O H O m O m m H
OOHOO O O H O o d O O o O O
Odmom mucwfiwumum

Oomuoooumo ocHHOOO

 

A.u:000 5.0 OHQMB

332

 

.oo. _oo.H .oo. oo. oo. .00. co. cm. 00. 0m. .0m.

“4048..

 

 

m.m OO° OH. OO. OO. OO° Om. OO. OH. .OO. Om. Om. .mm
O H O O O m O H O m m
OO. OO. OO. OO. .OO. OO.H OO. Om. OO. OO. .OO. do
m.O OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. OH. OH. Om. OO. Om. d .HO
O O O O O O H H O O m H
OO.H OO. .OO. Om. OO. OO. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
OH.OH OO. Om. OO° OH. ,OO. OH. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. d .Om
O m O H O H H O O O O H
OO.H Om. OO. OO. OO. Om. OO. OO. OH. OO. OO. do
m.OH Om° OH. Om. OO. OO. OH. OO. OO. OH. OO. OO. d .Om
m H O O O H O O H O O H
OO.H OO° Om. Om. OO.. OH. OO. OO. OO. OO. OO. do
OO.OH OO. OH. OH. OH. OO° OH. OO. OO. OO. OO° OO° d .OO
O H H H O H O O O O O H
HH OH O O O O m O m N H
oOHO> O O H O o d O O o O O moaosoomom
oamom

momuomoumu msmuoom

 

A.usoov 5.0 OHQOB

APPENDIX D

TEACHERS QUESTIONNAIRE

TEACHERS QUESTIONNAIRE

Name of City
Name of School
School Population

Racial composition of school by number and.percent

 

 

 

1. Black and %
2. White and %
3. Spanish‘ and %
4. Others and %

 

Type of school neighborhood
1. Segregated
2. Integrated
3. Newly integrated

4. Other (Explain)

 

 

 

Number of students in experimental class

 

Grade level of experimental class

 

Number of students in control class

 

Grade level of control class

 

334

335

Racial composition of the two classes by number and percent

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Control
a. Black and %
b. White and %
c. Spanish and %.
d. Other and. %
2. Experimental
a. Black and %
b. White and %
c. Spanish and %
d. Other and %
Number of weekly classsmeetings and hours per day
Number of years teaching .
Number of years as a general music instructor .
Number of years teaching in present school. .

Comments about the program.

 

Please be honest:

APPENDIX E

ANALYSIS or VARIANCE, CORRELATION, AND 3 VALUE TABLES

336

TABLE E.1
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF ATTITUDES TOWARD EDUCATION

FOR EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS (N = 52)

 

 

 

 

Source of Sum of Degrees of Mean F . . .
Variance Squares Freedom Squares. Statistic Significance
Ave.

Test #1 111.569 1 111.569. 12.069 < .001

Error 952.101 51 9.243-

Total 1063.670 52
Score

Test #1 78131.662. 1 78131.662 10.380 < .002

Error 775254.138 51 77526:?39'

Total 853385.800 52

TABLE E.2

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF ATTITUDES TOWARD MUSIC FOR

EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS (N i‘ 52)

 

Source of Sum of Degrees of Mean F 51 ificance
Variance Squares Freedom Squares Statistic gn
Ave.
Test #2 425.438 1 425.438 79.019 < .005
Error 554.565 51 5.384
Total 980.003 52
Score
Test #2 439949.751 l 439949.751 88.860 < .005
Error 509957.377 51 4951.045

Total 949907.128 52

 

337

TABLE E.3-
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE OF MUSIC ACHIEHEMENT FOR

EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS (N = 52)
, . - .

 

 

Source of Sum of Degrees of Mean F Si ificance
Variance Squares Freedom Squares Statistic gn
' Test #3 19294.648 1 19294.648 89.634 ° < .05
Error 22171.591 51 212.253
Total 41466.239 52
TABLE E.4

MULTIPLE CORRELATION COEFFICIENTS (R)

 

 

 

 

 

Source R R2 . 112: 1!
Test #1 Ave. .686 .470 .460 .678
Test #2 Ave. .788 .621 .614 .783
Test #3 .897 .804. .800 .894

TABLE E. 5

: 3 VALUES OF GAIN SCORE CORRELATIONS--CONTROL GROUPS (N I 54)
w

 

Test #1 Test #2 Test #3
Test #1 1.13_
Test #2 -5.25**
Test #3 -2.53*

 

*Significant at the .05 level.
**Significant at the .01 level.

338

TABLE E.6
‘ 2 VALUES OF GAIN SCORE CORRELATIONS--EXPERIMENTAL

GROUPS (N II 52)
M

Test #1 Test #2 ' Test #3

Test #1 1.41
Test #2 1.43
Test #3 1.44'

 

~’l

MICHIGAN STATE UNIV. LIBRARIES
mH“WIHI‘IWIWIWHW”"WHWIMIWHI
31293103639112