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thesis entitled

A STUDY OF PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY

THE AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AGENTS OF MICHIGAN

STATE UNIVERSITY TO DISSEMINATE NEW FARM TECHNOLOGIES
TO MICHIGAN FARMERS WITH RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.

presented by

HYACINTH IBE DIKE

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

M.A COMMUNICATION

 

degree in

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A STUDY OF PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY THE

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION.AGENTS OF MICHIGAN STATE

UNIVERSITY TO DISSEMINATE NEW FARM TECHNOLOGIES

TO MICHIGAN FARMERS WITH RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS
FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES.

BY

Hyacinth Ibe Dike

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment for the requirement
for the degree of

MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY

DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION

1982

l--. \_/\

 

ABSTRACT
A STUDY OF PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY THE
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AGENTS OF MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

TO DISSEMINATE NEW FARM TECHNOLOGIES TO MICHIGAN FARMERS
WITH RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

BY
Hyacinth Ibe Dike

The present study is to determine some of the factors
agricultural extension agents in Michigan consider for per-
suading farmers to use a new farm practice and the implica—
tions of the findings to developing countries.

Analysis of the result showed that farmers' interest
in a new farm practice and the relative advantage of a new
farm practice are the most important variables for getting
Michigan farmers to try a new farm practice. Agent's trust-
worthiness, open-mindedness and patience are considered more
important than their knowledgeability, flexibility and ability
to like farming. Person to person contact and use of demon-
stration plots are more effective means of persuasion than
newsletter, newspaper, radio and television.

It is suggested that a network analysis to identify
channels of communication existing among agricultural insti-
tutes, agricultural extension agents and farmers be conducted.
Extension agent's self role perception and farmers perceptions

of agent's role and the effect of these on agent performance

should be determined.

To my wife

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his appreciation to Dr. Michael
Burgoon for his assistance and for chairing this disserta-
tion committee. Personal thanks also go to Dr. Larry E.
Sarbaugh for accepting to be a member of my M.A. committee
and for all his assistance. This note of thanks will be
incomplete without my mentioning J. Ray Gillespie, Associate
Director/Programs, Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan
State University for his assistance in introducing me to
agricultural extension agents. To Frank A. Madaski of the
International Unit of Cooperative Extension Service, Michigan
State University, I am grateful for all his assistance.

Finally, to my wife, Mrs. Angelina C. Dike, who was

the cause of my undertaking this project, I am grateful.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER

I.

II.

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF PROBLEM.

Organization of Cooperative Extension

Service in Michigan. . .‘. . . . .
Financing of Cooperative Extension
Service in Michigan. . . . . . .

Agricultural Extension Division and State

Department of Agriculture in Michgian.

Agricultural Extension Service in
Developing Countries . . . . . . .
Need For The Study . . . . . . . .
Purpose Of the Study . . . . . . .
Limitations of the Study . . . . .
Research Questions . . . . . . . .
Research Hypotheses. . . . . . .
Generalizability of the Study. . .
Definition of Terms. . . . . . . .
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . .

REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . .

Definitions of Persuasion. . . . .
Theoretical Basis for Persuasion .
Behaviorist Theories . . . . .
Cognitive Theories . . . . . .
Consistency Theories . . . . .
Implications of Learning Theories
to Persuasion. . . . . . . . . .
Factors That Affect Persuasibility
Individual Belief System . . .
Individual Personality . . . .
Self-Esteem. . . . . . . .
Anxiety Levels . . . . . .
Persuaders Qualities . . . . .
Membership to Social Groups. .

Social Class, Educational Achievement,

Occupation and Income . . .
Persuasive Strategies . . . . . .

Implication of the Review of the Present Study

iv

PAGE

.10
.11
.12
.12
.13
.14
.14
.15

.16

.16
.20
.20
.22
.26

.27
.29
.29
.32
.32
.32
.33
.35

.36
.37
.40

CHAPTER
III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY. . . . . . .

The Population . . . . . . . . .
The Sample . . . . . . . . . .
The Selection of Sample. . . . .
Development of the Questionnaire
Pilot Study. . . . . . . . . .

Administration and Collection of

IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS. . . . . . .

Research Question 1. . . . . . .
Research Question 2. . . . . . .
Research Question 3. . . . . . .
Research Question 4. . . . . . .
General Hypothesis 1 . . . . . .
Operational Hypotheses . . . . .
General Hypothesis 2 . . . . . .
Operational Hypotheses . . . . .
General Hypothesis 3 . . . . . .
Operational Hypotheses . . . . .

Questionnaire

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . .

Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Limitations of the Study . . . .
Major Findings and Conclusions .
Recommendations. . . . . . . . .
Suggestions for Future Research.

Implications of This Research for a

"Developing“ Country . . . . . .

APPENDICES

Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix

P100513,

REFERENCES. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . .

PAGE

42

42
42
42
43
44
45

46

46
48
48
50
53
53
54
54
57
57

59

59
61
62
66
67

68

70
71
73
82
83

84

89

TABLE

1.1

4.1

LIST OF TABLES

Staff of Extension Service Rank & Training. . .

Frequency and Percentage Responses to
Research Question 1 . . . . . . . . .

Frequency and Percentage Responses to
Research Question 2 . . . . . . . . .

Frequency and Percentage Responses to
Research Question 3 . . . . . . . . .

Frequency and Percentage Responses to
Research Question 4 . . . . . . . . .

Statistical Table for Null Hypotheses
Statistical Table for Null Hypotheses

Statistical Table for Null Hypotheses

vi

la and lb
2a and 2b

3a and 3b

PAGE

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.49

.51

.52
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.56

.58

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Inability of many ”developing" countries to produce
enough food for their rapidly increasing population has been
a perennial problem in the world food scene.l Many of these
countries have embarked on food production projects aimed at
solving this food problem. A case in point is Nigeria which
in 1973 launched her "National Accelerated Food Production
Project (presently known as the "Green Revolution")2 aimed
at making that country self sufficient in food production.

Over the past four or five decades, many institutions
in the Pdeveloped" countries have shown tremendous interest
in helping to produce more food for the "developing" countries.
In 0.8. for instance, the Midwest Universities Consortium
for International Activities, is one such institution whose
members have developed new farm technologies for use in the
"developing" countries.3

Another group of workers have devoted their attention
to determining how these new farm techniques can be adopted
by their clients. This has led to many adoption models and
to a determination of the characteristics of individuals in

an adoption model continuum (Rogers and Shoemaker, 1971;4

6

Zaltman and Duncan, 1977;5 Huse, 1975. )

1

2
Despite all these innovative farm technologies and the
various "innovation-decision" models, food shortage still per-
sists in many "developing" countries. Among the many factors
that could be the root cause of this persistent food shortage
is the lack of knowledge of persuasive strategies and the ap-
plication of these persuasive strategies by agricultural exten-
sion agents in "developing" countries for getting their farmers

to adopt new farm practices. Different authors have provided

 

differing definitions of persuasion (7,8,9,10). As is used

in this study, persuasion refers to an interactive exchange
between a source and a receiver in which the source obtains
data from the receiver which is used to manipulate the beliefs,
attitudes and behavior of the receiver in a manner predeter-

mined by the source.

 

Persuasive strategy is not the only strategy that can
be used for an innovation-decision process. Others are "re-
educational", "facilitative" and "power" strategies.ll How—
ever, thisstudy takes the View suggested by Zaltman and Duncan
(1977)12 that all messages transmitted from a sOurce to a re-
ceiverare persuasive in nature. This buttresses the importance
of persuasive strategy in any innovation-decision process. It
is the contention of this study that new farm technologies have
failed to be adopted by farmers from "developing" countries
because of inadequate knowledge and application of effective

persuasive strategies for their implementation by their agri-

cultural extension agents.

3

Food shortage was once considered a problem in U.S.
Today, U.S. exports food to many "developing" countries of
the world to help them combat their food shortage problem.
One way in which U.S. solved her food problem was through
the establishment of Land Grant Colleges of which Michigan
State University was a pioneer. The Federal Smith-Lever Act
of 1914 established the Cooperative ExtensionEService directed
by these Land Grant Colleges and provided them with funds to
"aid in diffusing among the people of the United States useful
and practical information on subjects relating to Agriculture
and Home Economics and to encourage the application of the
same."13 Cooperative Extension Service is therefore a means
of bringing to fruition the philosophy of the Land Grant Col—
leges which is "education to meet the needs of the people".14

The agricultural and natural resources industries in
the State of Michigan are said to have "taken a quantum leap
forward during the past year and remains one of the stabilizing

15'

industries" in the State's economy. "The growth rate for

Michigan's agriculture was 15 percent in 1980 and it contri-
buted $16.3 billion to the State's economy".16
The good performance of the agricultural and natural
resources industries in the State of Michigan has been attri-
buted in part to the establishment of the Agricultural Exper—
imental Station and the Cooperative Extension Service. In a
report presented by Michigan State University to the Senate and

House of Representatives of the State of Michigan it is stated

that:

4

The joint efforts of scientific investigation

by the Agricultural Experimental station and

dissemination of the practical information from

that research by the Cooperative Extension Ser-

vice have increased productivity in the State

and improved the quality of life. 17

It is the assumption of this study that the Coopera—
tive Extension Service has been successful because she uses
effective persuasive strategies to disseminate new farm tech-
nologies to her farmers. It is on the basis of this assump-
tion that this study is being conducted to determine these
persuasive strategies. It is hoped that such strategies can
be adapted for conducting comparative studies in developing

countries and developing a program for training agriculture

extension agents.

ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE IN MICHIGAN

The Cooperative Extension Service is one of the three
divisions in the College of Agriculture and Natural Resources
at Michigan State University charged among others with the duty
of educating Michigan farmers on how to apply new farm tech-
nologies. The other two divisions are the various departments
in the College involved in teaching and the Agriculture Ex-
perimental Stations involved in research. The interactions
of the agricultural unit of Cooperative Extension Service
with farmers and with the Experimental Stations help to gen-
erate new farm technologies which are passed back to farmers.
The agricultural unit of the Cooperative Extension Service

therefore serves as a resource linker between Michigan farmers

 

5
and specialists involved in research. It does not postulate
to be a solution giver but rather provides an unbiased in-
formation to farmers on the best ways to solve their problems.

The Cooperative Extension Service has an Assistant
Dean College of Agriculture as its director. There are two
associate directors, one for programs and the other for ad-
ministration18 (Appendix E). The Associate Director for Ad-
ministration is in charge of hiring, evaluating, promoting
and transfer of personnel in the service as well as preparing
reports to supporting agencies. There are four assistant
program directors namely, the directors for Agriculture and
Marketing, Natural Resources and Public Policy, Family Living,
and 4—H Youth programs.

The State of Michigan is divided into six regions and
each region has a regional supervisor. There are eighy-three
counties in the State of Michigan and 81 County extension
directors. These County extension directors and their exten-
sion agents form-the direct link with the various clients in
the four program areas.

Each county has boards of commissioners representing
various programs. The county extension director works with
these boards or their committees. In the case of agriculture
and marketing sector of the Cooperative Extension Service, the
board of commissioners or their committees serve as "bridges"
between farmers, county extension staff, Cooperative Extension
Service and Agriculture Experimental Stations. Farmers pro-

vide inputs for these committees. These inputs lead to the

6
development or adaptation of technologies as well as educa-
tional programs. The committees also recommend adequate
county appropriation for extension works and may work with
boards and committees across county lines to finance area
projects.

In addition to these boards and committees, the county
extension agents also work with over 35,000 volunteer leaders
whose assistance help to produce the “multiplier effect" that
has led to effective dissemination of information.

Other program areas in the Cooperative extension ser—
vice are:

1. The international extension unit which trains ex-
tension agents for overseas duties and serves as a "liaison"
between foreign visitors and agricultural establishments in
Michigan.

2% The Management information unit which maintains
lthe extension management information system, processes plans
of work and reports budget and personnel data.

3. The Information Service unit which produces news
releases, newsletters, extension bulletins, radio and tele-
vision shows and films.

4. Management Services which maintain a computerized
accounting system for budget and personnel management for
Cooperative Extension Service and the College.

5. The Agriculture and Natural Resources Education
Institute which "coordinates the development of professional

improvement programs and offers in—service training in

7
communication, management and subject—matter areas related

to the roles and responsibilities of extension staff members."19

FINANCING OF COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE IN MICHIGAN

The term ”cooperative" in Cooperative Extension Ser-
vice reflects the joint financing by the federal, state and
county governments. Under provision of the federal act, 4
percent of the federal appropriation is allocated to the fed—
eral extension service for administration. The remainder is
appropriated as follows:

1. 20 percent to states in equal proportion.

2. 20 percent to states in the proportion that the
rural population of each bears to the total rural population
of U.S.

3. The balance to each state in the proportion that
the farm population of each bears to the total farm popula-
tion as determined by the U.S. census.

The State of Michigan as well as county governments

also make appropriations to support extension service.20

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION DIVISION AND STATE DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE IN MICHIGAN

 

 

The Agricultural and Marketing unit of the Cooperative
Extension Service has the sole responsibility of educating
farmers on the application of new farm technologies. Even
though it works cooperatively with the State Department of

Agriculture, it does not belong to that Department. The

8
Department of Agriculture on the other hand is involved in
such other activities as credit, standards and quality con-
trol, etc. This separation of the educational functions
from those of control and supervision provides the agricul-
tural extension agents the neutrality they need to be an ob-

jective provider of information to farmers.

AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

 

Agricultural Extension Service in developing countries
belongs to the Ministry of Agriculture. This is unlike what
obtains in U.S. Thus the extension service combines the
functions of education with those of control and supervision.

In a country like Nigeria for instance, which has 19
states, each state has a Ministry of Agriculture. A federal
Ministry of Agriculture enunciates government policies and
coordinates the execution of these policies as they relate
to agriculture.

Each state is divided into divisions. A divisional
agricultural extension officer is in charge of all extension
activities in a division. Each division is divided into
Local Government Authority areas to which at least one ex-
tension agent is posted. Not all extension agents are gradu-
ates. The following listing shows the rank and type of train-
ing of extension staff. (Table 1.1).

The divisional officer may be a Principal or Senior

Agricultural Officer while the Local Government extension

TABLE 1.1 STAFF OF EXTENSION SERVICE BY RANK AND TRAINING

RANK TRAINING

Principal Agric. Off:

Sen. Agric. Off.

Agric. Res. Off. Graduate of a University
Agric. Advisor

Agric. Off.

Agric. Supt.

Secondary school diploma and
2 years diploma from Agric.

Asst. Agric. Supt.

.“..-..__ _(—-—-—. ‘—,

Sen. Agric. Asst. School

Agric. Asst. Secondary school diploma and
one year diploma from Agric.
School.

Agric. Demonstrator) Primary school diploma. 6

1 months course in school of
Agric. Overseer ‘ agric.

"d

10

officer may be an officer ranging in rank from Agricultural
Superintendent to Agricultural Assistant.

All requests for supplies and services from an exten-
sion agent are channeled through the divisional officer to
the Chief Inspector of Agriculture in the Ministry who in
turn consults specialist staff in the Ministry. Extension
agents therefore combine the dual functions of training and
supervision.

The bulk of extension agents are primary and secondary
school graduates. It is therefore assumed that they may not
have the expertise to be effective persuaders. It is hoped
the results of this study will provide data that can be used

to improve their expertise in persuasion.

NEED FOR THE STUDY

 

Several survey studies by the Food Agricultural Or-
ganization (FAO) have shown that:

...some 20% of the people in the under de-
veloped areas are undernourished and 60%

are malnourished. Experience shows that

the majority of the undernourished are also
malnourished. It is believed therefore....
some 60% of the people in the under developed
areas comprising some two—thirds of the world's
population suffer from undernourishment or
malnourishment or both. 21

Many reasons have been adduced to account for this

persistent food shortage.22 One such reason is "inadequate

training of extension personnel"?3 Extension workers ought

to be taught how to be good persuasive strategists. This is

11
because by knowning the various skills to use under varying
client conditions, they will be better able to get their new
ideas across to their clients.

Food shortage was a problem in U.S. at the beginning
of this century. Presently, the U.S. exports food to many
developing countries of the world to help them combat their
food problem.

Several studies have attributed U.S. self sufficiency
in food production to the efficiency of her Cooperative Exten-
sion Service established to help disseminate new farm techno-
logies to farmers. It is the assumption of this study that
these extension agents are successful because of their ability
to effectively apply persuasive strategies in trying to get
new farm technologies adopted by their clients.

The purpose of this study therefore is four-fold:

 

1. It will determine the various types of farmer char—
acteristics considered by the agricultural extension agents in
Michigan to get new farm technologies adopted by Michigan farmers.

2. It will determine some persuasive strategies agri—
cultural extension agents use to persuade Michigan farmers to
adopt a new farm technology.

3. It will determine characteristics of an agricultur-
al extension agent considered essential in getting new farm
technologies adopted by Michigan farmers.

4. It will determine the types of medium agricultural
extension agents in Michigan have found effective for getting

new farm technologies adopted by Michigan farmers.

12

Limitations of the Study

 

The following limitations influenced the course of this

study.

Because of time and cost constraints, only a
selected sample of Agricultural extension agents
was used for this study.

The method of collecting data was limited to ques—
tionnaire only.

The study did not attempt to analyze the content

of messages used by agricultural extension agents
in Michigan to persuade farmers to adopt a new farm
technology.

This is an exploratory study designed to find out
farmer characteristics, agent characteristics and
types of media used by agricultural extension agents

in Michigan.

Research Questions

 

Data collected in this study were used to answer the

following research questions:

1.

What characteristics of Michigan farmers should an
agricultural extension agent consider to effectively
persuade them to adopt a new farm technology?

What persuasive techniques do agricultural extension
agents in Michigan use to get a new farm technology
adopted?

What characteristics of an agricultural extension

agent are needed for being an effective persuader?

13

4. What various types of media have agricultural ex—
tension agents in Michigan found effective for per-

suading farmers to use a new farm technology?

Research Hypotheses

 

oThe following null hypotheses derived from the above
research questions were tested at alpha .05 level of signifi-
cance.

1. Agricultural extension agents in Michigan have not
found any type of persuasive strategy effective in
persuading farmers to adopt a new technology.

l.a There is no relationship between the education of
an agricultural extension agent in Michigan and the
type of persuasive strategies used.

l.b.There is no relationship between the level of ex-
perience of an agricultural extension agent in
Michigan and the type of persuasive strategies used.

2. Agricultural extension agents in Michigan do not
consider any agent characteristics essential for
being an effective persuader.

2.a.There is no relationship between the education of
an agricultural extension agent in Michigan and
perceived agent characteristics for being an ef—

fective persuader.

l4

2.b. There is no relationship between the level of
experience of an agricultural extension agent
in Michigan and perceived agent characteristics
for being an effective persuader.
3. Agricultural extension agents in Michigan have
not found any particular means of communication
more effective than others.
3.a. There is no relationship between the education
of an agricultural extension agent in Michigan
and the type of media used for persuading Michigan
farmers.
3.b. There is no relationship between the level of ex-
perience of agricultural extension agent in Michi-
gan and the type of media used for persuading

Michigan farmers.

Generalizability of the Study

 

The findings of this study will only be generalized

to Agricultural extension workers in Michigan.

Definition of Terms

"Developing" Country. Any country in the world whose

 

people lack the technology to exploit and process resources
in their environments for improving the quality of their lives.
Rather they export their raw materials elsewhere and consume

the finished products arising therefrom.

15

New Farm Technology Any method Of farming different

 

from what already exists that is capable of leading to im-
proved farm productivity.

Agricultural Extension Agent. A trained agriculturist
who serves as a bridge between farmers and agricultural ex-
perimental/research stations and who helps farmers to become
aware of and utilize effectively new farm techniques and pro—
' vide feedback from farmers to the agricultural stations. An
extension worker strives to ensure that farmers eventually be-
come self reliant and can use their initiative and training

to embark upon new projects for improved farm production.

Overview:

The following format is adopted for this study. Chapter
One covers the introduction and statement of the problem, the
purpose of the study, the need for the study, limitations of
the study, research questions and research hypotheses, general-
izability of the study and definition of terms.

Chapter Two reviews literature pertinent to this study.
In Chapter Three the procedures and methodology for the study
are presented. Analysis of data is presented in Chapter Four.
Chapter Five discusses the Summary, Conclusions and Recommen-

dations made on the basis of the findings from this study.

CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This review is organized into four sections. Section
A analyzes the various definitions of persuasion to identify
their common elements. Section B focuses on the theoritical
underpinnings of persuasion. Section C considers factors nec-
essary for persuasion while Section D concentrates on per-

suasive strategies used during a persuasive communication.

A. Definitions of Persuasion

 

Several definitions of persuasion appear in the liter-
ature. Bettinghaus (1968) for instance, regards persuasion
as a form of communication involving:

A conscious attempt by one individual to

change the attitudes, beliefs or the be-

haviour of another individual or group of

individuals through the transmission
of some message. 24

According to Zaltman and Duncan (1973), persuasive strategies
are:

strategies which attempt to bring about

change partly through bias in the manner

in which a message is structured and pre-

sented. 25
Scheider (1967) points out certain distinct factors essential

for communication to be regarded as persuasive. These are

16

17

choice, communication, influence, etc. According to him,
persuasive speaking is:

that activity in which speaker and listener

are cojoined and in which the speaker con-

sciously attempts to influence the behavior

of the listener by transmitting audible

and visible symbolic cues. 26

Scheider's definition of persuasion represents the
"two-way" model which is distinct from the "one—way" model.
In the "one-way" model, the persuadee is depicted as a pas—
sive individual in a persuasive encounter. The "two-way"
model on the other hand, operates at two levels. At the
first level, persuasion is conceived as an interactive ex—
change between a source and a receiver in which the source
obtains data from the receiver used to manipulate the beliefs,
attitudes and behavior of the receiver. At the second level,
both the source and the receiver make some compromises in a
persuasive encounter. This may be possible because both the
source and the receiver have equal power base prior to enter—
ing into the persuasive encounter. Bettinghaus (1968) has
provided illustration of the "two—way" model of persuasion.27

Miller and Burgoon (1973) have presented a comparative
analysis of the definitions of persuasion.28 They are of the
opinion that the only way to infer that persuasion is effective
is through a change in behavior manifested by the persuadee.
According to them:

whether the influence attempt aims at changes

in attitudes motives, values or behavior is

regarded here as relatively unimportant, perhaps

a pseudoproblem.... All the persuader ever

has available to gauge his relative success or
failure is the behavior of the intended persuadee. 29

18

In as much as the above contention is true, it does not negate
the importance of attitudes, motives, values and beliefs in
a study of persuasion. In fact, Hovland and Janis (1959)
regard attitude change as a precursor for effective persuasion.
According to them, attitude change leads to opinion change,
30

perception change, affect change and action change.

Relying only on external manifestation of behavior as
a sign of success or failure of a persuasive message has
its shortcomings when considered in the light of Keisler's
(1969) work on "conformity". Keisler defines "conformity"
as

a change in behavior or belief toward a

group as a result of real or imagined

group pressure.3l
Keisler identified two aspects of "conformity" namely "com-
pliance" and "private acceptance". "Compliance" refers to
overt behavior which becomes more like the behavior a group
wishes its members to show. According to Keisler:

when we speak of "compliance" only, we mean

that the person is behaving as the group wants

him to behave but does not really believe in

what he is doing, that is, he is going along

with the group without privately agreeing with

the group. 32

"Private acceptance" on the other hand implies a change
in attitude or belief in the direction of group attitudes
and beliefs. In this regard, the individual not only acts

as the group wishes, but changes his opinions so that he be-

lieves as the group believes. According to Keisler:

19

the person who believes in what he does will

.probably persist in his behavior long after

the group has stopped monitoring his be-

havior. 33

For persuasion to be lasting therefore, overt behavior
must be accompanied by a change in beliefs, attitudes, etc.
in the direction predetermined by the persuader using data
obtained from the persuadee.

It must, however, be pointed out that the aim of some
persuasive messages may be to obtain change in overt behavior
of the persuadee. Such a change in overt behavior may serve
to increase the level of awareness of the persuadee to the
project thereby creating a favourable climate for change in
attitude and beliefs through more concerted efforts on the
part of the persuader.

Agricultural extension workers attempt to change the
behaviors of their clients. For such a change in behavior
to have a lasting effect, it must be accompanied by a change
in beliefs and attitudes favourable to the change. Only in
this way can the change be expected to persist long after
the pressure from the extension worker is withdrawn. As is
used in this study therefore, persuasion is an interactive
exchange between a source and a receiver in which the source
obtains data from the receiver which is used to manipulate

the beliefs, attitudes and overt behavior of the persuadee in

aamanner predetermined by the persuader.

20

B. Theoretical Basis For Persuasion

To understand what happens during a persuasive en-
counter, a knowledge of how individuals acquire new ideas
about the world around them is pertinent. Individuals per-
ceive the world around them as a result of interaction be-
tween their genetic composition and factors in their environ-
ment.34' 35

One way in which this interaction is fostered is through
learning in and out of schools. During such learning process,
an individual's frame of reference is broadened through ex-
posure to activities arranged either by himself or other in-
structors in his environment. Considered in its true per-
spective therefore, the instructor is a persuader who tries
to change or modify the behavior, beliefs and attitudes of
his client in a desired direction. It would therefore appear
appropriate to consider some learning theories and principles
for their suitability to a persuasive situation.

Two major schools of learning theorists—~the behaviorists
and the cognitives have tried to explain how individuals ac-

quire new information into their frame of reference.

Behaviorist Theories

 

The behaviorists believe that learning takes place fol-
lowing a presentation of stimuli to which an individual re-
sponds. According to the "operant" or "instrumental" (a sub-
school of the behaviorists) theory of learning, "behavior is

36 ,
a function of its consequences". Th1s means that an

21

individual's response to a stimulus will reinforce the orig-
inal behavior (stimulus) that triggered it off. Under the
"operant" learning situation, it might take several trials
before the right response is emitted but once this is done,

it reinforces the original stimulus. It is through such
interaction of stimulus-response that individuals perceive
things in their environments and form their frame of reference.
Many studies have shown that such perceptions are culturally

37 38 . . . . .
' This means that the meaning an 1nd1v1dual

determined.
attaches to a social object or event is his environment will
be different from the meaning another individual will attach
to the same social object or event.

Rather than waiting until an individual emits the right
response, that individual can be guided into producing the
right response. This is the basis for the "classical or re—
spondent conditioning" (another sub school of the behavior-
ist) theory of learning. According to Yelon (1976), respon—
dent or classical conditioning involves:

association of two classes of stimuli one

which does not produce a respondent be-

havior and one which does in order to get

the former to elicit the same respondent

action as the latter.39

Both the "operant" and the "respondent" theories are

. . . 40 . .
essential in a persua51ve commun1cat1on. A good illustration

of the application of the "operant" theory is when a Zoological

22

association of a university solicits for money from her
alumni and follows this up with a letter of thanks to those
who donate. For "respondent" conditioning, a situation in
which a teacher gets a student to like History by associating
history with something that produces "pleasant feeling“ for
the student is a good illustration.

One of the principal proponents of the behaviorists
theory is Skinner4 who in his principle of "successive ap-
proximation" proposed that by breaking down any learning en-
counter into small units and reinforcing each successful unit,
it is possible to achieve the overall objectives of the
learning encounter. This has given rise to different "schedules
of reinforcement" (Yelon, 1976) t for rewarding individuals
for successive approximations towards a desired behavior.

The implications of "successive approximation" prin-
ciple to persuasion has been illustrated by Bettinghaus, 1968.
A producer who designs his messages so that the "first message
merely tries to attract interest in the product, the second

asks for favourable attitude...." is employing this principle

of successive approximation to sell his products.

Cognitive Theories
It is not all psychologists that support the "mechan—
istic" view of learning as presented by the behaviorists. One

group that views learning differently are the cognitive

23

psychologists. The cognitivesbelieve that the "internal
state" of an individual is an essential consideration in
assessing any learning encounter. They contend that in-
structional principles must take account of the internal
cognitive changes which occur during learning.44 Presented
with a novel learning event, the individual first "reorgan—
izes" the information he already possesses before coming up
with a solution to the problem. Individuals are said to
possess "chunks" of knowledge or ”list structures" which
they "reorganize using various short cut techniques."45

Among the leading contributors to cognitive psychology
have been the Gestalt psychologists (Wertheimer, 1944; Kohler,
1925; Koffka, 1935). Their principal tenet is that the whole
is greater than the sum of its parts. The whole has its own
quality which is a commulation of the qualities of its parts.
However, this quality of the whole is unique and distinct
from the properties of its elements. According to Wertheimer
(1944), the founder of Gestalt psychology:

there are contexts in which what is happening

in the whole cannot be deduced from the char-

acteristics of the separate pieces, but con-

versely, what happens to a part of the whole

is, in clear-cut cases, determined by the laws

of the inner structure of its whole. 46

Primarily interested in perception and only secondar-
ily interested in learning, the Gestalts presented a guiding
principle (the law of Pragnaz) and four laws of organization
subordinate to it (the law of similarity, proximity, closure
and good continuatibn) for explaining the relationship between

parts and their whole in any perceptual phenomenon. 47

24

The law of Pragnaz suggests that psychological organ-
izations always tend to move towards a state of "good" gestalt
depending on the prevailing conditions in the environment.
Because of the dynamic nature of elements in the ”field”,
the concept of equilibrium becomes essential in attaining
this state of the "good" gestalt. Thus just as the concept
of "steady state" in systems theory is made possible as a
result of interaction of system variables through permeable
"boundaries" so is this state of the "good" gestalt.

The other laws of organization attempt to amplify on
this guiding principle of Pragnaz. For instance, the law of
similarity states that items which are similar (in color or
form) or that have similar transitions (i.e. have similar in-
tervening steps) tend to form groups in perception. The law
of proximity states that "perceptual groups are favored ac—
cording to the nearness of the parts". Thus if several par—
allel lines are evenly spaced on a page, those nearest together
will tend to form groups against the background of empty
space.48

The relationship between these perceptual laws of or-
ganization and learning is not hard to determine. To Kohler
(1959),49 learning is initiated by the "discovery of the cor-
rect responses in the first place. This initial discovery
depends on the structuring of the field as it is open to the
learner. The ease or difficulty of the problem is largely a

II
matter of perception. Using his experiments with apes, Kohler

25

showed that the ability of apes to solve the task presented
to them was dependent on their ability to literally see the
situation correctly in the first place. Being able to do so
meant they had "insight" into the problem. Kohler's studies
showed that apes could obtain rewards without going through
the laborious processes of "stamping out incorrect responses
and stamping in correct ones". It showed that apes could
turn away from the end of activity towards a means to the end.

Kohler's experiments on "insightful" learning using
apes was an expatiation of Wertheimer's work on "productive
thinking" which was independently confirmed by the works of
Yerkes (1916).50 His application of "past experiences" to
explain learning differs from those presented by the behavior-
ists. The behaviorists application presupposes the "past
experience guarantees the solution of a problem, no matter
how the problem is presented". The "insight" point of view
is that past experience makes it possible to determine the
"components of a problem" and "their natural relations" which
makes a "sensible solution" a possibility. Thus:

with sufficient past experience, some prob-

lems are more difficult than othersowing

to their display or structural features.

Some learners can, to be sure, solve the

more difficult problems because of exper-

ience with the particular kind of display,

others because they are better able to

generalize and not be misled by the display.51

Kohler's postulations about "insightful" learning

were warmly received by educators in 0.3. who were becoming

26
disenchanted with the "mechanistic" views of education as
provided by the behaviorists. Such educators like Dewey
(1938) found Koehler's "insightful" learning very supportive

of their own learning propositions.

Consistency Theories

The cognitive theories of learning have given rise
to another group of psychologists who are interested in
finding out how individuals maintain their internal "balance"
or "consistency" when presented with contradictory informa—
tion. Heider (1946) was the first person to consider an in-
dividual's cognitive organization in terms of a tendency to
prefer a balanced cognitive system. Other workers who have
looked at variations of Heider's "balance" theory are New~
comb (1953), Osgood and Tannenbaum (1955), Rosenberg (1956),
and Festinger (1957).

Osgood and Tannenbaum were interested in a situation
in which they can measure the changes that occur if an in-
congruent cognitive structure occurs. In contrast to Heider's
classification of attitudes as positive or negative, favor-
able or unfavorable, Osgood and Tannenbaum classified attitudes
into 7 degrees ranging from -3 to +3.

The theory of cognitive balance is crucial to persua—
sive communication. Earlier we discussed how individuals
attach meanings to the "social objects and events" they en-

counter in their environments thereby broadening their frame

27

of reference. Much of persuasive communication is to in-

duce a persuadee to accept new information which may or may
not be contrary to the ones originally held. "Consistency"
theories therefore help us to understand how a persuadee

tries to maintain his "balance” when presented with such
contradictory or non-contradictory information. Such a know-
ledge assists us in designing a message that may have a chance

of success with the persuadee.

IMPLICATIONS OF LEARNING THEORIES TO PERSUASION

 

Learning can be conceptualized as an organized and
interactive process through which a society inculcates and
perpetuates its values among its members. From the above
definition, the relationship between learning and persuasion
becomes apparent for persuasion is one of the techniques
that can be used in this acquisition and modification of in-
dividual behaviors in any society. According to Bettinghaus
(1968), the "one way" model of persuasion "paid relatively
little attention to learning as a vital part of the persuasive
process". However, "an interactional, "two-way" view of com-
munication cannot ignore learning".52 The following are
some principles derived from learning theories that can serve
as good "rule of thumb" for developing persuasive strategies.

1. Active participation of a persuadee in a persua—

sive encounter is better than passive participation. This

principle is based on the understanding that individuals

28

learn more when they are doing something related to the acti-
vity in which they are involved. Such persuasive techniques

as anchoring, committment, role playing and counter attitudinal
advocacy rely on this principle for their fulfillment.

2. In addition to active participation, providing a
persuadee with feedback or knowledge of results is beneficial
in persuasive encounter. Letting a persuadee know how he is
performing not only helps to improve his responses but also
"helps to strengthen his frame of reference". A persuadee
may not have developed a fixed point of view with regard to
a topic. Providing additional information helps to strengthen
a frame of reference.

A 3. The more meaningful a persuasive message is to an
audience the better are its chances of acceptance. Mere
telling a persuadee to do something without providing him
with what Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) term "how-to knowledge"
and "principle knowledge" will not lead to effective persua-
sion.

4. Breaking a complex message into small manageable
units leads to a better understanding of the message. If a
small unit of this complex information is mastered, it will
help to strengthen the frame of reference so that the next
phase will be received more favorably.

5. Individuals differ in what motivates them.

6. Different reward factors provide satisfaction to

different individuals under varying conditions.

29

7. Individuals have an inner drive towards organ-
ization of inputs and experience into coherent, integrated
concepts. This principle is derived from the gestalt law
of Pregnaz. Its implication for preparing a persuasive
message is to structure the messages so that they serve
as a guide to internal attempts at organization. It also
enjoins a persuader to ensure that "disorienting factors"

are eliminated from a persuasive encounter.

.Factors That Affect Persuasibility

 

We have seen how an individual acquires new infor-
mation into his frame of reference and maintains "balance"
when confronted with contradictory information. There are
certain individual factors that have been found essential
in understanding how individuals respond in a persuasive

situation.

1. Individual Belief System

 

An individual's frame of reference can be regarded
as the sum total of meanings which he attaches to "social
objects and events" in his environment. An individual's
beliefs on the other hand, depict the perceived relationship
existing among these objects and events. According to

Bettinghaus:

whenever an individual professes to see some
relationship between two events or objects or
people or between some events and characteristics
of the event we say he holds a belief. S3

30
The entire relationship an individual "sees” among all
"social objects and events" constitute his belief system.

There are two parts to one's belief system--the central
belief system and the peripheral system. There are two layers
within the central belief system. The first is the "primi-
tive" beliefs or beliefs in which there is complete consen-
sus within the society as to its veracity. An example of
suCh "primitive" belief is one's belief in a supreme being.
At the second layer are beliefs about "authority" which may
be negative or positive. If our belief about authority is
positive, we tend to "place faith in statements" emanating
from such scores. On the other hand, if we hold a negative
belief towards an authority we tend to view with distrust
statements emanating from such authority figures. According
to Bettinghaus:

Our beliefs about authority are firmly held.

They shift slowly over time, but changing an

authority belief is difficult. They are be—

liefs less firmly held than primitive beliefs

but they help govern to whom we will listen

and whom we will respect. 54
Understanding individual's belief structures have the fol-
lowing implications for persuasive communication.

1. Individuals are more resistant to change in their
central beliefs than they are to change in their peripheral
beliefs.

2. Changes in the central belief are accompanied by

more widespread changes in the remainder of the individual's

belief structure.

31

Since one's frame of reference is the sum total of

meanings attached to social objects and events in an environ—

ment, the following are some implications of frame of refer-

ence to persuasive communication.

1.

If a frame of reference is "extensive and relatively
complete", much more effort is needed by a per-
suader to get a new contradictory idea accepted.

If a frame of reference is "extensive.and relatively
complete" a new non contradictory idea helps to
reinforce the frame.

If a frame of reference is "sketchy and incomplete",
a new contradictory idea does not help to reduce
entropy in the frame.

If a frame of reference is "sketchy and incomplete,"
a new non contradcitory idea leads to negative

entropy.

From the above, it is apparent that a prerequisite for

effective persuasive communication is understanding a client's

belief structure and frame of reference before presenting him

with a persuasive message. It must be stressed that presen-

ting a message that is contradictory to a frame of reference

requires more effort on the part of the communicator. According

to Bettinghaus, the communicator:

has to continue communicating until enough
information has been added to force changes
in the receiver's attitude structure. 55

32

2. Individual Personality

Personality has been defined as the ”consequences of
possessing certain belief structure". 56 There are certain
factors which are known to influence one's personality.
These are: self esteem, anxiety, authoritarianism, open

and closed mindedness, etc.

a. Self-Esteem

 

An individual can have a high regard of himself. Such
an individual is said to be confident, competent and optimis-
tic. On the other hand, an individual with low esteem of
himself is less sure of himself. It can therefore be said
that an individual with a low esteem of himself will be more
susceptible to persuasive messages than an individual that

57

has a high esteem of himself.

b. Anxiety Levels

 

Another personality factor that influences an individ—
ual's persuasibility is his anxiety level. Individuals ex-
hibit two types of anxiety levels--the neurotic anxiety level
and the normal anxiety level. Neurotic anxiety level is
characterized "by feelings of apprehension, uncertainty and

58

panic in daily encounters with situations and events."‘ Ac-

cording to Bettinghaus:
the individual with high neurotic anxiety is
less persuasible than the individual who does
not become highly defensible about his relation-
ship with the world. 59
Normal anxiety is more common in our day to day life.

It is Characterized by ”a reaction of mild apprehension and

33

uncertainty about a particular goal or situation”. This
reaction is often accompanied by attempts to reduce doubt or
uncertainty. Thus according to Bettinghaus, "an increase
in normal anxiety may lead to an increase in the individual's
general readiness to respond to communication."60 It should
be pointed out, however, that if the strength of this normal
anxiety approaches the neurotic:level,its susceptibility to
persuasion diminishes since an individual will now be pre—
occupied with how to reduce the anxiety level.6

The other factors such as open mindedness, authoritar-
ianism and need achievement that are known to affect an in-
dividual's persuasibility have been explicated by Bettinghaus,62

63
Bradley.

3. Persuader's Qualities

 

Persuader's qualities that may enhance his persuasi-
bility have commonly been discussed under the term "ethos".
Ethos is the image of the speaker held by a particular lis-
tener. Aristotle is said to be of the opinion that "it is
the most potent of all means of persuasion".(54 Bradley (1974)
points out that "ethos exist not in the speaker but in the
eyes of the beholder."65 For instance, a university pro-
fessor of international reputation may make little impact
in a community where university professors are held in low
esteem. Conversely in a community where university professors

are highly regarded his ethos may increase significantly.

34

Ethos therefore is dynamic and varies from audience
to audience. Thus even though each individual carries along
his unique qualities, the interpretation given to this "ethos"
is dependent on audience disposition. The implication of
this is that a persuasive communicator has to know his audience
very well before presenting his persuasive message.

To use "ethos" successfully, a persuader must know
its source. Different authors have used various terms to

66 67 68

designate the source of ”ethos". ’ Bradley (1974),

however, presents five main sources of "ethos" namely: com-
69
petence, trustworthiness, similarity, attraction and sincerity.

Competence refers to those factors which could indi-

 

cate that the speaker is a source of valid information. Com-
petence is enhanced by a speaker's experience, age, any lead-
ership offices or titles held, educational background, etc.

Trustworthiness is the appearance a speaker gives of

 

being "honest, just and objective". The speaker must seem
to be free from any self interest in the outcomes of the
speaking effort. Most people are suspicious of the speaker
whose self interest will be served by the proposal he is ad-
vocating. Trustworthiness can be exhibited by a speaker who
has low prestige. Studies have shown that "when arguing
against his own self interest, a communicator who would nor-
mally be considered to have low prestige can be extremely

effective..." According to Bradley:

35

It is evident that a speaker may increase
his ethos by making listeners aware of his
objectivity or his lack of self interest. 70

Other factors that enhance one's ethos are similarity

 

of the attitudes or other factors between the persuader and

the persuadee; attraction which is defined as "any kind of

 

orientation towards another person that involves psycho-
logical approach rather than avoidance, moving towards rather

than away from".71

4. Membership to Social Groups

 

The influence of the social group to which an individ—
ual belongs in moulding his beliefs, attitudes and behaviors
has been documented by many workers in persuasive communica—
tion.

There are different types of social groups. One type
is the "membership group" in which individuals become mem-
bers "involuntarily". This type of social group is also re-
ferred to as a "demographic group". Examples of demographic
groups are ethnic groups, sex, age, etc.

Sex: Researchers are of the opinion that sex is a
factor in persuasibility. However, most evidence insist
that the influence of sex is dependent on the topic under
discussion rather than any inherent differences in persuas-
ibility between men and women. 72

Age: Researchers also are of the opinion that as an

individual grows older, the more complete his frame of refer-

ence becomes. Thus messages directed towards such individuals

36

may not be expected to have drastic effect on their behaviors
or attitudes. Conversely, the younger the individual is,

the relatively incomplete is his frame of reference and hence
the more susceptible is he to persuasive messages-I.3

Social Class, Educational Achievement, Occupation and
Income: The above four variables are treated as demographic
factors by most sociologists even though individuals do have
’control over them unlike such demographic variables like age,
or sex. Following the lead provided by Bettinghaus, these
will be discussed as demographic variables.

The work of Tryon (1955) 7‘4has clearly shown that one's
social class determined by economic groupings is highly cor-
related with one's perferences with respect to attitudes to—
wards politics and government, community enterprise, state
support of churches and welfare organizations. Lipset and
Linz are said to have found out that individuals lower in
social strata are more susceptible to messages that will
enable them to move to the next higher social class.75

Educational Achievement: A study by CBS with high

 

school and college students is reported to have shown that
college students have more "liberal" views than their high
school counterparts. The experiences of a college student
had enabled him to broaden his‘frame of reference more than
those of his counterparts who had not gone to college.

Since a persuasive communicator belongs to a specific

social class and may possess a certain level of college

37

education, it means that he has his own frame of reference
which may affect his ability to assess the attitudes and
beliefs of others. A way out of this dilemma for a persuasive
communicator is for him to use data about the attitude and
beliefs of a client obtained by others. These data can serve
as a gauge of what reaction to expect from the client.

In addition to the influence of the above non voluntary
groups to individual's susceptibility to persuasion, the works
of Newcomb (1965) and another by Homans (1950) tend to show
that membership to voluntary clubs influence one's suscepti-
bility to persuasion. However, it is not all the tenets of
such a voluntary social group that an individual will adhere

to outside the direct influence of the group.

D. Persuasive Strategies

 

The following are some persuasive strategies that
can be used by a persuader to change the attitudes, beliefs
and behavior of a persuadee in a persuasive communication.
1. Show that a desired behavior is approved by an
esteemed person or group.
2. Show that a new proposal is consistent or incon—
sistent with a value premise.
3. Appeal to an alternative value premise, that is,
show that a currently held value position is in-
adequate to solve existing problem and suggest an

alternative.

38

4. Arouse fear in a listener.

5. Present reward or incentive to a persuadee.

6. When the persuadee initially opposes the position
advocated, a high credibility source can increase
persuasion.

7. Make use of latent persuasive messages, that is,
persuasive messages that are not obvious to create
an openess to change or receptivity to information
about change.

8. Identify favourable and unfavourable reference
groups of individuals and invoke these favourable
reference groups during a persuasive encounter.

9. Identify the norms of reference groups and
invoke these norms to increase the probability
that an individual will respond.

10. Create the right atmosphere for invoking a refer—
ence group. Providing a persuasive message on
politics to an individual watching a wrestling
contest may be counter productive.

The above persuasive strategies have their focus on

how to induce a change in the beliefs, attitudes and behaviors
of a persuadee in a direction predetermined by the persuader.
Recently, workers in the field of persuasive communication have
devoted their attention to how to induce resistance to change

or to persuasive messages directed at inducing change in a

39
client system. Inducing resistance to persuasion is re-
garded "as an extension of the persuasive process".76 This
is because by so doing, the persuader is leading the persuadee
to continue with the existing practice. Inducing resistance
to change is therefore a way of preserving the status quo and
fits into the definition of persuasion. Many of the variables
such as self esteem, anxiety level, education that a persuader
would use to induce persuasion are thus considered pertinent
for inducing resistance to persuasion.

Some of the strategies used to induce resistance to

persuasion are:

l. Commitment-~Inducing a persuadee to become more
committed (through private endorsement, "public
endorsement, behavioral commitment, and external
commitment") to a belief leads to more resistance
to efforts to change the belief.

2. Anchoring--Linking one belief to other beliefs a
persuadee already holds is an effective way of in-
ducing resistance to persuasion. Linkages can be
made with "accepted values and or goals", with re-
lated beliefs on other issues or to individuals or
groups.

3. Source derogation--This involves lowering the
credibility of a source.

4. Denial--This involves letting the source "deny any

responsibility for assertions about attitude issue"

40

5. Innoculation Approach--This involves providing

messages that raise individual's knowledge on a

topic in order to render him less vulnerable to

future persuasive attacks.

6. Refutational Pretreatments--This is
innoculation approach. It involves
arguments that attack a persuadee's
refuting these arguments.

7. Role playing—~This involves letting
act the role a persuader would want

tinue.

an aspect of
presenting

position and

the persuadee

him to discon-

8. Counter attitudinal advocacy--This involves letting

the persuadee encode and present a message opposing

his point of view.

It has to be pointed out that the following strategies

for inducing resistance to persuasion can also

be used to

increase an individual's susceptibility to persuasion by vary-

ing the circumstances of use. For instance, it might be pos-

sible to increase a farmer's ability to adopt a new farm tech—

nique by letting him play the role of one who has successfully

adopted the new technique.

Implication of the Review for the Present Study

This study attempts to determine the various persuasive

strategies used by the Agricultural extension workers in

Michigan to disseminate new farm techniques to

Michigan farmers.

Towards this end, a review of the theoretical basis for

41

persuasion has been done. This is followed by an identifica-
tion of factors that can lead to effective persuasion as well
as different persuasive strategies for getting a change in
the belief, attitude and behavior of a client. Recently,
workers in persuasive communication have developed strategies
for inducing resistance to persuasion. It is the assumption
of this study that such strategies can also be used to induce
persuasion by changing the circumstances in which they were
used.

The different factors essential for effective per-
suasion as well as the various persuasive strategies so
far identified will form the basis for developing the ques-
tionnaire to be used for this study. Basically each respon-
dent would be requested to specify the type of strategies
used and the factors put into consideration before using

such strategies.

CHAPTER THREE

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

The Population

 

The Agriculture extension unit of the Cooperative
extension service of Michigan State University has approx-
imately 52 agriculture extension agents located all over
the 83 counties in the state. The population under study

consists of these 52 agriculture extension agents.

The Sample

 

Twenty-five Agriculture extension agents were ran-
domly selected for this study. This constituted 48 percent

of the entire population of agriculture extension agents.

The Selection of Sample

 

A field and campus directory of staff of Cooperative
extension service at Michigan State University for 1981 was
obtained from the Office of Cooperative Extension Service.
This directory contains the names of County directors for
each county extension service unit and the names and addresses
of extension agents for the 4H, Home Economics, Agriculture
and Marketing and Natural Resources and Public Policy divi-

sions.

42

43

From this directory, the names of the 52 agriculture
extension agents were written down on a piece of paper and
serially numbered with the first name in the list representing
number one and the last name representing number 52.

A table of random numbers was used to select 25 names

from the list of 52.

Develgpment of the Questionnaire

 

In order to develop the final questionnaire for this
study (Appendix C) the researcher identified persuasive stra-
tegies used by authorities in the field of Persuasive Communi-
cation. These persuasive strategies formed the basis for
developing this questionnaire. The aim is to determine the
extent to which agriculture extension agents in the State of
Michigan apply these strategies for getting their farmers
to adopt a new farm technique.

The questionnaire is organized into 6 sections. Section
1 contained statements on farmer characteristics which agri-
cultural extension agents have found useful for persuasing
farmers to adopt a new farm technique. Section 2 contains
statements on some persuasive strategies. Section 3 contains
statements on qualities cflf effective change agent. Section
4 contains statements on methods of communicating information
to farmers. Section 5 was to enable the researcher to collect
personal data about each agent while Section 6 was to provide
each agent an opportunity to make further suggestions about

persuasive strategies used to persuade farmers.

44

Responses to statements in Section 1 are to
provide answers to Research Question 1 in this study. Re-
sponses to statements in Section 2 are to provide answers
to Research Question 2. Responses to statements in Section
3 are to provide answers to Research Question 3 in this
study. Responses to statements in Section 4 are to provide
answers to Question 4.

Pilot Study

 

In order to improve the validity of the questionnaire,
the Associate Director/Programs of Cooperative Extension Ser-
vice at Michigan State University posted a letter (Appendix
A) to 5 agriculture extension agents in 5 counties. This
letter solicited their cooperation to enable the re-
searcher to interview them to determine the persuasive stra-
tegies they use to disseminate new farm techniques to farmers.
Because of cost and time constraints only 2 extension agents
were orally interviewed. A question format used for this
oral interview is provided (Appendix B). Questions in this
oral interview format were cued to specific research questions
in the study.

Respondents during this oral interview had no objection
to having the interview taped. Analysis of the taped inter-
views provided additional data and more clarifications which
were used to revise the questionnaire.

The revised questionnaire (Appendix C) was further pre-
tested with 3 agents. The revised questionnaire was typed

and photocopies produced for distribution.

45

Administration and Collection of Questionnaire

A letter (Appendix D) from the Associate Director/
Programs of Cooperative Extension Service of Michigan State
University explaining the purpose of this study was posted
along with the revised questionnaire to the 25 selected
agricultural agents. A self-addressed and stampedenvelope
was also enclosed to enable each agent return the completed
questionnaire to the researcher.

Of the 25 questionnaires distributed, 21 or 84 per—
cent were completed and returned to the researcher. The
data collected was hand coded and sent to the Scoring Center
at Michigan State University for key punching. The punched
cards were later sent to the Computer Center at Michigan
State University for analysis using the Statistical Package
for the Social Sciences (SPSS). This analysis was in the
nature of discriptive statistics which was used to describe
the frequency, percentage, mean and mode of the responses
to the various statements covered in the questionnaire. As
the data were in discrete frequency counts and were arranged
in categories, chi-square statistics was used to test the
null hypothesis at :1 =.05 level of significance. The open-
ended questions were also subjected to content analysis for

consistency.

CHAPTER FOUR

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

This analysis is presented in the form of answers

to research questions and results of the tested null hypo-

theses.

Research Question 1

 

What farmer characteristics do agricultural extension
agents in Michigan put into consideration in order to per-
suade them to adopt a new farm technique?

Table 4.1 presents the frequency and percentage of
responses to research question 1. Nine (42.9) percent
of agricultural extension agents did not consider the educa—
tion of farmers to be a factor that determined farmer per-
suasibility. Seven (33.3) percent found farmers with
Bachelor degree to be more easily persuaded. Sixteen
(76.2) percent of the agents did not consider farmers who
belong to a farmer organization to be more easily persuaded.
Nineteen (90.5) percent of the agents considered the interest

of farmers towards a new farm technique to be important for

persuasion.

46

 

47

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48

Research Question 2

What persuasive techniques do agricultural extension
agents in Michigan use to get a new farm technique adopted?

Table 4.2 presents the frequency and percentage of
responses to Research Question 2. Two out of 20 respondents
(9.5 percent) always show farmers that a new farm technique
is familiar with what they are used to doing while 17 (81.0
percent) sometimes use this technique. Eighteen (85.7 per-
cent) always show the relative advantage of a new technique.
Eight (38.1 percent) always present a new technique in small
packages while 13 (61.9 percent) sometimes do this. Fifteen
(71.4 percent) never present money as a reward for adopting
a new technique while 6 (28.6 percent) always offer recogni-
tion through publicity. Twelve (57.1 percent) use this
technique some of the time. Two (9.5 percent) always use
an external authority figure while 16 (76.2 percent) some—
times did so. Ten (47.6 percent) always get one or more
farmers to use a new technique and demonstrate it to their
fellow farmers. Eleven (52.4 percent) sometimes use this
technique. Twelve (57.1 percent) always get progressive
farmers to use and demonstrate a new technique while 9 (42.9

percent) sometimes use this technique.

Research Question 3
What characteristics of an agricultural extension agent

are essential for being an effective extension agent.

TABLE 4.2 FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE RESPONSES TO RESEARCH QUESTION 2.

 

 

 

 

 

Education of Agents Experience of Agents
Bachelors Masters 1-10 yrs 11 yrs+ Total
P % F % P x F x F %
1. Familiarity of New
Technique
Never 0 0.0 l 5.0 1 5.0 0 0 0 l 4.8
Sometimes 8 40.0 9 45.0 10 50.0 7 35.0 17 81.0
Always 0 0.0 2 10.0 1 5.0 l 5.0 2 9.5
2. Relative Advantage of a
New Technique
Never 0 0.0 1 4.8 1 4.8 0 0.0 1 4.8
Sometimes l 4.8 l 4.8 l 4.8 l 4.8 2 9.5
Always 8 38.1 10 47.6 10 47.6 8 38.1 18 85.7
3. Presenting new technique
in small packages
Never 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Sometimes 5 23.8 8 38.1 8 38.1 5 23.8 13 61.9
Always 4 19.0 4 19.0 4 19.0 4 l9 0 8 38 1
4. Offering monetary reward
to farmers
Never 4 19.0 11 52.4 7 33.3 8 38.1 15 71.4
Sometimes 3 14.3 0 0.0 2 9.5 1 4.8 3 14.3
Always 2 9.5 l 4.8 3 14.3 0 0.0 3 14.3
5. Offering recognition
to adopters
Never 2 9 5 1 4.8 3 '14.3 0 0.0 3 14.3
Sometimes 5 23.8 7 33.3 6 28.6 6 28.6 12 57.1
Always 2 9.5 4 19.0 3 14.3 3 14.3 6 28.6
6. Inviting External
Authority
Never 1 4.8 2 9.5 l 4.8 2 9.5 3 14.3
Sometimes 7 33.3 9 42.9 9 42.9 7 33.3 16 76.2
Always l 4.8 l 4.8 2 9.5 0 0.0 2 9.5
7. Getting one or more
farmers to use and
demonstrate a new
technique
Never 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Sometimes 4 19.0 7 33.3 7 33.3 4 19.0 11 52.4
Always 5 23.8 5 23.8 5 23.8 5 23 8 10 47 6
8. Getting a progressive
farmer to use and demon-
strate a new technique
Never 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Sometimes 4 19.0 7 33.3 6 28.6 3 14.3 9 42.9
Always S 23.8 5 23.8 6 28.6 6 28 6 12 S7 1

6V

50

Table 4.3 presents frequency and percentage responses
to Research Question 3. The most outstanding characteristic
which an extension agent should possess is trustworthiness.
Ninety-five (95.2) percent respondents are of the opinion
that an agricultural extension agent should be trustworthy.
Fourteen (66.7 percent) think an agent has to be open-minded
always. Seven (33.3 percent) think an agent has to be open
minded most of the time. Twelve (57.1 percent) think an
agent must be patient while dealing with farmers. Nine (42.9
percent) think an agent has to be patient most of the time.
Only 9 (42.9 percent) think an agent has to be always know-
ledgeable while 12 (57.1 percent) think knowledgeability is an
important characteristic for an agent most of the time. Eight
(38.1 percent) think an agent has to be flexible always while
12 (57.1 percent) think an agent has to be flexible most of
the time. Seven (33.3 percent) think an agent must like
farming always while 12 (57.1 percent) think an agent has to

like farming most of the time.

Research Question 4

 

What various types of media have agricultural exten-
sion agents in Michigan found effective for persuading farmers
to use a new farm technique?

Table 4.4 presents frequency and percentages of re-
sponses to Research Question 4. The most effective means of
persuading farmers is the person-to-person contact. Twenty

(95.2 percent) of respondents agreed that this was the most

TABLE 4.3 FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE RESPONSES TO RESEARCH QUESTION 3

 

 

 

 

 

Education of Agents Experience of Agents
Bachelors Masters 1-10 yrs 11 yrs+ Total
P % F X F % F x F
1. An agent must be trust-
worthy
Never 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0
Sometimes 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0
Most of the time 1 4.8 0 0.0 O 0.0 1 4.8 1
Always 8 38.1 12 57.1 12 57.1 8 38.1 20
2. An agent has to be know-
ledgeable '
Never 0 0.0 0 0.0 O 0.0 0 0.0 0
Sometimes 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0
Most of the time 6 28.6 6 28.6 5 23.8 7 33.3 12
Always . 3 14.3 6 28.6 7 33.3 2 9.5 9
3. An agent must like
farming
Never 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0
Sometimes 1 4.8 2 9.5 2 9.5 0 0.0 2
Most of the time 6 28.6 6 28.6 5 23.8 7 33.3 12
Always 3 14.3 4 19.0 5 23.8 2 9.5 7
4. An agent must be flexible
Never 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0
Sometimes 1 4.8 0 0.0 1 4.8 0 0.0 1
Most of the time 6 28.6 6 28.6 7 33.3 S 23.8 12 5
Always 2 9.5 6 28.6 4 19.0 4 19.0 8 3
5. An agent must be
patient
Never 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0
Sometimes 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0
Most of the time 5 23.8 4 19.0 S 23.8 4 19.0 9
Always 4 19.0 8 38.1 7 33.3 5 23.8 12
6. An agent must be open
minded
Never 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0
Sometimes 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0
Most of the time 5 23.8 2 9.5 4 19.0 3 14.3 7
Always 4 19.0 10 47.6 8 38.1 6 28.6 14

IS

TABLE 4.4 FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE RESPONSES TO RESEARCH QUESTION 4

 

 

 

 

 

Education of Agents Experience of Agents
Bachelors Masters 1-10 yrs 11 yrs+ Total
P % F % F % F X F %
1. Person to person contact
Least effective 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
Mod. effective 1 4.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 4.8 l 4.8
Most effective 8 38.1 12 57.1 12 57.1 8 38.1 20 95.2
2. Use of workshops
Least effective 1 4.8 0 0.0 0 0 0 1 4.8 1 4.8
Mod. effective 6 28.6 9 42.9 10 47.6 5 23.8 15 71.4
Most effective 2 9.5 3 14.3 2 9.5 3 14 3 5 23.8
3. Use of newspaper articles
Least effective 1 4.8 4 19.0 3 14.3 2 9.5 5 23.8
Mod. effective 8 38.1 8 38.1 9 42.9 7 33.3 16 76.2
Most effective 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
4. Use of monthly newsletter
Least effective 1 4.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 4.8 l 4.8
Mod. effective 7 33.3 11 52.4 11 52.4 7 33.3 18 85.7
Most effective 1 4.8 l 4.8 l 4.8 1 4.8 2 9.5
5. Use of demonstration plots
Least effective 1 4.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 4.8 1 4.8
Mod. effective 3 14.3 3 14.3 5 23.8 1 4.8 6 28.6
Most effective 5 23.8 9 42.9 7 33.3 7 33.3 14 66.7
6. Use of radio announcements '
Least effective 1 4.8 6 28.6 3 14.3 4 19.0 7 33.3
Mod. effective 8 38.1 6 28.6 9 42.9 5 23.8 14 66.7
Most effective 0 0 0 0 0.0 O 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
7. Use of Radio discussion
groups
Least effective 2 9.5 6 28.6 4 19.0 4 19.0 8 38.1
Mod. effective 6 28.6 6 28.6 8 38 l 4 19.0 12 57.1
Most effective 1 4.8 0 0.0 0 0.0 l 4.8 l 4.8
8. Use of television spots
Least effective 3 14.3 6 28.6 6 28.6 3 14.3 9 42.9
Mod. effective 6 28.6 6 28.6 6 28.6 6 28.6 12 57.1
Most effective 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
9. Use of television reports .
Least effective 3 14.3 4 19.0 4 19.0 3 14.3 7 33.3
Mod. effective 6 28.6 6 28.6 8 38.1 4 l9 0 12 57.1
Most effective 0 0.0 2 9.5 0 0.0 2 9.5 2 9.5
10. Use of television
demonstration
Least effective 3 14.3 4 19.0 4 19.0 3 14.3 7 33.3
Mod. effective 5 23.8 4 19.0 5 23.8 5 23.8 10 47.6
Most effective 0 0.0 4 19.0 3 14.3 1 4.8 4 19.0

ZS

53

effective means of persuading farmers. This is followed by
the use of demonstration plots in 2 or 3 farms. Fourteen
(66.7 percent) of respondents agreed use of demonstration
plots is the most effective means of persuading farmers to
adopt a new farm technique. The following means of communi-
cation are considered to be moderately effective: use of
monthly newsletter (85.7 percent); use of newspaper articles
(76.2 percent); use of workshop (71.4 percent); use of radio
announcements (66.7 percent); use of radio discussion groups
(57.1 percent); use of T.V. spots (57.1 percent); use of T.V.
reports (57.1 percent); and use of T.V. demonstration (47.6
percent).

The following null hypotheses were tested at .05

level of significance.

General Hypothesis I

 

Agriculture extension agents in Michigan have not
found any type of persuasive strategy effective in persuading

farmers to adopt a new farm technique.

Operational Hypotheses

l.a There is no relationship between the education of an
agricultural extension agent in Michigan and the type of
persuasive strategies agents use.

1.b There is no relationship between the level of exper—
ience of an agricultural extension agent in Michigan and the

type of persuasive strategies agents use.

54

Table 4.5 presents a chi—square result of the test of
the null hypotheses 1a and 1b at (4.05 level of significance.
This result shows that the null hypotheses are accepted in
all cases except one. Thus there is no relationship between
the education and level of experience of agriculture exten-
sion agents and the type of persuasive strategies they use
to persuade farmers. The chi-square analysis shows a re-
lationship between the education of extension agents and the

use of monetary rewards to farmers.

General Hypothesis 2

 

Agricultural extension agents in Michigan do not con-
sider any agent characteristics essential for being an ef-

fective persuader.

Operational Hypotheses

 

2.a There is no relationship between the education of an
agricultural extension agent in Michigan and perceived agent
characteristics for being an effective persuader.
2.b There is no relationship between the level of exper-
ience of an agricultural extension agent in Michigan and
perceived agent characteristics for being an effective per-
suader.

Results presented in Table 4.6 show that the null hypo-
theses are accepted in all cases. Therefore one can say that

there is no relationship between the education and level of

TABLE 4.5 STATISTICAL TABLE OF THE RESULTS OF NULL HYPOTHESES 1a AND lb

EQUCATION OF AGENTS LEVEE OF EXPERIENCE OF'AGENTS
X

df P Decision X df P Decision

 

Characteristics n

1.

To persuade farmers I

show that a new technique

is familiar with what
they are used to doing
before

To persuade farmers I

show the relative ad-

vantage of a new tech-
nique

Presenting a new tech-
nique in small packages
at a time enhances
chances of persuasion.

To ensure adoption of a
new farm technique I of-
fer monetary rewards.

I offer recognition to
farmers who have adopted
a new technique by pub—
licizing their achieve—
ments.

To persuade farmers I
invite an external auth-
ority to demonstrate

the new technique

To persuade farmers I
get one or more of the
farmers to use a new
technique and demon-
strate it to his col-
leagues

To persuade farmers I
get progressive farmers
to use a new technique
and demonstrate it to
their colleagues

20

21

21

21

21

21

21

21

2.353

.810

.924

.158

.398

.016

.308

.667

.604

.043

.630

.924

.528

.899

Accepted .759

Accepted .810

Accepted .269

Rejected_3.033

Accepted 2 . 625

Accepted 2 . 199

Accepted .398

Accepted .583

.684

.667

.604

.219

.269

.333

.528

.445

Accepted

Accepted

Accepted

Accepted

Accepted'

Accepted

Accepted

Accepted

99

56

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57

experience of agriculture extension agents and agent char-
acteristics deemed essential for being an effective extension

agent.

General Hypothesis 3
Agricultural extension agents in Michigan have not
found any particular means of communication more effective

than others.

Operational Hypotheses

 

3.a There is no relationship between the education of an
agricultural extension agent in Michigan and the type of
media used for persuading Michigan farmers.

3.b There is no relationship between the level of exper—
ience of agricultural extension agent in Michigan and the
type of media used for persuading Michigan farmers.

Results presented in Table 4.7 indicate that the null
hypotheses are accepted in all cases. Thus there is no signi-
ficant relationship between the level of education and the
level of experience of an agricultural extension agent and
the type of media found effective for persuading Michigan

farmers.

58

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CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

Interest in the present study was triggered off by a
realization that inadequate food supply posed a serious prob-
lem to many "developing" countries. Despite efforts by
agricultural research institutes both in the "developed" and
the "developing" countries, food shortage continues in these
”developing" countries. An assumption of this study is that

one of the many factors that could account for this continued

 

food shortage is inadequate knowledge of persuasive strategies
by agricultural extension agents from "developing" countries
for persuading their farmers to use a new farm technology.

The picture is different in the State of Michigan where
the "accumulative state allocations for agricultural research
and extension from 1888 to 1980" amounts to "$272 million"
whereas the estimated income was "$460 million" "for a select
group of 13 Michigan agricultural commodities". In addition
to other factors, such gains can be attributed to the use of

effective persuasive strategies by her agricultural extension

agents.

59

60
Persuasive strategy constitutes an element of many
"innovation-decision" models. Others are "re-educational,"
"facilitative," and "power" strategies. However, the im—
portance attached to persuasive strategy can be found in
the words of Zaltman and Duncan (1977) which states that:

all messages transmitted from a source to a
receiver are persuasive in nature.

This study is exploratory in nature and is designed
to determine farmer characteristics, agent characteristics,
types of persuasive strategies and types of media used by
agricultural extension agents in Michigan to persuade their
farmers to use a new farm technology. It is hoped that stra-
tegies identified can be adapted for conducting similar
studies in developing countries and for developing a pro-
gram for training their agricultural extension agents.

Four research questions and 3 general and 6 operational
null hypotheses guided this study.

In order to develop the instrument for examining the
research questions the author reviewed some pertinent liter-
ature and identified elements of persuasive strategies.

These elements formed the basis for developing the question-
naire used for this study. These elements formed the depen-
dent variables in this study and were organized in four
sections. Section one provided answers to research question
one which was about farmer characteristics; section two pro-
vided answers to research two which was on some persuasive
techniques; section three provided answers in research ques-

tion three which was on agent characteristics while section

61
four provided answers to research question four which was
on types of media.

Two independent variables--extension agent education
and level of experience--were examined in this study. Sec-
tion five of the questionnaire enabled extension agents to
provide information about their education and level of ex-
perience. Finally section six of the questionnaire provided
space for additional information on persuasive strategies
an extension agent might provide.

The six null hypotheses were tested at .05 level of
significance using chi—square statistics.

The questionnaire was validated through pilot testing

with some extension agents.

Limitations of the Study

 

Before a discussion of the results of this thesis can
be undertaken a major problem pertaining to the obtained
data on the independent variables and its effect on the re-
sult must be noted. It was hypothesized that the education
and levelof experience of extension agents will not have any
effect on their responses to the dependent variables in the
questionnaire. Analysis of the personal data provided by
the extension agents showed that out of the 21 extension
agents 19 have Bachelor's degree while only 2 have Bachelors
and Masters degrees. Thus there is no variability in the

education of the extension agents.

62
The same observation may be made with regard to the
level of experience. While 12 respondents fall within the
category of 1-10 years of experience and 9 respondents fall
within the category of 11+ years of experience, it may be
that the critical point for the impact of experience may

be much earlier than 10 years.

Major Findings and Conclusions

 

The following are the major findings in this study:

1. Farmer interest in a new farm technology is the
most crucial characteristic that will ensure his persuasi-
bility. This characteristic is considered more important
than farmer education or membership to farmer organization.
It is also considered more important than offering monetary
reward or offering recognition to farmers through publicizing
their achievements in papers. Interviews conducted with
some extension agents revealed that some farmers do not want
.any publicity but will try a new farm practice if they real—
ize they will make some profit.

Few empirical studies have assessed the effect of or-
ganization on attitude change. However,those by Newcomb
and Homans are cited by Bettinghaus (1966) as showing that
"social groups serve to direct decision-making about per-
suasive messages". The findings of this study'wheni75-2
percent of extension agents did not consider farmers who
belong to a farmer organization to be more easily persuadedseem

to be a contradiction of this contention. Part of this

63
contradiction could be the difference between formal and
informal organization.

2. The relative advantage of a new farm practice is
another important factor that can enhance farmer persuasi—
bility. This SUPPOI’ts the opinion expressed by extension
agents that a farmer will try a new farm practice if he real—
izes the profit he will make by embarking on the new farm
practice. Relative advantage is an important characteristic
of an innovation which Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) identi-
fied as being essential for an innovation to be adopted.

This finding is therefore consistent with what obtains in
the literature.

3. Getting a progressive farmer to use and demonstrate
a new farm practice is considered an important factor that
can enhance farmer persuasibility. This is considered more
important than getting one or more farmers to do this. This
study however did not indicate whether progressive farmers
are opinion leaders neither did it indicate the criteria
for identifying progressive farmers. But the fact that
progressive farmers are preferred over any farmer indicates
that progressive farmers possess some attributes which can be
identified in future studies.

4. An important agricultural extension agent char-
acteristic is his trustworthiness. This is followed by his
ability to be open minded and patient in dealing with farmers.

These take precedence over such other characteristics as

64
extension agent knowledgeability, flexibility and ability
to like farming.

Trustworthiness and "expertness" are some of the ”source"
qualities which "receivers" of information consider important
in any persuasive encounter. This study indicates that agri-
cultural extension agents who are regarded as "sources" of
new farm technologies to farmers also consider this quality
important. The nature of the work of an agricultural exten-
sion agent explains why trustworthiness is considered an im-
portant quality. Agricultural Extension agents are seen as
resource linker by farmers and not as supervisors or auditors.
An extension agent persuades a farmer and does not lure him
through any form of coercion. A farmer has to have some
trust in an agent to divulge his problems to him in the be-
lief that an agent will not betray him. By not playing a
dual role, an agent can augment this trust in subsequent
encounters with a farmer.

Almost half of the agricultural extension agents sur-
veyed (42.9 percent) feel that an agent has to be knowledge-
able always to be effective while 57.1 percent think that an
agent has to be knowledgeable most of the time. Knowledge-
ability is a quality considered important for a source of
information. However, a realization that expert knowledge
can be easily obtained from experts in the agricultural ex-
perimental stations may have influenced this response by agri-
cultural extension agents.

As regards the quality of being patient, it would ap-

pear that a realization that a new farm practice takes time

65

to be fully accepted may be the reason why agents consider
this as an important agent quality.

<:§::)The most effective methods of communicating a new
farm practice to farmers is person to person contact. This
is followed by the use of demonstration plots. Use of news—
paper, newsletter, workshops and radio announcements are con—
sidered to be moderately effective. Use of television is
considered a least effective means of persuading farmers to
use a new farm technology. One of the reasons suggested
for not using television is cost.

6. Only in one instance in the study was the null
hypothesis rejected. This rejection indicates that there
is a relationship between the education of an agricultural
extension agent and the offering of money as incentive for
using a new farm practice. Results of the percentage analy-
sis for this dependent variable however showed that 15 (71.4
percent) of the extension agents never offered money as an
incentive.

The rest of the chi—square analyses indicate that the
null hypotheses are accepted. It would seem there are other
intervening variables that affect the perceptions of agri-
cultural extension agents outside their education and level
of experience. Other reasons are as presented in the limit-

ations of findings.

66

Recommendations

 

Based on the findings of this study, it can be seen
that farmer interest in a new farm practice is the most im-
portant factor an extension agent has to solicit for to en-
sure farmer persuasibility. Presenting farmers with monetary
rewards and publicizing farmer achievements in papers have
not been found to enhance farmer persuasibility. However,
showing a farmer the profitability of a new farm practice
does. It is therefore suggested that extension agents de-
termine in what ways a new farm practice can be profitable
to a farmer so that this information can be incorporated
in the in-service training workshops.

Even though extension agents do not think that be-
longing to farmer organizations enhances farmer persuasi-
bility, the importance of formal and non—formal groups in
modifying member attitudes and behaviours has been docu-
mented by Bettinghaus (1966). It is therefore important
for the extension agents to consider establishing such farmer
organizations and use this as a means of winning acceptance
of a new farm practice. Since demonstrations by progressive
farmers are known to enhance farmer persuasibility, getting
such progressive farmers to be members of these farmer or—
ganizations can improve the chances of persuading other
farmers to try a new farm practice.

It is also suggested that extension agents be exposed

to persuasive strategies. This can be a part of their

67

in-service training on how to be effective change
agents.

It is also suggested that extension agents be en-
couraged to make more use of radio in persuading farmers
to try a new farm practice. Use of radio has been found
effective in the adoption of new technologies in other
countries like Mexico, Guatamala, etc. Use of radio can be

augmented by the multi media approach.

Suggestions for Future Research

 

1. Since using a selected sample of agricultural
extension agents in Michigan it was found that there is no
relationship between the education and level of experience
of these extension agents and the persuasive strategies they
use, it is suggested that a similar study be conducted using
the entire population of agricultural extension agents.

2. A similar study is being suggested using farmers
in Michigan. Such a study can embrace other variables
such as size of farm, membership to farmer organizations,
location of farms, sex, age and education of farmers.

3. A content analysis of training programs on per-
suasion for agricultural extension agents and how this
relates with the practice of agricultural extension agents
in the field is also proposed.

4. A study to determine farmer perception of the

characteristics of an effective agricultural extension

68
agent including style of operation is also being pro-
posed.

5. It is suggested that an observatory/interview
study of the activities of different agricultural exten-
sion agents working with different categories of farmers
be conducted to determine factors they consider in dealing

with farmers.

Implications of This Research for a Developing Country

 

Agricultural activities in many developing countries
are highly centralized in a Ministry of Agriculture. There
are many agricultural research institutes that serve as
organs of the Ministry of Agriculture. In addition are col-
leges of agriculture in all universities. To avoid dupli-
cation of efforts, it is suggested that resources in the
various colleges of agriculture be incorporated into the
research activities of these agricultural research insti-
tutes. A proper definition of communication rules should
help to overcome the problem of animosity arising from a
struggle for ownership of projects. Inputs from personnels
of food production and food services units should also be
utilized in the activities of the various research institutes.

2. It is suggested that the functions of the agri-
cultural extension agents be confined to that of education
and facilitation. The functions of control and supervision

can be delegated to officers in the other departments.

69

3. A training program for agricultural officers
and extension officers should be instituted. Such topics
as strategies for innovation—decision process models,
improving human relations, developing objectives and per-
formance standards, managing stress, developing leadership
styles, persuasive strategies can form the contents of this
training program.

4. It is suggested that secondary schools be encour-
aged to start farm clubs and a unit of this be established
in the ministry.

The following additional studies are suggested:

1. A network analysis to identify channels of com-
munication existing among agricultural research institutes,
colleges of agriculture and among these and farmers. This
study is to identify causes of noise, overload and under—
load in these communication channels and recommend remedial
actions if a cause is identified.

2. An observatory/interview/questionnaire study of
agricultural extension agents at work with farmers including
a determination of factors that hinder or promote effective
application of new farm practices.

3. A study of agricultural extension agent self role
perception and farmer perceptions of extension agents role

and the influence of these on extension agent performance.

APPENDIX A

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MICHIGAN STATEUNIVERSITY - U.{DEPARTMENT-OP‘AGHICULTURE 'Couwfl‘e's'CSCSID'és'AT—ING

OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR ' EAST LANSING, MICHIGAN 48824

August 11, 1981

MEMO TO: Jack Gergen, Barry County

FROM: Ray Gillespie, Associate Director/Programs

IKE:

Mr.

Charles Cooper, Jackson
George McQueen, Clinton
Jim Pelham, Hillsdale
Jim Hutchinson, Lapeer

Interview with Hyacinth Dike

Dike, a graduate student in Communications from Nigeria,

would like to visit with a few Agricultural Extension Agents.
His objective is to learn how you stratogize communications
with farmers. Would you be willing to spend an hour or so
with him?

Thinking that you will probably agree I have given him your
name and phone number. He will call you to set up a time for
such a visit. Thanks in advance for making this contribution
to international education.

1b
cc:

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,Mr; 1.0.1239 . 3.353.613 2. ,_ Sheena... Vi 11694
Mr. Madaski
Mr. Thorburn

USU 1'; an A-‘hrrnal‘rur 110‘!)an .‘JCII Croorumw Ins'duhon

APPENDIX B

71

INTERVIEW FORMAT

 

I am a Nigerian working towards my M.A. degree in
Communication at M.S.U. A major problem confronting Nigeria
and other "developing" countries is scarcity of food to feed
their rapidly increasing population. The food situation is
different here in U.S. which exports food to many countries
of the world. Much of U.S. self sufficiency in food produc-
tion have been attributed to her efficient agricultural ex-
tension service. This is why I am conducting this survey
study to determine the persuasive strategies you use for
getting new farm practices adopted by your farmers.

1. Since you have a lot of experience in your work, may
I know how long you have been working as an agricultural

extension officer in Michigan or outside the State of

Michigan?
2. May I know your educational qualifications?
3. Are there any special trainings/workshops that have

enhanced your performance in the field as an extension

officer?
4. How regular are you exposed to such trainings/workshops?
5. Let's assume you have a new farm practice you intend

to sell to your Poultry farmers. What farmer char-
acteristics determine the persuasive strategies you

use to get them to adopt this new practice?

10.

ll.

12.

l3.

14.

15.

16.

72

If I understand you clearly, the of a

farmer influences the persuasive strategy you would
use. Can you expatiate on this point?

What types of support do you present to farmers to

help them make up their minds about the new practice?
What characteristics of a new farm practice do you
present to farmers to help them adopt the new practice?
Are there any characteristics of an extension officer
that makes him/her more effective in persuading a farmer
to adopt a new farm practice?

What types of rewards do you provide to your farmers

to ensure adoption of a new farm practice?

Do you provide different rewards to different classes
of farmers?

Can you elaborate on this please?

How do you ensure that farmers will continue to use the
new farm practice when you have left?

What do you do if a farmer raises an objection about

a new farm practice?

What types of media have you found useful in getting

a new practice adopted? I

Have you found a particular type of media more useful

with any particular group/groups of farmers?

APPENDIX C

73

Department of Communication
Michigan State University
1626 H Spartan Village

East Lansing, MI 48823
Phone: 517-355-9909

September 1981
Dear Colleague:
MASTER'S DISSERTATION QUESTIONNAIRE

I am a Nigerian working towards my Masters degree in
Communication at Michigan State University. I need your
help to develop a program that can be used by extension
agents in my country to disseminate information about new
farm techniques to farmers.

A major problem confronting many ”developing" coun—
tries is inadequate food supply to feed their rapidly in-
creasing population. Many of these countries have embarked
on numerous agricultural projects aimed at improving this
food problem. For instance, many research institutes are
springing up and concentratiing their efforts on finding
new farm techniques that can be of use to local farmers.

However, evolving new farm techniques will not make
much impact on food production if farmers are not persuaded
to adopt such new farm techniques.

I know that much of the success of the State of Michigan
in food production can be attributed to her excellent Exten-
sion Service which helps to disseminate new ideas to her
farmers. This is why I want to benefit from your rich ex-
perience. Specifically, I am interested in finding out what
persuasive strategies you use to get your farmers to adopt
new farm techniques. Towards this end, I am conducting this
study entitled:

A STUDY OF PERSUASIVE STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY THE
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION WORKERS IN MICHIGAN TO
DISSEMINATE NEW FARM TECHNIQUES TO MICHIGAN FARMERS

This study is a requirement for my Master's degree in the
Department of Communication, at Michigan State University.
I would, therefore, appreciate having you complete the at—
tached questionnaire aimed at determining the persuasive
strategies you use with your farmers.

74

Page 2

Knowing how busy you are, this questionnaire has been
structured so as not to take more than 15-30 minutes of your
time. The result of this study will be made available to
you through Dr. Ray Gillipsie.

Many thanks for your cooperation.

. -.L. _——... ,H

Yours trulygr‘

f

Hyacinth I.:Dike

75

THE QUESTIONNAIRE

Introduction

 

This questionnaire contains statements on strategies
that you can use to persuade a particular category of farmers
(e.g. Poultry farmers, Dairy farmers, Grain growers, etc.)
to adopt a new farm technique. There are 6 sections in the

questionnaire.

SECTION 1:

 

Section 1 contains statements on farmer characteristics
that you have found useful in trying to persuade them to
adopt a new farm technique.

1. Given a new farm technique for a particular group
of farmers, I have found farmers with the following educational
qualification to be easily persuaded to adopt a new farm tech-
nique:

a. Bachelor's degree

b. High School diploma

c. Any other, please specify

 

d. Educational qualification does not make a differ-

ence .

2.

76

Please indicate whether you agree or disagree

with the following:

a.

Farmers who belong to certain
farmer organizations are easily
persuaded to adopt a new farm

technique
Agree Disagree

If you agreed with statement
number 2a, please specify which

organizations.

 

 

 

The level of interest a farmer has
towards a new farm technique deter—
mines his susceptibility to per—

suasion.
Agree Disagree

In the space provided below, please
provide any other farmer character-
istics that determine their suscep-

tibility to persuasion.

 

 

 

77

SECTION II:

 

This section contains statements on some persuasive
strategies you use to get a new farm technique accepted.
Indicate by marking an (X) on the rating scale the extent

to which you use each strategy.

1. To persuade farmers I
show that a new tech-
nique is familiar with
what they are used to
doing before

 

Always Sometimes Never

2. To persuade farmers I
show the relative ad-
vantage of a new tech-
nique compared with
what they are used to

 

Always Sometimes Never

3. Presenting a new tech—
nique in small packages
at a time enhances
chances of persuading
a farmer to adopt it.

 

Always Sometimes Never

4. To ensure adoption of
a new farm technique
I offer monetary re—
wards to farmers

 

Always Sometimes Never

5. I offer recognition
to farmers who have
adopted a new tech-
nique by publicizing
their achievements

 

Always Sometimes Never

6. To persuade farmers
I invite an external
authority to demon-
strate the new tech-
nique

 

Always Sometimes Never

78

To persuade farmers

I get one or more of
the farmers to use a
new technique and
demonstrate it to his
colleagues

Always

To persuade farmers
I get progressive
farmers to use a new
technique and demon—
strate it to their
colleagues

Always

SECTION 3:

 

tension agent.

 

Sometimes

 

Sometimes

Never

Never

This section attempts to find out qualities of an ex-

Indicate by marking an (X) in the rating scale

provided the extent to which you consider the following qual—

ities of an extension agent essential for him/her to be ef-

fective.

1.

An extension
agent has to
be trustworthy

Always Most of
the time

An extension
agent has to
be knowledge-
able in his

field
mm
the time
An extension
agent has to
like farming
Very A lot

Much

 

Sometimes

 

Sometimes

 

Quite a
Lot

Never

Never

Doesn't
Matter

’79

4. An extension
agent has to
have the flex-
ibility to do
what he thinks
is best for his

 

 

 

 

 

 

farmers
Always Most of Sometimes Never
the time
5. An extension
agent has to
be patients
with his
farmers
Always Most of Sometimes Never
the time
6. An extension
agent has to
be open minded
while dealing
with farmers
Always Most of Sometimes Never
the time

7. In the space provided below, please provide any other
qualities an agent must possess.

 

 

 

SECTION 4:

Below are statements on methods of communicating infor-
mation to your farmers. Indicate by marking an (X) in the
rating scale provided the extent to which you consider the
following means of communication effective in persuading your

farmers to adopt a new farm technique

 

80

Person to person con-
tact with individual
farmers

Workshops with sup-
porting media pre-
sentations

Use of newspaper
articles

Use of monthly
newletter

Use of demonstration
plots in 2 or 3 farms

Use of radio announce-
ments

Use of radio discus-
sion group

Use of television:

a. Spots

b. reports of
successes

c. Reports of how-to—
do-something

Most ef-

fective

Most ef-

fective

Most ef-

fective

Most ef-

fective

Most ef-

fective

Most ef-

fective

Most ef-

fective

Most ef-

fective

Most ef-

fective

Most ef-

fective

 

Moderately
effective

 

 

Moderately
effective

Least
effective

 

Least
effective

 

 

Moderately
effective

Least
effective

 

 

Moderately
effective

Least
effective

 

 

Moderately
effective

Least
effective

 

 

Moderately
effective

Least
effective

 

 

Moderately-

effective

 

Moderately
effective

Least
effective

 

Least
effective

 

 

Moderately
effective

Least
effective

 

 

Moderately
effective

Least
effective

81

9. In the space provided below please provide any other

mode of communication you have found effective.

 

 

 

SECTION 5:

 

Finally, I would like to know just a little about you so
that I can see how different agents feel about the issues I
am examining. Please supply the following information:

1. Years of experience as an agricultural extension

agent:

 

2. Your academic qualifications

 

3. Any specialized training as an agent

 

 

SECTION 6:

 

Any other suggestions:

 

 

 

 

 

THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION!

APPENDIX D

l‘

 

 

”ES

COOPERA I IVE ‘ ' ' ‘ l m - . ~ , , ”"1"? -“ r» - ,.- ~17» 1" ww .7 :1 Hr-W‘T Tr WT z“‘"*~’~
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EXTENSION ‘ r
SERVICE "

MICHIGAN STATE UIERI I.

82

 

 

  
   

‘3 .

1‘
. .

  

.‘2

1,

     

U.S. DMNEPARTET OF ACLGRIUTUHE acoumIes COOPERATING

OFFICE OF THE DIRECTOR ' EAST LANSING. MICHIGAN 48824

September 25,

1981

MEMO TO: Selected Agricultural Agents

FROM: J. Ray Gillespie, Associate Director/Programs -

RE: Communication Questionnaire

This will introduce a questionnaire in behalf of Mr. Dike,

a graduate student in Communications from Nigeria. I have
visited with him three times about his study and would like
to solicit your cooperation in sharing your thoughts and
experiences with him by completing the relatively short sur-

vey form.

You may chalk
working as an
tion directly
your thinking

it up to International work since Mr. Dike is ‘
agent in his countryand will use this informa-

in his work. You may find that it will stretch
in an area or two.

Thanks for your timely consideration.

lb

MSU Is an Affirfnaflve Acnon/ EouaI Oooortumry Inst/runon

APPENDIX E

83

 

 

   

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10.

11.
12.

13.

14.

REFERENCES

FAQ World Food Survey, Washington, 5 July 1946,
pp. 6,7.

 

Federal Ministry of Information Third National De—
velopment Plan 1975-80. vol. I Lagos, Nigeria.
1975, p.72.

Mid West Universities Consortium for International
Activities, Inc., Newsletter vol. 7, no. 2, March,
1981.

Everett M. Rogers with F. Floyd Shoemaker; Communica—
tion of Innovation-~A Cross-Cultural Approach,
2nd Edition. New York, The Free Press. A Division
of MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1971, pp. 175-
188.

Gerald Zaltman and Robert Duncan. Strategies for
Planned Change. New York, John Wiley and Sons,
1977, pp. 61-165.

 

Edgar Huse: Organization and Development Change,
Boston, West Publishing Co., l975,pp. 89—118.

Erwin P. Bettinghaus: Persuasive Communication, 2nd
Ed., New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968,
p.10.

Gerald Zaltman and Robert Duncan, gp,cit., p.134.

Wayne C. Minnick: The Art of Persuasion, Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1957, p.33.

 

Thomas M. Scheidel: Persuasive Speaking. Atlanta:
Scott, Foresman and Company, 1967, p 1.

 

Gerald Zaltman and Robert Duncan, pp, cit. pp. 90-165.
Ibid

A Career With Cooperative Extension Service. East
Lansing, Michigan State University, 1981, p.4.
u’
The Cooperative Extension Service: A guide prepared
for County Boards of Commissions, East Lansing,
Michigan State University, p.4.

84

15.

16.
17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.
24.
25.
26.
27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

85

Michigan State University Agriculture Experiment Sta-
tion Cooperative Extension Service Five Year Plan
Core Staffing and Program Support. East Lansing,
Michigan State University, 1981, p.3.

 

Ibid, p.l
Ibid, p.3

New Staff Introduction, Michigan State University
Cogperative Extension ServiceL pp.6-7.

 

A Career with Cooperative Extension Service, pp. cit.

 

p.10.

The Cooperative Extension Service: A guide prepared
for County Boards of Commissioners, pp. cit. p.4-6

 

FAO Third World Food Survey. (Freedom From Hunger

 

Study 11), 1963, p.63.

Mid West Universities Consortium for International
Activities, pp. cit. pp. 1-2.

Ibid.

Erwin P. Bettinghaus, pp. pip. p.10.

Gerald Zaltman and Robert Duncan, pp. ci . p.134.
Thomas M. Scheider, pp._pip. p.l.

Erwin P. Bettinghaus, pp. pip. p.12.

Gerald R. Miller and Michael Burgoon: New Techniques

of Persuasion, New York: Harper and Row Pub—
lishers, 1973, pp. 2—5.

 

 

Ibid, p.4.

C.I. Hovland and I. Janis. Personality and Persuasi—
bility. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Press,
1959, pp. 1-28.

 

Charles A. Kiesler and Sara B. Kiesler: Conformity
Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co.,
1969, p.2.

 

Ibid, p.3.

Ibid, p.5.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.
41.
42.
43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

86

Marshall R. Singer "Culture: A Perceptual Approach"
as in Larry A. Samovar and Ricahrd E. Porter,
Intercultural Communication A Reader. Belmont,
Calif. Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1966, pp.

110-119.
Harry C. Triandis: "Cultural Influences Upon Per—
ception," as in Larry A. Samovar and Richard E.

Porter, International Communication A Reader,
020 Cit. pp. 119-1240

 

B.F. Skinner, "Operant Behaviorism" as in William
S. Sahakian Learning: Systems Models and Theories,
2nd Edition. Chicago: Rand McNally College Pub-
lishing Co., 1970, pp. 132-152.

 

D. Price Williams: "Cross Cultural Studies" as in
Larry A. Samovar and Richard E. Porter. Inter—
cultural Communication A Reader, pp, pip,
pp. 32-47.

 

Ibid.

Stephen L. Yelon: Learning and Liking It. East
Lansing, Michigan State University, 1976, p.108.

Erwin P. Bettinghaus, pp,_pip. p.35
B.F. Skinner, "Operant Behaviorism", pp. pip.
Stephen L. Yelon pp, pip. pp. 42-49.
Erwin P. Bettinghaus, pp, pip. p.42.

Jerome S. Bruner: Toward A Theory of Instruction.
Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1966.

Glenn E. Snelbecker: Learning Theory, Instructional
Theory and Psychoeducational Design. New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1974, pp. 321—351.

 

 

William S. Sahakian. Learning: Systems, Models and
Theories, 2nd ed. Chicago. Rand McNally College
Publishing Company, 1970, p.413.

Ernest R. Hilgard and Gordon H. Bower, Theories of
Learning, 3rd Ed., New York: Appleton-Century—
Crofts, 1966, pp.233—235.

 

William S. Sahakian. pp. cit. p.413.

49.

50.

51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
7o.

71.

87

Ernest R. Hilgard and Gordon H. Bower. Theories of
Learning. 2nd Edition. New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, 1956, p.226.

 

Ernest R. Hilgard "The Place of Gestalt Psychology
and Field Theories in Contemporary Learning Theory"
as in Theopies of Learning and Instruction .
Chicago: The National Society for the Study
of Education, 1964, p.61.

 

Ibid.

Erwin P. Bettinghaus, pp. cit. p.33.

Ibid, p.58
Ibid, p.60
Ibid, p.32
Ibid, p.58
Ibid, p.65
Ibid, p.66
Ibid, p.66
Ibid, p.67
Ibid, p.67

Ibid, p.67—75

Bert E. Bradley: Fundamentals of

Ibid, p.134.

Ibid

Ibid

Irwin P. Bettinghaus pp. pip. pp. 101-116
Thomas M. Scheidel, pp.pip. pp.83-84.
Bert E. Bradley, pp, pip. p.140

Ibid, p.145

Ibid, p.148

72.
73.

74.

75.

76.

88

Erwin P. Bettinghaus pp. cit. pp.8l-82
Ibid, p.82—84

R.C. Tyron: Identification of Social Areas by
Cluster Analysis: A Geperal Method With an
Application to the San Francisco Bay Area.
University of California Publications in
Psychology University of California Press,
1975.

S.M. Lipset and J.J. Linz "The Social Basis of
Political Diversity in Western Democracies" as
in Erwin P. Bettinghaus, pp. cit. p.85.

Gerald R. Miller and Michael Burgoon, pp. cit.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

A Career With Cooperative Extension Service. East Lansing,
Michigan State University, 1981.

Bettinghaus, Erwin P. Persuasive Communication. 2nd Ed.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968.

 

Bradley, Bert E. Fundamentals of Speech Communication:
The Credibility of Ideas. Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C.
Brown, Publishers, 1974.

 

 

Bruner, Jerome S. Toward A Theory of Instruction. Cam-
bridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1966.

 

Federal Ministry of Information: Third National Development
Plan 1975-198Qy vol. 1. Lagos, Nigeria, 1975.

 

 

Festinger Leon: A Theory of ngnitive Dissonance. Stan-
ford, California: Stanford University Press, 1957.

Food Agricultural Organization: Third World Food Survey
Freedom From Hunger Study II. 1963, p.63.

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