K‘ TH E91? lllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllslllll 3 1293 10371 5128 ‘ 0-1. "'~. , om;”' ' . .,._.!..r.\- , ‘0‘ r wt 4 ._ h >bh$‘“€Q This is to certify that the thesis entitled Career Guidance Needs Assessment of Black Secondary School Students in Selected Schools in the Transvaal Province of the Republic of South Africa presented by Zacharia M . Chuenyane has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D . degree in Education Wfifi Major professor Date April 30, 1981 0-7 639 MSU LIBRARIES _.—_—- RETURNING MATERIALS: ace in 00 rop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. Wit “if“ ‘4‘ to 0“ PLEASE NOTE: Copyrighted materials in this document have not been filmed at the request of the author. They are available for . consultation, however, in the author's university library. These consist of pages: 181-182 University ‘ - Microfilms lntemational 300 N. 2628 no. ANN ARBOR.M148106l313)761-4700 CAREER cu. sc C L. In Par - i \., . CAREER GUIDANCE NEEDS ASSESSMENT OF BLACK SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE TRANSVAAL PROVINCE OF THE REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA BY Zacharia Mmutlanyane Chuenyane A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1981 Copyright by ZACHARIA MMUTLANYANE CHUENYANB 1981 ..l. it is recri T. are (0 W0 i.F:s:er T‘- a I“ ion: "C1599: t ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research study was not the accomplishment of one person. The concern, interest, support, encouragement and cooperation of many people made its completion possible and it is regretable that I cannot acknowledge by name all those who contributed to this study. Indeed, it was a great pleas— ure to work with my doctoral committee members, Dr. Lawrence W. Foster, Dean Robert L. Green, Dr.Vandel, C. Johnson, Dr. Walter F. Johnson and Dr. James W. Costar, Chairperson of my committee and director of this dissertation. The committee was both a source of inspiration and a resource for infor- mation. A special appreciation is extended to my advisor, Dr. Costar, who has provided encouragement, acceptance and support during the entire doctoral program and whose penmanship sharply focused this study. To Dean Green, Arthur Ashe and Ambassador Andrew Young my deep and sincere gratitude is expressed for their genuine concern with the plight of Black South Africans and for making my study in the 0.8. possible. I am most grateful to the following for financial sup- port: The Sage Foundation, The United Nations Education and Training Program for Southern Africa and the BP Education Trust Fund. C. C. Cy V“ .I DEDICATION To my parents, Dampane "Mogoshadi” Isabel and Morope "Nape" James Chuenyane, educators of tremendous courage and great vision who sacrificed immensely and provided increasing and unfailing love and understanding, this dissertation is dedicated. I think of them as Voltaire said: "Aimer et penser: C'est La veritable vie‘ des esprits." iii P? R st cf V i I ll db!- I"! rnv t -n‘ .pL H». Ru a... la .al .d I e a... S I I .J e l .c e Cc P N. Cu 1. V... E I. .C By. ‘1‘ NH 3 C. T. C e .4 "Nu \hlua .“ an \ G e S «2 NZ d d. 0. mm ‘3 mg n» .3 a. l a: C I T. 1‘ a re mm. u it .: an, flu «\v 13. n\.v TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER List of Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . II. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem. . . . . . . . . . Purpose of the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . Need for the Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . Significance of the Study . . . . . . . . . Basic Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Scope and Limitations of the Study. . . . Definitions of Terms. . . . . . . . . . . Summary and Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE. . . . . . . . Objectives of Career Guidance . . . . . . Theories of Career Development and Career Choice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trait-Factor Theory. . . . . . . . . . Super's Theory of Career Development . Holland's Theory of Vocational Choice. . The Roe Theory of Occupational Choice. . Ginzberg's Theory of Occupational Choice Hoppock's Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Related to Student's Career Guidance Needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Status of Career Guidance Services in South African Black Secondary Schools . . . . . . Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Career Guidance in the Educational System for Blacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv PAGE vi 10 ll 13 14 15 l6 l7 19 22 23 24 26 26 29 35 37 4O 41 44 50 50 53 61 u'. 1|! E MA n\a S .5... Sn ‘\ I K 9?. 3 & um. «L. 5. PM D. Fe II\ F‘ aF\ ..\1 all E C\ hU A! IF. ..~ A? N: ~\~ . . . . . \IH \FU RV Blvd §F~ Hr CHAPTER PAGE III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY. . . ... . . . . . . . . . 63 The Research Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Statement of Hypotheses. . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Selection of the School Sample . . . . . . . . 68 Selection of the Respondents . . . . . . . . . 69 Research Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Pilot Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Analysis of the Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Category Classification. . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 IV. ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Characteristics of the Respondents . . . . . . 82 Results of Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Further Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . . . . 128 A Summary of the Interview with School Principals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Individual Suggestions for Improvement . . . . 144 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 148 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Method of Treatment and Analysis . . . . . . . 151 Limitations and Scope of the Study . . . . . . 151 Summary of Findings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162 Administrators Views. . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Educational Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 APPENDICES Guidance Services Needs Assessment Survey. . . 181 Questions used during the interviews . . . . . 183 Applications for permit to conduct research. . 184 Letters of Endorsement of Study . . . . . . . 189 Permit to conduct research in study. . . . . . 192 Frequency responses of Black South African Secondary School Students. . . . . . . . . . . 197 "JNUOUJID' BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 f\ C C. v A (n ct a: .C :L is cut r... Cs f\ :4 r: a: I: Cs C :« CC ‘1 w-L Cs H. a :4 «Q \Iu NH; Q» n\\ R.“ L A. V «a. 1.; 1|; 2 3 I.“ -\J rHU filf a: H: x \ la. on. 1%. i5. is. ad. in. 4%. I 3 pl. 3 TABLE 4.8 4.9 LIST OF TABLES Grade Level, Sex and Geographic Location of Black Secondary School Students by Schools Included in the Study. . . . . . . Distribution of Students Sex, Geographic Location Frequency and Percentage sponses Regarding a Need and Accepting Themselves Frequency and Percentage sponses Regarding a Need in the Sample by and Grade Level of Students' Re- for Understanding of Students' Re- for Developing Responsibility for Themselves. . . . . . Frequency and Percentage sponses Regarding a Need Others . . . . . . . . Frequency and Percentage sponses Regarding a Need stood by Others. . . . . Frequency and Percentage sponses Regarding a Need Others . . . . . . . . . Frequency and Percentage sponses Regarding a Need Values . . . . . . . . . Frequency and Percentage sponses Regarding a Need Themselves . . . . . . Frequency and Percentage sponses Regarding a Need Decision-Making Skills Frequency and Percentage sponses Regarding a Need Sexual Identity. . . . vi of Students' Re— for Understanding of Students' Re-- for Being Under— of Students' Re- for Relating to of Students' Re- for Clarifying of Students' Re- for Assessing of Students' Re— for Acquiring of Students' Re- for Understanding PAGE 72 85 . 86 87 88 9O 91 92 Fre 4.11 .| 4.. “I pa VIA 1., s: Q» CA 4.20 hips CM ‘0‘ a/s in. TABLE PAGE 4.11 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re— sponses Regarding a Need for Selecting Courses and Making Educational Plans. . . . . . . . . 93 4.12 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding a Need for Making Post- High School Plans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 4.13 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding a Need for Developing Career Awareness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 4.14 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re— sponses Regarding a Need for Exploring Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 4.15 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding a Need for Planning Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 4.16 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding a Need for Finding Jobs and Careers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 4.17 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding a Need for Understanding the Guidance Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 4.18 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re— sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Understanding and Accepting Themselves. . 100 4.19 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Developing Responsibility for Themselves. 101 4.20 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Understanding Others. . . . . . . . . . . 102 4.21 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Being Understood by Others. . . . . . . . 103 4.22 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Relating to Others . . . . . . . . . . . 104 4.23 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- ' sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Clarifying Values . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 vii 4.24 4.27 .)L A? 4.31 4.32 TABLE PAGE 4.24 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re— sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Assessing Themselves. . . . . . . 106 4.25 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re— sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Acquiring Decision-Making Skills. 107 4.26 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re— sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Understanding Sexual Identity . . 108 4.27 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re— sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Selecting Courses and Making Educational Plans. . . . ... . . . . . . . 109 4.28 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re— sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Making Post-High School Plans . . 110 4.29 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Developing Career Awareness . . . 111 4.30 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Exploring Careers . . . . . . . . 112 4.31 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Planning Careers. . . . . . . . . 113 4.32 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Finding Jobs and Careers. . . . . 114 4.33 Frequency and Percentage of Students' Re- sponses Regarding the Satisfaction of a Need for Understanding the Guidance Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 4.34 Rank Order of Categories of Guidance Service Needs - Juniors. . . . . . . . . . 123 4.35 Rank Order of Categories of Guidance Service Needs - Seniors. . . . . . . . . . 124 4.36 Content Analysis of Responses by Black South African Secondary School Students to the Open-Ended Questionnaire. . . . . . . 126 viii all ...(J I“: 1.5. DJ 1.6. TABLE 4.37 4.38 A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Understanding and Accepting self. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Developing Responsibility for Self. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Understanding Others . . . A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Being Understood by Others A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Relating to Others . . . . . A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Clarifying Values. . . . . . A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Assessing Self . . . . . . A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Making Decisions . . . . . . A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Understanding Sexual Identity. A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Selecting Courses and Making Educational Plans . . . . . . . . . . A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Making Post High School Plans. A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Developing Career Awareness. A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Exploring Careers. . . . . . A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Planning Careers . . . . . A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Finding Jobs and Careers . . ix PAGE 129 130 131 132 133 133 134 135 136 136 137 138 139 140 140 Av s1 A-» DJ «(J :4 A... TABLE 4.52 PAGE A Comparison of Student Means for the Variable Understanding the Guidance Program. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141 Content Analysis of Interviews With Black Secondary School Principals. . . . . 143 i'r-i- Ln. 'H ‘\‘i n 'ew‘v s c.. a..;.‘,“ UL ah. ‘ nfl‘ ‘ \ . H “‘ ~‘A‘Qul gd‘: ‘ "A. ‘:"~s Carl R ‘\‘ a 1H a 5§5ige°’ : : :""‘fl\‘, ““ "' N “‘Q \‘n‘ ‘ a h “meats w”, 1' . I 4 y“-€‘Y’ ‘k‘ Q ‘ ‘ s dink“ it)... . CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction This research emanates from the writer's interest in vocational guidance and from his cumulative concern about the apparently naive declaration of career plans by Black secon- dary school students he taught over a five year period in the Transvaal Province of the Republic of South Africa. Tenuous choices seemed to be a result of the students' lack of sufficient knowledge regarding themselves (i.e., their abilities, attitudes, interests, and values) as well as vo— cational careers, school preparatory subjects and courses leading to those careers, educational and vocational oppor- tunities available to them and financial aid. Self-understanding is the single most basic goal of school guidance programs. Through self-understanding stu- dents can begin to know, appreciate and utilize their ap- titudes, interests, values and limitations. It improves analytical and critical thinking, growth and development. Students who understand themselves are characterized by their ability to make more rational educational and voca- tional plans. McDaniel and Shaftel state that: F‘AJ- "h r“ O ff '1 93 (1:, L_4 r“ I\ L. ..A. a. F A4 ‘ V "' "‘ flew He:.‘ ‘14; tlcnal ex HOWEVQr ' u; : ‘l (3. <7 ~ VA; A; *1, a ‘HHV‘V‘ &‘ Q ‘ ‘- ‘4 A. ‘4' «a H - I FOG; 2"! n a "‘h NI v" “ 4‘21 Every individual should be helped‘to study and understand himself as a unique person, respond. to the pressures and stimuli of the time and place in which he lives. Knowledge of self can help him become increasingly con- fident, resourceful, and capable of planning for himself and taking the initiative in ad- justing to his environment so as to make his life more satisfactory.l Interests are important in that they can help students begin thinking seriously about educational planning, voca— tional exploration, and eventually about career development. However, as Ginzberg said some time ago, many young people do not know enough about the world of work to be able to translate their interests and capacities readily into occu- pational choices.2 The same is true today. Many young people are unaware that the choices of subjects they make and the other activities they participate in at school can influence vocational choices which will affect their future lives. Lack of information about the various vocational op- portunities available for persons who have reached a certain level of education limitstheir choice.Opportunities exist only to the extent that people know about them, and much still has to be done to bring information about both educational and vocational opportunities to the attention of Black 1H.B. McDaniel and G.A. Shaftel. Guidance in the Modern School. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1956, p.8. 2E. Ginzberg. "Guidance". The Personnel and Guidance Journal, May 1966, Vol. 38, p. 708. 11'. t :a q a yr eive e A b self, «r UL erminal . b g: s 3 secondary school students in the Transvaal Province. Typi- cally, their experiences are so narrow that they do not per- ceive even the limited opportunities available to them. It is generally agreed that the level of one's edu— cational aspirations is related to the availability of op— portunities and experiences within one's general environ- ment. It is also generally agreed that the primary purpose of career education is to assist the student to become a self-motivated and self-fulfilled contributing member of society. To become fully-developed involves an understanding of self, of others, of societal rules and values, and suf- ficient decision—making ability for dealing with the range of problems that normally occur in life. A careful look at the secondary educational system of South Africa reveals emphasis on an academic curriculum that is designed for college-bound students though not all Black students go to college. For most, secondary school is the terminal point in their formal education. This being so, the secondary school curriculum ought to provide them with sufficient self-knowledge concerning their aptitudes, in- terests, aspirations and skills to become productive and happy members of society. The disparities between the basic objectives and pro— grams of secondary schools in the United States and the con- cerns, problems, needs and aspirations of the youth who attend ti.e they curre clied in inadequac: status witi the world. African yoi 4 ,N. stna d " ,. Ca~ . °“~‘~ \lvn al‘d r. :E 7N ‘ H: l“ U.C . 4 attend them have been well stated by Tyler.3 He charges that they currently fail to educate one-third of the youth en- rolled in high school. This is not due primarily to the inadequacies of the students but to the inappropriateness of the program to supply them with the kind of learning they need. High school students are generally concerned about be- coming independent adults, getting jobs, marrying, gaining status with their peers, and helping to solve the ills of the world. Generally speaking, this is also true for South African youth. To assist them with these concerns, career guidance is essential for Black South African secondary school stu— dents today. With the help of adequate career guidance, every student should leave the school system equipped with the ability to think critically and make realistic personal decisions and plans for their future. However, this need students have for career guidance in their schools is some— times overlooked. The degree to which individual students need guidance varies. Differences in need depend, to a large extent, on differences in physical maturity, social, economic, and cul— tural forces, and personality characteristics. 3R. Tyler. "Schools needed for the Seventies", in Needs of Education and Secondary Educationiku'the Seventies. General Sub-Committee on Education of the Committee on Edu- cation and Labor of the House of Representatives. Washing— ton, D.C. : 0.8. Government Printing Office, 1970, pp.794-795. it was of ion se ‘1- «C Q a- e ti)". . F t.. structi: 1| k attain t ‘0‘ “a. ‘n fish tais4$ 7:3 A: I h ..udes t F‘ ha. in ... «3 Mi; \c .7. p a» w L lay \G Hatch, Dressel and Costar define a school guidance program as a program of services specifically designed to improve the adjustment of the individual pupils for whom it was organized.4 Authorities tend to agree that the fol- lowing major services constitute the guidance program: the inventory service, the information service, the counseling service, the placement service, and the follow—up and eval- uation services. These services are an integral part of the total school curriculum, and they facilitate the in- structional program as it attempts to help each student attain the maximum level of his or her potential. The inventory service is an organized activity for maintaining a continuous study of each student which in- cludes the development and use of cumulative records, the testing program, and other procedures and techniques for assessing individual growth. Other common techniques used to gather information about individual students include questionnaires, autobiographies, sociograms and anecdotes. The information service consists of three identifi— able phases, namely, occupational, educational, and per- sonal-social. The general purpose of this service is to assist the pupil to understand and evaluate contingent en— vironmental factors. Help of this type is one of the most 4R.N. Hatch, P.L. Dressel, and J.W. Costar. Guidance Services in the Secondary School. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown Company, Publishers, 1963, p.15. obvious Occupat world 0 and try for a sa: tion in: / obvious needs of all students in secondary schools today. Occupational information concerns information about the world of work and enables the student to explore, analyze, and try out various occupations related to his or her quest for.a satisfactory vocational choice. Educational informa— tion includes factors related to subject-matter courses, educational programs, and training institutions which will help the student make intelligent educational plans. Per- sonal-social information helps students better understand their own feelings and behaviors as well as those of their parents, peers and others. i The counseling service makes provision for competent personnel, proper facilities and sufficient time in order that each student can converse on a one-to-one basis, his or her concerns. The school counselor is in a strategic position to help pupils assess and understand their attitudes, interests, and values. He or she can also help students re- solve difficulties in the area of career choice. Hatch, et al., expressed the essence of counceling by saying that its major aim is self-understanding and, through self- understanding, self-realization, involving awareness and acceptance of social responsibility.5 Whilst a learning process in itself, counseling facilitates learning. SIbid, p.105. Educati to the: ably pl. The sch< dents t: Ann‘- R bGCID 0: With the is, the; 7 Placement can be either educational or vocational. Educational placement helps the individual students adjust to their post school experiences by helping them get suit- ably placed at the next level of their educational program. The school also plays an active role in assisting the stu- dents to find appropriate employment on either a part-time basis or after leaving school permanently. The follow-up and evaluation services are concerned with the status of students after they leave school, that is, their problems, successes and failures, and suggestions for improving secondary school curriculum. The data ob- tained from follow-up studies also aid the school in evalu— ating the effectiveness of the guidance program. Commenting on the importance of vocational guidance, Super put it very aptly when he said that vocational guid- ance is needed to: ...focus on the information about self and occupations that are needed for good voca- tional adjustment, and to guide the develop- ment of a genuine understanding and accep- tance of these facts. 6 John Holland, another well-known theorist in voca- tional guidance also supports this view by stating that one needs appropriate and accurate information about ones- self as well as of the occupational field in order to make a realistic choice of a vocation. 6D.E. Super, Appraising Vocational Fitness. New York: Harper and Row, 1949, p. 39 7J.L. Holland. Making Vocational Choices, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey; Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1973, p.22 as Cf‘Ji ’f) 6') a) "h U) Probably no other decision a young person makes is as crucial for happiness in life as his or her choice of work, including the educational preparation for it. Carlyle says that "it is the first of all problems for a man to find out what kind of work he is to do in this universe." Illum- inating the importance of work in one's existence, Karl Marx said "man becomes man through his work." Boy and Pine speak of work as "a therapeutic and personally integrating exper— ience."8 Remarking on vocational adjustment, Super stated that the choice of an occupation is one of the points in life at which a young person is called upon to state rather explic- itly his concept of himself, to say definitely: "I am this or that kind of person." Similarly, holding and adjusting to a job is a process of testing his self-concept against reality, of finding out whether he can actually live up to his picture of himself. The process of choosing an occupa- tion requires a person's understanding, knowledge and ac- ceptance of himself. And along this road to self-knowledge every young person needs assistance. Success in understanding oneself is a sine qua non for the development of independence and decision making skills.9 8A.V. Boy and G.J. Pine. Expanding the Self: Personal Growth for Teachers. Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown, 1971, p. 83. 9D.E. Super. Psychology of Careers. New Yorszarper and Row, 1957, p.191. nanO Q 8 Cl are a o seats a e dev A” gt. OZHl '7‘. fly» .Q" u‘k, ”Perati 1 Q In . ‘- mPlis‘ “ake pr- “A by? l f \ v“ as a v . . s. a -K at P. n... so at rva .fl.‘ 9 An individual who possesses the ability to perform in an occupation but lacks interest in it is not likely to reach the maximum of his potential in such a career. Few are able to make a rational choice in the absence of ade- quate and relevant information. Hoppock holds the view that one develops interest in an occupation because one has been exposed to it before.10 When vocational information is made available to students, it awakens their interest and moti- vates them to consider particular careers of which they might not otherwise have been aware. Research studies indicate that out of an effective guidance program grows the capacity and freedom of the par- ticipants to content more assertively for their beliefs and plan and execute strategies for making vocational de— cisions more efficiently and effectively. It is, therefore, imperative that each student be helped to reach the highest level of his potential as a human being. Guidance in general, and career guidance in particular, assists students in ac- complishing this by helping them choose,prepare, enter and make progress in a suitable occupation. Napier contends that a society which fails to nurture the capabilities and talents of its youth fails in its ob- ligation to them and to itself.11 However, it is not only loR. Hoppock. Occupational Information. (3rd ed.) New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967, p. 110-123. 11R.W. Napier. School Guidance Services: A Focus on developing countries. London: Evans Brothers, 1972. the need 10 the needs of the students that are crucial, but those of the nation as well. He says: If the youth fail to fill the occupational needs of the country, then the prodigious investment in both education and resource development will have been wasted to some extent. 12 In order to prevent spending limited resources on less needed or even unnecessary services a priority list of student guidance needs must be established for every school. At the same time it is important that students' vocational aspirations and ambitions be reconciled with national needs; one of which is the societal survival need for productivity and manpower. Statement of the Problem This study was concerned with the assessment of the career guidance needs of Black secondary school students at- tending selected schools in the Transvaal Province of the Republic of South Africa and the extent to which these needs are being met. Need is defined as a lack of something which if pre- sent would tend to further the welfare of the student or to facilitate his desirable behavior. An unmet need is generally lzIbid., pp. 23-24. .n «L .1 6L ..IA Th. we: not we identi- “A... k, ll conceived of as a motivating force for which satisfaction is sought. A satisfied need is not a motivator of behavior. Student needs are always present and evolving. Some of these needs stem from the maturation process and neces— sitate continuous personal, social and environmental adjust- ment. Others are attributable to complex social, psycho— logical, and economic forces and pressures. Some needs are generally held by all youth of a given age while others are specific to certain individuals in particular localities. It is, therefore, unwise to assume that students' needs are fixed for all time. The determination of these needs in a school setting does not come about automatically or routinely. Needs must be identified as a result of continuous re-examination. This study was an attempt to identify certain career guidance needs felt by Black secondary school students in the Transvaal Pro- vince of the Republic of South Africa. Purpose of the Study No school, regardless of size, location, or personnel is devoid of guidance services. Even in schools where no one wears the label of "Counselor", a substantial amount of in- cidental guidance takes place. 13 l3F.R. Zeran and A.C. Riccio. Organization and Admin- istration of Guidance Services. Chicago: Rand McNally Co., 1962, p.2. were to c rently be real Pro: research career de are being 12 The primary purpose of this study was to describe the most important career development needs of Black male and female secondary school students. Additional purposes were to determine the extent to which these needs were cur- rently being met in selected secondary schools in the Trans- vaal Province and the extent to which guidance services exist in those schools. The study was designed to answer the following sixteen research questions regarding students' perceptions of their career development needs and the extent to which those needs are being met. Specifically, do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for: 1. Understanding and accepting themselves? 2. Developing responsibility for themselves? 3. Understanding others? 4. Being understood by others? 5. Relating to others? 6. Clarifying values? 7. Assessing themselves? 8. Acquiring decision making skills? 9. Understanding sexual identity? 10. Selecting courses and making educational plans? 11. Making post-high school plans? 12. Developing career awareness? 13. Exploring careers? 14. Planning careers? 16 In present st schools of 1. LI) .233 in Pi - U‘: “"7 a1- s§o k =3: CU:» 13 15. Finding jobs and careers? 16. Understanding the guidance program? In addition, an effort was made to determine the present status of career guidance services in Black secondary schools of the Transvaal Province. Specifically: 1. Are there organized programs of guidance services in the Black secondary schools? 2. To what extent do they provide Pupil Inventory Services? 3. To what extent do they provide Information Services? 4. Is counseling available to all students? 5. Do the schools have a school-wide testing program and to what extent are the test results being used for guidance purposes? 6. Do the schools have Placement, Follow-Up and Eval- uation SerViceS? Need for the Study The main reasons for undertaking this study was that the Ministry of Education and local school administrators needed more precise information regarding needs of Black secondary school students in order to improve guidance ser- vices in Black secondary schools in the Transvaal. The Min- istry also wanted to know the extent to which students' needs are currently being met. .o c a: .D. .3 A b SAH’OH vi '5; 4 .ue 'vu 14 The Ministry of Education is fully cognizant of the position taken in a 1960 UNESCO report which emphasized the need for strong guidance services in the secondary schools: African governments should perhaps consider providing more definite guidance for secon— dary pupils in the light of economic, social and cultural needs. Stronger guidance than in Europe would be all the more reasonable in Africa because many families there are scarcely capable of reaching well—informed decisions about the future of their children.14 The truth embodied in this statement is of special significance for Black youth in the Transvaal Province of South Africa where most of the students are the first gen- eration to attend secondary school. Significance of the Study It was hoped that the findings of the study would pro- vide a better understanding of the career guidance needs of Black secondary school students in order that: 1. Each pupil might be helped to achieve a level of personal development commensurate with his ability. 2. A more valid and comprehensive guidance program might be developed. 3. Teachers and administrators might discharge their responsibilities meaningfully and with confidence knowing that they are attending to the expressed needs of the students. 14 UNESCO. Final Report of the Meeting of Experts in the Adaptation of the General Secondary School Curriculum in Africa. Paris: UNESCO/ED 196, October, 1962, p.38. Ow ‘Aio V.‘ 4- 15 4. Learning problems of students might be minimized. 5. The investigator, who intends to be involved in teacher and counselor education, might become a more knowledgeable facilitator of learning for the Black youths of South Africa. It was also anticipated that the information regarding the status of guidance services in Black secondary schools would: 1. Be used by the Ministry of Education to improve guidance services in the Black secondary schools in the Transvaal Province of the Republic of South Africa. 2. Aid the universities and teacher training insti- tutions when they initiate and develop training programs for aspiring teachers. 3. Serve as empirical evidence of how well the pro- grams are performing. 4. Identify other areas in which further research is needed. Basic Assumptions Central to the study were the following assumptions: 1. It was assumed that guidance services in one form or another existed in all secondary schools. l6 2. Extrapolating from several research findings (Cloete and le Roux,1978; Napier, 1972; Osuji, 1976; Prediger, Roth, and Noeth, 1973; and Von- stress, 1971) it was postulated that the major needs of the Black secondary school students under consideration would be primarily vocational, edu- cational, personal and financial concerns. 3. It was assumed that the lack of adequate data regarding guidance practices and the personal needs of Black secondary school students consti- uted a serious handicap in the development of ef— fective programs of guidance services in Black secondary schools. 4. Finally, it was assumed that students themselves are in a good position to identify their own needs and that their opinions can make a significant contribution to the development of valid secon— dary school guidance services. Methodology The research method used in this study is best de- scribed as descriptive survey. As such, an attempt was made to survey and describe the needs of Black secondary male and female students in the Transvaal Province of the Republic Of South Africa. Secondary purposes were to determine the pres' SCCDi (in: . 17 extent to which these needs are being met and to assess the present status of guidance services within Black secondary schools. Good stated: Descriptive studies may include present facts or current conditions concerning the nature of a group of persons, a number of objects, or a class of events, and may in- volve the procedures of induction, analysis, classification, enumeration, or measurement. The terms survey and status suggest the gathering of evidence relating to current conditions...15 Good further enumerated several purposes of descriptive- survey studies. They can be used, he said: (1) to secure evidence concerning an existing situation or current con— dition; (2) to identify standards or norms with which to compare present conditions; and (3) to determine how to make the next step (having determined where we are and where we wish to go)...16 Scope and Limitations of the Study 1. This study was delimited to Black male and female secondary school students (grades 10 and 12, ages ranging from 15 to 19) currently enrolled in lsC.V. Good. Essential of Educational Research. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1966, p.192. l6Ibid, p.193. 18 selected Transvaal Province public secondary schools. The selected schools included those located in rural, peri-urban and urban communities. 2. The study was also limited to a survey of students' needs in the area of career development. 3. The instrument used in this study was considered valid and acceptable to the intent of the study. However, inherent in it are fundamental limiting factors common to questionnaires; for example, the fact that accuracy of such a study is depen— dent on the authenticity of the respondents (Borg and Gall.)l7 4. Another limitation is the assumption that the re- spondents would be candid in expressing their views regarding the status of guidance and that the students would be honest when expressing their needs. 5. Because only a relatively small portion of Black secondary schools could be located in this study, the findings must be viewed with caution and con— clusions restricted to Black male and female secon— dary school students in the rural, peri-urban and urban communities in the Transvaal Province of the Republic of South Africa. l7W.R. Borg and M. Gall. Educational Research. New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1971, p.121. 19 Definition of Terms Assessment means the appraisal of the current status of guidance services. BlackI for purposes of this study refers only to a South African born citizen of African descent. Career refers to the totality of work one does in one's lifetime. Career Development is essentially a lifelong process which includes stages of self-awareness and assessment, career awareness and exploration, career decision making, and career planning and placement. Career Education is the delivery of skills to all students which will provide them with the ability to explore, understand and perform in their life roles while learning, working and living. The prime focus of concern is the individual recipient of career education. Career Guidance is organized assistance to help youth develop self-understanding, learn about the world of work, gain experience that will help in decision making, and find jobs. It encompasses all of the services that aim at helping pupils make valid occupational plans and decisions. Follow-Up is a service which concerns itself with the successes, failures, attitudes, opinions and 20 suggestions of former students after they are in a new situation and have had an opportunity to test the validity of their educational and voca— tional preparation.18 8. Guidance Services include a variety of services which have the common objective of helping pupils develop a high degree of self—understanding and make maximum use of their talents and opportun- ities. These services are an integral part of the total school curriculum and facilitate the instructional program as it attempts to help each student attain the maximum level of his or her potential. Guidance services include the fol— lowing: the Inventory Service, the Information Service, the Counseling Service, the Placement Service, and the Follow-Up and Evaluation Service. 9. Peri-Urban Community is a community which is on the perimeter of an urban community but not con- sidered a rural area. 10. Need is defined as a lack of something which if present would tend to further the welfare of the organism-~or facilitate its usual behavior.19 It 18Hatch, et al., gp.cit. p.149 19H.B. English and A.C. English. A Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychological and Analytic Terms. New York: Longmans, Green and Company, Inc., 1958, p.338. 11. 12. 13. 21 is in this sense that need is used in this study. It implies that meeting pupils' needs requires contrivance and arrangement of situations, exper- iences and surroundings which further the educa- tional and vocational welfare of students and facilitate the desirable behavior. Needs Assessment refers to formal attempts at determining what students need in order to facil- itate their growth and development. It is based on the notion that the relevancy of education must be empirically determined and should define the discrepancy between "What is” and "What should be" 20 (Kaufman). Perception describes the way things look to us and how we feel and think about them. Secondary Schools refers to post-primary institu- tions, specifically, Forms 3-5 (Grades Ten through Twelve) attended by boys and girls of adolescent age (15-19), a school for education up to a stand- ard higher than the fifth standard but not higher than standard ten.21 20 21 R.A. Kaufman. "Accountability: A System Approved and the Quantitative Improvement of Education-~An Attempted Integration." Educational Technology, 11, January 1971 21-26 0 Education and Training Act, Government Gazette, Republic of South Africa, 1979, p.1. Os C. 0v 3. f .G uflu ‘ \- ..e 5 ok o» .3 .Nu a. an 01.1 ~\N sq 22 Summary and Overview The purpose of this research was to assess the guid— ance needs of Black youth in selected secondary schools in the Transvaal Provice of the Republic of South Africa and to determine the extent to which these needs are being met. Since career guidance services in Black secondary schools are still at a very rudimentary stage, it was thought that data from this study could significantly influence the im- provement of the present services and/or encourage the es- tablishment of additional career guidance services. The need for the study, research questions, the significance of the study, assumptions, methodology, scope and limitations, and definitions of terms used in this study are all described in this Chapter. Chapter Two contains a review of the research liter- ature related to the investigation. Also presented in Chap- ter Two are career guidance goals and objectives, career de— velopment and career choice theories and their implications, and an account of the status of guidance services for Black secondary school students in South Africa. Chapter Three depicts the design of the study, research hypotheses and de— scribes the methodology and procedures used in population sampling, data collection and analysis. Detailed in Chapter Four are the findings and the interpretation of the results, based on a complete analysis of the data obtained for this study. Chapter Five contains a summary and conclusions drawn from the study. Recommendations based on the findings are also included. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The purpose of this chapter is to review relevant literature that has implications for the topic under study-— guidance needs assessment in general and career guidance needs assessment in particular of Black secondary school students and an assessment of the degree to which these needs are being met. Such a review assists in understanding what has been done concerning career guidance services for secondary students as well as what remains to be done. The main areas reviewed are: 1. 2. Objectives of career guidance. Theories of career development and career choice: Trait-Factor theory, Super's theory of vocational development, Holland's theory of vocational choice, Roe's theory of occupational choice, Ginzberg's theory of occupational development and Hoppock's theory. Related research studies that have implications for this study; and, Literature concerning the status of guidance ser— Vices for Black secondary school students in South Africa with a brief background information. 23 ‘ we 58‘76 " HOV’ Vs 5;.“ C ‘ Q,» m... 2.. 24 Objectives of Career Guidance For career guidance to be acceptable it must be based on a set of objectives. Without well-formulated objectives we have no way of determining in which direction to head. A review of professional literature was made to determine what objectives were being proposed for secondary school career guidance. Smith1 has formulated the following as worthwhile objectives of a career guidance program: —to provide students with on—the-job experience in the world of work. -to make students more aware of career ladders available to them in the world of work. -to provide students with "hands on experiences" which relate to specific types of skills training in various career fields. —to help students toward a more realistic awareness of self in addition to developing more positive at- titudes toward the world of work. -to help them locate, interpret, evaluate and use occupational and educational information. —to provide occupational and job placement counseling for students about to enter the working world. 1M. Smith. Organizing Career Guidance: A Guide to effective program implementation. New York City Personnel and Guidance Association, 1973, 1, 22-23. E f‘ w ”fl :1 1“. Y‘ H“ i 15 t0 :u f“.« 25 According to Tolbert the major aim of career guidance is to help youth develop self-understanding, learn about the world of work, gain experiences that will help in decision making and find jobs.2 Tennyson, et al.3 have delineated major career de- velopment goals which may serve as guidelines in planning, developing, organizing and implementing a viable career ex- ploration program. They are: (l) clarification of self- concept; (2) assumption of responsibility for career plan- ning; (3) formulation of tentative career goals; (4) ac- quiring knowledge of occupations and work settings; (5) ac- quiring knowledge of educational and vocational resources; (6) awareness of decision-making process; and, (7) acquiring a sense of independence.3 A national goal which has implications for career guidance was stated by the President's Commission on National Goals: The status of the individual must remain our primary concern. All our institutions-- political, social, and economic-~must further enhance the dignity of the citizen--promote the maximum development of his capacities, stimulate their responsible exercise, and widen the range and effectiveness of opportu- nities for individual choice. 4 2E.L. Tolbert, Counseling for Career Development. Boston; Houghton Mifflin, 1974, p.27. 3W.W. Tennyson, M.K. Klaurens, and L.S. Hansen., The career development program. Unpublished paper. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota. College of Education, Octo. 1970, p.7. 4Goals for Americans. Report of the President's Com- mission on National Goals, 1960, p.3. 26 Theories of Career Development and Career Choice In 1951 Ginzberg shocked the counseling world when he said that counseling was operating without well—founded theories. Donald E. Super essentially agreed and began to produce and influence considerable research and theorizing about career development. Since then many theories have been propounded, inter alia, the trait—factor theory, Super's theory of vocational development, Holland's heuristic theory (vocational choice), Roe's theory of occupational choice, Ginzberg's theory of occupational development, and Hoppock's. These theories are considered relevant to the voca— tional decision—making process and career guidance. They also serve a useful purpose in the study of students' guid— ance needs and their vocational choice inclinations. How- ever, it is essential to point out that these theories are not theories in the traditional sense. They do not conform to all the particular requirements of theories following the physical science model. They are the prototypes of future theories and serve much the same functions that theories in the more sophisticated sciences do.5 1. Trait-Factor Theory Some of the original trait-factor theorists who in- fluenced thinking about vocational psychology are Parsons SS.H. Osipow. Theories of Career Development. New York: Appleton-Century—Crofts, 1968, p.1-13. scat 1‘7 V J. v.4..s trot; s L t3] H o Pcteni SK 27 (1909), Hull (1928), and Kitson (1925). The theory provided a springboard for several approaches, for example, the voca— tional testing movement, interest inventories such as Strong VoCational Interest Blank (SVIB), and Aptitude Tests like the Differential Aptitude test. According to Herr the trait-factor theory is the most consistent approach to career development in a historical sense. ...because of its consistent partnership with the findings of psychometrics, it has identified the importance of certain specific factors to choice behavior, job satisfaction, and job success.... It has demonstrated that most individuals have multi-potentialities.6 The essence of the theory is that it regards the in- dividual as a pattern of traits (interests, aptitudes, achieve- ments, personality characteristics) which can be identified through objective means, usually psychological tests, or in— ventories, and then profiled to represent the individual's potential. It also approaches occupations similarly, i.e., as susceptible to being profiled according to the "amounts" of individual traits they require. When one profile is over- laid on the other, the degree of fit between man and job can be identified.7 6K. Goldhammer, and R.E. Taylor. Career Education: Perspectives and Promise. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merril Co., A Bell—Howell Company, 1972, p.69. 7Osipow, Op.cit. p. 10-11. .C «a £501 1 AI‘ R D‘C‘A a l \. fl. V‘I work 28 This theoretical approach assumes that a straight— forward matching of an individual's abilities and interests with the world's vocational opportunities can be accomplished and once accomplished, solves the problem of vocational choice for that individual. However, this assumption, while contri- buting significantly to the current character of career guid- ance, can lead to a narrow perspective on career development. For purposes of this study it is important to remem- ber that career development is not concerned solely with the choice of an occupation, but also with the process by which such choices can be purposefully integrated within a pattern— ing of decisions, thereby maximizing freedom of choice and implementing the personal meaning the way one conceives one's traits.8 A person's traits play an important part in the vo- cational level he is likely to attain, the training he is likely to be admitted to and possibly succeed in, and the work he is able to perform. Suziedel and Steimel found a number of significant relationships between predominant needs and particular interest patterns. Expectations and stereo- types also appeared to have an influence on vocational de- cision making. The prestige or status students and society assign to various occupations is likely to affect their vo- cational decisions. Typically, high school students express 8E.L. Herr, and S.H. Cramer., Vocational Guidance and Career Development in the Schools: Towards a Systems Approach. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1972, p.25 t V r A- ...e S 33858 V.- O ”J Q» aevelo ‘M v: 'En‘fifi fik 29 preferences for high status or prestige occupations even though they cannot realistically be expected to enter these occupations.9 Other factors that seem to affect career decision making and choice include societal and individual values, the size and location of a community, family influences, cul- tural patterns, and socio-economic levels. 2. Super's Theory of Career Development (Self—Concept Theory) Super's theory of career development emphasizes the developmental, sequential nature of the process of voca-_ tional preference and choice. His theory is based on the notion that the individual's self-concept influences his occupational choices and his ultimate satisfaction or dis- satisfaction with his choice. He conceives of vocational development as an "on-going, continuous, generally irrever- sible, orderly, patterned and dynamic process "10 through which self implements self-concept in the world of work. He lists ten propositions that characterize this theory: 1. People differ in their abilities, interests, and personalities. 2. They are qualified, by virtue of these circum- stances, each for a number of occupations. 9A. Suziedel, and R.J. Steime1., "The Relationship of Need Hierarchies to Inventoried Interests" Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1963, 43, 393-396. lOD.E. Super. Psychology of Career. New York: Appleton- Century, Crofts, 1968, p.52 30 Each of these occupations require a characteristic pattern of abilities, interests, and personality traits, with tolerances wide enough, however, to allow both some variety of occupations for each individual and some variety of individuals in each occupation. Vocational preferences and competencies, the sit- uations in which people live and work, and hence their self-concepts, change with time and exper- ience (although self concepts are generally fairly stable from late adolescence until late maturity), making choice and adjustment a continuous process. This process may be summed up in a series of life stages characterized as those of growth, explor- ation, establishment, maintenance and decline, and these stages may in turn be subdivided into (a) the fantasy, tentative, and realistic phases of the exploratory stage, and (b) the trial and sta— ble phases of the establishment stage. The nature of the career pattern (that is, the occupational level attained and the sequence, fre- quency, and duration of trial and stable jobs) is determined by the individual's parental socio- economic level, mental ability, and personality characteristst, and by the opportunities to which he is exposed. 10. 31 Development through the life stages can be guided, partly by facilitating the process of maturation of abilities and interests and partly by aiding in reality testing and in the development of the self-concept. The process of vocational development is essen— tially that of developing and implementing a self- concept: it is a complex process in which the self concept is a product of the interaction of inherited aptitudes, neural and endocrine make up, opportunity to play various roles, and evalu- ations of the extent to which the results of role playing meet with the approval of superiors and fellows. The process of compromise between individual and social factbrs, between self concept and reality, is one of role playing, whether the role is played in fantasy, in the counseling interview, or in real life activities such as school classes, clubs, part-time work, and entry jobs. Work satisfactions and life satisfactions depend upon the extent to which the individual finds ade- quate outlets for his abilities, interests, per- sonality traits, and values, they depend upon his establishment in a type of work, a work situation, and a way of life in which he can play the kind and co: M test as SOCL 4-585 .‘a inn . .pa A?!“ H»; ”L; Hize 0; m be A b 32 of role which his growth and exploratory exper- iences have led him to consider congenial and ap- propriate.11 Super maintains that vocational choice is the result of a developmental process that puts the individual's self- concept into practice. In a paper presented at a Vocational Development Sym4 posium in 1968, another proposition was included, Viz; work and occupation provide a focus for personal organization for most men and women, although for some persons this focus is peripheral, incidental or even non-existent, other foci such as social activities of the home are central.12 These pre- mises have been developed into a comprehensive framework for assessing vocational choice and vocational development. Super proposes the notion that a person strives to form and implement his self-concept by choosing to enter the occupation he sees most likely to permit his self-expression. The formation of the self-concept requires a person to rec- ognize himself as a distinct individual, yet at the same time to be aware of the similarities between himself and others. Vocational self-concept is a continuous process which begins with the self-differentiation which occurs as part of a per- son's search for identity. 11From "A Theory of Vocational Development" by Donald B. Super, American Psychologist, 1953, 8, 189-190. 12D.E. Super, "A Reconceptualization of Vocational Guidance," Unpublished paper presented during Symposium: Perspectives on Vocational Development, July 30-31, 1968. havic 9 c . 1.. The G ,- i 5 1:178 .ne mu. .8. Hu 2 in AR. No D: 33 Furthermore, Super suggests that the particular be- haviors a person engages in to implement his self-concept vocationally are a function of the individual's stage of life development. He differentiates between the exploratory stage and the establishment stage of vocational development.' The exploratory stage is characterized by fantasy, searching, investigating, experimenting, and testing out hypotheses. During this stage, vocational images are molded and refined. The establishment stage consists of the period during which the individual actually begins to enact a career role and to shape the career model into his own unique style. These stages are also considered to be maturational-psychological stages and are also divided according to chronological ages.l3 These developmental tasks include: 1. Crystallization: (14-18 yrs) of a vocational pre- ference which requires the individual to formu- late his ideas about work appropriate for himself. These years are of most interest to the central purpose of this study because they occur during the last four to six years of high school. 2. Specification: (18-21) narrowing a general career development into a specific one; 3. Implementation: (21-25) requires a completion of training and entrance into a relevant employment; l3G.S.Belkin. Practical Counseling in the Schools. .Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown, Company Publishers, 1975. p.424. GCC‘. 11.0) Yr ‘. no .nu OQ' “ n . ..a 51' C'le S t. rea. C. «G 34 4. Stabilization: (25-35) settling down within a field of work; 5. Consolidation: (late 30's to 40's) here the in- dividual fully establishes himself, his skills, and his seniority so that he can generate a secure and comfortable vocational position for himself as his career matures into his 50's and early 60's. Since one's life-style depends largely upon one's occupation and its financial reward, the student's occupa- tional choice is regarded as a critical life decision. Super and Overstreet concluded that vocational maturity in 9th grade boys is related to their degree of intellectual and cultural stimulation, the degreelx>which they are able to respond to that stimulation, their aspiration to higher rather than lower socio-economic levels, and their ability to achieve reasonably well in a variety of activities.14 In the final analysis, the central theses of Super's approach can be summarized thus: 1. Individuals develop more clearly defined self- concepts as they grow older, although these may vary to conform with the changes in one's view of reality as correlated with aging. 14D.E. Super and P.L. Overstreet. The vocational maturity of 9th grade boys. New York: Bureau of Publica- tions, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1960 p. 93. vea’i' .. ... C .I E . l I 5 HF . n.v . C S C. .3 .11 «Q UV HIM at a .3 1 fia;‘£‘\ L“: Y‘ 35 2. People develop images of the occupational world which they compare with their self-images in trying to make career decisions. 3. The adequacy of the eventual career decision is based on the similarity between an individual's self-concept and the vocational concept of the career he eventually chooses. 3. Holland's Theory of Vocational Choice This theory is also referred to as the heuristic theory of personality types and environmental situations. Heuristic means that the theory "stimulates research and investigation by its suggestive character rather than by its logical or systematic structure". Holland looks at vocational interests and preferences as a part of the total personality of the in- dividual.15 He explains the essence of his theory this way: Briefly, the theory consists of several simple ideas and their more complex elaborations. First, we assume that we can characterize people by their resemblance to one or more personality types. The closest a person's re- semblance to a particular type, the more likely it is he will exhibit the personal traits and behaviors associated with that type. Second, we assume that the environment in which people live can be characterized by their resemblance to one or more model environments. Finally, we assume that the pairing of persons and environ- ments leads to several outcomes which we can predict and understand from our knowledge of the personality types and the environmental models. 5 l J. Holland. The Psychology of Vocational Choice. Waltham, Mass: Blaisdell, 1966, 8. 36 These outcomes include vocational choice, vocational stability and achievement, per- .sonal stability, creative performance and susceptibility to influence. 16 Holland offers six character types that include most people: 'Realistic, Intellectual, Social, Conventional, En- terprising and Artistic. Each type is the product of a char- acteristic interaction between a particular heredity and a variety of cultural and personal forces, including peers, parents, significant others, social class, culture and the physical environment. There are also six kinds of environ- ments, bearing the same names as the personality types. Holland's theoretical assumption is that people search for environments and vocations which will permit them to exer- cise their skills and abilities, to express their attitudes and values, to take on agreeable problems and roles, and to avoid disagreeable ones. He then asserts that a person's behavior can be explained by the interaction of his person- ality pattern and his environment. For example, an intel— lectual personality type would function best in an intel- lectual environment, while an artistic type would function best in an artistic environment, and so on. Holland also emphasizes the importance of self- knowledge to his conception of the individual's movement through educational decisions to occupational environments. Self-knowledge refers to the amount of accuracy of information l6Belkin, op.cit., p.425. nun 2.4 AJ 41 '3 .51 a: 2. _. . .11 .f" u. 1”" V4 44 h L. *4 .vNu 37 an individual has about himself as contrasted with self- evaluation which refers to the worth an individual attributes to himself. 4. The Roe Theory of Occupational Choice "In order to understand the role of the occupation in the life of the individual," Roe contends, "we must first have some understanding of the individual and his needs."17 Her theory of occupational choice and job satisfaction is based upon Maslow's idea of hierarchy of needs. They are listed below with a brief definition of each: 1. Physiological needs - food, water, sex, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection in emergencies 3. Need for belonging and love - affection 4. Need for esteem - importance, respect, apprecia- tion, competency, strength and independence. 5. Need for information — knowledge and understanding 6. Need for beauty — aesthetics 7. Need for SElf-actualization - realization of one's own potentials for continued self-development and for being creative in the broadest sense of the term.18 l7A. Roe. The Psychology of Occupations. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1956, p.33. 18A. Maslow Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Row, 1954, p.11. 38 Human behavior is motivated toward the satisfaction of these needs. At the lowest level, but pre-eminent in im- portance when they are thwarted are man's physiological needs. The satisfaction of the subsequent needs is contingent upon the satisfaction of the basic needs. A fact of profound significance in the needs theory is the notion that a satis- fied need is not a motivator of behavior. The general hypothesis underlying Roe's theory is that workers select their jobs because they see potential for the satisfaction of their needs. Roe maintains that man's needs are satisfied within the job situation. This means that in- dividuals strive for certain types of jobs in order to satisfy particular needs. Roe emphasizes the significance of work by saying: In our culture, social and economic status depend more upon the occupation than upon anything else. Sociological and psychological studies are practically unanimous on this point...feelings of personal esteem are also closely linked to the amount of responsibility the job entails. This is reflected in ratings of the prestige of occupations and in studies of job satisfaction...People whose life situ- ation is especially difficult may find that the status and prestige conferred by the occu- pation, or received from fellow workers are the greatest sources of satisfaction for these needs. Occupations as a source of need satisfaction are of extreme importance in our culture...19 19Roe, op.cit., p.33. A Kuhn a.” 1.1: in .U ‘3 5‘» 39 Another important dimension of Roe's theory is the relationship between the individual's background--his up— bringing and his later occupational situation. She sug- gests that deficiencies during childhood may be compensated for, by and through the work one does.20 Based on this, a job could be said to be more than just a mere way of making a living. Roe developed a matrix-like structure, using groups and levels to explain the occupational phenomena. The eight groups she lists are: I. Service V. Outdoor II. Business contact VI. Science III. Organizations VII. General Cultural IV. Technology VIII. Arts and Entertainment The levels range from "professional and management" down to "unskilled".21 Roe's first theoretical statement has more potential impact for career guidance since it carries a strong state- ment that vocational choice is closely related to personality characteristics developed early during childhood. It focuses our attention at helping students effectively understand them- selves, their needs, and identify occupations in which their needs might best be met. Her theory facilitates our under- standing of the variety of factors that play an important 20A. Roe. "Early determinants of Vocational Choice." Journal of Counseling Psychology 1957, 4, 212-217. ZlBelkin, op.cit., p.427 40 part when an individual decides whether to take a particular job or not. It also puts into proper perspective why certain jobs fail to meet the student's needs and why other jobs are in demand. Moreover, her theory sets a foundation from which further research may be conducted. 5. Ginzberg's Theory of Occupational Choice Ginzberg's theory was first published in 1951 and he has, since that time, through continuing research, revised it to a considerable extent. Here attention will be given to the revised version of the theory. The essence of his theory is that occupational choice is a process that remains open as long as one makes and expects to make decisions about one's work and career. In many instances it is coterminous with one's life.22 From research, he found that of those who enter a profession, sooner or later many move on into related and oc- casionaly into different types of work... Men and women seek to find the best oc- cupational fit between their changing de- sires and their changing circumstances. The search is a continuing one. 23 22E. Ginzberg. "Toward A Theory of Occupational Choice: A Restatement," Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 1972, 20, 23 Ibid, pp. 170-171 HOPpock stimulat occupati and Self CatiCnal 0f the t dInamism i5 subje< lOWs: 24 41 A synoposis of the reformulated theory is that occupational choice is a life-long process of decision-making in which the individual seeks to find the optimal fit between his career preparation and goals and the re- alities of the world of work. 24 6. Hoppock's Theory The theory of occupational choice postulated by Hoppock is eclectic in composition. It recognizes the stimulating role played by needs in the selection of an occupation. A heavy emphasis is placed on self-knowledge and self-acceptance. The availability of vocational, edu- cational and personal information forms an essential part of the theory. The theory also recognizes the continual dynamism of man's needs and the fact that career selection is subject to change. A list of the ten major points fol- lows: l. occupations are chosen to meet needso 2. the occupation that we choose is one that we believe will best meet the needs that most concern us. 3. needs may be intellectually perceived, or they may be only vaguely felt as attractions which draw us in certain directions. In either case, they may influence choices. 24Belkin, op.cit., p.430. 42 Vocational development begins when we first be- come aware that an occupation can help to meet our needs. Vocational development progresses and occupa- tional choice improves as we become better able to anticipate how well a prospective occupation will meet our needs. Our capacity thus to anti- cipate depends upon our knowledge of ourselves, our knowledge of occupations and our ability to think clearly. Information about ourselves affects occupational choice by helping us to recognize what we want and by helping us to anticipate whether or not we will be successful in collecting what the con- templated occupation offers to us. Information about occupations affects occupational choice by helping us to discover the occupations that may meet our needs and by helping us to anti- cipate how well satisfied we may hope to be in one occupation as compared with another. Job satisfaction depends upon the extent to which the job that we hold meets the needs that we feel it should meet. The degree of satisfaction is determined by the ratio between what we have and what we want. Satisfaction can result from a job which meets our needs today or from a job which promises to meet them in the future. nth ‘. 0 :- b4 .5 C ahl. ‘NH 43 10. Occupational choice is always subject to change when we believe that a change will better meet our needs.25 From the above presentation of career development and career choice theories several implications for secondary school guidance services can be derived. Implied in all the theories is the importance of providing all youngsters with accurate and relevant information and experiences which will enable them to identify and try on suitable work roles (full or part-time work). The life stages through which youngsters progress have different expectations, interests and needs and the young people need help to resolve the problems (personal, vocational and educational) which they encounter. The theories also point out that the process of decision making which every student must experience involves actions. Thus, it is in- cumbent upon those who are providing career guidance to help students take responsibility to be more involved in career planning and decision making. This is particularly relevant to the South African Black youth who is constantly orienting and submitting himself to authority whose approval becomes his approbation. To learn to be responsible and to be in- volved, one needs to be given a feeling of self-worth and dignity, responsibility and a chance to be involved. 25R. Hoppock. Occupational Information (3rd ed). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967, p 111-112. 44 In the final analysis, career development and choice at the secondary school level must be predicated upon in- dividual needs, readiness and motivations. The principal concern at this level should be to enhance self-awareness and assessment, career awareness and exploration, career decision-making, and planning and placement. Research Related to Students' Career Guidance Needs A related study to this proposed survey is an assess- ment of guidance needs of Black first year students in a de- veloping country which was conducted by Cloete and 1e Roux}26 Their sample consisted of 348 students (214 males and 134 fe- males) which represents 56% of the total freshman enrollment. Use was made of a biographical questionnaire in which the students were asked about their guidance needs. The re- searchers found that the students required different kinds of help and information. Seventy-three (73) percent indicated a need for help with choice of subjects, 65% needed help with financial problems, 50% had study problems, 32% needed help with choice of a course, 25% needed help with choice of a career and 20% needed help with personal problems. The over- all signifiance of the findings of this study is that it high- lights the need for career guidance at the secondary school level. 26N.J. Cloete, and A.G.le Roux. Guidance Needs of Black first year students in a developing country (R.S.A). Paper delivered at the annual conference of the South African Psychological Association, September, 1978. 45 Cloete and 1e Roux's research is similar to this study because it also undertook to identify the guidance needs of Black students. This study concerns itself with the career guidance needs of Black secondary school students, whereas theirs investigated the guidance needs of Black freshmen. Both studies recognized Prediger et al.'s simple truth that researchers often forget that the best way to find out what people think about something is to ask them.27 Hence they both went directly to the youth in the schools and univer- sities to find out their guidance needs and concerns. Commenting on the aims of guidance in the schools Costar identifies the primary goal as helping students be- come increasingly capable of making wise decisions for them- selves. Furthermore, he urges for student input for need assessment and guidance program evaluation by saying: Few school systems would deny that children are the focus of their efforts.... Because this is so, it is obvious that the school and its staff should try to be accountable to students, that is, should try to meet the needs of the students. In order to accurately assess how well this is being done, the students themselves must be actively involved.28 Another study that has implications for the present study examined the occupational values and permanency of 27D.J. Prediger, J.D. Roth, and R.J. Noeth, Nation- wide study of student career development: summary of results. Iowa: American College Testing Program, 1973. 28J.W. Costar. Conducting A School Follow-Up Study: Student input for needs assessment and evaluation. College of Education, M.S.U., East Lansing, 1976, p.28. 46 choice of secondary school students. Dipboye and Anderson administered a questionnaire concerning the plans and values of high school students in terms of security, prestige, salary, interest, advancement, working conditions, relations with others, independence and benefits.29 They found that at the 9th grade level, girls highly valued matters such as prestige, interest in work, working conditions, and relations with others; while the 9th grade boys valued independence, salary and advancement opportunities. Twelfth—graders were similar: the olderwqirlsvalued the same things as the younger ones with the exception of the stress on interesting work, while the older boys held similar values to the younger ones except their regard for advancement dropped. Looking at the sample as a whole, however, interesting work and prospects for advancement seemed more important to twelfth-graders than to the nineth graders. It may be that younger boys and girls are less concerned with the need for interesting work than other students because work is not so imminent for them. Sprey is one of the few authors who have focused on sex differences in occupational aspirations and expectations among Black adolescents.3O According to his findings 9th 29W.J. Dipboye, and W.F. Anderson. The Ordering of Occupational Values by High School Freshmen and Seniors. Personnel Guidance Journal, 1959, 38, 121-124. 30J. Sprey, Sex differences in Occupational Choice patterns among Negro adolescents. Social Problems, 1962, 10, 11-22. ~lv‘ H»; 47 grade Black male students expressed significantly lower as- pirational levels than Black females and White students in both sex categories. In a study that underscores the importances of career guidance Johnson et al., looked at several high school guid- ance programs. They observed that both academically in- clined students and those who are non-academically oriented cannot excel unless they: 1. attain a fairly realistic understanding of themselves 2. make decisions about their high school programs on bases other than misinformation, personal whim or the choice of parents or peers; 3. are spared the experience of floundering aim- lessly for lack of thought regarding even ten- tative vocational goals; 4. are minimally distracted by problems of growth and development or handicapped by physical or emotional difficulties; and, 5. have ample opportunity to discover and nourish worthwhile interests.3l Stressing the important role of guidance in career decision making Katz says that: 31M. Johnson, Jr.; W.E. Busacker and F.Q. Bowman, Jr. Junior High School Guidance. New York: Harper and Row, 1961. ' p.147. 48 guidance helps the student to find order in the complexities of decision making, helps him to enrich his experience by examining it, and helps him to become the conscious artist of his own career. Decision making implies alternative choices and the oppor- tunity to reject as well as accept alternatives. Schmidt and Rothney reported on the instability of expressed vocational preferences of students as they move from one grade in high school to another and into their first year out of school.33 This observation was confirmed fifteen years later by Garbin et al., who found that individ- uals who enter the world of work following their high school years encounter work adjustment problems that interfere with their progress both vocationally and personally.34 These problems can be attributed to the fact that too many persons leave the educational systems at both the secondary and col- legiate levels unequipped with the vocational skills, the self-understanding, and career decision making skills. They are not provided with the work attitudes that are essential for making a successful transition from school to work. 32M. Katz Decisions and Values: A rationale for secon- dary school guidance. College Entrance Exam Board. New York, 1963, p.59 33J.L. Schmidt, and J.W.M. Rothney, "Variability of Vocational Choices of High School Students." Personnel and Guidance Journal, November 1955, p.142-l46. 34A.P. Garbin, and I. Vaughn. Junior College Students Enrolled in Occupational Programs: Selected Characteristics, Experiences and Perceptions. Columbus, Ohio: The Center for Vocational and Technical Education. The Ohio State University, September 1971, p.130. 49 A report by the International Labor Conference con- cerning the problems of youth and work expressed the essence of the point being made here: Confronted with a kaleidoscopic picture of rapidly changing conditions and subject to the conflicting pressures influencing his occupational choice, every young person's greatest need is for "Guidance". Guidance in its broadest sense lies at the heart of the whole process of youth adjustment. In the more restricted sense of vocational guidance it is the process by which all the various factors affecting individual oc- cupational choice are sorted out, weighted and brought into focus and by which the young is helped to make his own choice in full knowledge of the facts about the career and work opportunities available and about his own potentials to them. 35 This illustrative statement, made two decades ago, still rings true today. It emphasizes the fact that students need to become acquainted both with a variety of occupational fields and with the general nature of the economic structure. This could be done by exposing the youth to published, valid, and accurate information materials, career conferences, and planned vocational explorations through part-time and summer work experience. Secondary school experiences should begin the actual testing of choices and a process of constant re- assessment as variable opportunities are encountered. 35United Nations: International Labor Conference Report to the Director General, Part 1: "Youth and Work," 44th Session, Geneva; 1960, p.131. \.~H n . 50 Ewens et al,suggests that career guidance for grades 9 and 12 should be concerned with the relationship of career planning to the developmental needs of students, to factors of personal and social adjustment, to self-concepts, to mo- tivation, and to vocational and educational problems.36 Status of Career Guidance Services in South African Black Secondary Schools 1. Background Any discussion of education in the Republic of South Africa, particularly education available to the Black sector of the population must be presented against a background of conditions and attitudes which are not immediately educa- tional. South African schools are segregated by legislation along racial and language lines with the result that there are at least four--by no means identical--systems of educa- tion for the four main racial groups, namely; Asiatics, Blacks, Coloreds and Whites. Because of this stratification it is difficult to discuss South African education or any aspect thereof, in a singular manner. This difficulty is due to the fact that, while there are few common elements in the four educational systems, there are many more dif- ferences of both philosophy, and organization and adminis- tration. A discussion of career guidance services must, 36P.W. Ewens, J.S. Dobson, J.M. Seals. Career Guidance: A Systems Approach, Dubuque, Iowa, Kendall/Hunt Publishing Co., 1976, p.98 51 therefore, be tempered with the knowledge that what is hap- pening in any one educational system is not necessarily hap- pening in the others. Commenting on these differences, Watts said To move from considering career guidance for Whites to a discussion of careers for Blacks is to move from one world to another. This is hardly surprising, in view of the vast differences in educational and employ- ment opportunities for the two ethnic groups, in view of the fact that it has been the de- liberate policy of the Nationlist government to maintain these differences. 37 Malherbe quotes one of the architects of Apartheid, Dr. Verwoerd, then in charge of Bantu (Black) Education in 1954 as having declared clearly and unequivocally that: The Bantu must be guided to serve his own community in all respects. There is no place for him in the European community above the level of certain forms of labour. Within his own community, however, all doors are open for him. For that reason it is of no avail for him to receive train- ing which has as its aim absorption into the European community, while he cannot and will not be absorbed there. 38 Implicit in this policy statements is the purpose of Bantu education which was to teach Blacks "from childhood that equality with Europeans is not for them."39 The 37A.G. Watts. "Careers Guidance Under Apartheid." International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling 3 (1980) 3-27. 38E.G. Malherbe, Education in South Africa, Volume 2: 1923-75. Cape Town: Juta, 1977, p.546. 39 Malherbe, Ibid, pp. 546-547- 52 implementation of this policy was observed by UNESCO (1972) which concluded from a study of South African School test books that Black children were being taught to consider them— selves as occupying an inferior place in society, and White children that Europeans were superior and Africans "primitive and barbaric".4O There are huge quantitative and qualitative differ— ences between the education provided for Whites and Blacks. For instance, the pupil-teacher ratio in 1971 was 20:1 in white schools as opposed to 58:1 in Black schools (Troup, 1976).41 Resources are distributed unequally amongst the departments controlling the education of various racial groups. The government expenditure on education per pupil in 1969/70 was R282 ($338) for Whites and R17 ($20) for Blacks (S.A.I.R.R.)z.12 By 1975-76 the average was $644 for Whites and R4l.8 for Blacks (Blignaut et a1.)43 Rates of 4OUNESCO: Apartheid: Its effects on education, etc. (2nd ed) 1972, p.139. 41F. Troup. Forbidden Pastures: Education under Apartheid. London: International Defense Aid Fund, 1976, p.30. ' 42South African Institute of Race Relations: A Survey of Race Relations in South Africa: 1972. Johannesburg: SAIRR, 1973, p.344. 43S. Blignaut, C. Cooper, L. Gordon, and S. Mooney: A Survey of Race Relations. Johannesburg: SAIRR, 1977, p. 461. 53 school drop-out among Black children are extremely high: from the 1962 intake, for example, only 11.6% proceeded to secondary school (Department of Bantu Education), whereas virtually all White children did so. By 1972 about 9 per 1,000 of the White population held passes in matriculation and Senior certificate, as against under 0.5 per 1,000 of Blacks.45 Career Guidance in the Educational System for Blacks Career guidance means assistance given to an individ- ual in solving problems related to occupational choice and progress with due regard for the invididual's characteristics and their relation to occupational opportunity. It is based on the free and voluntary choice of the individual. Its primary object is to give him full opportunity for personal development and satisfaction from work; with due regard for the most effective use of national manpower resources.46 Hughes quotes Steward and Warnath as saying that: free choices are only made when the individ- ual has acquired the necessary skills, know- ledge and attitudes to enable him to make them and when he is persuaded that certain aspirations on goals are possible for him.47 4SMalherbe, op.cit., p.295. 46R.W. Napier. School Guidance Services: Focus on Developing Nations. London: Evans Brothers Lts. 1972, p.44 47P. Hughes. Guidance and Counselling in Schools: A Response to Change. Oxford: Pergamon, 1971 pp 197-198. (Steward, L.H. and Warnath, C.F. The Counsellor and Society: A Cultural Approach. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1965). 54 The question that immediately arises is: How, then, will career guidance services be structured in a country where such choices are severely constrained for a large majority of the population? To answer this question the researcher made an attempt to review relevant and related literature. It was found that South African literature on guidance for Blacks is fairly sparse as opposed to copious literature on guidance for the other racial groups. This could be due to the fact that there are severe restrictions placed on choice . . o . u . . of work for Blacks Wlthln the White areas which is where most employment opportunities are available. Traditionally "guidance" has been offered chiefly through the structure of the curriculum. ...In order to do this, we create the op- portunity so that if there is any farmer who has a farm school on his farm and who wishes to make use of the school children under the supervision of the teacher to assist with.certainfarm activities, this can be arranged in a proper manner to fit in with the curriculum... 48 Before 1976 there was no organization undertaking career guidance for Blacks on a large scale. The National 'Institute for Personnel Research's (NIPR) contributions had been in special circumstances only and the counselors had felt that what they were able to provide was inadequate. 48Quoted in M. Horrell, Decade of Bantu Education. SAIRR, 1964, p. 65. 55 There was no one with experience in counselling Blacks, although the Human Sciences Research Council in conjunction with the then Bantu Education Department, had developed and normed a comprehensive battery of tests for use with Black students at Standard Six, Form III and Form V levels.49 In recent years, however, provision for more formal guidance in the schools has begun. The current system is the one under which itinerant, externally-based "school counselors," trained mostly through short courses, visit schools to give vocational guidance. "Their work," according to Dovey, "consists mainly in maintaining a superficial test- ing service. These test constitute a form of social book- keeping, used for statistical and research purposes rather than for guidance and aimed at guiding vocational decisions according to the manpower needs of the country."50 These vocational guidance counselors are recognized by the students as government officials. For the majority of students the guidance officer presents an unfamiliar and perhaps a threatening figure with whom to deal. Given this set-up, it can be assumed that in most cases rapport would 49B.A. Hall. Vocational Counseling for Blacks With High School Education. Special Report, Pers 279, NIPR (CSIR) Johannesburg, August, 1978, p.24 50K. Dovey, Politics and Guidance: An Overview of the South African School Guidance Service. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling. Vol. 8, No. 1, January, 1980, p.3. Oil in EX is Th 56 be difficult to establish. Given also the short duration of the sessions the guidance officer has with the students, the assistance students receive is usually restricted to superficial vocational information. Examining the social studies text books for Forms I and II by Van derMerve, et al.,51 and Mocke and Engel- brecht52 respectively, the researcher came across a section on "Vocational guidance" in each. Although this section is included in the Social Studies curriculum, it is non- examinable and hence it tends to be neglected. No sys- tematic training is provided for teachers who are teaching it. There is a heavy emphasis on cultivating realistic attitudes, ideals and expectations. The importance of man- ual labor is strongly emphasized. In 1977 Latti et al., undertook a survey of the ex- isting personnel practices and counseling services for Blacks. Their survey revealed an increasing demand for information regarding bursaries and advice on university and college training. The conclusion annival at was that what was offered still fell far short of the need for it.53 51W.VanlknrMerve, J.L.C. Strydom, and E. Powell. New Social Studies: Form I. p.155. 52H. Mocke and W. Englebrecht. New Structure Social Studies: Form II, p.315 53V.I.Latti, B.A. Shannon and B.L. Visser. Personnel and Careers Counselling Practices and Facilities for the De- velopment of Black workers in South Africa. C/Pers 261, CSIR, NIPR, Johannesburg, 1977. 57" The following is an account of what was available in November, 1977: 1. Department of Education and Training In 1975 there were only thirty trained "counselors" to handle all psychological services in all Black schools (a total of 12,573 schools with 3,731,455 pupils; Counselor- student ratio was approximately 1:124,382). The Department is running an experimental project in conjunction with the Human Sciences Research Council to give individual coun- seling to a sample of Form V's (Barnard).54 A guidance syl- labus for Standard 5 to Form II was drawn up and has been implemented for the first time in 1978. 2. Religious Organizations The agency for Industrial Mission (Wilgespruit) ran its first career guidance conference in 1975. This has been repeated and has grown each year until now. It includes individual counseling as well as careers' talks. An assess— ment of the needs of the community it serves has led to plans for the Ipelegeng Center to provide training, information, and guidance. St. Anthony's Cultural and Training Center offers library and night school facilities to students studying 54M.J. Barnard. Die beroepsvoorlighting-prosedures en behoeftes van die Department Van Bantoe-Onderwys. In Vocational Counseling--proceedings of Symposium held on 14th October, 1977, at NIPR, Johannesburg, (Sl64,CSIR). ta I I“: 58 for school and university examinations. Although some guid- ance regarding choice of subjects and related careers is offered, the need for an organized career guidance service cannot be overemphasized. St. Paul's Anglican Church in Soweto had school facil- ities for students studying for Junior and Senior certifi- cate examinations until 1977 when it was forced to close down. Vocational guidance was offered and career confer- ences were also held. Plans for a community career center were developed but owing to lack ofofficia1.support and com- mitment the plan had to be abandoned. 3. Universities Fort Hare University in Alice has started testing. freshmen in collaboration with NIPR. It is hoped that a counselor will be appointed as soon as funds are available and that a counseling service will develop. The University of the North in Pietersburg has es- tablished a Guidance Bureau which, it is also hoped, will develop into a Counseling Unit. Testing and freshmen orien- tation started in 1977. 4. Other Services The South African Institute of Race Relations, through its Educational Information Center in Johannesburg, provides information and training to whoever seeks it. Information 59 on bursaries is also available. However, many students, especially those in the peri-urban and rural areas, do not know about these facilities. A guidance service has been contemplated but the obstacles were considerable and the project seems to have been dropped. The Department of Manpower utilization which caters mostly for Whites, publishes a quarterly occupational in- formation magazine "My Career/My Loopban" which has de— tailed descriptions of several kinds of careers. However, it is not as accessible to Black students as it is to other racial groups. An accurate assessment of the situation was made by a representative of the Department of Labor (Man- power Utilization) who stated publicly in 1977 that "we have no facilities at this stage to help with vocational ,55 information so far as the Bantu are concerned.‘ Walters laments that "an integrated service for all racial groups is not yet foreseen."56 Cloete and 1e Roux pointed out that their 1978 fresh- men sample (481 students) had received little or no official guidance before entering university.57 This is indicative 55National Institute for Personnel Research, CSIR, Johannesburg, 1977, p.114. 568. Walters. Career Guidance and Occupational Choice. Foundation for Social Development: Research Report No.1. Cape Town, October, 1976, p.35. S7Cloete and 1e Roux, op.cit., p.1. 60 of the extent to which guidance services are provided in the Black schools. "The problem," Cloete and 1e Roux say, "is aggravated by the fact that the majority of these stu- dents are the first generation to attend university and consequently very little information on university matters can be obtained from their immediate relatives. The qual- ity and quantity of assistance which teachers can provide in this regard is also of doubtful value, since about 80% have not attended a residential university."58 Considering the lack of development of career guid- ance services in Black schools and Universities, Watts (1978)59 furnishes the following reasons: one is the simple pressure on manpower and other resources within educational insti- tutions. Another reason is the continued official ambiv- alence about the extent to which guidance is likely to be socially functional. He further speculates that overt at- tention to career guidance might have the effect of raising aspirations beyond the capacity or will of the political system to meet them. In addition, career guidance might also focus attention on the limitations of the opportunity struc- ture, thus opening them to inspection and question. The dangers of this are particularly acute in a place like Soweto, where Black political unrest has been most visible and most marked. 58Ibid., p.l 59Watts, op.cit., p.24. 61 From this report on the status of career guidance services for Blacks in South Africa, it would appear students are faced with a wide variety of serious problems, such as lack of vocational, educational, personal, and financial information. Another observation is that vocational guid- ance seems to form a relatively small and insignificant part of the school curriculum. Moreover, the guidance section on the curriculum is non-examinable with the result that both teachers and students tend to regard it as a waste of time. The situation seems to be exacerbated by the lack of contact between the schools and the employers--work exper- iences and industrial site visits are rare and often times are regarded as a nuisance by some employers. However, there are indications that innovations and improvements are afoot. SUMMARY The literature reviewed in this Chapter with regard to goals and objectives of career guidance supported the idea that the only justification for the existence of a school career guidance program is what it does to benefit students. Students have a variety of needs, broadly cate- gorized into vocational, educational and personal-social needs. All the career development and career choice theories have important implications for career guidance. They all 62 underscore the fact that choosing a career is a continuous process which is a function of several factors, inter alia, age, sex, location, and socio-cultural milieu. It is also apparent that much still remains to be done concerning guid— ance in South African Black secondary schools. There is considerable research data to support the contention that guidance is for all students and not only for those who have problems. The next Chapter will be concerned with the method- ology of the study. A discussion of the design, instrumen- tation and procedures will be included. bEa Stud ien: ment CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY The purpose of the study was to determine the most im- portant career guidance needs of Black secondary school stu— dents in the Transvaal Province in the Republic of South Africa. The study also aimed at determining the degree to which these needs are presently being met. It was hoped that this information would not only enhance better under- standing of Black students' needs but would also facilitate improvement of the guidance services available to them. Available evidence suggests that although there may be a common set of students' needs their priority for certain students vary and/or shift in accordance with age, sex, exper- ience, culture and social trends. Consequently, in manage- ment of educational programs it is important to frequently sample students' needs. In this Chapter the manner in which the sample groups for the study were selected is specifically described along with a brief rationale for the selection of these particular groups. The manner in which the data for the study was col- lected and the procedures followed in analyzing the data are also explained. 63 64 The Research Design In order to identify the main career guidance needs of Black secondary school students in the Transvaal Province selected students were asked to identify their needs and the degree to which they felt they were being met. The following conceptual areas were used as measuring indices to categorize the data: self-understanding and ac- ceptance, development of responsibility, understanding others, being understood by others, interpersonal relationships, value clarification, decision-making skills, self-assessment, edu- cational and vocational planning, understanding sexual iden- tity, career awareness,career exploration and planning, and guidance program comprehension. The study was designed to answer the following sixteen research questions regarding students' perceptions of their career development needs and the extent to which those needs are being met. Specifically, do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for: 1. Understanding and accepting themselves? 2. Development responsibility for themselves? 3. Understanding others? 4. Being understood by others? 5. Relating to others? 6. Clarifying values? 7. Assessing themselves? 8. Acquiring decision making skills? 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 65 Understanding sexual identity? Selecting courses and making educational plans? Making post-high school plans? Developing career awareness? Exploring careers? Planning careers? Finding jobs and careers? Understanding the guidance program? In addition, an effort was made to determine the present status of career guidance services in Black secondary schools in the Transvaal Province. Specifically: ences, 1. Are there organized programs of guidance services in the Black secondary schools? To what extent do they provide Pupil Inventory Services? To what extent do they provide Information Services? Is counseling available to all students? Do the schools have a school-wide testing program and to what extent are the test results being used for guidance purposes? Do the schools have Placement, Follow-Up and Eval- uation Services? In order to test for statistically significant differ- the above questions were transformed into the following Null hypotheses: 66 There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable understanding and accepting self. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban ¢1ack secondary school students on the variable developing responsibilty for self. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable understanding others. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable being understood by others. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable relating to others. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri—urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable clarifying values. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban 10. ll. 12. 13. 67 Black secondary school students on the variable assessing self. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri—urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable making decisions. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable selecting courses and making educational plans. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable understanding sexual identity. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable making post-secondary plans. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable developing career awareness. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable exploring careers. In (I) a! 68 14. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban andurban Black secondary school students on the variable planning careers. 15. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable finding jobs and careers. 16. There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban Black secondary school students on the variable understanding the guidance program. Selection of the School Sample Since it was felt that the perceived needs would be similar within certain classifications of students, and in— asmuch as the time and money required to make a complete survey of all the Black secondary schools in the Republic of South Africa would be prohibitive, the study was limited to ten selected Black secondary schools in the Transvaal Province. The specific schools selected for analysis came from three types of geographical.locations. Using a method of stratified random sampling three urban, three peri-urban and four rural Black secondary schools were selected. All 69 these schools are regular co-educational secondary schools (Forms 1 through 5) which prepare students for the Junior and Senior National Examinations. They all follow a common curriculum designed for collegeanuni(University-bound) students. Students attending these schools have diverse socio-economic backgrounds, and they also speak several different languages. Permission to conduct the study was granted by the Department of Cooperation and Development, and the Depart- mentsof Education (See Appendix C). The latter wrote let- ters to introduce the researcher to Circuit Inspectors and principals of schools in the above regions. The Circuit Inspectors furnished lists of all the post-primary schools in their circuits to facilitate the school selection process. Selection of the Respondents Best defined a sample as "a small proportion of a population selected for analysis."1 A sample made up of 600 pupils (315 males and 285 females) was chosen from the previously selected schools. A stratified random sampling procedure was used to ensure the representation of each subgroup (i.e.; boys/girls; urban, peri-urban and rural, and Forms 3 and 5). lJ.W. Best. Research in Education. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1956, p.263 70 To observe the effects of grade levels, 268 Form 3 and 332 Form 5 students were selected. Forms 3 and 5 in the South African educational system mark the comple- tion of educational, as well as developmental or matur- ational units. At the end of these units the individual is expected to assume the responsibility for deciding the direction of his or her future personal and vocational life. It is at these transitional or choice points that the individual is called upon to make serious (sometimes irreversible) decisions regarding his or her career. Gen- erally, when students quit school after graduating at one of these terminal points, they are not referred to as drop- outs. In other words, these are acceptable branching off points. Students terminating after Form 3 can work in the private sector or government service as messangers or clerks, train as policemen, enroll at vocational/technical schools, enroll at Primary Teachers Training Institutions or train as nurses. Form 5 graduates qualify for all the options open to the Form 3 graduates and are usually given first preference. Moreover, they can enroll at Junior Secondary Teachers Course Institutions and can also further their studies by correspondence through the University of South Africa (UNISA)oran:one of the three residential universities In order to examine the possible effects of geo- graphic location, 178 students were selected from urban areas, 190 students were selected from peri-urban areas 71 and 232 students were selected from rural areas. The en- vironment in which a person lives, exerts a tremendous in- fluence on his perception and behavior. This is so because norms, folklore and societal expectations which influence people's behavior patterns differ from place to place. The availability of opportunities is also contingent upon geo- graphical location. An effort was made to select approximately 60 students from each school and an equal number from each grade level. This resulted in the selection of 600 in the ten schools. The rationale for the sample size is derived from Borg and Gall.2 Table 3.1 below shows the pattern with which pupils were selected to reflect their grade levels, geographic locations, and their sex. The researcher, with the help of the principals of the selected schools randomly selected the names of the subjects from the schools' Master Form Register in which their names were listed alphabetically according to sex. Research Instruments Two methods of data collection were used, namely; a questionnaire for students (Appendix A) and a 30-40 minute 2W.R. Borg and M.D. Gall. Educational Research: An Introduction (2nd ed) New York: David McKay Company, Inc., 1976, pp.123-126. Nmm mna mma mom Nva mNH maceoe 72 Hm mv mv mm vs mv mamuou now am ma 0H mm ma ea 5 mm 0H NH mm «A va H zm mfiszDBm JOOIUm >mmd mQassess the extent to which the students' expressed needs were being met in the schools. Another purpose was to provide information regarding the status of guidance services in Black secondary schools as per- ceived by school principals. In order to realize these purposes a Guidance Service Needs Assessment Survey was administered to tenth and twelfth graders in ten selected schools. Frequencies and percentages were used to indicate the responses of the students regarding the intensity (i.e., whether there is No Need, Weak Need, Moderate Need, or Strong Need) and the degree of satisfaction (i.e.; whether they are not being met, partially met, or being met). ANOVA was made for the study and a confidence level of .05 was chosen to determine the significance of the differences among the means for male-female, urban-peri-urban-rural, and Form 3-Form 5 students. 81 82 The results of the statistical analysis were reported in tabular form. The tables report frequency and percen- tage of responses. Items in the instrument which were constructed to measure a particular need are grouped in the tables. The data are grouped according to student grade level, sex and geographic location. Content analy- sis was used to process and analyze the data from the open— ended questionnaire and from the interviews held with school principals. Characteristics of the Respondents Demographic characteristics of the respondents which were used as normative data were geographic location, sex and grade level and they were obtained from the questionnaire (See Ap- pendixll). All the six hundred questionnaires completed by the students were usable. The sample distribution by geographic location showed that 232 (38.7%) of the respondents came from schools in rural communities; 190 (31.7%) of the students came from schools in peri-urban communities; and 178 (29.6%) of the students came from schools in urban communities (Table 4.1). The distribution of the sample according to sex revealed that 315 (52.5%) of the subjects were male and 285 (47.5%) of the subjects were female (Table 4.1). The same distribution by grade level indicated that 268 (44.7%) of the respondents were in grade ten and 332 (55.3%) were in grade twelve (Table 4.1). 83 TABLE 4.1 DISTRIBUTION OF STUDENTS IN THE SAMPLE BY SEX, GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION AND GRADE LEVEL. Grade Sex Geogrephic Location Level Rural Peri-Urban Urban Total f % f % f % f % Boys 42 7.0 56 9.3 44 7.3 142 23.7 Ten Girls 42 7.0 41 6.8 43 7.2 126 21.0 Ten Boys 76 12.7 49 8.2 48 8.0 173 28.8 Twelve Girls 72 12.0 44 7.3 43 7.2 159 26.5 Twelve TOTAL 232 38.7% 190 31.7% 178 29.6% 600 100.0% Results of Analysis In presenting the results of the data analysis, fre— quencies and percentages were used to show how the re- spondents perceived and expressed the intensity Of their needs and the degree to which those needs were being met. Tables 4.2 through 4.17 illustrate frequencies and percen- tages of Black South African secondary school students' car- eer guidance need responses, and Tables 4.18 through 4.33 represent the frequencies and percentages Of students' need satisfaction responses. 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OoOuummmOuOO OOOnz 92¢99 400909 $0H9I9909 02Hx¢z 909 9992 ¢ 90 .99299999 90 90¢BZ9U999 92¢ >02990999 9N.v 949¢E lll OHOOO NH O.HH O H.O O 0.0 O OOoO NH 0.0H O 0.0H O N.O O um: OOHOO OHOHO OH O.N H O.O O O.HH O OOOO OH 0.0 N H.OH O 0.0 N OHOOO NH H.NO HO N.OH O H.OH OH um: OOoO NH O.OO ON 0.0 O N.OH OH OHHOHOOOO OHOOO OH 0.00 OO N.NH O 0.0 N mOom OH 0.00 OO O.NH O O.HH O OHOOO NH O.OH O O.HO ON O.OO OO um: OOOO NH O.ON OH 0.00 ON O.OO OO OOOOO Ooz OHOOO OH O.HH O N.OO OO 0.00 HO mOoO OH 0.0H O 0.00 OO 0.00 OO O O O O O O xwm mmumumv chHD Gmflthfih—wnm Hm939 "9H OoHuumOOOumO OOOnz 20H90¢99HB¢9 998 OZH99¢099 999209999 999299¢3¢ 9999¢U 02H9099>99 909 9992 ¢ 90 .99299999 90 90¢9290999 92¢ >029DO999 mm.v 949¢E 112 OHOOO NH 0.0 O 0.0 N 0.0 O OOOO NH O.OH O 0.0H O 0.0 O pm: OOOOO OHOOO OH O.O N O.N H O.O N OOoO OH 0.0 O O.OH O 0.0 O OHOOO NH H.OO OO 0.0H O O.N N um: OOOO NH 0.00 OO O.OH O O.OH O OHHOOOOOO mHOOO OH N.HO OO N.NH O O.HH O OOOO OH O.OO OO O.ON OH N.O O OHOOO NH O.OH O O.OO OO O.HO OO Om: OOoO NH 0.0 O 0.00 OO N.OO OO OOOOO uoz OHOOO OH O.OH O N.OO OO 0.00 OO OOOO OH N.OH O O.NO OO O.NO OO O O O O O O xwm momuo cmnua A‘cmnuslflumm amusm "mO OOHOUOOOOOOO OOOuz 20HBU¢99HB¢9 999 02H99¢O99 999209999 99999¢U 02H9099x9 909 9992 ¢ 90 .99299999 90 90¢BZ90999 92¢ >029DO999 om.v 999¢B 113 OHOOO NH O.O N O.O N 0.0 O mOom NH O.O O 0.0 O O.OH O pm: OOOOO OHOOO OH O.N H O.O N O.O N mOoO OH O.O N 0.0 N 0.0 O OHOOO NH O.O O O.HH O O.NH O pm: OOOO NH 0.0N OH O.OH O H.OH OH OHHOOOOOO OHOOO OH O.HH O 0.0H O 0.0H O mOom OH O.OH O O.OH O O.HH O OHOOO NH O.OO OO O.HO OO O.OO OO um: OOoO NH N.OO OO 0.00 OO O.OO OO OOOOO Ooz OHOOO OH H.OO OO O.OO OO O.OO OO OOOO OH O.HO OO H.NO OO H.OO OO O O O O O O xmm mfimuo can“: :mnualOumm amusm "mO coOpomOmOumO OOOuz 20HBU¢99HB¢9 9:9 OZH99¢099 999209999 99999¢U 02H22¢J9 909 9992 ¢ 90 .99299999 90 90¢829U999 92¢ >UZ9DO999 Hm.v 999¢B 114 OHOOO NH O O O O.O O O.O O mOoO NH O.O O 0.0 O 0.0 O um: OOOOO OHOOO OH O.O O O.O O O.O O OOOO OH O.O O 0.0 O 0.0 O OHOOO NH O.OH O O.O O H.HH O Om: OOOO NH 0.0N OH O.NH O O.HH O OHHOOOOOO OHOOO OH O.OH O O.O N O.N H OOOO OH 0.0N O O.NH O. 0.0 N OHOHO NH H.OO OO N.OO HO O.OO OO um: OOOO NH N.OO OO O.OO OO N.OO OO OOHOO uoz OHOOO OH H.OO OO H.OO OO O.NO HO OOom OH O.OO OO O.OO OO N.OO OO O O O O O O x09 MUMHU CmDMD cmDthflhmnu 95959 "9H COHUUMH9HHM9 OOOuz 99999¢U 92¢ 9909 02H92H9 909 9992 ¢ 90 20HBU¢99HB¢9 999 02H99¢099 999209999 .99299999 90 90¢929U999 92¢ >029DO999 Nm.v 999¢B 115 OHOOO NH O.O O O.O O O.O O mOom NH 0.0 O 0.0 O 0.0 O um: OOOOO OHOOO OH O.O O O.O O 0.0 O mOoO OH O.O O O.O O O.O O OHOOO NH, O.O O O.O O O.O O was mOom NH 0.0 O 0.0 O O.O O OHHOOOOOO OHOOO OH O.O O O.O O O.O O mOom OH O.O O O.O O 0.0 O OHOOO NH OOH OO OOH OO OOH NO mOom NH OOH OO OOH OO OOH OO OOOOO uoz OHOOO OH OOH OO OOH HO OOH NO mOom OH OOH OO OOH OO OOH NO O O O O O O xwm wvmuo swan: cmnualflumm amusm "mO OoHuomOOOumO OOOuz z¢90099 9UZ¢9HDO 9:9 02H92¢B999929 909 9992 ¢ 90 20HBU¢99HB¢9 998 02H99¢099 999209999 .99299989 90 90¢9290999 92¢ >UZ9DO999 mm.v 999¢B 116 The data in Table 4.2 revealed that 92.7% of the total sample (600) expressed a need for self-understanding and acceptance which ranged from weak to strong. More than fifty—eight percent (58.0%) of the students in each group expressed a strong need. Regarding the satisfaction of this need, 71.5% of the respondents indicated that this need was not being met (See Table 4.18). Research Question 2: Do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for developing responsibility for themselves? The results displayed in Table 4.3 show that more than 60% in each group expressed a strong need.for developing responsibility for self. More boys (73.8%) than girls (61%) expressed a strong need. Table 4.19 reveals that 74% of the respondents felt that this need was not being met. Research Question 3: Do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for understanding others? From the data presented in Table 4.4 it is evident that the majority of the students (63.8%) perceived a strong need to understand others. Concerning the satisfaction of this need, Table 4.20 shows that 74% of the students felt the need was not being met. 117 Research Question 4: Do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for being understood by others? The data presented in Table 4.5 depicts a strong need to be understood by others. Sixty-five (65.9%) of the students in all the groups expressed a strong need for other people to understand them. An important difference emerges in the satisfaction responses of the student. Seventy percent (70%) of the peri-urban students felt this need was being met; 69% of the urban students felt the need was not being met; and 15% of the rural student felt the need was partially met (See Table 4.21). Research Question 5, Do Black South African Secondary school students feel a need for relating to others? According to the data in Table 4.6, 66.8% of the rural students expressed a strong need for relating to others. Seventy-six (76.3%) of the peri-urban students and 79.8% of the urban students expressed a strong need for relating to others. Seventy-seven (77.9%) of the peri-urban and 79.9% of the urban students felt the need was not being met as compared to 67% of the rural students who felt the need was partially met (See Table 4.22). Research Question 6: Do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for clarifying values? 118 An analysis of the data in Table 4.7 shows a strong need for value clarification expressed by the majority (77.5%) of the students in each group. However, an interesting revel- ation is observable in Table 4.23 regarding the satisfaction of this need. Eighty percent (80%) of the rural students felt the need was being met; 77% of the peri-urban students indicated the need was partially met; and 75.9% of the urban students felt the need was not being met. These differences could be attributable to differences in the cultural milieus of the three communities. Research Question 7: Do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for assessing themselves? The answer is an indisputable "Yes” as the data in Table 4.8 shows that 79.5% of the respondents expressed a strong need. Concerning the satisfaction of this need, Table 4.24 reveals that 77.1% of the respondents felt the need was not being met. Research Question 8: Do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for acquiring decision making skills? The data in Table 4.9 show that only .4% of the students expressed no need for help regarding decision-making. About 80% of the students expressed a strong need for making decisions. Table 4.25 reveals that 84% of the respondents felt the need was not being met. 119 Research Question 9: Do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for understanding sexual identity? Table 4.10 contains the results of responses regarding the need to understand sexual identity. Seventy-eight per- cent (78%) of the rural students, 74% of the peri-urban and 60% of the urban students expressed a strong need for under- standing sexual identity. Only 4.5% of the rural students felt the need was not being met. Sixty-eight percent of the urban students felt the need was not being met; and 37.3% of the peri-urban students indicated the need was not being met. A surprising observation is that all grade ten peri— urban girls felt the need was being met (90% felt the need was partially met) (See Table 4.26). Research Question 10: Do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for selecting courses and making educational plans? An analysis of the data shown in Table 4.11 reveals that 84% of the entire sample expressed a strong need for help in selecting courses and making educational plans. Table 4.27 illustrates that 73% of the respondents felt the need was not being met. These data confirms the findings of Cloete and 1e Roux's 1978 study of freshmen in which 73% of the sample indicated a need for help with choice of subjects.1 lCloete and le Roux, op. cit., p.2. 120 Research Question 11: 190 Black South African secondary school students feel a need for making post-high school plans? The data displayed in Table 4.12 depict the need to make post-high school plans. Almost eighty percent (79.7%) of the respondents expressed a strong need for making post- high school plans, 82.9% of the students felt this need was not being met (See‘Table 4.28). Research Question 12: Do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for developing career awareness? Table 4.13 portrays the responses of the students which indicate that 73.3% of the rural students; 69.6% of the peri- urban, and 68.3% of the urban students expressed a strong need for developing career awareness. Table 4.29 shows that the majority (70.4%)felt the need was not being met. Research Question 13: Do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for exploring careers? Results displayed in Table 4.14 indicate that 79.3% of the respondents expressed a strong need for career exploration. Table 4.30 reveals that 81.7% of both rural and peri-urban students felt this need was not being met, whereas 77.6% of the urban students felt this need was partially met. 121 Research Question 14: DQ Black South African secondary school students feel a need for planning careers? As illustrated in Table 4.15, 79.3% of the total sample expressed a strong need for planning careers. Only 1.3% of the respondents expressed no need. Table 4.31 shows that 80.7% of the respondents felt the need was not being met. Only 4.0% felt the need was being met. Research Question 15: Do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for finding jobs and careers? Table 4.16 profiles the responses of students concerning the need to find jobs and careers. Approximately eight-seven percent (86.8%) of the respondents expressed a strong need to find jobs and careers. The remaining 13.2% indicated a moderate need. Regarding the satisfaction of this need, Table 4.32 discloses that 88.9% of the students felt the need was not being met. Research Question 16: 90 Black South African secondary school students feel a need for understanding the Guidance Program? As a good grasp and awareness of the services available through the guidance program is necessary for students, know- ledge and understanding of the concept was probed. The data presented in Table 4.17 show the strongest need for an under- standing of the guidance program. About ninety—three (92.7%) 122 percent of the total sample expressed a strong need for understanding the guidance program. Moreover, of more significance is the data in Table 4.33 which indicate that 100% of the students felt that the need was not being met at all. The sixteen categories are ranked from 1—16 in terms of the percentage responses of Black South African secondary school students. A rank of 1 indicates a category that most students felt strongly about and a rank of 16 indicates a category about which the least number of students felt strongly. This ranking of categories was done to indicate a trend that might be useful when prioritizing students' perceived career guidance needs. The lower ranks tell us where more emphasis needs to be placed. Tables 4.34 and 4.35 present the ranked categories. A cursory glance at Table .434 reveals that understanding the guidance program was ranked one. This means that most Black Form 3 students (92.2%) expressed a need for under— standing the guidance program. Their second strong concern was to find jobs and careers (88.4%). Ranked third was the need for selecting‘ courses and making educational plans (88.1%). Ranked sixteenth Was the need to be understood by others. The sixteenth rank represents a category about which the smallest number of Form 3 students (67.9%) felt strong. The data in Table 4.35 indicate that approximately ninety- threepercent (93.1) of the Form 5 (Seniors) students were 123 TABLE 4.34 RANK ORDER OF CATEGORIES 0F GUIDANCE SERVICE NEEDS- JUNIORS Rank Number Category Name % 1 Understanding the guidance program 92.2 2 Finding jobs and careers 88.4 3 Selecting courses and making educational plans 88.1 4 Acquiring decision making skills 83.6 5 Making post-high school plans 83.2 6 Planning careers A 82.5 7 Assessing themselves 81.7 8 Exploring careers 79.9 9 Clarifying values 79.5 10 Understanding sexual identity 76.1 11 Relating to others 75.4 12 Developing reSponsibility for themselves 75.0 13 Understanding and accepting themselves 72.0 14 Developing career awareness 71.6 15 Understanding others 67.9 16 Being understood by others 66.8 124 TABLE 4.35 RANK.ORDER OF CATEGORIES 0F GUIDANCE SERVICE NEEDS-SENIORS Rank Number Category Name Z 1 Finding jobs and careers 93.1 2 Understanding the guidance program 85.5 3 Selecting courses and making educational plans 80.7 4 Exploring careers 78.9 5 Acquiring decision making skills 77.7 6 Assessing themselves 77.7 7 Planning careers 76.8 8 ‘Making post-high school plans 76.8 9 Clarifying values 75.9 10 Deve10ping responsibility for themselves 75.8 11 Relating to others 72.6 12 Understanding sexual identity 72.0 13 Understanding and accepting themselves 71.1 14 Being understood by others 69.9 15 Developing career awareness . 68.1 16 Understanding others 60.5 125 concerned about finding jobs and careers. This category was ranked one. Ranked two is the need to understand the guidance program. The third rank went to the need to make post-high school plans. Ranked sixteenth was the need to understand others (GO-57°) - The open—ended section of the questionnaire afforded the students an opportunity to express some of the concerns they felt strongly about. The data contained in Table 4.36 reflect some of the hotly debated issues at the time the study was conducted. It is evident from Table 4.36 that students who parti- cipated in the study strongly felt the educational system (Bant11 Education) had to be changed. Eighty-eight and a half percent (88.5%) of the Black secondary school students ex— pressed a strong need for the change. This demand for change has dominated the South African political and educational scenes since the inception of "Bantti Education" in 1954. Approximately eighty-four percent (83.8%) of the stu- dents called for the abolition of Apartheid, i.e. "the policy of the Nationalist Partyvflmse essence has been to maintain the political, economic and social dominance of the Whites by a thorough-going separation of the races except in the sphere of labor where the Blacks must serve the Whites."2 The results displayed in Table 4.36 indicate that about eighty—two percent (82.2%) expressed a strong need to have equal rights and social justice. 2Troup, op.cit.p.6 TABLE 4.36 CONTENT ANALYSIS OF RESPONSES BY BLACK SOUTH AFRICAN SECONDARY 126 SCHOOL STUDENTS TO THE OPEN-ENDED QUESTIONNAIRE. Characteristics N Freq. Z 1. To change the educational system 600 531 88.5 2. To abolish apartheid 600 503 83.8 3. To have equal rights and social justice 600 493 82.2 4. To do away with school uniforms 600 475 79.2 5. To have free and compulsory education 600 475 79.2 6. To have information about bursaries 600 465 77.5 7. To have more information about dif- ferent professions 600 393 65.5 8. To relate to other racial groups 600 393 65.5 9. To learn problem-solving skills 600 381 63.5 10. Someone to confide in and seek help from 600 380 63.3 127 Approximately eighty percent (79.2%) of the students strongly felt school uniforms should be done away with. At the time the study was conducted, the controversy over compul- sory school uniform was quite poignant. 'Similarly, a strong need for free and compulsory education was expressed by seventy-nine percent (79.2%) of the respondents. The above data also highlighted the extent to which students need financial information. Seventy-seven and a half (77.5%) of the students expressed a strong need for information about busaries and other types of financial aid. A strong need for information about different professions was expressed by sixty-five and a half (65.5%) of the students. Sixty-five and a half percent (65.5%) of the students called for an improvement in race relations. They expressed a strong need to relate to other racial groups. The data in Table 4.36 indicate that sixty-three and a half percent (63.5%) of the students expressed a strong need to learn problem-solving skills. Finally, the above data indicate that approximately sixty-four (63.3%) of the students expressed a strong need to have someone to whom they could go for help. 128 Further Analysis of Data In order to increase the confidence by which the re- searcher drew conclusions in Chapter Five and made recommen- dations for improvement of guidance services, additional analy- sis of the data was thought necessary. Hypotheses were for— mulated to determine whether geographic location, sex and grade level were factors in the expression of career guidance needs by Black Secondary school students. To test the hypotheses, an Analysis of Variance was computed with a confidence level of .05. Using the approp- riate degrees of freedom, when the observed F-ratio is greater than the critical F-ratio the difference is viewed as signi- ficant. Tables 4.37 through 4.52 contain the ANOVA results concerning geographic location. 129 Hypothesis 1: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable understanding and accepting self. Null hypothesis 1 was not rejected. The value re— quired to reject the null hypothesis with DF =2, 597; alpha = 0.05 was 3.00. The P value computed for the data in this study as it relates to understanding and accepting self was .43 (See Table 4.37). TABLE 4.37 A COMPARISON OF STUDENT MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE UNDERSTANDING AND ACCEPTING SELF -Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig. Rural 232 1.00 Peri-Urban 190 1.08 Urban 178 1.02 Between Groups .7711 2 .3855 .43 .6524 Within Groups 538.5622 597 .9021 TOTAL 539.3333 599 *p < .05 Hypothesis 2: There is no statistically significant difference among the Means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable developing responsibility for self. 130 Null hypothesis 2 was retained. The required value to reject the null hypothesis with DF = 2, 597; alpha = 0.05 was 3.00. The computed F—ratio obtained for this study as it re- lates to developing responsibility for self was .04 (See Table 4.38) TABLE 4.38 A COMPARISON OF STUDENTS MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE DEVELOPING RESPONSIBILITY FOR SELF Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig. Rural 232 1.2403 Peri-Urban 190 1.2474 Urban 178 1.2203 Between Groups .0721 2 .0360 .04 .9608 Within Groups ' 538.3212 597 .9017 TOTAL 538.3933 599 Hypothesis 3: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable understanding others. Null hypothesis 3 was not rejected. The value re- quired to reject the null hypothesis with DF = 2.597; alpha: 0.05 was 3.00. The F value computed for the data in this study as it relates to understanding others was 1.72 (See Table 4.39). 131 TABLE 4.39 A COMPARISON OF STUDENT MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE UNDERSTANDING OTHERS Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig. Rural 232 1.3519 Peri-Urban 190 1.5474 Urban 178 1.3616 Between Groups 4.7592 2 2.3796 1.72 .1796 Within Groups 825.0741 597 1.3820 TOTAL 829.8334 599 Hypothesis 4: There is no statistically significant difference among the Means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable being understood by others. Null hypothesis 4 was retained. The required value to reject the null hypothesis with DF = 2,597; alpha:= 0.05 was 3.00. The computed F-ratio obtained for this studj as it relates to being understood by others was 1.95 (See Table 4.40). 132 TABLE 4.40 A COMPARISON OF STUDENTS MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE BEING UNDERSTOOD BY OTHERS Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig. Rural 232 .7811 Peri-Urban 190 .8368 Urban 178 .6610 Between Groups 2.9533 2 1.4767 1.95 .1428 Within Groups 451.4400 597 .7562 TOTAL 454.3933 599 Hypothesis 5: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable relating to others. Null hypothesis 5 was not rejected. The value required to reject the null hypothesis with DF = 2,597; alpha: 0.05 was 3.00. The P value computed for the data in this study as it relates to relating to others was .32 (See Table 4.41). Hypothesis 6: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri—urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable value clarification. Null hypothesis 5 was not rejected. The value required to reject the null hypothesis with D? = 2,597; alpha = 0.05 was 3.00. 133 relates to clarifying values was The F value computed for the data in this study as it .70 (See Table 4.42). TABLE 4.41 A COMPARISON OF STUDENT MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE RELATING TO OTHERS Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig. Rural 232 1.2618 Peri-Urbanl90 .l.3368 Urban 178 1.2429 Between Groups .9342 2 .4671 .32 .7301 Within Groups 886.0258 597 1.4841 TOTAL 886.9600 599 TABLE 4.42 A COMPARISON OF STUDENT MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE CLARIFYING VALUES Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig. Rural 232 .7768 Peri—Urban 190 .8632 Urban 178 .7571 Between Groups 1.2077 2 .6039 .70 .4959 Within Groups 513.3906 597 .8600 TOTAL 514.5983 599 134 Hypothesis 7: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable assessing self. Null hypothesis 7 was not rejected. The value required to reject the null hypothesis with DF = 2,597; alpha - 0.05 was 3.00. The F value computed for the data in this study as it relates to self assessment was 1.67 (See Table 4.43). TABLE 4.43 A COMPARISON OF STUDENT MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE ASSESSING SELF Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig. Rural 232 .6996 Peri-Urban 190 .8632 Urban 178 .7740 Between Groups 2.8808 2 1.4004 1.67 .1890 Within Groups 500.3725 597 .8381 TOTAL 503.1733 599 Hypothesis 8: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable making decision. Null hypothesis 8 was retained. The value required to reject the null hypothesis with DE = 2,597; alpha = 0.05 was 135 3.00. The computed P value obtained for this study as it relates to decision making was 1.32 (See Table 4.44). TABLE 4.44 A COMPARISON OF STUDENT MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE MAKING DECISION Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig Rural 232 .6352 Peri-Urban 190 .6000 Urban 178 .5085 Between Groups 1.6646 2 .8323 1.32 .2673 Within Groups 375.8287 597 .6295 TOTAL 377.4933 599 Hypothesis 9: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable understanding sexual identity. Null hypothesis 9 was retained. The value required to reject the null hypothesis with DF = 2,597; alpha = 0.05 was 3.00. The computed P value obtained for this study as it re- lates to understanding sexual identity was.41 (See Table 4.45). 'Hypothesis 10: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school 136 students on the variable selecting courses and making educa- tional plans. Null hypothesis 10 was retained. The value required to reject the null hypothesis with DF = 2,597; alpha = 0.05 was 3.00. The computed P value obtained for this study, as it relates to selecting courses and making educational plans was 1.95 (See Table 4.46). TABLE 4.45 A COMPARISON OF STUDENT MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE UNDERSTANDING SEXUAL IDENTITY Sum Source ' of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig Rural 232 .8755 Peri- Urban 190 .7947 Urban 178 .7966 Between Groups .9101 2 .4550 .41 .6640 Within Groups 663.0633 597 1.1107 TOTAL 663,9737 599 TABLE 4.46 A COMPARISON OF STUDENT MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE SELECTING COURSES AND MAKING EDUCATIONAL PLANS Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig Rural 232 .8798 Peri- Urban 190 .6842 Urban 178 .8362 Between Groups 4.2486 2 2.1243 1.95 .1421 Within Groups 647.9364 597 1.0853 TOTAL 652.1850 599 137 Hypothesis 11: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable making post-high school plans. Null hypothesis 11 was retained. The required value to reject the null hypothesis with DF = 2,597; alpha = 0.05 was 3.00. The computed F-ratio obtained for this study as it relates to making post high school plans 2as .41 (See Table 4.47). TABLE 4.47 A COMPARISON OF STUDENTS MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE MAKING POST-HIGH SCHOOL PLANS Sum SOURCE of Mean CODE N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig Rural 232 .7897 Peri- Urban 190 .3053 Urban 178 .7797 Between Groups .8432 2 .4216 .41 .6633 Within Groups 612.5968 597 1.0261 TOTAL 613.4400 599 Hypothesis 12: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable developing career awareness. Null hypothesis 12 was not rejected. The value re— quired to reject the null hypothesis with DB =2,597; alpha — 138 0.05 was 3.00. The F value computed for the data in this study as it relates to development of career awareness was 2.14. (See Table 4.48). TABLE 4.48 A COMPARISON OF STUDENT MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE DEVELOPING CAREER AWARENESS Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ ‘ F Sig Rural 232 .8026 Peri- Urban 190 .6053 Urban 178 .7627 Between Groups . 4.3712 2 2.1856 2.14 .1188 Within Groups 610.3471 597 1.0224 TOTAL 614.7183 599 Hypothesis 13: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable exploring careers. Null hypothesis 13 was not rejected. The value re- quired to reject the null hypothesis with DF = 2,597; alpha = 0.05 was 3.00. The P value computed for the data in this study as it relates to career exploration was .20 (See Table 4.49). 139 TABLE 4.49 A COMPARISON OF STUDENT MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE EXPLORING CAREERS Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean 'Squares DF SQ F Sgg Rural 232 .8584 Peri- Urban 190 .8421 Urban 178 .9040 Between Groups .3768 2 .1884 .20 .8172 Within Groups 556.9566 597 .9329 TOTAL 557.3334 599 Hypothesis 14: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable planning careers. Null hypothesis 14 was retained. The required value to reject the null hypothesis with DF = 2,597; alpha a 0.05 was 3.00. The computed P ratio obtained for this study as it relates to career planning was .49 (See Table 4.50). Hypothesis 15: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the variable finding jobs and careers. 140 Null hypothesis 15 was not rejected. The value required to reject the null hypothesis with DF - 2,597; alpha = 0.05 was 3.00. The P value computed for the data in this study as it relates to finding jobs and careers was 1.75 (See Table 4.51). TABLE 4.50 A COMPARISON OF STUDENTS MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE PLANNING CAREERS Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig Rural 232 .8841 Peri- Urban 190 .8421 Urban 178 .7853 Between Groups .9821 2 .4911 .49 .6161 Within Groups ' 604.9762 597 1.0134 TOTAL 605.9583 599 TABLE 4.51 A COMPARISON OF STUDENT MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE FINDING JOBS AND CAREERS Sum Source of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF SQ F Sig Rural 232 1.4464 Peri- Urban 190 1.5226 Urban 178 1.2881 Between Groups 4.5602 2 2.2801 1.75 .1754 Within Groups 779.7582 591 1.3061 TOTAL 784.3184 599 141 Hypothesis 16: There is no statistically significant difference among the means of rural, peri-urban and urban secondary school stu- dents on the Variable understanding the guidance program. Null hypothesis 16 was retained. The value required to reject the null hypothesis with DE = 2,597; alpha = 0.05 was 3.00. The computed F value obtained for this study as it relates to understanding the guidance program was .71 (See Table 4.52). TABLE 4.52 A COMPARISON OF STUDENT MEANS FOR THE VARIABLE UNDERSTANDING THE GUIDANCE PROGRAM Sum Source - of Mean Code N Mean Squares DF Sq F Sig Rural 232 .6953 Peri— Urban 190 .6105 Urban 178 .6271 Between Groups .8647 2 .4327 .71 .4943 Within Groups 365.9336 597 .6130 TOTAL 366.7983 599 The data in Tables 4.37 through 4.52 indicate that there were no statistically significant differences among rural, peri-urban and urban Black secondary school students as measured by the Guidance Services Needs Assess- ment Survey. The same analyses were done for sex and grade level with no sta- tistically significant differences. 142 A Summary of the Interviews With School Principals The purpose of these interviews was to assess the status of guidance services in the selected schools. The rationale behind interviewing the school principals lay in the important positions which they occupied as decision makers. It was as- sumed that they constituted a reliable source of valuable in- formation about what went on within their schools. Table 4.53 shows that the school principals were unanimous on the need for organized guidance prsgrams. All the principals (100%) agreed that: —there were no organized guidance programs in their schools; —Pupil Inventory Services were inadequate; -Counseling was not readily available; -There was a need for vocational and financial information; -There was an urgent need to change the educational system; -There were no Placement and Follow-up Services. Eighty percent (80.0%) talked about the paucity in the use of psychological tests. Seventy-percent (70.0%) mentioned that the Information Services were not adequate. When asked about what they perceived as the crucial guid- ance needs of their students, they ennumerated the following: vocational information, information about financial aid sources and personal/health information. Moreover, they felt that guidance was not taken seriously. "It is something to be done after the real work is out of the way," said one of them. 143 TABLE 4.53 CONTENT ANALYSIS OF INTERVIEWS WITH BLACK SECONDARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Characteristics N Freq. % 1. Absence of organized guidance program 10 10 100 2. Inadequacy of Pupil Inventory Services 10 10 100 3. Inadequacy of Information Services 10 7 70 4. Unavailability of counseling 10 10 100 5. Need for Vocational and Financial information 10 10 100 6. Paucity in the use of psycho- logical test 10 8 80 7. Need for change of educational system 10 10 100 8. Lack of placement and follow-up 10 10 100 144 Asked about guidance practices in neighboring schools, those interviewed felt that others were in the same boat. Another frequent response was that they did not really know for sure, revealing a lack of communication on this particular topic. Overall, the school principals perceived guidance pro- grams as powerful tools that could help eliminate some of the disciplinary problems they were encountering, namely; truancy, alcohol and nicotine abuse, lack of concentration and boredom. They were in complete agreement that organized guidance pro- grams have the potential of refocusing and redirecting the energy of students, and can help them see the relevancy of what they study in school. Individual Suggestions for Improvement The principals expressed a unanimous desire for the intro- duction of organized guidance services as the "available ones" were haphazard and left much to be desired. The following are some of the comments that were made: "I would like all my teachers to attend an in-service training session where they will be exposed to ways in which they can serve as teacher—counselors. We do not have trained school counselors." "We need more information on guidance and more positive attention to what guidance can do." "Existing educational system leaves much to be desired and should be thrown out so we can start over." 145 "Only students who are disciplinary problems in schools taste some semblance of guidance in the disciplinary committee." "We do not have books dealing with careers. The available ones are too scanty." "The itinerant guidance officers do a lousy job. If only they could take their job more seriously." Summary The results of the study were presented in this chapter. The findings were reported in two categories. The first presentation was in the form of answers to the research ques- tions, i.e., students' perception of their career guidance needs and their perceptions of how well their needs are being met. The second, was presented in the form of testable hypo- theses. The hypotheses were designed to determine whether there were statistically significant differences among the means of rural, periOurban, and urban secondary school stu- dents on sixteen variables. A general profile that emerges from Tables 4.2 throughlhl7 suggests a strong need for career guidance services in the Black South African secondary schools. Tables 4.18 through 4.33 indicate that the students consistently felt their needs were not being met. Tables 4.34 and 4.35 present the ranks of the sixteen categories according to the percentage responses of the Form 3 and Form 5 students. Understanding the guidance program and finding jobs and careers were ranked one on the basis of 146 the responses of juniors and seniors respectively. Under— standing others was ranked sixteen according to the percentage responses of both juniors and seniors. Overall, a very high percentage (not less than 65%) expressed a strong need on each and every category. A content analysis of the students' responses to the open-ended section of the questionnaire highlighted some of the issues they particularly felt strong about. It is interesting to note that most of the issues they raised were not directly related to guidance. Their responses reflected the political turmoil prevalent at the time the study was conducted. However, it is important to note that they also expressed a strong need for information about financial aid and for a counselor. An ANOVA was computed to indicate the differences among group means. The standard for retaining or rejecting an hypothesis was an alpha level of .05. This analysis revealed no statistically significant differences among the group means. The data indicated that geographic location, sex and grade level were not factors in the expression of career guidance needs by students. Finally, an analysis of the contents of the interviews held with school administrators pointed out the inefficacies and deficiences of the available guidance services. They were unanimous in calling for the introduction of an organized guidance program. Foremost in their list of concerns was 147 the lack of a thorough understanding of guidance among their teachers. Hence they recommended a program of in—service training. They also felt that guidance has the potential of eliminating disciplinary problems. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Included in this chapter is a brief review of the purposes, design, limitations, method of data treatment and analysis, major findings and conclusions. Also presented are recommendations and suggestions for further research. These recommendations and implications for further research are derived from the review of literature and the analysis of data described in Chapter Four. Goals and objectives of Career Guidance Services for Black secondary school students in the Transvaal Province of South Africa, based partly on the findings of this study and partly on documentary evid- ence, are proposed. Summary The major purpose of the study was to determine the career guidance needs of Black secondary school students in the Transvaal Province and also to investigate the extent to which these needs ‘were being met. In order to increase the confidence by which conclusions were drawn and recom- mendations made, additional analysis of the data was done to determine whether geographic location, sex and grade level were factors in the expression of career guidance needs by 148 149 Black secondary school students. ANOVA was computed with a confidence level of .05 to test the hypotheses. The primary focus of the study centered on the re- lated questions: Do Black South African secondary school students feel a need for: 1. Understanding and accepting themselves? 2. Developing responsibility for themselves? 3. Understanding others? 4. Being understood by others? 5. Relating to others? 6. Clarifying values? 7. Assessing themselves? 8. Acquiring decision making skills? 9. Understanding sexual identity? 10. Selecting courses and making educational plans? 11. Making post-high school plans? 12. Developing career awareness? 13. Exploring careers? 14. Planning careers? 15. Finding jobs and careers? 16. Understanding the Guidance Program? Based on these research questions, sixteen hypotheses were formulated and tested. The aim was to find out what are the career guidance needs of Black secondary school stu- dents and whether geographic location, sex and grade level are factors in the expression of those needs. 150 In order to understand what is currently being done to help students meet these needs, ten school principals were interviewed regarding the status of guidance services in their schools. Here attention was given specifically to six main questions. 1. Are there organized programs of guidance ser— vices in the Black secondary schools? 2. To what extent do they provide Pupil Inventory Services? 3. To what extent do they provide Information Ser- vices? 4. Is counseling available to all students? 5. Do the schools have a school-wide testing pro- gram and to what extent are the test results being used for guidance purposes? 6. Do the schools have Placement, Follow—Up and Evaluation Services? The professional literature was reviewed for the purpose of identifying: (1) what professional authors say are the objectives of secondary school guidance programs; (2) theories of guidance and results of research concerning the effectiveness of guidance; and (3) the present status of guidance in South African Black secondary schools. A Likert-type questionnaire with an optional open- ended section, Guidance Services Needs Assessment Survey, was administered to a randomly selected sample of 600 stu- dents. Ten selected secondary schools in the Transvaal 151 Province of the Republic of South Africa participated in the study. Administrators of these schools were interviewed by the researcher regarding the status and efficacy of current guidance practices in their schools. Method of Treatment and Analysis The data on the six hundred answer sheets were transferred onto data processing cards. The cards were grouped and processed at the Michigan State University Com- puter Laboratory. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) program was used to compare the responses given to each item on the questionnaire. A frequency count and a percentage were calculated for each item and for each classification group. In addition, an Analysis of Variance was conducted to compare the responses by geographic location, sex and grade level. A .05 level of confidence was used to indicate the significance of the difference among the means. Content analysis was used to process the data gathered with the open-ended questionnaire from the students and the results of the interviews with the school principals. Limitations and Scope of the Study Before the findings of the study are summarized, it is essential to review briefly the limitations and delimita— tions of the study. 152 l. The study was delimited to Black secondary school students in the Transvaal Province. 2. The study focused only upon the guidance needs of these students and their perceptions of the extent to which their needs were being met. 3. Only ten school administrators were interviewed about the status of guidance services in their schools. 4. Since the study depended primarily on the opin- ions of students and school principals, it is not insulated from the limitations inherent in the use of survey as a research methodology. 5. The researcher was debarred from visiting schools on the Rand. 6. Time and financial constraints dictated the sample size. Summary of Findings The following findings for each of the 16 categories emerged from the analysis of the data. 1. and 2. Understanding the Guidance Program and Finding Jobs and Careers. Most Form 3 students (92.2%) expressed as their strongest need understanding the guidance program whereas the largest number of Form 5 students (93.1%) expressed a need for finding jobs and 153 careers. (All the Form 3 students indicated that this need was not being met. Approximately eighty-nine percent (88.9%) Form 5 students felt this need was not being met.) Selecting Courses and Making Educational Plans Eighty-eight percent (88.1%) Form 3 and approx- imately eighty-one percent (80.7%) Form 5 stu- dents expressed a strong need for help in select- ing courses and making educational plans. (Seventy- four percent (74%) of the respondents felt the need was not being met). Acquiring Decision-Making Skills Approximately eighty-four percent (83.6%) Form 3 and about seventy-eight percent (77.7%) Form 5 students expressed a strong need for acquiring decision-making skills. (Eighty—four percent (84%) of the respondents felt the need was not being met). Making Post—High School Plans About eighty-three percent (83.2%) Form 3 and about seventy-seven percent (76.8%) Form 5 stu- dents expressed a strong need for making post- high school plans. (Approximately eighty-three percent (82.9%) of the respondents felt the need was not being met). 154 Planning Careers Eighty—two and a half percent (82.5%) Form 3 and about seventy-seven percent (76.8%) Form 5 students expressed a strong need for planning careers. (About eighty-one percent (80.7%) of the respondents felt the need was not being met). Assessing Self About eighty-two percent (81.7%) Form 3 and ap— proximately seventy-eight percent (77.7%) Form 5 students expressed a strong need for assessing themselves. (Seventy-seven percent (77.1%) of the respondents felt the need was not being met). Exploring Careers Approximately eighty percent (79.9%) Form 3 and about seventy-nine percent (78.9%) Form 5 students expressed a strong need for exploring careers. About seventy-eight percent (77.8%) of the re- spondents felt the need was not being met. Clarifying Values Seventy-nine and a half percent (79.5%) Form 3 and about seventy-six percent (75.9%) Form 5 students expressed a strong need for clarifying values. (Forty-seven and a half percent (47.5%) of the respondents felt the need was not being met). 10. 11. 12. 13. 155 Understanding Sexual Identity Seventy-six percent (76.1%) Form 3 and seventy- two percent (72.0%) Form 5 students expressed a need for understanding sexual identity. (About thirty-seven percent (36.6%) of the respondents felt the need was not being met). Relating to Others About seventy-five percent (75.4%) Form 3 and approximately seventy-three percent (72.6%) Form 5 students expressed a strong need for re- lating to others. (About eighty-three percent (82.9%) of the respondents felt the need was not being met). Develdping Responsibility for Themselves Seventy—five percent (75%) Form 3 and about seventy- six percent (75.8%) Form 5 students expressed a strong need for developing responsibility for themselves. (Seventy-three percent (73.0%) of the respondents felt the need was not being met). Understanding and Accepting Themselves Seventy-two percent (72%) Form 3 and seventy-one percent (71.1%) Form 5 students expressed a strong need for understanding and accepting them- selves. (Seventy-one and a half percent (71.5%) of the respondents felt the need was not being met). 14. 15. 16. 17. 156 Developing Career Awareness About seventy-two percent (71.6%) Form 3 and sixty-eight percent (68.1%) Form 5 students ex- pressed a need for developing career awareness. (Seventy percent (70.4%) of the respondents felt the need was not being met). Understanding Others Approximately sixty-eight percent (67.9%) Form 3 and sixty and a half percent (60.5%) Form 5 students expressed a strong need for understanding others. (Seventy-four percent (74%) of the re- spondents felt the need was not being met). Being Understood by Others Approximately sixty-seven percent (66.8%) Form 3 and seventy percent (69.7%) Form 5 students expressed a strong need for being understood by others. (About forty-nine percent of the respondents felt the need was not being met). Open-Ended Section of Questionnaire A content analysis of the students' responses to the open-ended section of the questionnaire indicates their concern with politico-educational issues which have a bearing on career guidance services. The students called for: a change of the present educational system, abolition of Apartheid, social justice and equal rights, 18. 19. 157 cancellation of school uniform, free and com- pulsory education, more information about bursar— ies and the different professions and the intro- duction of trained counselors in their schools. School Principals' Perceptions An analysis of the contents of the interviews held with school principals pointed out the in- adequacies of the available guidance services. They all agreed that an organized'program of guidance services should be introduced in their schools. They also highlighted the general lack of a thorough understanding of guidance among their teachers. They all concurred with the students on the question of a need for change of the educational system. Finally, they recom- mended a program of in-service training for their teachers for the purpose of familiarizing them with guidance and how they can become better facilitators of learning. Effects of Geographical Location, Sex and Grade Level. Overall, geographic location, sex and grade level do not seem to have been factors in the expres— sion of needs by Black secondary school students. The students consistently expressed a strong need for career guidance and they were also consistent 158 when indicating the extent to which their guid- ance needs were being and/or not being met. (Tables 4.2 through 4.33). 20. Related Findings An important related finding emerges from an analysis of the demographic data according to type of educational plans. This analysis showed that most secondary school students are college- oriented. About seventy-eight percent (78.1%) of the total sample identified Bachelor's degree as their type of educational plan; four percent (4%) expressed a preference for a professional level degree (Ph.D., M.D., L.L.B., etc.); three and a half percent (3.5%) preferred a two-year college degree; five percent (5%) planned for one or two years of graduate study (M.A., M.B.A., etc); seven percent (7%) chose the response "other", and only two and a half percent (2.5%) expressed an intention to get into a vocational/ technical program. Conclusions The data collected in this study were related to the research questions stated in Chapter 1 and the following con- clusions were drawn: 1. Black secondary school students in the Transvaal Province need career guidance services (Tables 4.2 through 4.17). 159 By and large the students feel that their career guidance needs are not being met by the avail- able guidance services (Tables 4.18 through 4.32). Given the magnitude of the students' perceived needs, the degree to which students feel that these needs are not being met, and the school principals' perception of the status of the guidance services it is concluded that the present guidance services in the Black secondary schools are not adequate (Tables 4.2 through 4.52). These short-comings have also been referred to in the review of literature cited in Chapter 2. More precisely, Black youth are not getting as much help as they feel they need from their schools in the area of career guidance. This study provides evidence which suggests that, although there may be a common set of student needs, their priority for students may shift with changes in age, experience and social trends. For instances, most Form 3 students (Aged 15-17 years) in this study expressed the belief that their strongest need was for understanding the guidance program; whereas most Form 5 students (aged 17—19 years) expressed as their strongest need the need to find jobs and careers (Tables 4.34 and 4.35). 160 5. Black secondary school students in the Transvaal Provinceane politically conscious and this con- sciousness manifested itself in their responses on the open-ended section of the questionnaire (Table 4.36). Their sensitivity to social in- justice suggests an urgent need for fundamental political and educational changes. 6. Existing testing programs are not being used to help Black secondary school students assess and understand themselves, and set realistic career goals (Tables 4.2 and 4.8). 7. The students' responses provide a logical guide- line for prioritizing their needs on the one hand and the school principals' suggestions can serve as an appropriate starting point in our attempt to improve the guidance services on the other hand. 8. Generally, geographic location, sex and grade level were not factors in the students' perception of their guidance needs and the extent to which these needs were not being met (Tables 4.38 through 4.52). Hence, it is concluded that a common comprehensive program of career guidance services seems desirable in the Black secondary schools. Finally, it is recognized that an organized program of career guidance services may not be a panacea for all the 161 ills of today's Black secondary schools. However, it is a practial approach to making educational experiences more relevant to the needs of youth and to relating the school program to what is going on in life. 162 Discussion A general profile that emerges from an analysis of the needs assessment data gathered for this study suggests a strong need for more extensive career guidance services in the Black secondary schools. Students consistently felt their needs were not being met. Whenever a high proportion of students in one group expressed a particular need, a similar high proportion expressed the same need in all other groups regardless of sex, grade or location. This may be because so little of a vocational guidance nature is done in any of the Black secondary schools. Research Question Number One Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they expressed an unmet strong need for understanding and accepting themselves (Tables 4.24 and 4.35). They agreed on how they needed help to understand their abilities, inter- ests, how their feelings affect their behavior to accept and like themselves better and develop self-confidence. With- out self-understanding,self—confidence and self-reliance it seems unlikely that students can arrive at constructive 163 and realistic decisions. Johnson, Busacker and Bowman write: The individual's awareness of his abilities, deficiencies, limitations, interests, and awareness which may bear upon vocational and educational decisions is only a part of his self concept and, indeed, these attributes are to a large degree determined by, or at least within the framework of his total view of self... An individual with an inadequate feeling of personal worth is not in a position to evaluate himself realistically or use information available to him in making appropirate choices or in resolving personal difficulties. ResearchfiQuestion Number Two Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they perceived an unmet strong need for developing responsibility for themselves (Tables 4.34 and 4.35). This may be an indication that the school does not effectively help students to set goals in life. Closely related to the setting of realistic goals is the freedom to state one's views without fear of reprisal. Setting goals also presup- poses freedom of choice which is extensivelyvery limited for Black secondary school students in South Africa. Speaking of the acceptance of responsibility, Super and Overstreet found that ninth—graders tended, on the whole, to accept responsibility for making choices.3 2Johnson, et al. op.cit., pp. 147—148 3Super and Overstreet, op.cit. p.131 164 Research Question Numbers Three and Four Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they expressed unmet strong needs to understand others and to be understood by others. As common parlance has it, "understanding is the best thing in the world" and it is also essential for harmonious relationships among stu- dents, teachers and parents. The ability to listen and re- spond appropriately to others can facilitate understanding. Freire captures the essence of understanding when he says: It so happens that to every understanding sooner or later an action corresponds. Once man perceives a challenge, understands it, and recognizes the possibilities of response, he acts. The nature of that action corres- ponds to the nature of his understanding. Critical understanding leads to critical action; magic understanding to magic re— sponse. 4 Research Question Number Five Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they perceived an unmet strong need for relating to others. In this respect they need help to develop the ability to get along with teachers, fellow students of both sexes and family members. Man is a social being and as such he/she needs to master strategies and means which promote cordial co-existence and mutual respect. As a social being man is constantly involved in interpersonal relationships, '4P. Freire. Education for Critical Consciousness. New York: The Seabury Press, 1973, p.44. 165 which according to Zeran and Wegner must be developed through training and guidance.5 Research Question Number Six Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they put a high priority on the need for value clari- fication. To be able to function effectively in a democratic society, it is absolutely essential that members of that society understand the values that are generally accepted. These include: religious beliefs, love and sex issues, the use/abuse of drugs, tolerance of contrary views, etc. Studies of societies and their cultures also point to the crucial place in cultural processes of values or that which a group strives for. Smith and Linderman write that in a democratic society, moreover, there is insistence that there be wide sharing in those value judgements which affect the general welfare and that the individuals understand and progressively create the ends for which their energy is ex- pended.6 Research Question Number Seven Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they perceived an unmet strong need for assessing 5F.N. Zeran and K.W. Wegner. Guidance: Theory and Practice. New York: American Book Company, 1964, p.8. 6T.V. Smith and E.C. Linderman. The Democratic Way of Life . New American Library, 1951, p.71 166 themselves. Self-assessment is a very crucial dimension of the developmental process. Use is generally made of stand- ardized tests to assess students. However, as Table 4.52 indicates, the test scores are seldom used in the Black secon— dary schools. Indeed, Dovey writes that these tests con- stitute "a form of social bookkeeping, used for statistical and research purposes rather than for guidance and aimed at guiding vocational decisions according to the manpower needs of the country."7 This is a serious indictment against the educational system and a concerted effort has to be made to remedy the anomaly. It is important that test results be interpreted to students so that they can know their strengths and weaknesses, and be used to improve individualized in- struction. Research Question Number Eight Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they perceived an unmet strong need for acquiring decision-making skills. Table 4.9 shows that only .4% of the respondents expressed no need for acquiring decision- making skills. This finding highlights the short—comings of the education the students are receiving. Therefore, it is not surprising that students cannot select courses and make educational plans on their own. It seems absolutely necessary for Black secondary schools to integrate the 7Dovey, op.cit. p.3. 167 teaching of decision-making skills into the curriculum to enable students to become independent, self-reliant and self- directed. Moreover, it should be borne in mind that the guidance function is not to make decisions for pupils, but rather to help them learn how to make realistic decisions on their own. Research Question Number Nine Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they perceived an unmet need for understanding sex- ual identity. Sex, like race, in South Africa affects career choice and one's earning power. However, in view of the changing roles and expectations of men and women, it is im- portant that students should have a thorough understanding of sexual identity. Research Question Number Ten Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they perceived an unmet need for selecting courses and making educational plans (Tables 4.34 and 4.35). These data support the findings of Cloete and 1e Roux's study of freshmen cited in Chapter Two in which 73% of their sample indicated a need for help with choice of subjects.8 The question that immediately comes to mind is: How then, can students be expected to do well in school if 8Cloete and le Roux, op.cit.; p.2 168 they do not receive enough help in selecting courses and making educational plans? Corollary to the selection of courses is the relevance of the courses taken by students to their post-school plans. It is important to keep in mind that the guidance func- tion is neither to steer students into or out of a particular course. But, rather, to provide the pupils, his parents, and anyone else legitimately concerned, with all available relevant information. Research Question Number Eleven Although there is no statistically significant differ— ence among urban, peri-urban and rural secondary school stu- dents in the extent to which they perceived an unmet strong need for making post-high school plans, there seems to be a slight difference between Form 3 and Form 5 students' re- sponses (Tables 4.34 and 4.35). It may be that Form 3 stu- dents do not as yet see the relevance of the subjects they are taking to their career plans if any and/or are not aware of educational alternatives after high school. Super and Overstreet write that education in the 9th grade should be so organized as to make available experiences which foster a planful approach to developmental tasks, to arouse the awareness of the need to make pre-occupational and occupational choices, and to orient adolescents to the 9Johnson et a1. op.cit., p. 186—187. 169 units and sequences of choices which they will be called upon to make and to the factors which they should consider in making these choices.10 Speaking of the pivotal position of career choices of students, Napier states that if stu- dents are left to choose educational programs that are not tenable to them, the results will only be frustration and eventual reallocation of talents into alternative and less appropriate choices, not only in educational program selec- 11 These views em- tion, but also in occupational choices. phasize the importance of helping students in the mammoth task of making post-high school plans. Research Question Number Twelve Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they perceived a strong unmet need for developing career awareness. However, Form 5 students seem to have developed a slightly more career awareness than the Form 3 students. Perhaps this slight difference is due, in part, to the fact that Form 5 students have had more time to think about their future plans in more detail. Nevertheless, it would be much better if all students could be helped to develop career awareness so as to prevent future disappoint— ments and frustrations. 10Super and Overstreet, op.cit. p.158 llNapier, op.cit. p.62. 170 Research Question Number Thirteen Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they perceived an unmet strong need for career exploration. Based on the truism that experience is the best teacher or that the best way of learning is by doing, students should be exposed to the world of work and get on-the-job experience in order to know what it is like to be employed. This experience will widen their perspect- ives and give them some ideas about the reality of their aspirations and career plans. Through a variety of exper- iences in many areas, students gain a more authentic under- standing of their environment and a greater awareness of the various fields of learning open to them. Research Question Number Fourteen Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they perceived an unmet strong need for planning careers. This finding indicates a lack of information about careers, career choices and career preparation. It is in— cumbent upon the schools to collect career information and disseminate it to students. This information can be kept in a file and be put on reserve in the library so that stu- dents can have access to it. A school counselor who is usually in a unique and favorable position to talk to stu- dents about career plans can help the students go through 171 the career information file and identify the ones they might wish to explore further. Career days could also be set aside during which people from different occupations and professions can come to school to talk with students about their different occupations and professions. 'Research Question Number Fifteen Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they perceived an unmet strong need for finding jobs. Tables 4.34 and 4.35 indicate that this need was ranked num- ber one for the senior students (Form 5) and second for the Junior students (Form 3). This difference might be due to the fact that the senior students are more concerned about employment opportunities because they have come to the end of their secondary school career. The junior students on the other hand, still have two years of secondary school and job finding is not as pressing for them as it is for the seniors. It is well to recognize that finding jobs and careers can be a frustrating and harrowing experience for the unin- itiated. Methods and strategies that can be used to alleviate and/or prevent these frustrations include: learning how and where to start looking for a job, knowing how to apply and interview for jobs, learning how to write remmmm, adjusting to supervision and peer relations, and job placement. 172 Commenting on the significance of work, Herr and Cramer say that work has always had the potential of meeting more than the economic needs of man. It also can meet broad social and psychological needs, among which are social in— teraction, a sense of personal dignity, identification and human relationships.12 It seems reasonable to conclude from the above that many individuals have not been assisted to view work as having personal relevance, as being critical to their way of life, or as being a consistent vehicle for self-fulfillment. Concerning career choice for Black secondary school students in South Africa Watts writes: For in a politicized situation, choice of work is likely to be regarded--both by the individuals' peers and by the individual himself--as an important political statement... people frequently express their values through the occupational choices they make... In a very real sense, the most important ' career choice made by high-achieving Soweto youngsters is not the choice between occupa- tions but the choice between three or more fundamental options. The first is to follow the conventional route to individual advance- ment through education and a career, insofar as the opportunity structure permits. This will be seen by some peers, and, therefore, to some extent felt by the individual, to be a form of betrayal, of "joining the whites". The second option is to follow the traditional educational and career routes, but to do so in a way which makes it c1ear—-visibly clear-- that one is doing so in order to make one's developing skills available to one's own people: in a political situation, visible signals are needed to demonstrate this, and it may be 12B.L. Herr and S.H. Cramer. Vocational Guidance and Career Development in the Schools: Toward a Systems Approach Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1972, p.25. 173 difficult to avoid such signals taking a form which will be interpreted by the authorities as political activism, and, therefore, repressed. The third option is to reject the traditional educational and careers system altogether, and to be interested only in alternative forms of education outside the formal system which will be of help to one's own people both in securing social and physical changes, and in establishing a new society once change has taken place. 13 Research Question Number Sixteen Students did not differ significantly in the extent to which they perceived an unmet strong need for understanding the guidance program. A glance at Tables 4.34 and 4.35 re- veals that a higher percentage of Form 3 students (92.2%) than Form 5 students (85.5%) expressed this need. Under- standing the guidance program was ranked number one for jun— iors and second for seniors. A possible explanation for this is that perhaps the senior students realize that their stay in the secondary school is almost over, whereas the junior students still have two years remaining. Since all the students indicated thattmis need is not being met, an attempt should be made to facilitate a thorough understanding of the guidance program by the students. Maybe this should occur in Form 1 so that by the time students get to Form 3 they should be familiar with what the guidance program is all about. 13Watts, op.cit. pp. 20-21. 174 The open-ended section of the questionnaire afforded the students an opportunity to express some of the concerns they felt strongly about. The data presented in Table 4.51 reflects some of the hotly debated issues at the time the study was conducted. It is evident from Table 4.51 that the students' level of political consciousness is quite high and poignant. They came out strongly in favor of a change of the educational system. As a matter of fact, this demand for change has dominated the South African political and educational scenes since the inceptions of Apartheid and Banmi Education in 1948 and 1954 respectively. The popular contention is that separate educational systems cannot be equal and, in fact, it is argued, that Banmx: Education is inherently inferior and irrelevant. Freire characterizes such an educational system as educa- tion for enslavement rather than for liberation. He calls it the "banking concept of education" in which the scope of action allowed to the students extends only so far as re- ceiving and storing the deposits.14 What seems to be needed is a consciousness-raising education which ensures the prac- tice of freedom. The fundamental effort of education is the . . . . 5 liberation of man, and never his domestication.l l4Freire, op.cit. p.58 Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York: The Seabury Press, 1970, p.58. 15P. Freire. Education for Critical Consciousness New York: The Seabury Press, 1974, p 41.. 175 Whilst rejecting the present educational system, the students also expressed a strong need for free and compulsory education. The absence of free and compulsory education is a liability because it deprives the economy of a large pool of the semi-skilled and skilled labor, and professional man-power needed in the rapidly developing economy of the Republic of South Africa. The controversy over compulsory school uniform was quite poig- nant at the time the study was conducted and this is reflected in Table 4.51. The argument against the school uniform is that it is too expensive to buy and to maintain, and most parents cannot afford it with their meagre wages. Moreover, they have to pay school fees and buy books for their children. Above all, there does not seem to be a relationship, whatsoever, between what students learn in school and the type of clothes they wear. Perhaps the Department of Educa- tion should provide the students with uniforms if it is thought im- portant. It also may be an unwise use of limited resources for teachers to spend so much time enforcing compulsory school uniforms regulations instead of using their valuable time and energy helping students learn more. Another important revelation of the study is the extent to which students expressed a need for financial information and aid (Table 4.51). This finding supports the finding of the 1977 Nation- al Institute for Personnel Research which ran an experimental career guidance program for 85 matriculants who had attended classes ran by the 176 Institute of Race Relations. An evaluation of this scheme concluded that the students appreciate the services, but it expressed a sense of helplessness about the lack of bursaries and job openings for even these motivated and academically ambitious students.16 However, as it was pointed out in Chapter Two, there are a few organizations which provide financial aid and yet few students know about them. Administrators' Views It is well to take cognizance of the interest in guidance shown by the school principals. The growth of this interest should be nurtured and encouraged so that more and more pupils throughout the country will receive the type of guidance which will enable them to become well- rounded, well-adjusted and self-actualized individuals. The views expressed by the school principals during the interviews were closely aligned with those of the stu4 dents and the literature regarding the present status of career guidance services in the Black secondary schools. The general feeling was that the present career guidance services are inadequate and do not meet the students' needs. In addition, the school principals were in agreement concerning 16B.A..Shannon "Experiences in Counseling Soweto Matriculants" In Vocational Counseling-—Proceedings of Symposium held on 14th October, 1977. Johannesburg: NIPR, 1977, p. 54-58. 177 the value of guidance services. Despite this concurrence, all the selected schools had not made a conscientious at— tempt to design, implement and maintain an organized pro- gram of guidance services. The school principals tended to validate the students' expressions of need for career guid- ance. Their contention that the present guidance services are inadequate explains why the students' needs are not being met. Educational Plans Finally, an analysis of the demographic data according to type of educational plans discloses a strong bias in favor of college among all students. Even the students who are below average academically think about going to university. However, as Troup points out, less than one percent (1%) of the Black children who start school proceed to university.18 By and large, boys expressed more eagerness about vo— cational and technical careers. The two and half percent (2.5%) that opted for a vocational/technical program consisted of boys only. This could possibly be attributed to the fact that vocational/technical programs are open to boys only. 18Troup, Op. Cit. p. 37 178 Recommendations This being a descriptive study, it sought to answer specific questions. Therefore, it is hoped that data pre- sented in this study will lead other researchers to probe further and to seek additional information related to career guidance needs of students throughout the Transvaal Province educational system. In this sense, this study is only the beginning. The following recommendations are made: 1. That an extensive study be made to determine the feasibility of a large scale comprehensively or- ganized guidance program in the schools. 2. That a study to determine students' needs in other grade levels be made. 3. The Department of Education is urged to critically look at the testing program and to take action that will ensure that test results are interpreted to the students, teachers, and parents. 4. That teachers training institutions and univer- sities offer career guidance training in their curricula for all prospective teachers. 5, That the Department of Education should establish mobile career guidance units which are effective as means of reaching people who would not ordinar- ily have access to such services. These units will enable the guidance program to move its 10. 11. 179 myriad services into the secondary schools. By so doing the shortage of well trained school counselors will be temporarily alleviated. That provision be made for in-service training for teachers who are already in the field to ac- quaint them with modern approaches and methods in guidance and counseling. The concept of “teacher counselor" could be made a reality. That full-time school counselors be trained and employed. Further research is needed to determine needed competencies and characteristics for teachers who will assume the responsibility of guidance in the schools. I That career centers for out—of-school youth be es- tablished at strategic points in the communities. That an organized system of program evaluation be worked out and participated in by all people involved in the guidance services so that change and improvement will become a continuous and vital part of the guidance activities. Finally, supported by the findings in this study a model set of goals and objectives for Black secondary school students in the Transvall Province of the Republic of South Africa is proposed here for consideration, adaptation, and application. It is important that such application be motivated 180 by long—term commitment and support. An implemen- tation of a set of valid goals and objectives can_ lead to a significant improvement in the guidance program. Goals and objectives of career guidance recommended for consideration as suitable for Black secondary schools in the Transvaal Province are as follows: Self-Understanding: 1. To help students develop an understanding and acceptance of self. To assist students become increasingly self- directed and self-disciplined. To help students become more understanding of their aptitudes, abilities, interests, attitudes and limitations. To assist students in developing responsibility for self. To help them develop their special and creative talents. Interpersonal Relationship: 1. To help students develop a better understanding of others. To assist them become more accepting of others. To become more tolerant of people whose views are different: 181 Value Clarification: 1. 2. To aid students in clarifying values. To assist them to understand their religious beliefs. To understand sex—related issues To understand the consequences of dealing with drugs. Decision-Making Skills: 1. To assist students in mastering decision-making skills. To understand the changing roles and expectations of men and women. To learn more about graduation requirements. Career Planning: 1. To aid students in selecting courses and making educational plans. To help students develop career awareness, explor- ation and planning. To assist the individuals develop understanding of, and appreciation for work, the value of the worker, and the role of work and the worker in our society. To help and encourage students to examine the world of work in relation to their interests, aptitudes and values. 5. 6. 182 To help them find jobs and careers. To help them recognize specific behaviors and the socio-economic aspects of the world of work. Development of Responsibility: To set goals for personal growth and development. To encourage students to become contributing members of society. To feel free to express their views and feelings- To protect each student's individuality, his/her right to self-determination, his/her right to be respected and to be self-reliant. Understanding the Guidance Program: 12 2. To orientate students about the guidance program» To help them see the relevance of what they are doing in the classroom and the school situation to what is actually occurring in the world about them. Finding Jobs and Careers: 1. To know more about the job market. To know how and where to start looking for a job To know how to apply and interview for jobs To help students to obtain part-time and/or summer work: APPENDICES APPENDIX A "GUIDANCE SERVICES NEEDS ASSESSMENT SURVEY" 181 3g .0 8.2m“ 3...: 5‘. C. grin“ 323.8 £95 : ‘b3‘ .5...” .988 5.95 «...—h a.“ . ... ...th 02—”? a 2 2.: 1x53! . ‘2‘ é.‘. 3P Egs§amm.s§.§u.mnza O O O O O O .O: _) 5.3.... .. ...).O O._ O O. . FO— tgsae e3 _ .2... castingswm ON c c o o c o c . ...—u: 5.2.22... ...8 n =5 32 .0205». O :8... 39:23 ...: .§§2a.s.tz..ea§....nam .a O O O O O O O F ......afzseg: O _ O O O _ O O O _ o— 2. 2.9.2.. 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